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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10600 ***
+
+                     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PLAN OF KERR'S COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS--Taken from Volume 18.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of Alfred
+King of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry of Portugal, at
+the commencement of the fifteenth century.
+
+PART II.
+
+General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of Don
+Henry in 1412, to that of George III. in 1760.
+
+PART III.
+
+General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III.,
+which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geography
+of the globe has been nearly perfected.
+
+PART IV.
+
+Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and
+Commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present period.
+
+
+
+
+TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME I.
+
+
+Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians.
+
+Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic.
+
+Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J.R. Forster.
+
+Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic.
+
+---- of Sighelm to India.
+
+Travels of John Erigena to Athens.
+
+Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred.
+
+Travels of Andrew Leucander.
+
+Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem.
+
+---- of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople.
+
+Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem.
+
+---- of Ingulphus.
+
+Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth century.
+
+Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001.
+
+Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth century.
+
+---- of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth century.
+
+---- of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243.
+
+Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary.
+
+Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. in 1246.
+
+---- of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253.
+
+---- of Haitho, in 1254.
+
+---- of Marco Polo into China, &c. from 1260 to 1295.
+
+---- of Oderic, in 1318.
+
+---- of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322.
+
+Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355.
+
+Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380.
+
+Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394.
+
+---- of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419.
+
+Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431.
+
+Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in 1436.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME II.
+
+
+Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between 1097 and
+1107.
+
+Discovery of Madeira.
+
+Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands.
+
+Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, from 1412 to
+1505.
+
+Discoveries of the world, from their commencement to 1555,
+by Antonio Galvano.
+
+Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6.
+
+Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of Africa,
+during the life of Don Henry.
+
+Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de Cintra, to the
+coast of Africa, from 1455.
+
+Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, from the
+death of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in
+1486.
+
+History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, between
+1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla.
+
+Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, respecting the
+discovery of the route by sea to India, &c.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME III.
+
+
+History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early conquests in
+the New World.
+
+Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don Ferdinand
+Columbus.
+
+---- written by Antonio de Herrera.
+
+An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, written
+by himself.
+
+Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, from the
+death of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes against Mexico.
+
+History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, by
+Captain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME IV.
+
+
+History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus Zarate.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME V.
+
+
+Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the Commentaries of
+Garcilosso de la Vega.
+
+History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various sources.
+
+Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that country by
+the Spaniards,--from the General History of America, by Herrera.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME VI.
+
+
+Early English Voyages of discovery to America.
+
+Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and Canada, in
+1534-5.
+
+Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in the
+East; with some account of the early Voyages of other European nations to
+India.
+
+Discoveries, &c. &c. from 1505 to 1539.
+
+A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from Suez to
+India, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer in the Turkish
+service on that occasion.
+
+Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in 1540;
+written by Don Juan de Castro.
+
+Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in India, from
+1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's Asia.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME VII.
+
+
+Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by Ludovico
+Verthema, in 1503-8.
+
+---- in India, &c. by Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81.
+
+Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham.
+
+Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and Antonio Anes
+Pinteado.
+
+---- in 1554, by Captain John Lok.
+
+---- in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London.
+
+Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, of London.
+
+Third, in 1558.
+
+Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561.
+
+Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter.
+
+Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage.
+
+Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker.
+
+---- in 1564, by Captain David Carlet.
+
+---- and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George Fenner.
+
+Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by himself.
+
+Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth to
+Morocco, in 1585; by himself.
+
+Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh.
+
+Supplement to the foregoing.
+
+Second Voyage of ditto in 1590.
+
+Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and Gambia, in
+1591.
+
+Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English.
+
+Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas Stevens.
+
+Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch.
+
+Supplement to ditto.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME VIII.
+
+
+Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river to
+Bagdat and Basorah, in 1583.
+
+Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret.
+
+First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. Raymond and
+James Lancaster.
+
+Supplement to ditto, by John May.
+
+Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596.
+
+---- of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598.
+
+---- of William Adams to Japan, in 1598.
+
+---- of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604.
+
+First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under Captain James
+Lancaster.
+
+Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to 1605.
+
+Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry Middleton.
+
+Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William Keeling.
+
+Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions of the
+Great Mogul.
+
+Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins.
+
+Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the Moluccas.
+
+Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander Sharpey.
+
+Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles.
+
+Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David Middleton.
+
+Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry Middleton.
+
+Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton.
+
+Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony Hippou.
+
+Notices of the same, by Peter Floris.
+
+Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John Saris.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME IX.
+
+
+Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward Marlow.
+
+Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best.
+
+Observations made on the foregoing by different persons.
+
+Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon.
+
+Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher Newport.
+
+Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614.
+
+Supplement to ditto.
+
+Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to Ispahan, in
+1615-16.
+
+Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615.
+
+Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes.
+
+Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. to the Emperor of
+Hindoostan.
+
+Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry.
+
+Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great Mogul.
+
+Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18.
+
+Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under Captain
+Pring.
+
+Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618.
+
+Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620.
+
+War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and Persians, in
+1622.
+
+Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623.
+
+Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, by Dr.
+James Cunningham.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME X.
+
+
+Historical account of early circumnavigations;
+of Magellan, in 1519-22.
+of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80.
+of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8.
+of Van Noort, in 1598-1601.
+of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17.
+of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17.
+of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6.
+of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, in
+1683-91.
+in 1703-6, by William Funnell.
+in 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney.
+in 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton.
+in 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XI.
+
+
+Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein.
+
+---- in 1740-4, by Lord Anson.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XII.
+
+
+Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6.
+
+Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8.
+
+Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9.
+
+Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XIII.
+
+
+Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded..
+
+Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XIV.
+
+
+Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XV.
+
+
+Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded.
+
+Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XVI.
+
+
+Captain Cook's third Voyage continued.
+
+
+
+
+VOLUME XVII.
+
+
+Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded.
+
+Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c.; written by himself.
+
+Bulkeley's narrative of the same.
+
+
+
+
+                     *     *     *     *     *
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS,
+
+ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER:
+
+FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION,
+DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE, BY  SEA AND LAND, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE
+PRESENT TIME.
+
+
+BY
+
+ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S. EDIN.
+
+ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS.
+
+VOL. I.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  TO
+
+  HIS EXCELLENCY, THE HONOURABLE
+
+  SIR ALEXANDER COCHRANE, K.B.
+
+  VICE-ADMIRAL OF THE WHITE,
+
+  LATE COMMANDER IN CHIEF OF HIS MAJESTY'S NAVAL FORCES ON THE LEEWARD
+  ISLAND STATION,
+
+  NOW
+
+  GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE ISLAND OF GUADALOUPE, &C. &C. &C.
+
+
+  Dear Sir,
+
+  Unused to the adulatory language of dedications, I am well aware that
+  any such mode of address would offend your delicacy. While, therefore, I
+  gratify my own feelings by inscribing this work with your valued name, I
+  only use the freedom to assure your Excellency, that I have the honour
+  to be, with the warmest sentiments of respectful esteem and sincere
+  regard,
+
+  Dear Sir,
+
+  Your affectionate friend,
+  and gratefully devoted servant,
+
+  ROBERT KERR.
+
+  Edinburgh, 1st March 1811.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In this enlightened age, when every department of science and literature is
+making rapid progress, and knowledge of every kind excites uncommon
+interest, and is widely diffused, this attempt to call the attention of the
+public to a Systematic Arrangement of Voyages and Travels, from the
+earliest period of authentic history to the present time, ought scarcely to
+require any apology. Yet, on appearing before the tribunal of public
+opinion, every author who has not cherished an unreasonable estimate of his
+own qualifications, must necessarily be impressed with considerable anxiety
+respecting the probable reception of his work; and may be expected to offer
+some account of the plan and motives of what he proposes to lay before the
+public.
+
+The present work is the first of the kind that has ever been attempted in
+Scotland: and though, as already avowed in the Prospectus, the Editor has
+no wish to detract from the merits of similar publications, it might appear
+an overstrained instance of false delicacy to decline a statement of the
+circumstances which, he presumes to hope, will give some prospect of the
+work being received with attention and indulgence, perhaps with favour. It
+certainly is the _only_ General History and Collection of Voyages and
+Travels that has been hitherto attempted in the English language, upon any
+arrangement that merits the appellation of a _systematic plan_. And
+hence, should the plan adopted be found only comparatively good, in so far
+the system of arrangement must be pronounced the best that has been as yet
+devised. If this be conceded, and the fact is too obvious to require
+extended proof or minute elucidation, the Editor shall not feel mortified
+even if his arrangement may be considerably improved hereafter.
+
+The only work on the subject that has the smallest pretensions to system,
+and that is fanciful, involved, irregular, abrupt, and obscure, is PURCHAS
+HIS PILGRIMS. Even admitting the plan of that work to be in itself
+excellent; although it may be a _General History_, so far as it
+extends, it certainly is in no respect a _Complete Collection_ of
+Voyages and Travels. In a very large proportion of that curious work, it is
+the _author_ who speaks to the reader, and not the _traveller_.
+In the present work, wherever that could possibly be accomplished, it has
+uniformly been the anxious desire of the Editor that the voyagers and
+travellers should tell their own story: In that department of his labour,
+his only object has been to assume the character of _interpreter_
+between them and the readers, by translating foreign or antiquated language
+into modern English. Sometimes, indeed, where no record remains of
+particular voyages and travels, as written by the persons who performed
+them, the Editor has necessarily had recourse to their historians. But, on
+every such occasion, the most ancient and most authentic accessible sources
+have been anxiously sought after and employed. In every extensive work, it
+is of the utmost consequence that its various parts should be arranged upon
+a comprehensive and perspicuously systematic plan. This has been
+accordingly aimed at with the utmost solicitude in the present undertaking;
+and the order of its arrangement was adopted after much deliberation, and
+from a very attentive consideration of every general work of the same
+nature that could be procured. If, therefore, the systematic order on which
+it is conducted shall appear well adapted to the subject, after an
+attentive perusal and candid investigation, the Editor confidently hopes
+that his labours may bear a fair comparison with any similar publication
+that has yet been brought forward.
+
+In the short Prospectus of this work, formerly submitted to the public, a
+very general enunciation only, of the heads of the intended plan, was
+attempted; as that was then deemed sufficient to convey a distinct idea of
+the nature, arrangement, and distribution of the proposed work. Unavoidable
+circumstances still necessarily preclude the possibility, or the propriety
+rather, of attempting to give a more full and complete developement of the
+divisions and subdivisions of the systematic arrangement which is to be
+pursued, and which circumstances may require some elucidation.
+
+An extensive and minutely arranged plan was carefully devised and extended
+by the Editor, before one word of the work was written or compiled, after
+an attentive examination of every accessible former collection; That plan
+has been since anxiously reconsidered, corrected, altered, and extended, in
+the progress of the work, as additional materials occurred: yet the Editor
+considers that the final and public adoption of his plan, in a positively
+fixed and pledged systematic form, any farther than has been already
+conveyed in the Prospectus, would have the effect to preclude the availment
+of those new views of the subject which are continually afforded by
+additional materials, in every progressive step of preparation for the
+press. The number of books of voyages and travels, as well general as
+particular, is extremely great; and, even if the whole were at once before
+the Editor, it would too much distract his attention from the division or
+department in which he is engaged for the time, to attempt studying and
+abstracting every subdivision at once. The grand divisions, however, which
+have been already indicated in the Prospectus, and the general principles
+of the plan, which are there explained, are intended to be adhered to; as
+no reasons have been discovered, after the most attentive consideration,
+for any deviation from that carefully adopted arrangement, the heads of
+which are here repeated.
+
+
+
+
+GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK.
+
+PART I.
+
+_Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of
+Alfred, King of England, in the ninth century  to that of Don Henry of
+Portugal at the commencement of the fourteenth century_.
+
+
+PART II.
+
+_General Voyages and Travels chiefly of Discovery; from the era of Don
+Henry, in_ 1412, _to that of George III. in_ 1760.
+
+
+PART III.
+
+_Particular Voyages and Travels arranged in systematic order,
+Geographical and Chronological.
+
+Note.--This part will be divided into five books, comprehending, I.
+Europe.--II. Asia.--III. Africa.--IV. America.--V. Australia and
+Polynesia; or the prodigious multitude of islands in the, great: Pacific
+Ocean. And all these will be further subdivided into particular chapters or
+sections correspondent to the geographical arrangements of these several
+portions of the globe_.
+
+
+PART IV.
+
+_General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III.
+which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geography
+of the globe has been nearly perfected_.                   .
+
+
+PART V.
+
+_Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation Discovery  and
+Commerce by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present
+period_.
+
+
+In the deliberate construction of this systematic plan, it has been a
+leading object of anxious consideration, to reduce the extensive and
+interesting materials of which the work is composed under a clear,
+intelligible, and comprehensive arrangement, so combined in a geographical
+and chronological series, that each successive division and subdivision,
+throughout the whole work, may prepare the mind of the reader for that
+which is to follow, and may assist the memory in the recollection of what
+has gone before. By these means, an attentive perusal of this work must
+necessarily be of material usefulness, in fixing distinct and just ideas of
+geography, history, and chronology in the minds of its readers; besides the
+important information and rational amusement which it will afford, by the
+frequent description of manners, customs, laws, governments, and many other
+circumstances, of all the countries and nations of the world.
+
+In determining upon an era for the commencement of this work, the Editor
+was naturally led, from a consideration of the accidental discovery of
+Iceland by the Norwegians in the _ninth_ century, as coincident with
+the reign of the great ALFRED, who ascended the throne of England in 872,
+to adopt that period as the beginning of the series, both because the
+commencement of modern maritime discovery took place during the reign of a
+British sovereign, and because we derive the earliest written accounts of
+any of these discoveries from the pen of that excellent prince. It is true
+that the first accidental discovery of Iceland appears to have been made in
+861, eleven years before the accession of Alfred to the throne; yet, as the
+actual colonization of that island did not take place till the year 878,
+the seventh of his glorious reign, we have been induced to distinguish the
+actual commencement of maritime discovery by the modern European nations as
+coinciding with his era.
+
+From that time, till the year 1412, when Don Henry, Prince of Portugal,
+first began to prosecute a consecutive series of maritime discoveries along
+the western coast of Africa, during which a long inactive period of 551
+years had elapsed, the only maritime incident connected with our subject,
+was the accidental re-discovery of the Canary or Fortunate Islands, by a
+nameless Frenchman, about the year 1330, though they were not attempted to
+be taken possession of till 1400. This long interval, between the eras of
+King Alfred and Don Henry, constitutes the _first_ Part, or grand
+division of our work, in the course of which, a considerable number of
+adventurous travellers penetrated into the almost unknown regions of
+Tartary and the East, and considerable notices of the empire of China, and
+even of Japan, and of the coast and islands of India and north-eastern
+Africa,  were communicated to the Europeans by the Polos and others.
+
+In separating Part IV. from Part II. the General Voyages and Travels of
+Discovery which have been undertaken during the long and busy reign of our
+present venerable Sovereign, from those of a similar nature which succeeded
+the discovery of the new world, and of the route by sea to India, the
+Editor only pays a just tribute to the enlightened spirit of the age, under
+the munificent and enlightened patronage of the beloved Monarch of a free
+and happy people. Those former voyages of Part II. were mostly undertaken
+from mere interested views of direct or expected commercial benefit; while
+these of the era of George III. originated in the grand principles of
+endeavouring to extend the bounds of science and human happiness.
+
+Perhaps it may occur to some readers, that PART V. the last in order of the
+general heads of our plan, ought to have formed PART I. as partaking of the
+nature of an introduction to the subject, and forming a summary of the
+whole work. Upon even a very slight consideration, however, it must be
+obvious, that it is impossible to compose that proposed deduction in any
+adequate manner, until the whole mass of selected materials is possessed by
+the Editor, and definitively arranged. It may likewise be known to many,
+that introductions and prefaces, though usually placed at the beginning of
+books, are uniformly and necessarily last composed, and usually last
+printed, except in new editions.
+
+A great variety of Collections of Voyages and Travels have been published
+at different periods, many of which are inaccessible from their scarcity,
+or from being in foreign languages: And such great numbers of Voyages and
+Travels to particular regions and countries have been printed, as to be
+Altogether unattainable by the generality of readers. Every thing, however,
+which could contribute to the perfection of this work has been collected,
+or will be carefully procured during its progress; and no pains or expense
+shall be withheld which, can contribute to render it as complete and
+comprehensive as possible. In the employment of the vast variety and extent
+of excellent materials, great care shall be taken to insert every useful
+and curious information, reduced, where necessary, to modern language; and
+nothing shall be omitted which is conducive to valuable information and
+rational amusement.
+
+In our approach towards the present times, the multitude of particular
+Voyages and Travels increases prodigiously; and, in employing these, it
+becomes peculiarly necessary to make a selection of the best in every
+period, and especially of those best adapted for conveying just ideas of
+each geographical division and subdivision of the world; while those of
+less merit, but which contain useful notices of the regions and countries
+of which they treat, shall be carefully epitomized in illustration of the
+different subjects. Without the employment of discriminate selection and
+occasional abridgement, this work must have extended to an inconvenient and
+consequently expensive size, or must have been left unfinished and abrupt
+in some of its parts: _But abridgement shall be very seldom employed and
+never without acknowledgment_. Indeed, the grand object of the present
+work is to bring together a more complete and entire collection of Voyages
+and Travels, than has hitherto appeared in any language.
+
+From the nature of the plan, it is utterly impossible to ascertain, with
+any precision, the exact length to which it may extend; but, so far as can
+be judged of at present, it is not expected to exceed eighteen or twenty
+volumes. Throughout the whole work, a series of Maps and Charts will be
+inserted in their proper places, carefully selected and constructed for the
+purpose of illustrating the various Voyages and Travels.  At the close of
+the whole, a complete Index will be given to the entire series of volumes,
+so arranged as to form a regular _Gazetteer_ of the whole world. In
+every article which has been adopted into this work, the original and
+accessory sources of all the materials shall be distinctly indicated.
+Notes of explanation will be given, wherever necessary; and, as many of
+these are drawn from various sources, the names of the authors from whom
+they are adopted shall always be acknowledged: Such notes as are marked by
+the letter E. are by the Editor of the work.
+
+Owing to the indispensable nature of this work, it makes no positive claim
+to the character of an original composition, in the strict acceptation of
+that term; and he, therefore, who has undertaken the care of its
+collection and arrangement, assumes no higher title than that of
+_Editor_. In the discharge of that duty, however, the labour which he
+has necessarily bestowed, though always pleasing, has often been
+considerable, and sometimes arduous; and he trusts that the plan of the
+work, which is altogether original, will be found appropriately adapted to
+the end in view, and that the execution may appear not inadequate to the
+high importance of the subject. Without imputation of arrogance, he may be
+permitted to assert, that he has exerted the most unremitting attention and
+industry, in the collection, selection, and preparation of the several
+portions of the whole work, and in the arrangement and distribution of its
+parts. He has the satisfaction to add, that all his efforts have been
+seconded with the utmost readiness and liberality by the _Proprietor_
+of the work, who has spared no trouble, and withheld no expense, in
+procuring and supplying the necessary materials.
+
+It is with much grateful satisfaction, that the Editor has to acknowledge
+his high obligations to the Curators and Librarians of the Edinburgh public
+libraries, belonging to the Faculty of Advocates, the University, and the
+Writers to his Majesty's Signet, for the communication of many valuable and
+scarce materials. Nor ought he to withhold his tribute of gratitude, on
+this occasion, from the liberal spirit of a private individual, the
+Reverend Henry White of Lichfield, who has most obligingly offered the use
+of his valuable Collection of Voyages and Travels, and other curious and
+scarce works connected with the subject, for assisting towards the
+perfection of this publication.
+
+Having thus briefly announced the nature, plan, and object of the present
+work, of which this _first_ Volume is now before the public, it only
+remains to say, that the Editor and Proprietor, each in his particular
+department, are resolved to exert their utmost endeavours, that nothing may
+be omitted which can contribute to render the work deserving of public
+approbation and extensive patronage.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS OF VOL. I.
+
+
+PART I.
+
+Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the Era of Alfred, King of England,
+in the Ninth Century, to the Era of Don Henry, Prince of Portugal, at the
+commencement of the Fifteenth Century.
+
+
+CHAP.
+I. Discoveries in the time of Alfred, King of England, in the Ninth
+Century of the Christian Era.
+
+  SECT.
+  I. Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians, in the Ninth Century
+
+  II. Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the Ninth
+  Century
+
+  III.  Remarks on the situation of Sciringes-heal and Haethum, by J. R.
+  Forster
+
+  IV.  Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic, as related to King Alfred
+
+  IV[1]. Voyage of Sighelm to India, in the reign of Alfred, King of
+
+  V. Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth-Century
+
+  VI. Geography of the known World, in the Ninth Century, as described by
+  King Alfred
+
+  VII. Travels of Andrew Leucander, in the Eleventh Century
+
+  VIII. Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem, in 1052
+
+  IX. Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople, about
+  1056
+
+  X. Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem, in 1058
+
+  XI. Pilgrimage of Ingulphus to Jerusalem, in 1064
+
+
+II. Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders, in the Ninth Century
+
+III. Early Discovery of Winland, or America, by the Icelanders, about the
+    year 1001
+
+IV. Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the Ninth Century
+
+V. Travels of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the Twelfth Century
+
+VI. Travels of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243
+
+VII. Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary
+
+VIII. Travels of John de Piano Carpini, in 1246
+
+IX. Travels of W. de Rubruquis, about 1253
+
+X. Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in 1254
+
+XI. Travels of Marco Polo into China and the East; from A.D. 1260 to 1295
+
+XII. Travels of Oderic of Portenau, in 1318
+
+XIII. Travels of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322
+
+XIV. Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in 1355
+
+XV. Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380
+
+XVI. Travels of Schildtberger, in 1394
+
+XVII. Travels of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in 1419
+
+XVIII. Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431
+
+XIX. Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, in 1436
+
+
+[1] By error of the press, Sect, IV. has been numerically repeated.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+[Transcriber's note: The following errata have been applied to the text.]
+
+ERRATA.
+
+Page 8, line 26, _for_ insulated _read_ inhabited
+
+    51,      21, _for_ phenomena _read_ phenomenon
+
+    62,      41, _after_ each _insert_ of the
+
+   118       33, _after_ thirteenth _insert_ century
+
+   165,  note 7, _for_ Keander _read_ Theander.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.
+
+
+
+
+PART   I.
+
+VOYAGES AND TRAVELS OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE ERA OF ALFRED, KING OF ENGLAND,
+IN THE NINTH CENTURY; TO THE ERA OF DON HENRY, PRINCE OF PORTUGAL, AT THE
+COMMENCEMENT OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+
+
+A GENERAL HISTORY AND COLLECTION OF VOYAGES AND TRAVELS.
+
+PART I.
+
+_Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the era of Alfred, King of
+England, in the ninth century; to the era of Don Henry, Prince of Portugal,
+at the commencement of the fifteenth century._
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. I.
+
+_Discoveries in the time of Alfred King of England, in the ninth century
+of the Christian era._
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+In the midst of the profound ignorance and barbarism which overspread the
+nations of Western Europe, after the dissolution of the Roman empire in the
+West, a transient ray of knowledge and good government was elicited by the
+singular genius of the great Alfred, a hero, legislator, and philosopher,
+among a people nearly barbarous. Not satisfied with having delivered his
+oppressed and nearly ruined kingdom from the ravages of the almost savage
+Danes and Nordmen, and the little less injurious state of anarchy and
+disorganization into which the weakness of the vaunted Anglo-Saxon system
+of government had plunged England, he for a time restored the wholesome
+dominion of the laws, and even endeavoured to illuminate his ignorant
+people by the introduction of useful learning. In the prosecution of these
+patriotic views, and for his own amusement and instruction, besides other
+literary performances, he made a translation of the historical work of
+Orosius into his native Anglo-Saxon dialect; into which he interwove the
+relations of Ohthere and Wulfstan, of which hereafter, and such other
+information as he could collect respecting the three grand divisions of the
+world then known; insomuch, that his account of Europe especially differs
+very materially from that of Orosius, of which he only professed to make a
+translation.
+
+Although Alfred only mounted the throne of England in 872, it has been
+deemed proper to commence the series of this work with the discovery of
+Iceland by the Nordmen or Norwegians, about the year 861, as intimately
+connected with the era which has been deliberately chosen as the best
+landmark of our proposed systematic History and Collection of Voyages and
+Travels. That entirely accidental incident is the earliest geographical
+discovery made by the modern nations, of which any authentic record now
+remains, and was almost the only instance of the kind which occurred, from
+the commencement of the decline of the Roman power, soon after the
+Christian era, for nearly fourteen centuries. And as the colonization of
+Iceland did not begin till A.D. 878, the insertion of this circumstance in
+the present place, can hardly be considered as at all deviating from the
+most rigid principles of our plan.
+
+
+
+SECTION I
+
+_Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in the Ninth Century_[1].
+
+It were foreign to our present object to attempt any delineation of the
+piratical, and even frequently conquering expeditions of the various
+nations of Scandinavia, who, under the names of Angles, Saxons, Jutes,
+Danes, and Normans, so long harassed the fragments of the Roman empire.
+About the year 861, one Naddod, a Nordman or Norwegian vikingr, or chief of
+a band of freebooters, who, during a voyage to the Faro islands, was thrown
+by a storm upon the eastern coast of an unknown country, considerably
+beyond the ordinary course of navigation, to which he gave the significant
+name of Snio-land, or Snow-land, from the immense quantities of snow which
+every where covered its numerous lofty mountains, even in the height of
+summer, and filled its many valleys during a long and dreary winter. As
+Naddod gave a rather favourable account of his discovery on his return to
+Norway, one Gardar Suafarson, of Swedish origin, who was settled in Norway,
+determined upon making an expedition to Snow-land in 864; and having
+circumnavigated the whole extent of this new discovery, he named it from
+himself, Gardars-holm, or Gardars-island.
+
+Gardar employed so long a time in this expedition, that, not deeming it
+safe to navigate the northern ocean during the storms of winter, he
+remained on the island until the ensuing spring, when he sailed for Norway.
+He there reported, that though the island was entirely covered with wood,
+it was, in other respects, a fine country. From the favourable nature of
+this report, one Flocke, the son of Vigvardar, who had acquired great
+reputation among the Nordmen or Normans, as an  experienced and intrepid
+vikingr or pirate, resolved to visit the newly-discovered island. Flocke
+likewise wintered in the northern part of the island, where he met with
+immense quantities of drift ice, from which circumstance he chose to give
+it the name of Iceland, which it still bears. He was by no means pleased
+with the country, influenced, no doubt, by the unfavourable impression he
+had imbibed by spending a long protracted winter on the dreary northern
+shore, amid almost ever-during arctic ice, and surrounded by the most
+unpromising sterility; and though some of his companions represented the
+land as pleasing and fertile, the desire of visiting Iceland seems, for
+some time, to have lain dormant among the adventurous Norwegian navigators;
+probably because neither fame nor riches could be acquired, either by
+traffic or depredation, in a country which was utterly destitute of
+inhabitants.
+
+At length, in 874, two friends, Ingolf and Lief, repaired to Iceland, and
+were so much satisfied with its appearance, that they formed a resolution
+of attempting to make a settlement in the country; induced, doubtless, by a
+desire to withdraw from the continual wars and revolutions which then
+harassed the north of Europe, and to escape from the thraldom which the
+incipient monarchies of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, were then imposing
+upon the independent chiefs or vikingr of the Normans. In pursuance of this
+determination, Ingolf transported some people to Iceland, about the year
+878, with several cattle, and all kinds of implements, to enable him to
+commence a colony. At this period his friend Lief was absent in the English
+wars; but went soon afterwards into Iceland, to which he carried the booty
+which he had acquired in England.
+
+The first discoverers of Iceland are said to have found some Irish books,
+bells, and croziers on the coast; whence it has been imagined, that some
+people from Ireland had resided there previous to its discovery and
+settlement by the Normans. But it seems a more probable supposition, to
+account for these articles having been seen, that a party of Norman pirates
+or vikingr, who had previously landed in Ireland, or perhaps on Icolmkil,
+and had carried away the plunder of some abbey or monastery, had been
+driven to Iceland by a storm, and wrecked upon the coast, where these
+articles might have been washed on shore: Or they may have attributed the
+storm, by which they were driven so far beyond their knowledge, to the
+anger of the God of the Christians, for their sacrilegious robbery of a
+holy institution, and may have left these articles behind, in hopes of
+propitiating a more favourable termination to their voyage. The first
+settlers found extensive forests in the valleys of Iceland; and we know,
+from authentic documents, that corn was formerly cultivated with decent
+success in that northern region; whereas, in the present day, not a tree is
+to be found in the whole island, except some stunted birches, and very low
+bushes or underwood, in the most sheltered situations, and no corn will now
+ripen, even in the most favourable years. But the roots and stumps of large
+firs are still to be seen in various parts; and the injurious alteration of
+its climate is known to have been occasioned by the straits between
+_old_ Greenland and Iceland having been many years choked up with ice,
+which the short summers of that high latitude are not sufficiently powerful
+to dissolve.
+
+About the present period, Harold Harfagr, or the fair-haired, one of the
+petty sovereigns or vikingr of Norway, began to subjugate the other
+chieftains of the country under his paramount authority, and was so
+successful as to establish the Norwegian monarchy in 875. Gorm, likewise,
+about the same time, united the petty states of Jutland and the Danish
+islands into one kingdom, as Ingiald Illrode had done long before in
+Sweden. Such independent spirits as found themselves dissatisfied with this
+new order of affairs, found a sure asylum in Iceland; and the emigrations
+to this new country became so numerous, that Harold at length deemed it
+expedient to impose a tax of half a mark of silver, equal to five pounds of
+our modern money, on every one of his subjects who were desirous of going
+to settle in that island.
+
+
+[1] Fragm. Vet. Islandic. ap. Langebeck, II. 31.--Forster, Hist. of Voy.
+    and Disc. in the North, p. 50.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in the Ninth
+Century._[1]
+
+Some of the Norwegian chieftains, who were dissatisfied with the usurpation
+of supreme authority by Harold, took refuge in England, where Alfred had
+recently settled many of the vanquished Danes and Nordmen in the northern
+part of his dominions, which had been almost entirely depopulated and laid
+waste, by their long-continued and destructive ravages. Among these was one
+Ohthere, who had made himself famous by his voyages to unknown parts of the
+north, and who was invited to court by Alfred, to give an account of the
+discoveries and observations he had made during his unusual expeditions.
+This person had been a chief of some note in his own country, and dwelt at
+a place which he called Halgoland, supposed by some to have been in
+Numadalen, while others say in Nordland, the most northerly p province of
+Norway proper. In the succeeding paragraph, he is said to have dwelt
+opposite to the _West Sea,_ and as Alfred only uses the word sea to
+denote a confined expanse or narrow channel, while he calls the ocean
+Garsecg, it seems highly probable, that, by the West Sea, the _west
+ford_ was intended,--a channel or strait which divides the Luffoden
+islands from the coast of Nordland, which would clearly place the residence
+of Ohthere in this northern province. The account which he gave of his
+voyages to his royal patron, is as follows.
+
+Ohthere told his lord King Alfred, that lie lived to the north of all the
+Nordmen or Norwegians; and that he dwelt in that land to the northward,
+opposite to the west sea; and that all the land to the north of that sea is
+waste and uninhabited except in a few places, to which the Finans[2] or
+Fins repair in winter for hunting and fowling, and for fishing in the
+summer. Being desirous to ascertain how far this country extended towards
+the north, and whether there were any inhabitants beyond these wastes, he
+proceeded by sea due north from his own habitation, leaving the desert land
+all the way on the starboard or right-hand, and the wide sea on the
+larboard or left-hand of his course. After three days sail, he was as far
+north as the whale-hunters ever go[3]; and then proceeded in his course due
+north for other three days, when he found the land, instead of stretching
+due north, as hitherto[4], to trend from thence towards the east. Whether
+the sea there lies within the land, he knew not[5], as he only waited for a
+west wind, and then sailed near that land eastwards, as far as he could, in
+four days; as he found the direction of the coast then to change to due
+south, he waited for a north wind, and then sailed due south as far as be
+could in five days.
+
+In this land he found a large river, at the mouth of which he lay to, as he
+could not proceed much farther, on account of the inhabitants being
+hostile. All the land on one side of this river was inhabited, and
+tolerably well cultivated, but he had not met with any inhabitants till
+now, since he left his own country; the whole land on his right being a
+desert, and without inhabitants, except the fishers, fowlers, and hunters,
+before-mentioned, who were all Fins; and the open sea lay on his left hand
+during his whole voyage. The Beormas [6], indeed, had well peopled their
+country, for which reason he did not venture to enter upon it; and the land
+of the Terfenna [7], which he had passed hitherto, was all a desert, with
+the exception of the hunters and fishers already mentioned.
+
+The Beormas told him many particulars about their land, and of the
+neighbouring countries; but he could not rely on their accounts, as he had
+no opportunity of seeing with his own eyes, but it seemed to him that the
+Beormas and Fins spoke the same language [8]. Ohthere stated, that his
+motive for this expedition, besides some little curiosity to explore these
+countries, which were unknown to his countrymen, was principally in pursuit
+of horse-whales [9], which are valuable, because their tusks are excellent
+ivory, some of which he brought to the king, and because their hides serve
+for making into ropes for ships. This species of the whale is much smaller
+than the other kind, being seldom more than seven ells in length; while the
+other species is often forty-eight ells long, and sometimes even fifty. In
+this country was the best whale-fishing that Ohthere had ever seen, the
+whales being so numerous, that he was one of six who killed threescore in
+three days[10].
+
+Ohthere was a very rich man in those things which are considered as
+valuable in his country, and possessed, at the time when he came to the
+king, six hundred tame deer, none of which he had bought; besides which, he
+had six decoy deer, which are much in request among the Fins, as by means
+of them, they are enabled to catch wild deer. Yet, though one of the
+richest men in these parts, he had only twenty head of cattle, twenty
+sheep, and twenty swine; and what little land he had in tillage was
+ploughed by horses. The principal wealth of the Norman chiefs in that
+country consisted in tribute exacted from the Fins; being paid in skins of
+wild beasts, feathers, whalebone, cables and ropes for ships, made from the
+hides of whales or seals. Every one pays in proportion to his substance:
+the wealthiest paying the skins of fifteen martins, five rein-deer skins,
+and one bear-skin, a coat or cloak made of bear-skin or otters skins, and
+two cables or ship ropes of sixty ells long each, one of which is made of
+whale hide, and the other from the skins of seals.
+
+According to the description given to the king by Ohthere, Northmanna-land,
+or Norway, is very long and narrow, all the land which is fit for pasture
+or tillage being on the seacoast, which is very rocky in some places. To
+the east of this, and parallel to the cultivated land, there are wild and
+huge mountains and moors, which are inhabited by the Fins. The cultivated
+land is broadest in the south[11], where it is sixty miles broad, and in
+some places more; about the middle of the country, it is perhaps thirty
+miles broad, or somewhat more; and where it is narrowest in the north, it
+is hardly more than three miles from the sea to the moors. In some places,
+the moors are so extensive that a man can hardly travel across them in a
+fortnight, and in other places perhaps in six days.
+
+Opposite to the south part of this country is Sueoland[12], or Sweden, on
+the other side of the moors, and opposite to its northern part is Cwenland.
+The Cwens sometimes pass the moors and mountains to invade and plunder the
+country of the Normans; who likewise sometimes retaliate, by crossing over
+to spoil their land. In these moors, there are some very large _meres_
+or lakes of fresh water, and the Cwenas[13] sometimes carry their small
+light ships over land into these lakes, and employ them to facilitate their
+depredations on the Nordmen. Ohthere says, that the shire or district which
+he inhabited is called Halgoland, and that there were no inhabitants beyond
+him to the north. There is likewise a port in the southern land, which is
+called Sciringes-heal[14], which no one could reach in a month's sailing,
+even with a fair wind, at least if he lay to at night. During this voyage,
+the navigator must sail near the land, or make a coasting voyage along the
+coast of Norway towards the south, having _Iraland_[15], and the islands
+which are between that country and Norway, on his right hand; for this
+country continues all the way on the left hand of the navigator, from
+Halgoland to Sciringes-heal. As he proceeds again to the northward, a great
+sea to the south of Sciringes-heal runs up into this land, and that sea is
+so wide, that a person cannot see across it. Gotland[16] is opposite on the
+other side, or right-hand; and afterwards the sea of Sillende[17] lies many
+miles up in that country.
+
+Ohthere farther says, that he sailed in five days from Sciringes-heal to
+that port which is called Haethum [18], which lies between Winedum, Seaxun,
+and Anglen, and makes part of Dene. When he sailed to this place from
+Sciringes-heal, Dene, or Denmark, was on his left, and on his right was a
+wide sea for three days; as were also on his right, two days before he came
+to Haethum, Gotland, Sillende, and many other islands, which were inhabited
+by the Angles before they came to Britain; and during these two days, the
+islands belonging to Denmark were on his left hand.
+
+
+[1] Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, by Alfred the Great, translated by
+    Daines Barrington, p. 9.--Langebeck, Script. Dan. II. 106-118.--
+    Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. 53.
+
+[2] Ohthere here calls the inhabitants of the desert Fins, and it would
+    appear that the Laplanders are actually Fins, or Finlanders; the name
+    of Laps or Laplanders being of modern origin, and the Danes and
+    Norwegians still call this country Finmark.--Forst
+
+[3] In former translations of Alfred, this passage is rendered as follows:
+    "He was within three days sail of being as far north as the
+    whale-hunters ever go." This expression is vague and ambiguous, and
+    rather means that the residence from whence he set out was within
+    three days sail, &c.; whereas the next member of the same sentence
+    distinctly indicates a preceding three days sail, as in the adopted
+    translation.--E.
+
+[4] This is not quite accurate, as the coast of Norway, in the course of
+    Ohthere, stretches N.N.E. He was now arrived at the North Cape, whence
+    the coast towards the White Sea trends E. and by N.--E.
+
+[5] This doubt, of whether the sea lies within the land or not, probably
+    refers to the numerous inlets or fiords along the whole coast of
+    Norway and Finmark, and may mean, that he did not examine whether the
+    land might not be parcelled out into innumerable islands.--E.
+
+[6] The Beormas are the Biarmians or Permians of the northern writers; and
+    Perm or Permia is still mentioned among the numerous titles of the
+    emperors of Russia.--Forat.
+
+[7] The Terfennas are mentioned as different from the Scrite-fennas. These
+    were distinguished by Guido, the geographer of Ravenna, in the seventh
+    century, into Rerefinni and Scritifinni.   The latter lived entirely
+    by hunting, and wore snow-shoes in winter, called Schrit. The former
+    subsisted on their herds of rein-deer, and perhaps ought to have been
+    therefore called Rene-finni. The name in the text ought perhaps to
+    have been Rhane-fenna, as he tells us they had rein-deer, and employed
+    decoy deer to catch the wild.   Perhaps Fer-fenna, from their
+    travelling in sledges; from farra, to travel in a carriage.--Forst.
+
+[8] It is highly probable, from this remark, in which Ohthere could not be
+    mistaken, as it will appear in the sequel that he must have been
+    perfectly well acquainted with the Fins, that the Biarmians were a
+    branch of the great Finnish stock. The principal difference seems to
+    have been, that the Fins continued to be wandering hunters and
+    herdsmen, while the Beormas or Biarmians had advanced to the state of
+    fixed cultivators of the soil. They had likewise an idol called
+    Jomala, which is still the name of one of the deities of the
+    Finlanders.--Forst.
+
+[9] The morse is here named horse-whale by king Alfred, with infinitely
+    greater propriety than the appellation of sea-horse, which long
+    prevailed in our language.  The tusks of this animal are still
+    considered as excellent ivory, and are peculiarly valuable for the
+    construction of false teeth; and leather made from the hide is still
+    used in Russia for coach-harness, but stretches more when wet than any
+    other leather.--Forst.
+
+[10] It would appear, from the vast number killed, that this successful
+    fishing must refer to the morse or horse-whale, not to the ordinary
+    large whale.--E.
+
+[11] In the original, the broad and comparatively fertile part of Norway
+    is said to be in the _east_: the correction adopted in the text
+    is obvious and necessary.--E.
+
+[12] In former translations, this passage is: "opposite to this land,
+    _to_ the south, is Sueoland." The alteration in the text removes
+    the ambiguity--E.
+
+[13] Cwenland and the Cwenas appear to refer to Lapmark, and its
+    inhabitants, the Finlanders.--Forst.
+
+[14] See Sect. iii. p. 12, in which this place is supposed by Mr J. R.
+    Forster to have been where Stockholm now is.
+
+[15] Iraland obviously here means Scotland, with the Faro, Shetland, and
+    Orkney islands.--E.
+
+[16] This is plainly the isle of Gothland.--E.
+
+[17] Apparently the Baltic proper is here called the sea of Sillende, and
+    may have been named from the isle of Zeeland. Yet in this passage it
+    seems to refer to the gulf of Bothnia, as running far up into the
+    country.--E.
+
+[18] See Sect. iii. p. 14, in which Forster endeavours to fix this place at
+    Aarhuus in Jutland.
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+_Remarks by J. M. Forster, respecting the situation of Sciringes-heal and
+Haethum_[1].
+
+The name of this place, Sciringes-heal, has given a great deal of trouble
+to former commentators on Alfred; viz. Sir John Spelman, Bussaeus, Somner,
+John Philip Murray, and Langebeck, who have all chosen spots totally
+different, in which to place Sciringes-heal. Spelman, and others, look for
+this place near Dantzic, where, in their opinion, the Scyres formerly
+resided. But, first, the spot where the Scyres lived, is by no means
+satisfactorily determined; and, next, it is evident that Ohthere went
+continually along the coast from Halgoland to Sciringes-heal, and that this
+coast was on his left-hand during the whole course of his navigation. The
+late Mr Murray placed Sciringes-heal at Skanor, in the southern extremity
+of Sweden; but I cannot think that this place could be five days sail from
+Haethum in Jutland, as it is expressly declared to have been by Ohthere.
+Langebeck is for carrying Sciringes-heal to Konga-hella, on the Guatelf,
+near Marstrand; and insists, that the name, in Alfred's account of the
+voyage, ought to have been written Cyninges-heal instead of Sciringes-heal.
+If the word had only once occurred, I might have allowed Langebeck to be
+right; but we meet with it five times in the space of a few lines, and
+always without the slightest variation in orthography. 2dly, The voyage
+from Halgoland to Konga-hella is not of sufficient extent to have employed
+a month in the passage. 3dly, Konga-hella is too near Jutland to have
+required five days for the voyage between it and Haethum.
+
+Having demonstrated the insufficiency of these conjectures, we shall now
+endeavour to point out where Sciringes-heal was really situated. Paul
+Warenfried, in his Historia Longobardorum, Lib. i, cap. 7. and 10. makes
+mention of a district, named Scorunga, in which the Winili, or Lombards
+resided, for some time before they removed to Mairinga and from thence,
+farther on to Gotland, Anthabet, Bethaib, and Purgendaid. This Scorunga was
+not far from Gotland, and consequently in Sweden; and seems to have been
+the district in which Sciringes-heal was situated. Add to this, that
+Ohthere, after having described Sueoland, or Sweden, as being to the
+southwards of his habitation, immediately says, "there is a port in this
+southern land which is called Sciringes-heal." By this, he seems plainly to
+indicate, that this place certainly was in Sweden; and all this will
+appear, still more evidently, if we carefully follow the course of the
+voyage which he describes. First of all, he has Scotland, called Iraland,
+evidently by mistake, and the Orkney and Shetland islands, which lie
+between Scotland and Halgoland, on his right hand; and the continent is
+continually on his left hand, all the way, until he arrive at Sciringes-
+heal. But farther, a large bay stretches to the northward, deep into the
+country, along the coast of which he had been continually sailing; and this
+bay commences quite to the southward of Sciringes-heal, and is so broad
+that a man cannot see across, and Gotland is directly opposite to this
+bay[2]. But the sea, which extended from Zeeland to this spot, goes many
+hundred miles up into the country to the eastwards.
+
+From Sciringes-heal, Ohthere could sail in five days to Haethum, which lies
+between the Wends Saxons and Angles. Now, by this voyage, we are enabled to
+determine, with still greater exactness, the situation of this place which
+we are searching for. In order to get to Haethum, he left Gotland on the
+right[3], and soon afterwards Zeeland likewise, together with the other
+islands which had been the habitation of the Angles before they went to
+England, while those which belonged to Denmark were on his left for two
+days. Sciringes-heal, therefore, is consequently in Sweden, at the entrance
+of the Gulf of Bothnia, which runs up into the land northwards, just on
+that spot where the Baltic, after having passed Zeeland, spreads into a
+wide gulf, extending several hundred miles into the land. Just in this
+place I find the Svia-Sciaeren, or Swedish Scares, a cluster of little
+islands, surrounded by rocks. Heal, in the northern languages, signifies a
+port, as in such places a ship might be kept in safety. Sciringes-heal,
+therefore, was "the harbour of the Scares," and was probably at the
+entrance of the gulf of Bothnia, and consequently where Stockholm now is;
+and the tract of land where these Scares lay, towards the sea, was the
+Scarunga of Paul Warenfried.
+
+The port of Hasthum has occasioned much difficulty to the commentators, as
+well as that of Sciringes-heal; but all have agreed that it must be
+Sleswic, as this latter is called Haitha by Ethelwerd the Anglo-Saxon. A
+Norwegian poet gives it the name of Heythabae, others call it Heydaboe, and
+Adam of Bremen Heidaba; and this, in their opinion, is precisely the same
+with Haethum. It appears to me, however, that the difference between the
+words Haethaby and Hasthum, are by no means so inconsiderable. And I think
+the situation of Sleswic does not at all accord with the descriptions which
+are given of Haethum by Ohthere and Wulfstan. Indeed, if Sleswic be
+Haethum, I must confess, that I cannot in the least comprehend the course
+of the voyages of these ancient navigators. Ohthere tells us, that in
+sailing from Sciringes-heal to Haethum, he had Denmark to the left, and the
+open sea, for the space of three days, to the right; but that, for two days
+before he reached Haethum, he had Gotland and Zeeland to the right, and the
+islands which belong to Denmark to the left. If he had gone to Sleswic, he
+must have found all the Danish islands on his right hand, and not one
+besides Femeren on his left. This being considered, I ask how it is
+possible, consistent with his own description of the voyage, that the
+situation of Sleswic can be made to correspond with Haethum? As, in the
+district of Aarhuus in Jutland, there is an extensive track of land called
+Alheide, which is in fact a heath, I shall take the liberty to suppose,
+that the town, in the ninth century, lay higher up towards Al-heide, or
+All-heath; for the town of Aar-huus is new, and its name signifies in
+English Oar-house. The old town, therefore, may have been called
+Al-haethum, or Haethum; so, that if Ohthere set out from Stockholm for this
+place, Gotland was on his right hand[4], and so was Zealand. And as he
+sailed between Zealand and Funen, or Fyen, all the Danish islands were on
+his left hand, and he had the wide sea, that is, the Schager-rack, and
+Cattegat to the right. Farther, when Wulfsten went from Haethum, or Aarhuus
+to Truso, he had Weonothland, that is Funen, Fionia, or Fyen to his right;
+and to the left were, Langeland, Laeland, Falster, and Sconeg; together
+with Bornholm, Bleking, Moehre, Oeland, and Gotland. But Wendenland
+remained on his right, all the way to the mouth of the Vistula.
+
+
+[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. 67.
+
+[2] It appears to me, that the description given by Ohthere, implies,
+    that Gotland was directly opposite to Sciringes-heal, or to the east.
+    --E.
+
+[3] Not surely on going southwards, but after he had again turned to the
+    northwards, after doubling the southern point of Sweden.--E.
+
+[4] This is certainly true during the latter part of his voyage, after
+    turning round the south end of Sweden, and standing again to the
+    northward, between Zealand and Fyen; but in coasting down the shore of
+    Sweden to the south, he must have left Gotland to the left,--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Voyage of Wulfstan in the Baltic as related to Alfred_[1].
+
+Wulfstan said that he sailed from Haethum to Truso[2] in seven days and
+nights, the ship being under sail all the time. Weonothland[3] was on his
+right; but Langaland, Laeland, Falster, and Sconeg, were on the left, all
+of which belong to Dene-mearkan[4]. Burgendaland[5] also, which has a king
+of its own, was on the left. After leaving Burgendaland, the islands of
+Becinga-eg, Meore, Eowland, and Gotland, were on the left, all of which
+belong to Sueon[6], and Weonodland[7] was all the way on the right to the
+mouth of the Wisle[8]. This is a very large river, and near it Witland[9],
+and Weonodland are situated; the former of which belongs to Estum, and the
+Wisle does not run through Weonodland, but through Estmere[10], which lake
+is fifteen miles broad. Then runs the Ilfing[11] from the eastwards into
+Est-mere, on the banks of which is Truso. The Ilfing flows from Est-land
+into the Est-mere from the east, and the Wisle through Weonodland from the
+south. The Ilfing, having joined the Wisle, takes its name, and runs to the
+west of Estmere, and northward into the sea, where it is called
+Wisle-mouth[12].
+
+Est-land is a large track of country, having many towns, in each of which
+there is a king. It produces a great quantity of honey, and has abundance
+of fish. The kings, and other rich men, drink mares milk, while the poor
+people and slaves use only mead[13]. They have many contests among
+themselves; and the people of Estum brew no ale, as they have mead in
+profusion[14]. There is also a particular custom observed by this nation;
+that, when any one dies, the body remains unburnt, with the relations and
+friends, for a month or two; and the bodies of kings and nobles remain
+longer, according to their respective wealth, sometimes for half a year,
+during all which time it is kept in the house, and drinking and sports
+continue until the body is consumed[15]. When the body is carried to the
+funeral pile, the substance of the deceased, which yet remains, after the
+sports and drinking bouts, is divided into five or six heaps, or more,
+according to its value. These heaps are placed at the distance of a mile
+from each other; the largest heap at the greatest distance from the town,
+and the lesser heaps gradually diminishing, so that the smallest heap is
+nearest to the town where the dead body lies. Then all are summoned who
+have fleet horses, within the distance of five or six miles around, and
+they all strive for the substance of the dead person. He who has the
+swiftest horse, gains the most distant and largest heap, and the others, in
+just proportion, till the whole is won; then every one takes away his
+share, as his own property: and owing to this custom, swift horses are in
+great request, and extremely dear. When the wealth of the deceased has been
+thus exhausted, the body is taken from the house and burnt, together with
+the dead man's weapons and clothes; and generally, they expend the whole
+wealth of the deceased, by keeping the body so long in the house before it
+is burnt, and by these heaps which are carried off by strangers. It is the
+custom with the Estum to burn the bodies of all the inhabitants; and if any
+one can find a single bone unconsumed, it is a cause of great offence.
+These people, also, have the means of producing a very severe cold; by
+which, the dead body continues so long above ground without putrefying; and
+by means of which, if any one sets a vessel of ale or water in the place,
+they contrive that the liquor shall be frozen either in winter or
+summer[16].
+
+
+[1] Alfred's Orosius, by Barrington, p. 16. Langebeck, Scrip. Dan. II. 118-
+    123. Wulfstan appears to have been a Dane, who had probably become
+    acquainted with Ohthere, during his maritime expeditions, and had gone
+    with him to reside in England.--Forst.
+
+[2] There is a lake still called Truso or Drausen, between Elbing and
+    Prussian Holland, from which, probably, the town here mentioned, which
+    stood on the Frisch-haf, took its name.--Forst.
+
+[3] It is necessary to distinguish accurately between Weonothland, which is
+    probably Fuehnen, Funen, or Fionio, now called Fyen; and Weonodland or
+    Winodland, afterwards Wendenland.--Forst.
+
+[4] Denmark obviously, called simply Dene, in the voyages of Ohthere.--E.
+
+[5] Probably Bornholm.--E.
+
+[6] Called Sueoland in the voyages of Ohthere, is assuredly Sweden, to
+    which all these islands belong. Becinga-eg, is certainly Bleking; the
+    _l_ being omitted in transcription, called an island by mistake.
+    Meore is indisputably the upper and lower Moehre in Smoland; Eowland
+    is Oeland; and Gotland is doubtless the modern isle of that name.
+    --Forst.
+
+[7] Weonodland, or Winodland, extends to the mouth of the Vistula; and is
+    obviously a peculiar and independent country, totally different from
+    Weonothland, belonging to Denmark.--Forst.
+
+[8] Wisle, or Wisla, is the Sclavonian orthography for the Vistula, called
+    Weichsel by the Germans, and Weissel by the Prussians.--Forst.
+
+[9] Witland is a district of Samland in Prussia. It had this name of
+    Witland at the time of the crusades of the Germans against Prussia.
+    The word Wit-land, is a translation of the native term Baltikka, or
+    the white land, now applied to the Baltic Sea.--Forst.
+
+[10] Est-mere, a lake of fresh water, into which the Elbing and Vistula
+    empty themselves; now called Frisch-haf, or the fresh water sea.
+    --Forst.
+
+[11] This is undoubtedly the Elbing which flows from lake Drausen, or
+    Truso, and joins, by one of its branches, that arm of the Vistula
+    which is called Neugat or Nogat.--Forst.
+
+[12] The Ilfing, or Elbing, comes out of Esthonia, yet not from the east,
+    as here said by Alfred, but from the south; except, indeed, he mean
+    that arm of the Elbing which runs into the Nogat, or eastern arm of
+    the Vistula. But the Vistula comes out of Wendenland, called
+    Weonodland in the text, from the south; and the two rivers discharge
+    themselves into the Frisch-haf, which stretches from west to north, or
+    in a north-east direction; and at Pilau, goes northwards into the sea.
+    It is certainly possible that this entrance may have been formerly
+    called Wisle-mund, or the mouth of the Vistula, as well as the western
+    mouth of that river.--Forst.
+
+    This concession is not necessary to the truth of Wulfstan and Alfred.
+    There is a cross branch from Elbing, which joins the Nogat and Vistula
+    proper; and which is probably meant in the text, where the Ilfing and
+    Wisle, united, are said to run to the west of Est-mere, or the haf,
+    and then north, into the sea at Wisle-mund.--E.
+
+[13] This circumstance is singular; yet may be explained from the custom of
+    the Tartars. The mares milk, drank by the kings and rich men, was
+    certainly prepared into cosmos, or kumyss, the favourite beverage of
+    the great; while mead, a much inferior liquor in their estimation, was
+    left to the lower orders.--E.
+
+[14] Mead was called Medo in Anglo-Saxon, in Lithuanian Middus, in Polish
+    Miod, in Russian Méd, in German Meth, in old English Metheglin:
+    perhaps all these are from the Greek verb [Greek: methuo], to
+    intoxicate. Alfred naturally observes, that these drinking-bouts
+    produced many frays; and notices the reason of the Estum or Esthonians
+    brewing no ale, because they had abundance of mead.--Forst.
+
+[15] In a treaty between the Teutonic knights, and the newly converted
+    Prussians, the latter engaged never to burn their dead, nor to bury
+    them with their horses, arms, clothes, and valuables.--Forst.
+
+[16] This power of producing cold in summer, so much admired by Wulfstan
+    and Alfred, was probably the effect of a good ice-cellar, which every
+    Prussian of condition had in, or near his house.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Voyage of Sighelm and Athelstan to India, in the reign of Alfred King of
+England, in 883_[1].
+
+Though containing no important information, it were unpardonable in an
+English collection of voyages and travels, to omit the scanty notice which
+remains on record, respecting a voyage by two Englishmen to India, at so
+early a period. All that is said of this singular incident in the Saxon
+Chronicle, is[2], "In the year 883, Alfred sent Sighelm and Athelstan to
+Rome, and likewise _to the shrine_ of Saints Thomas and Bartholomew,
+in India, with the alms which he had vowed." [Bartholomew was the messenger
+of Christ in India, the extremity of the whole earth.]--The words printed
+in _Italics_ are added in translating, by the present editor, to
+complete the obvious sense. Those within brackets, are contained in one MS.
+Codex of the Saxon Chronicle, in addition to what was considered the most
+authentic text by Bishop Gibson, and are obviously a note or commentary,
+afterwards adopted into the text in transcription.
+
+This short, yet clear declaration, of the actual voyage, has been extended
+by succeeding writers, who attribute the whole merit to Sighelm, omitting
+all mention of Athelstan, his co-adjutor in the holy mission. The first
+member of the subsequent paraphrase of the Saxon Chronicle, by Harris,
+though unauthorized, is yet necessarily true, as Alfred could not have sent
+messengers to a shrine, of which he did not know the existence. For the
+success of the voyage, the safe return, the promotion of Sighelm, and his
+bequest, the original record gives no authority, although that is the
+obvious foundation of the story, to which Aserus has no allusion in his
+life of Alfred.
+
+"In the year 883, Alfred, King of England, hearing that there existed a
+Christian church in the Indies, dedicated to the memory of St Thomas and St
+Bartholomew, dispatched one Sighelm, or Sithelm, a favourite ecclesiastic
+of his court, to carry his royal alms to that distant shrine. Sighelm
+successfully executed the honourable commission with which he had been
+entrusted, and returned in safety into England. After his return, he was
+promoted to the bishoprick of Sherburn, or Shireburn, in Dorsetshire; and
+it is recorded, that he left at his decease, in the treasury of that
+church, sundry spices and jewels, which he had brought with him from the
+Indies."
+
+Of this voyage, William of Malmsbury makes twice mention; once in the
+fourth chapter of his second book, De Gestis Regum Anglorum; and secondly,
+in the second book of his work; entitled, De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum;
+and in the chapter devoted to the Bishops of Shireburn, Salisbury, and
+Winchester, both of which are here added, although the only authority for
+the story is contained in what has been already given from the Saxon
+Chronicle[3].
+
+"King Alfred being addicted to giving of alms, confirmed the privileges
+which his father had granted to the churches, and sent many gifts beyond
+seas, to Rome, and to St Thomas in India. His messenger in this business
+was Sighelm, bishop of Sherburn, who, with great prosperity, which is much
+to be wondered at in this age, penetrated into India; whence he brought on
+his return, splendid exotic gems, and aromatic liquors, of which the soil
+of that region is prolific."
+
+"Sighelm having gone beyond seas, charged with alms from the king, even
+penetrated, with wonderful prosperity, to Saint Thomas in India, a thing
+much to be admired in this age; and brought thence, on his return, certain
+foreign kinds of precious stones which abound in that region; some of which
+are yet to be seen in the monuments of his church."
+
+In the foregoing accounts of the voyage of Sighelm, from the first notice
+in the Saxon Chronicle, through the additions of Malmsbury, and the
+amplified paraphrase by Harris, we have an instance of the manner in which
+ingenious men permit themselves to blend their own imaginations with
+original record, superadding utterly groundless circumstances, and fancied
+conceptions, to the plain historical facts. Thus a motely rhetorical tissue
+of real incident and downright fable is imposed upon the world, which each
+successive author continually improves into deeper falsehood. We have here
+likewise an instance of the way in which ancient manuscripts, first
+illustrated by commentaries, became interpolated, by successive
+transcribers adopting those illustrations into the text; and how many
+fabricators of story, first misled by these additaments, and afterwards
+misleading the public through a vain desire of producing a morsel of
+eloquence, although continually quoting original and contemporary
+authorities, have acquired the undeserved fame of excellent historians,
+while a multitude of the incidents, which they relate, have no foundations
+whatever in the truth of record. He only, who has diligently and faithfully
+laboured through original records, and contemporary writers, honestly
+endeavouring to compose the authentic history of an interesting period, and
+has carefully compared, in his progress, the flippant worse than
+inaccuracies of writers he has been taught to consider as masterly
+historians, can form an adequate estimate of the enormity and frequency of
+this tendency to romance. The immediate subject of these observations is
+slight and trivial; but the evil itself is wide-spread and important, and
+deserves severe reprehension, as many portions of our national history have
+been strangely disfigured by such indefensible practices.
+
+
+[1] Harris, I. 873. Hakluyt, V. II. 38.
+
+[2] Chron. Sax. Ed. Gibson, p. 86.
+
+[3] Hakluyt, II. 88.
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+_Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth Century_[1].
+
+John Erigena, of the British Nation, descended from noble progenitors, and
+born in the town of St. Davids in Wales; while the English were oppressed
+by the cruel wars and ravages of the Danes, and the whole land was in
+confusion, undertook a long journey to Athens, and there spent many years
+in the study of the Grecian, Chaldean, and Arabian literature. He there
+frequented all the places and schools of the philosophers, and even visited
+the oracle of the sun, which Esculapius had constructed for himself. Having
+accomplished the object of his travels, he returned through Italy and
+France; where, for his extraordinary learning, he was much favoured by
+Charles the Bald, and afterwards by Lewis the Stammerer. He translated into
+Latin, in 858, the books of Dionysius the Areopagite, concerning the
+Heavenly Hierarchy, then sent from Constantinople. Going afterwards into
+Britain, he became preceptor to Alfred, King of England, and his children;
+and, at the request of that prince, he employed his leisure in translating
+the Morals of Aristotle, and his book called the Secret of Secrets, or of
+the Right Government of Princes, into Chaldaic, Arabic, and Latin;
+certainly a most exquisite undertaking. At last, being in the abbey of
+Malmsbury, where he had gone for his recreation, in the year 884, and
+reading to certain evil-disposed disciples, they put him to death.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, II. 38.
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+_Geography of the Known World, in the Ninth Century as described by King
+Alfred_[1].
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Though not strictly conformable to our plan, as being neither a journey or
+voyage, it yet seemed incumbent to present our readers with this curious
+British production of the great Alfred King of England, which gives a
+singular record of the geographical knowledge of the world in the ninth
+century. It was originally written by Orosius, a Spanish Christian, who
+flourished in the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifth century, and
+who published a kind of History of the World, down to A. D. 416, which
+remained in good repute among the learned till about an hundred years ago,
+but is now much neglected. Near a thousand years ago, the work of Orosius
+was translated into Anglo-Saxon, by Alfred King of England, but, with great
+freedom and much licence, often using his author merely as a foundation for
+a paraphrase; omitting most of the introductory chapters to each book,
+sometimes leaving out considerable passages, and often inserting new
+matter. This is peculiarly the case with the first chapter of the first
+book, containing the whole of the geography, and which is all that has any
+reference to the nature of our work.
+
+The Honourable Daines Barrington, who published the Anglo-Saxon version,
+with an English translation, informs us that the original MS. is in the
+Cotton Library, _Tiberius_ I., and is supposed to have been written in
+the ninth or tenth century; but that, in making his translation, he used a
+transcript, made by Mr Elstob, occasionally collated with the Cotton MS.
+and with some other transcripts. But, before publishing a work of such
+curiosity and interest, he ought to have made sure of possessing a perfect
+copy, by the most scrupulous comparison of his transcript with the original
+MS.
+
+
+In the following republication of the geographical chapter, much care has
+been taken to correct errors, chiefly in regard to direction, as east,
+west, north, and south, are often used interchangeably in the translation
+by Mr Barrington. Most of the notes are from that edition, or from J.R.
+Forster, who reprinted so much of this chapter as referred to northern
+geography, and who appears to have studied that part of the subject with
+great care.
+
+As a specimen of the Anglo-Saxon, or the language of England near a
+thousand years ago, we have given the first sentence of this geographical
+chapter in the ordinary Roman letters, with a literal translation.
+
+_Anglo-Saxon_.
+
+  Ure yldran calne thysne ymbhwyrft
+  thyses middangeardes, cwaeth
+  Orosius, swa swa Oceanus ymbligeth
+  utan, wone man garsecg hatath, on
+  threo todaeldon.
+
+_Literal Translation_
+
+  Our elders have divided all of
+  this middle-earth, quoth Orosius,
+  which Oceanus surrounds, which
+  men calleth _garsecg_ into three
+  deals.
+
+
+_Geography of Alfred_.
+
+§ 1. According to Orosius, our ancestors divided the whole world which is
+surrounded by the ocean, which we call _garsecg_[2], into three parts,
+and they named these divisions Asia, Europe, and Africa; though some
+authors only admit of two parts, Asia and Europe. Asia is bounded to the
+southward, northward, and eastward by the ocean, and thus divides all our
+part of this earth from that which is to the east. On the north, Europe and
+Asia are separated by the Tanais or Don; and in the south, after passing
+the Mediterranean[3] sea, Asia and Africa join to the westward of
+Alexandria[4].
+
+§ 2. Europe begins, as I have said before, at the Tanais, which has its
+source in the northern parts of the Riphean mountains[5], which are near
+the Sarmatic[6] ocean; and this river then runs directly south, on the west
+side of Alexander's temples, to the nation of the Russians[7], where it
+runs into the fen called Maeotis, and thence it issues eastwards with a
+great stream, near the town called Theodosia, into the Euxine. Then
+becoming narrow for a considerable track, it passes by Constantinople, and
+thence into the Wendel sea, or Mediterranean. The south-west end of Europe
+is in Ispania or Spain, where it is bounded by the ocean; but the
+Mediterranean almost closes at the _islands_ called Gades, where stand
+the pillars of Hercules. To the westward of this same Mediterranean is
+_Scotland_[8].
+
+§ 3. Asia and Africa are divided by Alexandria, a city of Egypt; and that
+country is bounded on the west by the river Nile, and then by Ethiopia to
+the south, which reaches quite to the southern ocean. The northern boundary
+of Africa is the Mediterranean sea all the way westwards, to where it is
+divided from the ocean by the pillars of Hercules; and the true western
+boundaries of Africa are the mountains called Atlas and the Fortunate
+Islands. Having thus shortly mentioned the three divisions of this earth, I
+shall now state how those are bounded by land and water.
+
+§ 4. Opposite to the middle of the eastern part of Asia, the river Ganges
+empties itself into the sea, whilst the Indian ocean is to the southwards,
+in which is the port of Caligardamana. To the south-east of that port is
+the island of Deprobane[9]. To the north of the mouths of the Ganges, where
+mount Caucasus ends, is the port of Samera; and to the north of this port
+are the mouths of the river called Corogorre, in the ocean called Sericus.
+Now, these are the boundaries of India: Mount Caucasus is to the north, the
+river Indus to the west, the Red Sea[10] to the south, and the ocean to the
+east. In this land of India there are forty-four nations, besides the
+island of Taprobana or Ceylon, in which there are ten _boroughs_; and
+also many others which are situated on the banks of the Indus, and lie all
+to the westward of India. Betwixt this river Indus, and another to the west
+called Tigris, both of which empty themselves into the Red Sea[11], are the
+countries of Orocassia, Parthia, Asilia, Pasitha, and Media, though some
+writers call the whole of this land Media or Assyria[12]. The fields are
+much parched by the sun[13], and the roads are very hard and stony. The
+northern boundary of this land is Mount Caucasus, and the southern is the
+Red Sea. In this land there are two great rivers, the Hystaspes and Arbis,
+and twenty-two nations, though the whole has the general name of Parthia.
+To the westwards, Babilonia, Chaldea, and Mesopotamia are between the
+rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Within this country there are twenty-eight
+nations, the northern boundary being Mount Caucasus, and the Red Sea to the
+south. Along the Red Sea, and at its northern angle, are Arabia, Sabaea,
+and Eudomane, or Idumea. Beyond the river Euphrates, quite westward to the
+Mediterranean, and northward to Mount Taurus, even into Armenia, and
+southward to near Egypt, are many countries, namely Comagene, Phenicia,
+Damascena, Coelle, Moab, Ammon, Idumea, Judea, Palestine, and Sarracene,
+all of which are comprehended under the general name of Syria. To the north
+of Syria are the hills called Taurus, and to the north of these are
+Capadocia and Armenia, the former being to the westward of the latter; and
+to the westward of Capadocia is the country called the lesser Asia. To the
+north of Capadocia is the plain called Temisere, and betwixt Capadocia and
+lesser Asia are Cilicia and Isauria. Lesser Asia is entirely surrounded by
+salt water, except to the eastward; having the Euxine on the north, the
+Propontis and Hellespont on the west, and the Mediterranean on the south.
+In it is the high mountain of Olympus.
+
+§ 5. To the northward of _hither_ Egypt is Palestine, to the eastwards
+the land of the Sarracens, to the west is Libia, and to the south the
+mountain called Climax. The head of the Nile is near the _cliffs_ of
+the Red Sea, though some say it is in the western part of Africa, near
+Mount Atlas, whence it flows over a large track of land, till it sinks;
+after which, it proceeds in its course, till it becomes a great sea, or
+wide river[14]. The spot where the river takes its rise is called by some
+Nuchal, and by others Dara. Hence, for some distance from the wider part,
+_before_[l5] it rises from the sand, it runs westward to Ethiopia,
+where it is called Jon, till it reaches the eastern part, where it becomes
+a wide river[16], and then it sinks again into the earth; after which it
+appears again opposite to the cliffs of the Red Sea, as I mentioned before,
+and from this place it is called the Nile. Then running from thence
+westwards, it divides its stream round an island called Meroe[17]; then
+running to the northward, it empties itself into the Mediterranean. There,
+in the winter season, the current at its mouth is opposed by the north
+winds, so that the river is spread all over the land of Egypt;[l8] and by
+the rich earth which it deposits, it fertilizes the whole country. The
+_farther_ Egypt lies along the southern part of the Red Sea, and to
+the east is the ocean. To the west is the _hither_ Egypt, and in the
+two Egypts there are twenty-four nations.
+
+§ 6. Having before given an account of the north part of Asia, I shall now
+speak of its southern parts. I have before mentioned that Mount Caucasus is
+to the north of India, beginning eastwards on the ocean, and running due
+west, till it join the Armenian mountains, which the inhabitants call
+Parcoatrae, from which the Euphrates takes its rise; and from the
+Parcoatrian mountains mount Taurus runs due west, quite to Cilicia. To the
+north of these mountains, quite to the ocean which environs the north east
+end of the earth, where the river Bore empties itself into the ocean, and
+from thence westwards to the Caspian sea, which extends to Mount Caucasus,
+all the land is called Old Scythia, or Hircania. In this country there are
+forty-three nations, all situate at great distances from each other, on
+account of the barrenness of the soil[19]. Then to the westward of the
+Caspian unto the Tanais or Don, and the Palus Maeotis, thence south to
+Mount Taurus[20], and north to the ocean, is all Scythia, and is divided
+among thirty-two nations. The country on the east side of the Tanais is
+inhabited by a nation called the Alboari in the Latin tongue, which we now
+call Liobene. Thus have I shortly stated the boundaries of Asia, and shall
+now state those of Europe, as far as we are informed concerning them.
+
+§ 7. From the Tanais westwards to the Rhine, which takes its rise in the
+Alps, and runs northward, till it falls into that branch of the ocean which
+surrounds Bryttannia, and southward from the Tanais to the Donua or Danube,
+whose source is near that of the Rhine, and which runs to the northward of
+Greece, till it empties itself into the Euxine[21], and north even to that
+part of the ocean which is called the _Cwen_ sea[22], there are many
+nations; and the whole of this extensive country is called Germany. Hence
+to the north of the source of the Danube, and to the east of the Rhine are
+the people called eastern Franks[23]. To the south of them are the
+_Swaepas_[24]. On the opposite banks of the Danube, and to the south
+and east, are the people called _Baegth-ware_[25], in that part which
+is called _Regnes-burh_[26]. Due east from them are the Beme[27]. To
+the north-east the Thyringas[28]. To the north of these are the Old
+Seaxan[29]. To the north-west of these are the Frysan[30]; and to the west
+of _Old_ Saxony is the mouth of the _Aelfe_ or Elbe, as also
+_Frysan_ or Friesland. Prom hence to the north-west is that land which
+is called _Angle_, with _Sellinde_, and some other parts of
+Dene[31]. To the north is _Apdrede_[32], and to the north-east the
+_Wolds_[33], which are called AEfeldan[34]. From hence eastwards is
+Wineda-land[35], otherwise called Sysyle[36]. To the south-west, at some
+distance, is the Macroaro[37], and these have to the west the Thyringas and
+Behemas, as also part of the Baegthware, all of whom have been already
+mentioned. And to the south, on the other side of the Donua or Danube, is
+the country called Carendrae[38].
+
+§ 8. Southwards, towards and along the mountains which are called the Alps,
+are the boundaries of the Baegthware and of the Swaefas already mentioned;
+and then to the eastwards of the Carendrae country, and beyond the
+Waste[39], is Pulgara-land or Bulgaria[40]. To the east is Greca-land[41]
+or Greece; and to the east of the Moroaro or Moravians, is Wisle-land[42];
+and to the east of that is Datia, though it formerly belonged to the
+Gottan[43] or Goths. To the north-east of the Moroara or Moravians, are the
+Delamensen[44]. East of the Delamensen are the Horithi[45]; and north of
+the Delamensen are the Surpe[46]; to the west also are the Syssele[47]. To
+the north of the Horithi is Maegtha-land[48], and north of Maegtha-land is
+Sermende[49], quite to the Riffin[50], or the Riphean mountains.
+
+§ 9. To the south-west of Dene or Denmark, formerly mentioned, is that arm
+of the ocean which surrounds Brittania, and to the north is that arm which
+is called the _Ostsea_[51] or East sea; to the east and north are the
+north Dene[52], or North Danes, both on the continent and on the islands.
+To the east are the Afdrede[53]. To the south is the mouth of the AElfe or
+Elbe, and some part of _Old Seaxna_[54] or Old Saxony. The North Dene
+have to the north that arm of the sea which is called the East sea, and to
+the east is the nation of the Osti[55], and the Afdrede, or Obotrites, to
+the south. The Osti have to the north of them that same arm of the sea, or
+the Baltic, and so have the Winedas and the Burgendas[56]. Still more to
+the south is Haefeldan[57]. The Burgendas have this same arm of the sea to
+the west, and the Sweon[58] to the north. To the east are the Sermende, to
+the south the Surfe[59]. The Sweons have to the south the arm of the sea
+called _Ost_, and to the north, over the wastes, is Cwenland[60], to
+the north-west are the Scride-finnas[61], and the North-men[62] are to the
+west[63].
+
+§ 10. We shall now speak of Greca-land or Greece, which lies south of the
+Danube. The Proponditis, or sea called Propontis, is _eastward_ of
+Constantinople; to the north of that city, an arm of the sea issues from
+the Euxine, and flows _westwards_; to the _north-west_ the mouths
+of the Danube empty themselves into the south-east part of the Euxine[64].
+To the south and west of these mouths are the Maesi, a Greek nation; to the
+west are the Traci or Thracians, and to the east the Macedonians. To the
+south, on the southern arm of the Egean sea, are Athens and Corinth, and to
+the south-west of Corinth is Achaia, near the Mediterranean. All these
+countries are inhabited by the Greeks. To the west of Achaia is Dalmatia,
+along the Mediterranean; and on the north side of that sea, to the north of
+Dalmatia, is Bulgaria and Istria. To the south of Istria is the Adriatic,
+to the west the Alps, and to the north, that desert which is between
+Carendan[65] and Bulgaria.
+
+§ 11. Italy is of a great length from the north-west to the south-east and
+is surrounded by the Mediterranean on every side, except the north-west. At
+that end of it are the Alps, which begin from the Mediterranean, in the
+Narbonese country, and end in Dalmatia, to the east of the Adriatic sea.
+Opposite to the Alps, _on the north_, is Gallia-belgica, near which is
+the river Rhine, which discharges itself into the Britanisca sea, and to
+the north, on the other side of this sea, is Brittannia[66]. The land to
+the west of _Ligore_, Liguria, is AEquitania; to the south of which is
+some part of Narbonense, to the south-west is Spain. To the south of
+Narbonense is the Mediterranean, where the Rhone empties itself into that
+sea, to the north of the Profent[67] sea. Opposite to the wastes is the
+_nearer_[68] part of Spain, to the northwest Aquitania, and the
+Wascan[69] to the north. The Profent[67] sea hath to the north the Alps, to
+the south the Mediterranean, to the north-east the Burgundians, and to the
+West the Wascans or Gascons.
+
+$ 12. Spain is triangular, being surrounded by the sea on three sides. The
+boundary to the south-west is opposite to the island of Gades, Cadiz; that
+to the east is opposite to the Narbonense, and the third, to the north-
+west, is opposite to Brigantia, a town of Gallia, as also to Scotland[70],
+over an arm of the sea, and opposite to the mouth of the Scene or Seine. As
+for that division of Spain which is _farthest_[71] from us, it has to
+the west the ocean, and the Mediterranean to the north, the south, and the
+east. This division of Spain has to the north Aquitania, to the north-east
+Narbonense, and to the south the Mediterranean.
+
+§ 13. The island of Brittannia extends 800 miles in length to the
+north-east, and is 200 miles broad. To the south of it, on the other side
+of an arm of the sea, is Gallia-belgica. To the west of it, on the other
+side of another arm of the sea, is Ibernia or Ireland, and to the north
+Orcadus[72]. Igbernia, Ibernia, Hibernia, or Ireland, _which we call
+Scotland_, is surrounded on every side by the ocean; and because it is
+nearer the setting sun, the weather is milder than it is in Britain. To the
+north-west of Igbernia is the utmost land called _Thila_[73], which is
+known to few, on account of its very great distance.
+
+§ 14. Having mentioned the boundaries of Europe, I now proceed to state
+those of Africa. Our ancestors considered this as a third part of the
+world; not indeed that it contains so much land as the others, because the
+Mediterranean cuts it, as it were, in two, breaking in more upon the south
+part than on the north[74]. And because the heat is more intense in the
+south, than the cold in the north, and because every _wight_ thrives
+better in cold than in heat, therefore is Africa inferior to Europe, both
+in the number of its people, and in the extent of its land[75]. The eastern
+part of Africa, as I said before, begins in the west of Egypt, at the river
+Nile, and the most eastern country of this continent is Lybia.
+Ciramacia[76] is to the west of lower Egypt, having the Mediterranean on
+the north, Libia Ethiopica to the south, and Syrtes Major to the west. To
+the east of Libia Ethiopica is the farther Egypt, and the sea called
+Ethiopicum[77]. To the west of Rogathitus[78] is the nation called
+Tribulitania[79], and the nation called Syrtes Minores, to the north of
+whom is that part of the Mediterranean called the Hadriatic. To the west
+again of Bizantium, quite to the salt _mere_ of the Arzuges[80]; this
+nation has to the east the Syrtes Majores, with the land of Rogathite; and
+to the south the Natabres, Geothulas, and Garamantes[81], quite to the sea
+of Bizantium. The sea ports of these nations are Adrumetis and Zuges, and
+their largest town is Catharina. The country of Numidia has to the east the
+Syrtes Minores and the salt _mere_ formerly mentioned, to the north
+the Mediterranean, to the west Mauritania, and to the south the hills of
+Uzera, and the mountains which extend to Ethiopia, one way, and the
+Mauritanian sea on the other side. To the east is Numidia, to the north the
+Mediterranean, to the west the river Malvarius, to the south Astryx, near
+the mountains which divide the fruitful country from the wild and barren
+sands which lie southwards towards the Mauritanian sea, by others called
+the Tingitanean. To the east is the river Malon[82], to the north the hills
+of Abbenas and Calpri. Another mountain also closes the end of the
+Mediterranean sea, between the two hills to the west, where stand the
+pillars of Ercoles or Hercules. To the west again is Mount Atlas, quite to
+the sea; to the south the hills called AEsperos, and to the south again the
+nation called Ausolum[83], which inhabits quite to the sea.
+
+$ 15. Having thus stated the boundaries of Africa, we shall now speak of
+the islands in the Mediterranean: Cyprus lies opposite to Cilicia, and
+Isauria on that arm of the sea called Mesicos, being 170 miles long, and
+122 miles broad. The island of Crete is opposite to the sea called
+Artatium, northwest is the sea of Crete, and west is the Sicilian or
+Adriatic sea. It is 100 miles long, and 150 miles broad. There are
+fifty-three of the islands called the Cyclades. To the east of them is the
+Risca Sea, to the south the Cretisca or Cretan, to the north the Egisca or
+Egean, and to the west the Adriatic. The island of Sicily is triangular,
+and at each end there are towns. The northern is Petores[84], near which is
+the town of Messina; the south angle is Lilitem[85], near which is a town
+of the same name. The island is 157 miles long from east to west, and 70
+broad to the eastward. To the north-east is that part of the Mediterranean
+called the Adriatic, to the south the Apiscan sea, to the west the Tyrrhene
+sea, and to the north the [86] sea, all of which are narrow and liable to
+storms. Opposite to Italy, a small arm of the sea divides Sardinia from
+Corsica, which strait is twenty-two miles broad. To the east of it is that
+part of the Mediterranean called the Tyrrhenian sea, into which the river
+Tiber empties itself. To the south is the sea which lies opposite to
+Numidia. To the west the Balearic islands, and to the north Corsica. The
+island of Corsica lies directly west from the city of Rome. To the south of
+Corsica is Sardinia, and Tuscany is to the north. It is sixteen miles long,
+and nine broad[87]. Africa is to the south of the Balearic islands, Gades
+to the west, and Spain to the north. Thus I have shortly described the
+situation of the islands in the Mediterranean.
+
+
+[1] Anglo-Saxon version from Orosius, by AElfred the Great, with an English
+    translation, by Daines Barrington, 8vo. London, 1773. Discoveries in
+    the North, 54.
+
+[2] This word is always employed by Alfred to denote the ocean, while
+    smaller portions are uniformly called _sae_ in the singular,
+    _saes_ in the plural.--Barr
+
+[3] Called Wenadel sea in the Anglo-Saxon original; probably because it
+    had been crossed by the Vandals or Wends, in going from Spain to the
+    conquest of Africa.--E.
+
+[4] In the translation by Barrington, this sentence is quite
+    unintelligible. "All to the northward is Asia, and to the southward
+    Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais; then south of this same
+    river (along the Mediterranean, and west of Alexandria) Europe and
+    Asia join."--E.
+
+[5] Riffing, in the Anglo-Saxon.--E.
+
+[6] Sermondisc in the Anglo-Saxon, Sarmaticus in Orosius.--E.
+
+[7] Rochouasco in Anglo-Saxon, Roxolani in Orosius.--E.
+
+[8] Certainly here put for Ireland.--E.
+
+[9] Taprobana, Serendib, or Ceylon.--E.
+
+[10] By the Red Sea must be here meant that which extends between the
+    peninsula of India and Africa, called the Erithrean Sea in the
+    Periplus of Nearchus.--E.
+
+[11] The Persian gulf is here assumed as a part of the Red Sea.--E.
+
+[12] He is here obviously enumerating the divisions of the latter Persian
+    empire. Orocassia is certainly the Arachosia of the ancients; Asilia
+    and Pasitha may be Assyria and proper Persia.--E.
+
+[13] The Saxon word is _beorhta_ or bright, which I have ventured to
+    translate _parched by the sun_, as this signification agrees well
+    with the context.--Barr.
+
+[14] The true Niger, running from the westwards till it loses itself in the
+    sands of Wangara, seems here alluded to; and the Bahr el Abiad, or
+    Western Nile, is supposed to be its continuation, rising again out of
+    the sand.--E.
+
+[15] This ought certainly to be _after_, and seems to allude to the
+    Bahr el Abiad.--E.
+
+[16] Literally _a great sea_.--Barr.
+
+[17] This is a mistake, as it only takes a wide turn to the west in
+    Dongola, around what has been falsely called the Isle of Meroe. The
+    cliffs of the Red Sea seem to imply the mountains of Nubia, and the
+    wide sea may be the lake of Dembea.--E.
+
+[18] A strange attempt to account for the regular overflow of the Nile.--E.
+
+[19] This account of the boundaries of Old Scythia is extremely vague. It
+    seems to imply an eastern boundary by an imaginary river Bore, that
+    the Caspian is the western, the northern ocean on the north, and Mount
+    Caucasus on the south.--E.
+
+[20] In the translation by Barrington, this portion of Scythia is strangely
+    said to extend south to the Mediterranean; the interpolation surely of
+    some ignorant transcriber, who perhaps changed the Euxine or Caspian
+    sea into the Mediterranean.--E.
+
+[21] Called by mistake, or erroneous transcription, Wendel sea, or
+    Mediterranean in the text and translation.--E.
+
+[22] The Cwen sea is the White sea, or sea of Archangel.   The Kwen or Cwen
+    nation, was that now called Finlanders, from whom that sea received
+    this ancient appellation.--Forst.
+
+[23] East Francan in the original. The eastern Franks dwelt in that part of
+    Germany between the Rhine and the Sala, in the north reaching to the
+    Ruhre and Cassel, and in the south, almost to the Necker; according to
+    Eginhard, inhabiting from Saxony to the Danube. They were called east
+    Franks to distinguish them from that other part of the nation which
+    inhabited ancient Gaul, and Franconia continues to preserve their
+    name.--Forst.
+
+[24] Swaepas, or Suevae, who formed part of the Allemanic confederacy, and
+    afterwards gave their name of Swabes to an extensive nation, in whose
+    bounds modern Swabia is still situated.--Forst.
+
+[25] The Bavarians, who were the remnant of the Boii or Baeghten, who
+    escaped from the exterminating sword of the Suevi.--Forst.
+
+[26] This may have been the province in which Regens-bergh or Ratisbon is
+    still situated.--Forst.
+
+[27] These were undoubtedly the Bohemians, called afterwards Behemas by our
+    royal geographer. They had their appellation from Boier-heim, or the
+    dwelling place of the Boii, who were exterminated by the Suevi.
+    --Forst.
+
+[28] The Thuringians, at one time so powerful, that their king was able to
+    engage in war against the king of the Franks. Thuringia is still a
+    well known district in Germany.--Forst.
+
+[29] The Old Saxons inhabited the country still called Old Sassen, or Old
+    Saxony, Halsatia in Latin, which has degenerated into Holstein.
+    --Forst.
+
+[30] These Frysae were afterwards confined by Charlemain to the country
+     between the Weser and Elbe, to which they gave the name of Friesland.
+    --Forst.
+
+[31] That is to the north-east of Old Saxony, where the Angles,
+    confederates of the Saxon conquerors of Britain, and who gave their
+    name to the English nation, and England or Angle-land, formerly
+    resided. But they likewise appear to have occupied some of the islands
+    in the Baltic. Sillend is certainly the Danish island of Zeeland. Dene
+    is Denmark in its most limited sense.--Forst.
+
+[32] These are the Obotrites, a Venedic nation, settled in Mecklenburgh,
+    who are called, a little farther on, the _Afdrede_. They were
+    not, however, to the north-east of Old Saxony, but rather to the
+    eastwards. Perhaps the copyist inserted north instead of east, or
+    rather we ought to read thus: "To the north-east is Apdrede, and to
+    the north the Wolds."--Forst.
+
+[33] The word here translated _Wolds_ on the authority of Daines
+    Barrington, is in the original, _Wylte_; but whether it refers to
+    the _wild_ or barren state of the country, or the name of a
+    people, it is difficult to say. There were a people named Wilzi in
+    those parts, but J. R. Forster is disposed to believe, that Alfred
+    refers here to the Wends or Vandals, who lived on the Havel, and were
+    called Hevelli. But if they are meant, we must correct the text from
+    north-east to south-east, for such is the situation of Havel-land,
+    with respect to Old Saxony.--Forst.
+
+[34] AEfeldan are, as King Alfred calls them, Wolds or Wilds; as there
+    still are in the middle of Jutland, large high moors, covered only
+    with heath.--Forst.
+
+[35] Wineda-land, the land of the Wends, Vandals, or Wendian Scalvi in
+    Mecklenburg and Pomerania; so called from _Wanda_ or _Woda_,
+    signifying the sea or water. They were likewise called Pomeranians for
+    the same reason, from _po moriu_, or the people by the sea side.
+    --Forst.
+
+[36] In this Alfred seems to have committed a mistake, or to have made too
+    great a leap. There is a Syssel, however, in the country of the Wends,
+    on the Baltic, which connects them with the Moravians, or rather with
+    the Delamensan, of whom mention is made afterwards.--Forst.
+
+[57] The Moravians, so called from the river Morava, at that time a
+    powerful kingdom, governed by Swatopluk, and of much greater extent
+    than modern Moravia.--Forst.
+
+[38] Carendre must be Carinthia, or the country of the Carenders or
+    Centani, which then included Austria and Styria.--Forst.
+
+[39] Barrington has erroneously translated this, "to the eastward of
+    Carendre country, and beyond the _west_ part is Bulgaria." But in
+    the original Anglo-Saxon, it is _beyond the wastes_, or desert,
+    which had been occasioned by the devastations of Charlemain in the
+    country of the Avari.--Forst.
+
+[40] This is the extensive kingdom of Bulgaria of these times, comprising
+    modern Bulgaria and Wallachia, with part of Moldavia and Bessarabia.
+    The Bulgarians were probably a Turkish tribe, dwelling beyond the
+    Wolga, in the country now called Casan, deriving their name from
+    Bolgar, their capital.--Forst.
+
+    Forster ought to have added, that the latter country was long called
+    _greater_ Bulgaria, and the former, or the Pulgara-land of the text,
+    _lesser_ Bulgaria.--E.
+
+[41] The Greek empire of Constantinople.--E.
+
+[42] The country on the Wisle or Vistula, being great and little Poland.
+    --Forst.
+
+[43] These for some time inhabited Dacia, and, being famous in history,
+    Alfred was willing at least to mention one of their residences.
+    --Forst.
+
+[44] The Delamensen, or Daleminzen of the middle age writers, sometimes
+    called Dalmatians by mistake, or to shew their erudition, were
+    situated near Lommatsch, or around Meissen or Misnia, on both sides of
+    the Elbe.--Forst.
+
+[45] These must have been a Scalvonian people or tribe, now unknown, and
+    perhaps inhabited near Gorlitz, or near Quarlitz, not far from great
+    Glogau--Forst.
+
+[46] The Sorbi, Sirbi, and Serbii, of old writers, are the Sorbian
+    Sclavons; and the modern Wends or Vandals of Lusatia, still call
+    themselves Sserbs or Ssorbs.--Forst.
+
+[47] These must have been another tribe of Sclavons about Seuselig, to the
+    westward of the Sorbs of lower Lusatia.--Forst.
+
+[48] Perhaps the duchy of Mazovia, called Magaw or Mazaw-land in ancient
+    writers. Or perhaps it is wrong spelt for _Wastaland_ or the
+    Waste.--Forst.
+
+[49] Sermende is the mutilated and disguised name of Sarmatia, which did
+    not exist under that name in the time of Alfred, but which he inserted
+    on the authority of his original author Orosius.--Forst.
+
+[50] A mere corruption of the montes Riphaei or Riphean mountains of
+    Orosius; and Alfred seems here to have got beyond his knowledge,
+    copying merely from Orosius.--Forst.
+
+[51] The Ost sea of Alfred comprehends what are now called the Scaggerrack,
+    Catte-gatt, the Sound, the two Belts, and the Baltic, which our
+    mariners still call the East Sea.--Forst.
+
+[52] That is, both inhabiting North Jutland and the islands of Funen,
+    Zeeland, Langland, Laland, and Falster.--Forst.
+
+[53] Formerly called Apdrede, and explained to be the Obotrites.--E.
+
+[54] Alluding, doubtless, to the country from whence the Saxons who
+    inhabited England had come of old.--E.
+
+[55] This is the same nation called Estum in the voyage of Wulfstan, who
+    lived east of the mouth of the Wisle or Vistula, along the Baltic, and
+    who are mentioned by Tacitus under the name of Estii. When the
+    Hanseatic league existed, they were called Osterlings or Easterlings,
+    or Ost-men, and their country Est-land, Ostland, or Eastland, which
+    still adheres to the northernmost part of Livonia, now called
+    Est-land.--Forst.
+
+[56] The Burgendas certainly inhabited the island of Born-holm, called from
+    them Borgenda-holm, or island of the Borgendas, gradually corrupted to
+    Borgend-holm, Bergen-holm, Born-holm. In the voyage of Wulfstan they
+    are plainly described as occupying this situation.--Forst.
+
+[57] Called formerly AEfelden, a nation who lived on the Havel, and were,
+    therefore, named Hevelli or Haeveldi, and were a Wendick or Vandal
+    tribe.--Forst.
+
+[58] These are the Sviones of Tacitus. Jornandes calls them Swethans, and
+    they are certainly the ancestors of the Swedes.--Forst.
+
+[59] This short passage in the original Anglo-Saxon is entirely omitted by
+    Barrington. Though Forster has inserted these Surfe in his map,
+    somewhere about the duchy of Magdeburg, he gives no explanation or
+    illustration of them in his numerous and learned notes on our royal
+    geographer.--E.
+
+[60] Already explained to be Finland on the White sea.--E.
+
+[61] This is the same nation with the Finnas or Laplanders, mentioned in
+    the voyage of Ohthere, so named because using _scriden_,
+    schreiten, or snowshoes. The Finnas or Laplanders were distinguished
+    by the geographer of Ravenna into Scerde-fenos, and Rede-fenos, the
+    Scride-finnas, and Ter-finnas of Alfred. So late as 1556, Richard
+    Johnson, Hakluyt, ed. 1809. I. 316. mentions the Scrick-finnes as a
+    wild people near Wardhus.--E.
+
+[62] The North-men or Normans, are the Norwegians or inhabitants of
+    Nor-land, Nord-land, or North-mana-land.--E.
+
+[63] At this place Alfred introduces the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan,
+    already given separately, in Sect. ii. and iii, of this chapter.--E.
+
+[64] Either the original or the translation is here erroneous; it ought to
+    run thus: "The Propontis is _westward_ of Constantinople; to the
+    north-east of that city, the arm of the sea issues from the Euxine,
+    and flows _south-west_; to the _north_ the mouths of the
+    Danube empty themselves into the _north-west_ parts of the
+    Euxine."--E.
+
+[65] Carinthia. The desert has been formerly mentioned as occasioned by the
+    almost utter extirpation of the Avari by Charlemain, and was
+    afterwards occupied by the Madschiari or Magiars, the ancestors of the
+    present Hungarians.--Forst.
+
+[66] Very considerable freedoms have been taken with this sentence; as in
+    Barrington's translation it is quite unintelligible.--E.
+
+[67] Profent and Profent sea, from the Provincia Gallica, now Provence.
+    --Forst.
+
+[68] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of Orosius.--E.
+
+[69] Gascony, called Wascan in the Teutonic or Saxon orthography and
+    pronunciation. Thus the Saxons changed Gauls to Wales, and the Gauls
+    changed War-men into Guer-men, hence our modern English, Germans.
+    --Forst.
+
+[70] Scotland is here assuredly used to denote Ireland.--E.
+
+[71] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence of Orosius.--E.
+
+[72] Alfred includes the whole island, now called Great Britain, under one
+    denomination of Brittannia, taking no notice whatever of any of its
+    divisions. Orcadus is unquestionably Orcades, or the islands of Orkney
+    and Shetland.--E.
+
+[73] The Thila or Thule of Alfred, from its direction in respect of
+    Ireland, and its great distance, is obviously Iceland.--E.
+
+[74] This seems to have some obscure reference to an idea, that the sea had
+    disjoined Europe and Africa. But the sense is extremely perplexed and
+    even unintelligible.--E.
+
+[75] It must be noticed, that Alfred was unacquainted with any more of
+    Africa than its northern coast, along the Mediterranean, which
+    explains this erroneous idea of its size being inferior to Europe.--E.
+
+[76] Syrenaica.--E.
+
+[77] The Red Sea, or Ethiopic Gulf. In this part of the geography of
+    Alfred, his translator has left the sense often obscure  or
+    contradictory, especially in the directions, which, in this version,
+    have been attempted to be corrected. This may have been owing to
+    errors in the Anglo-Saxon MS. which Barrington professes to have
+    translated literally, and he disclaims any responsibility for the
+    errors of his author.--E.
+
+[78] Probably some corruption of Syrtes Majores, or of Syrenaica.--E.
+
+[79] Tripolitana, now Tripoli.--E.
+
+[80] I can make nothing of this salt lake of the Arzuges, unless it be the
+    lake of Lawdeah, between Tunis and Tripoli. The Getulians and
+    Garamantes are well known ancient inhabitants of the interior of
+    northern Africa; the Natabres are unknown.--E.
+
+[81] The Garamantes are a well known people of the interior of Africa, in
+    ancient geography; of the Natabres I can make nothing; the Geothulas
+    are evidently the Getulians.--E.
+
+[82] Probably the same called just before the Malvarius, and now the Malul.
+    But the geographical description of Africa by Alfred, is so desultory
+    and unarranged as to defy criticism.--E.
+
+[83] Alfred may possibly have heard of the Monselmines who inhabit the
+    north-western extremity of the Sahara, or great African desert, and
+    extend to the Atlantic.--E
+
+[84] Faro.
+
+[85] Lillibeum.
+
+[86] The name of this sea is omitted in the MS.--Barr.
+
+[87] These measures are incorrigibly erroneous, or must have been
+    transposed from some other place, having no possible reference to
+    Corsica.--E.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Note.--The subsequent sections of this chapter, although not of much
+importance in themselves, and some of them possessing rather doubtful
+authenticity, are inserted in this place on the authority of Hakluyt. In an
+English general collection of voyages and travels, it would have been
+improper to have omitted these early specimens, some of which are
+considerably interesting and curious. In some measure these sections do not
+strictly belong to the present chapter, as limited to the reign of Alfred,
+and the ninth century; but as they contain isolated circumstances, which do
+not otherwise properly arrange themselves into the order of our plan, they
+may be considered as forming a kind of appendix to the era of Alfred. The
+number of these might have been considerably increased from different
+sources, chiefly from Hakluyt, who collected them from the ancient
+historians; but as they contain hardly any information, except historical,
+which does not enter into our plan, the selection here given has been
+deemed quite sufficient for this work.
+
+
+
+SECTION VII
+
+_The Travels of Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, in the Eleventh Century_[1].
+
+Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, as his Latinized name is explained by Leland
+the antiquary, was an English monk, and third abbot of the monastery of
+Ramsay, who was much addicted to the study of the liberal sciences,
+devoting incredible exertions, both by day and night, to their cultivation,
+in which he profited exceedingly. Having a most ardent desire to visit
+those places where Christ our Saviour had perfected all the mysteries of
+our redemption, of which he only knew the names in the course of studying
+the Scriptures, he went from England to the holy city of Jerusalem, where
+he visited all the places which had been illustrated by the miracles,
+preaching, and passion of Christ; and on his return to the monastery he was
+elected abbot. He flourished in the year of our redemption, 1020, under
+Canute the Dane.
+
+
+[1]  Hakluyt, II. 39.
+
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+_The Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem in 1052_[1].
+
+Swanus or Sweno, one of the sons of Earl Godwin, being of a perverse
+disposition, and faithless to the king, often quarrelled with his father
+and his brother Harold; and, becoming a pirate, he disgraced the virtues of
+his ancestors, by his robberies on the seas. At length, being guilty of the
+murder of his kinsman Bruno, and, as some report, of his own brother, he
+made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and on his return towards England, he was
+intercepted by the Saracens, by whom he was slain.
+
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+_A Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople and the
+East, about the year 1056_[2].
+
+Upon the holy festival of Easter, King Edward the Confessor, wearing his
+royal crown, sat at dinner in his palace of Westminster, surrounded by many
+of his nobles. While others, after the long abstinence of the lent season,
+refreshed themselves with dainty viands, on which they fed with much
+earnestness, he, raising his mind above earthly enjoyments, and meditating
+on divine things, broke out into excessive laughter, to the great
+astonishment of his guests. But no one presuming to inquire into the cause
+of his mirth, all kept silence till dinner was ended. After dinner, when
+the king had retired to his bed-chamber, to divest himself of his robes,
+three of his nobles, Earl Harold, an abbot, and a bishop, who were more
+familiar with him than any of the other courtiers, followed him into the
+chamber, and boldly asked the reason of his mirth, as it had appeared
+strange to the whole court that his majesty should break out into unseemly
+laughter on so solemn a day, while all others were silent. "I saw," said
+he, "most wonderful things, and therefore did I not laugh without cause."
+And they, as is customary with all men, became therefore the more anxious
+to learn the occasion of his mirth, and humbly beseeched him to impart the
+reason to them. After musing for some time, he at length informed them,
+that seven sleepers had rested during two hundred years on Mount Ceelius,
+lying always hitherto on their right sides; but that, in the very moment of
+his laughter, they had turned themselves over to their left sides, in which
+posture they should continue asleep for other seventy-four years, being a
+dire omen of future misery to mankind. For all those things which our
+Saviour had foretold to his disciples, that were to be fulfilled about the
+end of the world, should come to pass within those seventy-four years. That
+nation should rise up against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; and
+there would be in many places earthquakes, pestilence, and famine, and
+terrible apparitions in the heavens, and great signs, with great
+alterations of dominion; wars of the infidels against the Christians, and
+victories gained by the Christians over the unbelievers. And, as they
+wondered at these things, the king explained to them the passion of the
+seven sleepers, with the shape and proportion of each of their bodies,
+which wonderful things no man had hitherto committed to writing; and all
+this in so plain and distinct a manner, as if he had always dwelt along
+with them.
+
+In consequence of this discourse, the earl sent a knight, the bishop a
+clerk, and the abbot a monk, as ambassadors to Maniches the emperor of
+Constantinople, carrying letters and presents from the king. The emperor
+received them very graciously; and after a friendly entertainment, sent
+them to the bishop of Ephesus with letters, which they name sacred,
+commanding him to admit the English ambassadors to see the seven sleepers.
+And it came to pass, that the prophetic vision of King Edward was approved
+by all the Greeks, who protested that they were assured by their fathers,
+that the seven sleepers had always before that time reposed on their right
+sides; but, upon the entry of the Englishmen into the cave where they lay,
+their bodies confirmed the truth of the foreign vision and prophecy to
+their countrymen. Neither were the calamities long delayed, which had been
+foretold by the king. For the Agareni, Arabians, and Turks, enemies of the
+people of Christ, invading the country of the Christians, spoiled and
+destroyed many cities of Syria, Lycia, and the lesser and greater Asias,
+and, among the rest, depopulated Ephesus, and even the holy city of
+Jerusalem.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, II. 39. Malmsb. Lib. II. ch. xiii.
+
+[2] Hakluyt, II, 40. Malmsb II. xiii.
+
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+_Pilgrimage of Alured, Bishop of Worcester, to Jerusalem, in_ 1058[1].
+
+In the year of our Lord 1058, Alured, bishop of Worcester, dedicated, with
+much solemnity, to the honour of St Peter, the prince of the apostles, a
+church which he had built and endowed in the city of Gloucester; and
+afterwards having received the royal licence, he ordained Wolstan, a monk
+of Worcester, to be abbot of this new church. He then left the bishoprick
+which had been committed to his government, resigning the same to Herman,
+and, crossing the seas, travelled in pilgrimage through Hungary and other
+countries, to Jerusalem.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. R. Hoveden, fo, 255. line l5.
+
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+_Pilgrimage of Ingulphus Abbot of Croyland, to Jerusalem, in 1064_[1].
+
+I, Ingulphus, an humble minister of St Guthlae, in his monastery of
+Croyland, born of English parents, in the most beautiful city of London,
+was, in, my early youth, placed for my education first at Westminster, and
+afterwards prosecuted my studies at Oxford. Having excelled many of my
+fellow students in learning Aristotle, I entered upon the study of the
+first and second rhetoric of Tully. As I grew up towards manhood, I
+disdained the low estate of my parents, and quitting the dwelling of my
+father, I much affected to visit the courts of kings, delighting in fine
+garments and costly attire, And behold William, now our renewed sovereign,
+then only Earl of Normandy, came, with a splendid retinue to London, to
+confer with King Edward his kinsman. Intruding myself into his company, I
+proffered my services for the performance of any speedy or important
+affairs; and accordingly having executed many commissions with good
+success, I became known to and much beloved by the illustrious earl, and
+sailed with him to Normandy. Being there appointed his secretary, I
+governed his court at my pleasure, though envied by several, abasing whom I
+thought fit, and preferring others at my will.  But, prompted by youthful
+pride, I began even to be wearied of this place, in which I was advanced so
+far beyond my birth; and, with an inconstant and over-ambitious mind, I
+vehemently aspired, on all occasions, to climb to higher elevation.
+
+About this time there spread a report through Normandy, that several
+archbishops of the empire, and some even of the secular princes, were
+desirous, for the salvation of their souls, to go in pilgrimage to
+Jerusalem, there to pay their devotions at the Holy Sepulchre. Upon this,
+several of us, who were of the household of our lord, the earl, both
+gentlemen and clerks, of whom I was the principal person, having received
+permission from the earl, addressed ourselves for the voyage; and, being
+together thirty horsemen or more, in company, we went into Germany, and
+joined ourselves to the Archbishop of Mentz. The whole being assembled, the
+company of this archbishop amounted to seven thousand persons, all properly
+provided for the expedition; and we travelled prosperously through many
+provinces, arriving at length at the city of Constantinople. We there did
+reverence to the Emperor Alexius, visited the church, of Sancta Sophia, and
+devoutly kissed many sacred relics.
+
+Departing from Constantinople, we travelled through Lycia, where we fell
+into the hands of Arabian thieves; and after we had been robbed of infinite
+sums of money, and had lost many of our people, we escaped with extreme
+peril of our lives, and at length entered joyfully into the most anxiously
+wished-for city of Jerusalem. We were there received by the most reverend,
+aged, and holy patriarch Sophronius, with a great melody of cymbals by
+torch-light, and were conveyed in solemn procession, by a great company of
+Syrians and Latins, to the church of the Most Holy Sepulchre of our blessed
+Saviour. Here, how many prayers we uttered, what abundance of tears we
+shed, what deep sighs we breathed forth, is only known to our Lord Jesus
+Christ. From the most glorious sepulchre of Christ, we were conducted to
+visit the other sacred monuments of the holy city; and saw, with weeping
+eyes, a great number of holy churches and oratories, which Achius the
+Soldan of Egypt had lately destroyed. And, having deeply bewailed all the
+ruins of that most holy city, both within and without its walls, and having
+bestowed money for the re-edifying of some of these, we expressed the most
+ardent desire to go forth into the country, that we might wash ourselves in
+the sacred river Jordan, and that we might visit and kiss all the holy
+footsteps of the blessed Redeemer. But the Arabian robbers, who lurked in
+every part of the country, would not suffer us to travel far from the city,
+on account of their numbers and savage manners.
+
+About the spring of the year, there arrived a fleet of ships from, Genoa,
+at the port of Joppa; and when the Christian merchants had exchanged all
+their commodities in the towns upon the coast, and had likewise visited the
+holy places, we all embarked. After being tossed about upon the seas by
+many storms and tempests, we landed at Brundusium; whence, with a
+prosperous journey, we travelled through Apulia to Rome, where we visited
+the habitations of the holy apostles St Peter and St Paul, and performed
+our devotions at various monuments of the holy, martyrs in different parts
+of the city.  From thence, the archbishops and other princes of the empire
+Journeyed towards the right hand for Germany, while we declined to the left
+hand into France, taking our leaves of each other with indescribable
+courtesey and kindly greeting.  And at length, of thirty horsemen of us who
+went from Normandy fat and lusty, scarce twenty poor pilgrims returned, all
+on foot, and reduced almost to skeletons with fatigue and hardships.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. Ingulph. Ab. Croyl. apud finem.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. II.
+
+_Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders_.[1]
+
+
+Although the discoveries contained in this and the next subsequent chapter
+were certainty preceded, in point of time, by the voyages of the two
+Mahomedans, in Chap. IV. and the insertion of these two chapters, II. and
+III. in this place may therefore be considered as a deviation from the
+chronological order of our plan; it seemed proper and even necessary, that
+they should be both introduced here, as presenting an unbroken series of
+the discoveries of the Norwegians, and as fully authorized by the
+geographical principles of our arrangement.
+
+Among the many petty sovereigns, vikingr or chieftans of Norway, who had
+been reduced to subjection by Harold Harfagr, or the fair-haired, was one
+named Thorer. Thorwald, the relative of this person, had lived at the court
+of Earl Hayne, whence he had been obliged to fly, on account of having
+committed a murder, and went to Iceland, where he settled a considerable
+track of country with a new colony. Eric-raude, or red-head, the son of
+Thorwald, was long persecuted by a powerful neighbour named Eyolf Saur,
+because Eric had killed some of Eyolf's servants; and at length Eric killed
+Eyolf likewise. For this and other crimes he was condemned to go into
+banishment for three years; and knowing that a man named Gunbiorn had
+previously discovered certain banks to the west of Iceland, named from him
+Gunbiorn's Schieran, or Gunbar banks, and likewise a country of
+considerable extent still farther to the westwards, he determined on making
+a voyage of discovery to that country. Setting sail therefore from Iceland,
+he soon fell in with a point of land called Hirjalfs-ness; and continuing
+his voyage to the south-west he entered a large inlet, to which he gave the
+name of Erics-sound, and passed the winter on a pleasant island in that
+neighbourhood. In the following year he explored the continent; and
+returning to Iceland in the third year, he represented his new discovery in
+the fairest light, bestowing lavish praises on the rich meadows, fine
+woods, and plentiful fisheries of the country, which he called Greenland,
+that he might induce a considerable number of people to join with him in
+colonizing this new country. Accordingly, there set out for this place
+twenty-five vessels, carrying people of both sexes, household furniture,
+implements of all kinds, and cattle for breeding, of which only fourteen
+vessels arrived in safety. These first colonists were soon followed by many
+more, both from Iceland and Norway; and in a few years their number is said
+to have increased so much, as to occupy both the eastern and western coasts
+of Greenland.
+
+This is the ordinary and best authenticated account of the discovery and
+settlement of _Old_ Greenland, which rests on the credit of the great
+northern historian, Snorro Sturleson, judge of Iceland, who wrote in the
+year 1215. Yet others assert that Greenland had been known long before, and
+ground their assertion on letters-patent from the Emperor Lewis the Pious
+in 834, and a bull of Gregory IV. in 835, in which permission is given to
+Archbishop Ansgar to convert the Sueones, Danes, Sclavonians; and it is
+added, the Norwaehers, Farriers, Greenlanders, Halsingalanders, Icelanders,
+and Scridevinds. Even allowing both charter and bull to be genuine, it is
+probable that the copy which has come down to our time is interpolated, and
+that for Gronlandon and Islandon, we ought to read Quenlandon and
+Hitlandon, meaning the Finlanders and Hitlanders: Quenland being the old
+name of Finland, and Hitland or Hialtaland the Norwegian name of the
+Shetland islands. It is even not improbable that all the names in these
+ancient deeds after the Sueones, Danes, and Sclavonians, had been
+interpolated in a later period; as St Rembert, the immediate successor of
+Ansgar, and who wrote his life, only mentions the Sueones, Danes, and
+Sclavonians, together with other nations in the north; and even Adam of
+Bremen only mentions these three, and other neighbouring and surrounding
+nations[2]. Hence the authority of St Rembert and Snorro Sturleson remains
+firm and unshaken, in spite of these falsified copies of the papal bull and
+imperial patent; and we may rest assured that Iceland was not discovered
+before 861, nor inhabited before 874; and that Greenland could hardly have
+been discovered previous to 982, or 983, and was not inhabited before 985
+or 986.--_Forst_.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. 79.
+
+[2] Vit. S. Anscharii, ap. Langeb. Script. Dan. I. 451. Ad.
+    Brem. Hist. Eccles. Lib. I. cap. 17.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. III.
+
+_Early Discovery of Winland by the Icelanders, about A.D. 1001_.[1]
+
+
+The passion which the Nordmen or Normans had always manifested for maritime
+expeditions, still prevailed among them in the cold and inhospitable
+regions of Iceland and Greenland. An Icelander, named Herjolf, was
+accustomed to make a trading voyage every year to different countries, in
+which latterly he was accompanied by his son, Biorn. About the year 1001,
+their ships were separated by a storm, and Biorn learned on his arrival in
+Norway that his father had sailed for Greenland, to which place he resolved
+to follow his father; but another storm drove him a great way to the
+south-west of his intended course, and he fell in with an extensive flat
+country covered all over with thick woods; and just as he set out on his
+return, he discovered an island on the coast. He made no stay at either of
+these places; but the wind being now fallen, he made all the haste he could
+to return by a north-east course to Greenland, where he reported the
+discovery which he had made.
+
+Lief, the son of Eric-raude, who inherited from his father an inordinate
+desire of distinguishing himself by making discoveries and planting
+colonies, immediately fitted out a vessel carrying thirty-five men; and
+taking Biorn along with him, set sail in quest of this newly discovered
+country. The first land discovered in this voyage was barren and rocky, on
+which account Lief gave it the name of Helleland, or Rockland. Proceeding
+farther, they came to a low coast having a sandy soil, which was overgrown
+with wood, for which reason it was called Mark-land, or the Woody-land. Two
+days after this they again saw land, having an island lying opposite to its
+northern coast; and on the mainland they discovered the mouth of a river,
+up which they sailed. The bushes on the banks of this river bore sweet
+berries; the temperature of the air was mild, the soil fertile[2], and the
+river abounded in fish, particularly in excellent salmon. Continuing to
+sail up the river, they came to a lake, out of which the river took its
+rise; and here they passed the winter. In the shortest day of winter, the
+sun remained eight hours above the horizon; and consequently the longest
+day, exclusive of the dawn and twilight, must have been sixteen hours. From
+this circumstance it follows, that the place in which they were was in
+about 49° of north latitude; and as they arrived by a south-westerly course
+from Old Greenland, after having cleared Cape Farewell, it must either have
+been the river Gander or the Bay of Exploits, in the island now called
+Newfoundland. It could not be on the northern coast of the Gulf of St
+Lawrence; as in that case, they must have navigated through the straits of
+Belleisle, which could not have escaped their notice. In this place they
+erected several huts for their accommodation during winter; and they one
+day found in the thickets a German named Tyrker, one of their own people,
+who had wandered among the woods and been missing for some time. While
+absent, he had subsisted upon wild grapes, from which he told them that in
+his country they used to make wine; and from this circumstance Lief called
+the country _Winland det gode_, or Wine-land the good[3].
+
+In the following spring they returned to Greenland; and Thorwald, Lief's
+maternal grandfather, made a trip with the same crew that had attended his
+grandson, in order to make farther advances in this new discovery; and it
+is not at all to be wondered at, if people of every rank were eager to
+discover a better habitation than the miserable coast of Greenland, and the
+little less dreary island of Iceland. In this voyage the coast of the newly
+discovered land was examined towards the west, or rather the north-west.
+Next summer Lief sailed again to Winland, and explored the coast to the
+east or south-east. The coast was so much covered with wood and beset with
+islands, that they could not perceive a human creature, or animals of any
+kind. In the third summer they examined the islands on the coast of
+Winland, and so damaged their ship that they found it necessary to build a
+new one, laying up their old vessel on a promontory, to which they gave the
+name of Kiaeler-ness. In their new vessel they proceeded to examine the
+eastern or south-eastern shore of Winland, and in their progress they fell
+in with three boats covered with hides, having three men in each. These
+they seized, but one man found means to escape from them, and they wantonly
+butchered all the rest. Soon after this they were attacked by a great
+number of the natives, armed with bows and arrows, from which they screened
+themselves in their ship with a fence of planks; and they defended
+themselves with so much spirit that their enemies were forced to retire,
+after giving them battle for an hour. Thorwald received a severe wound from
+an arrow in this skirmish, of which he died; and over his grave, on a cape
+or promontory, two crosses were erected at his request; from which the cape
+was called Krossa-ness, or Cross Point.
+
+To the natives of Winland, the Icelanders gave the name of Skraellinger,
+signifying cuttings or dwarfs, on account of their being of very low
+stature. These were probably the ancestors of the present Eskimaux, who are
+the same people with the Greenlanders, and are called Eskimantsik in the
+language of the Abenaki, on account of their eating raw fish; in the same
+manner as the Russians, in their official state papers, call the Samojeds
+Sirojed'zi, because they also eat raw and frozen fish and flesh.
+
+
+In the same year Thorstein, the third son of Eric-raude, set sail for
+Winland, taking with him his wife, Gudridthe daughter of Thorbern, with his
+children and servants, amounting in all to twenty-five persons; but they
+were forced by a storm on the western coast of Greenland, where they were
+obliged to spend the winter, and where Thorstein died, with a large
+proportion of his retinue, probably of the scurvy. Next spring Gudrid took
+the dead body of her husband home; and Thorfin, surnamed Kallsefner, an
+Icelander of some consequence, descended from King Regner-Lodbrok, married
+the widow of Thorstein, from which he considered himself entitled to the
+possession of the newly discovered country. He accordingly sailed for
+Winland with a vast quantity of household furniture, implements of all
+kinds, and several cattle, and accompanied by sixty-five men and five
+women, with whom he began to establish a regular colony. He was immediately
+visited by the Skraellingers, who bartered with him, giving the most
+valuable furs for such wares as the Icelanders had to give in exchange. The
+natives would willingly have purchased the weapons of the Icelanders, but
+this was expressly and judiciously forbidden by Thorfin. Yet one of them
+found means to steal a battle-ax, of which he immediately made a trial on
+one of his countrymen, whom he killed with one blow; on which a third
+person seized the mischievous weapon and threw it into the sea. During a
+stay of three years, Thorfin acquired a large stock of rich furs and other
+merchandize, with which he returned to Greenland; and at length removing to
+Iceland, he purchased an estate in the northern part of Syssel, and built a
+very elegant house which he called Glaumba. After his death, his widow
+Gudrid made a pilgrimage to Rome, whence she returned, and ended her days
+in a nunnery in Iceland, which was built for her by her son Snorro, who was
+born in Winland.
+
+Sometime afterwards, Finbog and Helgo, two Icelanders, fitted out two
+ships, carrying thirty men, with which they made a voyage to Winland. In
+this expedition they were accompanied by Freidis, the daughter of
+Eric-raude; but by the turbulence of her disposition, she occasioned many
+divisions and quarrels in the infant colony, in one of which Finbog and
+Helgo were both killed, together with thirty of their followers. Upon this
+Freidis returned to Greenland, where she lived for some time universally
+detested and despised, and died in the utmost misery. The remaining
+colonists were dispersed, and nothing farther that can be depended on
+remains on record concerning them. Even the Icelandic colony in Greenland
+has disappeared, and the eastern coast, on which especially it was settled,
+has become long inaccessible, in consequence of the immense accumulation of
+ice in the straits between it and Iceland. To this it may be added, that,
+in the beginning of the fifteenth century, a prodigious number of people
+were carried off in Norway and Iceland by a disease or pestilence called
+the _Black Death_; probably the scurvy in its worst state, occasioned by a
+succession of inclement seasons and extreme scarcity, impelling the
+famished people to satisfy the craving of hunger upon unwholesome food.
+Deprived of all assistance from Iceland and Norway, the colonists of
+Greenland and Winland were in all probability extirpated by the continual
+hostilities of the Skraellingers, or Eskimaux; and the fabulous idea of any
+remnant of those in Winland having still an existence in the interior of
+Newfoundland, is entirely unworthy of any consideration.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Hist. of Disc. in the North, 82.
+
+[2] Every quality must be judged of by comparison; and, contrasted
+    with the inhospitable regions of Iceland and Greenland, in lat. 65°,
+    this country, which was as far south as even beyond the south of
+    England, must have appeared admirable.--E.
+
+[3] It is true that grapes grow wild in Canada which are very good
+    to eat, yet no one has ever been able to make good wine from their
+    juice. Whether these wild grapes are found in Newfoundland I know not.
+    The species of vines which grow in North America, are named by
+    Linnaeus, Vitis labrusca, vulpina, and arborea.--Forst.
+
+    The propriety of the names imposed by the Norwegians on their new
+    discoveries is admirable. Iceland, Greenland, Helleland, Markland,
+    Winland, and many others; which are perfectly philosophical,
+    excellently systematic, and infinitely preferable to the modern clumsy
+    appellations, New Britain, New France, New England, New Holland,
+    Sandwich Islands, Society islands, and a multitude of much worse
+    names.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IV.
+
+_Travels of two Mahomedans in India and China, in the Ninth Century._[1]
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+This curious remnant of antiquity was translated from the Arabic, and
+published in 1718, by Eusebius Renaudot, a learned Member of the French
+Academy, and of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres. It is not
+known by whom the travels were actually performed, neither can their exact
+date be ascertained, as the commencement of the MS. which was translated by
+Renaudot was imperfect; but it appears to have been written in the 237th
+year of the Hegira, or in the year 851 of the Christian era. Though
+entitled the travels of _two_ Mahomedans, the travels seem to have been
+mostly performed by one person only; the latter portion being chiefly a
+commentary upon the former, and appears to have been the work of one Abu
+Zeid al Hasan of Siraf, and to have been written about the 803d year of the
+Hegira, or A.D. 915. In this commentary, indeed, some report is given of
+the travels of another Mahomedan into China. The MS. employed by Renaudot
+belonged to the library of the Count de Seignelay, and appears to have been
+written in the year 619 of the Hegira, or A.D. 1173. The great value of
+this work is, that it contains the very earliest account of China, penned
+above four hundred years earlier than the travels of Marco Polo, who was
+esteemed the first author on the subject before this publication appeared.
+
+There are many curious and remarkable passages in these travels, which
+convey information respecting customs and events that are nowhere else to
+be found; and though some of these carry a fabulous appearance, the
+greatest part of them have been confirmed and justified by the best writers
+in succeeding ages. The first portion, or the actual narrative, begins
+abruptly, on account of some portion of the original manuscript being lost,
+which would probably have given the name and country of the author, and the
+date and occasion of his voyage.
+
+In the accompanying commentary by Abu Zeid, we are informed that the date
+of the narrative was of the Hegira 237, A.D. 851, which circumstance was
+probably contained in the missing part of the manuscript; but though
+written then, it is probable that the first journey of the author was
+undertaken at least twenty years before that date, or in 831, as he
+observes, that he made a second journey into the same countries sixteen
+years afterwards, and we may allow four years for the time spent in the two
+journies, and the intervening space, besides the delay of composition after
+his last return. Though not mentioned, it is probable his travels were
+undertaken for the purpose of trade, as we can hardly suppose him to have
+twice visited those distant countries merely for the satisfaction of
+curiosity.
+
+With regard to the second treatise or commentary, it seems probable, that
+when the affairs of China became better known, some prince or person of
+distinction had desired Abu Zeid to examine the former relation, and to
+inform him how far the facts of the original work were confirmed by
+succeeding accounts. The date of the commentary is not certainly
+ascertainable; yet it appears, that Eben Wahab travelled into China A.H.
+285. A.D. 898, and that Abu Zeid had conversed with this man after his
+return, and had received from him the facts which are inserted in his
+discourse, which therefore is probably only sixty or seventy years
+posterior to the actual treatise of the nameless traveller.
+
+
+[1] Translation from Renaudot, 8vo. Lond. 1733. See likewise Harris, I.
+    522.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_Original Account of India and China, by a Mahomedan Traveller of the Ninth
+Century_.
+
+The _third_ of the seas we have to mention is that of Herkend[1]. Between
+this sea and that of Delarowi there are many islands, said to be in number
+1900, which divide those two seas from each other[2], and are governed by a
+queen[3]. Among these islands they find ambergris in lumps of extraordinary
+bigness, and also in smaller pieces, which resemble plants torn up. This
+amber is produced at the bottom of the sea, in the same manner as plants
+are produced upon the earth; and when the sea is tempestuous, it is torn up
+from the bottom by the violence of the waves, and washed to the shore in
+the form of a mushroom or truffle. These islands are full of that species
+of palm tree which bears the cocoa nuts, and they are from one to four
+leagues distant from each other, all inhabited. The wealth of the
+inhabitants consists in shells, of which even the royal treasury is full.
+The workmen in these islands are exceedingly expert, and make shirts and
+vests, or tunics, all of one piece, of the fibres of the cocoa nut. Of the
+same tree they build ships and houses, and they are skilful in all other
+workmanships. Their shells they have from the sea at certain times, when
+they rise up to the surface, and the inhabitants throw branches of the
+cocoa nut tree into the water, to which the shells stick. These shells they
+call Kaptaje.
+
+Beyond these islands, and in the sea of Herkend, is Serendib[4] or Ceylon,
+the chief of all these islands, which are called Dobijat. It is entirely
+surrounded by the sea, and on its coast they fish for pearls. In this
+country there is a mountain called Rahun, to the top of which Adam is said
+to have ascended, where he left the print of his foot, seventy cubits long,
+on a rock, and they say his other foot stood in the sea at the same time.
+About this mountain there are mines of rubies, opals, and amethysts. This
+island is of great extent, and has two kings; and it produces aloes wood,
+gold, precious stones, and pearls, which last are fished for on the coast;
+and there are also found a kind of large shells, which are used for
+trumpets, and much esteemed. In the same sea, towards Serendib, there are
+other islands, not so many in number as those formerly mentioned, but of
+vast extent, and unknown. One of these is called Ramni, which is divided
+among a number of princes, and in it is found plenty of gold. The
+inhabitants have cocoa nut trees, which supply them with food, and with
+which also they paint their bodies, and oil themselves. The custom of the
+country is, that no man can marry till he has killed an enemy, and brought
+off his head. If he has killed two he claims two wives, and if he has slain
+fifty he may have fifty wives. This custom proceeds from the number of
+enemies with which they are surrounded, so that he who kills the greatest
+number is the most considered. These islands of Ramni abound with
+elephants, red-wood, and trees called Chairzan, and the inhabitants eat
+human flesh.
+
+These islands separate the sea of Herkend from the sea of Shelabet, and
+beyond them are others called Najabalus, which are pretty well peopled,
+both men and women going naked, except that the women wear aprons made of
+leaves. When shipping goes among these islands, the inhabitants come off in
+boats, bringing with them ambergris and cocoa nuts, which they barter for
+iron; for, being free from the inconveniencies either of extreme heat or
+cold they want no clothing. Beyond these two islands is the sea of Andaman.
+The people on this coast eat human flesh quite raw; their complexion is
+black, with frizzled hair, their countenance and eyes frightful, their feet
+very large, almost a cubit in length, and they go quite naked. They have no
+sort of barks or other vessels, or they would seize and devour all the
+passengers they could lay their hands upon. When ships have been kept back
+by contrary winds, and are obliged to anchor on this barbarous coast, for
+procuring water, they commonly lose some of their men.
+
+Beyond this there is an inhabited mountainous island, which is said to
+contain mines of silver; but as it does not lie in the usual track of
+shipping, many have searched for it in vain, though remarkable for a very
+lofty mountain called Kashenai. A ship, sailing in its latitude, once got
+sight of this mountain, and steered for the coast, where some people were
+sent on shore to cut wood: The men kindled a fire, from which there ran out
+some melted silver, on which they concluded that there must have been a
+silver mine in the place, and they shipped a considerable quantity of the
+earth or ore; but they encountered a terrible storm on their voyage back,
+and were forced to throw all their ore overboard to lighten the vessel.
+Since that time the mountain has been several times carefully sought for,
+but no one has ever been able to find it again. There are many such islands
+in those seas, more in number than can be reckoned; some inaccessible by
+seamen, and some unknown to them.
+
+It often happens in these seas that a whitish cloud suddenly appears
+over-head, which lets down a long thin tongue or spout, quite to the
+surface of the water, which is then turned swiftly round as if by a
+whirlwind, and if a vessel happens to be in the way, she is immediately
+swallowed up in the vortex. At length this cloud mounts up again and
+discharges itself in prodigious rain; but it is not known whether this
+water is sucked up by the cloud, or how this phenomenon comes to pass. All
+these seas are subject to prodigious storms, which make them boil up like
+water over a fire; at which times the waves dash the ships against the
+islands with unspeakable violence, to their utter destruction; and even
+fish; of all sizes are thrown dead on shore, against the rocks, by the
+extreme agitation of the sea. The wind which commonly blows upon the sea of
+Herkend is from a different quarter, or from the N.W.; but this sea is
+likewise subject to as violent agitations as those just mentioned, and
+there ambergris is torn up from the bottom, particularly where it is very
+deep; and the deeper the sea so much the more valuable is the ambergris
+which it produces. It is likewise observed, that when this sea is tossed by
+tempestuous winds it sparkles like fire; and it is infested with a certain
+kind of fish called Lockham, which frequently preys upon men[5].
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Among other circumstances, the fires which frequently happen at Canfu are
+not the least remarkable. Canfu is the port of all the ships of the Arabs
+who trade to China, and fires are there very frequent, because all the
+houses are of wood or of split canes; besides, ships are often lost in
+going and coming, or they are plundered, or obliged to make too long a stay
+in harbours, or to sell their goods out of the country subject to the
+Arabs, and there to make up their cargoes. In short, ships are under a
+necessity of wasting much time in refitting, and many other causes of
+delay. Soliman[6] the merchant, writes, that at Canfu, which is a principal
+staple of merchants, there is a Mahomedan judge appointed by the emperor of
+China, who is authorized to judge in every cause which arises among the
+Mahomedans who resort to these parts. Upon festival days he performs the
+public services of religion to the Mahomedans, and pronounces the usual
+sermon or _Kotbat_, which he concludes with the usual form of prayers for
+the sultan of the Moslems. The merchants of Irak or Persia, who trade to
+Canfu, are no way dissatisfied with the conduct of this judge in the
+administration of his office, because his decisions are just and equitable,
+and conformable to the Koran.
+
+Respecting the places whence ships depart and those they touch at, many
+persons affirm that the navigation is performed in the following order:
+Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargoes at Siraff[7], where also
+they ship their goods which come from Basra, Oman, and other ports; and
+this is done because there are frequent storms and many shallows in those
+seas. From Basra to Siraff is an hundred and twenty leagues; and when ships
+have loaded at this latter place they take in water there also. From thence
+they sail to a place called Mascat, in the extremity of the province of
+Oman, which is about two hundred leagues from Siraff. On the east coast of
+this sea, between Siraff and Mascat, is a place called Nasir Bani al
+Sasack, and an island called Ebn Kahowan, and in this sea there are rocks
+called Oman, and a narrow strait called Dordur between two rocks, through
+which ships often venture to pass, but the Chinese snips dare not. There
+are also two rocks called Kossir and Howare, which scarce appear above the
+water's edge. After they are clear of these rocks, they steer to a place
+called Shitu Oman, and take in water at Muscat, which is drawn up from
+wells, and are here also supplied with cattle from the province of Oman.
+From Mascat the ships take their departure for India, and first touch at
+Kaucammali, which is a month's sail from Mascat with a fair wind. This is a
+frontier place, and the chief arsenal in the province of that name; and
+here the Chinese ships put in and are in safety, and procure fresh water.
+The Chinese ships pay here a thousand drams for duties, whereas others pay
+only from one dinar to ten. From thence they begin to enter the sea of
+Herkend, and having sailed through it, they touch at a place called
+Lajabalus, where the inhabitants do not understand Arabic, or any other
+language in use among merchants. They wear no clothes, are white, and weak
+in their feet. It is said their women are not to be seen, and that the men
+leave the island in canoes, hollowed out of one piece, to go in quest of
+them, and carry them cocoa nuts, mousa, and palm wine. This last liquor is
+white, and when drank fresh is sweet like honey, and has the taste of cocoa
+nut milk; if kept some time, it becomes as strong as wine, but after some
+days changes to vinegar. These people give this wine, and the small
+quantities of amber which is thrown up on their coasts, for bits of iron,
+the bargains being made by signs; but they are extremely alert, and are
+very apt to carry off iron from the merchants without making any return.
+
+From Lajabalus the ships steer for Calabar, the name of a kingdom on the
+right hand beyond the Indies, which depends on the kingdom of Zabage, _bar_
+signifying a coast in the language of the country. The inhabitants are
+dressed in those sorts of striped garments which the Arabs call Fauta, and
+they commonly wear only one at a time, which fashion is common to people of
+all ranks. At this place they take in water, which is drawn from wells that
+are fed by springs, and which is preferred to that which is procured from
+cisterns or tanks. Calabar is about a month's voyage from a place called
+Kaukam, which is almost upon the skirts of the sea of Herkend. In ten days
+after this, ships reach Betuma, from whence, in ten days more, they come to
+Kadrange. In all the islands and peninsulas of the Indies, water is to be
+found by digging. In this last mentioned place there is a very lofty
+mountain, which is entirely inhabited by slaves and fugitives. From thence,
+in ten days, they arrive at Senef, where is fresh water, and from whence
+comes the aromatic wood which we call Hud al Senefi. Here is a king; the
+inhabitants are black, and they wear two striped garments. Having watered
+at this place, it is ten days passage to Sanderfulat, an island which has
+fresh water. They then steer through the sea of Sanji, and so to the gates
+of China; for so they call certain rocks and shallows which form a narrow
+strait in that sea, through which the ships are obliged to pass. It
+requires a month to sail from Sanderfulat to China, and it takes eight
+whole days to steer through among the rocks and shoals.
+
+When a ship has got through the before mentioned gates, she goes with the
+flood tide into a fresh water gulf, and drops anchor in the chief port of
+China, which is called Canfu[8], where they have fresh water, both from
+springs and rivers, as also in most of the other cities of China. The city
+is adorned with large squares, and is supplied with every thing necessary
+for defence against an enemy, and in most of the other provinces of the
+empire there are cities of strength similarly fortified. In this port the
+tide ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours; but, whereas from Basra to
+the island of Bani Kahouan it flows when the moon is at full, and ebbs when
+she rises and when she sets; from near Bani Kahouan quite to the coast of
+China it is flood tide when the moon rises, and ebb when she is at her
+height; and so on the contrary, when she sets, it is flowing water, and
+when she is quite hidden under the horizon, the tide falls.
+
+They say, that in the island of Muljan, between Serendib and Cala, on the
+eastern shore of the Indies, there are negroes who go quite naked; and when
+they meet a stranger they hang him up by the heels and slice him into
+pieces, which they eat quite raw. These negroes, who have no king, feed
+chiefly on fish, mousa, cocoa nuts, and sugar canes. It is reported, that
+in some parts of this sea, there is a small kind of fish which flies above
+the water, and is called the sea locust; that in another part, there is a
+fish which, leaving the sea, gets up into the cocoa nut trees, and having
+drained them of their juices, returns to the sea; and it is added, that
+there is a fish like a lobster or crab, which petrifies as soon as it is
+taken out of its element, and that when pulverized it is a good remedy for
+several diseases of the eyes. They say also, that near Zabage there is a
+volcanic mountain which cannot be approached, which sends forth a thick
+smoke by day, and throws out flames at night; at the foot of which are two
+springs of fresh water, one hot and the other cold.
+
+The Chinese are dressed in silk garments, both in summer and winter, and
+this dress is common both to the prince and peasant. In winter, they wear
+drawers of a particular make, which reach to their feet, and of these, they
+put on two, three, four, five, or more, one over the other, if they can
+afford it; and are very careful to be covered quite down to their feet,
+because of the damps, which are very great, and of which they are extremely
+apprehensive. In summer they only wear a single garment of silk, or some
+such light dress, but they have no turbans. Their common food is rice,
+which they eat frequently with a broth made of meat or fish, like that used
+by the Arabs, and which they pour upon the rice. Their kings eat wheaten
+bread, and the flesh of all kinds of animals, not excepting swine, and some
+others not used by us. They have several sorts of fruits, as apples,
+lemons, quinces, moulats, sugar canes, citruls, figs, grapes, cucumbers of
+two sorts, trees, which produce a substance like meal, walnuts, almonds,
+filberts, pistachios, plumbs, apricots, services, and cocoa nuts, but no
+store of palms, of which they have only a few about private houses. Their
+drink is a kind of wine made of rice, having no other wine in the country,
+neither is any other imported by them. They do not even know what wine is,
+nor will they drink of it. They have vinegar also, and a kind of comfit,
+like that called _Natef_ by the Arabs and some others.
+
+The Chinese are by no means nice in point of cleanliness, not washing with
+water when they ease nature but only wiping with paper. They do not scruple
+to eat of animals which have died, and they practise many other things like
+the Magians[9]; and in truth, the two religions are much similar. Their
+women appear uncovered, and adorn their heads with many small ivory combs,
+of which they wear sometimes a score at one time. The heads of the men are
+covered by a cap, of a particular make. Thieves are put to death as soon as
+caught.
+
+The Indians and Chinese agree that there are four great or principal kings
+in the world, all of them allowing that the king of the Arabs is the first
+and most powerful of kings, the most wealthy, and the most excellent every
+way, because he is the prince and head of a great religion, and because no
+other surpasses him. The Emperor of China reckons himself next after the
+king of the Arabs, after him the king of the Greeks, and lastly the
+Balhara[10], or king of the Moharmi al Adon, or people who have their ears
+bored. The Balhara is the most illustrious sovereign in all the Indies, and
+though all the other kings in India are masters and independent each in
+their own dominions, they thus so far acknowledge his preeminence, that
+when he sends ambassadors to the other princes, they are received with
+extraordinary honours. This king makes magnificent presents after the
+manner of the Arabs, and has vast numbers of horses and elephants, and
+great treasures in money. His silver coin is what we call Thartarian drams,
+being equal to one and a half of the Arabian dram. They are coined with the
+die of the prince, and bear the year of his reign, counting from the last
+year of the reign of his predecessor. They compute not their years from the
+era of Mahomed, like the Arabs, but only by the years of their successive
+kings. Most of these princes live a long time, many of them having reigned
+above fifty years; and those of the country believe that the length of
+their lives and reigns is granted in recompence of their kindness to the
+Arabs; for there are no princes more heartily affectionate to the Arabs,
+and their subjects profess the same kindness for us. Balhara is not a
+proper name, but an appellative, common to all those kings, like Cosroes
+and some others. The country under the dominion of the prince begins on the
+coast of the province called Kamcam, and reaches by land to the confines of
+China. He is surrounded by the dominions of many kings, who are at war with
+him, yet he never marches against them.
+
+One of these is the king of Harez, who has very numerous forces, and is
+stronger in cavalry than all the other princes of the Indies. He is an
+enemy to the Arabs, neither is there any prince in India who has a greater
+aversion to the Mahomedans; though he confesses their king to be the
+greatest of princes. His dominions are on a promontory, where are much
+riches, many camels, and abundance of other cattle. The inhabitants traffic
+for silver, and they say there are mines of that metal on the continent.
+There are no robbers in this country, nor in the rest of the Indies. On one
+side of this country is that of Tafek, which is not of very great extent.
+This king has the finest white women in all the Indies; but he is awed by
+the kings about him, as his army is very small. He has a great affection
+for the Arabs as well as the Balhara. These kingdoms border upon the lands
+of a king called Rami, who is at war with the king of Harez, and with the
+Balhara likewise. This prince is not much considered, either for the
+dignity of his birth or the antiquity of his kingdom; but his forces are
+more numerous than those of the Balhara, and even than those of the kings
+of Harez and Tafek. It is said that he appears in the field at the head of
+fifty thousand elephants, and commonly marches in the rainy season, because
+his elephants cannot move at any other time, as they are unable to bear
+thirst. His army is said commonly to contain from ten to fifteen thousand
+tents. In this country they make cotton garments of such extraordinary
+fineness and perfection, as is to be seen nowhere else. These garments are
+mostly round, and are wove so extremely fine, that they may be drawn
+through a moderately sized ring. Shells are current in this country as
+small money; and they have abundance of gold and silver, aloes wood, and
+sable skins, of which they make their horse-furniture.
+
+In this country is the famous Karkandan, that is the rhinoceros, or
+unicorn, which has but one horn on his forehead, on which there is a round
+spot with the representation of a man; the whole horn being black, except
+the spot in the middle which is white. The rhinoceros is much smaller than
+the elephant, and resembles the buffalo from the neck downwards, and excels
+all other creatures in extraordinary strength. His leg is all one
+thickness, from the shoulder to the foot, and the hoof is not cloven. The
+elephant flies from the rhinoceros, whose lowing is like that of an ox,
+with something of the cry of the camel. His flesh is not forbidden, and we
+have eaten of it; There are great numbers of this creature in the fens of
+this country, as also in all the other provinces of India; but the horns of
+these are most esteemed, having generally upon them the figures of men,
+peacocks, fishes and other resemblances. The Chinese adorn their girdles
+with these sorts of figures, so that some of their girdles are worth two or
+three thousand pieces of gold in China, and sometimes more, the price
+augmenting with the beauty of the figures. All these things are to be
+purchased in the kingdom of Rahmi, for shells, which are the current money
+of the country.
+
+After this country, there is an inland state distant from the coast, and
+called Kaschbin, of which the inhabitants are white, and bore their ears.
+They have camels, and their country is for the most part desert, and full
+of mountains. Farther on the coast, there is a small kingdom called
+Hitrange, which is very poor; but in its bay, the sea throws up great
+quantities of ambergris, and they have elephants teeth and pepper; but the
+inhabitants eat this last green, because of the small quantity they gather.
+Beyond these, there are other kingdoms, but their numbers and names are
+unknown. Among these is one named Mujet, the inhabitants of which are white
+and dress after the Chinese manner; their country is full of mountains,
+having white tops, and of very great extent, in which there are great
+quantities of musk; esteemed the most exquisite of any in the world. They
+have continual war with all the surrounding kingdoms; The kingdom of Mabet
+is beyond that of Mujet, wherein are many cities, and the inhabitants have
+even a greater resemblance to the Chinese than those of Mujet; for they
+have officers or eunuchs like those who govern the cities among the
+Chinese. The country of Mabet borders upon China, and is at peace with the
+emperor, but not subject to him. The king of Mabet sends ambassadors every
+year with presents to the emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadors
+and presents to Mabet. But when the ambassadors of Mabet enter China, they
+are very carefully watched, lest they should survey the country, and form
+designs of conquest; which would be no difficult matter, as their country
+is very extensive, and extremely populous, and as they are only divided
+from China by rocks and mountains.
+
+It is said that, in the country of China, there are above two hundred
+cities having jurisdiction over others, each of which has a governor and an
+eunuch or lieutenant. Canfu is one of these cities, being the port for all
+shipping, and has jurisdiction over twenty towns. A town is raised, to the
+dignity of a city, by the grant of certain large trumpets. These are three
+or four cubits in length, and as large about as can be grasped by both
+hands, growing smaller towards the end which is fitted to the mouth. On the
+outside, they are adorned with Chinese ink, and may be heard at the
+distance of a mile. Each city has four gates, at each of which five of
+these trumpets are stationed, which are sounded at certain hours of the day
+and night. There are also ten drums in each city, which are beaten at the
+same times; and this is done as a public token of obedience to the emperor,
+and to point out the hours of the day and night to the inhabitants; and for
+ascertaining the time; they have sun dials, and clocks with weights[11].
+
+In China they use a great quantity of copper money, like that named falus
+by the Arabians, which is the only sort of small money, and is current all
+over the country, and is indeed the only current coin. Yet their emperor
+has treasures like other kings, containing abundance of gold and silver,
+with jewels, pearls, silk, and vast quantities of rich stuffs of all kinds,
+which are only considered as moveables or merchandize; and from foreign
+commerce they derive ivory, frankincense, copper in bars, tortoise shell,
+and unicorns horns, with which they adorn their girdles. Of animals they
+have abundance, particularly of beasts of burden; such as oxen, horses,
+asses, and camels; but they have no Arabian horses. They have an excellent
+kind of earth, of which they make a species of ware equal in fineness to
+glass, and almost equally transparent. When merchants arrive at Canfu, the
+Chinese seize their cargoes, which they convey to warehouses, where the
+goods are detained six months, until the last merchant ship of the season
+has arrived; they then detain three parts in ten of every species of
+commodity, or thirty per cent as duty, and return the rest to the
+merchants. Besides which, if the emperor has a mind for any particular
+article, his officers have a right of taking it in preference to any other
+person, paying for it, however, to the utmost value; and they dispatch this
+business with great expedition, and without the least injustice. They
+commonly take the whole importation of camphor, on the account of the
+emperor, and pay for it at the rate of fifty _fakuges_ per _man_, each
+fakuge being worth a thousand _falus_, or pieces of copper coin. When it
+happens that the emperor does not take the camphor, it sells for half as
+much again.
+
+The Chinese do not bury their dead till the day twelve months after their
+decease; but keep them all this time in coffins in some part of their
+houses, having previously dried them by means of quicklime. The bodies of
+their kings are embalmed with aloes and camphor. They mourn during three
+whole years, and whoever transgresses this law is punished with the bamboo,
+a chastisement to which both men and women are subjected, and are at the
+same time reproached for not shewing concern for the death of their
+parents. They bury their dead in deep pits, much like those in use among
+the Arabs. During all the time that the dead body is preserved in the
+house, meat and drink are regularly set before it every evening; and if
+they find these gone in the morning, they imagine that the dead have
+consumed all; and all this time they cease not from bewailing their loss,
+insomuch, that their expences upon these occasions, in paying the last
+duties to their deceased relations, are exorbitant, and often consume their
+wealth and estates, to the utter ruin of the living. In former times, they
+buried very rich apparel, and those expensive girdles already mentioned,
+with the bodies of their kings, and others of the blood royal; but this
+custom is now discontinued, because it has happened that the bodies have
+been dug up from their graves by thieves, for the sake of what was buried
+with them. The whole nation, great and small, rich and poor, are taught to
+read and write. The titles of their viceroys or governors, are varied
+according to the dignity and rank of the cities under their government.
+Those of the smaller cities are called _Tusing_, which signifies the
+governor of a town. Those of the greater cities, such as Canfu, are stiled
+_Difu_, and the eunuch or lieutenant is stiled _Tukam_. These lieutenants
+are selected from among the inhabitants of the cities. There is also a
+supreme judge called _Lakshima-makvan_, and they have other names for other
+officers, which we do not know how properly to express.
+
+A person is never raised to the dignity of a prince, or governor of a city,
+until he has attained to his fortieth year; for then they say he has
+acquired experience. When one of these princes or viceroys holds his court,
+in the city of his residence, he is seated on a tribunal, in great state,
+and receives the petitions or complaints of the people; having an officer
+called _Lieu_, who stands behind the tribunal, and indorses an answer upon
+the petition, according to the order of the viceroy; for they null no
+applications but what are in writing, and give all their decisions in the
+same manner. Before parties can present their petitions to the viceroy,
+they must be submitted to the proper officer for examination, who sends
+them back if he discovers any error; and no person may draw up any of those
+writings which are to be presented to the viceroy, except a clerk versant
+in business, who must mark at the bottom that it is written by such a man,
+the son of such a man: And if the clerk is guilty of any error or mistake,
+he is punished with the bamboo. The viceroy never seats himself on his
+tribunal until he has eaten and drank, lest he should be mistaken in some
+things; and he receives his subsistence from the public treasury of the
+city over which he presides. The emperor, who is above all these princes or
+petty kings, never appears in public but once in ten months, under the idea
+that the people would lose their veneration for him if he shewed himself
+oftener; for they hold it as a maxim, that government can only subsist by
+means of force, as the people are ignorant of the principles of justice,
+and that constraint and violence are necessary to maintain among them the
+majesty of empire.
+
+There are no taxes imposed upon the lands, but all the men of the country
+are subject to a poll-tax in proportion to their substance. When any
+failure of crops makes necessaries dear, the king opens his store-houses to
+the people, and soils all sorts of necessaries at much cheaper rates than
+they can be had in the markets; by which means famine is prevented, and no
+dearth is of any long continuance. The sums that are gathered by this
+capitation tax are laid up in the public treasury, and I believe, that from
+this tax, fifty thousand dinars are paid every day into the null of Canfu
+alone, although that city is not one of the largest. The emperor reserves
+to himself the revenues which arise from the salt mines, and those which
+are derived from impositions upon a certain herb called _Tcha_, which they
+drink with hot water, and of which vast quantities are sold in all the
+cities in China. This is produced from a shrub more bushy than the
+pomegranate tree, and of a more pleasant smell, but having a kind of a
+bitterish taste. The way of using this herb is to pour boiling water upon
+the leaves, and the infusion cures all diseases. Whatever sums come into
+the public treasury arise from the capitation tax, the duties upon salt,
+and the tax upon this leaf.
+
+In every city there is a small bell hung to the wall, immediately over the
+head of the viceroy or governor, which may be rung by a string which
+reaches about three miles, and crosses the high way, on purpose that all
+the people may have access to it; und whenever the string is pulled, and
+the bell strikes, the person who thus demands justice is immediately
+commanded to be brought into the presence, where he sets forth his case in
+person. If any person inclines to travel from one part of the country to
+another, he must have two passes along with him, one from the governor, and
+the other from the lieutenant. The governor's pass permits him to set out
+on his journey, and specifies the name of the traveller, and of all that
+are in his company, with their names and ages; for every person in China,
+whether native, Arab, or other foreigner, is obliged to make a full
+declaration of every thing he knows about himself. The lieutenant's pass
+specifies the exact quantities of goods and money which the traveller and
+his company take along with them, and this is done for the information of
+the frontier places, where both passes are regularly examined; for whenever
+a person arrives at any of these places, it is entered in the register that
+such a one, the son of such a one, of such a family, passed through the
+place, in such a month, day, and year, and in such company. By this means
+they prevent any one from carrying off the money or effects of others, or
+the loss of their own goods in case of accident; so that if any thing has
+been taken away unjustly, or if the traveller should die on the road, it
+may be immediately known where the things are to be found, that they may be
+restored to the claimants, or to the heirs of the deceased.
+
+The Chinese administer justice with great strictness, in all their
+tribunals. When any person commences a suit against another, he sets down
+his claim in writing, and the defendant writes down his defence, which he
+signs, and holds between his fingers. These two writings are delivered in
+at the same time; and being examined, sentence is pronounced in writing,
+each of the parties having his papers returned to him, the defendant having
+his delivered first. When one party denies what the other affirms, he is
+ordered to return his writing; and if the defendant thinks he may do it
+safely, and delivers in his papers a second time, those of the plaintiff
+are likewise called for; and he who denies the affirmation of the other, is
+warned, that if he does not make out what he denies, he shall undergo
+twenty strokes of the bamboo on his buttocks, and shall pay a fine of
+twenty _fakuges_, which amount to about two hundred dinars. And the
+punishment of the bamboo is so severe, that the criminal can hardly
+survive, and no person in all China is permitted to inflict it upon another
+by his own authority, on pain of death, and confiscation of his goods; so
+that no one is ever so hardy as to expose himself to such certain danger,
+by which means justice is well administered to all. No witnesses are
+required, neither do they put the parties upon oath.
+
+When any person becomes bankrupt, he is immediately committed to prison in
+the governor's palace, and is called upon for a declaration of his effects.
+After he has remained a month in prison, he is liberated by the governor's
+order, and a proclamation is made, that such a person, the son of such a
+one, has consumed the goods of such a one, and that if any person possesses
+any effects, whatever belonging to the bankrupt, a full discovery must be
+made within one month. If any discovery is made of effects belonging to the
+bankrupt, which he had omitted to declare, he suffers the punishment of the
+bamboo, and is upbraided with having remained a month in prison, eating and
+drinking, although he has wherewithal to satisfy his creditors. He is
+reproached for having fraudulently procured and embezzled the property of
+others, and is chastised for stripping other people of their substance. But
+if, after every inquiry, the debtor does not appear to have been guilty of
+any fraud, and if it is proved to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that
+he has nothing in the world, the creditors are called in, and receive a
+part of their claims from the treasury of the Bagbun. This is the ordinary
+title of the emperor of China, and signifies the Son of Heaven, which we
+ordinarily pronounce Magbun. After this, it is publickly forbidden to buy
+of or sell to the bankrupt, that he may not again have an opportunity of
+defrauding his creditors, by concealing their money or effects. If it be
+discovered that the bankrupt has any money or effects in the hands of
+another, and that person makes no disclosure within the time limited, the
+person guilty of this concealment is bambooed to death, and the value
+discovered is divided among the creditors; but the debtor or bankrupt must
+never more concern himself with trade.
+
+Upon a stone ten cubits high, erected in the public squares of all the
+cities, the names of all sorts of medicines, with the exact prices of each,
+are engraven; and when the poor stand in need of relief from physic, they
+receive, at the treasury, the price that each medicine is rated at. In
+China there is no tax upon land, but every male subject pays a rateable
+capitation in proportion to his wealth and possessions. When a male child
+is born, his name is immediately entered in a public register, and when he
+has attained his eighteenth year he begins to pay the poll-tax; but when
+once a man has reached his eightieth year, he not only ceases to
+contribute, but even receives a pension from the treasury, as a provision
+for old age, and in acknowledgment of what he paid during his youth. There
+are schools, maintained at the public charge, in every town, where the
+children of the poor are taught to read and write. The women wear nothing
+on their heads besides their hair, but the men are covered. In China there
+is a certain town called _Tayu_, having a castle, advantageously situated
+on a hill, and all the fortresses in the kingdom are called by the same
+name. The Chinese are generally handsome, of comely stature, and of fair
+complexions, and by no means addicted to excess in wine. Their hair is
+blacker than that of any other nation in the world, and the Chinese women
+wear it curled.
+
+In the Indies, when one man accuses another of a capital crime, it is usual
+to ask the accused if he is willing to undergo the trial by fire, and if he
+consents, the ceremony is conducted in the following manner: A piece of
+iron is heated red hot, and the accused is desired to stretch out his hand,
+on which they put seven leaves of a certain tree, and above these the red
+hot iron is placed. In this condition he walks backwards and forwards for
+some time, and then throws off the iron. Immediately after this his hand is
+covered with a leathern bag, which is sealed with the prince's signet; and
+if at the end of three days he appears and declares that he has suffered no
+hurt, they order him to take out his hand, and if no sign of fire is
+visible, he is declared innocent of the crime laid to his charge, and the
+accuser is condemned to pay a fine of a _man_ of gold to the prince.
+Sometimes they boil water in a caldron, till it is so hot that no one can
+touch it; they then throw in an iron ring, and the accused is commanded to
+thrust down his hand to bring up the ring. I saw one who did this and
+received no manner of harm. In this case, likewise, if the accused remain
+unhurt, the accuser pays a fine of a _man_ of gold.
+
+When a king dies in the island of Serendib, which is the last of the
+islands of the Indies, his body is laid in an open chariot, in such a
+posture, that his head hangs backward, almost touching the ground, with his
+hair trailing on the earth; and the chariot is followed by a woman, who
+sweeps the dust on the face of the deceased, while she proclaims with a
+loud voice: "O man! behold your king! He was yesterday your master, but now
+the dominion which he exercised over you is at an end. He is reduced to the
+state you now see, having left the world; and the arbiter of life and death
+hath withdrawn his soul. Count not, therefore, O man! upon the uncertain
+hopes of this life." This or a similar proclamation is continued for three
+days; after which the body is embalmed with sandal wood, camphor, and
+saffron, and is then burned, and the ashes are scattered to the winds. When
+they burn the body of a king, it is usual for his wives to jump into the
+fire and burn along with him; but this they are not constrained to do. The
+same custom of burning the bodies of the dead prevails over all the Indies.
+
+In the Indies there are men who devote themselves to live in the woods and
+mountains, professing to despise what other men most value, abstaining from
+every thing but such wild herbs and fruits as are to be found in the woods,
+and they affix an iron buckle to their genitals in such a manner as to
+interdict all commerce with woman. Some of these go quite naked, or have
+only the skin of a leopard thrown over them, and keep perpetually standing
+with their faces to the sun. I formerly saw one in that posture; and on my
+return to the Indies, sixteen years afterwards, I found him in the very
+same attitude, it being astonishing that he had not lost his sight by the
+heat and glare of the sun. In all these kingdoms the sovereign power
+resides in the royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirs
+of the family follow each other in regular succession. In like manner,
+there are families of learned men, of physicians, and of all the artificers
+concerned in the various arts; and none of these are ever mixed with the
+family of a different profession. The several states of the Indies are not
+subject to one king, but each province has its own; though the Balhara is
+considered in the Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gaming
+and all manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and have no
+pleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither do they use
+vinegar, because it is made from wine; although this abstinence does not
+proceed from any religious duty: but they allege that a king given to wine
+is not worthy of being a king; for how should a drunkard be able to manage
+the affairs of a kingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between the
+neighbouring states? Their wars are not usually undertaken to possess
+themselves of the dominions of others, and I never heard of any except the
+people bordering on the pepper country that seized the dominions of their
+neighbours after victory. When a prince masters the dominions of a
+neighbour, he confers the sovereignty upon some person of the royal family
+of the conquered country, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself,
+under the conviction that the natives would never submit to be otherwise
+governed.
+
+When any one of the princes or governors of cities in China is guilty of a
+crime, he is put to death and eaten; and in general, it may be said that
+the Chinese eat all those who are put to death. When the Indians and
+Chinese are about to marry and the parties are agreed, presents are
+interchanged, and the marriage ceremony is solemnized amidst the noise of
+drums and various sorts of instruments. The presents consist in money, and
+all the relatives and friends contribute as much as they can afford. If any
+man in the Indies runs away with a woman and abuses her, both are put to
+death; unless it is proved that force has been used against the woman, in
+which case the man only is punished. Theft is always punished capitally,
+both in India and China, whether the theft be considerable or trifling; but
+more particularly so in the Indies, where, if a thief have stolen even the
+value of a small piece of money, he is impaled alive. The Chinese are much
+addicted to the abominable vice of pederasty, which they even number among
+the strange acts they perform in honour of their idols. The Chinese
+buildings are of wood, with stone and plaster, or bricks and mortar. The
+Chinese and Indians are not satisfied with one wife, but both nations marry
+as many as they please, or can maintain. Rice is the common food of the
+Indians, who eat no wheat; but the Chinese use both indifferently.
+Circumcision is not practised either by the Chinese or Indians. The Chinese
+worship idols, before whom, they fall down and make prayers, and they have
+books which explain the articles of their religion. The Indians suffer
+their beards to grow, but have no whiskers, and I have seen one with a
+beard three cubits long; but the Chinese, for the most part, wear no
+beards. Upon the death of a relation, the Indians shave both head and face.
+When any man in the Indies is thrown into prison, he is allowed neither
+victuals nor drink for seven days together; and this with them answers the
+end of other tortures for extorting from the criminal a confession of his
+guilt. The Chinese and Indians have judges besides the governors, who
+decide in causes between the subjects. Both in India and China there are
+leopards and wolves, but no lions. Highway robbers are punished with death.
+Both the Indians and Chinese imagine that the idols which they worship
+speak to them, and give them answers. Neither of them kill their meat by
+cutting the throat, as is done by the Mahomedans, but by beating them on
+the head till they die. They wash not with well water, and the Chinese wipe
+themselves with paper, whereas the Indians wash every day before eating.
+The Indians wash not only the mouth, but the whole body before they eat,
+but this is not done by the Chinese. The Indies is larger in extent by a
+half than China, and has a great many more kingdoms, but China is more
+populous. It is not usual to see palm trees either in the Indies or in
+China, but they have many other sorts of trees and fruits which we have
+not. The Indians have no grapes, and the Chinese have not many, but both
+abound in other fruits, though the pomegranate thrives better in India than
+in China.
+
+The Chinese have no sciences, and their religion and most of their laws are
+derived from the Indians. They even believe that the Indians taught them
+their worship of idols. Both nations believe the Metempsycosis, though they
+differ in many of the precepts and ceremonies of their religion. Physic and
+philosophy are cultivated among the Indians, and the Chinese have some
+skill in medicine; but that almost entirely consists in the art of applying
+hot irons or cauteries. They have some smattering of astronomy; but in this
+likewise the Indians surpass the Chinese. I know not that even so much as
+one man of either nation has embraced Mahomedism, or has learned to speak
+the Arabic language. The Indians have few horses, and there are more in
+China; but the Chinese have no elephants, and cannot endure to have them in
+their country. The Indian dominions furnish a great number of soldiers, who
+are not paid by their kings, but, when called out to war, have to take the
+field and serve entirely at their own expense; but the Chinese allow their
+soldiers much the same pay as is done by the Arabs.
+
+China is a pleasant and fruitful country, having numerous extensive and
+well fortified cities, with a more wholesome climate and less fenny country
+than India, in which most of the provinces have no cities. The air in China
+likewise is much better than in India, and there are scarcely any blind
+persons, or who are subject to diseases of the eyes; and similar advantages
+are enjoyed by several of the provinces of India. The rivers of both
+countries are large, and surpass our greatest rivers, and much rain falls
+in both countries. In the ladies there are many desert tracks, but China is
+inhabited and cultivated through its whole extent. The Chinese are
+handsomer than the Indians, and come nearer to the Arabs in countenance and
+dress, in their manners, in the way of riding, and in their ceremonies,
+wearing long garments and girdles in the manner of belts; while the Indians
+wear two short vests, and both men and women wear golden bracelets, adorned
+with precious stones.
+
+Beyond the kingdom of China, there is a country called _Tagazgaz_, taking
+its name from a nation of Turks by which it is inhabited, and also the
+country of Kakhan which borders on the Turks. The islands of Sila are
+inhabited by white people, who send presents to the Emperor of China, and
+who are persuaded that if they were to neglect this the rain of heaven
+would not fall upon their country. In that country there are white falcons;
+but none of our people have been there to give us any particular
+information concerning them.
+
+
+[1] This is probably the sea about the Maldives, which, according to the
+    eastern geographers, divides that part of the Indian Ocean from the
+    sea of Delarowi, or the Magnus Sinus of the ancients. The eastern
+    writers often speak of the Seven Seas, which seems rather a proverbial
+    phrase, than a geographical definition. These are the seas of China,
+    India, Persia, Kolzoum, or the Red Sea, of Rum or Greece, which is the
+    Mediterranean, Alehozar or the Caspian, Pont or the Euxine. The sea of
+    India is often called the Green Sea, and the Persian Gulf the sea of
+    Bassora. The Ocean is called Bahr Mahit.--Harris
+
+[2] Male-dive signifies, in the Malabar language, a thousand isles.--E.
+
+[3] The subsequent accounts of these islands do not justify this particular
+    sentence, if the author meant that they were always governed by a
+    queen. It might be so in this time by accident, and one queen might
+    have succeeded another, as Queen Elizabeth did Queen Mary.--Harris.
+
+[4] This is the Taprobana of the ancients, and has received many names. In
+    Cosmas Indicopleustes, it is called Sielendiba, which is merely a
+    Grecian corruption of Sielea-dive, or Sielen island; whence the modern
+    name of Ceylon.--E.
+
+[5] This is probably the shark, which is common on all the coasts of India.
+    There was a portion of the MS. wanting at this place; wherein the
+    author treated of the trade to China as it was carried on in his time,
+    and of the causes which had brought it into a declining condition.
+    --Renaud.
+
+[6] Perhaps some account of this Soliman might be contained in the lost
+    pages: But the circumstance of a Mahomedan judge or consul at Canfu is
+    a circumstance worthy of notice, and shews that the Mahomedans had
+    carried on a regular and settled trade with China for a considerable
+    time, and were in high estimation in that country.--Renaud.
+
+[7] It is difficult at this distance of time to ascertain the rout laid
+    down by this author, on account of the changes of names. This mart of
+    Siraff is not to be met with in any of our maps; but it is said by the
+    Arabian geographers to have been in the gulf of Persia, about sixty
+    leagues from Shiraz; and that on its decay, the trade was transferred
+    to Ormuz.--Renaud.
+
+[8] It is probable, or rather certain, that Canton is here meant.--E.
+
+[9] Meaning the Parsees or Guebres, the fire-worshippers of Persia.--E.
+
+[10] It is probable that this Balhara, or king of the people with bored
+    ears, which plainly means the Indians, was the Zamorin or Emperor of
+    Calicut; who, according to the reports of the most ancient Portuguese
+    writers concerning India, was acknowledged as a kind of emperor in the
+    Indies, six hundred years before they discovered the route to India by
+    the Cape of Good Hope.--Harris.
+
+    The original editor of this voyage in English, Harris, is certainly
+    mistaken in this point. The Balhara was the sovereign of Southern
+    Seindetic India; of which dominion Guzerat was the principal
+    province.--E.
+
+[11] This is a very early notice of the construction and use of clocks, or
+    machinery to indicate divisions of time, by means of weights.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Commentary upon the foregoing Account, by Abu Zeid al Hasan of Siraff_.
+
+Having very carefully examined the book I was desired to peruse, that I
+might confirm what the author relates so far as he agrees with what I have
+learnt concerning the affairs of navigation, the kingdoms on the coast, and
+the state of the countries of which he treats, and that I might add what I
+have elsewhere collected concerning these matters: I find that this book
+was composed in the year of the Hegira 237, and that the accounts given by
+the author are conformable with what I have heard from merchants who have
+sailed from _Irak_ or Persia, through these seas. I find also all that the
+author has written to be agreeable to truth, except some few passages, in
+which he has been misinformed. Speaking of the custom, of the Chinese in
+setting meat before their dead, and believing that the dead had eaten, we
+had been told the same thing, and once believed it; but have since learnt,
+from a person of undoubted credit, that this notion is entirely groundless,
+as well as that the idolaters believe their idols speak to them. From that
+creditable person we have likewise been informed, that the affairs of China
+wear quite a different aspect since those days: and since much has been
+related to explain why our voyages to China have been interrupted, and how
+the country has been ruined, many customs abolished, and the empire
+divided, I shall here declare what I know of that revolution.
+
+The great troubles which have embroiled the affairs of this empire, putting
+a stop to the justice and righteousness there formerly practised, and
+interrupting the ordinary navigation from Siraff to China, was occasioned
+by the revolt of an officer named Baichu, in high employment, though not of
+the royal family. He began by gathering together a number of vagabonds, and
+disorderly people, whom he won to his party by his liberalities, and formed
+into a considerable body of troops. With these he committed hostilities in
+many parts of the country, to the great loss of the inhabitants; and having
+greatly increased his army, and put himself into a condition to attempt
+greater things, he began to entertain a design of subduing the whole
+empire, and marched direct for Canfu, one of the most noted cities in
+China, and at that time the great port for our Arabian commerce. This city
+stands upon a great river, some days sail from the sea, so that the water
+there is fresh. The citizens shut their gates against him, and he was
+obliged to besiege it a great while; but at length he became master of the
+city, and put all the inhabitants to the sword. There are persons fully
+acquainted with the affairs of China, who assure us, that besides the
+Chinese who were massacred upon this occasion, there perished one hundred
+and twenty thousand Mahomedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, who were
+there on account of traffic; and as the Chinese are exceedingly nice in the
+registers they keep of foreigners dwelling among them, this number may be
+considered as authentic. This took place in the year of the hegira 264, or
+of Christ 877. He also cut down the mulberry trees, which are carefully
+cultivated by the Chinese for their leaves, on which the silk worms are
+fed; and owing to this, the trade of silk has tailed, and that manufacture,
+which used to be much prosecuted in all the countries under the Arabian
+government, is quite at a stand.
+
+Having sacked and destroyed Canfu, he possessed himself of many other
+cities, which he demolished, having first slain most of the inhabitants, in
+the hope that he might involve all the members of the royal family in this
+general massacre, that no one might remain to dispute with him for the
+empire. He then advanced to Cumdan[1], the capital city, whence the emperor
+was obliged to make a precipitate retreat to the city of Hamdu, on the
+frontiers towards Thibet. Puffed up with these great successes, Baichu made
+himself master of almost the whole country, there being no one able to
+dispute his authority. At length the emperor wrote to the king of the
+Tagazgaz in Turkestan, with whom he was in some degree allied by marriage,
+imploring his assistance to subdue the rebellion. The king of the Tagazgaz
+dispatched his son, at the head of a very numerous army, into China, and
+after a long and arduous contest, and many battles, Baichu was utterly
+defeated, and it was never known afterwards what became of him; some
+believing that he fell in the last battle, while others supposed that he
+ended his days in a different manner. The emperor of China now returned to
+his capital, much weakened and dispirited in consequence of the
+embezzlement of his treasures, and the loss of the best of his officers and
+troops, and the horrible devastations, calamities, and losses which his
+empire had sustained; yet he made himself master of all the provinces which
+had revolted from his authority. He would not, however, lay his hands upon
+the goods of his subjects, notwithstanding the exhausted state of his
+finances, but satisfied himself with what was still left in his coffers,
+and the small remains of the public money that was to be found, requiring
+nothing from his subjects, but what they were willing to give, and only
+demanding obedience to the laws and to his authority, considering that they
+had been already severely oppressed in consequence of the rebellion. Thus,
+China became like the empire of Alexander, after the defeat and death of
+Darius, when he divided the provinces among his chiefs, who became so many
+kings. For now, each  of the Chinese princes, or viceroys, joined
+themselves into petty alliances, making wars among themselves without the
+authority of the emperor; and when the stronger had subdued the weaker, and
+acquired possession of his province, the subjects of the vanquished prince
+were unmercifully wasted and plundered, and even barbarously devoured: a
+cruel practice allowed by the laws of their religion, which even permit
+human flesh to be exposed to public sale in the markets. There arose from
+all these confusions many unjust dealings with the merchants; and there was
+no grievance so intolerable, or treatment so bad, but what was exercised
+upon the Arab merchants, and captains of ships, extorting from them what
+was altogether uncustomary, seizing upon their effects, and behaving
+towards them quite contrary to all the ancient usages; so that our
+merchants were forced to return in crowds to Siraff and Oman[2].
+
+The punishment of married persons, convicted of adultery, as well as for
+the crimes of homicide and theft, is as follows: The hands are bound fast
+together, and forced backwards over the head, till they rest on the neck.
+The right foot is then fastened to the right hand, and the left foot to the
+left hand, and all drawn tight together behind the back, so that the
+criminal is incapable to stir; and by this torture the neck is dislocated,
+the joints of the arms start from their sockets, and the thigh bones are
+disjointed;--in short, the tortured wretch would soon expire without any
+farther process; yet, in that state, he is beaten by bamboos till at the
+last gasp, and is then abandoned to the people, who devour the body.
+
+There are women in China who refuse to marry, and prefer to live a
+dissolute life of perpetual debauchery. A woman who has made this election,
+presents herself in full audience before the commanding officer of a city,
+declares her aversion to marriage, and desires to be enrolled among the
+public women. Her name is then inserted in the register, with the name of
+her family, the place of her abode, the number and description of her
+jewels, and the particulars of her dress. She has then a string put round
+her neck, to which is appended a copper ring, marked with the king's
+signet, and she receives a writing, certifying that she is received into
+the list of prostitutes, and by which she is entitled to a pension from the
+public treasury of so many _falus_ yearly, and in which the punishment of
+death is denounced against any man who should take her to wife. Every year,
+regulations are published respecting these women, and such as have grown
+old in the service are struck off the list. In the evening, these women
+walk abroad in dresses of different colours, unveiled, and prostitute
+themselves to all strangers who love debauchery; but the Chinese themselves
+send for them to their houses, whence they do not depart till next morning.
+
+The Chinese coin no money, except the small pieces of copper like those we
+_falus_, nor will they allow gold and silver to be coined into specie, like
+our dinars and drams; for they allege that a thief may carry off ten
+thousand pieces of gold from the house of an Arab, and almost as many of
+silver, without being much burthened, and so ruin the man who suffers the
+loss; but in the house of a Chinese, he can only carry off ten thousand
+_falus_ at the most, which do not make above ten meticals or gold dinars in
+value. These pieces of copper are alloyed with some other metal, and are
+about the size of a dram, or the piece of silver called _bagli_, having a
+large hole in the middle to string them by. A thousand of them are worth a
+metical or gold dinar; and they string them by thousands, with a knot
+distinguishing the hundreds. All their payments, whether for land,
+furniture, merchandize, or any thing else, are made in this money, of which
+there are some pieces at Siraff, inscribed with Chinese characters. The
+city of Canfu is built of wood and canes interwoven, just like our
+lattice-work of split canes, the whole washed over with a kind of varnish
+made of hempseed, which becomes as white as milk, having a wonderfully fine
+gloss. There are no stairs in their houses, which are all of one storey,
+and all their valuables are placed in chests upon wheels, which in case of
+fire can easily be drawn from place to place, without any hinderance from
+stairs.
+
+The inferior officers of the cities, and those commonly who have the
+direction of the customs and of the treasury, are almost all eunuchs, some
+of whom have been captured on the frontiers and made so, while others are
+so treated by their fathers, and sent as presents to the emperors. These
+officers are at the head of the principal affairs of state, and have the
+management of the emperor's private affairs, and of the treasury; and
+those, particularly, who are sent to Canfu, are selected from this class.
+It is customary for them, and for the viceroys or governors of the cities,
+to appear abroad from time to time in solemn procession. On these
+occasions, they are preceded by men who carry great pieces of wood, like
+those used in the Levant instead of bells by the Christians, on which they
+make a noise which is heard at a great distance, upon which every person
+gets out of the way of the prince or eunuch. Even if a man is at his door,
+he goes in, and keeps his door shut till the great personage has gone by.
+Thus, not a soul is in the way, and this is enjoined that they may strike a
+dread into the people, and be held in veneration; and the people are not
+allowed to see them often, lest they should grow so familiar as to speak to
+them.. All these officers wear very magnificent dresses of silk, so fine
+that none such is brought into the country of the Arabs, as the Chinese
+hold it at a very high price. One of our chief merchants, a man of perfect
+credibility, waited upon an eunuch who had been sent to Canfu, to purchase
+some goods from the country of the Arabs. The eunuch had upon his breast a
+short and beautiful silk vest, which was under another silk vest, and
+seemed to have two other vests over that again; and perceiving that the
+Arab eyed him very steadfastly, he asked him the cause; and being told that
+he admired the beauty of the little vest under his other garments, the
+eunuch laughed, and holding out his sleeve to him, desired him to count how
+many vests he had above that which he so much admired. He did so, and found
+five, one over the other, and the little rich vest undermost. These
+garments are all wove of raw silk, which has never been washed or fulled;
+and those worn by the princes or governors are still richer, and more
+exquisitely, wrought.
+
+The Chinese surpass all nations in all arts, and particularly in painting,
+and they perform such perfect work, as others can but faintly imitate. When
+an artificer has finished a piece, he carries it to the prince's palace to
+demand the reward which he thinks he deserves, for the beauty of his
+performance; and the custom is for the prince to order the work to be left
+at the gate of the palace for a whole year, and if in that time no person
+finds a just fault in the piece, the artificer is rewarded, and admitted
+into the body of artists; but if any fault is discovered, the piece is
+rejected, and the workman sent off without reward. It happened once, that
+one of these artists painted an ear of corn, with a bird perched upon it,
+and his performance was very much admired. This piece, stood exposed to
+public view as usual, and one day a crooked fellow going past, found fault
+with the picture, and was immediately conducted to the prince or governor,
+who sent for the painter that he might hear his piece criticized. Being
+asked what fault he had to find, he answered, that every one knew that a
+bird never settles on an ear of corn, but it must bend under the weight;
+whereas this painter had represented the ear of corn bolt upright, though
+loaded with a bird. The objection was held just, and the painter was
+dismissed without reward. By such means, they excite their workmen to aim
+at perfection, and to be exceedingly nice and circumspect in what they
+undertake, and to apply their whole genius to any thing that has to go
+through their hands.
+
+There dwelt at Basra one Ebn Wahab, of the tribe of Koreish, descended from
+Hebar, the son of Al Asud, who quitted Basra when it was sacked, and came
+to Siraff, where he saw a ship preparing to sail for China[3]. The humour
+took him to embark in this ship for China, and he had the curiosity to
+visit the emperor's court. Leaving Canfu, he went to Cumdan, after a
+journey of two months, and remained a long while at the court, where he
+presented several petitions to the emperor, setting forth, that he was of
+the family of the prophet of the Arabs. After a considerable interval, the
+emperor ordered him to be lodged in a house appointed for the purpose, and
+to be supplied with every thing he might need. The emperor then wrote to
+the governor of Canfu, to inquire carefully among the Arabian merchants
+respecting this man's pretensions; and receiving a full confirmation of his
+extraction, received him to an audience, and made him rich presents, with
+which he returned to Irak.
+
+When, we saw him, this man was much advanced in years, but had his senses
+perfectly. He told us that the emperor asked him many questions respecting
+the Arabs, and particularly how they had destroyed the kingdom of the
+Persians. Ebn Wahab answered, that they had done it by the assistance of
+God, and because the Persians were immersed in idolatry, adoring the sun,
+moon, and stars, instead of the Almighty. The emperor said, that they had
+conquered the most illustrious kingdom of the earth, the best cultivated,
+the most populous, the most pregnant of fine wits, and of the highest fame.
+The emperor then asked Ebn Wahab what account the Arabs made of the other
+kings of the earth; to which he answered that he knew them not. Then the
+emperor caused the interpreter to say, we admit but five great kings. He
+who is master of Irak has the kingdom of widest extent, which is surrounded
+by the territories of other kings, and we find him called King of Kings.
+After him is the emperor of China, who is styled King of Mankind, for no
+king has more absolute authority over his subjects, and no people can be
+more dutiful and submissive than his subjects. Next is the king of the
+Turks, whose kingdom borders on China, and who is styled the King of Lions.
+Next is the king of the Elephants, who is king of the Indies, whom we call
+King of Wisdom. Last of all is the King of Greece, whom we call King of
+Men, as there are no men of better manners, or comlier appearance, on the
+face of the earth, than his subjects.
+
+Ebn Wahab was then asked if he knew his lord and master the prophet
+Mohammed, and if he had seen him? How could that be, said Wahab, seeing
+that he is with God? Being then asked what manner of person he was; he
+answered that he was very handsome. Then a great box was brought, out of
+which another box was taken, and the interpreter was desired to shew him
+his lord and master. Ebn Wahab, upon looking in, saw the images of the
+prophets and the emperor observing him to move his lips, desired him to be
+asked the reason; on which he said he was praying inwardly in honour of the
+prophets. Being asked how he knew them, he said by the representation of
+their histories; as for instance, one was Noah and his ark, who were saved
+from the flood with those who were with them. The emperor laughed, and said
+he was right in regard to Noah, but denied the universal deluge; which,
+though it had covered part of the earth, did not reach China or the Indies.
+On Wahab observing that the next was Moses, with his rod, and the children
+of Israel; the emperor agreed that their country was of small extent, and
+that Moses had extirpated the ancient inhabitants. Wahab then pointed out
+Jesus upon the ass, accompanied by his apostles. To this the emperor said,
+that he had been a short time upon earth, all his transactions having very
+little exceeded the space of thirty months. On seeing the image of Mohammed
+riding on a camel, and his companions about him, with Arabian shoes and
+leathern girdles, Wahab wept; and being asked the reason, he answered, it
+was on seeing his prophet and lord, who was his cousin also. The emperor
+then asked concerning the age of the world; and Wahab answered, that
+opinions varied on the subject, as some reckoned it to be six thousand
+years old, while some would not allow so many, and others extended it to a
+greater antiquity. Being asked why he had deserted his own king, to whom he
+was so near in blood; he gave information of the revolutions which had
+happened at Basra, which had forced him to fly to Siraff; where, hearing of
+the glory of the emperor of China, and the abundance of every thing in his
+empire, he had been impelled by curiosity to visit it; but that he intended
+soon to return to the kingdom of his cousin, where he should make a
+faithful report of the magnificence of China, the vast extent of its
+provinces, and of the kind usage he had met with. This seemed to please the
+emperor, who made him rich presents, and ordered him to be conducted to
+Canfu on post horses[4]. He wrote also to the governor of that city,
+commanding him to be treated with honour; and to the governors of the
+provinces through which he had to pass, to shew him every civility. He was
+treated handsomely during the remainder of his stay in China, plentifully
+supplied with all necessaries, and honoured with many presents[5].
+
+From the information of Ebn Wahab, we learn that Cumdan, where the emperor
+of China keeps his court, is a very large and extremely populous city,
+divided into two parts by a very long and broad street. That the emperor,
+his chief ministers, the supreme judge, the eunuchs, the soldiery, and all
+belonging to the imperial household, dwelt in that part of the city which
+is on the right hand eastward; and that the people were not admitted into
+that part of the city, which is watered by canals from different rivers,
+the borders of which are, planted with trees, and adorned by magnificent
+palaces. That portion of the city on the left hand, westwards from the
+great street, is inhabited by the ordinary kind of people, and the
+merchants, where also are great squares and markets for all the necessaries
+of life. At day-break every morning, the officers of the royal household,
+with the inferior servants, purveyors, and the domestics of the grandees of
+the court, come into that division of the city, some on horseback, and
+others on foot, to the public markets, and the shops of those who deal in
+all sorts of goods, where they buy whatever they want, and do not return
+again till their occasions call them back next morning. The city is very
+pleasantly situate in the midst of a most fertile soil, watered by several
+rivers, and hardly deficient in any thing except palm trees, which grow not
+there.
+
+In our time a discovery has been made, of a circumstance quite new and
+unknown to our ancestors. No one ever imagined that the great sea which
+extends from the Indies to China had any communication with the sea of
+Syria. Yet we have heard, that in the sea of Rum, or the Mediterranean,
+there was found the wreck of an Arabian ship, which had been shattered by a
+tempest, in which all her men had perished. Her remains were driven by the
+wind and weather into the sea of the Chozars, and thence by the canal of
+the Mediterranean sea, and were at last thrown upon the coast of Syria.
+Hence it is evident, that the sea surrounds all the country of China and
+Sila or Cila, the uttermost parts of Turkestan, and the country of the
+Chozars, and that it communicates by the strait with that which washes the
+coast of Syria. This is proved by the structure of the wreck; of which the
+planks were not nailed or bolted, like all those built in the
+Mediterranean, or on the coast of Syria, but joined together in an
+extraordinary manner, as if sewed, and none but the ships of Siraff are so
+fastened. We have also heard it reported, that ambergris has been found on
+the coast of Syria, which seems hard to believe, and was unknown to former
+times. If this be true, it is impossible that amber should have been thrown
+up on the sea of Syria, but by the sea of Aden and Kolsum, which has
+communication with the seas where amber is found. And as God has put a
+separation between these seas, it must have necessarily been, that this
+amber was driven from the Indian Seas into the others, in the same
+direction with the vessel of Siraff[6].
+
+The province of Zapage is opposite to China, and distant from thence a
+month's sail or less, if the wind be fair. The king of this country is
+styled Mehrage, and his dominions are said to be 900 leagues in
+circumference, besides which, he commands over many islands which lie
+around; so that, altogether, this kingdom is above 1000 leagues in extent.
+One of these islands is called _Serbeza_, which is said to be 400 leagues
+in compass; another is called _Rhami_, which is 800 leagues round, and
+produces red-wood, camphor, and many other commodities. In the same kingdom
+is the island of _Cala_, which is the mid passage between China and the
+country of the Arabs. This island is 80 leagues in circumference, and to it
+they bring all sorts of merchandize, as aloes wood of several kinds,
+camphor, sandal wood, ivory, the wood called _cabahi_, ebony, red-wood, all
+sorts of spice, and many others; and at present the trade is carried on
+between this island and that of Oman. The Mehrage is sovereign over all
+these islands; and that of Zapage, in which he resides, is extremely
+fertile, and so populous, that the towns almost touch each other, no part
+of the land being uncultivated. The palace of the king or Mehrage, stands
+on a river as broad as the Tigris at Bagdat or Bassora; but the sea
+intercepts its course, and drives its waters back with the tide; yet during
+the ebb the fresh water flows out a good way into the sea. The river water
+is let into a small pond, close to the king's palace, and every morning the
+master of the household brings an ingot of gold, wrought in a particular
+manner, and throws it into the pond, in presence of the king. When the king
+dies, his successor causes all these ingots, which have been accumulating
+during the reign of his predecessor, to be taken out; and the sums arising
+from this great quantity of gold are distributed among the royal household,
+in certain proportions, according to their respective ranks, and the
+surplus is given to the poor.
+
+Komar is the country whence the aloes wood, which we call Hud al Komari, is
+brought; and it is a very populous kingdom, of which the inhabitants are
+very courageous. In this country, the boundless commerce with women is
+forbidden, and indeed it has no wine. The kingdoms of Zapage and Komar are
+about ten or twenty days easy sail from each other, and the kingdoms were
+in peace with other when the following event is said, in their ancient
+histories, to have occurred. The young and high-spirited king of Komar was
+one day in his palace, which looks upon a river much like the Euphrates, at
+the entrance, and is only a day's journey from the sea. One day, in a
+discourse with his prime minister, the conversation turned upon the glory
+and population of the kingdom of the Mehrage, and the multitude of its
+dependent islands, when the king of Komar expressed a wish to see the head
+of the Mehrage of Zapage on a dish before him. The minister endeavoured to
+dissuade him from so unjust and rash an attempt; but the king afterwards
+proposed the same exploit to the other officers of his court. Intelligence
+of this project was conveyed to the Mehrage, who was a wise and active
+prince, of consummate experience, and in the flower of his age; and who
+immediately ordered a thousand small ships to be fitted out, with all
+necessary arms and provisions, and manned with as many of his best troops
+as they were able to transport; carefully concealing the purpose of this
+armament, but giving out that he meant to visit the different islands under
+his authority, and even caused letters to be written to the tributary kings
+of these islands to prepare for his reception. When every thing was in
+readiness, he sailed over to the kingdom of Komar, the king of which, and
+all his courtiers, were a set of effeminate creatures, who did nothing all
+day long but view their faces in mirrors, and pick their teeth. The Mehrage
+landed his troops without delay, and immediately invested the palace, in
+which the king was made prisoner, all his attendants having fled without
+fighting. Then the Mehrage caused proclamation to be made, granting entire
+security of life and property to all the inhabitants of the country; and
+seating himself on the throne, caused the captive king and the prime
+minister to be brought into his presence. Addressing himself to the fallen
+monarch, he demanded his reasons for entertaining a project so unjust, and
+beyond his power to execute, and what were his ultimate intentions if he
+had succeeded. To this the king of Komar made no answer; and the Mehrage
+ordered his head to be struck off. To the minister, the Mehrage made many
+compliments, for the good advice he had given his master, and ordered him
+to place the person who best deserved to succeed upon the vacant throne;
+and then departed to his own dominions, without doing the smallest violence
+or injury to the kingdom of Komar. The news of this action being reported
+to the kings of China and the Indies, added greatly to their respect for
+the Mehrage; and from that time, it has been the custom for the kings of
+Komar to prostrate themselves every morning towards the country of Zapage,
+in honour of the Mehrage[7].
+
+All the kings of China and the Indies believe in the metempsychosis, or
+transmigration of souls, as an article of their religion, of which the
+following story, related by a person of credibility, is a singular
+instance. One of these princes having viewed himself in a mirror, after
+recovering from the small-pox, and noticing how dreadfully his face was
+disfigured, observed, that no person had ever remained in his body after
+such a change, and as the soul passes instantly into another body, he was
+determined to separate Ha soul from its present frightful body, that he
+might pass into another. Wherefore he commanded his nephew to mount the
+throne, and calling for a sharp and keen scymitar, ordered his own head to
+be cut off, that his soul might be set free, to inhabit a new body. His
+orders were complied with, and his body was burnt, according to the custom
+of the country.
+
+Until the late revolution had reduced them to their present state of
+anarchy, the Chinese were wonderfully regular and exact in every thing
+relative to government; of which the following incident affords a striking
+example. A merchant of Chorassan,  who had dealt largely in Irak, and who
+embarked from thence for China,  with a quantity of goods,  had a dispute
+at Canfu with an eunuch, who was sent to purchase some ivory, and other
+goods for the emperor, and at length the dispute ran so high, that the
+merchant refused  to  sell him  his goods. This eunuch was keeper of the
+imperial treasury, and presumed so much on the favour and confidence which
+he enjoyed with his master, that he took his choice of all the goods he
+wanted from the merchant by force, regardless of every thing that the
+merchant could say. The merchant went privately from Canfu to Cumdan, the
+residence of the emperor, which is two months journey; and immediately went
+to the string of the bell,  mentioned in the former section, which he
+pulled. According to the custom of the country, he was conveyed to a place
+at the distance of ten days journey, where he was committed to prison for
+two months; after which he was brought before the viceroy of the province,
+who represented to him, that he had involved himself in a situation which
+would tend to his utter ruin, and even the loss of his life, if he did not
+speak out the real truth: Because there were ministers and governors
+appointed to distribute justice to all strangers, who were ready to see him
+righted; and if the nature of the wrongs, which he had to represent, did
+not appear such as to entitle him to this application to the emperor, he
+would assuredly be put to death, as a warning to others not to follow his
+example. The viceroy, therefore, advised him to withdraw his appeal, and to
+return immediately to Canfu. The rule on such occasions was, that, if the
+party should endeavour to recede after this exhortation, he would have
+received fifty blows of a bamboo, and have been immediately sent out of the
+country: but if he persisted in his appeal, he was immediately admitted to
+an audience of the emperor. The merchant strenuously persisted in his
+demand for justice, and was at length admitted to the presence of the
+emperor, to whom he related the injustice of the eunuch, in taking away his
+goods by force. Upon this, the merchant was thrown, into prison, and the
+emperor ordered his prime minister to write to the governor of Canfu, to
+make strict inquiry into the complaints which he had exhibited against the
+eunuch, and to make a faithful report of all the circumstances; and he, at
+the same time, gave similar orders to three other principal officers, to
+make the same inquiry, all separate and unknown to each other.
+
+These officers, who are called of the right, of the left, and of the
+centre, according to their ranks, have the command of the imperial forces,
+under the prime minister; they are entrusted with the guard of the emperors
+person: and when, he takes the field, on any military enterprise, or on any
+other account, these officers are stationed near him, each according to his
+rank. All of these made accordingly the strictest inquiries into the
+allegations of the merchant, and all separately gave in their reports,
+assuring the emperor that these complaints were just and well-founded: and
+these were followed and confirmed by many other informations. The eunuch
+was in consequence deprived of his office of treasurer, find all his
+effects were confiscated; on which occasion the emperor addressed him as
+follows; "Death ought to have been your doom, for giving occasion of
+complaint against me to this man, who hath come from Chorassan, which is on
+the borders of my empire. He hath been in the country of the, Arabs, whence
+he came into the kingdoms of the Indies, and thence into my empire, seeking
+his advantage by trade; and you would have occasioned him to return across
+all these regions, saying to all the people in his way, that he had been
+abused and stripped of his substance in China. In consideration of your
+former services, and the rank you have held in my household, I grant your
+life; but as you have not discharged your duty in regard to the living, I
+will confer upon you the charge of the dead." The eunuch was accordingly
+sent to take the custody of the imperial tombs, and to remain there for the
+remainder of his life.
+
+Before the late commotions, the good order observed in the administration
+of justice, and the majesty of their tribunals, were very admirable. To
+fill these, the Chinese chose men who were perfectly versant in the laws;
+men of sincerity, and zealous in the cause of justice, who were not to be
+biassed by the interference of the great, and who always administered the
+laws with impartiality, neither oppressing the poor, nor accepting bribes
+from the rich. When any one was to be promoted to the office of principal
+judge, he was previously sent to all the chief cities of the empire, to
+remain a month or two in each, inquiring minutely into the various customs
+and affairs of the people, and informing himself of all such persons as
+were worthy of being credited in their testimony, that his judgment might
+be regulated in the future discharge of his high office by this preliminary
+knowledge. After going through all the cities in this manner, and making
+some stay in those which are most considerable, he repaired to the imperial
+court, and was invested with the dignity of supreme judge. To him the
+nomination of all the other judges was confided, after acquainting the
+emperor with the names of all who, in his estimation, were most worthy of
+exercising jurisdiction in the various cities and provinces. Every day, the
+supreme judge causes proclamation to be made, that of any man has been
+wronged by the viceroy or governor, or by any of his relations or officers,
+or any other person, he shall receive ample justice. A viceroy or governor
+is never degraded, except by letters issued from the council, or divan of
+kings, and this is done only for some flagrant malversation, or for the
+refusal or delay of justice. The posts of judicature being conferred upon
+none but men of probity and justice, good order is efectually maintained.
+
+The province of Chorassan is almost on the borders of China. From China to
+Sogd is about two months journey, through impracticable deserts of sand,
+where there is no water; for which reason the Chorassanians can make no
+irruptions into China. The most westerly province of China is _Medu_, which
+borders on Thibet, and the two nations are often at war. A person who had
+been in China, informed us, that he had seen a man at Canfu, who had
+traveled from _Samare_, all the way on foot, through all the cities in
+China, with a vessel of musk on his back for sale; which he might easily
+do, as the part of Thibet, which produces musk, is contiguous to China. The
+Chinese carry off as many of the animals which produce musk as they can
+procure; but the musk of Thibet is far better than that of China, because
+the animal feeds on aromatic plants in the mountains of Thibet, while in
+China it has to subsist upon the ordinary pastures; and because the
+inhabitants of Thibet preserve their cods of musk in its natural state of
+purity, while the Chinese adulterate all that gets into their hands; for
+which reason the musk of Thibet is in great request among the Arabs. The
+most exquisite of all the sorts of musk, is that which the musk animals
+leave behind them, in rubbing themselves on the rocks of their native
+mountains.   The humour whence the musk is generated, falls down towards
+the navel of the animal, where it gathers into tumors like grumous blood;
+and when this tumor is ripe, it produces a painful itching, on which the
+animal rubs himself against rocks or stones till he bursts the tumor, and
+the contents run out and coagulate on the stone; after which, the wound
+heals, and the humour gathers again as before. There are men in Thibet who
+make it their business to collect this species of musk, which they preserve
+in bladders, and which, having ripened, naturally surpasses all others in
+goodness, just as ripe fruit exceeds in flavour that which is pulled green.
+There is another way of procuring musk, either by ensnaring the animals, or
+shooting them with arrows; but the hunters often cut out the bags before
+the musk is ripe or fully elaborated, in which case, the musk at first has
+a bad scent, till the humour thickens, after which it turns to good musk,
+though this sometimes takes a long while. The musk animal is like our
+roebuck, his skin and colour the same, with slender legs, and smooth
+slightly bent horns; having on each side two small white teeth, about half
+a finger-length, which rise about his muzzle, not much unlike the form of
+the teeth of the elephant, and by which he is distinguished from other
+roebucks.
+
+The letters from the emperor of China, to the viceroys, governors, eunuchs,
+and lieutenants, are conveyed on post-horses, which are distinguished by
+cut tails, and these are disposed at regular stations, all over the empire,
+almost like the posts among the Arabs. In China, every man, from the
+emperor to the meanest of the people, makes water standing [8]; and for
+this purpose, persons of dignity have gilded hollow canes, a cubit long, to
+convey their water to a distance. They are of opinion, that pains in the
+kidneys, strangury, and even the stone, are occasioned by urining in a
+sitting posture, as the reins cannot free themselves absolutely from evil
+humours, except by evacuating in an erect position. They do not mould the
+heads of new born infants into a round form as we do, as they allege that
+this practice injures the brain, and impairs the senses. They suffer their
+hair to grow, which is carefully combed. The nation is divided into tribes,
+like those of the Arabs and some others, and no man ever marries in his own
+tribe: just as the children of Thummim among the Arabs never take a wife
+from that tribe. Or, for example, a man of the tribe of Robayat marries a
+daughter of the tribe Modzar, and a Modzar marries a Robayat; and they are
+of opinion, that such alliances add to the dignity and power of their
+children.
+
+In the kingdom of the Balhara, and all the other kingdoms of the Indies,
+there are men who burn themselves in consequence of their belief in the
+doctrine of transmigration. When a man has come to this resolution, he asks
+leave of the king, which being obtained, he goes in procession round all
+the public squares of the city, and proceeds to the place appointed, where
+a pile of dry wood is ready for the purpose, having many persons all round
+to feed the fire, which blazes prodigiously. At last the person comes
+forward, preceded by a number of instruments, and moves round the pile in
+the midst of his friends and relations. During this ceremony, some person
+places on his head a garland of straw, or dry herbs, filled with burning
+coals, on which they pour _sandrach_, which takes fire as strongly as
+naphtha; notwithstanding of which, he continues his progress without
+betraying any sense of pain, or change of countenance, though the crown of
+his head be all on fire, and the stench of his burning flesh is felt all
+round. At length, he comes up to the pile, and throws himself in, where he
+is soon reduced to ashes. A credible person says, he once saw an Indian
+burn himself; and when he came near the pile, he drew out a cangiar, or
+sharp knife, with which he ripped himself open, and pulling out the lap of
+his liver with his left hand, cut off a piece of it with his cangiar, and
+gave it to one of his brothers, talking all the time with the most
+invincible contempt of death and torture, and at length leaped into the
+fire, in his passage to hell.
+
+At the accession of some kings of the Indies, the following ceremony is
+observed: A large quantity of rice is dressed and spread out upon leaves of
+mousa, in presence of the king. Then three or four hundred persons come, of
+their own accord, without any constraint whatever; and after the king has
+eaten of the rice, he gives some of it to all that come forwards in
+succession, which they eat in his presence; and by this ceremony, they
+engage to burn themselves on the day when this king dies or is slain, and
+they punctually fulfil their promise.
+
+In the mountainous parts of India, there are tribes who differ little from
+those we call _Kanisians_ and _Jelidians_ and who are addicted to all
+manner of superstition and vice; between whom, and the inhabitants of the
+people on the coast, there subsists great emulation, each daring the others
+to imitate them in the performance of strange superstitious tortures. There
+once came a man from the mountains on this errand, who gathered a multitude
+of the inhabitants of the coast to the following strange exhibition, daring
+them to imitate him, or otherwise to acknowledge themselves overcome. He
+sat down in a place planted with canes, and caused a strong one to be
+forcibly bent down, to which he strongly fastened the hairs of his head.
+"Now," said he, "I am going to cut off my own head with this cangiar; and
+as soon as it is severed from my body, let go the cane, and when my head
+flies up into the air, I will laugh, and you shall hear me." But the people
+of the coast had not courage to imitate him[9]. The person who related
+this, did it without emotion or wonder; and in our times, these facts are
+generally known, as this part of the Indies is in the neighbourhood of the
+country of the Arabs, and we hear from thence every day.
+
+In the Indies, they burn their dead; and it is customary for men and women
+to desire their families to throw them into the fire or to drown them, when
+they are grown old, or perceive themselves to sink under the pressure of
+disease, firmly believing that they are to return into other bodies. It has
+often happened, in the isle of Serendib, where there is a mine of precious
+stones in a mountain, a pearl-fishery, and other extraordinary things, that
+an Indian would come into the bazar or market-place, armed with a _kris_,
+and seize upon the most wealthy merchant there present, leading him out of
+the market, through a throng of people, holding the kris to his throat,
+while no one dared to attempt his rescue, as the Indian was sure, in such a
+case, to kill the merchant, and make away with himself; and when he had got
+the merchant out of the city, the Indian obliged him to redeem his life
+with a sum of money. To put an end to such outrages, an order was issued to
+seize such trespassers; but on attempting to execute this order, several
+merchants were killed, both Arabs and Indians, and the order was obliged to
+be repealed. In the mountains of Serendib, precious stones are found of
+various colours, red, green, and yellow[10], most of which are washed from
+caverns or crevices, by rains and torrents. In these places, the king has
+officers to watch over the people who gather the precious stones. In some
+places, these are dug out of mines, like the ores of metals, and the rock
+has often to be broken to come at the precious stones which it contains.
+The king of Serendib makes laws concerning the religion and government of
+the country; and there are assemblies held of doctors and learned men, like
+those of _Hadithis_ among the Arabs, to which the Indians repair, and write
+down what they hear of the lives of their prophets, and the expositions of
+their laws. In this island, there are temples in which great sums of money
+are expended on incense; and in one of these temples, there is a great idol
+all of pure gold, but concerning the weight of which travellers are not
+agreed. In the same island, there are great numbers of Jews, and persons of
+many other sects, even _Tanouis_, and Manichees, the kings permitting the
+free exercise of every religion. At the end of the island are vallies of
+great extent, extending quite to the sea, called _Gab Serendib_, of extreme
+beauty, and chequered with groves and plains, water and meads, and blessed
+with a wholesome air. A sheep may be there bought for half a dram, and for
+the same as much of their drink, made of palm-honey, boiled and prepared
+with _tari_, or toddi, as will suffice for many persons. The inhabitants
+are much addicted to gaming, particularly draughts. Their other principal
+diversion is cock-fighting, their cocks being very large, and better
+provided with spurs than ordinary; and besides this, the Indians arm them
+with blades of iron, in the form of cangiars or daggers. On these combats,
+they bet gold and silver, lands or farms; and they game with such fury,
+that debauchees, and desperate people, often stake the ends of their
+fingers, when their other property is exhausted. While at play for this
+extraordinary stake, they have a fire by them, on which a small pot of
+walnut oil, or oil of sesamum, is kept boiling; and when one has won a
+game, he chops off the end of the loser's finger, who immediately dips the
+stump into the boiling oil, to stem the blood; and some will persist so
+obstinately, as to have all their fingers thus mutilated. Some even will
+take a burning wick, and apply it to some member, till the scent of the
+burnt flesh is felt all around, while the stoic continues to play, without
+betraying the least sense of pain. Both men and women are so exceedingly
+addicted to debauchery, that a foreign merchant has been known to send even
+for a king's daughter, to attend him at the fishing grounds, in quality of
+mistress; wherefore the Mahomedan doctors at Siraff, strictly warn young
+people not to go there.
+
+In the Indies there are heavy rains, called _jasara_, which last
+incessantly day and night, for three months every year. The Indians prepare
+against these to the best of their power, as they shut themselves up in
+their houses during the whole time, all work being then performed within
+doors; and during this time, they are subject to ulcers in the soles of
+their feet, occasioned by the damps. Yet, these rains are of indispensable
+necessity; as, when they fail, the Indians are reduced to the utmost want,
+as their rice fields are watered only by the rains. It never rains during
+summer. The Indians have doctors, or devout men, named Bramins. They have
+poets also, who compose poems filled with the grossest flattery to their
+kings and great men. They have also astrologers, philosophers, soothsayers,
+men who observe the flight of birds, and others who pretend to the
+calculation of nativities, particularly at Kaduge, a great city in the
+kingdom of Gozar[11]. There are certain men called _Bicar_, who go all
+their lives naked, and suffer their hair to grow till it hides their hinder
+parts. They also allow their nails to grow, till they become pointed and
+sharp like swords. Each has a string round his neck, to which hangs an
+earthen dish, and when hungry, they go to any house, whence the inhabitants
+cheerfully supply them with boiled rice. They have many laws and religious
+precepts, by which they imagine that they please God. Part of their
+devotion consists in building _kans_, or inns, on the highways, for the
+accommodation of travellers; where also certain pedlars, or small dealers,
+are established, from whom the passengers may purchase what they stand in
+need of. There are also public women, who expose themselves to travellers.
+Some of these are called _women of the idol_, the origin of which
+institution is this: When a woman has laid herself under a vow, that she
+may have children, if she happens to produce a handsome daughter, she
+carries her child to the _bod_[12], so the idol is called. When this girl
+has attained the proper age, she takes an apartment in the temple, and
+waits the arrival of strangers, to whom she prostitutes herself for a
+certain hire, and delivers her gains to the priest for the support of the
+temple. All these things they reckon among their meritorious deeds. Praised
+be God who hath freed us from the sins which defile the people involved in
+unbelief!
+
+Not very far from Almansur there is a famous idol called Multan, to which
+the Indians resort in pilgrimage, from the remotest parts. Some of the
+pilgrims bring the odoriferous wood called Hud ul Camruni, so called from
+Camrun, where there is excellent aloes-wood. Some of this is worth 200
+_dinars_ the mawn, and is commonly marked with a seal, to distinguish it
+from another kind of less value. This the devotees give to the priests,
+that it may be burnt before the idol, but merchants often buy it from these
+priests. There are some Indians, making profession of piety, who go in
+search of unknown islands, or those newly discovered, on purpose to plant
+cocoa nut trees, and to sink wells for the use of ships. There are people
+at Oman who cross to these islands that produce the cocoa nut trees, of
+planks made from which they build ships, sewing the planks with yarns made
+from the bark of the tree. The mast is made of the same wood, the sails are
+formed from the leaves, and the bark is worked up into cordage: and having
+thus completed their vessel, they load her with cocoa nuts, which they
+bring to Oman for sale.
+
+The country of the Zinges, or Negroes, is of vast extent[13]. These people
+commonly sow millet, which is the chief food of the negroes. They have also
+sugar-canes and other trees, but their sugar is very black. The negroes are
+divided among a great number of kings, who are eternally at war with each
+other. Their kings are attended by certain men called Moharamin, each of
+whom has a ring in his nose, and a chain round his neck. When about to join
+battle with the enemy, each of the Moharamin takes the end of his
+neighbour's chain and passes it through the ring in his own nose, by which
+the whole are chained together, so that no one can possibly run away.
+Deputies are then sent to endeavour to make peace, and if that is done, the
+chains are unfastened, and they retire without fighting. But otherwise,
+when once the sword is unsheathed, every one of these men must conquer or
+die on the spot[14].
+
+These people have a profound veneration for the Arabs; and when they meet
+any one, they fall down before him, saying, "This man comes from the land
+of dates," of which they are very fond. They have preachers among them, who
+harangue with wonderful ability and perseverance. Some of these profess a
+religious life, and are covered with the skins of leopards or apes. One of
+these men will gather a multitude of people, to whom he will preach all day
+long concerning God, or about the actions of their ancestors. From this
+country they bring the leopards skins, called Zingiet, which are very large
+and broad, and ornamented with red and black spots.
+
+In this sea is the island of Socotra, whence come the best aloes. This
+island is near the land of the Zinges, or Negroes, and is likewise near
+Arabia; and most of its inhabitants are Christians, which is thus accounted
+for: When Alexander had subdued the empire of Persia, his preceptor,
+Aristotle, desired him to search out the island of Socotra, which afforded
+aloes, and without which the famous medicine Hiera[15] could not be
+compounded; desiring him likewise to remove the natives and to plant there
+a colony of Greeks, who might supply Syria, Greece, and Egypt with aloes.
+This was done accordingly; and when God sent Jesus Christ into the world,
+the Greeks of this isle embraced the Christian faith, like the rest of
+their nation, and have persevered in it to this day, like all the other
+inhabitants of the islands[16].
+
+In the first book, no mention is made of the sea which stretches away to
+the right, as ships depart from Oman and the coast of Arabia, to launch out
+into the great sea: and the author describes only the sea on the left hand,
+in which are comprehended the seas of India and China. In this sea, to the
+right as you leave Oman, is the country of Sihar or Shihr, where
+frankincense grows, and other countries possessed by the nations of Ad,
+Hamyar, Jorham, and Thabatcha, who have the Sonna, in Arabic of very
+ancient date, but differing in many things from what is in the hands of the
+Arabs, and containing many traditions unknown to us. They have no villages,
+and live a very hard and miserably wandering life; but their country
+extends almost as far as Aden and Judda on the coast of Yaman, or Arabia
+the happy. From Judda, it stretches up into the continent, as far as the
+coast of Syria, and ends at Kolzum. The sea at this place is divided by a
+slip of land, which God hath fixed as a line of separation between the two
+seas[17]. From Kolzum the sea stretches along the coast of the Barbarians,
+to the west coast, which is opposite to Yaman, and then along the coast of
+Ethiopia, from whence we have the leopard skins of Barbary[18], which are
+the best of all, and the most skilfully dressed; and lastly, along the
+coast of Zeilah, whence come excellent amber and tortoiseshell.
+
+When the Siraff ships arrive in the Red Sea, they go no farther than Judda,
+whence their cargo is transported to Cairo, or _Kahira_ by ships of Kolsum,
+the pilots of which are acquainted with the navigation of the upper end of
+this sea, which is full of rocks up to the water's edge; because, also,
+along the coast there are no kings[19], and scarcely any inhabitants; and
+because, every night ships are obliged to put into some place for safety,
+for fear of striking on the rocks, or must ride all night at anchor,
+sailing only in the day-time. This sea is likewise subject to very thick
+fogs, and to violent gales of wind, and is therefore of very dangerous
+navigation, and devoid of any safe or pleasant anchorage. It is not, like
+the seas of India and China, whose bottom is rich with pearls and
+ambergris; whose mountains are stored with gold, precious stones, and
+ivory; whose coasts produce ebony, redwood, aloes, camphor, nutmegs,
+cloves, sandal, and all other spices and aromatics; where parrots and
+peacocks are birds of the forest, and in which musk and civet are collected
+in abundance: so productive, in short, are these shores of articles of
+infinite variety, and inestimable value, that it were vain to endeavour to
+make any enumeration.
+
+Ambergris is thrown upon this coast by the flux of the sea, but its origin
+is unknown. It is found on the coast of the Indies, but the best, which is
+of a bluish white, and in round lumps, is got upon the Barbarian coast: or
+on the confines of the land of the Negroes, towards Sihar and that
+neighbourhood. The inhabitants of that country have camels trained for the
+purpose, on which they ride along the shore in moonshine nights, and when
+the camels perceive a piece of amber, he bends his knees, on which the
+rider dismounts, and secures his prize. There is another kind which swims
+on the surface of the sea in great lumps, sometimes as big as the body of
+an ox, or somewhat less. When a certain fish, named _Tal_, of the whale
+tribe, sees these floating lumps, he swallows them, and is thereby killed;
+and when the people, who are accustomed to this fishery, see a whale
+floating on the surface, they know that this whale has swallowed ambergris,
+and going out in their boats, they dart their harpoons into its body, and
+tow it on shore, and split the animal down the back, to get out the
+ambergris. What is found about the belly of the whale is commonly spoiled
+by the wet, and has an unpleasant scent; but the ambergris which is not
+contaminated by the ordure in the belly of the whale, is perfectly
+good[20].
+
+It is not unusual to employ the vertebrae of this species of whale as
+stools; and it is said, there are many houses in the village of Tain, ten
+leagues from Siraff, in which the lintels of the doors are made of whale
+ribs. An eye-witness told me that he went to see a whale which had been
+cast ashore, near Siraff, and found the people mounting on its back by
+means of ladders; that they dug pits in different parts of his body, and
+when the sun had melted the grease into oil, they collected this, and sold
+it to the masters of ships, who mixed it up with some other matter, used by
+seamen for the purpose of serving the bottoms of their vessels, and
+securing the seams of the planks, to prevent or to stop leaks. This
+whale-oil sells for a great deal of money; and the bones of the whale are
+sold by the druggists of Bagdat and Bassora.
+
+The pearl oyster is at first a small thin tender substance, resembling the
+leaves of the plant called _Anjedana_, and swims on the surface of the sea,
+where it sticks to the sides of ships under water. It there hardens, grows
+larger, and becomes covered by a shell; after which, it becomes heavy, and
+falls to the bottom of the sea, where it subsists, and grows in a way of
+which we are ignorant. The included animal resembles a piece of red flesh,
+or like the tongue of an animal towards the root, having no bones, veins,
+or sinews. One opinion of the production of pearls in this shell-fish is,
+that the oyster rises to the surface when it rains, and, by gaping, catches
+the drops of rain, which harden into pearls. The more likely opinion is,
+that the pearls are generated within the body of the oyster, for most of
+them are fixed, and not moveable. Such as are loose are called _seed_
+pearls.
+
+An Arab came once to Bassora with a pearl of great value, which he shewed
+to a merchant, and was astonished when he got so large a sum for it as an
+hundred drams of silver; with which he purchased corn to carry back to his
+own country. But the merchant carried his acquisition to Bagdad, where he
+sold it for a large sum of money, by which he was afterwards enabled to
+extend his dealings to a great amount. The Arab gave the following account
+of the way in which he had found this large pearl: Going one day along the
+shore, near Saman, in the district of Bahrein[21], he saw a fox lying dead,
+with something hanging at his muzzle, which held him fast, which he
+discovered to be a white lucid shell, in which he found this pearl. He
+concluded that the oyster had been thrown ashore by a tempest, and lay with
+its shell open on the beach, when the fox, attracted by the smell, had
+thrust in his muzzle to get at the meat, on which the oyster closed its
+shell, and held him fast till he died: for it is a property of the oyster
+never to let go its hold, except forcibly opened, by thrusting in an iron
+instrument between the shells, carefully guarding its included pearl, as a
+mother preserves her child.
+
+The kings of the Indies wear ear-rings of gold, set with precious stones,
+and they wear collars of great value, adorned with gems of various colours,
+chiefly green and red; yet pearls are most esteemed, and their value
+surpasses that of all other jewels, and these they hoard up in their
+treasuries, with their most precious things. The grandees of their courts,
+their great officers, and the military commanders, wear similar jewels in
+their collars. Their dress is a kind of half vest, and they carry parasols
+made of peacocks feathers to shade them from the sun, and are surrounded by
+great trains of servants.
+
+Among the Indians, there are certain people who never eat two out of the
+same dish or even at the same table, on account of some religious opinion.
+When these come to Siraf, and are invited by our considerable merchants,
+were there a hundred of them more or less, they must each have a separate
+dish, without the least communication with the rest. Their kings and
+principal persons have fresh tables made for them every day, with little
+dishes and plates wove of the cocoa nut leaf, out of which they eat their
+victuals. And when their meal is over, the table dishes and plates are all
+thrown into the water, together with the fragments of their food; so that
+they must have a fresh service for every meal.
+
+To the Indies the merchants used formerly to carry the dinars, called
+sindiat, or gold coins of the _Sind_, which passed there for three of our
+dinars, or even more. Thither also were carried emeralds from Egypt, which
+were much used for setting in rings.
+
+
+[1] From the description of this place afterwards, in the travels of Ebn
+    Wahab, in this article, it appears to have been Nankin.--E.
+
+[2] The chronology of the Chinese history is attended with extreme
+    difficulty. According to Du Halde: In the reign of the emperor _Hi
+    Tseng_, the 18th of the _Tsong_ dynasty, the empire fell into great
+    confusion, in consequence of heavy taxations, and a great famine
+    occasioned by the inundation of the rivers, and the ravages of
+    locusts. These things caused many insurrections, and a rebel, named
+    _Hoan Tsia_ put himself at the head of the malcontents, and drove the
+    emperor from the imperial city. But he was afterwards defeated, and
+    the emperor restored. It must be owned that there are about twenty
+    years difference between the time of the rebellion mentioned in the
+    text, and the date of the great revolt, as assigned by Du Halde; but
+    whether the mistake lies in the Arabian manuscript, or in the
+    difficulties of Chinese chronology, I cannot take upon me to
+    determine; yet both stories probably relate to the same event.
+    --Harris.
+
+[3] According to Abulpharagius, one Abu Said revolted against the Khaliff
+    Al Mohated, in the year of the hegira, 285, A.D. 893, and laid waste
+    Bassora. This date agrees with the story of Ebn Wahab in the text.
+    --Harris.
+
+[4] From this circumstance, it appears probable that the great canal of
+    China was not then constructed.--E.
+
+[5] Some circumstances in this very interesting detail have been a little
+    curtailed. If Abu Zaid had been a man of talents, he might surely have
+    acquired and transmitted more useful information from this traveller;
+    who indeed seems to have been a poor drivelling zelot.--E.
+
+[6] There is a vast deal of error in this long paragraph. It certainly was
+    impossible to ascertain the route or voyage of the wreck, which was
+    _said_ to have been cast away on the coast of Syria. If it could have
+    been ascertained to have come from the sea of the Chozars, or the
+    Euxine, by the canal of Constantinople, and the Egean, into the gulf
+    of Syria, and actually was utterly different from the build of the
+    Mediterranean, it may or must have been Russian. If it certainly was
+    built at Siraff, some adventurous Arabian crew must have doubled the
+    south of Africa from the east, and perished when they had well nigh
+    immortalized their fame, by opening up the passage by sea from Europe
+    to India: And as the Arabian Moslems very soon navigated to Zanguebar,
+    Hinzuan, and Madagascar, where their colonies still remain, this list
+    is not impossible, though very unlikely. The ambergris may have
+    proceeded from a sick cachalot that had wandered into the
+    Mediterranean.
+
+    The north-east passage around the north of Asia and Europe, which is
+    adduced by the commentator, in Harris's Collection, is now thoroughly
+    known to be impracticable.--E.
+
+[7] It is difficult to say anything certain of the countries to which this
+    story relates; which may have been some of the islands now called
+    Philipines, or perhaps some of the islands in the straits of Sunda.
+    --Harris.
+
+    Such is the opinion of the editor of Harris's Collection. But I am
+    disposed, especially from the rivers mentioned, to consider Zapage as
+    Pegu; and that Malacca, Sumatra, and Java, were the dependent islands;
+    and particularly, that Malacca, as the great mart of early trade,
+    though actually no island, was the Cala of Abu Zeid. Siam, or Cambodia
+    may have been the kingdom of Komar.--E.
+
+[8] This alludes to the custom of the Arabs, and other orientals, to squat
+    upon this occasion.--E.
+
+[9] It is presumable, that this was a mere bravado, in the full confidence
+    that no one would be found sufficiently foolhardy to engage to follow
+    the example. It is needless to say, that the promise of laughing aloud
+    could not have been performed; so that any one might have safely
+    accepted the challenge, conditioning for the full performance of the
+    vaunt.--E.
+
+[10] Rubies, emeralds, and topazes.--E.
+
+[11] Obviously Canoge, in Bengal.--E.
+
+[12] Buddah, the principal god of an extensive sect, now chiefly confined
+    to Ceylon, and India beyond the Ganges.--E.
+
+[13] The author makes here an abrupt transition to the eastern coast of
+    Africa, and calls it the country of the Zinges; congeneric with the
+    country of Zanguebar, and including Azania, Ajen, and Adel, on the
+    north; and Inhambane, Sabia, Sofala, Mocaranga, Mozambique, and
+    Querimba, to the south; all known to, and frequented by the Arabs.--E.
+
+[14] This incredible story may have originated from an ill-told account of
+    the war bulls of the Caffres, exaggerated into fable, after the usual
+    manner of the Arabs, always fond of the marvellous.--E.
+
+[15] It is somewhat singular to find this ancient Arabian author mentioning
+    the first word of the famous _Hiera Picra_, or Holy Powder; a compound
+    stomachic purge of aloes and spices, probably combined by the ancients
+    with many other ingredients, as it is by the moderns with rhubarb,
+    though now only given in tincture or solution with wine or spirits.
+    The story of Alexander rests only on its own Arabian basis.--E.
+
+[16] Meaning, doubtless, the isles of the Mediterranean.--E.
+
+[17] Referring, obviously, to the Isthmus of Suez.--E.
+
+[18] This does not refer to the coast of Barbary in the Mediterranean, but
+    must mean the coast of the barbarian Arabs or Bedouins.--E.
+
+[19] This singular expression probably signifies that the inhabitants are
+    without law or regular government.--E.
+
+[20] This curious account of the origin of ambergris, was revived again
+    about twenty-five years ago, and published in the Philosophical
+    Transactions of the Royal Society of London, as a new discovery. The
+    only difference in the modern account of the matter is, that the
+    ambergris originates within the alimentary canal of the whale, in
+    consequence, probably, of some disease; and that the lumps which are
+    found afloat, or cast on shore, had been extruded by these
+    animals.--E.
+
+[21] Bahrein is an island in the Persian gulf, on the Arabian shore, still
+    celebrated for its pearl fishery.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. V.
+
+_Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela, through Europe, Asia, and Africa,
+from Spain to China, between A.D. 1160 and 1173_[1].
+
+
+This Spanish Jew was the son of Rabbi Jonas, of Tudela, a small town in
+Navarre. According to the testimony of Rabbi Abraham Zuka, a celebrated
+professor of astronomy at Salamanca, it is supposed that Rabbi Benjamin
+travelled from 1160 to 1173. Young Barratier, a prodigy of early literary
+genius, asserts that Benjamin never made the journey at all, but patched up
+the whole work from contemporary writers. There is no doubt that his work
+is full of incredible tales, yet many of the anomalies it contains, may
+have proceeded from mistakes of copyists; exaggeration was the taste of the
+times, and other travellers who are believed actually to have travelled,
+are not behind him in the marvellous. These often relate the miracles of
+pretended Christian saints, while he details the wonders performed by
+Jewish Rabbis. He contains however, many curious pieces of information, not
+to be found anywhere else, and it seems necessary and proper to give a full
+abstract of his travels in this place.
+
+Travelling by land to Marseilles, Benjamin embarked for Genoa, and
+proceeded to Rome, from whence he went through the kingdom of Naples to
+Otranto, where he crossed over to Corfu and Butrinto, and journeyed by land
+through Greece to Constantinople, having previously visited the country of
+Wallachia. All this takes up the four first chapters, which are omitted in
+Harris. In the fifth, he gives an account of the city and Court of
+Constantinople, as follows: Constantinople is an exceedingly great city,
+the capital of the Javanites[2], or the nation called Greeks, and the
+principal seat of the emperor Emanuel[3], whose commands are obeyed by
+twelve kings, for every one of whom there are several palaces in
+Constantinople, and they have fortresses and governments in other places of
+the empire, and to them the whole land is subject. The principal of these
+is the Apripus, _Praepositus_, or prime minister; the second, Mega
+Dumastukitz, [Greek: Mezas Domestichos], or great chamberlain; the third
+Dominot, _Dominos_, or lord: but his peculiar office or department does not
+appear; the fourth Mackducus, [Greek: Mezas Dochas], great duke or high
+Admiral; the fifth Iknomus Megli, [Greek: Oichonomos mezas], or lord high
+steward of the household; and the rest have names like unto these[4].
+Constantinople is eighteen miles in circuit, half of it being on the sea,
+and the other half towards the continent; it stands on two arms of the sea,
+into one of which the sea flows from Russia, and into the other from Spain;
+and its port is frequented by many traders, from the countries and
+provinces of Babylon, Senaar, Media, Persia, Egypt, Canaan, Russia,
+Hungary, _Psianki[5], Buria_, Lombardy, and Spain.
+
+The city is extremely populous, and hath none to compare with it, except
+Bagdat, the mighty city of the Ismaelites[6]. In it is the magnificent
+temple of St Sophia, where dwells the patriarch of the Greeks, who do not
+agree in doctrine with the pope of Rome. This temple contains as many
+altars as there are days in the year, and it has a revenue beyond all
+estimation great, from the offerings and riches brought continually from
+divers countries, islands, forts, castles, and places, so that the wealth
+of no other temple on earth can be compared to the riches which it
+contains. In the middle of this temple there are pillars of gold and
+silver, huge candlesticks, lanterns, lamps, and other ornaments of these
+precious metals, more than can be reckoned. Close to this temple there is a
+place set apart for the diversion of the emperor, called the Hippodrome,
+where great spectacles are represented yearly, on the birth-day of Jesus of
+Nazareth, in which men in the habits of all the various people of the
+earth, appear before the emperor and empress, with lions, bears, leopards,
+and wild asses, which are made to fight together; and in no country on
+earth are such princely sports to be seen.
+
+Besides the palace left him by his ancestors, Manuel has built one for
+himself, called Bilbernae[7], the pillars and walls of which are overlaid
+with beaten gold and silver, on which all the wars of his ancestors are
+represented. In this palace there is a throne of gold and precious stones,
+over which a golden crown, enriched with precious stones and pearls, is
+suspended on high, the value of which is beyond computation, and its lustre
+so great, that it shines, and may be seen in the night. There are other
+things in this palace of such value and profusion as are quite incredible,
+and immense tributes are brought yearly into it, by which the towers are
+filled with scarlet and purple garments and gold, so that the like example
+of sumptuous buildings, and enormous riches, can nowhere else be found in
+the world.
+
+It is affirmed, that the revenue of the city only, from its markets,
+harbour, and tribute of merchants, amount to 20,000 crowns daily. The Greek
+inhabitants of this city and country are exceedingly rich in gold and
+jewels, and are sumptuously dressed in crimson garments, intermingled with
+gold, or splendidly embroidered, and are all carried on horses, as if they
+were the children of kings. The country itself is very extensive, and
+abounds with all sorts of fruits, and has great plenty of corn, wine, and
+cattle of all kinds, and a finer country is nowhere to be found. The people
+are learned also, and skilful in the philosophy of the Greeks: but giving
+themselves up entirely to luxury, they eat and drink every man under his
+own vine, and under his own fig-tree. They have mercenary soldiers, hired
+from all nations, whom they call Barbarians, to fight against the soldan,
+king of the children of Togorma, who are commonly called Turks; for the
+Grecians themselves, through sloth and luxury, have become quite effeminate
+and unfit for wars, and entirely devoted to pleasure.
+
+No Jews are permitted to dwell in the city, but are obliged to reside in
+Pera, on the other side of the sea of Sophia, and are not even allowed to
+come to the city, except in boats, for the sake of commerce. In Pera there
+are about 2000 Jewish Rabbinists, disciples of the wise men; among whom are
+Abtalion the Great, Rabbi Abdias, Aaron Cuspus, Joseph Starginus, and
+Eliakim the governor, who have the chief authority. Besides these, there
+are 500 Karaites[8], who are separated from the Rabbinists by a wall. Among
+the Jews there are some manufacturers of silken garments, and many very
+rich merchants. No Jew is permitted to ride on horseback, except Solomon,
+the Egyptian, who is physician to the Emperor, and through whose interest
+the Jews are comforted and eased in their captivity, which is very
+grievous; for they are much hated by the Grecians, who make no distinction
+between the good and the evil among them, and insult and beat them in the
+streets. They are worst used by the tanners, who pour out the filthy water
+in which they have dressed their skins into the streets before their doors.
+Yet, among the Jews there are some very rich men, as I have said before;
+good and merciful men, who observe the commandments, and who patiently
+endure the miseries of the captivity.
+
+From Constantinople, Benjamin continued his journey to Tyre, Jerusalem, and
+the Holy Land, and thence to Damascus, Balbeck, and Palmyra, which he calls
+Tadmor, and in which, he says, there then were 2000 Jews. He next gives an
+account of Bagdat, the court of the caliph, and the condition of the Jews
+there. He afterwards gives an account of a country which he calls Thema,
+where he places a whole nation of Jews, which some have deemed an entire
+forgery[9]. He next proceeds to Botzra, Balsora or Bassora, on the Tigris,
+and thence to Persia, of which he gives the following account.
+
+The river Samoura[10] is esteemed the limits of the kingdom of Persia, and
+near it stands the city of the same name, in which there are 1500 Jews.
+Here is the sepulchre of Esdras, the scribe and priest, who died in this
+place on his return from Jerusalem to the court of Artaxerxes. Our people
+have built a great synagogue beside his tomb, and the Ismaelites, Arabians,
+or Mahometans, have built a mosque close by, as they have a great respect
+for Esdras and the Jews.  It is four miles from hence to Chuzestan, which
+is the same with the ancient city of Elam, now almost ruined and
+uninhabited. At one end, surrounded by ruins, is the castle of Susa,
+formerly the palace of Ahasuerus, of which there are still some remains.
+In this place there are 7000 Jews and fourteen synagogues, before one of
+which stands the tomb of Daniel. The river Tigris[11] runs through this
+city, over which there is a bridge.  All the Jews on one side of the river
+are very rich, having well filled shops, and carry on great trade, while
+those on the other side are very poor, having neither market, shops,
+gardens, or orchards.  This caused them once to make an insurrection, from
+a notion that the glory and riches of those on the other side of the river
+was occasioned by their having the sepulchre of the prophet Daniel on their
+side.  The insurgents, therefore, demanded to have his tomb transferred to
+their side, which was vehemently opposed by the others, and war ensued
+between them: But both parties growing weary of the war, it was agreed that
+the coffin of Daniel should remain one year on one side of the river, and
+next year on the other. This treaty was observed for some time, but was
+cancelled in the sequel by Sanigar-Shah, son to the great shah of Persia,
+who rules over forty-five princes. This great king is called in Arabic
+Sultan Phars Al-Chabir. His empire extends from the river Samoura to
+Samarcand, the river Gozan, the province of Gisbor, including the cities of
+the Medes, the mountains of Haphton, and to the province of Thibet, in the
+forests of which country are found the animals which produce musk; and the
+empire is four months and four days journey in length.
+
+Sangiar being at Elam, saw the elders of the people transporting the coffin
+of Daniel from one side of the river to the other, attended by an immense
+crowd of Jews and Ismaelites; and, being informed of the cause, gave orders
+that the coffin should be suspended in a glass case, by chains of iron,
+from the middle of the bridge, and that a spacious synagogue should be
+erected in the same place, open to all, whether Jews or Gentiles, who might
+incline to pray there; and he commanded, from reverence for Daniel, that no
+fish should be taken in the river for a mile above or below the bridge.
+
+From Elam to Robat-bar are three days journey, where dwell 20,000
+Israelites, among whom are many disciples of the wise men, some of them
+being very rich; but they live under the authority of a strange prince. In
+two days journey more is the river Vanth, near which dwell 4000 Jews. Four
+days journey farther is the country of Molhat, full of strong mountains,
+the inhabitants of which obey an elder who resides in the country of
+Alchesisin, and they do not believe the doctrine of Mahomet. Among this
+people there are four colleges of Jews, who go forth to war with the
+inhabitants, invading the neighbouring countries, and drive away great
+spoil; for they are not under the dominion of the king of Persia. The Jews
+in this country are disciples of the wise men, and obey the head of the
+captivity of Babylon. In five days journey you reach Omaria, where are
+25,000 Israelites, and here begin the synagogues of the mountains of
+Haphton, which exceed one hundred in number, and in this place the country
+of Media begins. These Jews are of the first captivity, carried away by
+Salmanazar; but they speak the Chaldean language, and among them are the
+disciples of the wise men. The chief city is Omaria, and all this country
+is under the dominion of Persia, to which the inhabitants pay tribute. The
+tribute for males above fifteen years old, in all the country of the
+Ismaelites, is one gold _amir_, or half-a-crown of our money.
+
+About twelve years ago there arose, in the city of Omaria, a man named
+David Elroi, who was the disciple of Chafdai, the head of the captivity,
+and of Jacob the chief of the Levites at Bagdat. David was very learned in
+the law of Moses, and in the books of doctrine, and in all wisdom, even in
+the languages of the Ismaelites, and in the books of the Magi and the
+enchanters; and he took it into his head to gather together the Jews who
+dwelt in the mountains of Haphton, and to make war against the king of
+Persia, and to go to Jerusalem and win it by assault. For this purpose he
+endeavoured to draw the Jews to his party by many deceitful signs,
+affirming that he was sent from God to free them from the yoke of the
+nations, and to restore them to the holy city; and he succeeded in
+persuading many that he was the Messiah[12].
+
+Hearing of this insurrection, the king of Persia sent for David, who went
+to him without fear, and even avowed himself to be king of the Jews, on
+which he was thrown into prison in the city of Dabrestan, near the great
+river Gozan. After this the king held a great council of his princes and
+ministers, to consult how to put an end to this insurrection of the Jews,
+and David made his appearance there, unseen of any but the king. The king
+asked, "Who hath delivered thee from prison and brought thee here?" To whom
+David answered, "Mine own wisdom, for I fear not thee or any of thy
+servants." Then the king commanded his servants to seize him; but they said
+the voice was heard by all, but they saw not David. Then David cried out
+with a loud voice, "Lo! I go my way." And he walked out, and the king
+followed him, and all his servants followed the king, but they saw no one.
+Coming to the bank of the river, David spread his handkerchief on the
+waters, and he passed over dry, and then he was seen of all who were
+present; and they endeavoured to pursue him in boats, but all in vain; and
+every one marvelled, and said that no enchanter could be compared to this
+man.
+
+David during that day travelled a ten days journey, and, coming to Omaria,
+related all that had befallen him; and when the people were amazed, he
+attributed all that had befallen him to his knowledge of the ineffable name
+of Jehovah[13]. The king sent messengers to inform the caliph of Bagdat of
+what had happened, requesting that he would get David restrained from his
+seditious practices, by order from the head of the captivity, and the chief
+rulers of the assembly of the Jews; otherwise threatening total destruction
+to all the Jews in his dominions. All the synagogues in Persia, being in
+great fear, wrote to the head of the captivity, and the assembly of elders
+at Bagdat, to the same purpose; and they wrote to David, commanding him to
+desist from his enterprize, under pain of being excommunicated and cut off
+from among the people of Israel. But all was in vain, for David persisted
+in his wicked course; till at length Zinaldin, a king of the Togarmim, or
+Turks, in subjection to the king of Persia, persuaded the father-in-law of
+David, by a bribe of ten thousand pieces of gold, to kill him privately,
+and he thrust David through with a sword in his bed, while asleep. Yet was
+not the anger of the king of Persia pacified towards the Jews of the
+mountains, until the head of the captivity went and appeased him with mild
+and wise speeches, and by the gift of an hundred talents of gold; since
+which time there has been peace and quiet in the land.
+
+From these mountains it is twelve days journey to Hamadan, the chief city
+of Media, in which there are 50,000 Jews, and near one of their synagogues
+are the sepulchres of Mordecai and Esther. Dabrestan, near the river Gozan,
+is four days journey from Hamadan, and 4000 Jews dwell there. From thence
+it is seven days journey to Ispahan, which is a very great city and the
+capital of the whole country, being twelve miles in circumference. In this
+city there are about 12,000 Jews, over whom, and all the rest of our nation
+who dwell in the kingdom of Persia, Shallum is appointed to rule by the
+head of the captivity. Four days journey from Ispahan is Siaphaz[14], the
+most ancient city of this country, formerly Persidis, whence the whole
+province is named, in which there are almost 10,000 Jews. From Siaphaz you
+come, in seven days journey, to the city of Ginah, near the river Gozan,
+where there are about 8000 Jews, and to this place merchants resort of all
+nations and languages. Five days journey from Ginah is the famous
+Samarcand, the farthest city of this kingdom, where there are 50,000
+Israelites, many of whom are wise and rich men, and over whom Obedias is
+ruler. Four days journey from thence is the city of Thibet[15], the capital
+of the province of that name, in the forests of which the animals are found
+that produce musk.
+
+The mountains of Nisbor, which are situated near the river Gozan, are about
+twenty-eight days journey from Thibet; and some of the Jews in Persia
+affirm, that the four tribes of Israel, carried away in the first captivity
+by Salmanazar, still inhabit the cities of Nisbor. Their country extends
+twenty days journey in length, all full of mountains, and having the river
+Gozan running on one side, with many inhabited cities, towns, and castles;
+and the inhabitants are entirely free, being governed by Joseph Amrael, a
+Levite, and among them are many disciples of the wise men. They sow and
+reap, and are at war with the children of Chus, who dwell in the
+deserts[16]. These Jews are in league with the Copheral Turks, a people who
+dwell in the deserts, and eat no bread, neither do they drink any wine, but
+feed on the raw or dried flesh of beasts, clean or unclean, devouring them
+newly killed, while yet trembling with the warm life-blood, and uncooked;
+yea, even feed on the limbs torn from beasts yet alive. This last people
+seem to want noses, having only as it were two holes in their faces through
+which they breathe[17].
+
+These Copheral Turks invaded Persia about fifteen years ago, about 1145,
+with a great army, and destroyed the metropolitan city of Rei[18], and
+carried off vast spoil into the desert. Enraged at this insult, the king of
+Persia endeavoured to pursue them with a powerful army, that he might
+extirpate these destroyers from the earth, and procured a guide who
+undertook to conduct him to their dwellings, and recommended to him to take
+bread and water for fifteen days along with the army, as it would occupy
+that time to pass the deserts. After marching these fifteen days, the army
+was without subsistence for man and beast, and no signs could be perceived
+of any habitation of mankind. On being interrogated, the guide pretended to
+have lost his way, and was put to death as a traitor. After marching for
+thirteen days more, in prodigious distress, during which they had to eat up
+all the beasts that carried their baggage, they arrived at the mountains of
+Nisbor, inhabited by the Jews, and incamped among gardens and orchards,
+watered by canals drawn from the river Gozan; and being then the season of
+ripe fruits, they eat what they pleased, no one appearing to oppose them.
+At a distance among the mountains, they observed some hamlets and forts,
+and two scouts were sent to discover what manner of people inhabited the
+mountains. After proceeding a short way, they found a well built bridge,
+with a strong barrier, and a very large city at the farther end of the
+bridge. They here learned, by an interpreter, that the city belonged to an
+independent nation of Jews, who had a prince of their own, and were in
+alliance with the Copheral Turks.
+
+The scouts returned to the camp with this intelligence, and the Jews,
+having collected their forces, offered battle on the day following to the
+Persians, The king declined this, declaring that his only object was
+against the Copheral Turks, and that if the Jews attacked him he would
+revenge himself by putting all their brethren in Persia to the sword; but
+he demanded free passage for his army, and to be supplied with provisions
+for ready money. Out of regard for their brethren in Persia, the Jews
+agreed to this proposal, and the Persian army remained fifteen days in the
+country of the Jews, where they were honourably entertained. In the mean
+time the Jews sent intelligence of the situation of the Persians to their
+confederates, and the Turks, gathering their forces, assailed the Persians
+at certain passes in the mountains, and gave them a terrible overthrow; so
+that the king escaped with great difficulty into Persia, with a small
+remnant of his host. On this occasion, one of the Persian horsemen seduced
+a Jew, named Moses, to accompany him into Persia, and then made him a
+slave. On a public exhibition of archery in the king's presence, this man
+appeared to be the most expert archer in all Persia, and being called
+before the king, declared how he had been trepanned and made a slave. The
+king restored him to liberty; clothed him in purple and silken garments,
+and enriched him with liberal gifts; offering him great riches, and the
+government of the royal household, if he would embrace the religion of the
+country; and when he courteously declined this, he was placed by the king
+with Rabbi Shallum, the prince of the synagogue at Ispahan, whose daughter
+he afterwards married; and this Moses related to me the whole story I have
+here related.
+
+Departing from these countries, I returned to Khosistan, through which the
+Tigris runs into _Hodu_, the Indian sea, or Persian Gulf, and in its
+passage encompasses the island of Nekrokis[19] near its mouth, which is six
+days journey in extent. There is only one canal of fresh water in this
+island, and they have no other water to drink but what is gathered during
+rain, and preserved, in cisterns, for which reason the land is not
+cultivated. Yet it is famous for commerce with India, and the islands of
+the Indian sea; and merchants from Sennar, Arabia, and Persia, bring
+thither all sorts of silk and purple manufactures, hemp, cotton, flax, and
+Indian cloth, with plenty of wheat, barley, millet, and rice. The Indian
+merchants bring also great quantities of spices, and the natives act as
+factors and interpreters, by which they make great gains; but in that place
+there are not above 500 Jews. Sailing thence with a favourable wind, I
+arrived, in ten days, at Kathipha[20], where are 5000 Jews. In these places
+pearls are found, made by a wonderful artifice of nature; for on the 24th
+of the month Nisan[21] a certain dew falls into the waters, which, being
+sucked in by the oysters, they sink immediately to the bottom of the sea,
+and afterwards, about the middle of the month Tisri, men dive to the
+bottom, and bring up great quantities of the oysters by means of cords,
+from which they take out the pearls.
+
+In seven days journey from thence I came to Oulam[22], which is the
+entrance of the kingdom of these people, who worship the sun, and are prone
+to astrology, being of the children of Chus. They are men of a dark
+complexion, sincere and faithful in all their dealings. When any strangers
+arrive in their haven, their names are all set down by three secretaries,
+who carry their lists to the king; afterwards they introduce the merchants
+to him, and he receives all their goods under his protection, causing them
+to be landed at a place where they may remain in safety, even without a
+watch. There is a particular magistrate to whom all things that happen to
+be lost, or casually removed, are brought, and who returns them to the
+owners, on giving the marks or description of their property; and this
+strict fidelity and honest dealing is universal over all this kingdom. In
+this country, from the passover to the beginning of the succeeding year,
+the sun shines with such insufferable heat, that the people remain shut up
+in their houses from the third hour of the day until evening; and then
+lamps are lighted up in all the streets and markets, and the people labour
+at their respective callings all night. In this country pepper grows on
+trees, planted in the fields belonging to every city, all the inhabitants
+having their proper gardens particularly assigned and known. The shrub is
+small, and produces a white seed or berry, which, after being gathered, is
+first steeped in hot water, and then dried in the sun, when it becomes
+black. Cinnamon and ginger are likewise found here, and many other kinds of
+spices.
+
+In this country the bodies of the dead are embalmed with divers drugs and
+spices, and set up in niches in regular order, covered over with nets; they
+there dry up completely without corruption, and every one knows his
+ancestors for many generations back. They worship the sun, said have many
+large altars erected along the coast, about half a mile without the city,
+to pay their devotions. On these altars there are consecrated spheres, made
+by magic art, resembling the circle of the sun; and when the sun rises,
+these orbs seem to be inflamed, and whirl round with a great noise[23]. In
+their orisons, every person carries a censer, in which he burns incense in
+honour of the sun. But among these people there are about a thousand
+families of Jews, as black as the rest of the natives, yet good honest men,
+and strict observers of the law of Moses, and not entirely ignorant of the
+doctrines of the Talmud.
+
+From this country I sailed, in twenty-two days, to the islands of Cinrog,
+the inhabitants of which are called Dogbiim, and are worshippers of fire,
+among whom 23,000 Jews are settled. The Dogbiim have many priests to
+officiate in their temples, who are the most skilful sorcerers and
+enchanters in the world. Before every temple there is a large pit, in which
+a great fire is kindled every day, called Alhuta, through which their
+children are made to pass as a purification; into it likewise they cast the
+bodies of their dead, and even some of their nobles occasionally are so
+superstitious as to devote themselves to be consumed alive in honour of the
+deity, in which they are encouraged by their relations, as ensuring their
+eternal welfare. On the day appointed for the performance of this vow, the
+devoted person first gives an entertainment, and is then carried to the
+appointed spot; if rich, on horseback, but on foot if poor, accompanied by
+a multitude of his friends and others, and immediately leaps into the midst
+of the burning pit, all his friends and kindred celebrating the festival
+with music and dancing, until he is entirely consumed. Three days
+afterwards two of the priests go to the house of the devoted person, and
+command his family to prepare for a visit from the deceased on the same
+day. The priests then take certain persons along with them, as witness of
+the transaction, and carry with them, to the house, a figure resembling the
+deceased, which they affirm to be himself. The widow and children, as
+instructed by the priests, then demand how it fares with him in the other
+world: to which he answers, "I came to my companions, who will not receive
+me until I have discharged my duty to my friends and kindred." He then
+makes a distribution of his effects among his children, orders all his
+debts to be paid, and whatever is owing to him to be demanded. The
+witnesses set down all this in writing, and then he vanishes. By these arts
+of juggling and collusion, the priests govern every thing as they please.
+
+In the space of forty days, one may travel to the frontiers of Tzin, which
+is the very extremity of the east. Some hold that this country is washed by
+the Nikpha, or coagulated sea, which is liable to prodigious storms; by
+which, when mariners are surprised, they are reduced to such extremity,
+that, not being able to get out, they are miserably starved to death, after
+expending all their provisions[24].
+
+From Cinrog, it is three days journey to Gingala, where there are above a
+thousand Jews. From thence, in seven days, one may sail to Coulan, where
+there are none of our nation. It is twelve days journey to Zabid, where
+there are some Jews; and in eight days more, you get to the opposite coast,
+where there are very high mountains, inhabited by multitudes of Israelites,
+who are not under the yoke of the Gentiles, but have great cities and
+strong fortresses of their own.
+
+They descend from thence in parties into the flat countries of Abyssinia,
+whence they return with their plunder into the mountains, where they are
+secure against pursuit. Many of these Jews travel for the purposes of trade
+into Persia and Egypt[25].
+
+From thence, it is twenty days journey to Asvan[26], through the deserts of
+Saba, on the Phison, which river comes from the country of Chus, in the
+dominions of Shah-Abasch, or the king of Abyssinia. Part of the inhabitants
+of this country live like beasts, going entirely naked, and feeding only on
+the grass and herbs that grow by the river side, and propagate with their
+sisters and nearest relations, without shame or scruple. When the people of
+Asvan make expeditions into these parts for the sake of plunder, they
+constantly take with them bread, rice, raisins, and figs, which they throw
+among the half-famished negroes, and while they scramble for the
+provisions, like a parcel of dogs, the Asvanians seize them, and carry them
+as prisoners into Egypt, where they are sold as slaves. It is twelve days
+journey from Asvan to Chelvan, in which there are about three hundred Jews.
+From Chelvan they go, in fifty days journey, through the desert Al Tsachra,
+or Zara, to Zuila or Havilah, in the land of Gana[27]. In these deserts,
+there are vast mountains of sand, which, being sometimes carried by the
+force of violent winds, overwhelm whole caravans. The merchants who escape
+this perilous journey, bring with them from that country, iron, copper,
+salt, and all sorts of fruits and pulse, and likewise gold and precious
+stones. This country is part of the land of Chus, and is to the west of
+Abyssinia.
+
+It is thirteen days journey from Chelvan to the city of Kous, which is the
+first in the land of Egypt, and where 30,000 Jews are settled. At the
+distance of five days journey is Phium, anciently Pithom, in the
+neighbourhood of which city the ruins of the structures built by our
+ancestors, during their captivity in Egypt, are still to be seen[28].
+
+Four days journey from thence is the great city of Misraim[29], on the
+banks of the Nile, in which above 2000 Jews are settled. These have two
+fair synagogues, one of which belongs to the Jews of Palestine and Syria,
+and the other to those of Babylon; the only difference between which sects
+is in the way of dividing the law into portions. The Babylonians, every
+week, read one _Parascha_, after the manner usual in Spain, so as to go
+through the whole law once in every year; but the others divide each
+parascha into three _sedarim_, or smaller sections, so that they read over
+the whole law only once in three years. Yet both of these join in their
+solemn prayers twice every year. Over the whole Nathaniel presides, being
+head of the Sanhedrim, and ruler of all the synagogues in Egypt, to which
+he appoints masters and elders. He is likewise minister of the great king,
+who resides in the palace of Zoan, a city in Egypt, where Ali, the son of
+Abitaleb, was once commander of the faithful, and whose subjects are
+considered as rebels by the other Arabs, because they refuse obedience to
+the Abassidian khaliff of Bagdat.
+
+The royal city is surrounded with walls, but Misraim is entirely open,
+having the river Nile on one side. This is a very large city, having many
+large markets and public buildings, and contains many rich Jews. The
+country is never troubled with rain, ice, or snow, but is often afflicted
+with insufferable heat. It is watered by the Nile, which begins to swell
+every year in the month Elul, and continues swelling during that month and
+Tisri[30], making the earth fruitful. The old Egyptians erected a fine
+marble pillar of excellent workmanship in an island at this place, rising
+twelve cubits above the ordinary surface of the river; and when the water
+overflows that column, the inhabitants are satisfied that their whole
+country is overspread for fifteen days journey. If the water rise only half
+the height of the pillar, they then conclude that only half the country is
+overflowed. A person is stationed by the pillar, who proclaims the height
+of the water every day at noon. When the water rises to a sufficient
+height, it indicates a year of fertility and plenty in Egypt; but when it
+does not overflow, nothing is sown, and sterility and famine are the
+consequences. The people of the country have trenches dug in their grounds,
+in which great numbers of fish are caught when the river recedes, which
+they either use in their families, or salt them for sale. These fish are
+very fat, and supply oil for lamps. It is an old question, on which there
+is great diversity of opinion, as to the cause of the overflow of the Nile;
+but the Egyptians suppose, that it proceeds from the falling of heavy rains
+in the land of Habash, which we call Havilah or Abyssinia. The fields are
+usually sowed in the month of September, as the Nile has then retired into
+its channel. Barley is reaped in February, and wheat in March; and in that
+month, grapes, cherries, and almonds are ripe; and encumbers, gourds,
+pease, beans, and lentils; and various pot-herbs, as purslain, asparagus,
+lettuce, corianders, succory, coleworts, &c. The gardens and orchards are
+watered by means of trenches filled from the Nile.
+
+After passing Cairo, this great river divides into four branches, one of
+which runs by Damietta, sometimes called Caphtor. The second runs near the
+city of Rosir or Rosetta, not far from Alexandria. The third passes by
+Asmon, a very large city on the eastern borders of Egypt. Near these great
+branches, there are many cities, castles, and towns, to which people travel
+partly by land, and partly by water. No country in the world can be
+compared to this for the multitude of inhabitants; and the whole land is
+plain, fruitful, and stored with good things. Old Misraim is two league
+distant from New Misraim, or Cairo; but the old city is now desolate,
+having many ruins of walls and houses, and not a few remains of the
+granaries and storehouses, built by Joseph, are still to be seen. In the
+same place, there is an artificial pillar, built by art of magic, the like
+of which is not in all the land. On the outside of the city, there are the
+remains of an ancient synagogue, which bears the name of our teacher Moses,
+and to preserve its ruins, an old minister of the disciples of the wise men
+[31], is maintained at this place, who is styled Schech Albounetzar, or
+father of the watch. The ruins of Old Misraim extend about four miles.
+
+The land of Goshen is eight leagues from Old Misraim, and in it is Bolsir-
+salbis, a great city, in which there are 3000 Jews. From hence you travel,
+in half a day's journey, to Iskaal-Lein-Al-sames, anciently called Rameses,
+now in ruins;  where are to be seen  many works of our fathers, and among
+these certain huge edifices like towers, bulk of bricks. From thence, in
+one day's journey, you come to Al-Bugg, where are 200 Jews; and in another
+half days journey, to Manziptha, where there are 200 Jews; Ramira  is four
+leagues distant, having 700 Jews;  and thence, in five days journey, you
+come to Lamkhala, where there are 500 Jews. In two days journey more, you
+arrive at Alexandria, which was  sumptuously built, and strongly
+fortified, at the command of Alexander the Macedonian. On the outside of
+the city, there is still to be seen a great and beautiful edifice, which is
+said to have been the college of Aristotle, the tutor of Alexander, wherein
+were twenty schools, frequented in former times by the learned men of the
+whole world, who assembled to learn the philosophy of Aristotle, and this
+academy was adorned with stately marble porticos. The city itself is
+excellently built, and well paved, having many vaults and arches
+underneath, some of which are a whole mile in length, leading from the gate
+of Rosetta to the gate leading to the sea. The haven extends a whole mile
+in length, and at this place, a very high tower was built, called Hemegarah
+by the inhabitants, and Magar-Iscander by the Arabs, which signifies the
+Pharos of Alexander. It is reported that Alexander fixed a curious mirror
+on the top of this tower, by means of which, all warlike ships sailing from
+Greece, or out of the west into Egypt, might be seen at the distance of
+five hundred leagues. But a Greek captain, who had great knowledge of the
+sciences, came thither with his ship, and ingratiated himself in the favour
+of the king, by presents of gold and silver and rich silks. He likewise
+took great pains to acquire the friendship of the officer who had charge of
+the mirror and watch-tower, by frequently entertaining him in his ship, and
+at length was permitted to go into, and stay in the tower, as often, and as
+long as he pleased. One day, he gave a magnificent entertainment to the
+keeper of the tower and his men, and dosed them so plentifully with wine,
+that they all fell fast asleep; on which he broke the mirror to pieces, and
+then sailed away in the night. Since then, the Christians have infested the
+coasts of Egypt with their ships of war, and have taken the two large
+islands of Crete and Cyprus, which remain at this day under the power of
+the Greeks. The Pharos is still used as a beacon for the service of ships
+bound to Alexandria, and can be discerned by day or night, from the
+distance of an hundred miles, as a vast fire is kept burning there all
+night for the purpose.
+
+Egypt enjoys a large share of trade, and is frequented by almost all
+nations; and the port of Alexandria swarms with vessels from every part of
+Christendom, as from Valencia, Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Malfi, and
+Sicily. Others come from the most northern parts of Europe, and even from
+inland places; as from Cracow, Cordova, Spain, Russia, Germany, Sweden,
+Denmark, England, Flanders, Artois, Normandy,  France,  Poitou, Angiers,
+Gascony,  Arragon, and Navarre. There come many also from the western
+empire of the Ishmaelites or Arabs, as from Andalusia, Algarve, Africa, and
+even Arabia, besides what come by the Indian ocean from Havilah or
+Abyssinia, and the rest of Ethiopia, not omitting the Greeks and Turks. To
+this, country likewise are brought the richest merchandizes of the Indies,
+and all sorts of perfumes and spices, which are bought by the Christian
+merchants. The city is extremely populous, on account of its extensive
+commerce; and for the greater conveniency in the carrying on of their
+dealings, every nation has its separate factory. There is, near the sea
+side, a marble tomb, on which are engraven the figures of all sorts of
+birds and beasts, with an inscription in such old characters, that no one
+can now read them; whence it is believed that it had belonged to some king
+who governed that country before the deluge. The length of this sepulchre
+is fifteen spans, and it is six spans broad[32]. To conclude, there are
+about 3000 Jews in Alexandria.
+
+Leaving Egypt, Benjamin made an expedition from Damietta to Mount Sinai,
+and returned to Damietta, whence he sailed to Messina in Sicily, and
+travelled to Palermo. Crossing into Italy, he went by land to Rome and
+Lucca. He afterwards crossed the Alps, and passed through a great part of
+Germany, mentioning, in his remarks, the great multitudes of Jews who were
+settled in the numerous cities of that extensive empire, insisting at large
+on their wealth, and generosity, and hospitality to their distressed
+brethren, and gives a particular detail of the manner in which they were
+received. He informs us, that at the entertainments of the Jews they
+encourage each other to persist in hoping for the coming of their Messiah,
+when the tribes of Israel shall be gathered under his command, and
+conducted back into their own country. Until this long expected event shall
+arrive, they hold it their duty to persevere in their obedience to the law
+of Moses, to lament with tears the destruction of Jerusalem and Zion, and
+to beseech the Almighty to pity them in their affliction, and restore them
+at his appointed time. He asserts that his countrymen are not only settled
+in all the provinces and cities of the German empire, but through all the
+countries of the north, to the very extremities of Russia; and describes
+that country as so cold in winter that the inhabitants could not stir out
+of doors. He tells us that France, which the Rabbins call Tzorphat, is full
+of the disciples of the wise men, who study the law day and night, and are
+extremely charitable to their distressed brethren; and concludes with an
+earnest prayer to God, to remember his promise to the children of Israel,
+to return unto them, and to reassemble them from among all the nations,
+through which, in his wrath, he has dispersed them.
+
+Towards the end of his travels[33], Benjamin mentions that Prague in
+Bohemia is the beginning of Sclavonia. In speaking of the Russian empire,
+he says it extends from the gates of Prague to the gates of [Hebrew]
+_Phin,_ a large town at the beginning of the kingdom. In that country the
+animals called [Hebrew] _Wairegres_, and [Hebrew] _Neblinatz_ are found.
+Interpreters disagree about the meaning of these words. But it clearly
+appears that _Phin_ is no other than _Kiow_, then the capital of the
+Russian empire; and we should therefore read [Hebrew:] _Chiw_: and indeed
+the interpreters might easily have supposed that the word was wrong
+written, from its wanting the final _nun_. Russia has always been famous
+for its gray foxes or gray squirrels, which, in the Russian language, are
+called [Hebrew] in the Hebrew text, therefore, of Benjamin, we should read
+[Hebrew] _Waiwerges_, which as nearly resembles the Russian word, as a
+Spanish Jew could possibly write it. The name of the other animal should be
+written [Hebrew] _Zeblinatz_, by which are meant Sables. Jordanis had
+before this called these skins _Sapphilinias pelles_.--_Forst_.
+
+
+[1] Harris, I. 545. Forster, 91.
+
+[2] So named as descended from Javan: the Jewish writers affecting to
+    employ scripture names for modern countries and nations.--E.
+
+[3] Manuel Comnenes, who reigned from 1143 to 1180.--E.
+
+[4] These names are corrupt orthographies of the Greek titles in the
+    Hebrew. Manuel being an emperor, Benjamin names all his great officers
+    kings.--E.
+
+[5] Psianki may, perhaps, be Poland, and Buria Bavaria.--E.
+
+[6] The Arabs, so called from their supposed ancestor, Ismael.--E.
+
+[7] Perhaps Blachernae.--E.
+
+[8] The Karaites were a sect among the Jews, who confined their observances
+    and religious belief to the precepts of Moses, while the Rabbinists
+    followed all the wild fancies of the Talmud. An excellent account of
+    these sects is to be found in the Lettres Juives, or Jewish Spy, by
+    the Marquis d'Argens.--E.
+
+[9] Perhaps only an exaggerated account of some Jewish independent tribe in
+    Arabia, of which there were once a considerable number, as
+    particularly mentioned in the History of Mahomet.--E.
+
+[10] Probably the Ahwaz, as he seems to have gone from Bassora.--E.
+
+[11] This must be an error in the author, as the Tigris does not come near
+    that city.--E.
+
+[12] This story is told by other Jewish writers, but with some unimportant
+    variations; and there have been many such pretended Messiahs, who
+    persuaded the Jews of the east into revolts, for which consult
+    Basnage, Histoire des Juifs.--Harris.
+
+[13] The whole secret of this miracle may be easily explained. David
+    escaped from prison, and told all the rest of the story to the
+    ignorant and credulous Jews of Omaria, from whom the fable has been
+    handed down to Benjamin and other believing relaters.--E.
+
+[14] Shiraz, about forty miles from which are the ruins of Persepolis.--E.
+
+[15] The distance here is extremely corrupt, and perhaps four months are
+    meant.--E.
+
+[16] The ridiculous impressing of ancient scriptural names for the
+    geographical features of the country, and the nations which inhabited
+    it in his time, and his rambling itinerary, by days journeys, without
+    pointing out the precise direction of the routs, render it next to
+    impossible to investigate the real objects of his observations with
+    any decent chance of success.--E.
+
+[17] This description suits the Calmuks.--E.
+
+[18] Once a great city in the N.W. of Irac-agemi, not far from Cashbin. See
+    Chardin's Travels in Persia, to be found afterwards in this
+    collection.--E.
+
+[19] This island has much puzzled commentators, some of whom have wandered
+    to Ormus in quest of its situation. It is probably the flat country of
+    Assyria, between the Tigris and Euphrates, below Bagdat, which he may
+    have mistaken for an island; or it may refer to the Delta of the
+    Tigris and Ahwas. The extent mentioned in the text does not say
+    whether it is to be understood as the length or circumference of the
+    island.--E.
+
+[20] This must be at or near Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf, famous for its
+    pearl-fishery.--E.
+
+[21] Nisan, the first month of the Jewish year, contains the latter half of
+    our March and former half of April; Tisri is equivalent to half of
+    September and half of October.--E.
+
+[22] From the circumstance of pepper being plenty in this place it is
+    probable that some part of Malabar is meant, where he may have found a
+    colony of Parsees. Astronomy is often called astrology by old
+    writers.--E.
+
+[23] This must have been some secret mechanical contrivance, all wonders
+    unknown to the ignorant being attributed by them to magic art.--E.
+
+[24] Tzin is obviously China. By the Nikpha, or coagulated sea, the sea of
+    Tartar may be intended; concerning which, some ill-told stories may
+    have reached Benjamin, of mariners having been frozen up. The
+    situation of Cinrog it is impossible to ascertain; but it must have
+    been some part of India, where voluntarily burning alive is still
+    practised, but only by the widows of the higher casts.--E.
+
+[25] Benjamin here obviously speaks of the Jews in the mountains of
+    Abyssinia, still known there under the name of Falassa. It would
+    appear, that the previously indicated courses led across the peninsula
+    of Arabia and the Red Sea; but his names of places are
+    unintelligible.--E.
+
+[26] Perhaps Asowan in upper Egypt, which is rendered probable by the
+    journey through the desert.--E.
+
+[27] Harris considered Gana to mean Guinea; but it is probably Nigritia,
+    or the inland country of Africa, on the Niger or Joliba.--E.
+
+[28] Perhaps Memphis, as he evidently alludes to the pyramids.--E.
+
+[29] Kahira, or Cairo, called also Messir.--E.
+
+[30] Elul contains from the middle of August to the middle of September and
+    Tisri from that to the middle of October. But the Nile begins to rise
+    in the middle of June, and returns to its usual level in October.--E.
+
+[31] Of the Rabbinists or Talmudists.--E.
+
+[32] This may possibly have been the Sarcophagus brought lately from
+    Alexandria, and deposited in the British museum, under the strange
+    idea of having been the tomb of Alexander. Benjamin seems to have
+    known nothing about the hieroglyphics, with which his tomb was
+    obviously covered.--E.
+
+[33] This short commentary upon three words in that part of the travels of
+    Benjamin, which has been omitted in Harris, is extracted from Forster,
+    Hist of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. 92, and shews the extreme
+    difficulty of any attempt to give an accurate edition of the whole
+    work, if that should be thought of, as it would require critical skill
+    not only in Hebrew, but in the languages of the different countries to
+    which the travels refer.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VI.
+
+_Travels of an Englishman into Tartary, and thence into Poland, Hungary,
+and Germany, in 1243_.[1]
+
+
+This earliest remaining direct account of the Tartars, or Mongols receiving
+that name, which is extremely short and inconclusive, is recorded by
+Matthew Paris, in a letter from Yvo de Narbonne to the archbishop of
+Bourdeaux, and is here given as a literary curiosity.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Provoked by the sins of the Christians, the Lord hath become as it were a
+destroying enemy, and a dreadful avenger; having sent among us a
+prodigiously numerous, most barbarous, and inhuman people, whose law is
+lawless, and whose wrath is furious, even as the rod of God's anger,
+overrunning and utterly ruining infinite countries, and cruelly destroying
+every thing where they come with fire and sword. This present summer, that
+nation which is called Tartars, leaving Hungary, which they had surprised
+by treason, laid siege, with many thousand soldiers, to the town of
+Newstadt, in which I then dwelt, in which there were not above fifty men at
+arms, and twenty cross-bow-men, left in garrison. All these observing from
+certain high places the vast army of the enemy, and abhorring the beastly
+cruelty of the accomplices of Antichrist, signified to the governor the
+hideous lamentations of his Christian subjects, who, in all the adjoining
+provinces, were surprised and cruelly destroyed, without any respect of
+rank, fortune, age, or sex. The Tartarian chieftains, and their brutishly
+savage followers, glutted themselves with the carcasses of the inhabitants,
+leaving nothing for the vultures but the bare bones; and strange to tell,
+the greedy and ravenous vultures disclaimed to prey on the remains left by
+the Tartars. Old and deformed women they gave for daily sustenance to their
+cannibals: The young and beautiful they devoured hot, but smothered them
+shrieking and lamenting under their forced and unnatural ravishments; and
+cutting off the breasts of tender virgins to present as dainties to their
+leaders, they fed themselves upon their bodies.
+
+Their spies having descried from the top of a high mountain the Duke of
+Austria, the King of Bohemia, the Patriarch of Aquileia, the Duke of
+Carindiia, and as some say, the Earl of Baden, approaching with a mighty
+power towards them, the accursed crew immediately retired into the
+distressed and vanquished land of Hungary, departing as suddenly as they
+had invaded, and astonishing all men by the celerity of their motions. The
+prince of Dalmatia took eight of the fugitives, one of whom was recognized,
+by the Duke of Austria as an Englishman, who had been perpetually banished
+from England for certain crimes. This man had been sent twice as a
+messenger and interpreter from the most tyrannical king of the Tartars to
+the king of Hungary, menacing and fortelling those mischiefs which
+afterwards happened, unless he would submit himself and his kingdom to the
+yoke of the Tartars. Being urged by our princes to confess, the truth, this
+man made such oaths and protestations, as I think might have served to make
+even the devil be trusted.
+
+He reported of himself, that presently after his banishment, being then
+about thirty years of age, and having lost all he possessed at dice in the
+city of Acon[2] he set off from thence, in the middle of winter, wearing
+nothing but a shirt of sacking, a pair of shoes, and a hairy cap; and,
+being shaven like a fool, he uttered an uncouth noise, as if he had been
+dumb, and wandered about through many countries in search of food. At
+length, through fatigue, and change of air and diet, he fell grievously
+sick in Chaldea, insomuch that he was weary of his life. Being compelled to
+remain there a long time to recover his strength, and having some learning,
+he began to write down the words he heard spoken, and in a short time made
+himself so much master of the language, as to be reputed a native; and in
+this manner he attained expertness in many languages. The Tartars got
+notice of this man by means of their spies, and drew him by force among
+them; and, having been admonished by an oracle or vision to extend their
+dominion over the whole earth, they allured him by many offers of reward,
+to serve them as an interpreter. He gave the following account of the
+manners and superstitions of the Tartars, of the disposition and stature of
+their bodies, and of their country and manner of fighting.
+
+The Tartars are covetous, irascible, deceitful, and merciless, beyond all
+men; yet, through the rigour of discipline which is exercised by their
+superiors, they are restrained from brawls and mutual strife. They esteem
+the ancient founders and fathers of their tribes as Gods, in whose honour
+they celebrate solemn feasts at certain fixed times; and these deities are
+very numerous, though only four are considered as general gods of the
+nation. They consider all things as created for their sole use, and do not
+therefore think themselves cruel or unjust in wasting and destroying the
+surrounding nations, whom they esteem rebels against their legitimate
+authority. Their bodies, though lean, are hardy and strong, with broad
+chests, and square high shoulders, strong, well knit joints and firm
+sinews, thick and large thighs, with short legs, so that, being equal to us
+in stature, what they want in their legs is supplied in the upper part of
+their bodies. Their faces are pale, with short flat noses, their eyes black
+and inconstant, having large eyebrows, extending down to the nose; long
+sharp chins, their upper jaws low and declining, their teeth long and thin,
+their countenances distorted, fierce and terrible.
+
+In ancient times their country, which is situated far beyond Chaldea, was
+utterly waste and barren, from whence they have expelled the lions, bears,
+and other wild beasts. Of the tanned hides of beasts they make for
+themselves light but impenetrable armour, and their backs are only slightly
+armed, that they may not flee in battle. They use small but strong horses,
+which are maintained with little provender. In fight they use javelins,
+maces, battle-axes, and swords, but are particularly expert in the use of
+bows and arrows. When engaged in battle they never retire till they see the
+chief standard of their general give back. When vanquished they ask no
+quarter, and in victory they shew no compassion; and though many millions
+in number, they all persist as one man, in resolving to subdue the whole
+world under their dominion. They have 60,000 couriers who are sent before
+upon light horses to prepare a place for the army to encamp, and these will
+gallop in one night as far as our troops can march in three days. When they
+invade a country, they suddenly diffuse themselves over the whole land,
+surprising the people unarmed, unprovided, and dispersed, and make such
+horrible slaughter and devastation, that the king or prince of the invaded
+land cannot collect a sufficient force to give them battle.
+
+Sometimes they say, they intend to go to Cologne to bring home the three
+wise kings into their own country; sometimes they propose to punish the
+avarice and pride of the Romans, who formerly oppressed them; sometimes to
+conquer the barbarous nations of the north; sometimes to moderate the fury
+of the Germans with their own mildness; sometimes in derision they say that
+they intend going in pilgrimage to the shrine of St James in Galicia. By
+means of these pretences, some indiscreet governors of provinces have
+entered into league with them, and have, granted them free passage through
+their territories; but which leagues they have ever violated, to the
+certain ruin and destruction of these princes and their unhappy countries.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, I, 22.
+
+[2] Acre, in Palestine--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VII.
+
+_Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary_.
+
+
+Our limits do not admit of any detailed account of the history of those
+numerous and warlike pastoral nations, which in all ages have occupied the
+vast bounds of that region, which has been usually denominated Scythia by
+the ancients, and Tartary by the moderns: yet it seems necessary to give in
+this place, a comprehensive sketch of the revolutions which have so
+strikingly characterized that storehouse of devastating conquerors, to
+elucidate the various travels into Tartary which are contained in this
+first book of our work; and in this division of our plan, we have been
+chiefly guided by the masterly delineations on the same subject, of the
+eloquent historian of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire[1].
+
+In their navigation of the Euxine, and by planting colonies on its coasts,
+the Greeks became acquainted with Western Scythia, extending from the
+Danube, along the northern frontiers of Thrace, to mount Caucasus. The
+great extent of the ancient Persian Empire, which reached at one period
+from the Danube to the Indus, exposed its whole northern frontier to the
+Scythian nations, as far to the east as the mountains of Imaus or Caf, now
+called the Belur-tag. The still more eastern parts of Scythia or Tartary
+were known of old to the Chinese, and stretch to the utmost north-eastern
+bounds of Asia. Thus from the Danube and Carpathian mountains, in long.
+26°. E, to the promontory of Tschuts-koi-nos, or the East Cape of Asia, in
+long. 190°. E. this vast region extends in length 160 degrees of longitude,
+or not less than 8000 miles. Its southern boundaries are more difficultly
+ascertainable: but, except where they are pressed northwards by the
+anciently civilized empire of China, these may be assumed at a medium on
+the thirty-fifth degree of north latitude; from, whence Scythia or Tartary
+extends in breadth to the extremity of the frozen north.
+
+Next to the nomadic nations of Western Scythia, who encountered and baffled
+the arms of Darius, King of Persia, under the general name of Scythians,
+who were perhaps congeneric, or the same with those afterwards known by the
+name of Goths, the dreaded name of the Huns became known to the declining
+Roman Empire. But our object does not require us to attempt to trace the
+history of these nations, under their various appellations of Huns, Topa,
+Geougen, Turks, Chozars, and others, till the establishment of the vast
+empire of Zingis connected the history and devastating conquests of the
+Tartars with the affairs of modern Europe[2].
+
+In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Temugin, the son of a Mogul
+chief, laid the foundations of a vast empire in the north east of Tartary
+or Mongolia. His father had reigned over thirteen hordes or tribes of the
+Moguls, Moals, or Monguls: and as it was not customary for these warlike
+tribes to submit to be ruled over by a boy, Temugen, who at the death of
+his father was only thirteen years of age, had to contend with his
+revolted, subjects, and had to obey a conqueror of his own nation. In a new
+attempt to recover the command over the subjects of his, father, he was
+more successful: and under the new appellation of _Zingis_, which signifies
+_most great_, he became the conqueror of an empire of prodigious extent. In
+person, or by means of his lieutenants, he successfully reduced the
+nations, tribes, or hordes of Tartary or Scythia, from China to the Volga,
+and established his undisputed authority over the whole pastoral world. He
+afterwards subjugated the five northern provinces of China, which were long
+imperfectly known under the name of Kathay; and successively reduced
+Carisme or Transoxiana, now great Bucharia, Chorassan, and Persia: and he
+died in 1227, after having exhorted and instructed his sons to persevere in
+the career of conquest, and more particularly to complete the conquest of
+China.
+
+The vast empire established by Zingis, was apportioned among his four
+principal sons, Toushi, Zagatai, Octai, and Tuli, who had been respectively
+his great huntsman, chief judge, prime minister, and grand general. Firmly
+united among themselves, and faithful to their own and the public interest,
+three of these brothers, and their families and descendants, were satisfied
+with subordinate command; and Octai, by general consent of the maols, or
+nobles, was proclaimed _Khan_, or emperor of the Moguls and Tartars. Octai
+was succeeded by his son Gayuk; after whose death, the empire devolved
+successively on his cousins Mangou or Mangu, and Cublai, the sons of Tuli,
+and the grandsons of Zingis. During the sixty-eight years of the reigns of
+these four successors of Zingis, the Moguls subdued almost all Asia, and a
+considerable portion of Europe. The great Khan at first established his
+royal court at Kara-kum in the desert, and followed the Tarter custom of
+moving about with the golden horde, attended by numerous flocks and herds,
+according to the changes of the season: but Mangu-Khan, and Cublai-Khan,
+established their principal seat of empire in the new city of Pe-king, or
+Khan-balu, and perfected the conquest of China, reducing Corea, Tonkin,
+Cochin-china, Pegu, Bengal, and Thibet, to different degrees of subjection,
+or tribute, under the direct influence of the great Khan, and his peculiar
+lieutenants.
+
+The conquest of Persia was completed by Holagu, the son of Tuli and
+grandson of Zingis, who of course was' brother to the two successive
+emperors, Mangu and Cublai. From Persia, the Moguls spread their ravages
+and conquests over Syria, Armenia, and Anatolia, or what is now called
+Turkey in Asia; but Arabia was protected by its burning deserts, and Egypt
+was successfully defended by the arms of the Mamalukes, who even repelled
+the Moguls from Syria.
+
+Batu, another son of Tuli, conquered Turkestan and Kipzak[3], Astracan and
+Cazan, and reduced Georgia and Circassia to dependence. Advancing from the
+Black Sea to Livonia on the Baltic, Moscow and Kiow were reduced to ashes,
+and Russia submitted to pay tribute. Their victorious arms penetrated into
+Poland, in which they destroyed the cities of Lublin and Cracow; and they
+even defeated the confederate army of the dukes of Silesia, the Polish
+palatines, and the great master of the Teutonic knights, at Lignitz, the,
+most western extremity of their destructive march. From Lignitz they turned
+aside into Hungary, and reduced the whole of that country to the north of
+the Danube. During the winter, they crossed the Danube on the ice. Gran,
+the capital of Hungary, was taken by storm, and Bela, the unfortunate king
+of Hungary, had to take shelter in one of the islands at the head of the
+Adriatic.  So terrible was the alarm in Europe, that the inhabitants of
+Sweden and the north of Germany neglected, in 1238, to send their ships, as
+usual, to the herring-fishery on the coast of England; and, as observed by
+Gibbon, it is whimsical enough to learn, that the price of herrings in the
+English market was lowered in consequence of the orders of a barbarous
+Mogul khan, who resided on the borders of China[4]. The tide of ruin was
+stemmed at Newstadt in Austria, by the bravery of fifty knights and twenty
+cross-bow-men; and the Tartars, awed by the fame of the valour and arms of
+the Franks, or inhabitants of western Europe, raised the siege on the
+approach of a German army, commanded by the emperor Frederic the Second.
+After laying waste the kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, the
+adventurous Batu slowly retreated from the Danube to the Volga, and
+established his seat of command in the city and palace of Serai, both of
+which he had caused to be built upon the eastern arm of that noble river.
+Another of the sons of Tuli, Shaibani-khan, led a horde of 15,000 Tartar
+families into the wilds of Siberia; and his descendants reigned above three
+centuries at Tobolsk, in that secluded region, and even reduced the
+miserable Samoyedes in the neighbourhood of the polar circle.
+
+Such was the establishment and extent of the first Tartar or Mogul empire.
+The descendants of Cublai gave themselves up to luxury in the palace of
+Peking, amidst a mischievous crowd of eunuchs, concubines, and astrologers,
+and their Mogul army, dissolved and dispersed in a vast and populous
+country, forgot the discipline and bravery of their ancestors. The
+secondary Mogul sovereigns of the west, assumed entire independence; and
+the great khan was satisfied with the empire of China and eastern Mongalia,
+In 1367, one hundred and forty years after the death of Zingis, roused to
+rebellion by a dreadful famine, in which thirteen millions of the
+inhabitants of China perished, the native Chinese expelled their degenerate
+Mogul oppressors, and the great khan became a wanderer in the desert. The
+vast empire established by Zingis and his immediate successors was now
+broken down into four vast fragments, each a powerful empire, Mongalia,
+Kipzak, Zagtai or Transoxiana, and Persia; and these four khans often
+contended with each other. On their ruins in lesser Asia, arose the
+formidable, more permanent, and still subsisting empire of the Ottoman
+Turks, whose youthful energies threatened the subversion of the last
+remains of the Greek empire, which they at last effected, and might perhaps
+have conquered the whole of Western Europe, if their progress had not been
+arrested by the power of a new Mogul dynasty.
+
+In the distribution of the vast empire of Zingis, we have already seen that
+Zagathai, one of his sons, received the subordinate rule of Transoxiana, or
+the rich country on the rivers Jihon or Amu, and the Sir or Sihon, the Oxus
+and Jaxartes of the ancients. This extensive and fertile country, now
+called Western Turkestan, Great Bucharia, Kharism, Chorassan, and Balk,
+with some other smaller territories, is bounded on the west by the Caspian,
+on the east by the Belur-tag or Imaus, on the north by the deserts of
+western Tartary, and on the south by the mountains of the Hindoo-koh, and
+the desert of Margiana. The descendants of Zagatai were long considered as
+the khans or sovereigns of this fair empire, which fell into civil war and
+anarchy, through the divisions and subdivisions of the hordes, the
+uncertain laws of succession, and the ambition of the ministers of state,
+who reduced their degenerate masters to mere state puppets, and elevated or
+deposed successive khans at their pleasure; and the divided and distracted
+country was subjected or oppressed by the invasions of the khans of
+Kashgar, who ruled over the Calmucks or Getes in eastern Turkestan, or
+little Bucharia, on the cast of Imaus or the Belur-tag.
+
+In this state of misery and depression, a new hero arose, in 1361, to
+vindicate and re-establish the fame and empire of the Moguls[5]. Timour,
+usually called Tamerlane, was the son of the hereditary chief of Cash, a
+small but fruitful territory about forty miles to the south of Samarcand.
+He was the fifth in descent from Carashar-Nevian, who had been vizir or
+prime minister to Zagathai, of which sovereign Timour was descended in the
+female line. After various fortunes, he in 1370, rendered himself absolute
+sovereign of Transoxiana, then called Zagatai, after its first Mogul ruler;
+but for some time, he affected to govern as prime minister, or general, to
+a nominal khan of the house of Zingis, who served as a private officer at
+the head of his family horde in the army of his servant. After establishing
+his authority in Zagatai, and conquering Kharism, and Candahar, he turned
+his arms against Persia or Iran, which had fallen into disorganization by
+the extinction of the descendants of the great Holacou, and which country
+he reduced under subjection. He successively reduced Cashgar, or eastern
+Turkestan, and Kipzak or western Tartary, and invaded Syria and Anatolia.
+In this invasion, in 1402, was fought the great battle of Angora, in which
+Bajazet, the great sultan of the Turks, was defeated and taken prisoner.
+By this great victory, the progress of the Turkish arms was checked for a
+time, and perhaps Europe was saved on that day from being subjected to the
+law of Mahomet. Yet the vast empire which Timour established, fell into
+fragments after his death, in 1405, and his descendants have sunk into
+oblivion; while the race of Othman and Bajazet still rule over a large
+empire in Europe and Asia, nearly commensurate with the eastern Roman
+empire, still called Rumi in the east.
+
+Having thus traced an outline of the revolutions of empire in Tartary, down
+to what may be considered as modern history, it is only necessary farther
+to mention, that all eastern Tartary and Mongalia is now subject to China,
+and Kipzac and all the northern to Russia. Hardly any part of it now
+remains independent, except Zagatai; or Transoxiana, Kharism, Candabar, and
+the deserts of Western Tartary: the former of which is subject to the
+Usbeks, and the latter to the Kirguses.
+
+
+[1] Gibbon, Dec. and Fall, IV. 355.
+
+[2] Decl. and Fall, XI. 402.
+
+[3] Dashte Kipzak, or the plain of Kipzak, extended on both
+    sides of the Volga, towards the Jaik or Ural, and the Borysthenes or
+    Dnieper, and is supposed to have given name to the Cosacs.--Gibb.
+
+[4] As reported by Gibbon, from Matthew Paris, p. 396, forty or
+    fifty herrings were sold for a shilling. This must be an error,
+    perhaps for 40 or 50 thousand; as a shilling of these days was worth
+    at least from fifteen to twenty modern shillings in effective value;
+    and within memory herrings have often sold, in a very plentiful
+    fishery, for a shilling the cart-load, when salt could not be had in
+    sufficient quantity.--E.
+
+[5] Decl. and Fall. XII. I.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. VIII.
+
+_The Travels of John de Plano Carpini and other Friars, sent about the year
+1246, as ambassadors from Pope Innocent IV, to the great Khan of the Moguls
+or Tartars_.[1]
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+In the collection of early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries, by Hakluyt,
+published originally in 1599, and reprinted at London in 1809 with
+additions, there are two separate relations of these travels. The _first_,
+in p. 24, is the journal of John de Plano Carpini, an Italian minorite,
+who, accompanied by friar Benedict, a Polander, went in 1246 by the north
+of the Caspian sea, to the residence of Batu-khan, and thence to Kajuk-
+khan, whom he calls Cuyne, the chief or Emperor of all the Mongols. The
+_second_ in p. 42, is a relation taken from the Speculum Historiale of
+Vincentius Beluacensis, lib. xxxii. ch. 2. of the mission of certain
+friars, predicants and minorites in the same year, 1246, to the same
+country; and in p. 59. of the same collection, there is a translation by
+Hakluyt into antiquated English of this second account. From this second
+narrative it appears, that Vincentius had received an account of the
+journey of the second mission from Simon de St Quintin, a minorite friar
+belonging to the party; and that he had worked up along with this, the
+whole of the narrative which had been separately published by Carpini of
+his journey; which indeed forms by far the larger and more interesting
+portion of the work published by Vincentius. This latter edition, therefore
+has been considered as sufficient for the present collection, because to
+have given both would have been an unnecessary repetition; and it is here
+translated from the Latin of Hakluyt, I. 42.
+
+The object of this mission or embassy seems to have been as follows: A
+prodigious alarm was excited in Europe, by the victorious and destructive
+progress of the Mongals or Tartars; who, under the command of Tuschi-khan,
+and of Batu-khan, the son of Tuschi, advancing through Kipzhak, Russia,
+Poland, and Hungary, all of which they had most horribly ravaged and laid
+waste, had penetrated even into Silesia; while by the eastern side or the
+Caspian, penetrating through Transoxiana and Persia, under the command of
+Zagatai-khan, likewise a son of Zingus, and Holagu-khan, a nephew of
+Zagatai, they had made their appearance on the banks of the Euphrates and
+Tigris. In this alarming conjuncture, it was thought advisable by Pope
+Innocent IV. in a convocation of the clergy at Lyons, in 1245, to send
+ambassadors to these formidable conquerors, to endeavour to pacify them,
+and induce them to turn the destructive tide of their conquests in some
+other direction, and perhaps partly in the hope of endeavouring, if
+possible, to convert them to the Christian faith, and inducing them to
+direct their arms against the Turks and Saracens, who oppressed the Holy
+Land. For this purpose, six monks were selected from the new and severe
+orders of predicants and minorites. John de Plano Carpini and Benedict,
+travelled through Bohemia and Poland to Kiow in Russia, and thence by the
+mouth of the Dnieper to the camp of Korrensa, or Corrensa, a general of the
+Mongals; whence, crossing the Don and Wolga or Volga, they came to the
+encampment of Bata-khan, called also Baty and Baatu, who sent them to
+Kajuk-khan, the emperor of the Mongals, whom they call Cuyne. The other
+ambassadors were Asceline, with Friars Alexander, Albert, and Simon de St
+Quintin: who went by the south of the Caspian, through Syria, Persia, and
+Chorassan, to the court of Baiju-Nojan, or as they call him Bajothnoy: but
+of the particulars of this journey very little has been preserved by
+Vincentius, so that in fact, the travels here published belong almost
+exclusively to Carpini.
+
+The full title given by Hakluyt to this relation is worth preserving as a
+literary curiosity, and is as follows:
+
+"The long and wonderful voyage of Friar John de Plano Carpini, sent
+ambassador, by Pope Innocent IV. A.D. 1246, to the great Can of Tartacia;
+wherein he passed through Bohemia, Polonia, Russia, and so to the city of
+Kiow upon Boristhenes, and from thence rode continually post for the space
+of sixe moneths through Comania, over the mighty and famous rivers, Tanais,
+Volga, and Jaie, and through the countries  of the people called Kangittae,
+Bisermini, Karakitay, Naimani, and so to the native country of the Mongols
+or Tartars, situate in the extreme north-eastern partes of all Asia; and
+thence back again the same Way to Russia, and Polonia, and so to Rome;
+spending in the whole voyage among the sayd Tartars, one whole year, and
+above four moneths: Taken out of the 32 booke of Vincentius Beluacensis his
+Speculum Historiale."
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt. I. 24. and 42. for the Latin of the two relations; and p. 59.
+    for the old English translation of the second.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_Introductory Epistle by John de Plano Carpini_.
+
+To all the faithful in Christ, to whom this writing may come, I friar John
+de Plano Carpini, of the order of minorites, legate and messenger from the
+Apostolic see to the Tartars and other nations of the east, wish the Grace
+of God in this life, and glory in the next, and perpetual triumph over all
+the enemies of the Lord.  Having learnt the will of our lord the Pope, and
+the venerable Cardinals, and received the commands of the holy see, that we
+should go to the Tartars and other nations of the east, we determined to go
+in the first place to the Tartars; because we dreaded that the most
+imminent and nearest danger to the Church of God arose from them. And
+although we personally dreaded from these Tartars and other nations, that
+we might be skin or reduced to perpetual slavery, or should suffer hunger
+and thirst, the extremes of heat and cold, reproach, and excessive fatigue
+beyond our strength, all of which; except death and captivity, we have
+endured, even beyond our first fears, yet did we not spare ourselves, that
+we might obey the will of God, according to the orders of our lord the
+Pope, that we might be useful in any thing to the Christians, or at least,
+that the will and intention of these people might be assuredly known, and
+made manifest to Christendom, lest suddenly invading us, they might find us
+unprepared, and might make incredible slaughter of the Christian people.
+Hence, what we now write is for your advantage, that you may be on your
+guard, and more secure; being what we saw with our own eyes, while we
+sojourned with and among these people, during more than a year and four
+months, or which we have learnt from Christian captives residing among
+them, and whom we believe to, be worthy of credit. We were likewise
+enjoined by the supreme pontiff, that we should examine and inquire into
+every thing very diligently; all of which, both myself and friar Benedict
+of the same order, my companion in affliction and interpreter, have
+carefully performed.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Of the first Mission of Friars Predicants and Minorites to the Tartars_.
+
+At the same period, Pope Innocent IV. sent Friar Asceline of the order of
+friars predicants, with three other friars from different convents, with
+apostolical letters to the army of the Tartars, exhorting them to desist
+from slaughtering mankind, and to adopt the true Christian faith; and from
+one of these lately returned, Friar Simon de St Quintin, of the minorite
+order, I have received the relations concerning the transactions of the
+Tartars, which are here set down. At the same period, Friar, John de Plano
+Carpini of the order of minorites, with some others, was sent to the
+Tartars, and remained travelling among them for sixteen months. This Friar
+John hath written a little history, which is come to our hands, of what he
+saw among the Tartars, or learnt from divers persons living in captivity.
+From which I have inserted such things, in the following relation, as were
+wanting in the accounts given me by Friar Simon.
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+_Of the Situation and Quality of the Land of the Tartars, from Carpini_.
+
+The land of Mongolia or Tartary is in the east part of the world, where the
+east and north are believed to unite[1]; haying the country of Kathay, and
+the people called Solangi on the east; on the south the country of the
+Saracens; the land of the Huini on the south-east; on the west the province
+of Naimani, and the ocean on the north. In some parts it is full of
+mountains, in other parts quite plain; but everywhere interspersed with
+sandy barrens, not an hundredth part of the whole being fertile, as it
+cannot be cultivated except where it is watered with rivers, which are very
+rare. Hence there are no towns or cities, except one named Cracurim[2],
+which is said to be tolerably good. We did not see that place, although
+within half a day's journey, when we were at the horde of Syra, the court
+of their great emperor. Although otherwise infertile, this land is well
+adapted for the pasture of cattle. In some places there are woods of small
+extent, but the land is mostly destitute of trees; insomuch, that even the
+emperor and princes, and all others, warm themselves and cook their
+victuals with fires of horse and cow dung. The climate is very intemperate,
+as in the middle of summer there are terrible storms of thunder and
+lightning, by which many people are killed, and even then there are great
+falls of snow, and there blow such tempests of cold winds, that sometimes
+people can hardly sit on horseback. In one of these, when near the Syra
+Horde, by which name they signify the station of the emperor, or of any of
+their princes, we had to throw ourselves prostrate on the ground, and could
+not see by reason of the prodigious dust.  It never rains in winter, but
+frequently in summer, yet so gently as scarcely to lay the dust, or to
+moisten the roots of the grass. But there are often prodigious showers of
+hail; insomuch, that by the sudden melting of one of these, at the time
+when the emperor elect was about to be placed on his throne, at which time
+we were at the imperial court, above an hundred and sixty persons were
+drowned, and many habitations and much valuable things were swept away. In
+summer there are often sudden and intolerable heats, quickly followed by
+extreme cold.
+
+
+[1] This strange personification of the East and North, as if they were
+    stationary geographical terms, not merely, relative, only means that
+    Mongalia lay in the most north-easterly part of the then known world.
+    --E.
+
+[2] Called likewise Karakum, or Caracorum, and said to signify the _Black
+    Sand_.--E
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Of the Appearance, Dress, and Manner of Living of the Tartars_.
+
+The appearance of the Mongols or Tartars is quite different from all other
+nations, being much wider between the eyes and cheeks, and their cheeks are
+very prominent, with small flat noses, and small eyes, having the upper
+lids opened up to the eyebrows, and their crowns are shaven like priests on
+each side, leaving some long hair in the middle, the remainder being
+allowed to grow long like women, which they twist into two tails or locks,
+and bind behind their ears. The garments of the men and women are alike,
+using neither cloaks, hats, nor caps, but they wear strange tunics made of
+bucram, purple, or baldequin. Their gowns are made of skins, dressed in the
+hair, and open behind. They never wash their clothes, neither do they allow
+others to wash, especially in time of thunder, till that be over. Their
+houses are round, and artificially made like tents, of rods and twigs
+interwoven, having a round hole in the middle of the roof for the admission
+of light and the passage of smoke, the whole being covered with felt, of
+which likewise the doors are made. Some of these are easily taken to pieces
+or put together, and are carried on sumpter-cattle; while others are not
+capable of being taken to pieces, and are carried on carts. Wherever they
+go, whether to war, or only travelling to fresh pastures, these are carried
+with them. They have vast numbers of camels, oxen, sheep, and goats, and
+such prodigious multitudes of horses and mares, as are not to be found in
+all the rest of the world; but they have no swine. Their emperor, dukes,
+and other nobles, are extremely rich in gold and silver, silks, and gems.
+They eat of every thing that is eatable, and we have even seen them eat
+vermin. They drink milk in great quantity, and particularly prefer that of
+mares. But as in winter, none but the rich can have mares milk, they make a
+drink of millet boiled in water; every one drinking one or two cups in the
+morning, and sometimes having no other food all day; but in the evening,
+every one has a small quantity of flesh, and they drink the broth in which
+it was boiled. In summer, when they have abundance of mares milk, they eat
+little flesh, unless it is given them, or when they catch venison or birds.
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+_Of their Good and Bad Customs_.
+
+[Illustration: Map of the Western part of Tartary & Adjacent Countries]
+
+Some of their customs are commendable, and others execrable. They are more
+obedient to their lords than any other people, giving them vast reverence,
+and never deceiving them in word or action. They seldom quarrel; and
+brawls, wounds, or manslaughter hardly ever occur. Thieves and robbers are
+nowhere found, so that their houses and carts, in which all their treasure
+is kept, are never locked or barred. If any animal go astray, the finder
+either leaves it, or drives it to those who are appointed to seek for
+strays, and the owner gets it back without difficulty. They are very
+courteous, and though victuals are scarce among them, they communicate
+freely to each other. They are very patient under privations, and though
+they may have fasted for a day or two, will sing and make merry as if they
+were well satisfied. In journeying, they bear cold, or heat with great
+fortitude. They never fall out, and though often drunk, never quarrel in
+their cups. No one despises another, but every one assists his neighbour to
+the utmost. Their women are chaste, yet their conversation is frequently
+immodest. Towards other people they are exceedingly proud and overbearing,
+looking upon all other men with contempt, however noble. For we saw, in the
+emperor's court, the great duke of Russia, the son of the king of Georgia,
+and many sultans and other great men, who received no honour or respect; so
+that even the Tartars appointed to attend them, however low their
+condition, always went before them, and took the upper places, and even
+often obliged them to sit behind their backs. They are irritable and
+disdainful to other men, and beyond belief deceitful; speaking always fair
+at first, but afterwards stinging like scorpions. They are crafty and
+fraudulent, and cheat all men if they can. Whatever mischief they intend
+they carefully conceal, that no one may provide or find a remedy for their
+wickedness. They are filthy in their meat and drink, and in all their
+actions. Drunkenness is honourable among them; so that, when one has drank
+to excess and throws up, he begins again to drink. They are most
+importunate beggars, and covetous possessors, and most niggardly givers;
+and they consider the slaughter of other people as nothing.
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+_Of the Laws and Customs of the Tartars_.
+
+Men and women guilty of adultery, or even of fornication, are punished with
+death. Those detected in robbery or theft are likewise slain. If any one
+divulges their councils, especially with regard to an intended war, he
+receives an hundred blows on his buttocks with a great cudgel, as hard as a
+strong man can lay on. When any of the meaner sort commit offences, they
+are severely punished by their superiors. In marriage, they pay no
+attention to nearness of kindred, except their mothers, daughters, or
+sisters by the same mother; for they will even marry their sisters from
+other mothers, and their fathers wives after his death. The younger brother
+also, or some other of the kindred, is bound to marry the wives of a
+deceased brother.
+
+While I remained in the country, a Russian duke, named Andrew[1], being
+accused before duke Baatu, of conveying Tartar horses out of the country
+and selling them to other nations, was put to death, although the fact was
+not proved against him. After this, the widow and younger brother of Andrew
+came to Baatu, supplicating that they might not be deprived of the dukedom,
+upon which Baatu commanded them to be married according to the Tartar
+custom; and though both refused, as contrary to the religion and laws of
+Russia, they were compelled to this incestuous union. After the death of
+their husbands, the Tartar widows seldom marry, unless when a man chooses
+to wed his brother's wife or his stepmother. They make no difference
+between the son of a wife or of a concubine, of which the following is a
+memorable example. The late king of Georgia left two sons, Melich and
+David, of whom the former was lawful, and the other born in adultery; but
+he left part of his dominions to his bastard. Melich appealed to the Tartar
+emperor for justice, and David went likewise to the court, carrying large
+gifts; and the emperor confirmed the will of their father, even appointing
+David to have the superior authority, because eldest born. When a Tartar
+has more than one wife, each has her own house and establishment, and the
+husband eats, drinks, and sleeps, sometimes with one and sometimes with
+another. One is considered as principal wife, and with her he resides
+oftener than with the others; and though they are sometimes numerous, they
+very seldom quarrel among themselves.
+
+
+[1] In the previous account of the travels of Carpini, Hakl. I. 27. this
+    Andrew is said to have been duke of Sarvogle, or Seirvogle, perhaps
+    meaning Yeroslave.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+_Of their Superstitious Traditions_.
+
+In consequence of certain traditions, they consider many indifferent
+actions as criminal. One is, to thrust a knife into the fire, or any way to
+touch a fire with a knife, to take meat from the pot with a knife, or even
+to hew any thing with an axe near a fire; as they consider all these things
+as taking away the force of the fire. Another is, to lean upon a whip, for
+they use no spurs, or to touch arrows with their whip, to strike their
+horse with their bridle, to take or kill young birds, or to break one bone
+upon another. Likewise, to spill milk, or any drink, or food, on the
+ground, or to make water in a house; for the last offence, if intentional,
+a man is slain, or he must pay a heavy fine to the soothsayers to be
+purified; in which case, the house, and all that it contains, has to pass
+between two fires, before which ceremony no person must enter the house,
+nor must any thing be removed from it. If any one takes a bit of meat that
+he cannot swallow and spits it out, a hole is made in the floor of the
+house, through which he is dragged and put to death. If any one treads on
+the threshold of a house belonging to one of their dukes, he is put to
+death. Many such things they account high offences.
+
+But to slay men, to invade the territories of others, to take away the
+goods of other people, and to act contrary to the commands of God, is no
+crime among them; and they know nothing of the life to come, or of eternal
+damnation. But they believe in a future life, in which they shall tend
+flocks, eat and drink, and do those very things which they do in this life.
+At new moon, or when the moon is full, they begin any new enterprise; they
+call the moon the great emperor, and they worship that luminary on their
+knees. All who dwell in their houses must undergo purification by fire,
+which is performed in this manner. Having kindled two fires at a convenient
+distance, they fix two spears in the earth, one near each fire, stretching
+a cord between the tops of these spears, and about the cord they hang some
+rags of buckram, under which cord, and between, which fires, all the men,
+and beasts, and houses must pass; and all the while, a woman stands on each
+side, sprinkling water on the passengers, and reciting certain verses. If
+any one is killed by lightning, all that dwell in the same house with the
+dead person must be thus purified; otherwise, the house, beds, carts,
+felts, garments, and every thing else would be abandoned as unclean. When
+any messengers, princes, or other persons arrive, they and their gifts must
+pass between two fires for purification, lest they should bring witchcraft,
+poison, or any other mischief.
+
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+_Of the Beginning of their Empire_.
+
+The land of Mongolia was formerly divided among four different tribes or
+nations. One of these was the Yeka-Mongal, or the great Mongols. The second
+Su-Mongal, or the Water Mongols, who called themselves Tartars, from a
+river of that name in their territories. The third was named Merkat, and
+the fourth Metrit. All these tribes resembled each other in form, and
+complexion, and spoke the same language, though they were divided into
+distinct provinces, under separate princes. In the land of the Yeka-Mongal,
+lived one named Zingis, a great hunter, who used to rob and take much prey,
+going into the neighbouring districts, where he seized all that came in his
+way, and associated many under his command, till at length the people of
+his nation attached themselves to him, and followed him as their leader to
+do evil. After some time, Zingis went to war with the Su-Mongal or Tartars,
+slew their duke, and subjugated the nation; and he successively reduced the
+Merkats and Metrites to his growing dominion. The Naymani, to whom all the
+surrounding tribes then paid tribute, were much indignant at the elevation
+of Zingis; but their great emperor had lately died, leaving the authority
+divided among his sons, who were young and foolish, and knew not how to
+rule the people; yet they invaded the territories of the Mongals, slaying
+the inhabitants and carrying off much prey. On this Zingis collected the
+whole strength of his subjects, and the Naymani, united with the
+Cara-Cathayans, gathered a mighty army in a certain narrow valley to oppose
+him, in which a great battle was fought, and the Mongals obtained the
+victory, the confederates being mostly slain, and those who escaped were
+reduced to subjection. Zingis established his son Occoday, Ug dai, or
+Octai-Khan, in the land of the Kara-Kitayans, where he built a town called
+Omyl or Chamyl[1]; near which, and to the south, there is a vast desert, in
+which there are said to be certain wild men, who do not speak, and have no
+joints in their legs, yet have sufficient art to make felt of camels wool
+for garments, to protect them from the weather.
+
+
+[1] Called Chamil or Hami in the maps, in lat. 43° N. and long.
+    92° E It stands in a province of the same name, on the north side of
+    the great desert of Cobi, and to the N.E. of the land of the Kalmuks,
+    or little Bucharia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+_Of the Mutual Victories of the Mongals and Cathayans_.
+
+After their return from conquering the Naymani and Cara-Cathayans, the
+Mongals prepared to go to war with the Kythaos, or Cathayans[1]; but the
+Mongals were defeated in a great battle, and all their nobles were slain
+except seven. Zingis and the rest who had escaped from this defeat, soon
+afterwards attacked and conquered the people called Huyri[2], who were
+Nestorian Christians, from whom they learned the art of writing. After this
+they conquered the land of Sarugur, and the country of the Karanites, and
+the land of Hudirat, and returning into their own country, took a short
+respite from war. Again assembling a great army, they invaded Cathay, and
+after a long struggle, they conquered the greater part of that country, and
+besieged the emperor in his greatest city. The siege lasted so long, that
+the army of the Mongals came to be in want of provisions, and Zingis is
+said to have commanded that every tenth man of his own army should be slain
+as food for the rest. At length, by great exertions, the Mongals dug a mine
+underneath the walls of the city, through which a party entered and opened
+the gates for the rest of the army, so that the city was carried, and the
+emperor and many of the citizens put to the sword. Having appointed
+deputies to rule over his conquests, Zingis returned into Mongalia with
+immense quantities of gold and silver and other precious spoil. But the
+southern parts of this empire, as it lies within the sea, has not been
+conquered by the Mongals to this day[3].
+
+The people of Cathay are Pagans, having a peculiar kind of writing of their
+own, in which they are reported to possess the scriptures of the Old and
+New Testament. They have also lives of the fathers, and houses in which
+they pray at stated times, built like churches; they are even said to have
+saints, to worship one God, to venerate the Lord Jesus Christ, and to
+believe eternal life; but they are not baptised[4]. They have no beards,
+and they partly resemble the Mongals in their features. Their country is
+exceeding fruitful in corn, and abounds in gold and silver, wine and silk,
+and all manner of rich commodities, and the whole world has not more expert
+artificers in all kinds of works and manufactures.
+
+
+[1] The inhabitants of Northern China, then a separate kingdom from Mangi,
+    or Southern China.--E.
+
+[2] The Huirs or Uigurs.--E.
+
+[3] This probably alludes to the difficulty experienced by the Mongals in
+    forcing a passage across the great rivers Hoang-ho and Kian-ku--E.
+
+[4] These absurd notions must have been picked up by the credulous papal
+    messengers, from ignorant or designing Nestorians in Mongolia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+_Of the Wars of the Mongals against the Greater and Lesser India._
+
+When Zingis and his people had rested some time after their conquest of
+Cathay, he divided his army, and sent one of his sons, named Thosut-
+khan[1], against the Comaniam, whom he vanquished in many battles, and then
+returned into his own country. Another of his sons was sent with an army
+against the Indians, who subdued the lesser India. These Indians are the
+Black Saracens, who are also named Ethiopians. From thence the Mongal army
+marched to fight against the Christians dwelling in the greater India, and
+the king of that country, known by the name of Prester John, came forth
+with his army against them. This prince caused a number of hollow copper
+figures to be made, resembling men, which were stuffed with combustibles,
+and set upon horses, each having a man behind on the horse, with a pair of
+bellows to stir up the fire. When approaching to give battle, these mounted
+images were first sent forwards against the enemy, and the men who rode
+behind set fire by some means to the combustibles, and blew strongly with
+their bellows; and the Mongal men and horses were burnt with wildfire, and
+the air was darkened with smoke. Then the Indians charged the Mongals, many
+of whom were wounded and slain, and they were expelled from the country in
+great confusion, and we have not heard that they ever ventured to
+return[2].
+
+
+[1] Probably Tuschi-Khan.--E.
+
+[2] It is needless to remark upon the confused and ignorant geography, and
+    the idle tale of a Christian empire in India in this section. The
+    strangely ill-told story of the copper images, by which the Mongals
+    were scorched with wild-fire, may refer to the actual employment
+    either of cannon or rockets against the Mongals in this invasion.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+_Of Monstrous Men like Dogs, and of the Conquest of Burithabeth._
+
+In returning through the desert, we were told by some Russian priests at
+the emperor's court, that the Mongals found certain women, who, being asked
+where their men were, said that all the women of that country had human
+shapes, but that the males had the shape of great dogs. After some time,
+they met the dogs on the other side of a river. It being in winter, the
+dogs plunged into the water, and then rolled themselves in the dust on the
+land, till the dust and water was frozen on their backs; and having done
+this repeatedly till the ice was thick and strong, they attacked the
+Mongals with great fury; but when the Mongals threw their darts, or shot
+their arrows at them, they rebounded as if they had fallen on stones,
+neither could their weapons in any way hurt them. But the dogs killed some
+of the Tartars, and wounded many with their teeth, and finally drove them
+out of the country[1].
+
+On their return home, the Mongals came into the country of Burithabeth, of
+which the inhabitants are pagans, and conquered the people in battle. These
+people have a strange custom of eating their kindred when they die. They
+have no beard, for we saw some of them going about with certain iron
+instruments in their hands, with which they pluck out any hairs they find
+on their faces[2].
+
+[1] It is surely unnecessary to remark on this ridiculous story of the
+    canine men, which no commentary could reduce to sense.--E.
+
+[2] These people may possibly have been the Burats. The same practice of
+    eradicating the beard is still followed by the native tribes of
+    America.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XII.
+
+_How the Mongals were repulsed at the Caspian Mountains, by Men dwelling in
+Caves._
+
+When Zingis sent the before-mentioned armies into the east, he marched
+personally into the land of the Kergis[1], which, however, he did not now
+conquer. In this expedition the Mongals are said to have penetrated to the
+Caspian mountains, which being of adamant, attracted their arrows and other
+weapons of iron[2].
+
+
+[1] The Kirguses, inhabiting Western Turkestan, between Lake Balkash and
+    the Caspian.--E.
+
+
+[2] The remainder of this short section is so ridiculously fabulous as not
+    to merit translation, and is therefore omitted.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIII.
+
+_Of the death of Zingis, and concerning his Sons, and the Tartar Dukes or
+Princes._
+
+Zingis is said to have been killed by lightning. He had four sons, the
+first was called Occoday, or Oktai, the second Thosut, Tuzi, or Tuschi, the
+third Thiaday, or Zagathai, and the name of the fourth I could not learn.
+From these four all the dukes of the Mongals are descended[1]. Cuyne, or
+Kajuk, the eldest son of Occoday, or Oktai, is now emperor; and he has two
+brothers Cocten, and Chyrinen. Bathy, or Baatu, Ordu, Siba, and Boru are
+the sons of Thosut-khan. Baatu is richer and mightier than all the rest,
+being next in power to the emperor; but Ordu is the superior of all the
+dukes. The sons of Thiaday are Hurin and Cadan. The sons of the son of
+Zingis whose name I could not learn, are Mengu, Bithat, and several others.
+The mother of Mengu was Seroctan, the greatest lady among the Tartars, and
+the most honoured except the emperor's mother, and more powerful than any
+subject except Bathy. The following is a list of their dukes: Ordu, Bathy,
+Huryn, Cadan, Syban, and Ouygat, who were all in Hungary; Cyrpodan, who
+remains beyond the sea[2], making war against certain soldans of the
+Saracens, and other transmarine nations. Mengu, Chyrinen, Hubilai, Sinocur,
+Cara, Gay, Sybedey, Bora, Berca, and Corensa, all remain in Tartary. But
+there are many other dukes whose names I could not learn.
+
+
+[1] Other authors give a different account of the family of Zingis.
+    According to Harris, I. 556, Zuzi, or Tuschi, was his eldest son, who
+    died six months before his father, and his son Baatu got a great part
+    of Tartary for his share. Zagathai, a son of Zingis, got Transoxiana,
+    or the country of the Kirguses. Tuli, another son, had Chorassan,
+    Persia, and western India. Octai had Mongalia and Cathay, or Northern
+    China. Carpini, or rather Vincentius, has sadly confounded all
+    authentic history, by his rambling colloquial collections from
+    ignorant relators, and has miserably corrupted the orthography of
+    names of nations, places, and persons.--E.
+
+[2] Probably meaning in Persia, beyond the Caspian Sea.--E
+
+
+
+SECTION XIV.
+
+_Of the Power of the Emperors, and of his Dukes._.
+
+The Tartar emperor enjoys incontrollable power over all his subjects,
+insomuch, that no man dare abide in any other place than he has assigned;
+and he even appoints the residences of all the dukes. The dukes appoint the
+residence of the millenaries, or commanders of a thousand men; the
+millenaries do the same with the centurions, or captains of hundreds; and
+the centurions direct in what place the decurions or commanders of tens are
+to dwell. Whatsoever order any of these officers receive from their
+immediate superiors must be instantly and implicitly obeyed. If the emperor
+demands the virgin daughter or sister of any one, she is instantly
+delivered up; nay, he often collects the virgins from all the Tartar
+dominions, and retains such as he pleases for himself, giving away others
+among his followers. All his messengers must be everywhere provided with
+horses and necessaries without delay: and all messengers coming to him with
+tribute or otherwise, must be provided on their way with horses, carriages,
+and all necessaries; yet messengers from strange countries, suffer great
+distresses and much want of provisions and clothing, especially when sent
+to any of the princes, and when they have to make any stay; as they often
+allot for ten men, what would hardly suffice for two, and if they suffer
+any injury it is even dangerous to complain. Many gifts are demanded of
+them, both by the princes and others, and if these are refused they are
+contemned. Owing to this, we were constrained to expend in presents, a
+large portion of what had been bestowed upon us by well disposed persons to
+defray our expences. In fine, every thing whatever belongs to the emperor,
+so that no one dare to say that any thing is his own; and the dukes and
+princes exercise an equally incontrollable dominion upon all below them.
+
+
+
+SECTION XV.
+
+_Of the Election of the Emperor Occoday, and of the Expedition of Duke
+Bathy._
+
+On the death of Zingis-chan, the dukes assembled and elected his son
+Occoday, Ugadai, or Oktai-khan, emperor in his place; who immediately, in a
+council of the nobles, divided the army, and sent Bathy, or Baatu-khan, who
+was next in authority, against the land of Altissodan and the country of
+the Bissermini[1], who were Saracens, though they spoke the language of the
+Comanians. Bathy defeated these people in battle; but the city of Barchin,
+which was surrounded with strong walls, resisted for a long while, until
+the Tartars filled up the ditches and won the place, which they destroyed.
+Sargat surrendered without resistance, for which the city was not
+destroyed, but many of the citizens were slain and made captives, and much
+spoil was taken, and the city was filled with new inhabitants. The Tartars
+marched next against the rich and populous city of Orna, in which were many
+Christian Gassarians, Russians, and Alanians, and many Saracens, the lord
+of the city being of that nation. This town stands on a large river, and is
+a kind of port, exercising great trade. Being unable to reduce this place
+by force, the Tartars dammed up the river, and drowned the whole city, with
+the inhabitants and their goods. Hence they invaded Russia, and besieged
+Kiow a long while, which they at length took, and massacred the
+inhabitants. This was a large and populous city, but is now reduced to
+nothing, and scarcely has two hundred houses: and when we passed through
+Russia, we found immense numbers of human skulls and bones scattered about.
+From Russia and Comania they proceeded against the Hungarians and
+Polonians, where many of them were slain: and had the Hungarians withstood
+them manfully, the Tartars had been utterly defeated. In their return from
+thence, they invaded and defeated the pagan Morduans: whence they marched
+against the Byleri of greater Bulgaria, which they almost entirely
+destroyed. Thence they proceeded to the north against the Bastarci of
+greater Hungary, whom they conquered; and going farther north, they came to
+the Parossitae, and thence to the Samogetae, reaching even to the ocean;
+and from thence returned into Comania.
+
+
+[1] The Busurmen, Musurmen, or Mahometan inhabitants of Turkestan.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVI.
+
+_Of the Expedition of Duke Cyrpodan._
+
+At the same time Occoday-khan sent duke Cyrpodan with an army to the south,
+against the pagan Kergis, who have no beards, whom he subdued. After which
+he marched against the Armenians, whom he conquered, and likewise subdued a
+part of Georgia. The other part of that country is likewise under
+subjection, and pays an yearly tribute of 20,000 yperperas. He thence
+marched into the dominions of the great and powerful soldan of the Deuri,
+whom he defeated; and proceeded to the country of the soldan of Aleppo,
+which he subdued; and afterwards reduced the caliph of Baldach or Bagdat to
+subjection, who is forced to pay a daily tribute of 400 byzants, besides
+baldekins[1] and other gifts. Every year the Tartar emperor sends
+messengers to require the presence of the caliph; who sends back great
+gifts besides the regular tribute, to prevail on the emperor to excuse his
+absence.
+
+Duke Cyrpodan and his army still propose to invade more distant countries,
+and have not yet returned into Tartary.
+
+
+[1] This is probably a manufacture of Bagdat or Baldach, from whence its
+    name; and may have been flowered silk or cloth of gold.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVII.
+
+_Of the Military conduct of the Tartars._
+
+Zingis-khan divided the Tartars into companies or divisions of ten, of, an
+hundred, and of a thousand each, every one of which had its appropriate
+officer. Over every ten millenaries he placed one general; and over an army
+of several bodies of ten thousand men, two or three dukes, one of whom had
+the superior command. When they join battle against their enemies, unless
+the whole army retreat by common consent, all who fly are put to death. If
+one, two, or more of a decury proceed bravely to battle, and the rest do
+not follow, the cowards are slain. If one, two, or more of the decury are
+made prisoners and the rest do not rescue them, they are put to death.
+Every man must have two bows, or at least one good bow, three quivers full
+of arrows, an axe, and certain ropes to draw the military machines. The
+rich or officers have sharp-pointed swords, somewhat curved and sharp on
+one edge. They wear helmets, coats of mail, and cuisses, and their horses
+even are armed. Some have their own armour and that of their horses made of
+leather, ingeniously doubled and even tripled. The upper parts of their
+helmets are of iron or steel, but the hood which protects their neck and
+throat is of leather. Some have all their defensive armour composed of many
+small plates of iron, a hand-breadth long and an inch broad, perforated
+with eight small holes, by which they are tied with small leather thongs to
+strong thongs of leather underneath, so that the plates overlap each other
+in regular series, and are firmly knit together. The armour both of men and
+horses is often made in this fashion, and is kept finely burnished. Some
+carry lances having hooks, to pull their enemies from horseback. Their
+arrow-heads are exceedingly sharp on both edges, and every man carries a
+file to sharpen them. Their targets are made of wicker, but they are hardly
+ever carried, except by the night guards, especially those in attendance
+upon the emperor and the princes.
+
+The Tartars are exceedingly crafty in war, in which they have been
+continually engaged for the last forty-two years against all the
+surrounding nations. When they have to pass rivers, the principal people
+secure their garments in bags of thin leather, drawn together like purses,
+and closely tied. They fix these to their saddles, along with their other
+baggage, and tie the whole to their horse's tail, sitting upon the whole
+bundle as a kind of boat or float; and the man who guides the horse is made
+to swim in a similar manner, sometimes having two oars to assist in rowing,
+as it were, across the river. The horse is then forced into the river, and
+all the other horses follow, and in this manner they pass across deep and
+rapid rivers[1]. The poorer people have each a purse or bag of leather well
+sewed, into which they pack up all their things, well tied up at the mouth,
+which they hang to the tails of their horses, and thus swim across.
+
+
+[1] This mode of passing over rivers, though carefully translated, is by no
+    means obviously described. I am apt to suppose that the leathern bags,
+    besides holding the apparel and other valuables, were large enough to
+    be blown up with air so as to serve as floats, like those used by the
+    ancient Macedonians; a practice which they may have learnt from the
+    Scythians. The Latin of Vincentius Beluacensis appears to have been
+    translated from the French original of Carpini, from the following
+    circumstance: What is here translated their _other baggage_ is, in the
+    Latin, _alias res duriores_; almost with certainty mistakenly rendered
+    from the French _leurs autres hardes_.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVIII.
+
+_How the Tartars ought to be resisted._
+
+No single kingdom or province can resist the Tartars, as they gather men
+for war from every land that is subjected to their dominion; and if any
+neighbouring province refuses to join them, they invade and lay it waste,
+slaughtering the inhabitants or carrying them into captivity, and then
+proceed against another nation. They place their captives in the front of
+battle, and if they do not fight courageously they are put to the sword.
+Wherefore, if the princes and rulers of Christendom mean to resist their
+progress, it is requisite that they should make common cause, and oppose
+them with united councils. They ought likewise to have many soldiers armed
+with strong bows and plenty of cross-bows[1], of which the Tartars are much
+afraid. Besides these, there ought to be men armed with good iron maces, or
+with axes having long handles. The steel arrow-heads should be tempered in
+the Tartar manner, by being plunged, while hot, into water mixed with salt,
+that they may the better be able to penetrate the armour of the Tartars.
+Our men ought likewise to have good swords, and lances with hooks to drag
+them from their saddles, which is an easy matter; and ought to have good
+helmets and armour of proof for themselves and horses: And those who are
+not so armed ought to keep in the rear of those who are, to discharge their
+arrows and quarrels over the heads of their companions.
+
+Our armies ought to be marshalled after the order of the Tartars, already
+described, and under the same rigorous laws of war. Whoever betakes himself
+to plunder before victory is perfectly ascertained, should suffer death.
+The field of battle ought to be chosen, if possible, in a plain, where
+every thing may be seen around. The army should by no means be drawn up in
+one body, but in many divisions, not too distant. One band ought to be
+dispatched against those who first advance, while another remains prepared
+to assist in time of need. Scouts ought to be sent out on every side, to
+give notice of the approach of the enemy; that band may always be sent to
+meet band as they come on, as the Tartars are always anxious to surround
+their enemies. Each band ought however to be cautious not to pursue too far
+when their enemies fly, lest they fall into a snare or ambush, as the
+Tartars fight more by stratagem than by main force; and this the rather,
+that our people may not fatigue their horses, in which we do not abound,
+while the Tartars always have such numbers that they seldom remount one
+horse, till after three or four days rest. Should even the Tartars retire
+towards their own country, our army ought by no means to retreat or
+separate; as they often practise this stratagem to delude their enemies and
+induce them to divide, and then return suddenly to destroy the country at
+their pleasure. Our generals ought to keep their troops day and night on
+the alert, and always armed, ready for battle; as the Tartars are always
+vigilant like the devils, and are ever devising how to commit mischief.
+Finally, when a Tartar falls from his horse in battle, he ought immediately
+to be taken or slain; as when on foot even they are excellent archers, and
+destructive to men and horses[2].
+
+
+[1] The word here used in the Latin, _balistais_, is probably
+    corrupted in transcription for _balistariis_; and may either mean
+    cross-bow-men, or men for working balistae, the ancient artillery, if
+    the expression be allowable. Arcubalistarii is the appropriate middle
+    age Latin for men armed with cross-bows.--E.
+
+[2] Our good minorite seems in this chapter to have studied the
+    old proverb, _fas est ab hoste doceri_; but except in the leading
+    political advice of the section, he might have been better employed in
+    following the adage of _ne sutor ultra crepidam_.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIX.
+
+_Of the Journey of Friar John de Plano Carpini, to the First Guard of the
+Tartars_[1].
+
+Setting out, by command from the apostolic See, upon our journey to the
+Tartars, lest there might arise danger from their proximity to the church
+of God, we came first to the king of Bohemia, with whom we were acquainted,
+and who advised us to travel through Poland and Russia, because he had
+kinsmen in Poland, through whose assistance we might be enabled to travel
+in Russia; and he supplied us with recommendatory letters and passports,
+giving us free passage as his charges through his dominions, whence we
+proceeded to the court of Boleslaus, duke of Silesia, his nephew, who was
+likewise known and friendly to us. He treated us in the same hospitable
+manner, and transmitted us free of expense to Conrad, duke of Lautiscia, or
+Masovia, where, by God's grace, Wasilico[2], duke of Russia, then was, from
+whom we fully learned the arts of the Tartars, as he had sent messengers to
+them who were already returned. Learning that it was necessary for us to
+make presents, we caused some skins of beavers and other animals to be
+purchased with part of the money which had been given us in charity to
+defray our expences; and we received more of the same skins from duke
+Conrad, from Grimislava, duchess of Cracow, from the bishop, and from
+certain nobles of that place. And at the request of the duke, bishop, and
+nobles of Cracow, Wasilico conducted us into his country, and entertained
+us there for some days at his expense. Likewise he convened his bishops at
+our request, to whom we read the Pope's letters, admonishing them to return
+into the unity of the church, adding our own exhortation to the same
+purpose. But because duke Daniel, the brother of Wasilico was absent at the
+court of Baatu, they could not then give a satisfactory answer.
+
+After this Wasilico sent us forward to Kiow, the chief city of Russia,
+under the conduct of one of his servants; in which journey we were in great
+danger of our lives from the Lithuanians, who often invaded the borders of
+Russia in the very places through which we had to pass; but by means of
+this servant we were secured against any injury from the Russians, of whom
+indeed the greater part had been slain, or carried into captivity by the
+Tartars. In this journey we had almost perished of cold at Danilou[3],
+through the prodigious depth of the snow, although we travelled in a
+wagon. On our arrival at Kiow, and consulting with the millenary[4], and
+other nobles, respecting our farther journey, we were advised not to carry
+the horses we then had into Tartary, as they would all certainly die by the
+way, as they were not used to dig under the snow in search of grass like
+the Tartar horses, and no food could be procured for them, as the Tartars
+make no provision of hay or straw, or any other provender, against winter.
+We determined therefore to leave them behind, under the care of two
+servants, till our return, and by means of presents, we prevailed on the
+millenary to allow us post-horses and a guide. We began our journey on the
+second day after the Purification[5], and arrived at Canow, which was under
+the immediate dominion of the Tartars. The governor allowed us horses, and
+a guide to another town, of which one Micheas, a most malicious person, was
+governor; who, gained by our presents, conducted us to the first station of
+the Tartars.
+
+
+[1] The journal of Carpini begins here, that of Asceline never appears.--E.
+
+[2] At this period Jeroslaw, or Jeroslaus, was grand duke of Wolodimir or
+    Wladimire, then considered as the sovereigns of Russia, who was
+    succeeded by Alexander.--_Playf. Syst. of Chronol_. Wasilico,
+    therefore, or Wasile, must have been a subordinate duke, or a junior
+    member of the reigning family.--E.
+
+[3] There is a town named Danilovska, near the S. E. frontiers of European
+    Russia.--E.
+
+[4] From this circumstance, it may be presumed that Kiow was then occupied
+    by a guard of Tartars, under a commander of a thousand men.--E.
+
+[5] This was the 4th February, probably of 1247.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XX.
+
+_Of his first Reception by the Tartars._
+
+On the first Saturday after Ash-Wednesday, while we were taking up our
+quarters for the night, near sunset, a number of armed Tartars came
+suddenly upon us, in a threatening manner, demanding who we were. Having
+told them that we were messengers from the Pope, and giving them some
+victuals, they immediately went away.  When we proceeded on our journey
+next morning, the chiefs of this guard met us, and demanded to know the
+purpose of our journey. We answered "That we were messengers from our Lord
+the Pope, the father and lord of the Christians, going to their emperor and
+princes, and the whole Tartar nation, to desire peace and friendship
+between the Tartars and the Christians: And as the Pope wished the Tartars
+to become great, and to acquire the favour of God, he admonished them by
+us, and by his letters, to embrace the faith of Christ, without which they
+could not be saved: That the Pope was astonished to hear of their monstrous
+slaughter of mankind, more especially of the Hungarians, Mountaineers, and
+Polanders, who were his subjects, and who had neither injured, or attempted
+to injure the Tartars; and as God is sore offended by such proceedings, the
+Pope admonished them to refrain in future, and to repent of what they had
+done, and requested an answer as to their future intentions." On which they
+promised us horses and a guide to Corrensa, but for which favour they
+demanded presents. Some of them rode swiftly on before, to inform Corrensa
+of our message, and we followed. This Corrensa is general or duke of all
+the Tartars who are placed as a guard against the people of the West, lest
+some enemy might suddenly invade them; and is said to have 60,000 men under
+his command.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXI.
+
+_His Reception at the Court of Corrensa._
+
+On our arrival at the residence of Corrensa, our tent was ordered to be
+pitched at a considerable distance, and his agents came to demand what
+gifts we would offer in paying our obeisance to him. We answered that our
+lord the Pope had sent no gifts, as he was uncertain if we should ever
+arrive at their country, considering the dangerous places we had to pass
+through; but that we should honour him with part of those things which had
+been given us to defray the charges of our journey. Having received our
+gifts, we were conducted to the orda or tent of the duke Corrensa, and
+instructed to bow our left knee thrice before his door, taking great care
+not to set our feet on the threshold; and when entered, we were to repeat
+on our knees the words which we had said before. This done, we presented
+the letters of the Pope; but the interpreter whom we had hired at Kiow, was
+not able to explain them sufficiently, nor could any one be found equal to
+the task.
+
+From this place post-horses were appointed to conduct us with all speed to
+duke Baatu, under the guidance of three Tartars.  This Baatu is the most
+powerful prince among them, next to their emperor.  We began our journey to
+his court on the first Tuesday in Lent, and riding as fast as we could
+trot, though we changed our horses twice or thrice every day, and often
+travelled in the night, it was Maunday Thursday before we accomplished our
+journey.  The whole of this journey was through the land of Comania, which
+is all an uniform plain, watered by four large rivers. The first of these
+is the Dnieper or Boristhenes; on the Russian side of which the dukes
+Corrensa and Montij march up and down, the latter, who marches on the other
+side of the plains, being the more powerful of the two[1].  The second
+river is the Don, or Tanais of the ancients, on the banks of which a
+certain prince, named Tirbon, sojourns, who is married to the daughter of
+Baatu.  The third and largest is the Volga or Rha, on which Baatu resides.
+The fourth is the Jaik or Rhymnus, on each bank of which a millenary
+commands. All these descend southwards in winter to the sea, and travel in
+summer up these rivers, towards the northern mountains.  All these rivers,
+especially the Volga, abound in fish, and run into the great sea, from
+which the arm of St George extends past Constantinople[2].  While on the
+Dnieper, we travelled many days upon the ice; and on the shore of the sea
+we found the ice three leagues broad.  Before our arrival at the residence
+of Baatu, two of our Tartars rode on before, to give him an account of what
+we had said to Corrensa.
+
+
+[1] It is difficult to understand the ambiguity here used, unless we
+    suppose that the station of Montij was on the right bank of the
+    Dnieper; while certainly that of Corrensa was on the left or
+    north-east bank.--E.
+
+[2] The Euxine and Caspian are here confounded as one sea. It is scarcely
+    necessary to observe, that the Dnieper and Don run into the Euxine,
+    while the Volga and Jaik, or Ural, are discharged into the Caspian.
+    --E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXII
+
+_The Reception of Carpini at the Court of Baatu_.
+
+When we arrived at the residence of Baatu, in the land of Comania, we were
+ordered to pitch our tent a full league from his station, and when we were
+to be introduced at his court, we were informed that it was previously
+necessary for us to pass between two fires. We refused this at first, but
+were told there was no danger, and that it was only precautionary, in case
+we intended any mischief to their lord, or should have brought poison along
+with us, as the fire would remove all evil. On which we complied, that we
+might remove all suspicion of any such sinister intentions. After this,
+when we came to the orda, we were questioned by Eldegay, the agent of the
+prince, respecting the gifts we meant to offer; and making the same reply
+we had given at the court of Corrensa, our gifts were offered and accepted;
+and having declared the object of our journey, we were introduced into the
+presence, making our obeisances, and were admonished respecting the
+threshold, as formerly mentioned. We then rehearsed our former oration on
+our knees, and produced our letters, and requested the aid of interpreters
+to translate them. These were sent us on Good Friday, and, with their
+assistance, our letters were carefully translated into the Russian,
+Tartarian, and Saracen languages, and presented to Baatu, who read them
+with attention. We were then conducted back to our lodging, but no food was
+given us, except a little millet in a dish, on the first evening of our
+arrival.
+
+Baatu carries himself with great magnificence, having porters, and all
+other officers, after the manner of the emperor, and sits in an elevated
+place, like a throne, along with one of his wives. Some of his brothers,
+and sons, and nobles, sit below him, on benches, and all others on the
+ground, behind the rest, the men being on his right, and the women on his
+left. He uses some beautiful and large linen tents, which formerly belonged
+to the king of Hungary; and no person, however great, presumes to enter his
+tent without leave, except his own family. At this interview we were seated
+on his left hand, but on our return from the emperor, we were placed on the
+right. A table stands near the door of the tent or house, on which there is
+abundance of drink, in golden and silver vessels. Neither Baatu, nor any of
+the Tartar princes, drink in public, without having singers and harpers
+playing before them. When he rides, there is a small tent, canopy, or
+umbrella, carried over his head, on the point of a spear; and the same is
+done to all the Tartar princes and their wives. Baatu is extremely
+courteous to his people, yet is held in great awe; he is exceedingly
+sagacious, crafty in war, and inexorably cruel in battle, and has been long
+experienced in the conduct of warlike enterprises.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIII.
+
+_The Journey through the Land of Comania, and of the Kangittae._
+
+On Easter eve we were again called to the court, and Eldegay, whom we have
+mentioned before as the agent of Baatu, came out to us from the tent,
+saying that we must go forwards to the court of their emperor: but they
+detained a part of our company, under pretence of sending them back to the
+Pope. We accordingly gave letters to these persons, reciting all that had
+hitherto occurred; but they got no farther than the residence of duke
+Montij, where we joined them on our return homewards. Next day, being
+Easter, after prayers and a slight breakfast, we departed from the court of
+Baatu in much dejection of spirits, accompanied by two guides. We were so
+feeble that we could hardly support the fatigue of riding, our only food
+during Lent having been millet boiled with water, and our only drink melted
+snow. Passing eastwards through Comania, we travelled continually with
+great expedition, changing our horses five times a day, and sometimes
+oftener; except when we had to pass through deserts, on which occasions we
+had stronger horses allowed, that were able to undergo the whole labour. In
+this manner we travelled, almost without ceasing, from the beginning of
+Lent, until eight days after Easter, including our journey to the court of
+Baatu.
+
+On the north of Comania, immediately beyond Russia, lie the people called
+Morduyni-Byleri[1] in great Bulgaria, and the Bastarci in great Hungary;
+beyond the Bastarci are the Parositae and Samogetae; and beyond these, on
+the desert shores of the ocean, a people who are said to have dogs faces.
+On the south, Comania has the Alani, Circassians, Gazarians, Greece, and
+Constantinople, the land of the Iberians, the Cattes, the Brutaches, who
+are said to be Jews, who shave the whole of their heads, and the lands of
+the Scythians, Georgians, Armenians, and Turks. On the west are Hungary and
+Russia. Comania is a country of great length and breadth, the inhabitants
+of which were mostly extirpated by the Tartars, though many of them were
+reduced to bondage and some fled, but the fugitives have in general
+returned, and now serve the Tartars. We next entered the land of the
+Kangittae, which has few inhabitants, owing to a great scarcity of water.
+From this circumstance, several of the servants of Jeroslaus, duke of
+Russia, perished in the desert, when travelling to join him in the land of
+the Tartars. Both here and in Comania, we found many human bones and skulls
+in large heaps[2]. The Comanians and Kangittae, were pagans who dwelt in
+tents, and lived entirely on the produce of their flocks and herds, without
+practising any tillage whatever. On their conquest, a great part of the
+Kangittae were rooted out by the Tartars, and the remnant reduced to
+bondage.
+
+
+[1] The Morduyni, Morduas, or Merdas, were probably the same
+    people with those now called Tscheremisses, who call themselves
+    Mari-murt, or the people of Mari.--E.
+
+[2] Probably Tartar trophies of victory. Even Timour, the great
+    Mongol conqueror after Zingis, so much vaunted by many writers for his
+    virtues and humanity, used to order the erection of immense pyramids
+    of recent human heads, in memory of victory.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIV.
+
+_The arrival of Carpini at the first Station of the new Emperor._
+
+From the land of the Kangittae we entered the country of the Bisermini, who
+speak the Comanian language and observe the law of Mahomet. In this country
+we saw innumerable ruined cities and castles, and many towns left desolate.
+The former sovereign of this country, which is full of high mountains, was
+called Alti Soldan, who, with all his lineage, was destroyed by the
+Tartars. On the south side lie Jerusalem and Baldach, or Bagdat; and on its
+nearest borders dwell two Tartar dukes, Burin and Cadan, sons of Thiaday
+the son of Zingis-chan. To the north is the land of the black Kitayans and
+the ocean[1]. Syban, the brother of Baatu, dwells in the land of the
+Bisermini. We travelled in this country from Ascension-day until eight days
+before the feast of St John the Baptist, 16th June, when we entered the
+land of the black Kitayans, in which the emperor has built a house, where
+we were invited to drink, and the resident there for the emperor, caused
+the principal people of the city, and even his own two sons, to dance
+before us[2]. Going from thence we came to a certain sea, having a small
+mountain on its banks, in which there is said to be a hole, whence such
+vehement tempests of wind issue in winter, that travellers can hardly pass
+without imminent danger. In summer the noise of the wind is heard
+proceeding from this hole, but it is then quite gentle. We travelled along
+the shore of this sea for several days, leaving it upon our left; and
+though this sea is not of very large dimensions, it contains a considerable
+number of islands[3]. Ordu, whom we have already mentioned as the senior of
+all the Tartar dukes, dwells in this country, in the orda or court of his
+father, where one of his wives bears rule. For, according to the Tartar
+customs, the courts of princes and nobles are never dissolved at their
+deaths, but are kept up under the government of one of his wives, to whom
+the gifts are continued which used to be given to their lords. In this
+place, therefore, we arrived at the first court under the immediate
+jurisdiction of the emperor, in which one of his wives dwelt; but as we had
+not yet been presented to the emperor, we were not invited, or even
+permitted to enter the station, but were exceedingly well entertained in
+our tent, after the Tartar fashion, and were allowed to remain there one
+day for rest and refreshment.
+
+
+[1] The confused geographical notices of this traveller are so
+    uninstructive, as not to merit any commentary. A good account of the
+    present state of these immense regions will be found in Pinkerton's
+    Modern Geography, articles Independent Tartary, Chinese Tartary, and
+    Asiatic Russia. The ancient and perpetually changing distribution of
+    nations in Scythia or Tartary, in its most extended sense, almost
+    elude research, and would require lengthened dissertations instead of
+    illustrative notes.--E.
+
+[2] From the subsequent travels of Rubruquis, it will appear, that this
+    ceremony was in honour of the Tartar messengers going from Baatu to
+    the emperor, not from respect to the papal envoys.--E.
+
+[3] This sea is obviously the lake Balkash, or Palkati-nor, at the south
+    end of which our maps represent a group of islands.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXV.
+
+_The Arrival of Carpini at the Court of the Emperor elect._
+
+Leaving this place on the eve of St Peter and Paul, 28th June, we entered
+the country of the pagan Naymani[1], and next day was excessively cold,
+attended by a great fall of snow. Indeed this country is very mountainous
+and excessively cold, and has very little plain ground, wherefore these
+nations had no tillage, but dwelt in tents, which were destroyed by the
+Tartars. We travelled through this country for many days, and at length
+entered the land of the Mongals, whom we call Tartars. Through this latter
+country we continued our journey for about three weeks, continually riding
+with great expedition, and at length arrived at the residence of the
+emperor elect, on the feast of Mary Magdalen, 22d July. In the whole of
+this journey we used extraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides were
+ordered to bring us with all expedition to attend the solemn court which
+had been long appointed for the election of the emperor: on which account
+we always travelled from early morning till night, without stopping to take
+food; and we often came to our quarters so late, as not to get any food
+that night, but were forced to eat in the morning what we ought to have had
+for supper. We changed horses frequently every day, and travelled
+constantly as hard as our horses could trot.
+
+
+[1] The Soongaria of modern Geography.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVI.
+
+_Of the Reception of the papal Nuncios at the court of Kujak, or
+Cuyne-Khan._
+
+On our arrival at the court of Cuyne, he ordered us to be provided with a
+tent, and all necessary expences, after the Tartar customs, and his people
+treated us with more attention and respect than they shewed to any other
+messengers. We were not admitted into his presence, as he had not been
+formally elected and invested in the empire; but the translation of the
+Pope's letters, and of our speech, had been transmitted to him by Baatu.
+After remaining in this place for five or six days, we were sent to his
+mother, who kept a solemn court. In this place we beheld an immense tent,
+so vast, in our opinion, that it could have contained two thousand men;
+around which there was an enclosure of planks, painted with various
+figures. All the Tartar dukes were assembled in this neighbourhood, with
+their attendants, and amused themselves in riding about the hills and
+vallies. The first day these were all clothed in white robes. The second
+day, on which Cuyne came to the great tent, they were dressed in scarlet.
+The third day they were dressed in blue, and on the fourth in rich robes of
+Baldakin[1]. In the wall of boards, encircling the great tent, there were
+two gates, through one of which the emperor alone was allowed to enter; and
+though it stood continually open, there were no guards, as no one dared to
+enter or come out by that way. All who were admitted entered by the other
+gate, at which there were guards, armed with bows, arrows, and swords. If
+any one presumed to approach the tent beyond the assigned limits, he was
+severely beaten, if caught; or if he attempted to run away, he was shot at
+with arrows. Many of the people whom we saw here, had upon their saddles,
+bridles, and other trappings of their horses, to the value of twenty marks
+in pure gold, according to our estimation.[2]
+
+The dukes assembled in the great tent, and consulted together, as we
+thought, about the election of the emperor. The rest of the people were
+collected all round the wooden walls, and at a considerable distance; and
+in this manner they continued till almost noon. Then they began to drink
+mares milk, or cosmos, and continued to drink amazing quantities till
+evening. We were invited among them, and they treated us with ale, as we
+did not drink cosmos. They intended this as a great honour, but they made
+us drink so much, in comparison with our ordinary diet, as we were not able
+to endure; but on making them understand that it was hurtful to us, they
+desisted from insisting on our compliance. On the outside of the door stood
+Jeroslaus, duke of Susdal in Russia, a great many dukes of the Kithayans
+and Solangi, the two sons of the king of Georgia, the envoy of the caliph
+of Bagdat, himself a sultan, and more than ten other Saracen sultans. We
+were informed by the agents, that there were above four thousand messengers
+present, partly from those who paid tribute or sent presents, and from
+other sultans and dukes who came to make their submission, or who had been
+sent for, and from the various governors of countries and places under
+their authority. All these were placed on the outside of the wooden wall of
+the great tent, and were supplied with drink; and they almost all gave to
+us and the duke Jeroslaus the place of honour, when in their company.
+
+
+[1] This term probably signifies the manufacture of Baldach or Bagdat, and
+    may refer to silken stuffs damasced, or woven with gold flowers.--E.
+
+[2] Taking the mark of gold at 84 oz. and valuing the ounce at 4£ 17s, 6d,
+    the sum of 20 marks amounts to L. 780 Sterling.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVII.
+
+_Of the Exaltation of Cuyne as Emperor._
+
+We remained in this place, called Syra Orda, about four weeks. In our
+opinion the election was made here, though it was not published, because
+always when Cuyne came out of the tent he was greeted with a noise of
+music, and was saluted with beautiful rods tipt with scarlet wool, which
+was not done to any of the other dukes. Leaving this place, we all rode
+three or four miles to a fine plain, near a river among the mountains,
+where we found another tent erected, called the Golden Orda, in which Cuyne
+was to have been installed in the imperial seat on the festival of the
+Assumption, 15th August; but on account of a vast fall of hail, formerly
+mentioned, the ceremony was deferred. This tent was erected upon pillars,
+covered over with plates of gold, and other beams were fixed to the pillars
+by gold nails. The whole was superbly covered over with Baldakin, having
+other cloth on the outside. We remained here till the feast of St
+Bartholomew, 24th August; on which day an immense multitude convened,
+standing with their faces to the south. Certain persons, at about a stone's
+throw distance from the rest, were continually employed in making prayers
+and genuflexions, always proceeding slowly to the south. We did not know
+whether they were making incantations, or whether they bowed their knees to
+God or otherwise, and we therefore made no genuflexions. When this ceremony
+had continued a long while, the whole company returned to the tent, and
+Cuyne was placed upon the imperial throne. On which all the dukes knelt
+before him, and the same was done by all the people, except by us, who were
+not his subjects.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVIII.
+
+_Of the Age and Demeanour of Cuyne, and of his Seal._
+
+When exalted to the imperial dignity, Cuyne seemed to be about forty or
+forty-five years old. He was of middle stature, exceedingly prudent,
+politic, serious, and grave in his demeanour, and was hardly ever seen to
+laugh or to behave lightly in any respect, as was reported to us by certain
+Christians who were continually about him. These Christians of his family
+assured us likewise, that he would certainly become a Christian, because he
+always kept some Christian priests about his person, and had at all times a
+chapel of Christians established near his great tent, in which the clergy
+sang their devotions publickly and openly, and struck the regular hours on
+bells, according to the custom of the Greek church, whatever number of
+Tartars or others might be in the presence; while no other of the Tartar
+dukes did any thing like this.
+
+It is the custom of this emperor never to converse himself with any
+stranger, however high his rank, but always to hear, as it were, and to
+answer through an intermediate person: Whoever proposes any matter to his
+consideration, or listens to his reply, however great his quality, must
+remain on his knees the whole time; and no one must presume to speak on any
+subject after the determination of the emperor is expressed. For the
+dispatch of affairs, both public and private, he has agents, secretaries,
+scribes, and officers of all kinds, excepting pleaders; as every thing is
+concluded according to his will and pleasure, without strife or judicial
+noise: and the other princes of the Tartars act exactly in the same manner.
+
+While we remained at his court, the emperor and all his princes erected a
+standard of defiance against the church of God, the Roman empire, and all
+the Christian kingdoms and nations of the west, unless they should become
+obedient to his commands. Their avowed intention is to subdue the whole
+earth under their authority, as they were commanded by Zingis-khan, and
+they have only abstained from this intention of late, on account of the
+death of Occaday-khan, the emperor's father, who was poisoned. Of all the
+nations under heaven, they are in some fear of the Christians only, and on
+this account they are now preparing to make war on us. In all his letters
+their emperor styles himself the Power of God and the Emperor of Mankind;
+and the seal of the present emperor is thus inscribed:
+
+GOD IN HEAVEN; AND CUYNE-KHAN ON EARTH, THE POWER OF GOD: THE SEAL OF THE
+EMPEROR OF ALL MEN.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIX.
+
+_Of the Admission of the Papal and other Envoys to the Emperor._
+
+We were called into the presence of the emperor, in the same place where he
+had been inaugurated; and Chingay, his chief secretary, having written down
+our names, and the names of those who sent us, and the name of the duke of
+Solangi and others, he read over all these names in a loud voice to the
+emperor and the assembled dukes. Then everyone of us bowed the knee four
+times before him, and having warned us to beware of touching the threshold,
+we were carefully searched lest we might have any concealed weapons; after
+which, we entered within the precinct of the imperial tent at the east
+gate; not even the Tartar dukes dare presume to enter at the west gate,
+which is reserved for the emperor alone; yet the lower people do not pay
+much regard to this ceremonious injunction. At this time, likewise, all the
+other envoys now at the imperial residence were presented, but very few of
+them were admitted within the tent. On this occasion, infinite quantities
+of rich gifts of all kinds were presented to the emperor, by the various
+envoys and messengers, in samites, purple robes, baldakins, silken girdles
+wrought with gold, rich furs, and other things innumerable. Among these
+there was a splendid umbrella, or small canopy, to be carried over the head
+of the emperor, all covered over with gems. The governor of one of the
+provinces brought a great number of camels, having housings of baldakin,
+and carrying richly ornamented saddles, on which were placed certain
+machines, within each of which a man might sit. Many horses and mules
+likewise were presented to him, richly caparisoned and armed, some with
+leather, and some with iron. We were likewise questioned as to what gifts
+we had to offer, but we were unable to present any thing, as almost our
+whole substance was already consumed. At a considerable distance from the
+court, there stood in sight on a hill, above five hundred carts all filled
+with gold and silver and silken garments. All these things were divided
+between the emperor and his dukes, and the dukes divided their portions
+among their followers, each according to his pleasure.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXX.
+
+_Of the Separation between the Emperor and his Mother, and of the Death of
+Jeroslaus Duke of Russia._
+
+Leaving this place we came to another, where a wonderfully grand tent, all
+of red cloth, was pitched, the gift of the Cathayans. At this place
+likewise, we were introduced into the presence; and always on these
+occasions we were offered beer and wine to drink, and boiled flesh to eat
+when we were inclined. In this tent there was a lofty gallery made of
+boards, on which the imperial throne was placed, most exquisitely carved in
+ivory, and richly decorated with gold and precious stones; and, if we
+rightly remember, there were several steps by which to ascend the throne.
+This throne was round above. There were benches all around, where the
+ladies sat on the left hand, upon stools, and no one sat aloft on the right
+hand, but the dukes sat below on benches, in the middle of the tent. Others
+sat behind them, and every day there came great numbers of ladies to the
+court. These three tents which we have mentioned, were of wonderful
+magnitude; and the wives of the emperor had other tents, sufficiently large
+and beautiful, made of white felt. At this place, the emperor took leave of
+his mother, who went to one part of the land, and he to another, to
+distribute justice. About this time, a concubine belonging to the emperor
+was detected, who had poisoned his father, at the time when the Tartar army
+was in Hungary, and owing to which incident, they had been ordered to
+return. She, and a considerable number of her accomplices, were tried and
+put to death. Soon afterwards, Jeroslaus, the great duke of Soldal[1] in
+Russia, being invited, as if to do him honour, by the emperor's mother, to
+receive meat and drink from her hand, grew sick immediately after returning
+to his lodging, and died in seven days illness, his whole body becoming
+strangely of a blue colour; and it was currently reported that he had been
+poisoned, that the Tartars might freely and totally possess his land.
+
+
+[1] Called Susdal in a former passage.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXI.
+
+_How the Friars, in the presence of the Emperor, interchanged Letters_
+
+Soon afterwards, the emperor sent us to his mother, as he intended to set
+up a flag of defiance against all the nations of the west, as has been
+mentioned before; and he was desirous to keep this circumstance from our
+knowledge. Having remained some days with his mother, we returned to his
+court, where we continued a whole month, in such extreme distress for
+victuals and drink, that we could hardly keep ourselves alive; for the
+provisions allowed us for four days, were scarcely sufficient to serve us
+for one day, neither could we go to purchase at the public market, as it
+was too far from us. But God sent to our aid a Russian goldsmith, named
+Cosmas, who was considerably favoured by the emperor, and who procured us
+some food. This man shewed us the imperial throne and seal, both of which
+he had been employed to make.
+
+After some time, the emperor sent for us, and intimated, by Chingay, his
+secretary, that we should write down our messages and affairs, and deliver
+them to him, which we did accordingly. Many days afterwards, we were again
+called to the presence, and were asked if there were any persons about the
+Pope who understood the Russian, Arabic, or Tartarian languages. To this we
+answered that we were ignorant of these languages, and though there were
+Saracens in our land, they inhabited at a great distance from our lord the
+Pope; and we proposed, that when they had written in the Tartar language,
+they might explain the meaning to us, which we would carefully write down
+in our language, and would then deliver both the originals and the
+translation to his holiness. On this they went from us to the emperor. We
+were again called upon at Martinmas, when Kadac, the chief minister of the
+empire, with Chingay and Bala, and several scribes, came to us and
+explained the emperor's letter, word for word; and when we had written it
+in Latin, they made us interpret every sentence to them, to see if we had
+any way erred. And when both letters were written, they made us read them
+over twice more, lest any thing were mistaken: Saying, "Take heed that
+every thing be well understood, as great inconvenience might arise from
+wrong conception." They gave us likewise a copy of the emperor's letters in
+Arabic, in case any one might be found who could explain them in our
+country.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXII.
+
+_The Papal Envoys receive a Licence to depart._
+
+These Tartar ministers informed us, that the emperor proposed to send
+envoys along with us; and it seemed to us, that they wished we should ask
+this from the emperor, and one of the principal among them advised us to
+make that request. But this did not appear at all convenient, and we
+answered, that it did not become us to make any such petition; but if it
+were the pleasure of the emperor to send envoys, we should use our utmost
+endeavour, with God's assistance, to conduct them in safety. We were averse
+from this measure, for the following reasons: Lest, seeing the wars and
+dissensions which subsisted among the Christians, they should be the more
+encouraged to make war upon us: We were afraid that the messengers were
+meant to act as spies, to examine the approaches to our land: We dreaded
+that they might be slain by the way: for when the servants which attended
+us, by desire of the cardinal legate of Germany, were on their return to
+him, they were well nigh stoned to death by the Germans, and forced to put
+off that hateful dress: And it is the custom of the Tartars, never to make
+peace with those who have slain their messengers, till they have taken a
+severe revenge. Fourthly, we feared their messengers might be taken from us
+by main force. And lastly, because no good could arise from them, as they
+were to have no other commission or authority, except merely to deliver the
+letter of the emperor to the pope and princes of Christendom, which letter
+we already had.
+
+The third day after this, being the feast of St Brice, 13th November, we
+received our passport, and a letter sealed with the emperor's own seal; and
+going to the emperor's mother, she gave each of us a gown made of
+fox-skins, having the hair outwards, and a linen robe; from every one of
+which our Tartar attendants stole a yard, and from those that were given to
+our servants, they stole a full half. We were perfectly aware of this
+knavery, but did not think it convenient to take any notice.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXIII.
+
+_The return of the Papal Envoys to Europe_.
+
+At length we took our departure, and travelled the whole winter through the
+desert, often sleeping all night on the snow, unless when we cleared a
+piece of ground with our feet, and frequently in the morning we found
+ourselves entirely covered by the snow, which had drifted over us during
+the night. On Ascension day, we arrived at the court of Baatu, of whom we
+inquired what message we should deliver in his name to the Pope? To this he
+answered, that he had no message to give us in charge, but only that we
+should carefully deliver what we had received from the emperor. Having
+received additional passports from him, we continued our journey, and
+arrived at the station of Montij on the Sabbath after the Whitson week,
+where our companions and servants, who had been kept so long from us, were
+returned at our desire. From thence we travelled to the station of
+Corrensa, who again required presents from us, but we now had none to give.
+He however appointed two Comanians, of the lowest order of the Tartar
+subjects, to accompany us to Kiow in Russia; but our Tartar guide did not
+quit us till we were beyond the Tartar bounds; after which the Comanians,
+who had been ordered by Corrensa to attend us, brought us in six days from
+the last guard of the Tartars, to the city of Kiow, where we arrived
+fifteen days before the festival of John the Baptist, 9th June 1248. On
+receiving notice of our approach, the whole inhabitants of Kiow came out
+joyfully to receive us, congratulating us as men returned from death to
+life; and we were received in a similar manner in our whole progress
+through Russia, Poland, and Bohemia. Daniel, and his brother Wasilico,
+feasted us splendidly, and detained us, contrary to our desire, for eight
+days. In the meantime, they and their bishops and nobles, having consulted
+on those matters, which we had propounded to them, when on our journey
+towards the Tartars, made an unanimous declaration, that they would
+henceforwards hold the Pope as their special lord and holy father, and
+would adhere to the Roman church as their lady and mistress, confirming all
+things which they had previously sent on this subject, by their own abbot,
+to the Pope before our return; and in ratification of all this, they sent
+envoys and letters along with us to the Pope[1].
+
+
+[1] In Section XIX. of this journey, Wasilico, or Wasiley, is mentioned as
+    duke of Russia; but who must only have been duke of some subordinate
+    province. This submission of Russia, or of his particular dukedom,
+    produced no fruit to the Romish see, as the Russian empire still
+    remains what are called Greek schismatics.--E
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. IX.
+
+_Travels of William de Rubruquis into Tartary, about the year_
+1253_.[1]
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+These travels were undertaken by order of Louis IX. of France, usually
+called St Louis. In the original, or at least in the printed copies which
+have come down to our times, Rubruquis is said to have commenced his
+journey in the year 1253; but this date is attended with some difficulties,
+as we are certain that king Louis was a prisoner from 1249 to 1254. It is
+possible, indeed, that he may have dispatched this mission while a
+prisoner; yet it is more probable, that the date may have been vitiated in
+transcription. The real name of this early traveller, who was a friar of
+the minorite order, is said to have been Van Ruysbroek[2], from a village
+of that name near Brussels, Latinized, or Frenchified rather, into De
+Rubruquis. By Hakluyt he is named Rubruk. The version here offered to the
+public, is a translation from the Latin copy in Hakluyt, as addressed by
+the adventurous traveller to his royal master, after his return from
+traversing the whole extent of Tartary; the English translation, by that
+early and meritorious collector, being far too antiquated for modern
+readers.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, I. 80. for the Latin, and I.101. for the English. See likewise
+    Harris, I. 556.
+
+[2] Pinkerton, Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.
+
+
+
+
+_Dedication by the Author_
+
+To the Most Excellent and Most Christian Lord Louis, by the Grace of GOD
+the illustrious King of the French; Friar William de Rubruquís, the meanest
+of the Minorite Order, wisheth health and continual triumph in CHRIST
+JESUS.
+
+It is written in the book of Ecclesiasticus, "That the truly wise man shall
+travel through strange countries; for he hath tried the good and evil among
+men." All this, Sire, I have performed; and I wish I may have done so as a
+wise man, and not as a fool. For many do foolishly those things which have
+been done by wise men, and I fear I may be reckoned among that number. But
+as you were pleased to command me at my departure, that I should write down
+every thing I saw among the Tartars, and should not fear to write long
+letters, I now therefore obey your orders, yet with awe and reverence, as
+wanting fit language in which to address so great a king.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_Commencement of the Journey._
+
+Be it known, therefore, to your sacred majesty, that in the year 1253, on
+the 7th of May, we entered into the sea of Pontus, which the Bulgarians
+call the Great Sea[1]; which I was informed, by certain merchants, is 1008
+miles in length, and is in a manner divided, about its middle, into two
+parts, by means of two provinces which project into it, one on the north,
+and the other on the south. That which is on the south is called Synope,
+and contains the castle and port of the Sultan of the Turks. The northern
+province is called Gasaria by the Latins[2], and Cassaria by the Greek
+inhabitants of its coast, which is the same with Caesaria; and from thence
+certain headlands extend southwards into the sea, towards Synope, from the
+nearest part of which they are 300 miles distant; so that the distance from
+these points to Constantinople is 700 miles in length and breadth, and 700
+miles to Hiberia in the east, which is a province of Georgia.
+
+We arrived in the province of Gasaria, or Casaria, which is of a triangular
+form, having a city named Kersova on its western extremity, in which St
+Clement suffered martyrdom. While sailing past that city, we saw an island
+containing a church, which is said to have been built by the angels. In the
+middle of this province, and on a cape to the south, stands the city of
+Soldaia, directly facing Synope. And here all merchants land who come from
+Turkey, in their way to the north, and embark here again on their return
+from Russia and the north for Turkey; these latter bring ermines and
+martins, and other valuable furs, and the former carry cloths made of
+cotton, or bombasins, and silk webs, and aromatic spices. On the east of
+this province is the city of Matriga[3], where the Tanais flows into the
+Pontus, by a mouth of twelve miles wide[4]. Before this river enters the
+Euxine, it forms itself into a sea towards the north, of seven hundred
+miles in length and breadth, but in no place above six paces deep, so that
+it is not navigable for large vessels: For which reason, the merchants of
+Constantinople, when they arrive at the city of Matriga, send their barks
+to the Tanais, where they purchase dried fish, sturgeons, thosas, barbels,
+and many other sorts of fish.
+
+This province of Casaria has the sea on three sides; on the west, where
+stands Kersova, or the city of St Clement; on the south, where is the city
+of Soldaia, at which we landed; and on the east, where Matriga is situated
+at the mouth of the Tanais. To the east of that mouth is the city of Zikia,
+and the countries of the Suevi and Hiberi still further east, all of which
+are not under the dominion of the Tartars. To the south is Trebisond, which
+has its own prince, named Guido, who, although of the imperial race of
+Constantinople, is under the Tartar dominion; and next to it is Synope,
+which belongs to the sultan of the Turks, who is likewise subjected to the
+Tartars. Beyond this is the country of Vastacius, whose son is named Astar,
+after his maternal grandfather, and this country is not under the dominion
+of the Tartars. From the mouth of the Tanais to the Danube, and even beyond
+the Danube towards Constantinople, including Walachia, which is the country
+of Assanus, and the lesser Bulgaria as far as Solonia, pay tribute to the
+Tartars, who of late years have exacted an axe from each family, and all
+the corn which they find in heaps, in addition to the regular tribute.
+
+We landed at Soldaia[5] on the 21st of May, where certain merchants of
+Constantinople had previously arrived, who reported that ambassadors from
+the Holy Land were coming thither, on their way to Sartach; although I had
+publickly declared on palm Sunday, in the church of St Sophia, that I was
+no ambassador from you or any one, and only travelled to these infidels, in
+conformity with the rule of our order. On our arrival, these merchants
+advised me to be cautious of what I said; for, as they had already reported
+that I was an ambassador, if I should now say the contrary, I should be
+refused a free passage. Upon this, I addressed myself to the lieutenants of
+the city, because the captains had gone with the tribute to Baatu, and were
+not yet returned: saying, "We have heard in the Holy Land, that your lord
+Sartach[6] had become a Christian, which hath greatly rejoiced all the
+Christians, and especially the most Christian King of the French, who is
+there in pilgrimage, fighting against the Saracens, that he may redeem the
+Holy Land out of their hands: Wherefore, I desire to go to Sartach, that I
+may carry him letters from the king my master, in which he gives him
+intelligence of importance to all Christendom." They received us
+graciously, and entertained us hospitably in the cathedral church; The
+bishop had been at the court of Sartach, and told me many good things
+concerning him, which I did not find afterwards to be true. They then gave
+us our choice, either to have carts drawn by oxen, for carrying our
+baggage, or sumpter horses; and the Constantinopolitan merchants advised me
+to purchase covered carts, like those in which the Russians carry their
+peltry, in which I should put every thing which was wanted for daily use;
+because, if I were to take packhorses, I should be constrained to pack and
+unpack at every baiting place, and that besides, I should ride more easily
+in the carts than on horseback. By following their evil advice, I was two
+months in travelling to Sartach, which I might have accomplished in one on
+horseback. I had brought with me from Constantinople fruits of various
+kinds, muscadel wine, and delicate biscuits, to present to the captains,
+that I might obtain free passage, having been advised by the merchants,
+that these persons gave a very cold reception to such as applied to them
+empty handed. The governors or captains being absent, I caused all these
+things to be packed up in one of the carts, being informed that they would
+be acceptable presents to Sartach.
+
+We began our journey about the beginning of June, having four covered carts
+of our own, and two others which they furnished to us, in which we carried
+our bedding, and we were allowed five riding horses for ourselves, our
+company consisting of five persons; viz. myself and my companion, Friar
+Bartholomew of Cremona, Goset, the bearer of these letters, the man of God
+Turgeman[7], and a servant or slave, named Nicholas, whom I had purchased
+at Constantinople, out of the alms we had received. The people of Soldaia
+likewise allowed us two men to drive our carts, and to take care of our
+horses and oxen.
+
+There are several lofty promontories on the shore of Casaria, between
+Kersova[8] and the mouth of the Tanais; and there are forty castles between
+Kersova and Soldaia, at almost each of which a distinct language is spoken;
+and among these are many Goths who speak the Teutonic language[9]. Beyond
+these mountains, towards the north, extends a most beautiful wood, in a
+plain, which is full of springs and rivulets; and beyond this wood is an
+extensive plain, continuing for five days journey to the northern extremity
+of this province, where it contracts into a narrow space, having the sea on
+the east and west, and a great ditch is drawn between these two seas. In
+this plain the Comani dwelt before the coming of the Tartars, and compelled
+the before-mentioned cities and castles to pay tribute; and upon the coming
+of the Tartars, so vast a multitude of the Comani took refuge in this
+province, flying to the sea shore, that the living were forced to feed upon
+the dying, as I was assured by a merchant, an eye-witness, who declared,
+that the survivors tore in pieces with their teeth, and devoured the raw
+flesh of the dead as dogs do carrion. Towards the extremity of this
+province, there are many large lakes, having salt springs on their banks,
+and when the water of these springs reaches the lake, it coagulates into
+hard salt like ice. From these salt springs, Sartach and Baatu draw large
+revenues; as people come from all parts of Russia to procure salt, and for
+each cart-load, they pay two webs of cotton cloth, equal in value to half
+an yperpera. Many vessels come likewise by sea for salt, all of which pay
+tribute, in proportion to the quantities which they carry away. On the
+third day after leaving Soldaia, we fell in with the Tartars, on joining
+whom, I thought myself entered into a new world; wherefore, I shall use my
+best endeavours to describe their manners and way of life,
+
+
+[1] The Euxine or Black Sea. Though not expressed in the text, he probably
+    took his departure from Constantinople.--E
+
+[2] By the Latins are here obviously meant the inhabitants of western
+    Europe. The province here mentioned is the Crimea; the Taurica
+    Chersonesus of the ancients, or the modern Taurida.--E.
+
+[3] At the mouth of one of the branches of the Kuban is the town of
+    Temruck, formerly called Tmutrakhan by the Russians, and Tamatarcha by
+    the Greeks; this has been corrupted to Tamaterca, Materca, and
+    Matriga.--Forst.
+
+[4] This obviously refers to the canal of communication between the sea of
+    Azoph and the Euxine.--E.
+
+[5] Called likewise Soldeya, Soldadia and Sogdat, now Sudak.--E.
+
+[6] Sartach was the son of Baatu-khan.--E.
+
+[7] This name is probably meant to imply the Trucheman, Dragoman, or
+    interpreter; and from the strange appellative, _Man of God_, he may
+    have been a monk from Constantinople, with a Greek name, having that
+    signification: perhaps Theander--E.
+
+[8] Cherson or Kersona, called likewise Scherson, Schursi, and Gurzi.--E.
+
+[9] These castles of the Goths, first mentioned by Rubruquis, were
+    afterwards noticed by Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, in 1436; and
+    Busbeck conversed with some of these Goths from the Crimea at
+    Constantinople in 1562, and gives a vocabulary of their language. From
+    the authority of Rubruquis misunderstood, some ancient map makers have
+    inserted the Castella Judeorum instead of Gothorum in the Crimea, and
+    even Danville placed them in his maps under the name of Chateaux des
+    Juifs, castles of the Jews.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Of the Tartars and their Houses_.
+
+They have no permanent city, and they are ignorant of the future. They
+divide all Scythia among them; and each leader, according to the number of
+his followers, knows the boundaries of his pastures, and where he ought to
+feed his flocks in winter and summer, and in spring and autumn. In winter
+they descend into the warmer regions of the south, and in summer they
+travel towards the colder countries of the north. Such pastures as have no
+water, are reserved for winter use, when there is snow on the ground, as
+the snow there serves instead of water.
+
+The houses in which they sleep are founded on a round structure of wattled
+rods, and the roof is formed of wickers, meeting above in a small roundel,
+from which arises a neck like a chimney, all of which they cover with white
+felt; and they often cover over the felt with lime, or white earth and
+powdered bones to make it bright: sometimes their houses are black; and the
+felt about the neck of the dome is decorated with a variety of pictures.
+Before the door, likewise, they hang a felt, ornamented with painting; and
+they employ much coloured felt, painted with vines, trees, birds, and
+beasts, for decorating their dwellings. Some of these houses are so large
+as to measure thirty feet in breadth. I once measured the distance between
+the wheel ruts of one of their waggons to be twenty feet, and when the
+house was upon the waggon, it spread beyond the wheels at least five feet
+on each side. I have counted twenty-two bullocks dragging one waggon,
+surmounted by a house; eleven in one row, according to the breadth or the
+waggon, and other eleven before these. The axle of this waggon was very
+large, like the mast of a ship; and one man stood in the door of the house,
+upon the waggon, urging on the oxen. They likewise make quadrangular
+structures of small split wicker, like large chests, and frame for them an
+arched lid or cover of similar twigs, having a small door at the front end;
+and they cover this chest or small house with black felt, smeared over with
+suet or sheeps' milk[1], to prevent the rain from penetrating; and these
+are likewise decorated with paintings or feathers. In these they put all
+their household goods and treasure; and they bind these upon higher carts,
+drawn by camels, that they may be able to cross rivers without injuring
+their contents. These chests are never taken down from the carts to which
+they belong. When their dwelling-houses are unloaded from the waggons,
+their doors are always turned to the south; and the carts, with the chests
+which belong to each house, are drawn up in two rows, one on each side of
+the dwelling, at about the distance of a stone's throw.
+
+
+The married women get most beautiful carts made for themselves, which I am
+unable to describe without the aid of painting, and which I would have
+drawn for your majesty, if I had possessed sufficient talents. One rich
+Moal, or Tartar, will have from a hundred to two hundred such carts with
+chests. Baatu has sixteen wives, each of whom has one large house, besides
+several small ones, serving as chambers for her female attendants, and
+which are placed behind the large house; and to the large house of each
+wife there belong two hundred chest-carts. When the camp is formed, the
+house of the first wife is placed on the west, and all the rest extend in
+one line eastwards, so that the last wife is on the east, or left of all.
+And between the station of each wife there is the distance of a stone's
+throw, so that the court of a rich Moal appears like a large city, but in
+which there are very few men. One girl is able to lead twenty or thirty
+carts; for the ground being quite plain, they fasten the carts, whether
+drawn by camels or oxen, behind each other, and the girl sits on the front
+of the foremost cart of the string, directing the cattle, while all the
+rest follow with an equable motion. If they come to any difficult passage,
+the carts are untied from each other, and conducted across singly; and they
+travel at a very slow pace, only so fast as an ox or a lamb can easily
+walk.
+
+
+[1] The butter from ewe-milk is probably here meant.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+_Of their Beds and Drinking-cups_.
+
+After having placed the house on the ground, with its door turned to the
+south, the bed of the master is placed to the north, opposite the door. The
+place of the women is always on the east, or on the masters left hand,
+where he sits on his bed with his face to the south, and the place of the
+men on his right hand, to the west; and when any men enter into the house,
+they never hang up their quivers on the womens side. Over the head of the
+lord there is placed an image or puppet of felt, which is called the
+masters brother, and a similar image over the head of the mistress, which
+is called her brother; and a little higher between these, there is one very
+small and thin, which is, as it were, the keeper of the house. The mistress
+places at the foot of her bed, on the right hand, in a conspicuous place,
+the skin of a kid, stuffed with wool, or some such material, and beside
+that a small puppet looking towards the maidens and women. Near the door,
+on the womens side of the house, there is another image, with a cows udder,
+as the guardian of the women who milk the kine. On the masters side of the
+door is another image, having the udder of a mare, being the tutelary deity
+of the men who milk the mares. When they meet together for drinking, they,
+in the first place, sprinkle the master's idol with some of the liquor, and
+then all the rest in their order; after which a servant goes out of the
+house with a cup of drink, and sprinkles thrice towards the south, making a
+genuflexion between each, in honour of the fire, then towards the east, in
+honour of the air, next towards the west, in honour of the water, and
+lastly, towards the north, for the dead. When the lord takes the cup in his
+hand to drink, he first pours a part on the ground; and if he is to drink
+on horseback, he first spills a portion on the neck and mane of his horse.
+After the servant has made his libations to the four quarters of the world,
+he returns into the house, and two other servants are ready with two other
+cups and salvers, to carry drink to the lord and his wife, who sit together
+on a bed. When he has more than one wife, she with whom he slept the night
+before sits beside him that day, and all the other wives must come to her
+house that day to drink; and all the gifts which the lord receives that day
+are deposited in her chests. Upon a bench there stands vessels of milk and
+other drinks, and drinking cups.
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Of their Kinds of Drink, and Fashion of Drinking_.
+
+In winter they make excellent drink of rice, millet, and honey, which is
+clear like wine; and they have wine brought to them from distant countries.
+In summer they care not for any drink except cosmos, which always stands
+within the door, and beside it is a minstrel with his instrument of music.
+I saw no citerns, lutes, and viols, such as ours, but they have many other
+instruments which we have not. When the lord begins to drink, one of his
+servants exclaims aloud Ha! and the minstrel begins to play. When they make
+a great feast, all the guests clap their hands and dance to the music, the
+men before the lord, and the women before the lady of the house. When the
+lord hath drank, the servant calls out as before, and the minstrel ceases;
+then all drink round in their turns, both men and women, and they sometimes
+carouse on hearing the news of a victory, to a shameful and beastly degree.
+When they desire to provoke one to drink, they seize him by the ears,
+dragging them strongly, as if to widen his throat, clapping their hands,
+and dancing before him. When they mean to do great honour to any person,
+one takes a full cup, having one on his right hand, and another on his
+left, and these three advance towards him who is to receive the cup,
+singing and dancing before him; but when he reaches out his hand to receive
+the cup, they suddenly draw back, and come forwards again in the same
+manner, and they thus delude him three or four times, till he seems very
+eager, when they give him the cup, and keep dancing, singing, and stamping
+with their feet, till he has finished his draught.
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+_Of their Food._
+
+They eat indifferently of all dead animals, even such as have died of
+disease; and among such numbers of cattle and flocks, many animals must die
+almost continually. Bat in summer, when they have plenty of cosmos, or
+mares milk, they care little for any other food. When an ox or horse
+happens to die, they cut its flesh into thin slices, which they dry in the
+sun and air, which preserves it from corruption, and free from all bad
+smell. From the intestines of their horses they make sausages, better than
+those which are made of pork, and which they eat when newly made, but the
+rest of the flesh is reserved for winter use. Of the hides of oxen they
+form large bags, which they dry in a wonderful manner in the smoke. Of the
+hinder part of their horse skins they fabricate excellent sandals. They
+will make a meal for fifty, or even an hundred men, of the carcase of one
+ram. This they mince in a bowl, mixed with salt and water, which is their
+only seasoning, and then, with the point of a knife, or a little fork made
+on purpose, like those with which we eat pears and apples stewed in wine,
+they reach to every one of the company a morsel or two, according to the
+number; the master of the house having first served himself to his mind,
+before any of the rest, and if he gives a particular portion to any one,
+that person must eat it up, without giving any of it to another, or if he
+is unable to eat the whole, he takes it home with him, or gives it to his
+servant to take care of, if he has one, otherwise he puts it into his own
+_saptargat_, or square leather bag, which they carry always with them for
+such purposes, or for preserving any bones which they have not time to pick
+thoroughly, that they may clean them well afterwards, and that nothing may
+be lost.
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+_How they make the Drink called Cosmos._
+
+Cosmos is made from mares milk, in the following manner: They fasten a long
+line between two posts fixed in the ground, and to it they tie the young
+foals of the mares which are to be milked, by which means the mares are
+induced to stand quietly beside their foals, and allow themselves to be
+milked. If any mare happens to be unruly, her foal is brought, and allowed
+to suck a little, after which the milker again succeeds. Having thus
+procured a quantity of new drawn milk, it is poured into a large skin bag,
+which is immediately agitated by blows with a wooden club, having its lower
+end hollow, and as large as a man's head. After some time the milk begins
+to ferment like new wine, and to acquire a degree of sourness. The
+agitation is continued in the same manner until the butter comes; after
+which it is fit for drinking, and has a pungent yet pleasant taste, like
+raspberry wine, leaving a flavour on the palate like almond milk. This
+liquor is exceedingly pleasant, and of a diuretic quality; is exhilarating
+to the spirits, and even intoxicating to weak heads.
+
+Cara-cosmos, which means black cosmos, is made for the great lords, in the
+following manner: The agitation, as before described, is continued until
+all the lees or coagulated portion of the milk subsides to the bottom, like
+the lees of wine, and the thin parts remain above like whey, or clear must
+of wine. The white lees are given to the servants, and have a strong
+soporific quality. The clear supernatent liquor is called cara-cosmos, and
+is an exceedingly pleasant and wholesome beverage[1]. Baatu has thirty
+farms around his dwelling-place, at about a day's journey distant, each of
+which supplies him daily with the caracosmos from the milk of an hundred
+mares, so that he receives the daily produce of three thousand mares,
+besides white cosmos which the rest of his subjects contribute: For, as the
+inhabitants of Syria pay the third part of their productions to their
+lords, so the Tartars pay their mares milk every third day.
+
+From the milk of their cows they make butter, which they do not salt for
+preservation, but boil and clarify it, after which it is poured into bags
+made of sheep-skin, and preserved for winter use. The residue of the milk
+is kept till it becomes quite sour, after which it is boiled, and the
+coagula or curds, which form, are dried in the sun till quite hard, and are
+preserved in bags for winter provision. This sour curd, which they call
+_gryut_, when wanted for use in winter when they have no milk, is put into
+a bag with hot water, and by dilligent beating and agitation, is dissolved
+into a sour white liquor, which they drink instead of milk; for they have a
+great aversion to drink water by itself.
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+_Of the Beasts they eat, of their Garments, and of their Hunting parties._
+
+The great lords have farms in the southern parts of their dominions, from
+whence millet and flour are brought them for winter provisions; and the
+meaner people procure these in exchange for sheep and skins. The slaves
+content themselves with thick water[2]. They do not eat either long tailed
+or short tailed mice. There are many marmots in their country, which they
+call Sogur, which gather during winter, in companies of twenty or thirty
+together, in burrows, where they sleep for six months; these they catch in
+great numbers and use as food. There are likewise a kind of rabbits, with
+long tails like cats, having black and white hairs at the extremity of
+their tails. They have many other small animals fit for eating, with which
+they are well acquainted. I have seen no deer, and very few hares, but many
+antelopes. I saw vast numbers of wild asses, which resemble mules. Likewise
+an animal resembling a ram, called _artak,_ with crooked horns of such
+amazing size, that I was hardly able to lift a pair of them with one hand.
+Of these horns they make large drinking-cups. They have falcons,
+gyrfalcons, and other hawks in great abundance, all of which they carry on
+their right hands. Every hawk has a small thong of leather fastened round
+his neck, the ends of which hang down to the middle of his breast; and
+before casting off after game, they bow down the hawk's head towards his
+breast, by means of this thong, with their left hand, lest he be tossed by
+the wind, or should soar too high [3]. The Tartars are most expert hunters,
+and procure a great part of their sustenance by the chase.
+
+When the Tartars intend to hunt wild beasts, a vast multitude of people is
+collected together, by whom the country is surrounded to a large extent in
+a great circle; and by gradually contracting this circle towards its
+centre, they at length collect all the included game into a small space,
+into which the sportsmen enter and dispatch the game with their arrows.
+
+From Cataya, and other regions of the east, and from Persia, and other
+countries of the south they procure silk stuffs, cloth of gold, and cotton
+cloth, of which they make their summer garments. From Russia, Moxel,
+Greater Bulgaria, Pascatir, which is the greater Hungary, and Kersis, all
+of which are northern countries and full of woods, and from other countries
+towards the north which are subject to their authority, they procure
+valuable furs of many kinds, which I have not seen in our parts. With these
+they make their winter garments; and they have always at least two fur
+gowns, one of which has the fur inwards, and the other has the fur outwards
+to the wind and snow; which outer garments are usually made of the skins of
+wolves, foxes, or bears. But while they sit within doors, they have gowns
+of finer and more costly materials. The garments of the meaner sort are
+made of the skins of dogs and goats.
+
+They likewise have breeches made of skins. The rich often line their
+garments with silk shag, which is exceedingly soft, light, and warm. The
+poor line theirs with cotton cloth, wadded with the finest wool which they
+can sort out from their fleeces; and of the coarser wool they make felts
+for covering their houses and chests, and for sleeping upon. Their ropes
+are likewise made of wool, mixed with a third part of horse hair. Of felt
+they also make cloths to lay under their saddles, and caps to defend their
+heads from rain. In all these things they use vast quantities of wool. Your
+majesty has seen the habits of these people[4].
+
+
+[1] Under the name of Kumyss, this liquor is much used by the Russian
+    gentry, as a restorative for constitutions weakened by disease or
+    debauchery: and for procuring it they travel to the Tartar districts
+    of the empire.--E.
+
+[2] Whether the author here means the dissolved sour curd, mentioned at the
+    close of the former Section, or gruel made from meal and water, does
+    not appear.--E.
+
+[3] Our falconers use the left hand for carrying their hawks. I leave the
+    inexplicable use of the thongs to be understood by professional
+    falconers.--Hakluyt, ad loc.
+
+[4] Probably this concluding sentence means, that as the king of France had
+    seen some Tartars in Syria, the author did not deem it necessary to
+    describe their form and fashions.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+_Of the Fashion of their Hair, and the Ornaments of their Women._
+
+The men have a square tonsure on their crowns, from the two front corners
+of which they shave two seams down to their temples. The temples also, and
+hinder part of the head, to the nape of the neck, are shaved, and the
+forehead, except one small lock which falls down to the eyes. On each angle
+of the hind head, they leave a long lock of hair, which they braid and knot
+together under each ear. The dress of unmarried women differs little from
+that of the men, except in being somewhat longer. But on the day after
+marriage, the head is shaved, from the middle down to the forehead, and the
+woman puts on a wide gown, like that of a monk, but wider and longer. This
+opens before, and is tied under the right side. In this the Tartars and
+Turks differ, as the Turks tie their garments always on the left side. They
+have an ornament for their heads which they call Botta, which is made of
+the bark of a tree or any other very light substance, made in a round form,
+so thick as may be grasped with both hands, becoming square at the upper
+extremity, and in all about two feet long, somewhat resembling the capital
+of a pillar. This cap is hollow within, and is covered over with rich silk.
+On the top of this they erect a bunch of quills, or slender rods, about a
+cubit long, or even more, which they ornament with peacocks feathers on the
+top, and all around with the feathers of a wild drake, and even with
+precious stones. The rich ladies wear this ornament on the top of their
+heads, binding it on strongly with a kind of hat or coif, which has a hole
+in its crown adapted for this purpose, and under this they collect their
+hair from the back of the head, lapped up in a kind of knot or bundle
+within the botta; and the whole is fixed on by means of a ligature under
+their throat. Hence, when a number of these ladies are seen together on
+horseback, they appear at a distance like soldiers armed with helmets and
+lances. The women all sit astride on horseback like men, binding their
+mantles round their waists with silken scarfs of a sky-blue colour, and
+they bind another scarf round their breasts. They likewise have a white
+veil tied on just below their eyes, which reaches down to their breasts.
+The women are amazingly fat, and the smaller their noses, they are esteemed
+the more beautiful. They daub over their faces most nastily with grease;
+and they never keep their beds on account of child-bearing.
+
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+_Of the Duties and Labours of the Women, and of their Nuptials._
+
+The employments of the women are, to lead the waggons, to load and unload
+the horses, to milk the cows, to make butter and gryut, to dress skins, and
+to sew them together, which they generally do with sinews finely split and
+twisted into long threads. They likewise make sandals, and socks, and other
+garments, and felts for covering their houses. They never wash their
+garments, alleging that it would offend God, and that hanging them up to
+dry would occasion thunder; and they even beat any person who pretends to
+wash their garments, and take their clothes from them. They are
+astonishingly afraid of thunder, during which they turn all strangers from
+their dwellings, and wrapping themselves in black felt, remain covered up
+till it is over. They never wash their bowls or dishes; or if they do wash
+the platters into which the boiled meat is to be put, they do it merely
+with the scalding broth, which they throw back into the pot.
+
+The men make bows and arrows, saddles, bridles, and stirrups, construct
+houses and carts, takes care of the horses, and milk the mares, agitate the
+cosmos or mares milk, make leather sacks, in which these are kept, take
+care of, and load the camels, tend the cows, sheep, and goats, and these
+are sometimes milked by the men, sometimes by the women. They dress hides
+with sheeps milk, thickened and salted. When they mean to wash their head
+and hands, they fill their mouths with water, which they squirt out
+gradually on their hands, and moisten their hair or wash their heads.
+
+No man can have a wife unless by purchase; so that many maids are rather
+old before marriage, as their parents always keep them till they can get a
+good market. They keep the first and second degrees of consanguinity
+inviolate, but pay no regard to affinity, as one man may have either at
+once, or successively two sisters. Widows never marry, as their belief is,
+that all who have served a man in this life, shall do so in the next; so
+that widows believe that they shall return after death to their husbands.
+Hence arises an abominable custom among them, that the son sometimes
+marries all his father's wives except his own mother; for the court or
+household of the father and mother always devolves to the younger son, and
+he has to provide for all his father's wives, which fall to his share along
+with the inheritance; and he considers, that if he takes his father's
+wives, it will be no injury or disgrace to him though they went to his
+father in the next world. When any one has made a bargain with another for
+his daughter, the father of the maid gives a feast to the bridegroom, and
+the bride runs away and hides herself in the house of one of her relations.
+Then the father says to the bridegroom, "My daughter is now yours, take her
+wherever you can find her." On which he seeks for her, with the assistance
+of his friends, till he discovers her concealment, and then leads her as if
+by violence to his house.
+
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+_Of their Laws and Judgments, and of their Death and Burial_.
+
+When two men fight, no one must interfere to part them, neither may a
+father presume to aid his own son; but he who considers himself injured
+must appeal to the court of his lord, and whoever shall offer him any
+violence after this appeal is put to death. He who is appealed against,
+must go without delay, and the appellant leads him as a prisoner. No one is
+punished capitally, unless taken in the act, or unless he confesses; but
+when witnessed against by many, he is severely tortured to extort
+confession. Homicide, adultery, and fornication, are punished with death;
+but a man may use his own slave as he pleases. Great thefts are punished
+capitally; but for small ones, as for stealing a sheep, when the party is
+not caught in the fact, but otherwise detected, the thief is cruelly
+beaten. And when an hundred strokes are to be given by order of the court,
+an hundred separate rods are required, one for each blow. Pretended
+messengers are punished with death, as are likewise sacrilegious persons,
+whom they esteem witches, of which more will be said hereafter.
+
+When any one dies, he is mourned for with violent howlings, and the
+mourners are free from tribute during a whole year. Any one who happens to
+enter a house, in which a grown up person lies dead, must not enter the
+house of Mangu-khan during a whole year; if the dead person is a child, he
+is only debarred for one lunation. One house is always left near the grave
+of the deceased; but the burial place of any of the princes of the race of
+Jenghis-khan is always kept secret; yet there is always a family left in
+charge of the sepulchres of their nobles, though I do not find that they
+deposit any treasure in these tombs. The Comanians raise a large barrow or
+tomb over their dead, and erect a statue of the person, with his face
+turned towards the east, holding a drinking cup in his hand; they erect
+likewise, over the tombs of the rich, certain pyramids or sharp pinnacles.
+In some places, I observed large towers built of burnt bricks, and others
+of stone, though no stones were to be found about the place. I saw the
+grave of a person newly buried, in honour of whom there were hung up
+sixteen horses hides, four of which towards each quarter of the world,
+between high poles; and beside the grave they had set cosmos, that the
+deceased might drink, and flesh for him to eat, although the person was
+said to have been baptized. Farther east, I saw other kinds of sepulchres,
+consisting of large areas, paved with stone, some round and others square,
+having four large stones placed upright around the pavement, and fronting
+the four cardinal points. When any one lies sick in bed, a mark is affixed
+to the house, that no one may enter, as no one ever visits the sick, except
+his own servant; and when any one belonging to the great courts is sick,
+watchmen are placed at a great distance, all round, that no one may enter
+the precincts; as they dread lest evil spirits, or bad winds, might enter
+along with visitors. They consider their soothsayers, or people who
+practise divination, as priests.
+
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+_Of our first Entering among the Tartars, and of their Ingratitude_.
+
+When we first entered among these Tartars, after having made us wait for
+them a long time, under the shade of certain black carts, a considerable
+number of them on horseback surrounded us. Their first question was,
+whether we had ever before been among them; and being answered in the
+negative, they began impudently to beg some of our victuals; and we gave
+them some of the biscuits and wine, which we had brought with us from
+Constantinople. Having drank one flaggon of our wine they demanded more,
+saying, that a man does not enter a house with one foot only. But we
+excused ourselves, as not being well provided. They next inquired, whence
+we came, and whither we were going? To this I answered, that hearing
+Sartach was become a Christian, we wished to go to him, that we might
+present your majestys letters to him. They then asked if we came of our own
+accord, or were sent upon this errand. To this I said, that no one had
+compelled me, and that I had come voluntarily, and by the desire of my
+superiors; being cautious not to say that I was the ambassador from your
+majesty. They then required to know if our carts contained gold and silver,
+or precious vestments, as presents for Sartach. To which I answered, that
+Sartach should see what we carried when we came to his presence, and that
+they had nothing to do with such questions, but ought to conduct me to
+their captain; that he, if he thought proper, might direct me to be carried
+to Sartach, otherwise I should return. There then was in this province one
+Scacatai, or Zagathai, related to Baatu, to whom the emperor of
+Constantinople had written requisitorial letters, that I might be permitted
+to proceed on my journey. On being informed of this, they supplied us with
+horses and oxen, and appointed two men to conduct us on our journey, and
+those which we had brought with us from Soldaia returned. Yet they made us
+wait a long while, continually begging our bread to give to their children;
+and they admired and coveted every thing they saw about our servants, as
+their knives, gloves, purses, and points. But when we excused ourselves
+from their importunity, alleging that we had a long journey before us, and
+must not give away those things which were necessary for ourselves, they
+reviled me as a niggard; and though they took nothing by force, they were
+exceedingly impudent, and importunate in begging, to have every thing they
+saw. If a man gives them any thing, it may be considered as thrown away,
+for they have no gratitude; and as they look upon themselves as the lords
+of the world, they think that nothing should be refused to them by any one;
+yet, if one gives them nothing, and afterwards stands in need of their
+assistance, they will not help him. They gave us some of their butter milk,
+called _Apram_, which is extremely sour. After this we left them, thinking
+that we had escaped out of the hands of the demons, and the next day we
+arrived at the quarters of their captain. From the tune when we left
+Soldaia, till we got to Sartach, which took us two months, we never lay
+under a house or a tent, but always in the open air, or under our carts;
+neither did we see any town, or the vestiges of any buildings where a
+village had been; though we saw vast numbers of the tombs of the Comanians.
+On the same evening, our conductor gave us some cosmos, which was very
+pleasant to drink, but not having been accustomed to that liquor, it
+occasioned me to sweat most profusely.
+
+
+
+SECTION XII.
+
+_Of the Court of Zagathai, and how the Christians drink no Cosmos_.
+
+Next morning, we met the carts of Zagathai, laden with houses, and I
+thought that a great city was travelling towards us. I was astonished at
+the prodigious droves of oxen and horses, and the immense flocks of sheep,
+though I saw very few men to guide them; which made me inquire how many men
+he had under his command, and I was told he had not above 500 in all, half
+of whom we had already passed at another station. Then the servant who
+conducted us, informed me that it was requisite for us to make a present to
+Zagathai, and desired us to stop while he went forwards, to announce our
+arrival. It was then past three o'clock, and the Tartars unladed their
+houses near a certain water. After this, the interpreter of Zagathai came
+to us, and learning that we had not been before among them, he demanded
+some of our victuals, which we gave him; he also required to have some
+garments, as a reward for his trouble in interpreting for us to his master;
+but we excused ourselves on account of our poverty. He then asked us what
+we intended to present to his lord, when we shewed him a flaggon of wine,
+and filled a basket with biscuit, and a platter with apples and other
+fruits; but he was not satisfied, as we had not bought him some rich
+stuffs. However, we entered into the presence of Zagathai with fear and
+bashfulness; he was sitting on a bed, having a small citern or lute in his
+hand, and his wife sat beside him, who, I really believe, had amputated her
+nose, between the eyes, that it might be the flatter, for she had no nose
+in that part of her face, which was smeared over with black ointment, as
+were also her eyebrows, which seemed very filthy in our eyes. I then
+repeated to him the exact same words which I had used before, respecting
+the object of our journey, as we had been admonished by some who had been
+among them formerly, never to vary in our words. I requested that he would
+deign to accept our small gift; for, being monks, it was contrary to the
+rules of our order to possess gold or silver or rich garments; on which
+account, we had no such things to offer, and hoped he would accept some
+portion of our victuals as a blessing. He received those things, and
+immediately distributed them among his men, who were met in his house to
+drink. I likewise presented to him the letters from the emperor of
+Constantinople. He then sent these to Soldaia to be translated, because,
+being in Greek, there was no person about him who understood that language.
+He asked if we would drink cosmos? For the Russian, Greek, and Alanian
+Christians, who happen to, be among the Tartars, and conform strictly to
+their own laws, do not drink that liquor, and even think they are not
+Christians who do so; and their priests, after such conduct, formally
+reconcile them again to the church, as if they had thereby renounced the
+Christian faith. I answered that we had still a sufficiency of our own
+drink, but when that was done, we should be under the necessity of using
+what might be given us. He next asked us, what the letters contained which
+we carried to Sartach? I answered that these were sealed, and contained
+only the words of friendship and good will. He asked what I meant to say to
+Sartach? To this I answered, that I should speak to him the words of the
+Christian faith. He asked what these were, as he would willingly hear them?
+I then expounded to him the apostles creed, as well as I was able, by means
+of our interpreter, who was by no means clever or eloquent. On hearing this
+he shook his head, but made no reply. He then appointed oxen and horses for
+our use, and two men to attend upon us; but he desired us to abide with
+him, until the messenger should return with the translation of the emperors
+letters from Soldaia. We arrived at the horde of Zagathai, in the Ascension
+week, and we remained with him until the day after Pentecost, or Whitsun
+Tuesday, being ten days in all.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIII.
+
+_How some Alanians visited them on the Eve of Pentecost_.
+
+On the eve of Pentecost or Whitsunday, there came to us certain Alanians,
+called there Acias or Akas, who are Christians after the Greek form, using
+Greek books, and having Grecian priests, but they are not schismatics like
+the Greeks as they honour all Christians without exception. These men
+brought us some sodden flesh, which they offered us to eat, and requested
+us to pray for one of their company who had died. But I explained to them
+the solemnity of the festival, and that we could eat no flesh at this time.
+They were much pleased with our exposition, as they were ignorant of every
+thing relative to the Christian rites, the name of Christ alone excepted.
+They and many other Christians, both Russians and Hungarians, demanded of
+us if they might be saved, having been constrained to drink cosmos, and to
+eat the flesh of animals that had been slain by the Saracens and other
+infidels; which the Greek and Russian priests consider as things strangled
+or offered to idols. They were likewise ignorant of the times of fasting,
+neither could they have observed these in this region, even if they had
+known their times and seasons. I then instructed them as well as I could,
+and strengthened them in the faith. We reserved the flesh which they had
+brought us until the feast day, for there was nothing to be bought among
+the Tartars for gold and silver, but only for cloth and garments, which we
+had not to dispose of. When our servants offered any of the coin which they
+call yperpera [1], they rubbed it with their fingers, and smelt it, to see
+whether it were copper. All the food they supplied us with was sour, and
+filthy cows milk; and the water was so foul and muddy, by reason of their
+numerous horses, that we could not drink it. If it had not been for the
+grace of God, and the biscuit we brought with us, we had surely perished.
+
+
+[1] Or hyperpyron, a coin said to be of the value of two German
+    dollars, or six and eightpence Sterling.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIV.
+
+_Of a Saracen who desired to be Baptized, and of men who seemed Lepers_.
+
+Upon the day of Pentecost, a Saracen came to visit us, to whom we explained
+the articles of the Christian faith; particularly the salvation of sinners,
+through the incarnation of Jesus, the resurrection of the dead, and
+judgment to come, and how through baptism all sin was washed out. He seemed
+much affected with these doctrines, and even expressed a desire to be
+baptized; but when we were preparing for that ceremony, he suddenly mounted
+on horseback, saying that he must first consult his wife; and he returned
+next day, declining to receive baptism, because he would not then be
+allowed to drink cosmos, without which, he could not live in that country.
+From this opinion, I could not move him by any arguments; so that these
+people are much estranged from becoming Christians, by the assertion of
+that opinion by the Russians, and other Christians, who come among them in
+great numbers.
+
+On the same day, which was the morrow of the feast of Pentecost, Zagathai
+gave us one man to conduct us to Sartach, and two others to guide us to the
+next station, which was at the distance of five days journey for our oxen.
+We were presented also with a goat to serve us as food, and a great many
+skin bags of cows milk, but they gave us very little cosmos, as that liquor
+is in great estimation among themselves.
+
+From the station of Zagathai we travelled directly north, and our
+attendants began to pilfer largely from us, because we took too little heed
+of our property, but experience at length taught us wisdom. At length we
+reached the bounds of this province, which is fortified by a deep ditch,
+from sea to sea[1]. Immediately beyond this ditch, we came to the station
+to which our conductors belonged, where all the inhabitants seemed to be
+infected with leprosy; and certain base people are placed here to receive
+the tribute from all who come for salt from the salt pits formerly
+mentioned. We were told that we should have to travel fifteen days farther
+before meeting with any other inhabitants. With these people we drank
+cosmos, and we presented them in return with a basket of fruits and
+biscuit; and they gave us eight oxen and a goat, and a vast number of
+bladders full of milk, to serve as provision during our long journey. But
+by changing our oxen, we were enabled in ten days to attain the next
+station, and through the whole way we only found water in some ditches, dug
+on purpose, in the vallies, and in two small rivers. From leaving the
+province of Casaria, we traveled directly eastwards, having the sea of
+Azoph on our right hand, and a vast desert on the north, which, in some
+places, is twenty days journey in breadth, without mountain, tree, or even
+stone; but it is all excellent pasture. In this waste the Comani, called
+Capchat[2], used to feed their cattle. The Germans called these people
+Valani, and the province Valania; but Isidore terms the whole country, from
+the Tanais, along the Paulus Maeotis, Alania. This great extent would
+require a journey of two months, from one end to the other, even if a man
+were to travel post as fast as the Tartars usually ride, and was entirely
+inhabited by the Capchat Comanians; who likewise possessed the country
+between the Tanais, which divides Europe from Asia, and the river Edil or
+Volga, which is a long ten days journey. To the north of this province of
+Comania Russia is situate, which is all over full of wood, and reaches from
+the north of Poland and Hungary, all the way to the Tanais or Don. This
+country has been all wasted by the Tartars, and is even yet often plundered
+by them.
+
+The Tartars prefer the Saracens to the Russians, because the latter are
+Christians: and when the Russians are unable to satisfy their demands for
+gold and silver, they drive them and their children in multitudes into the
+desert, where they constrain them to tend their flocks and herds. Beyond
+Russia is the country of Prussia, which the Teutonic knights have lately
+subdued, and they might easily win Russia likewise, if they so inclined;
+for if the Tartars were to learn that the sovereign Pontiff had proclaimed
+a crusade against them, they would all flee into their solitudes.
+
+
+[1] From this circumstance it is obvious, that the journey had been
+    hitherto confined to Casaria, or the Crimea, and that he had now
+    reached the lines or isthmus of Precop.--E.
+
+[2] In the English translation of Hakluyt, this word is changed to Capthak,
+    and in the collection of Harris to Capthai; it is probably the
+    Kiptschak of the Russians.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XV.
+
+_Of our Distresses, and of the Comanian funerals_.
+
+In our journey eastwards we saw nothing but the earth and sky, having
+sometimes the sea of Tanais within sight on our right hand, and sometimes
+we saw the sepulchres in which the Comanians used to bury their dead, at
+the distance of a league or two from the line of our journey. So long as we
+travelled in the desert, matters were tolerably well with us, but I cannot
+sufficiently express the irksome and tedious plagues and troubles we had to
+encounter in the dwellings of the Tartars; for our guide insisted upon us
+making presents to every one of the Tartar captains, which we were utterly
+unable to afford, and we were eight persons in all, continually using our
+provisions, as the three Tartars who accompanied us insisted that we should
+feed them; and the flesh which had been given us was by no means
+sufficient, and we could not get any to buy. While we sat under the shadow
+of our carts to shelter us from the extreme heat of the sun, they would
+intrude into our company, and even tread upon us, that they might see what
+we had; and when they had to ease nature, would hardly withdraw a few yards
+distance, shamelessly talking to us the whole lime. What distressed me most
+of all, was when I wished to address them upon religious subjects, my
+foolish interpreter used to say, "You shall not make me a preacher, and I
+neither will nor can rehearse these words." Nay, after I began to acquire
+some little knowledge of their language, I found, when I spoke one thing,
+he would say quite differently, whatever chanced to come uppermost in his
+senseless mind. Thus, seeing the danger I might incur in speaking by so
+faithless an interpreter, I resolved rather to be silent.
+
+We thus journeyed on from station to station, till at length a few days
+before the festival of Mary Magdalen, 22d July, we arrived on the banks of
+the mighty river Tanais or Don, which divides Europe from Asia. At this
+place Baatu and Sartach had established a station of Russians on the
+eastern bank of the river, on purpose to transport merchants and messengers
+across. They ferried us over in the first place, and then our carts; and
+their boats were so small that they were obliged to use two boats tied
+together for one cart, putting a wheel into each. In this place our guides
+acted most foolishly; for believing that the Russians would provide us with
+horses and oxen, they sent back those we had from the western side of the
+river, to their masters. But when relays were demanded from the Russians,
+they alleged that they had a privilege from Baatu, exempting them from all
+services except those belonging to the ferry, and for which they were even
+accustomed to receive considerable rewards from such merchants as passed
+that way. We were, therefore, constrained to remain three days in this
+place. The first day they gave us a large fresh fish[1]. The second day the
+magistrate of the village gathered from every house for us, and presented
+us with rye-bread and some flesh. And the third day they gave us dried
+fish, of which they have great abundance.
+
+The river Tanais, at this place, is as broad as the Seine at Paris; and
+before arriving on its banks, we had passed many goodly waters full of
+fish: but the rude Tartars know not now to catch them, neither do they hold
+fish in any estimation, unless large enough to feed a company. This river
+is the eastern limit of Russia, and arises from certain marshes which
+extend to the northern ocean; and it discharges itself in the south, into a
+large sea of 700 miles extent, before falling into the Euxine; and all the
+rivers we had passed ran with a full stream in the same direction. Beyond
+this place the Tartars advance no farther to the north, and they were now,
+about the first of August, beginning to return into the south; and they
+have another village somewhat lower down the river, where passengers are
+ferried over in winter. At this time the people were reaping their rye.
+Wheat does not succeed in their soil, but they have abundance of millet.
+The Russian women attire their heads like those in our country; and they
+ornament their gowns with furs of different kinds, from about the knees
+downwards. The men wear a dress like the Germans, having high crowned
+conical hats made of felt, like sugar loaves, with sharp points.
+
+At length, after representing that our journey was intended for the common
+benefit of all Christians, they provided us with oxen and men to proceed
+upon our journey; but as we got no horses, we were ourselves under the
+necessity of travelling on foot. In this manner we journied for three days,
+without meeting any people; and when both our oxen and ourselves were weary
+and faint with fatigue, two horses came running towards us, to our great
+joy: Our guide and interpreter mounted upon these, and set out to see if
+they could fall in with any inhabitants. At length, on the fourth day,
+having found some people, we rejoiced like seafaring men, who had escaped
+from a tempest into a safe harbour. Then getting fresh horses and oxen, we
+passed on from station to station, till we at length reached the habitation
+of duke Sartach on the second of the kalends of August[2].
+
+
+[1] In the Latin this fish is named Barbatus, which both Hakluyt and Harris
+    have translated Turbot, a fish never found in rivers. It was more
+    probably a Barbel, in Latin called Barbus; or it might be of the
+    Sturgeon tribe, which likewise has beard-like appendages, and is found
+    in the Don.--E.
+
+[2] This, according to the Roman method of reckoning, ought to be the last
+    day of July. Yet Rubruquis had previously mentioned the 1st of August
+    a considerable time before.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVI.
+
+_Of the Dominions and Subjects of Sartach_.
+
+The region beyond the Tanais is very beautiful, especially towards the
+north, where there are fine rivers and extensive forests. In these dwell
+two different nations. One of these, named the Moxel, are ignorant pagans,
+without any laws, who dwell in cottages among the woods, and have no
+cities. Their lord, and the greater part of the nation were carried to the
+confines of Germany by the Tartars, and were there slain by the Germans,
+who are held in great estimation by the nations who are subject to the
+Tartars, as they hope, through their means, to be freed from the Tartar
+yoke. When a merchant comes among these people, the first person with whom
+he stops is obliged to provide him with all necessaries during his stay in
+the district; and they are so little jealous of their wives, that husbands
+pay little regard to their infidelity, unless directly under their eyes.
+These people have abundance of swine, honey, and wax, precious furs, and
+falcons. Beyond these dwell the Merdas[1] or Merdui, who are Saracens or
+Mahometans. Beyond them is the Etilia or Volga, the largest river I ever
+beheld, which comes out of the north, from the country of the Greater
+Bulgaria and runs southwards, into a vast lake of four months journey in
+circuit, of which I shall speak afterwards. In the northern region, by
+which we travelled, the Tanais and Volga are not above ten days journey
+asunder, but towards the south they are at a much farther distance; the
+Tanais falling into the Euxine, and the Volga into the before mentioned sea
+or lake, which likewise receives many rivers from Persia. In the course of
+our journey, we left to the south certain great mountains, on whose sides,
+towards the desert, dwell the Cergis and the Alani or Acas, who are
+Christians, and still carry on war with the Tartars. Beyond these, near the
+sea or lake of Etilia, or the Caspian, are certain Mahometans named Lesgis,
+who are subjected to the Tartars. Beyond these again are the _Irongates_,
+which were constructed by Alexander, to exclude the barbarians from Persia,
+of which I shall speak hereafter, as I passed that way in my return. In the
+country through which we travelled between these great rivers, the
+Comanians dwelt before it was occupied by the Tarters.
+
+
+[1] In the English of Hakluyt and Harris, these people are called Merdas
+    and Mardui.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVII.
+
+_Of the Magnificence of the Court of Sartach_.
+
+WE found Sartach encamped within three days journey of the river Volga or
+Etilia, and his court or horda appeared to us very large and magnificent;
+as he had six wives, and his eldest son three, and each of these ladies had
+a great house, like those already described, besides that each had several
+smaller houses, and 200 of the chest-carts already mentioned. Our guide
+went immediately to a certain Nestorian named Coiat, who has great
+influence at the court of Sartach; and this man carried us in the evening a
+considerable distance, to an officer called, in the Tartar language, the
+Lords Gate, to whom belongs the duty of receiving messengers or
+ambassadors. Our guide inquired what we had ready to present to this
+person, and seemed much offended when he found we had nothing to offer.
+When we came into his presence, he sat majestically, having music and
+dancing performed before him. I then spoke to him the words formerly
+mentioned, giving an account of the cause of our mission, and requesting
+that he would bring us and our letters into the presence of his lord. I
+excused myself also, that as I was a monk, neither giving, receiving, or
+using any gold, silver, or other costly things, except our books, and the
+vestments in which we served God, that I could bring no present to him or
+his lord; and having abandoned my own goods, I could not transport such
+things for other men. He courteously answered, that being a monk, I acted
+well in observing my vow: and that he stood in no need of any of our
+things, but on the contrary, was ready to give us what we might need. He
+then caused us to sit down and drink of his milk, and afterwards desired
+that we should recite a benediction for him, which we did. He inquired who
+was the greatest sovereign among the Francs? To which I answered the
+emperor, if he could enjoy his dominions in peace. "Not so, said he, but
+the king of France." For he had heard of your majesty from the Lord Baldwin
+of Hainault. I found also at this court, one of the Knight Templars, who
+had been at Cyprus, and had made a report of all that he had seen there
+concerning your majesty. We then returned to our lodgings, whence we sent a
+flaggon of our Muscadel wine, which had kept well during the journey, and a
+box of our biscuit to this officer, who received the present very
+graciously, and retained our servants all night in his dwelling.
+
+In the morning he ordered us to come to court, and to bring the kings
+letters, and our books and vestments along with us, as his lord desired to
+see these things. This we did accordingly, lading one cart with our books
+and vestments, and another with wine, biscuit, and fruits. Then he caused
+all our books and vestments to be spread out, and asked if we meant to
+bestow all these things upon his lord. A multitude of Tartars, Christians,
+and Mahometans were around us, on horseback, at this time, and I was sore
+grieved and afraid at this question; but dissembling as well as I could, I
+said, "That we humbly requested his lord and master to accept our bread,
+wine, and fruits, not as a present, for it was too mean, but as a
+benevolence, lest we should appear to come empty handed. That his lord
+would see the letters of the king my master, which would explain the reason
+of our journey; after which we, and all we had, would remain at his
+command: But that our vestments were holy, and were unlawful to be touched
+or used by any except priests." We were then commanded to array ourselves
+in our sacred vestments, that we might appear in them before his lord. Then
+putting on our most precious ornaments, I took a rich cushion in my arms,
+together with the bible I had from your majesty, and the beautiful psalter,
+ornamented with fine paintings, which the queen bestowed upon me. My
+companion carried the missal and a crucifix; and the clerk, clothed in his
+surplice, carried a censer in his hand. In this order we presented
+ourselves, and the felt hanging before the lords door being withdrawn, we
+appeared, in his presence. Then the clerk and interpreter were ordered to
+make three genuflexions, from which humiliation we were exempted; and they
+admonished us to be exceedingly careful, in going in and out of the lords
+dwelling, not to touch the threshold of his door, and we were desired to
+sing a benediction or prayer for their lord; and we accordingly entered in
+singing the salve regina.
+
+Immediately within the door there stood a bench planted with cosmos and
+drinking cups. All Sartachs wives were assembled in the house; and the
+Moals, or rich Tartars, pressing in along with us, incommoded us
+exceedingly. Then Coiat carried the censer with incense to Sartach, who
+took it in his hand, examining it narrowly. He next carried him the
+psalter, which he and the wife who sat next him minutely inspected. After
+which the bible was carried to him, on which he asked if it contained our
+Gospel? To which I answered, that it contained that, and all our other Holy
+Scriptures. I next delivered to him your majestys letter, with its
+translation into the Arabian and Syriac languages, which I had procured to
+be done at Acon[1]; and there happened to be present certain Armenian
+priests, who were skilful in the Turkish and Arabian languages, and
+likewise the before mentioned templar had knowledge of both these and the
+Syriac. We then went out of the house and put off our vestments, and we
+were followed by Coiat, accompanied by certain scribes, by whom our letters
+were interpreted; and when Sartach had heard these read, he graciously
+accepted our bread, wine, and fruits, and permitted us to carry our books
+and vestments to our own lodgings. All this happened on the festival of St
+Peter ad Vincula.
+
+
+[1] Now called St Jean d'Acre.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVIII.
+
+_They are ordered to proceed to Baatu, the Father of Sartach_.
+
+Next morning early a certain priest, who was the brother of Coiat, came to
+our lodging, and desired to have our box of chrism to carry, as he said, to
+Sartach. About evening Coat sent for us, and said that the king our master
+had written acceptably to his lord and master Sartach; but there were
+certain difficult matters, respecting which he did not dare to determine
+without the orders and advice of his father, and that it was, therefore,
+necessary that we should go to his father, leaving the two carts behind us
+in which we brought the books and vestments, because his lord was desirous
+to examine these things more carefully. Suspecting the evil that might
+arise from this man's covetousness, I immediately said that we would not
+only leave these carts, but the other two also under his custody. You shall
+not, said he, leave these two carts behind, but as for the other two, we
+will satisfy your desire. But I insisted upon leaving them all. He then
+desired to know whether we intended to remain in the country? To which I
+answered, that if he had thoroughly understood the letters of my lord and
+master, he would have seen that we were so inclined. And he then exhorted
+us to demean ourselves with patience, and humility; after which we parted
+for that evening.
+
+Next day Coiat sent a Nestorian priest for the carts, to whom we caused all
+the four to be delivered. After whom the brother of Coiat came to our
+lodging, and took possession of all the books and vestments which we had
+shewn the day before at the court; although we remonstrated against this
+procedure, saying that Coiat had ordered us to carry those things along
+with us, that we might appear in them before Baatu; but he took them from
+us by violence, saying, "you brought all these things to Sartach, and would
+you carry them to Baatu?" And when I would have reasoned with him against
+this conduct, he desired me not to be too talkative, but to go my way.
+There was no remedy but patience, as we could not have access to Sartach,
+and we could not expect to procure justice from any other person. I was
+even afraid to employ our interpreter on this occasion, lest he might have
+represented matters in a quite different sense from what I should direct,
+as he seemed much inclined for us to give away all we had. My only comfort
+was, that I had secretly removed the bible and some other books, on which I
+set a great store, when I first discovered their covetous intentions; but I
+did not venture to abstract the psalter, because it was so particularly
+distinguished by its beautifully gilded illuminations. When the person came
+who was appointed to be our guide to the court of Baatu, I represented to
+him the necessity of leaving our other carts behind, as we were to travel
+post; and on this being reported to Coiat, he consented to take charge of
+these, and of our servant. Before leaving the residence of Sartach, Coiat
+and other scribes desired that we should by no means represent their lord
+to Baatu as a Christian, but as a Moal: for though they believe some things
+concerning Christ, they are very unwilling to be called Christians, which
+they consider as a national appellation; and they look upon their own name
+of Moal as worthy to be exalted above all others. Neither do they allow
+themselves to be called Tartars: as that is the name of another nation,
+according to the information I received at this place. Leaving the station
+of Sartach, we travelled directly eastwards for three days, on the last of
+which we came to the Etilia or Volga, and I wondered much from what regions
+of the north such mighty streams should descend.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIX.
+
+_Of the Reverence shewn by Sartach, Mangu-khan, and Ken-chan, to the
+Christians_.
+
+At the time when the Francs took Antioch from the Saracens[1], a prince
+named Con-can, or Khen-khan, held dominion over all the northern regions of
+Tartary. Con is a proper name, and can or khan is a title of dignity,
+signifying a diviner or soothsayer, and is applied to all princes in these
+countries, because the government of the people belongs to them through
+divination. To this prince the Turks of Antioch sent for assistance against
+the Francs, as the whole nation of the Turks came originally from the
+regions of Tartary. Con-khan was of the nation called Kara-Catay, or the
+black Catay; which is used to distinguish them from the other nation of
+Catayans, who inhabit to the eastwards upon the ocean, of whom I shall
+speak afterwards. These Kara-Catayans dwelt upon certain high mountains
+through which I travelled; and in a certain plain country within these
+mountains, there dwelt a Nestorian shepherd, who was supreme governor over
+the people called Yayman or Nayman, who were Christians of the Nestorian
+sect. After the death of Con-khan, this Nestorian prince exalted himself to
+the kingdom, and was called King John, or Prester John; of whom ten times
+more is reported than is true, according to the usual custom of the
+Nestorians, for they are apt to raise great stories on no foundations. Thus
+they gave out, that Sartach was a Christian, and they propagated similar
+stories of Mangu-khan, and even of Con-khan, merely because these princes
+shewed great respect to the Christians. The story of King John had no
+better foundation; for when I travelled through his territories, no one
+there knew any thing at all about him, except only a few Nestorians. In
+these regions likewise dwelt Con-khan, formerly mentioned, at whose court
+Friar Andrew once was; and I passed through that region in my return. This
+John had a brother, a powerful prince and a shepherd like himself, who was
+named Vut-khan, or Unc-khan, who dwelt beyond the mountains of Kara-Kitay,
+at the distance of three weeks journey from the residence of John. This
+Vut-khan was lord of a small village named Caracarum, and his subjects were
+called Crit or Merkit, being Christians of the Nestorian sect. But Vut-khan
+abandoned the Christian worship and followed idolatry, retaining priests to
+his idols, who are all sorcerers and worshippers of the devils.
+
+Ten or fifteen days journey beyond the territory of Vut-khan, lay the
+pastures of the Moal, a poor nation without laws or government, except that
+they were much given to sorcery and divinations; and near them was another
+poor nation called Tartars. On the death of John, the khan of the Cara-
+Kitayans, without male issue, his brother Vut succeeded to all his great
+riches, and got himself to be proclaimed khan. The flocks and herds of this
+Vut-khan pastured to the borders of the Moal, among whom was one Zingis, a
+blacksmith, who used to steal as many cattle as he possibly could from the
+flock of Vut-Khan. At length the herds complained to their lord of the
+reiterated robberies which were committed by Zingis, and Vut-khan went with
+an army to seize him. But Zingis fled and hid himself among the Tartars,
+and the troops of Vut-khan returned to their own country, after having made
+considerable spoil both from the Moal and the Tartars. Then Zingis
+remonstrated with the Moal and Tartars, upon their want of a supreme ruler
+to defend them from the oppressions of their neighbours, and they were
+induced by his suggestions to appoint him to be their khan or ruler.
+Immediately after his elevation, Zingis gathered an army secretly together,
+and made a sudden invasion of the territories belonging to Vut, whom he
+defeated in battle, and forced to fly for refuge into Katay. During this
+invasion, one of the daughters of Vut was made prisoner, whom Zingis gave
+in marriage to one of his sons, and to whom she bore Mangu-khan, the
+presently reigning great khan of the Moal and Tartars. In all his
+subsequent wars, Zingis used continually to send the Tartars before him in
+the van of his army: by which means their name came to be spread abroad in
+the world, as, wherever they made their appearance, the astonished people
+were in use to run away, crying out, the Tartars! the Tartars! In
+consequence of almost continual war, this nation of the Tartars is now
+almost utterly extirpated, yet the name remains; although the Moals use
+every effort to abolish that name and to exalt their own. The country where
+these Tartars formerly inhabited, and where the court of Zingis still
+remains, is now called Mancherule; and as this was the centre of all their
+conquests, they still esteem it as their royal residence, and there the
+great khan is for the most part elected.
+
+
+[1] About the year 1097.
+
+
+
+SECTION XX.
+
+_Of the Russians, Hungarians, Alanians, and of the Caspian_.
+
+I know not whether Sartach really believes in Christ, but am certain that
+he refuses to be called a Christian, and I rather think that he scoffs at
+Christianity. His residence lies in the way through which the Russians,
+Walachians, Bulgarians of the lesser Bulgaria, the Soldaians, or Christians
+of Casaria, the Kerkis, Alanians, and other Christians have to pass in
+their way with gifts or tribute to the court of his father Baatu-khan; and
+by this means Sartach is more connected with the Christians than any of the
+rest, yet when the Saracens or Mahometans bring their gifts, they are
+sooner dispatched. Sartach has always about him some Nestorian priests, who
+count their beads and sing their devotions.
+
+There is another commander under Baatu-khan, called Berta or Berca, who
+pastures his flocks towards the Iron-gate, or Derbent, through which lies
+the passage of all the Saracens or Mahometans who come from Persia and
+Turkey, to pay their gifts and tributes to Baatu, and who make presents to
+Berta in their way. This person professes himself to be of the Mahometan
+faith, and will not permit swines flesh to be eaten in his dominions. But
+it appearing to Baatu, that his affairs suffered detriment by this
+intercourse with the Mahometans, we learnt on our return, that he had
+commanded Berta to remove from the Iron-gate to the east side of the Volga.
+
+For the space of four days which we spent in the court of Sartach, we had
+no victuals allowed us, except once a little cosmos; and during our journey
+to the residence of his father Baatu, we travelled in great fear, on
+account of certain Russian, Hungarian, and Alanian servants of the Tartars,
+who often assemble secretly in the night, in troops of twenty or thirty
+together, and being armed with bows and arrows, murder and rob whoever they
+meet with, hiding themselves during the day. These men are always on
+horseback, and when their horses tire, they steal others from the ordinary
+pastures of the Tartars, and each man has generally one or two spare horses
+to serve as food in case of need. Our guide therefore was in great fear
+lest we might fall in with some of these stragglers. Besides this danger,
+we must have perished during this journey, if we had not fortunately
+carried some of our biscuit along with us. We at length reached the great
+river Etilia or Volga, which is four times the size of the Seine, and of
+great depth. This river rises in the north of Greater Bulgaria, and
+discharges itself into the Hircanian Sea, called the Caspian by Isidore,
+having the Caspian mountains and the land of Persia on the south, the
+mountains of Musihet, or of the Assassins on the east, which join the
+Caspian mountains, and on the north is the great desert now occupied by the
+Tartars, where formerly there dwelt certain people called Canglae, or
+Cangitae, and on that side it receives the Etilia, or Volga, which
+overflows in summer like the Nile in Egypt. On the west side of this sea
+are the mountains of the Alani and Lesgis, the Iron-gate or Derbent, and
+the mountains of Georgia. This sea, therefore, is environed on three sides
+by mountains, but by plain ground on the north. Friar Andrew, in his
+journey, travelled along its south and east sides; and I passed its north
+side both in going and returning between Baatu and Mangu-khan, and along
+its western side in my way from Baatu into Syria. One may travel entirely
+round it in four months; and it is by no means true, as reported by
+Isidore, that it is a bay of the ocean, with which it nowhere joins, but is
+environed on all sides by the land.
+
+At the region from the west shore of the Caspian, where the Iron-gate of
+Alexander is situated, now called Derbent, and from the mountains of the
+Alani, and along the Palus Moeotis, or sea of Azoph, into which the Tanais
+falls, to the northern ocean, was anciently called Albania; in which
+Isidore says, that there were dogs of such strength and fierceness, as to
+fight with bulls, and even to overcome lions, which I have been assured by
+several persons to be true; and even, that towards the northern ocean, they
+have dogs of such size and strength, that the inhabitants make them draw
+carts like oxen[1].
+
+
+[1] It is astonishing how easily a small exaggeration converts truth to
+    fable. Here the ill-told story of the light sledges of the Tshutki,
+    drawn by dogs of a very ordinary size, is innocently magnified into
+    carts dragged by gigantic mastiffs.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXI.
+
+_Of the Court of Baatu, and our Entertainment there_.
+
+On that part of the Volga where we arrived, they have lately built a new
+village, in which there is a mixed population of Russians and Tartars,
+established for the service of the ferry, that they may transport
+messengers going to and from the court of Baatu, as he always remains on
+the east side of the Volga. Neither does he ever travel any farther north,
+in summer, than to the place where we arrived on that river, and was even
+then descending towards the south. From January till August, he and all the
+other Tartars ascend by the banks of rivers towards the cold regions of the
+north, and in August they begin again to return. From the place where we
+came to the Volga, is a journey of five days northward to the first
+villages of the Greater Bulgaria, and I am astonished to think how the
+Mahometan religion should have travelled thither; as from Derbent, on the
+extreme borders of Persia, it is thirty days journey to pass the desert and
+ascend along the Volga into Bulgaria, and in the whole track there are no
+towns, and only a few villages where the Volga falls into the Caspian; yet
+these Bulgarians[1] are the most bigotedly attached to the religion of
+Mahomet, of any of the nations that have been perverted to that diabolical
+superstition.
+
+The court of Baatu having already gone towards the south, we passed down
+the stream of the Volga in a bark from the before mentioned village, to
+where his court then was; and we were astonished at the magnificent
+appearance of his encampment, as his houses and tents were so numerous, as
+to appear like some large city, stretching out to a vast length; and there
+were great numbers of people ranging about the country, to three or four
+leagues all around. Even as the children of Israel knew every one on which
+side of the Tabernacle to pitch his tent, so every Tartar knows on to what
+side of the court of his prince he ought to place his house, when he
+unlades it from his cart. The princes court is called in their language
+_Horda_, which signifies the middle, because the chieftain or ruler always
+dwells in the midst of his people; only that no subject or inferior person
+must place his dwelling towards the south, as the court gates are always
+open to that quarter. But they extend themselves to the right and left,
+according as they find it convenient. On our arrival we were conducted to a
+Mahometan, who did not provide us with any provisions; and we were brought
+next day to the court, where Baatu had caused a large tent to be erected,
+as his house was two small to contain the multitude of men and women who
+were assembled at this place. We were admonished by our guide, not to speak
+until we should receive orders from Baatu to that purpose, and that then we
+should be brief in our discourse. Baatu asked if your majesty had sent us
+as ambassadors to him? I answered, that your majesty had formerly sent
+ambassadors to Ken-khan; and would not have sent any on the present
+occasion, or any letters to Sartach, had it not been that you had been
+advised they were become Christians; on which account only I had been sent
+in congratulation and not through any fear. We were then led into the
+pavilion, being strictly charged not to touch any of the tent ropes, which
+they consider as equivalent to the threshold of a house, which must not be
+touched. We entered the tent barefooted and with our heads uncovered,
+forming a strange spectacle in their eyes; for though Friar John de Plano
+Carpini had been there before me, yet being a messenger from the Pope, he
+had changed his habit that he might not be despised. We were brought
+forward into the middle of the tent, without being required to bow the
+knee, as is the case with other messengers. Baatu was seated upon a long
+broad couch like a bed, all over gilt, and raised three steps from the
+ground, having one of his ladies beside him. The men of note were all
+assembled in the tent, and were seated about in a scattered manner, some on
+the right and some on the left hand; and those places which were not filled
+up by Baatus wives, were occupied by some of the men. At the entrance of
+the tent there stood a bench well furnished with cosmos, and with many
+superb cups of gold and silver, richly set with precious stones. Baatu
+surveyed us earnestly for some time, and we him; he was of a fresh ruddy
+colour, and in my opinion had a strong resemblance to the late Lord John de
+Beaumont.
+
+After standing in the midst of the tent for so long as one might have
+rehearsed the _Miserere_, during which an universal silence prevailed, we
+were commanded to speak, and our guide directed us to bow our knees before
+we spoke. On this I bowed one knee as to a man; but he desired me to kneel
+on both knees, and being unwilling to contend about such ceremonies, I
+complied; and being again commanded to speak, I bethought me of prayer to
+God on account of my posture, and began in the following manner: "Sir, we
+beseech God, the giver of all good, who hath bestowed upon you these
+earthly benefits, that he would grant you hereafter the blessings of
+Heaven, seeing that the former are vain without the latter. Be it known to
+you therefore, of a certainty, that you cannot attain to the joys of heaven
+unless you become a Christian; for God hath said, whosoever believeth and
+is baptized shall be saved, but he that believeth not shall be condemned."
+At this he modestly smiled, but the other Moals clapped their hands in
+derision; and my interpreter, who ought to have comforted me, was quite
+abashed. After silence was restored, I proceeded thus: "Having heard that
+your son was become a Christian, I came to him with letters from my master
+the king of the Francs, and your son sent me hither; for what reason it
+behoves you to know." He then desired me to rise, and inquired the name of
+your majesty, and my name, and the names of my companion and interpreter,
+all of which he caused to be set down in writing. After which, he asked who
+it was that your majesty made war against, as he had heard that you had
+departed from your own country with an army. To which I answered, that you
+warred against the Saracens, because they had violated the house of God at
+Jerusalem. He then asked if your majesty had ever before sent ambassadors
+to him. And I said never to him. He then desired us to be seated, and gave
+us to drink; and it is accounted a great favour when any one is admitted to
+drink cosmos in his house. While I sat looking down upon the ground, he
+desired me to look up; either wishing to observe me more distinctly, or out
+of some superstitious fancy: for these people look upon it as a sign of
+ill-fortune, when any one sits in their presence holding down his head in a
+melancholy posture, and more especially when he leans his cheek or chin
+upon his hand.
+
+We then departed from the tent of audience, and immediately afterwards our
+guide came and told us, that, as our king had desired that we might remain
+in this country, Baatu could not consent to this without the knowledge and
+authority of Mangu-khan; and it was necessary, therefore, that I should go
+with the interpreter to Mangu, while my companion and the clerk should
+return to the court of Sartach, and remain there till my return. On this
+the interpreter began to lament himself as a dead man; and my companion
+declared, that rather as separate from me, he would allow them to take off
+his head. I added, that I could not possibly go without my interpreter, and
+that we should need two servants, that we might be sure of one in case of
+the other being sick. Upon this the guide returned into the presence and
+reported to Baatu what we had said, who now gave orders that the two
+priests and the interpreter should go forwards to Mangu, but that the clerk
+must immediately return to Sartach; and with this answer the guide came to
+us. When I now endeavoured to plead for the company of our clerk, he
+desired me to be silent; for as Baatu had already given the orders, they
+must be obeyed, and he dared not go again into the court. Goset, our clerk,
+still had twenty-six yperperas remaining of the alms we had formerly
+received, ten of which he retained for himself and the servant, and gave us
+the remaining sixteen. We then sorrowfully parted, the clerk returning to
+the court of Sartach, while we remained following the court of Baatu. On
+Assumption eve, 14th August, our clerk arrived at the court of Sartach, and
+the next day the Nestorian priests were seen adorned in the vestments of
+which they had deprived us.
+
+
+[1] The Greater Bulgaria of our author seems to comprehend the provinces of
+    Astracan and Casan in Russia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXII.
+
+_The Journey to the Court of Mangu-khan_.
+
+From the audience we were conducted to the dwelling of a person who was
+ordered to provide us in lodging, food, and horses; but as we had no
+presents to give, he treated us with great neglect. We travelled along with
+Baatu, down the banks of the Volga for five weeks, and were often so much
+in want of provisions, that my companion was sometimes so extremely hungry
+as even to weep. For though there is always a fair or market following the
+court, it was so far from us, that we, who were forced to travel on foot,
+were unable to reach it. At length, some Hungarians, who had for some time
+been looked upon as priests, found out, and relieved our distresses. One of
+these was able to sing with a loud voice, and being considered by his
+countrymen as a kind of priest, was employed at their funerals; the other
+had been decently instructed in the Latin grammar, so that he understood
+whatever we spoke to him deliberately, but was unable to make answer. These
+men were a great consolation to us, as they supplied us with flesh and
+cosmos. They requested some books from us, and it grieved me much that we
+could not comply, having only one bible and a breviary. But I made them
+bring some ink and paper, and I copied out for them the Hours of the
+blessed Virgin, and the Office for the Dead. It happened one day that a
+Comanian passing by saluted us in Latin, saying _Salvete domini_. Surprized
+at this unusual salutation, I questioned him how he had learnt it, and he
+told me he had been baptized in Hungary by our priests, who had taught him.
+He said, likewise, that Baatu had inquired many things at him respecting
+us, and that he had given him an account of the nature and rules of our
+order. I afterwards saw Baatu riding with his company, who were the whole
+of his subjects that were householders or masters of families, and in my
+estimation they did not exceed 500 men.[1]
+
+At length, about the Holyrood, 14th September, or festival of the
+exaltation of the Holy Cross, there came to us a certain rich Moal, whose
+father was a millenary or captain of a thousand horse, who informed us that
+he had been appointed to conduct us. He informed us that the journey would
+take us four months, and that the cold was so extreme in winter, as even to
+tear asunder trees and stones with its force. "Advise well with yourselves,
+therefore," said he, "whether you be able to endure it, for otherwise I
+shall forsake you by the way." To this I answered, that I hoped we should
+be able, with the help of God, to endure hardships like other men; but as
+we were sent by his lord under his charge, and did not go on any business
+of our own, he ought not to forsake us. He then said that all should be
+well, and having examined our garments, he directed us what we should leave
+behind in the custody of our host, as not useful for the journey; and next
+day he sent each of us a furred gown, made of sheep skins, with the wool
+on, and breeches of the same, likewise shoes or footsocks made of felt, and
+boots of their fashion, and hoods of skins. The second day after the holy
+cross day, 16th September, we began our journey, attended by three guides,
+and we rode continually eastwards during forty-six days, till the feast of
+All-Saints, 1st November. The whole of that region, and even beyond it, is
+inhabited by the people named Changle or Kangittae, who are descended from
+the Romans. Upon the north side we had the country of the Greater Bulgaria,
+and to the south the Caspian sea.
+
+
+[1] This, however, is only to be understood of what may be termed the
+    pretorian or royal horde, in a time of profound peace, travelling in
+    their usual and perpetual round in quest of forage; the almost
+    boundless space of the desert must have been interspersed with
+    numerous subordinate hordes, and though the usual guard of Baatu might
+    not have exceeded 500 heads of families, the military force of his
+    dominions, though subordinate to Mangu-khan, certainly exceeded
+    200,000 fighting men.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIII.
+
+_Of the River Jaic or Ural, and of sundry Regions and Nations_.
+
+At the end of twelve days journey from the Etilia or Volga, we came to a
+great river named the Jagag (Jaic or Ural); which, issuing from the land of
+Pascatir (of Zibier or of the Baschirs, now Siberia), falls into the
+Caspian. The language of the Baschirs and of the Hungarians is the same,
+and they are all shepherds, having no cities; and their land is bounded on
+the west by the Greater Bulgaria; from which country eastwards, in these
+northern parts, there are no cities whatsoever, so that the Greater
+Bulgaria is the last country which possesses towns and cities. From this
+country of Pascatir the Huns went, who were afterwards called Hungarians.
+Isidore writes, that with swift horses they passed the walls of Alexander,
+and the rocks of Caucasus, which opposed the barbarians, and even exacted
+tribute from Egypt, and laid waste the whole of Europe as far as France,
+being even more warlike in their day than the Tartars are now. With them
+the Blacians or Walachians, the Bulgarians, and the Vandals united. These
+Bulgarians came from the Greater Bulgaria, The people named Ilac or Vlac,
+who inhabit beyond the Danube from Constantinople, not far from Pascatir,
+are the same people, being properly named Blac or Blacians, but as the
+Tartars cannot pronounce the letter B, they are called Ilac, Vlac, or
+Wallachians. From them, likewise, the inhabitants of the land of the Assani
+are descended, both having the same name in the Russian, Polish, and
+Bohemian languages. The Sclavonians and the Vandals speak the same
+language; and all of these joined themselves formerly with the Huns, as
+they now do with the Tartars. All this that I have written concerning the
+land of Pascatir, I was informed by certain friars predicants, who had
+travelled there before the irruption of the Tartars; and as they had been
+subdued by their neighbours the Bulgarians, who were Mahometans, many of
+them adopted that faith. Other matters respecting these people may be known
+from various chronicles. But it is obvious, that those provinces beyond
+Constantinople, which are now called Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Sclavonia
+[1], formerly belonged to the Greek empire; and Hungary was formerly named
+Pannonia.
+
+We continued riding through the land of the Changles or Kangittae, as
+before mentioned, from Holy Cross-day till All-Saints, travelling every
+day, as well as I could guess, about as far as from Paris to Orleans, and
+sometimes farther [2], according as we happened to be provided with relays;
+for sometimes we would change horses two or three times a-day, and then
+we travelled quicker; while sometimes we had to travel two or three days
+without finding any inhabitants to supply us, and then we were forced to
+travel more deliberately. Out of thirty or forty horses, we were always
+sure to have the worst, being strangers, as every one took their choice
+before it came to our turn. They always, however, provided me with a strong
+horse, because I was corpulent and heavy; but whether his pace happened to
+be hard or gentle, was all one to them, and I dared not to make any
+complaints. Our horses often tired before we could fall in with any of the
+inhabitants, and we were then obliged to beat and whip them up, being
+obliged to lay our garments upon spare horses, and sometimes two of us
+obliged to ride on one horse.
+
+
+[1] Probably intended for what is now called Servia--E.
+
+[2] This may be taken at a medium of thirty miles a day which, in
+    forty-six days, would amount to 1380 miles; no doubt a very fatiguing
+    journey for a corpulent heavy man as he describes himself--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIV.
+
+_Of the Hunger, Thirst, and other Miseries we endured_.
+
+There was no end of hunger and thirst, and cold and weariness. In the
+morning they gave us something to drink, or some boiled millet; but
+afterwards we had nothing to eat until the evening, when they bestowed some
+flesh upon us, being generally the shoulder and breast of a ram, and every
+one was allowed a proportion of the broth to drink; and we considered
+ourselves fortunate when we had enough of broth, as it was exceedingly
+refreshing, pleasant, and nutritive. Sometimes we were constrained to eat
+our meat half boiled, or even almost raw, for want of fuel, especially when
+we were benighted and obliged to pass the night in the fields, because we
+could not conveniently gather horse or cow-dung to make a fire, and we
+seldom found any other fuel, except a few thorns here and there, and a few
+rare woods on the banks of some rivers. Every Saturday I remained fasting
+until night, and was then constrained, to my great grief, to eat flesh, as
+I could not procure any other food in the desert. In the beginning of our
+journey our guide disdained us exceedingly, and seemed quite indignant at
+being obliged to take charge of such base fellows as he seemed to esteem
+us; but he afterwards behaved better, and often took us purposely to the
+courts of rich Moals, who requested us to pray for them; and if I had been
+so fortunate as to have a good interpreter, I might have been able to do
+some good among these ignorant people.
+
+Zingis, the first great khan or emperor of the Tartars, left four sons,
+from whom descended many grandsons, who are daily multiplying and
+dispersing over that immense waste desert, which is boundless like the
+ocean. These Moals whom we visited and prayed for, were astonished when we
+refused their proffered gifts of gold and silver and fine garments. They
+often enquired whether the great Pope was actually 500 years old, as they
+had heard from report. They likewise enquired into the nature and
+productions of our country, especially whether we had abundance of cattle,
+sheep, and horses. When we spoke to them about the ocean, they could form
+no adequate conception of its immense expanse, without banks or limits.
+
+On the feast of All-Saints, 1st November, as the people had now descended
+very much to the southwards, we now discontinued our eastern route, and
+journied directly south for eight days, along certain high mountains. In
+the desert we saw many wild asses resembling mules, called colan or coulan
+by the Tartars, which our guide and his companions often chased with great
+eagerness, but without success, owing to the great swiftness of these
+animals. Upon the seventh day of our southern route, we saw directly before
+us some exceedingly high mountains, and we entered upon a fine cultivated
+plain, which was irrigated like a garden. Next day, 7th November, we
+arrived at a town belonging to the Mahometans named Kenchat, the governor
+of which came out to meet our guide with ale and other refreshments; for it
+is the custom of all the subjected cities, to welcome the messengers of
+Baatu and Mangu with meat and drink on their arrival. At this season, the
+ice was fully bearing, and we found frost in the desert before the feast of
+St Michael, 29th September. I inquired the name of the province, but being
+in a strange land they could not inform me, and could only tell me the name
+of this city, which is very small. Into this district a large river
+descends from the mountains, which the inhabitants lead off to water or
+irrigate the whole region; so that this river does not discharge itself
+into any sea, but after forming many pools or marshes, is absorbed into the
+earth. In this region we saw vines growing, and drank twice of their wines.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXV
+
+_Of the Execution of Ban, and concerning the residence of certain Germans_.
+
+The next day we came to another village nearer to the mountains, which, I
+understood, were called Caucasus, and that they reached from the eastern to
+the western sea, even passing the Caspian to the west. I likewise inquired
+concerning the town of Talas, in which, according to Friar Andrew [1],
+there were certain Germans in the service of one _Buri_ and I had formerly
+made inquiries concerning them at the courts of Sartach and Baatu[2]. But I
+could only learn, that their master, _Ban_, had been put to death on the
+following occasion. This Ban happened to have his appointed residence in
+inferior pastures, and one day when drunk, he said to his people, that
+being of the race of Zingis as well as Baatu, whose brother or nephew he
+was, he thought himself entitled to feed his flocks on the fine plains of
+the Volga as freely as Baatu himself. These speeches were reported to
+Baatu, who immediately wrote to the servants of Ban to bring their lord
+bound before him. Then Baatu demanded whether he had spoken the words,
+which were reported, and Ban acknowledged them, but pled that he was drunk
+at the time, and it is usual among the Tartars to forgive the words and
+actions of drunk men. But Baatu reproached him for daring to use his name
+in his cups, and ordered his head to be immediately struck off.
+
+On my arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, I learnt, that the before
+mentioned Germans had been removed from the jurisdiction of Baatu to a
+place named Bolac, a months journey to the east of Talus, where they were
+employed to dig for gold, and to fabricate arms. In the before mentioned
+town we learnt that Talas was near the mountains behind us, at the distance
+of six days journey. From the before mentioned village near the
+mountains[3], we went directly eastwards, coasting these mountains; and
+from that time we travelled among the immediate subjects of Mangu-khan, who
+in all places sang and danced in honour of our guide, because he was the
+messenger of Baatu; it being the custom for the subjects of Mangu-khan to
+receive the messengers of Baatu in this manner, and reciprocally, the
+subjects of Baatu shew like honour to the messengers of Mnngu; yet the
+subjects of Baatu are more independently spirited, and do not evince so
+much courtesy. A few days afterwards, we entered upon the mountains where
+the Cara-Catayans used to dwell, where we found a large river which we had
+to pass in boats. We afterwards came to a cultivated valley, in which were
+the ruins of a castle, which had been surrounded by walls of mud or earth.
+After this we came to a large village called Equius, inhabited by
+Mahometans, who spoke Persian, although so far removed from Persia. On the
+day following, having passed those Alps which descend from the high
+mountains towards the south, we entered a most beautiful plain, having high
+mountains upon our right hand, and a sea or lake on our left, which is
+fifteen days journey in circumference[4]. This plain is watered or
+irrigated at will, by means of streams descending from these mountains, all
+of which fall into the before mentioned lake. In the subsequent summer we
+returned by the north side of this lake, where likewise there are great
+mountains[5]. In this plain there used to be many towns; but most of these
+have been destroyed by the Tartars, that the excellent lands around them
+might be converted into pastures for their cattle. We still found one large
+town named Cailac, in which was a market frequented by many merchants; and
+we remained fifteen days at this place, waiting for one of Baatu's scribes,
+who was to assist our guide in the management of certain affairs at the
+court of Mangu. This country used to be called Organum[6], and the people
+Organa, as I was told, because the people were excellent performers on the
+organ[7] or lute; and they had a distinct language and peculiar manner of
+writing. It was now entirely inhabited by the Contomanni, whose language
+and writing are used by the Nestorians of these parts. I here first saw
+idolaters, of whom there are many sects in the east.
+
+
+[1] The person here alluded to was a monk named Andrew Luciumel, who had
+    been sent ambassador, by the pope, to the emperor of the Mongals, in
+    1247 or 1248, with the same views as in the missions of Carpini and
+    Asceline at the same period; but of his journey we have no account
+    remaining.--E
+
+[2] It is exceedingly difficult, or rather impossible, to trace the steps
+    of the travels of Rubruquis, for want of latitudes, longitudes, and
+    distances, and names of places. After passing the Volga and Ural or
+    Jaik, he seems to have travelled east in the country of the Kirguses,
+    somewhere about the latitude of 50°. N. to between the longitudes of
+    65°. and 70°. E. then to have struck to the south across the Kisik-tag
+    into Western Turkestan, in which the cultivated vale may have been on
+    the Tshui or the Talas rivers.--E
+
+[3] Probably near the north side of the Arguin or Alak mountains.--E.
+
+[4] This position of Rubruquis is sufficiently distinct: Having ferried
+    over the river Tshui, and crossed the Jimbai mountains, the route now
+    lay between the Alak mountain on his right, or to the south, and the
+    lake of Balkash or Palkati Nor, to the left or north.--E.
+
+[5] The Kisik-tag, which he had before passed in descending into Western
+    Turkestan.--E.
+
+[6] This absurd derivation of the name of the country and people, is
+    unworthy of credit. Organum was probably the country called Irgonekan
+    or Irganakon by Abulgari; and the word signifies a valley surrounded
+    by steep mountains, exactly correspondent with the description in the
+    text.--Forst.
+
+[7] The Contomanni or Kontomanians, were probably a Mongal tribe,
+    originally inhabiting the banks of the Konta or Khonda, who had
+    afterwards settled on the banks of the river Ili and lake of Balkash.
+    --Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVI.
+
+_How the Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed with Idolaters_.
+
+In the first place arc the Jugurs, whose country borders upon the land of
+Organum among the mountains towards the east, and in all their towns
+Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed among the natives. And they are
+diffused likewise in all the towns of the Mahometans towards Persia. In the
+city of Cailac, or Cealac, there are three idol temples, two of which I
+went into to observe their folly. In one of these I found a person having a
+cross marked with ink upon his hand, whence I supposed him a Christian, and
+to all my questions he answered like a Christian. I asked him wherefore he
+had not the cross and image of Christ, and he answered, that it was not
+their custom; wherefore I concluded the people were actually Christians,
+but omitted these things for want of instruction. Behind a certain chest,
+which served for an altar, and on which they placed candles and oblations,
+I saw an image with wings like that of St Michael; and other images holding
+out their fingers, as if blessing the spectators. That evening I could make
+no farther discovery; for though the Saracens invite one into their
+temples, they will not speak of their religion[1]; insomuch, that when I
+inquired at them about their ceremonies, they were much offended.
+
+Next day being the Kalends, 1st December, was the passover of the Saracens,
+and I changed my lodging to the neighbourhood of another temple of idols;
+for the people of this place shew hospitality to all messengers, every one
+according to his abilities. In this other temple I found the priests of the
+idols, who open and adorn the temples at the Kalends, and the people make
+offerings of bread and fruits. I shall first describe the general rites of
+idolatry, and then those of the Jugurs, who are a kind of sect different
+from the others. They all worship towards the north, with joined hands,
+prostrating themselves upon their knees to the earth, and resting their
+foreheads on their hands. For which reason the Nestorians never join their
+hands in prayer, but spread their hands on their breasts. Their temples are
+built from east to west, having a chamber or vestry for the priests on the
+north; or if the building is square, they have a similar chamber on the
+middle of the north side in place of a choir, and before it is placed a
+long broad chest like a table, behind which, facing the south, stands the
+principal idol. That which I saw at Caracarum was as large as the picture
+of St Christopher. A Nestorian priest, who came from Catay, told me there
+was an idol in that country so large, that it could be seen at the distance
+of two days journey[2]. Other idols are placed around the principal one,
+and all are beautifully gilt; All the gates of their temples open to the
+south, contrary to the customs of the Mahometans; and they have large
+bells, as is the case with us, wherefore the oriental Christians will not
+use them, though they are customary among the Russians and the Greeks in
+Casaria.
+
+
+[1] The Saracens are here much abused by the mistake of our traveller; as,
+    however erroneous their religious opinions, they worship the true God
+    only, and abhor even the least semblance of idolatry.--E.
+
+[2] The Nestorian probably said an idol-house; meaning one of the high
+    towers usually erected near Chinese temples: and even this must have
+    stood upon a very elevated situation, in an extensive plain, to be
+    seen from so great a distance, perhaps of sixty miles.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVII.
+
+_Of their Temples and Idols, and the Worship of their Gods_.
+
+All their priests shave their heads and beards, and are clothed in yellow;
+and they live in companies of one or two hundred together, observing strict
+celibacy. On holy days, they sit in the temple on long benches, placed
+directly opposite each other, holding books in their hands, which they
+sometimes lay on the benches; and all the time they remain in the temples,
+they have their heads bare, and they read to themselves, keeping profound
+silence: Insomuch, that when I went into the temple, and endeavoured all I
+could to provoke them to speak, I could not succeed. Wherever they go, they
+carry a string with an hundred or two hundred nut-shells, like our
+rosaries, and they are continually uttering the words, _Ou mam Hactani_,
+which was explained to me as signifying, _O God! thou knowest_. And as
+often as they pronounce these words in remembrance of God, they expect a
+proportional reward[1]. Round the temple, there is always a handsome court,
+environed by a high wall, on the south side of which is a large portal, in
+which they sit to confer together; and over this portal they erect a long
+pole, rising if possible above the whole city, that every one may know
+where to find the temple. These things are common to all the idolaters.
+
+On going to visit this temple, I found the priests sitting under the outer
+portal; and those whom I saw, appeared, by their shaven beards, like French
+friars. They wore conical caps of paper on their heads; and all the priests
+of the Jugurs wear this cap continually, and yellow strait tunics fastened
+down the middle like those in France; besides which, they wear a cloak on
+their left shoulder, flowing loosely before and behind, but leaving the
+right arm free, somewhat like a deacon carrying the pix in Lent. Their mode
+of writing is adopted by the Tartars. They begin to write at the top of the
+page, and extend their lines downwards, reading and writing from left to
+right. They make great use of written papers in their magical incantations,
+and their temples are hung round with short written sentences. The letters
+sent by Mangu-khan to your majesty, are written in these characters, and in
+the language of the Moal. These people burn their dead in the manner of the
+ancients, and deposit the ashes on the top of certain pyramids. After
+sitting for some time beside these priests, and having entered their temple
+to look at their many images, some large and others small, I asked what was
+their belief concerning God? To which they answered, that they believed in
+one God only. On asking them whether he was a spirit or of a corporeal
+nature, they said he was a spirit. Being asked if God had ever assumed the
+human mature, they answered never. Since, then, said I, you believe God to
+be a spirit, wherefore do yow make so many images of him; and as you
+believe that he never took upon him the human form, wherefore do you
+represent him under the image of a man, rather than of any other creature?
+To this they answered, we do not make images of God; but when any of our
+rich men die, or their wives or children, or dear friends, they cause
+images to be made of the deceased, which are placed in the temple, which we
+venerate in respect to their memory. Then, said I, you do these things in
+flattery of men: but they insisted it was only in remembrance. They then
+asked me, as if in derision, where is God? To this I answered by another
+question, where is your soul? and they said, in our bodies. Then, said I,
+is it not in every part of your body, ruling over the whole, yet cannot be
+seen. Even in the same manner God is everywhere, ruling all things, yet
+is invisible, being intelligence and wisdom. I would willingly have
+proceeded in this conference, but my interpreter became weary and unable
+to express my meaning, so that I was obliged to desist.
+
+The Moals and Tartars follow the same religion, in so far that they believe
+in one only God; but they make images in felt of their departed friends,
+which they cover with fine costly garments. These they carry about with
+them in one or two appropriate carts, which no person must touch, except
+their priests or soothsayers who have the care of them. This is to be
+understood only of the great men who are of the race of Zingis, for the
+poor or meaner people have none such. These soothsayers constantly attend
+upon the court of Mangu and other great personages; and when the court
+moves, these men precede the march, like the pillar of cloud before the
+children of Israel. They determine on the site of the new encampment, and
+unload their houses first, after which they are imitated by the whole
+court. On days of festival, such as the kalends or commencements of their
+months, these images are placed in order around their idol houses, and the
+Moals enter in and bow themselves before these images, to do them
+reverence. Strangers are never permitted to enter, so that once
+endeavouring to go into one of these tabernacles, I was sore chidden for my
+presumption.
+
+
+[1] The following more complete account of this superstition, has been
+    deemed worthy of insertion.
+
+    "These supposed Nestorian Christians were undoubtedly professors of
+    the religion of the Dalai-Lama, who had several usages and ceremonies
+    resembling corrupt Christianity. Like the Roman catholics, they had
+    rosaries, containing 108 beads, and their prayer is, _Hom-Mani-Pema-
+    Hum_. This does not signify, as asserted by Rubruquis, _God! thou
+    knowest it_; nor, as supposed by Messerschmid, _God have mercy on us_.
+    But its true import is, that _Mani_, who holds the flowers of the
+    Lotus, _and is the beginning and end of the higher Magic_, may _hear_
+    their prayers, be _propitious_ to them, and render them _happy_.
+
+    "They have rolls or cylinders inscribed with their prayers, which they
+    twirl round on an axis, continually pronouncing these mystic words,
+    and they believe that all the prayers on these rolls are virtually
+    pronounced at each turn of the roll; The religion of the Dalai-Lama,
+    is a branch of the Shamanian and Braminical superstitions, and has for
+    its foundation the Manichaean doctrine of the two principles, which
+    Manes attempted to incorporate into the Christian religion, so that it
+    is no wonder the practices of the followers of the Dalai-Lama should
+    resemble those of the Manichaean and Nestorian Christians."--Forst.
+    Voy. and Disc. 105.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXVIII.
+
+_Of sundry Nations, and of certain People who used to eat their Parents_.
+
+I am convinced that these Jugurs, who are mixed with Christians and
+Mahometans, have arrived at the knowledge and belief of one God, by
+frequent disputations with them. This nation dwells in cities, which were
+brought under subjection to Zingis, who gave his daughter in marriage to
+their king. Even Caracarum is in a manner in their territories. The whole
+country of Prester John and of Vut or Unc, his brother, lay round the
+territories of the Jugurs, only that the subjects of the former inhabited
+the pasture lands on the north, while the Jugurs dwelt among the mountains
+to the south. As the Moals have adopted the writing of the Jugurs, these
+latter are the chief Scribes among the Tartars, and almost all the
+Nestorians are acquainted with their letters.
+
+Next to the Jugurs, among the mountains to the east, are the Tanguts, a
+powerful people who once made Zingis prisoner in battle; but having
+concluded peace, he was set at liberty, and afterwards subdued them. Among
+the Tanguts, there are oxen of great strength, having flowing tails like
+horses, and their backs and bellies covered with long hair. These are
+shorter legged than other oxen, but much fiercer, having long, slender,
+straight, and very sharp pointed horns, and they are much used for drawing
+the great houses of the Moals; but the cows will not allow themselves to be
+yoked unless they are sung to at the same time. These animals are of the
+nature of the buffalo, for when they see a person clothed in red, they run
+furiously upon him to put him to death.
+
+Beyond these are the people of Tebet, who were wont to eat the dead bodies
+of their parents, from a motive of piety, considering that to be the most
+honourable sepulchre; but they have discontinued this custom, which was
+looked upon as abominable by all other nations. They still, however,
+continue to make handsome drinking cups of the skulls of their parents,
+that they may call them to remembrance even in their mirth. I received this
+information from an eye-witness. In their country there is much gold, so
+that any one who is in want, digs till he finds enough for his necessities,
+and leaves the rest behind for another occasion; for they have an opinion,
+that God would conceal all other gold from them in the earth, if they were
+to hoard any in their houses. I saw some of these people, who are much
+deformed. The people of Tangut are tall lusty men of a brown complexion.
+The Jugurs are of middle stature like ourselves, and their language is the
+root or origin of the Turkish and Comanian languages.
+
+Beyond Tebet, are the people of Langa and Solanga[1], whose messengers I
+saw in the court of Mangu-khan, who had along with them more than ten great
+carts, each drawn by six oxen. These are little brown men like the
+Spaniards, and are dressed in tunics or jackets, like our deacons, with
+straiter sleeves. They wear a kind of caps like the mitres of our bishops;
+but the fore part is less than the hinder part, and ends square, instead of
+being pointed. These are made of straw, stiffened by great heat, and so
+well polished, that they glister in the sun like a mirror or well polished
+helmet. Round their temples, they have long bands of the same material,
+fixed to their caps, which stream to the wind like two long horns from
+their temples. When too much tossed by the wind, they fold these over the
+top of their caps. When the principal messenger entered the court, he held
+in his hand a smooth ivory tablet about a foot long and a palm broad; and
+when spoken to by the khan, or any other great man, he always looked on his
+tablet as if he had seen there what was spoken, never looking to the right
+or the left, or to the person who spoke to him. Even in coming into the
+presence and in retiring, he looked perpetually at his tablet.
+
+Beyond these people, as I have been told for truth, there is a nation
+called Muc, inhabiting towns, in whose country there are numerous flocks
+and herds which are never tended, as no person appropriates any of these
+exclusively; but when any one is in need of a beast, he ascends a hill and
+gives a loud cry, on which all the cattle within hearing flock around him
+and suffer themselves to be taken, as if they were domesticated. When a
+messenger or any stranger goes into that country, he is immediately shut up
+in a house, where all necessaries are provided for him, till his business
+is concluded; for they affirm, that if any stranger were to travel about
+their country, the animals would flee away from his scent, and become wild.
+
+Beyond the country of these people, lies Great Cathaya, whose inhabitants I
+believe to have been the Seres[2] of the ancients, as from thence came the
+most excellent silken stuffs; and these people were called Seres after the
+name of one of their towns. I have been told, that in that country there is
+a town having walls of silver and towers of gold. In that land there are
+many provinces, the greater part of which are not yet subjected to the
+Moals, and the sea is interposed between them and India. These Kathayans
+are men of small stature, with small eyes, and speak much through the nose.
+They are excellent workmen in all kinds of handicraft; their physicians
+judge exactly of diseases by the pulse, and are very skilful in the use of
+herbs, but have no knowledge in regard to the urine of sick persons. Some
+of these people I saw at Caracarum, where there are always considerable
+numbers; and the children are always brought up to the same employments
+with their fathers. They pay to the Moals or Mongals, a tribute of 1500
+cassinos or jascots every day[3], besides large quantities of silks and
+provisions, and they perform many other services. All the nations between
+mount Caucasus, and from the north of these mountains to the east sea, and
+in all the south of Scythia, which is inhabited by the Moal shepherds, are
+tributary, and are all addicted to idolatry. The Nestorians and Saracens
+are intermixed with them as strangers, as far as Kathay, in which country
+the Nestorians inhabit fifteen cities, and have a bishop in a city called
+Segan[4]. These Nestorians are very ignorant, for they say their service in
+the Syrian tongue, in which all their holy books are written, and of which
+language they are entirely ignorant, and sing their service as our monks do
+who have not learnt Latin. They are great usurers and drunkards, and some
+of them who live among the Tartars, have adopted their customs, and even
+have many wives. When they enter the churches, they wash their lower parts
+like the Saracens, eat no flesh on Fridays, and hold their festivals on the
+same days with them. Their bishops come seldom into the country, perhaps
+only once in fifty years, and then cause all the little children to be made
+priests, some even in the cradle; so that almost every Nestorian man is a
+priest, yet all have wives, which is contrary to the decrees of the
+fathers. They are even bigamists, for their priests, when their wives die,
+marry again. They are all Simonists, as they give no holy thing without
+pay. They are careful of their wives and children, applying themselves to
+gain, and not to propagating the faith. Hence, though some of them are
+employed to educate the children of the Mongal nobility, and even teach
+them the articles of the Christian faith, yet by their evil lives they
+drive them from Christianity, as the moral conduct of the Mongals and
+Tuinians[5], who are downright idolaters, is far more upright than theirs.
+
+
+[1] Forster conjectures that the original words of Rubruquis are here
+    corrupted, and that this passage ought to have been "beyond Tangut,"
+    instead of beyond Tebet or Thibet; in which case, the countries of
+    Langa and Solanga, may refer to that of the Lamuts and Solonians, the
+    ancestors of the Mantschus or Mundschurians.--Voy. and Disc. 108.
+
+[2] In this supposition Rubruquis was certainly mistaken, as the Seres of
+    the ancients appear to have lived in Turkestan, Gete, and Uigur, and
+    to have then ruled over a great track of eastern central Asia, and may
+    have extended their commerce to northern China. Hence the original
+    name of silk was certainly either adopted from or applied to the
+    intermediate nation, through whom that precious commodity was
+    transmitted to the western nations.--Forst.
+
+[3] A jascot is described as a piece of silver weighing ten marks, so that
+    the tribute is 15,000 marks daily, or about 5 1/2 millions of marks
+    yearly, and is equal in weight of silver, to L. 8,650,000 Sterling;
+    perhaps equal, in real efficacious value, to ten times that sum, and
+    probably superior to the yearly revenue of all the sovereigns then in
+    Europe.--E
+
+[4] Singan, or Singan-fu in the province of Shensee. In the year 1625, a
+    stone was found here, inscribed with Chinese characters and a Syrian
+    inscription round the borders, implying, that in the year 636, the
+    Nestorians had sent Olopuen into China to propagate the gospel; and
+    that the emperor Tai-sum-ven had approved this step, and allowed the
+    Christian religion to be propagated through all China, with many other
+    particulars relative to the history of Christianity in China. This
+    stone bore to have been erected in 782 by Mar Isdabuzzid, priest, and
+    Chorepiscopus of Cumdan, the royal city of the east, now Nankin. See a
+    dissertation on this monument, following Renaudet's translation of the
+    two Mahometan travellers, London, 1788, p. 76.--E.
+
+[5] Mani or Manes is named Thenaoui by the oriental Christians, and the
+    sect of Manicheans they call Al-Thenaouib, or those who hold the
+    doctrines of the two principles. These Tuinians, therefore, of
+    Rubruquis, are probably the Manicheans.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXIX.
+
+_Of Cailac, and the Country of the Naymans_.
+
+We departed from the city of Cailac on St Andrew's day, 30th of November,
+and in three leagues we found a village of Nestorians, where we went into
+their church, and sang _salve regina_, and other hymns, with great joy. In
+three days after we came to the entrance of that province, not far from the
+before mentioned sea, which seemed as tempestuous as the ocean, and in
+which we saw a large island. The water was slightly salt, yet might be
+drank. Opposite to it was a valley with another salt sea, from which a
+river ran into this one. There was so strong a wind that the passage was
+dangerous, as we much feared to be blown into the lake; wherefore we went
+north into the hilly country, covered with deep snow, and on St Nicholas
+day, 6th December, we hastened our journey, as we found no inhabitants
+except the _Jani_, or men appointed to conduct the messengers from one
+day's journey to another. On the 7th of December we passed between two
+terrible rocks, when the guide sent entreating me to pray to God: we sang
+accordingly with a loud voice, the _credo_ and other hymns, and by the
+grace of God we got through in safety.
+
+After this the Tartars entreated me to write papers for them; but I offered
+to teach them words to carry in their hearts, whereby their souls should be
+saved. Yet wanting an interpreter for this, I wrote them the creed and the
+Lord's prayer, desiring them to believe what was written in the one, and
+that the other contained a prayer to God for all that is necessary to man,
+and that though they could not understand these, I hoped God would save
+them.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXX.
+
+_Description of the Country of the Naymans, with an Account of the Death of
+Ken-khan and of his Wife and Eldest Son_.
+
+After this we entered into the country where the court of Ken-khan used to
+be held, which was formerly called the country of the Naymans, who were the
+peculiar subjects of Prester John. Though I did not see that court till my
+return, I shall briefly mention what befel his son and wives. Ken-khan
+being dead, Baatu desired that Mangu should be khan, but I could not learn
+exactly the manner of Ken-khan's death. Friar Andrew says he died of the
+effects of a medicine, which Baatu was suspected of having procured to be
+given him. I heard, on the other hand, that he summoned Baatu to do him
+homage, who accordingly began his journey with much external pomp, but with
+great inward apprehensions, sending forward his brother Stichin; who, when
+he came to Keu-khan, and ought to have presented him with the cup, high
+words arose between them, and they slew one another. The widow of Stichin
+kept us a whole day at her house, that we might pray for her and bless her.
+When Ken was dead, and Mangu chosen emperor by the consent of Baatu, which
+was when friar Andrew was there, Siremon, the brother of Ken, at the
+instigation of the wife and peculiar vassals of Ken, went with a great
+train, as if to do homage to Mangu, but with the intention of putting him
+and all his court to death. When within a few days journey of the court of
+Mangu, one of his waggons broke down, and a servant of Mangu happened to
+assist the waggoner in repairing it. This man was very inquisitive into the
+objects of the journey, and the waggoner revealed the whole plot to him.
+Pretending to make very light of the matter, he went privately and took a
+good horse from the herd, and rode with great speed with the intelligence
+to the court of Mangu; who quickly assembled his forces, and placing a
+strong guard around his court; sent the rest against Siremon, and brought
+him and all his followers prisoners to court. He confessed his intentions,
+and he and his eldest son, with 300 noble Tartars of their party, were put
+to death. The ladies were also sent for who were concerned in the plot, and
+being beaten with burning fire-brands till they confessed, were slain
+likewise. Kon, the youngest son of Siremon, who was incapable of entering
+into the conspiracy, from his youth, was permitted to enjoy the inheritance
+of his father; but our guide durst not enter the house either in going or
+returning.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXI.
+
+_Arrival at the Court of Mangu-khan_.
+
+We still travelled in the high countries, trending towards the north; and
+on St Stephen's day, 26th December, we came to a great plain, on which not
+the smallest inequality was to be seen, and the next day we arrived at the
+court of the great Khan. While at the distance of five days, our host
+wanted us to have gone so far about as would have taken us fifteen day's
+journey, and our guide had much difficulty in being allowed to take the
+direct road. My opinion of this procedure in our host, was, that we might
+have gone by Onam and Cherule, the original residence of Zingis[1]. On the
+way, the secretary told me that Baatu, in his letters to Mangu, said that
+we wanted the assistance of a Tartar army against the Saracens; by which I
+was much astonished, as I knew the letters from your majesty required no
+army, and only advised the khan to be a friend to all Christians, to exalt
+the cross, and to be an enemy to all the enemies of the cross of Christ.
+And as all the interpreters were from the Greater Armenia, who greatly
+hated the Saracens, I feared they might have interpreted falsely to serve
+their own purposes. I therefore held my peace, fearing to gainsay the words
+of Baatu.
+
+On our arrival at court, our guide had a large house appointed for him, and
+only a small cottage was given to us three, which would hardly contain our
+baggage, our beds, and a small fire. Many came to our guide with drink made
+of rice, in long necked bottles, which had no difference from the best
+wine, except that it smelt otherwise. We were called soon after, and
+examined upon our business. I answered, "That hearing Sartach had become a
+Christian, the king our master had sent us to him with a letter; that he
+had sent us to Baatu, who had sent us hither, and that he therefore ought
+to have assigned the cause of our being here." They then demanded if we
+would make peace with them. To this I answered, "That having done them no
+wrong, they had no cause of going to war with your majesty; that your
+majesty, as a just king, if you had done any wrong, would make reparation,
+and desire peace; but if warred against without cause, we trusted in the
+help of a just God." At this they seemed all astonished, constantly
+exclaiming, "Did you not come to make peace?" For they are so puffed up
+with pride, that they think the whole world should make peace with them;
+but if I might be suffered, I would preach war against them to the utmost
+of my power. I dared not deliver the true cause of my journey, lest, in so
+doing, I might contradict what had been written by Baatu, and therefore
+always said we came because he sent us.
+
+The day following I went to the court barefooted, at which the people
+stared; but a Hungarian boy, who was among diem, knew our order, and told
+them the reason; on which a Nestorian, who was chief secretary, asked many
+questions at the Hungarian, and we went back to our lodgings. On our
+return, at the end of the court, towards the east, I saw a small house,
+with a little cross at top, at which I greatly rejoiced, supposing there
+might be some Christians there. I went in boldly, and found an altar well
+furnished, having a golden cloth, adorned with images of Christ, the
+Virgin, St John the Baptist, and two angels; the lines of their body and
+garments being formed with small pearls. On the altar was a large silver
+cross, ornamented with precious stones, and many other embroiderings; and a
+lamp with eight lights burned before the altar. Sitting beside the altar I
+saw an Armenian monk, somewhat black and lean, clad in a rough hairy coat
+to the middle of his leg, above which was a coarse black cloak, furred with
+spotted skins, and he was girded with iron under his haircloth. Before
+saluting the monk, we fell flat on the earth, singing Ave regina and other
+hymns, and the monk joined in our prayers. These being finished, we sat
+down beside the monk, who had a small fire before him in a pan. He told us
+that he had come a month before us, being a hermit in the territories of
+Jerusalem, who had been warned by God in a vision, to go to the prince of
+the Tartars. After some conversation, we went to our lodgings. Having eaten
+nothing that day, we made a little broth of flesh and millet for our
+supper. Our guide and his companions were made drunk at the court, and very
+little care was taken of us. Next morning the ends of my toes were so
+frostbit by the extreme cold of the country, that I could no longer go
+barefooted. From the time when the frost begins, it never ceases till May,
+and even then it freezes every night and morning, but thaws with the heat
+of the sun during the day. If they had much wind in that country during
+winter, as we have, nothing could live there; but they have always mild
+weather till April, and then the winds rise; and at that season, while we
+were there, the cold rising with the wind, killed multitudes of animals. In
+the winter little snow fell there; but about Easter, which was that year in
+the latter end of April, there fell so great a snow, that the streets of
+Caracarum were so full, it had to be carried out in carts.
+
+
+[1] The country on the Onon and Kerlon, in Daouria, or the land of the
+    Tunguses.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXII.
+
+_The Introduction of Rubruquis to Mangu-khan_.
+
+The people brought us from the court ram-skin coats, and breeches of the
+same, with shoes, which my companion and interpreter accepted, but I
+thought the fur garment which I brought from Baatu was sufficient for me.
+On the 5th of January, we were brought to the court, and some Nestorian
+priests, whom I did not know to be Christians, came and asked me which way
+we worshipped; to which I said, that we worshipped to the east. The reason
+of their making this demand was, that we had shaven our heads by the advice
+of our guide, that we might appear before the khan after the fashion of our
+country, which made the Nestorians take us for Tuinians or idolaters. On
+being demanded what reverence we would pay to the khan, I said, that though
+as priests, dedicated to God, the highest in our country did not suffer us
+to bow the knee, yet we were willing to humble ourselves to all men for the
+sake of the Lord. That we came from a far country, and with permission,
+would first sing praises to God, who had brought us hither in safety, and
+should afterwards do whatever might please the khan; providing he commanded
+nothing that was derogatory to the worship and honour of God. Then they
+went into the presence, and reported what we had said, and they brought us
+before the entrance of the hall, lifting up the felt which hung before the
+decor, and we sung _A solis ortus cardine_, &c.
+
+When we had sung this hymn, they searched our bosoms, to see that we had no
+concealed weapons, and they made our interpreter leave his girdle and knife
+with one of the doorkeepers. When we came in, our interpreter was made to
+stand at a sideboard, which was well supplied with cosmos, and we were
+placed on a form before the ladies. The whole house was hung with cloth of
+gold, and on a hearth, in the middle, there was a fire of thorns, wormwood-
+roots, and cowdung. The khan sat upon a couch covered with a bright and
+shining spotted fur, like seal's skin. He was a flat-nosed man, of middle
+stature, about forty-five years of age, and one of his wives, a pretty
+little young woman, sat beside him; likewise one of his daughters, named
+Cerina, a hard-favoured young woman, with some younger children, sat on
+another couch next to them. The house had belonged to the mother of Cerina,
+who was a Christian, and the daughter was mistress of this court, which had
+belonged to her deceased mother, We were asked whether we would drink wine
+of _caracina_, which is a drink made of rice, or caracosmos, or _ball_,
+which is mead made of honey; for they use these four kinds of liquor in
+winter. I answered, that we had no pleasure in drink, and would be
+contented with what he pleased to order; on which we were served with
+caracina, which was clear and well flavoured like white wine, of which I
+tasted a little out of respect. After a long interval, during which the
+khan amused himself with some falcons and other birds, we were commended to
+speak, and had to bow the knee. The khan had his interpreter, a Nestorian;
+but our interpreter had received so much liquor from the butlers at the
+sideboard, that he was quite drunk; I addressed the khan in the following
+terms:
+
+"We give thanks and praise to God, who hath brought us from such remote
+parts of the world, to the presence of Mangu-khan, on whom he hath bestowed
+such great power; and we beseech our God to grant him a long and prosperous
+reign. Having heard that Sartach was become a Christian, the Christians of
+the west, especially the King of the French, were much rejoiced, and sent
+us onto him with letters, testifying that we were servants of the Lord, and
+entreating him to permit us to abide in his country, as it is our office to
+teach men the law of God. Sartach sent us forwards to his father Baatu, and
+he hath sent us to you, to whom God hath given great dominions upon the
+earth; we therefore entreat your highness to permit us to continue in your
+country, that we may pray to God for you, your wives, and children. We have
+neither gold nor silver, nor precious jewels to offer, but we present
+ourselves to do you service, and to pray to God for you. At least, be
+pleased to permit us to remain till the cold be past, as my companion is so
+weak, that he cannot travel on horseback without danger of Ms life." His
+answer was to this effect: "Even as sun sheds his beams everywhere, so our
+power, and that of Baata, extend everywhere around, so that we have no need
+of your gold or silver." I entreated his highness not to be displeased at
+me for mentioning gold and silver, as I spoke in that manner only to evince
+our desire to do him honour, and to serve him in heavenly things. Hitherto,
+I had understood our interpreter, but he was now drunk and could not make
+out any perfect sentence, and it appeared to me that the khan was drunk
+likewise; wherefore I held my peace. Then he made us rise and sit down
+again, and after a few words of compliment, we withdrew from the presence.
+One of the secretaries, and the interpreter, who had the charge of
+educating one of his daughters, went with us, and were very inquisitive
+about the kingdom of France, particularly inquiring whether it had plenty
+of sheep, cattle, and horses, as if they meant to make it all their own;
+and I had often to bridle my indignation and anger at their presumptuous
+boastings.
+
+They appointed one to take care of us, and we went to the monk; and when we
+were about to return to; our lodging, the interpreter came to us, saying,
+that Mangu-khan gave us two months to stay, till the extreme cold were
+past; and we might either go ten day's journey from thence to the city of
+Caracarum, or might remain with the court. Then I answered, "God preserve
+Mangu-khan, and grant him a long and happy life: We have found this monk,
+whom we think a holy man, and we would willingly remain, and pray along
+with him for the prosperity of the khan." We then went to our dwelling,
+which we found very cold, as we had no fuel, and we were yet fasting,
+though it was then night; but he who had the care of us provided us some
+fuel and a little food; and our guide, who was now to return to Baatu,
+begged a carpet from us which we had left in that court, which we gave him,
+and he departed in peace.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXIII.
+
+_Of a Woman of Lorain, and a Goldsmith of Paris, and several other
+Christians, whom they found at the Court of Mangu-kkan_.
+
+We had the good fortune to meet with a woman, named Pascha, from Metz in
+Lorain, who belonged to the court of Cerina, who told us of the strange
+poverty she had endured before she came to this court, but who now lived
+well, as she had a young Russian husband, who was a skilful builder, and
+much esteemed among them, by whom she had three fine children, and this
+woman contributed all in her power to our comfort. She told us, that there
+was a goldsmith at Caracarura, one William Bouchier from Paris, the son of
+Lawrence Bouchier, and who had a brother, Roger Bouchier, yet living upon
+the Great Bridge. She told me likewise, that he had a son who was an
+excellent interpreter; but that Manga-khan had delivered to the goldsmith
+300 jascots of silver, equal to 3000 marks, and fifty workmen, to make a
+certain piece of work, so that she feared he would not then be able to
+spare his son to interpret for us. I wrote to this goldsmith, requesting
+him to send his son to me; he said in answer, that he could not at the
+time, but would send him next moon, when his work would be finished. At the
+court of Baatu no intercourse could be had with other ambassadors, as each
+was under the charge of a particular _Jani_; but in that of Mangu, all were
+under one Jani, and might see and converse with each other. We found here a
+certain Christian from Damascus, who said that he came from the sultan of
+Mons Regalis and Crax, who desired to become the ally and tributary of the
+great khan.
+
+The year before I came thither, there was a certain clerk of Aeon or
+Ptolemais in Syria, who called himself Raimund, but his true name was
+Theodolus. This man went with friar Andrew from Cyprus into Persia, and
+procured certain instruments from Amoricus, who remained in Persia after
+Andrew returned. Theodolus went forwards with these instruments to the
+khan, pretending that a certain bishop had received letters from heaven in
+gold characters, saying that the khan should be king of the whole earth,
+but that his horse had fled from him among woods and mountains, so that he
+had lost all. And Theodolus engaged to conduct ambassadors from the khan to
+the Pope and the king of France. Then Mangu caused an exceedingly strong
+bow to be made, which two men could hardly bend, and two arrows made of
+silver, full of holes in their heads, which whistled when they were shot;
+and he chose a Moal to accompany Theodolus as his ambassador, ordering him
+to present these things to the king of France, and to say, if he would have
+peace with the Tartars, they would conquer the country of the Saracens, and
+would grant him ail the other countries of the west. But if the king
+refused, the Moal was to bring back the bow and arrows, and to inform the
+king that the Tartars shot far and sharp with such bows. The khan then
+caused Theodolus to go out, and the son of William Bouchier, who acted as
+interpreter for Theodolus, heard the khan order the Moal, who was to
+accompany him, to mark well all the ways, and the castles, and the people,
+and the mountains, in the course of his journey. And the young man blamed
+Theodolus for engaging to conduct the Tartar messengers, as they went only
+to spy the land. But Theodolus said he would take them by sea, so that they
+should not know the way. Mangu gave to his Moal a golden bull or tablet of
+an hand breadth, and half a cubit long, inscribed with his orders; and
+whoever bears this, may everywhere command what he pleases. On their
+journey through the dominions of Vestacius, whence Theodolus meant to pass
+over to the Pope, that he might deceive him as he had done Mangu. Vestacius
+demanded of him whether he had letters for the Pope; but having none to
+show, Vestacius concluded he was an impostor, and cast him into prison. The
+Moal fell sick and died there, and Vestacius sent back the golden tablet by
+the servants of the Moal, whom I met at Assron, in the entrance into
+Turkey, and from them I learnt all that happened to Theodolus.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXIV.
+
+_Of a Grand Feast given by Mangu-khan and of the Ceremonies of the
+Nestorians_.
+
+Epiphany was now at hand, and the Armenian monk, Sergins, told me, that he
+was to baptize Mangu-khan on that day. I entreated him to use his utmost
+endeavours that I might be present on the occasion, which he faithfully
+promised. When the day came, the monk did not call me, but I was sent for
+to court at six o'clock, and I met the monk returning with his cross, and
+the Nestorian priests with their censers, and the gospel of the day. It is
+the custom of Mangu to make a feast on such days as are pointed out by his
+soothsayers, or the Nestorian priests; and on these days the Christians
+came first to court and pray for him, and bless his cup, after which the
+Saracen priests do the same, and after them the idolatrous priests. The
+monk pretended that he only believed the Christians, yet would have all to
+pray for him; but in this Sergius lied, for he believes none, but all
+follow his court as flies do honey. He gives to all, and all think they are
+his familiars, and all prophecy prosperity to him. Then we sat down before
+the court, and they brought us flesh to eat, which I refused, saying, that
+if they would provide for us, it ought to be at our house. They then
+desired us to go home, as we were only sent for that we might eat. On my
+return I called on the monk, who was ashamed of the lie he had told me, and
+would not, therefore, say any more of the matter; yet some of the
+Nestorians affirmed, that the khan had been baptized, but I said that I
+would neither believe it, nor report it to others, as I had not been
+present.
+
+We came to our old empty house, where they provided us in bedding and
+coverlids, and gave us some fuel They gave us the carcase of a small lean
+sheep, as food for us three in six days, and lent us a pot and trivet to
+boil our flesh, and gave us a platter of millet every day. We boiled our
+meat first in water, and afterwards boiled our millet in the broth; and
+that was our whole allowance, which would have sufficed if we had been
+suffered to eat in peace, but there were many starved fellows about the
+court that thrust themselves in among us, and insisted to partake. The cold
+became very severe, and Mangu-khan sent us three fur coats, with the hair
+outwards, which we thankfully received; but we represented that we had not
+a house in which we could pray for the khan, our cottage being so small
+that we could scarcely stand up in it, neither could we open our books on
+account of smoke, after the fire was lighted. On this the khan sent to ask
+the monk if he would be pleased with our company, who gladly received us;
+and after this we had a better house before the court, where none lodged
+but we and the soothsayers, they in front of the first lady, and we at the
+farthest end, towards the east, before the palace of the last lady. We made
+this alteration on the 13th of January.
+
+Next morning all the Nestorian priests collected at the chapel, and smote
+on a board, instead of ringing a bell. They then sang matins very
+reverently, put on all their ornaments, and prepared the censer and
+incense. After waiting some time, Cotata Caten[1], the principal wife of
+the khan, came into the chapel, attended by many ladies, and having with
+her Baltu, her eldest son, and several other children. All these prostrated
+themselves, ducking after the manner of the Nestorians; they then touched
+all the images and kissed their hands, and afterwards gave the right hand
+of fellowship to all who stood beside them, which is the custom among the
+Nestorians. The priest sang many hymns, and gave the lady some incense in
+her hand, which she threw into the fire, and then the priests perfumed her.
+After this she began to put off the ornaments of her head, called Bacca,
+and I saw her bareheaded; but as we were now commanded to leave the chapel,
+I know not what followed. As I was going out I saw a silver basin brought,
+but I am ignorant if she was then baptized, but rather think not; because
+at Easter I saw a fount consecrated with great solemnity, and some persons
+baptized, but no such ceremony was seen on the present occasion, and I know
+they do not celebrate the mass in a tent, but only in a standing church.
+
+During our absence, Mangu-khan himself came to the chapel, into which a
+golden bed was brought, on which he sat with his queen, opposite the altar.
+We were then sent for, and a door-keeper searched us for concealed weapons.
+On going in with a bible, and breviary in my bosom, I first bowed down
+before the altar, and then made an obeisance to Mangu-khan, who caused our
+books to be brought to him, and enquired the signification of the images or
+pictures with which they were ornamented, to which the Nestorians answered
+as they thought proper, because we had not our interpreter. Being desired
+to sing a psalm after our manner, we chanted _Veni sancte Spiritus_. Then
+the khan departed, but the lady remained, and distributed gifts to all the
+Christians present. She gave the monk Sergius a jascot, and another to the
+archdeacon of the Nestorians, and she caused a _nassic_ or large cloth like
+a coverlet, and a buckram, to be spread out before us; and as I declined
+the offer, she sent them to our interpreter, who sold the nassic at Cyprus,
+for eighteen gold sultanies, though it was much the worse for the carriage.
+Then red wine, like that of Rochelle, and caracina and cosmos were brought,
+and the lady holding a cupful in her hand, desired a blessing on her knees,
+and she drank it up, we and all the priests singing with a loud voice.
+
+Another time, when they were mostly all drunk, the carcass of a sheep was
+brought in and presently devoured, and then some large fishes, resembling
+our carp, which they eat without bread or salt. And when the lady was
+drunk, she took her chariot and went away, the priests singing all the
+while. Next Sunday, the son of the khan, by a Christian mother, came to the
+chapel and acted in a similar manner, but not with so much solemnity, and
+only gave the priests to drink, and some parched millet to eat. Before the
+first Sunday in Lent, the Nestorians fast three days, which they call the
+fast of Jonas; and the Armenians fast five days in honour of St Lorkis,
+their tutelary saint. The Nestorians begin their fast on Tuesday and end it
+on Thursday, and on Friday they bless the flesh, as if it were the Paschal
+Lamb. The monk sent to Mangu to fast that week, which he did; and on the
+Armenian Easter, he went in procession to the house of Mangu, accompanied
+by us and the Nestorian priests. While we went in, some servants met us
+carrying out some shoulder-blades of sheep, burnt as black as coals; and on
+enquiring, I learnt that the khan performs a divination, before undertaking
+any important matter, in this manner. He causes three of these bones to be
+brought to him unburnt, which are sought for all over the _Leskar_ or
+Tartar camp for this purpose; and these bones are burnt in a particular
+fire, and then brought to him again. If the bones are cracked across, or
+round pieces fly out of them in burning, it is considered an evil omen; but
+if they crack lengthways, even one of the three, he then proceeds in his
+design.
+
+When we went in before Mangu, the Nestorian priests gave him incense, which
+he put upon the censer, with which they perfumed him. Then they sung and
+blessed his cup, which was done next by the monk, and lastly by us. After
+he had drunk, the attendants gave drink to the priests, but we went out;
+and my companion staying last, turned round near the door to make his
+obeisance to the khan, and hastily turning again to follow us, stumbled on
+the threshold, for which he was seized and carried before the _Bulgai_,
+who is the chancellor or chief secretary of the court, and judges those who
+are arraigned on matters of life and death. But I knew not of all this, as
+missing him on looking back, I thought he had been detained to receive
+thinner apparel, for he was very weak, and could hardly walk under his load
+of garments. He was sent home in the evening, and the monk sharply rebuked
+him for having touched the threshold. Next day, the Bulgai came to me, and
+demanded to know if any one had warned us against touching the threshold;
+to which I answered, that as we had not our interpreter along with us, we
+should not have understood them if the caution had been given. On this my
+companion was pardoned, but was never allowed, afterwards to come into any
+of the houses of Mangu-khan.
+
+From the house of the khan, we went to that of his eldest son, who had two
+wives, and lodged next on the right from his father. As soon as he saw us
+approach, he leapt from his bed and prostrated himself before the cross,
+striking the ground with his forehead, then rising and kissing the cross,
+he caused it to be placed on a new cloth, in a high place, very reverently.
+He has a tutor, named David, to instruct him, who is a Nestorian priest and
+a great drunkard. The prince gave drink to the priests, and he drank
+himself, after the priests had blessed his cup. From him we went to the
+court of Cota, the khans second lady, who is an idolater, and whom we found
+very sick; yet the Armenian monk made her rise from bed and adore the cross
+on her knees, with many ceremonies. We then went to the third court, in
+which a Christian lady formerly resided; but on her death, she was
+succeeded by a young woman, who, with the khans daughter, joyfully received
+us, and worshipped the cross with great reverence. We went then into the
+house of the young lady Cerina, behind the third court, which had formerly
+belonged to her mother, who likewise worshipped the cross with great
+devotion. We next went into the court of the fourth and last lady, whose
+house was very old, but the khan gave her a new house and new chariots
+after Easter. This lady was an idolater, yet she worshipped the cross,
+according to the directions of the monk and priests. From that place we
+returned to our oratory, the monks accompanying us with great howlings and
+outcries in their drunkenness, as they had been plentifully supplied with
+drink at every visit; but this is not considered as blameable or unseemly,
+either in man or woman in these parts.
+
+
+[1] Caten signifies _lady_ and Cotata was her particular name.--Harris.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXV.
+
+_Of a great Cure performed by the Armenian monk Sergius, on one of the
+Wives of Mangu-khan_.
+
+Sometime after the lady Cota was sick almost to death, and the divination
+by lot of the idolaters did her no good. Mangu-khan then sent for the monk,
+who indiscreetly engaged to cure her on the forfeiture of his head. On
+this, the monk sent for us, and entreated us, with tears, to watch and pray
+all night along with him, which we did. He took of a certain root called
+rhubarb, which he beat to powder and put among water, along with a little
+crucifix, and he used to give of that water to all sick persons, which
+griped them by reason of its bitterness, and which they attributed to a
+miracle. I proposed to prepare some holy water, according to the rites of
+the church of Rome, which hath great power to cast out devils, as I
+understood the lady was vexed of a devil[1]. At his request, I consecrated
+some holy water, which he mingled with the rhubarb, and left his crucifix
+all night in the mixture.
+
+Next morning I and the monk and two Nestorian priests went to the lady, who
+was then in a small house behind her great one. She sat up in her bed and
+worshipped the cross, laying it honourably by her upon a silken cloth; she
+drank of the holy water mixed with rhubarb, and washed her breast, and, at
+the desire of the monk, I read the passion of our Lord according to St
+John, over her. At length she felt herself relieved, and ordered four
+jascots to be brought, which she first laid at the foot of the cross, and
+gave three to the monk, offering one to me, which I refused; then the monk
+took this likewise, and gave one to each of the priests, keeping two to
+himself, so that she gave away forty marks in all at this time.[2] She then
+ordered wine, which she gave to the priests, and made me drink thrice from
+her hand in honour of the holy trinity. She likewise began to teach me the
+language, jesting with me, because I was silent for want of an interpreter.
+
+Next day Mangu-khan, hearing that we were passing, and having learned that
+the lady Cota was somewhat better, made us come in, and took the cross into
+his hand, asking several questions, which I did not understand, but I did
+not see that he worshipped it. The monk, by my suggestion, craved leave to
+carry the cross aloft on a lance, and Manga gave permission that it might
+be carried in any way we thought fit. Then paying our obeisance to the
+khan, we went to the lady Cota, whom we found strong and cheerful. She
+still drank the holy water, and we read the passion over her; but those
+miserable priests never taught her the articles of our holy faith, neither
+advised her to be baptized, nor did they find fault with any kind of
+sorcery. For I saw four swords half drawn out of their sheaths, one at the
+head of her bed, one at the foot, and one on either side of her door. I
+observed likewise one of our silver chalices, probably taken from some
+church in Hungary, which hung against the wall, full of ashes, on the top
+of which lay a black stone; but these priests not only do not teach them
+that such things are evil, but even practice similar things. We continued
+our visits for three days, by which time she was restored to perfect
+health. During these visits, she continued to rally me on my silence, and
+endeavoured to teach me their language.
+
+I honoured the monk Sergius as my bishop, because he could speak the
+language, though he was totally uneducated; and I afterwards learnt, when I
+came to his own country on my return, that he was no priest, but merely an
+adventurous weaver. In many things he acted in a way that much displeased
+me, for he caused to be made for himself a folding chair such as bishops
+use, and gloves, and a cap of peacocks feathers, with a small gold cross;
+but I was well pleased with the cross. He had scabbed feet, which he
+endeavoured to palliate with ointments[3]; was very presumptuous in speech,
+was present at many of the vain and idolatrous rites of the Nestorians, and
+had many other vanities with which I was much displeased. Yet we joined his
+society for die honour of the cross, as he got a banner full of crosses on
+a cane as long as a lance, and we carried the cross aloft through among all
+the tents of the Tartars, singing _Vexilla regis prodeant_, &c. to the
+great regret of the Mahometans, who were envious of our favour.
+
+I was informed of a certain Armenian who came, as he said, from Jerusalem
+along with the monk Sergius, carrying a silver cross of about four marks
+weight, adorned with precious stones, which he presented to Mangu-khan, who
+asked what was his petition. He represented himself to be the son of an
+Armenian priest, whose church had been destroyed by the Saracens, and
+craved his help for rebuilding that church. Being asked how much that might
+cost, he said two hundred jascots, or two thousand marks; and the khan
+ordered letters to be given him, ordering those who received the tribute of
+Persia and the Greater Armenia, to pay him that sum in silver[4]. The monk
+continued to carry this cross about with him wherever he went, and the
+Nestorian priests became envious of the profit which he derived from its
+use.
+
+
+[1] From the whole of this story, it would appear that the lady Cota was
+    hysterical from constipation; and that Sergius had the good fortune to
+    remove the cause by a few doses of rhubarb.--E.
+
+[2] About L. 30, perhaps equal in efficacy to L. 300 of modern days; no bad
+    fee for administering a dose of rhubarb.--E.
+
+[3] This surely was a sinless infirmity, and needed not to have been
+    recorded to his dishonour. He was probably afflicted with chilblains,
+    in consequence of the severity of the Tartarian climate.--E.
+
+[4] L. 1500 in weight, equal at least to L. 15,000 of our modern money; a
+    most magnificent present to an itinerant beggar.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXVI.
+
+_Account of the Country under the Dominion of the Great Khan of the Manners
+and Customs of his Subjects; of a Wonderful Piece of Mechanism, constructed
+by a French Goldsmith; and of the Palace of the Khan at Caracarum_.
+
+From the time of our arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, the leskar or camp
+made only two days journey towards the south; and it then began its
+progress northwards, in the direction of Caracarum. In the whole of my
+journey I was convinced of the truth of what I had been informed by Baldwin
+de Hainault at Constantinople, that the whole way eastwards was by a
+continual ascent, as all the rivers run from the east towards the west,
+sometimes deviating towards the north or south, more or less directly, but
+never running east, but this was farther confirmed to me by the priests who
+came from Kathay[1]. From the place where I found Mangukhan, it is twenty
+days journey south-east to Kathay, and ten days journey right east to Oman
+Kerule, the original country of the Moal and of Zingis[2]. In those parts
+there are no cities, but the country is inhabited by a people called
+Su-Moall, or Mongols of the waters, who live upon fish and hunting, and
+have neither flocks nor herds. Farther north, likewise, there is no city,
+but a poor people of herdsmen, who are called Kerkis. The Orangin are there
+also, who bind smooth bones under their feet, and thrust themselves with
+such velocity over the ice and snow, as to overtake beasts in the chase.
+There are many other poor nations in those parts, inhabiting as far to the
+north as the cold will permit, who join on the west with the country of
+Pascatir, or the Greater Hungary, of which I have made mention before[3].
+In the north the mountains are perpetually covered with snow, and the
+bounds are unknown by reason of the extreme cold. All these nations are
+poor; yet they must all betake themselves to some employment, as Zingis
+established a law that none was to be free from service till so old as to
+be unable for work.
+
+I was inquisitive about the monstrous men of whom Isidore and Solinus make
+mention; but no one had ever seen any such, and I therefore doubt whether
+it be true. Once a priest of Kathay sat by me, clothed in red, of whom I
+asked how that colour was procured. He told me that on certain high; craggy
+rocks in the east of Kathay there dwelt certain creatures like men, not
+above a cubit long, and all hairy, who leapt rather than walked, and dwelt
+in inaccessible caves. That those who go to hunt them carry strong drink,
+which they leave in holes of the rocks, and then hide themselves. These
+little creatures come out from their holes, and having tasted the drink,
+call out _chin-chin_, on which multitudes gather together, and drink till
+they are drunk, and fall asleep. Then the hunters come and bind them, after
+which they draw a few drops of blood from the veins of the neck of each of
+these creatures, and let them go free; and this blood is the most precious
+purple dye. He told me, likewise, that there is a province beyond Kathay,
+into which, if a man enters, he always continues of the same age at which
+he entered; but this I do not believe[4].
+
+Kathay is on the ocean, and I was told by the French goldsmith at
+Caracarum, that there is a people or nation called Tante and Manse,
+inhabiting certain islands, the sea around which is frozen in winter, so
+that the Tartars might invade them; but they sent messengers to the great
+khan, offering a tribute of 2000 tuemen or jascots yearly, to permit them
+to live in peace[5]. A tuemen, toman, or jascot, is a piece of money equal
+to ten marks.
+
+The ordinary money of Kathay is of paper made like pasteboard, the breadth
+and length of a hand, on which lines are printed, like the seal of Mangu.
+They write with a pencil like that used by our painters, and in one figure
+they comprehend many letters, forming one word[6]. The people of Thibet
+write as we do, and their characters are very like our own. Those of Tangut
+write from right to left, like the Arabs, and multiply their lines
+ascending; while the Jugurs write in descending columns. The common money
+of the Rutenians or Russians, consists in spotted or grizzled furs.
+
+When our Quinquagesima came, which is the Lent time of all the people of
+the east, the lady Cota fasted all that week, and came every day to our
+oratory, giving meat to the priests and other Christians, of whom a great
+company came daily to attend the service. But the porters of the court,
+seeing such multitudes come daily to our chapel, which was within the
+precincts of the court, sent one to tell the monk, that they would not
+allow such multitudes to come within their bounds; to this the monk made a
+sharp reply, and threatened to accuse them to the khan; but they prevented
+him, and lodged a complaint before Mangu, that the monk was too full of
+words, and gathered too great a multitude to hear him speak. On this he was
+called before the khan, who reproved him severely, saying, that as a holy
+man, he should employ himself in prayers to God, and not in speeches to
+men. But he was afterwards reconciled, by promising to go to the Pope, and
+to induce all the nations of the west to yield obedience to the khan. On
+his return to the oratory, the monk asked me if I thought he might gain
+admission to the Pope as the messenger of Mangu; and whether the Pope would
+supply him with horses to go to St James in Galicia; and whether your
+majesty would send your son to the court of Mangu. But I counselled him, to
+beware of making false promises to Mangu, and that God needed not the
+service of lies or deceitful speaking. About this time a dispute arose
+between the monk and one of the Nestorian priests, more learned than the
+rest, as the monk asserted that man was created before paradise, which the
+other denied; on reference to me, I said that paradise was created on the
+_second_ day, when the other trees were made, whereas man was made on the
+sixth. Then the monk said, that the devil brought clay on die first day,
+from all the corners of the earth, of which he made the body of man, which
+God inspired with a soul. On this I sharply reproved him for his heretical
+ignorance, and he scorned me for my ignorance of the language: I departed,
+therefore, from him to our own house. But when he and the priests went
+afterwards in procession to the court without calling me, Mangu earnestly
+enquired the reason of my absence; and the priests being afraid, excused
+themselves as well as they could, and reported to me the words of the khan,
+murmuring at the monk. After this the monk was reconciled to me, and I
+entreated him to aid me in acquiring the language, promising to help him to
+the knowledge of the Holy Scriptures.
+
+After the first week of fasting, the lady ceased from coming to the
+oratory, and to give meat and drink, so that we had nothing but brown
+bread, and paste boiled in melted snow or ice, which was exceedingly bad.
+My companion was much grieved at this diet, on which I acquainted David,
+the teacher of the khans eldest son, with our necessities, who made a
+report to the khan, and we were then supplied, with wine, flour, and oil.
+The Nestorians and Armenians eat no fish in Lent; but the monk had a chest
+under the altar, with almonds, and raisins, and dried prunes, and other
+fruits, on which he fed when alone.
+
+About the middle of Lent, the goldsmiths son came from Caracarum, bringing
+a silver cross made in the French fashion, with an image of Christ, as a
+present for Bulgai, the chief secretary of the court; and the young man
+informed Mangu, that the great work he had commanded to be made by his
+father, was completed. In the neighbourhood of Caracarum, Mangu has a large
+court, inclosed with a brick wall like our priories. Within that court is a
+great palace, in which the khan holds feasts twice a-year, once in Easter,
+and the other in summer; but the latter is the greater, as all the nobles
+meet then at the court, when the khan distributes garments among them, and
+displays all his magnificence. Beside the palace there are many great
+buildings like our barns, in which the victuals and treasures belonging to
+the khan are stored. Because it was indecent to have flaggons going about
+the hall of the palace, as in a tavern, William, the goldsmith, constructed
+a great silver tree, just without the middle entrance of the great hall, at
+the root of which were four silver lions, having pipes discharging pure
+cows milk. Four pipes were conveyed up the body of the tree to its top,
+which spread out into four great boughs, hanging downwards; on each of
+these boughs was a golden serpent, all their tails twining about the body
+of the tree, and each of these formed a pipe, one discharging wine, a
+second caracosmos, a third ball, or mead made of honey, and the fourth
+_teracina_ or drink made of rice; each particular drink having a vessel at
+the foot of the tree to receive it. On the top, between the four pipes,
+there stood an image of an angel with a trumpet. Under the tree there was a
+vault, in which a man was hidden, and from him a pipe ascended to the
+angel; and when the butler commands to sound the trumpet, the man below
+blows strongly, and the trumpet emits a shrill sound. In a chamber without
+the palace, the liquors are stored, and servants who are waiting, pour the
+liquors each in its proper pipe, at the signal, when they are conveyed by
+concealed pipes up the body of the tree, and discharged into, their
+appropriate vessels, whence they are distributed by the under butlers to
+the visitors. The tree is all ornamented with silver boughs, and leaves and
+fruit all of silver.  The palace is like a church, having a middle aisle
+and two side ones, beyond two rows of pillars, and has three gates to the
+south, and before the middle gate stands the silver tree. The khan sits at
+the north wall, on a high place, that he may be seen of all, and there are
+two flights of steps ascending to him, by one of which his cup-bearer goes
+up, and comes down by the other. The middle space between the throne and
+the silver tree is left vacant for the cup-bearers and the messengers who
+bring presents; on the right side of the khan the men sit, and the women on
+the left. One woman only sits beside him, but not so high as he.
+
+About Passion Sunday, the khan went before with his small houses only,
+leaving the great ones behind, and the monk and we followed. On the journey
+we had to pass through a hilly country[7] where we encountered high winds,
+extreme cold, and much snow. About midnight the khan sent to the monk and
+us, requesting us to pray to God to mitigate the severity of the weather,
+as the beasts in his train were in great jeopardy, being mostly with young,
+and about to bring forth. Then the monk sent him incense, desiring him to
+put it on the coals, as an offering to God: Whether he did this or no, I
+know not, but the tempest ceased, which had lasted two days. On Palm Sunday
+we were near Caracarum, and at dawn of day we blessed the willow boughs, on
+which, as yet, there were no buds. About nine o'clock we entered the city
+of Caracarum, carrying the cross aloft with the banner, and passing through
+the street of the Saracens, in which the market is held, we proceeded to
+the church, where the Nestorians met; us in procession. We found them
+prepared to celebrate the mass, and they all communicated; but I declined
+this, having already drank, and the sacrament should always be received
+lasting. After mass, being now evening, William Bouchier, the goldsmith,
+brought us to sup at his lodging. He had a wife, born in Hungary, of
+Mahometan parents, who spoke French, and the language of the Comanians. We
+found here also one Basilicus, the son of an Englishman, likewise born in
+Hungary, who was likewise skilled in these languages. After supper we
+retired to our cottage, which, with the oratory of the monk, were placed
+near the Nestorian church; which is of considerable size, and very
+handsomely built, and all the ceiling is covered with silk, wrought with
+gold.
+
+I much deliberated with myself, whether I should continue in communion with
+the monk and the Nestorians, because I saw their actions full of idolatry
+and sorcery; but I feared to give offence to the khan in separating from
+the other Christians, as I saw that my presence pleased him, for which
+reason I always accompanied them to court; but when there I did not join in
+their mummeries, praying always in a loud voice for the church, and that
+God would direct the khan in the right way of salvation. On one occasion
+the khan promised to come to the church next day; but he departed on his
+journey to the northward, desiring the priests to excuse him, because he
+had learnt that the dead were carried thither. But we remained behind, that
+we might celebrate the festival of Easter. There were a vast multitude of
+Hungarians, Alans, Rutenians or Russians, Georgians, and Armenians, who had
+not received the sacrament since they were taken prisoners, as the
+Nestorians would not admit them into their church unless they were
+rebaptized; yet they offered their sacrament freely to us, and allowed me
+to see their manner of consecration; on the vigil of Easter I saw their
+ceremony of baptism. They pretend to have the ointment with which Mary
+Magdalen anointed the feet of Jesus, and they put in so much of that oil in
+kneading their sacramental bread; for all the people of the east use
+butter, or oil, or fat from a sheeps tail, in their bread, instead of
+leaven. They pretend also to have of the flour of which the bread was made
+which was consecrated by our Lord at his Last Supper, as they always keep a
+small piece of dough from each baking, to mix up with the new, which they
+consecrate with great reverence. In administering this to the people, they
+divide the consecrated loaf first into twelve portions, after the number of
+the apostles, which they afterwards break down into smaller pieces, in
+proportion to the number of communicants, giving the body of Christ into
+the hand of every one, who takes it from his own palm with much reverence,
+and afterwards lays his hand on the top of his head.
+
+I was much at a loss how to act, as the Nestorians entreated me to
+celebrate the festival, and I had neither vestments, chalice, nor altar.
+But the goldsmith furnished me with vestments, and made an oratory on a
+chariot, decently painted with scripture histories; he made also a silver
+box or pix for the host, and an image of the blessed Virgin, and caused an
+iron instrument to be made for us to make hosts in our way. Then I made the
+before mentioned Christians to confess to me, as well as I could, by means
+of an interpreter, explaining to them the ten commandments, the seven
+deadly sins, and other matters, exhorting them to confession and penitence:
+But all of them publickly excused themselves respecting theft, saying that
+they could not otherwise live, as their masters neither provided them with
+food or raiment; and I said they might lawfully take necessaries from their
+masters, especially as they had forcibly deprived them of their subsistence
+and liberty. Some who were soldiers excused themselves from having gone to
+the wars, as otherwise they would be slain; these I forbid to go against
+Christians, declaring, that if slain for their refusal, God would account
+them as martyrs. After this I gave the holy communion to these people on
+Easter day, and I hope, with the blessing of God to many, being assisted by
+the Nestorians, who lent me their chalice and paten. They baptized above
+threescore persons on Easter eve with great solemnity, to the great joy of
+all the Christians.
+
+Soon after this William Bouchier was grievously sick, and when recovering,
+the monk Sergius visited him, and gave him so great a doze of rhubarb as
+had almost killed him. On this I expostulated with the monk, that he ought
+either to go about as an apostle, doing miracles by the virtue of prayer
+and the Holy Ghost, or as a physician, according to the rules of the
+medical aid, and not to administer strong potions to people who were not
+prepared. About this time the principal priest of the Nestorians, who was a
+kind of archdeacon over the rest, became sick $ and when I endeavoured, at
+the request of his family, to prevail upon the monk to visit him, he said,
+"Let him alone for he and three others intend to procure an order from
+Mangu-khan to expel you and I." And I learnt afterwards, that there was a
+dispute between them, as Mangu-khan had sent four jascots on Easter eve to
+the monk, to distribute among the priests; and Sergius, keeping one to
+himself, had given three to the priests, one being a counterfeit, and the
+priests thought Sergius had kept too great a share to himself. Finding the
+archdeacon in a dying way, I administered to him the Eucharist and extreme
+unction, which he received with great humility and devotion; but, by the
+advice of the monk, I quitted him before he died, as otherwise I could not
+have entered the court of Mangu-khan for a whole year. When he was dead,
+the monk said to me, "Never mind it: This man only, among the Nestorians,
+had any learning, and opposed us; henceforwards Mangu-khan and all the
+rest will crouch at our feet." He even pretended that he had killed him by
+his prayers. I afterwards learnt that the monk practised divination, with
+the aid of a Russian deacon, though, when I challenged him, he pretended to
+excuse himself, and to deny the truth of what had been reported to me: But
+I could not leave him, having been placed there by command of the khan, so
+that I dared not to remove without his special command.
+
+Exclusive of the palace of the khan, Caracarum is not so good as the town
+of St Denis, and the monastery of St Dennis is worth more than ten times
+the value of the palace itself. It contains two principal streets: that of
+the Saracens in which the fairs are held, and to which many merchants
+resort, as the court is always near; the other is the street of the
+Kathayans, which is full of artificers. Besides these streets, there are
+many palaces, in which are the courts of the secretaries of the khan. There
+are twelve idol temples belonging to different nations, two Mahometan
+mosques, and one Nestorian church at the end of the town. The town itself
+is inclosed with a mud wall, and has four gates. On the east side, there is
+a market for millet and other grain, but which is ill supplied; on the
+west, sheep and goats are sold; on the north side, oxen and waggons; and on
+the south side, horses.
+
+Mangu-khan has eight brothers, three by the mother and five by the father.
+One of these on the mothers side he sent into the country of the
+Assassines, called _Mulibet_ by the Tartars, with orders to kill them all.
+Another was sent into Persia, who is supposed to have orders to send armies
+into Turkey, and from thence against Bagdat and Vestacius. One of his other
+brothers has been sent into Kathay, to reduce certain rebels. His youngest
+maternal brother, named Arabucha, lives with him, and keeps up his mothers
+court, who was a Christian.
+
+About this time, on account of a violent quarrel between the monk and
+certain Mahometans, and because a rumour was propagated of four hundred
+assassins having gone forth in divers habits, with an intention to murder
+the khan, we were ordered to depart from our accustomed place before the
+court, and to remove to the place where other messengers dwelt. Hitherto I
+had always hoped for the arrival of the king of Armenia[8], and had not
+therefore made any application for leave to depart; but hearing no news of
+the king, or a certain German priest who was likewise expected, and fearing
+lest we should return in the winter, the severity of which I had already
+experienced, I sent to demand the pleasure of the khan, whether we were to
+remain with him or to return, and representing that it would be easier for
+us to return in summer than in winter. The khan sent to desire that I
+should not go far off, as he meant to speak with me next day; to which I
+answered, requesting him to send for the son of the goldsmith to interpret
+between us, as my interpreter was very incompetent.
+
+
+[1] So for as was travelled by Rubruquis, and in the route which he pursued
+    on the north of the Alak mountains, this observation is quite correct
+    to longitude 100° E. But what he here adds respecting Kathay, is
+    directly contradictory to the fact; as all the rivers beyond Caracarum
+    run in an easterly direction. The great central plain of Tangut, then
+    traversed by the imperial horde of the Mongals, and now by the Eluts
+    and Kalkas, must be prodigiously elevated above the level of the
+    ocean.--E.
+
+[2] The information here seems corrupted, or at least is quite incorrect.
+    Kathay or northern China is due east, or east south-east from the
+    great plain to the south of Karakum. Daouria, the original residence
+    of the Mongols of Zingis, between the rivers Onon and Kerlon, is to
+    the north-east.--E.
+
+[3] The Kerkis must fee the Kirguses, a tribe of whom once dwelt to the
+    south-west of lake Baikal. The Orangin or Orangey, inhabited on the
+    east side of that lake. Pascatir is the country of the Bashkirs,
+    Baschkirians, or Pascatirians in Great Bulgaria, called Great Hungary
+    in the text, between the Volga and the Ural.--E.
+
+[4] Rubruquis properly rejects the stories of monstrous men, related by the
+    ancients, yet seems to swallow the absurd story of the purple dye,
+    engrafted by the Kathayan priest on a very natural invention for
+    catching apes. He disbelieves the last information of the priest,
+    which must have been an enigmatical representation of the province of
+    death, or of the tombs.--E.
+
+[5] It is difficult to guess as to these people and their islands; which
+    may possibly refer to Japan, or even Corea, which is no island. Such
+    tribute could not have been offered by the rude inhabitants of
+    Saghalien or Yesso.--E.
+
+[6] This evidently but obscurely describes the Chinese characters; the most
+    ingenious device ever contrived for the monopoly of knowledge and
+    office to the learned class, and for arresting the progress of
+    knowledge and science at a fixed boundary.--E.
+
+[7] From this circumstance, it would appear that Rubruquis had found the
+    court of the khan in the country of the Eluts, to the south of the
+    Changai mountains, perhaps about latitude 44° N. and longitude 103°
+    E, the meridian of the supposed site of Karakum on the Orchon. And it
+    may be presumed, that the imperial suite was now crossing the Changai
+    chain towards the north.--E.
+
+[8] Haitho, of whom some account will be found in the succeeding chapter of
+    this work.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXVII.
+
+_Of certain disputes between Rubruquis and the Saracens and Idolaters, at
+the Court of Mangu-khan, respecting Religion_.
+
+Next day I was brought to the court, and some of the chief secretaries of
+the khan came to me, one of whom was a Moal, who is cup-bearer to the khan,
+and the rest were Saracens. These men demanded on the part of the khan,
+wherefore I had come there? To this I answered, as I had done before, that
+I came to Sartach, who sent me to Baatu, and he had ordered me to the khan,
+to whom I had nothing to say on the part of any man, unless I should speak
+the words of God if he would hear them, for the khan should know best what
+Baatu had written. Then they demanded what words of God I would speak to
+the khan, thinking I meant to prophecy prosperous things as others had
+done. To this I answered, "If ye would that I speak the words of God unto
+the khan, get me an interpreter." They said they had sent for him, but
+urged me to speak by the present one, as they would understand me
+perfectly. I therefore said, "This is the word of God, to whom much is
+given, much will be required at his hands; and to whom much is forgiven, he
+ought the more to love God. To Manga I would say, that God hath given much;
+for the power and riches which he enjoys, come not from the idols of the
+Tuinians, but from the omnipotent God who hath made heaven and earth, in
+whose hands are all kingdoms and dominions, and who transferreth them from
+nation to nation for the sins of men; wherefore if he love God, it will go
+well with him, but if otherwise, God will require all things at his hands,
+even to the utmost farthing." Then they asked if I had been in Heaven, that
+I should know the commandments of God? I said no, but that God hath given
+them from Heaven to holy men, and had at length descended from Heaven to
+earth to teach us, and that we had those things in the Scriptures, and
+could judge from their works whether men kept the commandments of God or
+disobeyed them. They then asked if I meant to say that Mangu-khan did not
+keep the commandments of God? To this I answered, "When I shall have a
+proper interpreter and am permitted, I shall then recite the commandments
+of God before Mangu, and he shall be his own judge, whether he hath kept or
+disobeyed them." Upon this, they went and told Mangu, that I said he was an
+idolater and Tuinian, and kept not the commandments of God. Next day Mangu
+sent one of his secretaries, saying, "Ye are here Christians, Mahometans,
+and Tuinians, wherefore the khan desires that ye will all come together and
+make comparison of your opinions, that he may know the truth." To this I
+answered, "Blessed be God that hath put this in the heart of the khan; but
+our Scriptures command the servants of God not to be contentious, but meek
+unto all. Wherefore I am ready, without strife or contention, to render a
+true account of the faith and hope of the Christians to every one who may
+require to be informed." They wrote down my words and brought them to the
+khan.
+
+Next day, another message came from the khan, desiring again to know on
+what account I had come to his court; to which I answered, that this might
+be known from the letters of Bantu. But they said that these letters were
+lost, and the khan had forgotten their contents, and would know of me.
+Somewhat emboldened by this, I said, "The duty and office of our religion
+is to preach the gospel unto all. Wherefore, having heard of the fame of,
+the Mongals, I desired to come to them; and hearing that Sartach had become
+a Christian, I directed my journey to him, and my sovereign the king of the
+French sent him letters containing good words of friendship, testifying
+what men we were, and requesting we might be permitted to remain with the
+people of Moal That Sartach had sent us to Baatu, and he had ordered us to
+Mangu-khan, whom we had entreated and still do entreat to suffer us to
+stay." They wrote all this, and made a report of it to the khan. On the
+morrow he sent again that he knew we had no message for him, but came to
+pray for him as other priests did, but desired to know if any of our
+ambassadors had ever been in their country, or any of theirs in our parts.
+Then I declared unto them all I knew respecting David and Friar Andrew, all
+of which was put down in writing and laid before Mangu. They came back,
+saying, "Our lord the khan thinks you have staid long here, and his
+pleasure is that you return into your own country; but he desires to know
+whether you would conduct his ambassadors along with you." To this I
+answered, that I dared not to carry his ambassadors beyond his own
+dominions, as a warlike nation dwelt between their country and ours,
+between the sea and the mountains, and being only a poor monk, I could not
+take upon me to be their guide. This they likewise set down in writing and
+carried to the khan.
+
+The Nestorians were commanded to set down in writing all that they would
+speak in favour of the Christian religion; and they wrote out a chronicle
+from the creation of the world to the passion of Christ; and passing over
+the passion, they spake of the resurrection of the dead, and of the day of
+judgment. Finding many things wrong, I pointed them out, and we wrote out
+the creed or symbol. Asking them how they meant to proceed in the
+conference, they said they meant to begin with the Saracens; but I
+dissuaded them from that, because, as they agreed with us in the belief of
+one only God, they would assist against the Tuinians. I then pointed out to
+them the original of idolatry in the world; and they desired me to explain
+these things before Mangu, and then to let them speak, because I should
+find it difficult and tedious to speak by an interpreter. I then proposed
+to try them, by taking the side of the Tuinians, while they should defend
+the opinions of the Christians; but they knew not how to prove any thing,
+except merely by quoting their Scriptures. To this I said, that these men
+believed not in our Scriptures, and would oppose them by advancing contrary
+opinions and positions from those books which they accounted holy. Then I
+desired that they would allow me to speak first; since if I were overcome
+they would be permitted to speak, whereas if they were confuted, I would be
+refused a hearing, and to this they consented.
+
+All things being arranged, we convened at our oratory, and Mangu-khan sent
+three of his secretaries, a Christian, a Saracen, and a Tuinian, to be
+judges of the controversy. It was first proclaimed, "This is the order of
+Mangu-khan, and none dare say that the commandment of God is otherwise. Let
+none speak contentiously, or use injurious words to one another, or make
+any tumult whereby this business may be hindered, upon pain of death."
+There was a great assembly, as every party had convened the wisest of their
+sect, and many others came flocking around to listen; but all were silent.
+The Christians set me in the middle, willing that I should contend with the
+Tuinians; who murmured against Mangu, as no khan had ever thus endeavoured
+to search into their secrets. Yet they opposed one from Kathay to me, who
+had his interpreter, while I had the son of the goldsmith to interpret my
+words. The Kathayan said to me, "Friend! if you be put to a nonplus, who
+must seek a wiser than thou art?" To this I made no reply. Then he demanded
+whether I would dispute as to how the world was made, or as to what became
+of the souls after death? For they were desirous to begin with these
+questions, as they held them for the strongest in their doctrines, all the
+Tuinians following the heresy of the Manicheans, believing in a good and a
+bad principle, and they all believe that souls pass from body to body. In
+confirmation of this, the goldsmith told me they had brought a person from
+Kathay, who, by the size of his body, appeared to be only three years old,
+yet was capable of reasoning, and knew how to write, and who affirmed that
+he had passed through three several bodies. Even one of the wisest of the
+Nestorians demanded of me whether the souls of brutes could fly to any
+place after death where they should not be compelled to labour.
+
+To the before-mentioned question of the Kathayan, I answered: "Friend, this
+ought hot to be the commencement of our conference. All things are of God,
+who is the fountain and head of us all; and therefore we ought first to
+speak concerning God, of whom you think otherwise than you ought, and Mangu
+desires to know which of us hath the better belief." The arbitrators
+allowed this to be reasonable, and I proceeded: "We firmly believe that
+there is but one God in perfect unity; what believe you?" He said, "Fools
+say there is but one God, but wise men say there are many. There are great
+lords in your country, and here is still a greater, even Mangu-khan. So it
+is of the Gods, as in divers countries there are divers gods." To this I
+answered: "You make a bad comparison between God and men; for in this way
+every mighty man might be called a God in his own country." And when I
+meant to have dissolved the similitude, he prevented me, by asking, "What
+manner of God is yours, who you say is but one?" I answered: "Our God,
+beside whom there is no other, is omnipotent, and therefore needeth not the
+help of any other; whereas all have need of his help. It is not so with
+men, as no man can do all things; wherefore there must be many lords on
+earthy as no one can support all. God is omniscient, or knoweth all things;
+and therefore hath no need of any counsellor, for all wisdom is from him.
+God is perfectly good; and needs not therefore any good from us. In God we
+live and move and have our being. Such is our God, and you must not hold
+that there is any other." "It is not so," said he; "for there is one
+highest in heaven, whose origin or generation we know not, and there are
+ten under him, and on earth they are infinite in number." To this he would
+have added other fables. I asked him respecting the highest God, of whom he
+had spoken, whether he were omnipotent, or if any of the inferior Gods were
+so? And fearing to answer this, he demanded, "Why, since our God was
+perfectly good, he had made the half of all things evil?" To this I
+answered, that this was false; for whosoever maketh any evil is no God, and
+all things whatsoever are good. At this all the Tuiuians were astonished,
+and set it down in writing as false or impossible. He then asked me,
+"Whence cometh evil?" "You ask amiss," said I, "for you ought first to
+inquire what evil is, before you ask whence it comes: But let us return to
+the first question, whether do you believe that any God is omnipotent? and
+when that is discussed, I will answer whatever you may demand." On this he
+sat a long time without speaking, and the judges appointed by the khan
+commanded him to make answer. At length he said, that no God was
+omnipotent; on which all the Saracens broke out into great laughter. When
+silence was restored, I said, "None of your gods, therefore, can save you
+in all dangers, since chances may happen in which they have no power.
+Besides, no man can serve two masters; how, therefore, can you serve so
+many Gods in heaven and in earth?" The auditory decreed that he should make
+answer to this, but he held his peace.
+
+When I was about to have propounded reasons to prove the truth of the
+divine essence, and to have explained the doctrine of the Trinity, the
+Nestorians alleged that I had said quite enough, and that now they meant to
+speak; so I gave place to them. When, therefore, they would have disputed
+with the Saracens, these men said that they agreed to the truth of the law
+and the gospel of the Christian, and would not dispute with them in any
+thing, and even confessed that they beg from God in their prayers that they
+may die the death of the Christians. There was among the idolaters a priest
+of the sect of the Jugurs, who believe in one God, and yet make idols. With
+this man the Nestorians talked much, shewing all things till the coming of
+Christ to judgment, and explaining the Trinity to him and the Saracens by
+similitudes. All of them hearkened to their harangue without attempting to
+make any contradiction; yet none of them said that they believed and would
+become Christians. The conference was now broken up. The Nestorians and
+Saracens sang together with a loud voice, and the Tuinians held their
+peace; and afterwards they all drank together most plentifully.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXVIII.
+
+_The last audience of Rubruquis with Mangu-khan, and the letter he received
+for the King of France._
+
+On Whitsunday I was called into the presence of the khan, and before I went
+in, the goldsmiths son, who was my interpreter, informed me that it was
+determined I was to return to my own country, and advised me to say nothing
+against it. When I came before the khan I kneeled, and he asked me whether
+I said to his secretaries that he was a Tuinian. To this I answered, "My
+lord, I said not so; but if it please your highness I will repeat what I
+then said;" and I recited what I had spoken, as mentioned before, and he
+answered: "I thought well you said not so, for it was a word you ought not
+to have spoken; but your interpreter hath ill rendered your words." Then,
+reaching forth the staff on which, he leaned towards me, he said, "be not
+afraid." To which I answered smiling, that if I had feared I should not
+have come hither. He then said, as if confessing his faith: "We Moals
+believe that there is but one God, and we have an upright heart towards
+him." "Then," said I, "may God grant you this mind, for without his gift it
+cannot be." He then added, "God hath given to the hand divers fingers, and
+hath given many ways to man. He hath given the Scriptures to you, yet you
+keep them not. You certainly find not in the Scriptures that one of you
+should dispraise another?" "No," said I; "and I signified unto your
+highness from the beginning, that I would not contend with any one." "I
+speak not," said he, "respecting you. In like manner, you find not in your
+Scriptures, that a man ought to swerve from justice for the sake of money?"
+To this I answered, "That our Scriptures taught no such evil doctrine,
+neither had I come into, these parts to get money, having even refused that
+which was freely offered to me." And one of the secretaries, then present,
+certified, that I had refused a jascot and a piece of silk. "I speak not of
+that," said the khan; "God hath given you the Scriptures and you keep them
+not; but he hath given to us soothsayers, and we do what they bid us, and
+live in peace." He drank four times, as I think, before he disclosed these
+things; and, while I waited attentively in expectation that he might
+disclose any thing farther respecting his faith, he began another subject,
+saying: "You have stayed a long time here, and it is my pleasure that you
+return. You have said that you dared not to carry my ambassadors with you;
+will you carry my messenger, or my letters?" To this I answered, "If he
+would make me understand his words, and that they were put in writing, I
+would willingly carry them, to the best of my power." He then asked if I
+would have gold or silver, or costly garments? I answered, that we received
+no such things; but not having wherewith to bear our expences, we could not
+get out of his country without his help. He then said, that he would
+provide us in all necessaries through his country, and demanded how far we
+would be brought. I said it were sufficient if he gave us a pass into
+Armenia. To this he answered: "I will cause you to be carried thither,
+after which look to yourself. There are two eyes in one head, yet they both
+look to one object. You came here from Baatu, and therefore you must return
+by him." Having requested and obtained leave to speak, I addressed him
+thus: "Sir! we are not men of war, and desire that they who would most
+justly govern according to the will of God may have dominion in the world.
+Our office is to teach men to live according to the law of God: For this,
+purpose we came into these parts, and would willingly have remained here if
+it had been your pleasure; but since you are pleased that we should return,
+I shall carry your letters according to my power, in obedience to your
+commands. I request of your magnificence, that, when I have delivered your
+letters, it may be lawful for me to come back into your dominions; chiefly
+because you have servants of our nation at Balac, who want a priest to
+teach them and their children the law of our religion, and I would
+willingly stay with them." He then asked whether I knew that our lords
+would send me back to him? To this. I answered, "I know not what may be the
+purpose of my sovereign; but I have licence to go wherever I will, where it
+is needful to preach the word of God, and it seems to me necessary in these
+parts; wherefore, whether my lords send ambassadors or not, if it is your
+pleasure, I will return." Then, after a long pause, as if musing, he said,
+"You have a lone way to go, make yourself strong with food, that you may be
+enabled to endure the journey." So he ordered them to give me drink, and I
+departed from his presence, and returned not again. From that time I could
+have no time nor place to expound to him the catholic faith; for a man must
+not speak before him, unless what he pleaseth to order or allow, except he
+were an ambassador, who may speak what he will, and they always demand of
+such whether he has any thing more to say.
+
+The soothsayers are the priests of the Mongals, and whatever they command
+to be done is performed without delay. I shall describe their office, as I
+learnt it from the goldsmith and others. Of these soothsayers there are
+great numbers, under the direction of a chief priest, whose house is always
+about a stone's throw in front of the great house of Mangu-khan, and under
+his charge are all the chariots which carry idols. The other soothsayers
+dwell behind the court, in places appointed for them; and such as have
+confidence in their art come to consult them from various distant parts.
+Some of them are skilful in astronomy, especially their chief, and they
+foretel eclipses of the sun and moon. When these are to happen, all the
+people prepare their food, that they may not be under the necessity of
+going out of doors, and during the eclipse they play on various instruments
+of music, and set up loud shouts: when it is over, they indulge in feasting
+and carousing, to express their joy.
+
+These soothsayers pretend to foretell lucky and unlucky days for all
+affairs; and the Tartars never levy an army, or undertake a war without
+their approbation. They had long since resumed their attack on Hungary, but
+that the soothsayers have always opposed it. They make every thing which is
+sent to court pass between two fires, as a purification, likewise, all the
+household stuff belonging to a dead person must be purged in the same
+manner; and, if any living creature drop down, or any thing whatever fall
+to the ground during the ceremony, it becomes the property of the
+soothsayers, who, besides, have a certain proportion of every thing which
+they purify as their due. There was, therefore, a twofold reason why Friar
+Andrew Carpini was made to pass between the fires; both because he brought
+presents, and because Con-khan, for whom these had been brought, was dead:
+But as I brought nothing, this was not required of me.
+
+Once on a time, some very costly furs were presented at the court of the
+Christian lady, whom Pascha, the good woman of Metz served, and the
+soothsayers, in passing them between the fires, took more than was their
+due. Another woman, who had the custody of the treasures belonging to that
+lady, accused them of the fraud to her mistress, who reproved them severely
+for their conduct. Sometime afterwards the lady fell sick, and the
+soothsayers accused the servant, who had detected their fraud, of having
+bewitched her. She received the bastinado for seven days successively, and
+other tortures, to make her confess; and on hearing of her mistress's
+death, begged to be killed that she might follow her, for that, in truth,
+she had never done her the smallest injury. But, as she confessed nothing,
+Mangu-khan commanded that she should live. After this the soothsayers
+accused the daughters nurse of the deceased lady, which nurse was a
+Christian, and wife to the chief of the Nestorian priests. She and her
+servant-maid were tortured to make a confession, and the maid answered,
+that the nurse had sent her to receive responses from a certain horse. The
+nurse also confessed that she had used some spells to procure the love of
+her lady, but had never done any thing to hurt her. On being demanded to
+say whether her husband knew of her incantations, she excused him, saying
+that he had burnt the characters which she had made. Then she was put to
+death, and the husband was sent to be judged by his bishop in Kathay.
+
+It happened that the principal wife of Mangu brought forth a son, and the
+soothsayers were brought to foretell the destiny of the infant, when they
+prophesied that he should live long and prosperously, and become a great
+lord; but he died in a few days. On being reproached for their falsehood,
+they said that the nurse of Cerina, who had been lately put to death, had
+killed the boy, and pretended to have seen her carrying him away. There
+were then in the camp a son and daughter of the nurse, whom the lady
+immediately sent for in a rage, and ordered them to be put to death. Some
+time afterwards this came to the ears of Mangu-khan, who was much enraged
+at the conduct of his wife. He caused the man to be beheaded who had slain
+the nurses son, and made his head to be hung round the neck of the woman
+who had killed her daughter, ordering her to be cudgelled with burning
+fire-brands, through among all the tents, and then put to death. He would
+also have put his wife to death if it had not been for the sake of the
+children he had by her; but he commanded her to be shut up for seven days
+without food, and went out from his court for a whole, moon.
+
+After the feast of Pentecost, they began to prepare their letters for your
+Majesty, and, in the mean time, the khan returned to Caracarum, and held a
+great feast on the 15th of June, at which all the ambassadors were desired
+to be present, but I went to church to baptize the three children of a poor
+German. William the goldsmith was chief butler at this feast, as he had the
+charge of the silver tree which poured out the drink. On this occasion the
+khan gave, during four successive days, a complete suit of apparel each day
+to all his courtiers, every day a new colour; and he made them a speech,
+saying, "I have sent my brothers afar into dangers among foreign nations;
+it shall be seen how you will conduct yourselves when I send you to extend
+the boundaries of our empire."
+
+At this time there was an ambassador at the court from the khans of Bagdat,
+of whom it was reported, when Mangu declared he would not grant them peace
+unless they would destroy all their warlike ammunition, that he answered,
+"We will do this when you pluck off all the hoofs from your horses." I saw
+there, also, the ambassadors from a soldan of India, who brought with him
+eight leopards and ten hare-hounds who were taught to sit on a horses croup
+in hunting, like the leopards. When I asked of them, the way to India, they
+pointed to the west, and they travelled with me, on our return, always
+westwards, for nearly three weeks. I also saw there the ambassador of the
+sultan of Turkey, who brought rich presents to the khan. At length the
+letters being ready for your majesty, they called for me and explained
+them, and the following is their substance, so far as I could understand
+them by my interpreter:
+
+"The commandment of the Eternal GOD is this: As there is but one Eternal
+GOD in heaven, so upon earth let there be but one Lord, Zingis-khan, son of
+God, and Mangu-tinij[1]. This is the word which is spoken to you; whether
+Moals, Namans, Markets, or Musselmen; wherever man may hear or horse may
+go, cause it to be heard and understood, that such as have heard my
+commands and do not obey, or would levy an army against me, shall be as
+having eyes and not seeing, as having hands and unable to hold any thing,
+and as having feet, yet unable to walk.
+
+"This is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, and by the virtue of the
+Eternal GOD, the commandment of Mangu-khan, the great emperor of the Moals,
+is given to Lodowick the French King, and to all other lords and priests,
+and to the great world of the Franks, that they understand my words and the
+commandments of the Eternal GOD, made to Zingis-khan; neither but from
+Zingis-khan ever came this commandment unto you[2].
+
+"A certain man, named David, came unto you as an ambassador from the Moals,
+but he was a liar; and with him you sent your ambassador to Khen-khan.
+After Khen-khan was dead, your ambassador came to this court, and Charmis
+his wife sent you a nassick cloth. But how could that wicked woman, more
+vile than a dog, know matters appertaining to war and peace, and to settle
+the great world in quiet?
+
+"Those two monks who came from you to Sartach, were sent by Sartach to
+Baatu; but as Mangu-khan is the greatest over the world of the Moals, Baatu
+sent them unto us. And now that the great world of the Franks, and the
+priests, and monks, may live in peace and enjoy their goods, and that the
+commandment of GOD might be heard among you, we would have sent certain
+Moals as our ambassadors to you by your priests; but your messenger
+answered, that betwixt us and you there was a warlike nation, with many bad
+men and troublesome ways, so that they were afraid they could not bring our
+ambassadors in safety to you; but if we would deliver them our letters,
+containing our commandments to King Lodowick, they engaged to carry them.
+For this cause we have not sent our ambassadors along with them; but we
+have sent you this, the commandment of the Eternal GOD, by your priests.
+And this is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, which we have given you to
+understand, and when you shall hear and believe it, if you will obey, send
+your ambassadors unto us, so that we may be satisfied whether you will have
+peace or war. When, by the power of the Eternal GOD, the whole world shall
+be in unity, peace, and joy, from the rising of the sun to where it sets,
+then shall it appear what we will do. But if ye shall see and hear the
+commandment of the Eternal GOD, and will not hearken to or believe it,
+saying, our country is far off, our hills are strong, our sea is great; and
+in this confidence shall lead an army against us to know what we can do; he
+that made what is hard easy, and that which is far off near, the Eternal
+GOD himself knows that alone."
+
+While these things were going forwards, my companion heard that we were to
+return by the wilderness to Baatu, under the guidance of a Moal, on which
+he ran to Bulgai, the chief secretary, signifying to him, by signs, that he
+should certainly die if he went that way. On the day when we were to
+receive our pass, which was a fortnight after the feast of St John, 8th
+July, the secretary said to him; it is the pleasure of Mangu, that your
+companion shall return by Baatu, and as you are sick, you may remain and
+shall be provided in necessaries till some ambassador come, with whom you
+may return more easily by a way where there are villages. The friar
+answered "God grant the khan a long and prosperous life, I will remain."
+Then they brought us three garments, saying, that as we refused gold or
+silver, and had stayed long here, praying for the khan, he entreats that
+each would accept a single garment, that you may not depart empty handed.
+
+
+[1] Explained as signifying the sound of iron, probably in allusion to his
+    martial power.--E.
+
+[2] The obscurity of this passage is inexplicable.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXXIX.
+
+_The departure of Rubruquis from the Court of Mangu-khan, and his journey
+by Saray and other places, to Tripoly in Syria._
+
+Leaving the Leskar or moving camp of Mangu-khan, we came to Caracarum, and
+while we remained in the house of William Bouchier the goldsmith, my guide
+brought ten jascots, five of which he delivered to William, commanding him,
+from the khan, to expend these for the use of the friar while he remained
+there, and he left the other five with my interpreter for my subsistence by
+the way; for William had given them such instructions without my knowledge.
+I immediately changed one of the jascots into small money, which I
+distributed among the poor Christians of Caracarum. Another was spent in
+providing garments and other necessaries for our journey. With the third my
+interpreter bought several articles, of which he afterwards made some
+profit. The other two we expended on the road, as, after we came into
+Persia, sufficient necessaries were nowhere given us. William, your
+majestys citizen and subject, sends you a girdle set with a precious stone,
+which is worn in those parts as a defence against thunder and lightning,
+and most humbly salutes you, always commending you to God in his prayers.
+
+My companion and I parted with tears, he remaining with master William,
+while I, with my interpreter, the guide, and one servant, returned to the
+court of Baatu, our guide having authority to take a sheep once in four
+days, for the sustenance of all four. From Caracarum to the court of Baatu
+our journey continued four months and ten days, during all which time we
+never saw a town, or even the appearance of a single house, except one
+village, in which we did not even eat bread; nor in all that time did we
+ever rest, except one day, when we could not get horses. We returned, for
+the most part, by the same kind of people through whom we had passed in
+going, and yet through other countries, for we went in the winter, and
+returned in the summer, by the higher parts of the north, except that for
+fifteen days journey we had to travel along a certain river among the
+mountains, where there was no lodging, except by the river side[1].
+Sometimes we had to go two, or even three days, with no other food than
+cosmos; and at one time we were in great danger, not being able to fall in
+with any people, our provisions all exhausted, and our horses quite tired.
+
+When we had travelled twenty days, I heard that the king of Armenia had
+passed by on his journey to the court of Mangu. In the end of August I met
+with Sartach, who went to Mangu, accompanied by his wives and children, and
+with flocks and herds; yet the bulk of the families over whom he ruled,
+remained between the Tanais and Etilia, or Volga. I sent my duty to him,
+saying that I would willingly have remained in his country, but that Mangu
+had ordered me to return and carry his letters. His answer was, that I must
+obey the will of Mangu-khan.
+
+I then asked Coiac to return our clothes and books. "What," said he, "did
+you not bring them to Sartach?" I said that I had certainly brought them to
+Sartach, but had not given them, and put him in mind of what I had said on
+that former occasion. To this he answered "You say truth, and none can
+resist the truth. I left your goods with my father, who dwells in Saray, a
+new town, which Baatu has built on the eastern shore of the Volga, but our
+priests have some of your vestments." "If any thing please you," said I,
+"keep it, so that you restore my books." I requested letters from him to
+his father to restore my things; but he was in haste to be gone, and said
+that we should alight at the train of the ladies, which was near at hand,
+and he should send me Sartachs answer. Though I was fearful he might
+deceive me, yet I dared not to contend with him. Late in the evening his
+messenger came with two coats, seemingly all of silk, saying that Sartach
+had sent me these, one for myself, and that I might present the other to my
+king on his behalf. I answered, that I wore no such garments, but should
+present both to my king, in honour of his lord; and I now send both by the
+bearer of these letters. He delivered me also a letter for the father of
+Coiac, to restore all that belonged to me.
+
+We returned to the court of Baatu on the same day on which I had departed
+thence the year before, being the second day after the invention of the
+Holy Cross, 16th September 1254; and I found our young men in health,
+though much afflicted with poverty. Gosset told me, they had perished for
+want, if the king of Armenia had not comforted them, and recommended them
+to Sartach, for the Tartars believed I was dead, and even asked them if
+they could keep oxen and milk mares; for if I had not returned, they had
+certainly been reduced to servitude. After this Baatu called me before him,
+and made the letters which Mangu-khan sends you to be interpreted to me. He
+likewise demanded what way I would go, whether by sea or land? I said the
+sea would be frozen, as whiter was approaching, and I must, therefore, go
+by land; and believing your majesty was still in Syria, I directed my
+journey to Persia, for if I had known you were in France, I would have gone
+through Hungary. We had to travel a month with Baatu before we could obtain
+a guide. At length they appointed a Jugur, who understanding I would give
+him nothing, and that I wished to go by Armenia, caused our letters to be
+made for conducting me to the soldan of Turkey, hoping he might there
+receive gifts. We left the moving court of Baatu fifteen days before All
+Saints, 16th October, and went direct southwards for Sarai, always keeping
+near the Volga, and there the Volga divides into three branches or arms,
+each almost twice as large as the branch of the Nile at Damieta. Besides
+these, it divides into four lesser arms, so that we had to pass seven
+branches of the river in boats: Upon the middle branch, is a village called
+Sumerkant[2], without any wall, but which was besieged by the Tartars for
+eight years before they could gain possession, and had formerly cost the
+Saracens and Alani nine years; for though not fortified, it is surrounded
+by water. We there found a German and his wife, with whom Gosset had lived
+all the preceding winter, by the order of Baatu. On the east side of this
+river Baatu always travels, and Sartach on the west, never going farther
+south than this place, as there is very good grass in great abundance.
+Coiacs father, on receiving the letters of Sartach, restored my vestments,
+except a surplice, an albs, an almic trimmed with fine silk, a stole, a
+girdle, and a tualia adorned with gold embroidery. He gave me back,
+likewise, my silver plate, except the censer, and a small box for holding
+chrism, all of which were with the priest who attended Sartach; and he
+returned my books, except our ladys psalter, which he kept with my leave,
+as I could not deny him, for he said Sartach took great delight in it. A
+bible also, and an Arabian book worth thirty sultanies, were retained, and
+many other things which I never recovered. Sarai, and the palace of Baatu
+are on the east side of the river, and the valley through which the arms of
+the river spread abroad, is more than seven leagues in breadth.
+
+After leaving Sarai, on the feast of All Saints, 1st November, we travelled
+south till the feast of St Martin, 11th November, when we came to the
+mountains of the Alani. In fifteen days travel we found no people, except
+at one little village, where one of the sons of Sartach resided,
+accompanied by many falconers, and falcons. For the first five days we did
+not meet a single man, and were a whole day and night in great danger of
+perishing for want of water. The Alani in some of the mountains, still hold
+out against the Tartars, so that two of every ten of the subjects of
+Sartach are obliged to guard certain passes in the mountains of Dagistan,
+lest the Alanians carry away the cattle in the plain. There are likewise
+certain Mahometans called Lesghis in these mountains who are not
+subjugated, so that the Tartars had to give us a guard of twenty men to see
+us safe beyond the Iron-gate. I was glad of this circumstance, as I had
+never seen the Tartars armed; and yet, of all those twenty, only two had
+habergions, which they said they had procured from the Alani, who are
+excellent smiths and armourers. In my opinion, the Tartars have small store
+of armour, except bows and arrows, and leather jackets; some have iron
+plates, and skull cups from Persia, and I saw two at the court of Mangu
+armed with clumsy and unwieldy coats of rough hog-skin. We found one castle
+of the Alanians, which had been subdued by the Tartars, about which there
+were many vineyards, and there we drank wine for the first time. On the
+following day we reached Derbent or the Iron-gate, built by Alexander the
+Macedonian, on a small plain between the sea and the mountains, one end of
+the city reaching to the shore, while the other extends a mile in length to
+the top of the mountain, on which is a strong castle. But the breadth of
+the city scarcely exceeds a stones throw. It has very strong walls, and
+turrets of large polished stones, with no trenches; but the Tartars have
+demolished the tops of the turrets, and the bulwarks of the walls.
+
+Two days journey from Derbent we came to a city named Samaron[3], in which
+there were many Jews; near which we saw walls descending from the mountains
+to the sea; and leaving the way by the sea, because it turns to the east,
+we went up into the high countries, towards the south. Next day we passed
+through a valley, in which we could perceive the foundations of walls,
+stretching quite across between two mountains, which were themselves quite
+impassable. All these walls were erected of old by Alexander, for
+restraining the fierce nations of Scythian shepherds, inhabiting the
+wilderness, from invading the plains and cities of the southern countries
+of Persia and Asia Minor. There were also other walls and inclosures
+inhabited by Jews. Next day we came to a great city called Samach[4]; and
+after this we entered the great plain of Moan, through which runs the river
+Cur or Cyrus, from which the Curgi or Curdi have their name, whom we call
+Georgians, and which river passes through the middle of Tefflis, their
+capital. The Cur comes directly from the west, running east into the
+Caspian, and in it are excellent salmon[5]. In the plains of Moan or Mogan
+we again met with Tartars; and through this plain flows the Araxes, which
+comes from Armenia the Greater, called likewise the land of Ararat. To the
+west of that plain is Curgia[6], and in this plain the Crosmini, Krosmians
+or Korasmiens[7], formerly dwelt. Ganges or Kanja, a great city in the
+entrance of the mountains towards Georgia, was their capital, and prevented
+the Georgians from coming down to plunder the plain country. We next came
+to a bridge of boats fastened together with great iron chains, for crossing
+the united stream of the Kur and Araxes.
+
+We proceeded thence, travelling up the river called _pontem inidignatus
+Araxes_, leaving Persia and the Caspian mountains on our left hand, towards
+the south, Curgia and the great sea on our right hand, towards the west[8].
+Going all the way southwards[9], we passed through the meadows of Bacchu-
+khan, the general of the Tartar army on the Araxes, who has likewise
+subjugated the Curgi, the Turks, and the Persians. There is another Tartar
+governor of Persia at Tauris, named Argon, who presides over the tribute.
+But Mangu-khan has recalled both of these generals to make way for one of
+his brothers, as I formerly mentioned, who is to have the command in
+Persia. I was in the house of Bacchu, who gave me wine, while he drank
+cosmos; and, although it was the best new wine, I would rather have had
+cosmos, if he had offered it, being more restorative for such a half
+starved wretch as I then was. We ascended the Araxes to its head, and
+beyond the mountains, where it rises, is the good city of Arsorum [10],
+which belongs to the Soldan of Turkey [11]. When we departed from Bacchu,
+my guide went to Tauris to speak with Argon, and took my interpreter with
+him; but Bacchu caused me to be carried to Naxuam [12], formerly the
+capital of a great kingdom, and the greatest and fairest city in those
+parts, but the Tartars have now made it a wilderness. There were formerly
+eight hundred churches [13] of the Armenians here, which are now reduced to
+two very small ones, in one of which I held my Christmas as well as I
+could, with our clerk Gosset. Next day the priest of this church died, and
+a bishop with twelve monks came from the mountains to his funeral, for all
+the bishops of the Armenians are monks, and likewise most of those
+belonging to the Greeks [14].
+
+In the city of Naxuam I met a Catalan friar, of the order of Predicants,
+named Barnard, who lives with a friar of the Holy Sepulchre, resident in
+Georgia, and possessing extensive lands there. We were detained in Naxuam
+by the snow, till the 6th January 1255, and came in four days to the
+country of Sabensa, a Curdish prince, heretofore powerful, but now
+tributary to the Tartars, who destroyed all his warlike stores. Zacharias,
+the father of Sabensa, possessed himself of all the country of the
+Armenians, from whence he drove out the Saracens. In this country there are
+many fine villages of true Christians, having churches like those of
+Europe; and every Armenian has in his house, in an honourable place, a
+wooden hand holding a cross, before which a lamp continually burns; and
+that which we do by holy water, they do with frankincense, which they burn
+every evening through every corner of the house, to drive away evil
+spirits. I eat with Sabensa, and both he and his wife did me great
+reverence. His son Zachary, a wise and comely young man, asked me if your
+majesty would, entertain him; for though he has plenty of all things, he is
+so uneasy under the Tartar dominion, that he would rather retire to a
+strange country, than endure their violent exactions. These people say they
+are true sons of the church, and if the Pope would send them aid, they
+would bring all the neighbouring nations under subjection to the church of
+Rome.
+
+From Naxuam we travelled in fifteen days into the country of the soldan of
+Turkey, to a castle called Marseugen, inhabited by Armenians, Curgians, and
+Greeks, the Turks only having the dominion. From that place, where we
+arrived on the first Sunday of Lent, till I got to Cyprus, eight days
+before the feast of St John the Baptist, I was forced to buy all our
+provisions. He who was my guide procured horses for us, and took my money
+for the victuals, which he put into his own pocket; for when in the fields,
+he took a sheep from any flock he saw by the way, without leave or
+ceremony. In the Feast of the Purification, 2d February, I was in a city
+named Ayni, belonging to Sabensa, in a strong situation, having an hundred
+Armenian churches, and two mosques, and in it a Tartar officer resides.
+
+At this place I met five preaching friars, four of whom came from Provence,
+and the fifth joined them in Syria. They had but one sickly boy who could
+speak Turkish and a little French, and they had the Popes letters of
+request to Sartach, Baatu, and Mangu-khan, that they might be suffered to
+continue in the country to preach the word of God. But when I had told them
+what I had seen, and how I was sent back, they directed their journey to
+Tefflis, where there were friars of their order, to consult what they
+should do. I said that they might pass into Tartary with these letters, but
+they might lay their account with much labour, and would have to give an
+account of the motives of their journey; for having no other object but
+preaching, they would be little cared for particularly as they had no
+ambassador. I never heard what they did afterwards.
+
+On the second Sunday in Lent we came to the head of the Araxes, and passing
+the mountains, we came to the Euphrates, by which we descended eight days
+journey, going to the west, till we came to a castle named Camath or Kemac,
+where the Euphrates trends to the south, towards Halapia, or Aleppo. We
+here passed to the north-west side of the river, and went over very high
+mountains, and through deep snow, to the west. There was so great an
+earthquake that year in this country, that in one city called Arsingan, ten
+thousand persons are said to have perished. During three days journey we
+saw frequent gaps in the earth, which had been cleft by the convulsion, and
+great heaps of earth which had tumbled down from the mountains into the
+vallies. We passed through the valley where the soldan of the Turks was
+vanquished by the Tartars, and a servant belonging to my guide, who was in
+the Tartar army, said the Tartars did not exceed 10,000 men, whereas the
+soldan had 200,000 horse. In that plain there broke out a great lake at the
+time of the earthquake, and it came into my mind, that the earth opened her
+mouth to receive yet more blood of the Saracens.
+
+We remained in Sebasta, Siwas, or Sivas, a town of the Lesser Armenia, in
+the Easter week, and on the succeeding Sunday we came to Caesaria of
+Capadocia, now called Kaisarea. In about fifteen days, making short
+journeys, we came to Konieh or Iconium. This delay arose in part from the
+difficulty of procuring horses, but chiefly because the guide chose to
+stop, often for three days together in one place, to negotiate his own
+affairs; and though much dissatisfied, I durst not complain, as he might
+have slain me and our servants, or sold us for slaves, and there was none
+to hinder it. I found many Franks at Iconium, and among these a merchant
+called Nicholas de Sancto Syrio, and his partner Boniface de Molandino, who
+had a monopoly of all the alum of Turkey from the soldan, and by this means
+they had raised the price so much, that what used to sell for fifteen
+byzants, is now sold for forty. My guide presented me to the soldan, who
+said he would willingly get me conveyed to the sea of Armenia or Cilicia;
+but the above merchants knowing that the Turks made little account of me,
+and that I was much distressed with my guide, caused me to be conveyed to
+Curruma[15], a port in the dominions of the king of Armenia. Having
+remained here from before the Ascension till after Pentecost, or near a
+fortnight, I heard there were messengers arrived from the king to his
+father, and I went to the kings father to learn the news. I found him
+surrounded by all his sons, except Barum Usin, who resided in a certain
+castle; and he told me that his son was on his return, and that Mangu-khan
+had much eased his tribute, granting him a privilege that no ambassador
+should come into his country. On this the old man and all his sons made a
+banquet; and he caused me to be conveyed by sea to the haven called
+Aijax[16], whence I passed over into Cyprus, and at Nicosia I found our
+provincial, who, the same day, carried me with him to Antiochia [17], which
+is in a very weak state; we were there on the feast of St Peter, and St
+Paul, 29th June; and from thence we went to Tripolis in Syria, where the
+chapter of our order was held, on the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin,
+15th August 1255.
+
+Our provincial is determined that I shall reside at Acon [18], and will not
+suffer me to come to your majesty, but commands me to write what I will by
+the bearer of these presents. I would willingly see your highness, and some
+spiritual friends in your kingdom; and beseech your majesty to write our
+provincial to allow me to go to you, and to return shortly again into the
+Holy Land.
+
+I would have your majesty to understand, that in Turkey, every tenth man is
+not a Mahometan; they are all Armenians and Greeks, and are ruled over by
+children. The soldan, who was conquered by the Tartars, had a lawful wife
+of Iberia, by whom he had one feeble son, whom he directed to succeed him
+as soldan. He had another son by a Greek concubine, whom he committed to
+the guardianship of a certain great admiral. The third he had by a Turkish
+woman, to whom many Turks and Turkomans having gathered, they proposed to
+have slain all the soldans sons by Christian mothers, and if successful, to
+have destroyed all the churches, and to compel all to become Mahometans on
+pain of death. But he was overcome in battle, and many of his men slain. He
+recruited his army, and ventured a second battle, in which he was defeated
+and taken prisoner, and still remains confined. Pacester, the son of the
+Greek concubine, was soon afterwards made soldan, as the other was weak,
+whom they have sent to the Tartars; the kindred by the mothers side, of
+this son, such as the Iberians and Curds, are much dissatisfied at his
+being deprived; so that at this time a child ruleth in Turkey, having no
+treasure, few soldiers, and many enemies. The son of Vestacius is weak, and
+at war with the son of Assan, who is likewise a child, and worn out with
+the servitude of the Tartars. If, therefore, an army of the church were now
+to come to the Holy Land, it were easy to subdue all these countries, or to
+pass through them. The king of Hungary hath not above 30,000 soldiers. From
+Cologne to Constantinople are not above sixty days journey by waggons; and
+from Constantinople not so many to the country of the king of Armenia. In
+old times, valiant men passed through all these countries and prospered;
+yet they had to contend with most valiant opponents, whom God hath now
+destroyed out of the earth. In this way we need fear no dangers of the sea,
+or the mercy of sailors, and the price of freight would defray the expences
+by land. I say confidently, if our countrymen would go as the king of the
+Tartars does, and would be contented with such victuals, they might conquer
+the whole world.
+
+It does not seem to me expedient, that any more friars should be sent to
+the Tartars, in the way I went, or as the predicant friars go. But if our
+lord the Pope were to send a bishop in an honourable style, capable to
+answer their follies, he might speak unto them as he pleased; for they will
+hear whatever an ambassador chooses to speak, and always demand if he will
+say any more. But he ought to have many good interpreters, and ought to be
+at large expences.
+
+I have thus written to your highness, according to my weak power and
+understanding, craving pardon from your clemency, for my superfluities or
+wants, or for any thing that may be indiscreetly or foolishly written, as
+from a man of little understanding, not accustomed to write long histories.
+The peace of God, which passeth all understanding, preserve your heart and
+fortify your mind.
+
+
+[1] The reason of the change was, probably, that they might fall in with
+    the travelling Tartar camps, who went northwards in the summer, that
+    they might procure food and change of horses. In going to Mangu, he
+    appears to have travelled through Soongaria, and, in returning,
+    through the country of the Kalmaks. The river here mentioned may have
+    been the Borotala.--E
+
+[2] Sarni, Saray, or Sarey, seems to have been built on the Achtuba, or
+    eastern branch of the Volga, near Zarewpod, where many traces of a
+    large town, still exist. Sumerkent is unknown, but may have been near
+    Astrachan, formerly named Hadschi-Aidar-Khan. But there are ruins of a
+    town still existing on both sides of the Volga, which are now used for
+    the purpose of making saltpetre.--Forst.
+
+[3] Schabran, or Schabiran.--E.
+
+[4] Shamaki, in Shirvan.--E.
+
+[5] The Karai, on which Tefflis or Tiblis stands, runs from the north-west;
+    the Demur, Araz or Araxes from the west; and both united form the Kur,
+    which runs directly south into the Caspian.--E.
+
+[6] Georgia or Gurgistan is to the north-west of the plain of Mogan.--E.
+
+[7] These were the ancestors of the present Turks, who laid the foundation
+    of the Osmanian or Othoman empire. Kanja, called Ganges or Ganghe in
+    the text, was their capital.--Frost.
+
+[8] This passage is erroneous or corrupted. In travelling westwards up the
+    Araxes or Araz, he had Persia on his left, to the south, Georgia on
+    his right, to the north, and the Caspian sea and mountains of the
+    Iron-gate were left _behind_ him, to the _east_ and north-east.--E.
+
+[9] Westwards.--E.
+
+[10] Arz-roum on the Frat or Euphrates, perhaps a corruption of Arx-
+    romanorum; as the Turks give the name of Roum to a part of Lesser
+    Asia; and all the eastern nations call the Constantinopolitan empire
+    Roum to this day.--E.
+
+[11] Turkey, in these travels of Rubruquis, is always, to be understood as
+    referring to the Turkish dominion in Asia Minor, of which Konieh or
+    Iconium was the capital.--E.
+
+[12] Nak-sivan, or Nag-jowan.--E.
+
+[13] This must be an error for eighty.--E.
+
+[14] Rubruquis here tells a long story of an Armenian prophecy, from which
+    they expected to be freed from the iron yoke of the Tartars, by St
+    Louis, not worth inserting.--E.
+
+[15] Kurke or Kurch.--E.
+
+[16] Aias-cala, in the gulf of Aiasso, or Scanderoon.--E.
+
+[17] Antioch or Antakia.--E.
+
+[18] Ptolomais, or St John d'Acre.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. X.
+
+_Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in Tartary, in 1254 [1]._
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+Introduction.
+
+Haitho, or Hatto, was the son of Livon, or Leon II., nephew of Haitho I.,
+king of Armenia Minor, in Lesser Asia. At the demise of his father, he
+refused to accept of the crown, which he resigned in favour of his brother
+Thores or Theodore; but assisted him and his son and successor, Leon III.,
+in all the wars and troubles in which they were engaged during many years.
+During the reign of his father in 1254, accompanied by his wife and child,
+he travelled to the court of Mangu-khan, the great sovereign of the Tartars
+or Mongals, for the purpose of obtaining an abatement of the tribute which
+had been imposed by these conquerors upon his country, and appears to have
+been successful in his negotiations. His journey into the east took place
+in the same year in which Rubruquis was on his return; and while at the
+court or leskar of Sartach, he was of material service to two of the
+attendants of Rubruquis, who had been left at that station; and who but for
+his interference must have perished by famine, or would have been reduced
+to slavery. Forster asserts that Haitho met with Rubruquis, who was then on
+his return home; but we have already seen, in the account of the travels of
+Rubruquis, that the two travellers did not meet.
+
+In the year 1305, when he must have become very old, Haitho became a monk
+of the Praemonstratensian order at Episcopia in Cyprus. He afterwards went
+to Poitou in France, where he dictated in French to Nicholas Salconi, a
+history of the events which had occurred in the east from the first
+commencement of the conquests of the Tartars or Mongals, including the
+reigns of Zingis-khan and his successors, to Mangu-khan inclusively; and a
+particular narrative of the history of his own country, Armenia Minor, from
+the reign of Haitho I. to that of Leon II. both inclusive. This account
+Salconi translated into Latin in 1307, by order of the reigning Pope.
+
+The travels of Haitho being perfectly contemporary with those of Rubruquis,
+are not sufficiently interesting to be here inserted; and the historical
+part of his relations have no connection with the plan of this work, which
+it would swell beyond due bounds: But the following brief account of his
+geographical description of the east, as it existed in the thirteenth
+century, and as abstracted by J. R. Forster, in his Voyages and Discoveries
+in the North, have been deemed worthy of insertion, together with the
+observations or commentaries of that ingenious author.
+
+
+[1] Forst. Hist. of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. 113.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Geographical Notices of the East in the Thirteenth Century, by Haitho._
+
+§ 1. The empire of _Kathay_ is one of the most extensive, most opulent, and
+most populous in the world, and is entirely situated on the sea coast. The
+inhabitants have a very high notion of their own superior intelligence,
+which they express by saying, that they only of all the people on earth
+have _two_ eyes; to the Latins they allow _one_, and consider all other
+nations as blind. The Kathayans have small eyes and no beards. Their money
+consists of small square pieces of paper, impressed with the seal of their
+emperor. To the west, this empire is bounded by that of the Tarsae; to the
+north by the desert of Belgian; and to the south by the sea, in which there
+are innumerable islands. The inhabitants of Kathay are exceedingly skilful
+and ingenious in all works of art and in manufactures, but are of a very
+timorous disposition. In the foregoing description, and in the traits of
+character, the empire and inhabitants of northern China are distinctly
+indicated.--Forst.
+
+§ 2. The empire of _Tarsa_ is divided into three provinces, each of which
+has a sovereign who assumes the title of King. The inhabitants are called
+Jogur, the Jugur or Uigur of other authors. They are divided into many
+tribes, ten of whom are Christians, and the rest heathens. They abstain
+from every article of food which has ever had life, and drink no wine, but
+raise abundance of corn. Their towns are very pleasant, and contain great
+numbers of idol temples. They are not inclined to war, but learn all arts
+and sciences with great facility, and have a particular manner of writing,
+which is adopted by all the neighbouring nations. To the east, this country
+is bounded by Kathay, to the west by Turkestan, to the north by an
+extensive desert, and to the south by a very rich province, named Sym or
+Peim, in which diamonds are found, and which, is situated between Kathay
+and India. It appears, that Haitho here describes the country of the Uigurs
+in conjunction with that of the Gete: but how it came to receive the name
+of Tarsae I know not--_Forst_.
+
+§ 3. _Turkestan_ is bounded on the east by the empire of Tarsae, to the
+west by Khorasmin or Khuaresm, and to the south it extends to the desert
+which forms the northern frontier of India. In this country there are few
+good towns; but many extensive plains, which afford excellent pasturage to
+cattle, and the inhabitants are almost universally shepherds and tenders of
+cattle. They dwell mostly in tents, and in huts which can be transported
+from place to place. They cultivate only a small quantity of corn, and have
+no wine. Their drink is beer and milk, and they subsist upon meat with rice
+and millet. The people are known by the name of Turks, and are of the
+Mahometan religion. Such of them as live in towns use the Arabian letters.
+Ocerra or Otrar is the capital of this country.
+
+§ 4. _Khorasmin_ or Khuaresm, is a populous, pleasant, and fertile country,
+containing many good and strong towns, the capital being Khorasme. The
+country produces abundance of corn, and very little wine. This empire
+borders on a desert of an hundred days journey in extent. To the west is
+the Caspian sea, to the north Kumania, and to the east Turkestan. The
+inhabitants are heathens, without letters or laws. The Soldini are the most
+intrepid of warriors; have a particular language of their own, for which
+they employ the Greek characters in writing; and they follow the usages and
+rites of the Greek church, being subject in spirituals to the Patriarch of
+Antioch.
+
+According to Ulug-Beg, who was himself prince of this country, the capital
+of Khuaresm is the city of Korkang, and no author except Haitho has ever
+mentioned a place called Khorasme. The Soldini, whom he mentions as
+Christians of the Greek church, are unknown; perhaps they may have been the
+Sogdians.--_Forst_.
+
+§ 5. _Kumania_ is of vast extent; but, owing to the inclemency of its
+climate, is very thinly inhabited. In some parts, the cold is so intense in
+winter, that neither man nor beast can remain in them; and in other parts
+the heat is so extreme, and they are so infested with swarms of flies, as
+to be quite intolerable. The whole country is flat and level, and without
+woods, except some orchards near the towns. The inhabitants live in tents,
+and use the dung of their cattle as fuel. It is bounded on the east by a
+desert towards Khorasmia; to the west is the great sea, or Euxine, and the
+sea of Tenue, Tanna, or Azof; to the north, is the empire of Kaffia or
+Kiow; and to the south it extends to the great river Etile or Wolga, which
+passes the capital. This river is frozen over every year, and men and
+beasts walk upon the ice as on dry land; along the banks of the river are
+many small trees; and on the other side of the river, the country is
+inhabited by a people, who, though not Kumanians, are subject to the Khan.
+Some live towards the high mountains of Cocas or Caucasus, in which there
+are white kites. This range of mountains extends between the Black Sea or
+Euxine on the west, and the Caspian on the east; this latter has no
+connection with the ocean, but is a vast lake called a sea, on account of
+its extent, being the largest lake in the world, and contains a great
+quantity of excellent fish. It divides Asia into two parts; that to the
+east being called _Lower_ Asia, and that to the west _Greater_ Asia. In the
+Caspian mountains, abundance of buffalos and many other wild beasts are
+found. In this sea there are many islands, to which numerous birds resort
+to breed; particularly the falcons called _Pegrim_[1], _Esmetliones_[2],
+and _Bousacei_[3], and many other birds not to be found elsewhere. The
+largest town of Kumania is Sara or Saray, which was large and of great
+renown, but has been ravaged, and almost entirely destroyed by the Tartars,
+who took it by storm.
+
+It is obvious, that Haitho here describes that part of the empire of the
+Mongals which was subject to Baatu-khan. The Euxine or Black Sea, he calls
+the _Great Sea_. The sea of Tenue is that of Tanna or Azof, the town at the
+mouth of the Tanais or Don having been known by both of these names, the
+former evidently derived from the ancient name of the river, or the river
+from the town, and of which the modern name Don is a mere corruption. The
+empire of Kaffia is obviously that of Kiow, Kiovia, or Kiavia, long the
+capital of the Russian empire, and the residence of the czars or great
+dukes.--Forst.
+
+§ 6. Beyond the great mountain of Belgian or Bilkhan, the Tartars lived
+formerly without religion, or the knowledge of letters, being chiefly
+employed in tending their flocks; and were so far from warlike, that they
+readily submitted to pay tribute to any neighbouring prince who made the
+demand. All the tribes of the Tartars were known by the name of Mogles,
+Moguls or Mongals; and in process of time they increased so much, as to
+form seven populous independent nations. The first was called Tartar, after
+a province of that name, which was their original habitation; the second
+Tangot, Tangut, or Tongusians; the third Kunat; the fourth Jalair or
+Thalair; the fifth Sonich; the sixth Monghi; and the seventh Tabeth.
+Prompted by a vision and a command from God, the chiefs of these nations
+chose Changi or Zinghis to be their sovereign ruler or Great Khan; and we
+are told that when he came down from the mountains of Belgian, the sea
+withdrew nine feet, and made a way for him where there was none before.
+
+This seems to be the same history with that of Irganekon, which is also
+related by Abulgasi. The mountain Belgian must be looked for in the
+environs of lake Balehas, in the country of Organum or Irganekon. According
+to the Nighiaristan, a collection of oriental history, the Turkomanni
+likewise came from a place called Belgian or Bilkhan.--Forst.
+
+
+[1] Faucon Pelerin, the Pilgrim Falcon,--Forst.
+
+[2] Esmerliones, or Merlins.--Forst.
+
+[3] The Bondree and Sacre, or the Honey-buzzard and Sacre.--Forst.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XI.
+
+_Travels of Marco Polo, through Tartary, China, the Islands of India, and
+most of Asia, from A. D. 1260 to 1295 [1]._
+
+
+Nicolo Polo, the father of this intelligent early traveller, and Maffei
+Polo his uncle, were Venetian gentlemen engaged in commerce; and appear to
+have gone into the east, in the prosecution of their trade, in the year
+1260. They resided far some time at the court of Kublai-khan, the great
+emperor of the Mongals or Tartars; and, returning to Venice in 1269, they
+found that the wife of Nicolo had died during their absence, leaving a son
+Marco, the author of the following travels, of whom she was pregnant at the
+time of their departure. These circumstances are detailed in the first
+section of this chapter, but the date which has been usually assigned for
+the commencement of this first journey, 1250, is evidently corrupted, as
+will appear from the following considerations, derived from a comparison of
+the chronology of the kings and princes, who are mentioned in the travels
+as reigning at the time. The high probability is, that the obvious mistake,
+of assuming the year 1250 as the era of the first journey, arose from a
+careless substitution of the figure 5 for 6 in transcription.
+
+Assuming the corrected date of 1260 as the commencement of the first
+journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, this will appear to be consonant with
+the chronology of the princes with whose reigns their travels were
+connected; while the date of 1250, adopted by Ramusio and Muller, is
+totally irreconcilable with the truth of history. They remained one year at
+the leskar or camp of Bereke-khan, whence they travelled into Bochara,
+where they tarried three years. From thence they spent one year on their
+journey to the court of Kublai-khan, and were three years on their journey
+back to Venice. But as they remained some time at the residence of
+Kublai-khan, one year may be allowed for that circumstance; and this first
+journey may therefore be allowed to have occupied nine years in all.
+
+Kublai-khan reigned supreme emperor of the Mongals from 1259 to 1294, in
+which last year he died at eighty years of age. If, therefore, Nicolo and
+Maffei had set out upon their first journey in 1250, they must have arrived
+at the imperial residence of Cambalu, or Pekin, in 1255, at the latest, or
+four years before Kublai-khan ascended the throne. Their first journey
+commenced while Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople, who reigned from
+1234 to 1261. The khan of Kiptschak, or the western division of the vast
+empire of the Mongals, at the time of this journey, was Bereke, who ruled
+from 1256 to 1266. Holagu-khan, who was then at war with Bereke, did not
+begin to reign till 1258. Hence it follows, that they could not have
+commenced their first journey at the very earliest before 1258, or 1259
+rather; as it is not to be supposed that Holagu would enter upon a
+dangerous war in the first year of his reign. Upon the whole, therefore,
+the date of 1260, for the commencement of the first journey, as already
+observed, is perfectly consistent with the chronology of history.
+
+The year of their return to Venice, 1269, is agreed upon on all hands; and
+as Marco was born in the first year of their absence, he would then be
+about nine years of age. Ramusio, who dates the commencement of the first
+journey in 1250, supposes Marco to have been fifteen years of age at the
+return of his father and uncle, which is absurd; as, if the era assumed by
+Ramusio were possibly true, he must then have been in his nineteenth year.
+
+According to the opinion of Mr J. R. Forster, the commencement of the
+second journey in which Marco was engaged, must have been in 1271; and he
+founds this opinion on the circumstance, that Gregory IX. had then been
+elected pope, from whom they carried letters for Kublai-khan. But it will
+appear from the travels themselves, that the three Polos had commenced
+their journey previously to the election of that sovereign pontiff, and
+that they were detained some time in Armenia, in consequence of an express
+sent after them for the purpose, that they might there wait for his final
+instructions. They may, therefore, have commenced this second journey in
+1270. We only know, however, that they set out from Venice for a second
+journey into Tartary, soon after their return from the first, in 1269; and
+that they carried young Marco along with them. On his appearance at the
+court of Cambalu, Kublai-khan took a fancy to the young Venetian, and
+caused him to be instructed in four of the principal languages which were
+spoken in the extensive dominions of the Mongals. Marco was afterwards
+employed by the khan, for a considerable number of years, in several
+important affairs, as will appear in the relation of his travels.
+
+At length, the three Polos returned to Venice, in 1295, after an absence of
+twenty-five or twenty-six years, during which long period they had never
+been heard of by their friends and countrymen, seventeen years of which
+Marco had been employed in the service of the great khan. On their return
+to their own house in Venice, they were entirely forgotten by their
+relations and former acquaintances, and had considerable difficulty to
+establish their identity, and to get themselves recognized by their family,
+and were obliged to use extraordinary means to recover the respect which
+was their due, and an acknowledgement of their name, family, and rank, the
+particulars of which will be found in the travels themselves.
+
+About three years after the return of these adventurous travellers,
+hostilities arose between the republics of Genoa and Venice. The Genoese
+admiral, Lampa Doria, came to the island of Curzola with a fleet of seventy
+gallies, to oppose whom, the Venetians fitted out a great naval force under
+Andrea Dandolo, under whom Marco Polo had the command of a galley. The
+Venetians were totally defeated in a great naval engagement, with the loss
+of their admiral and eighty-five ships, and Marco Polo had the misfortune
+to be among the number of the prisoners.
+
+Harris alleges that he remained a prisoner during several years, in spite
+of every offer of ransom that was made for his liberation. But in this he
+must have mistaken, or been misled by the authorities which he trusted to,
+as peace was concluded in 1299, the year immediately subsequent to the
+naval engagement in which he was made prisoner. While in prison at Genoa,
+many of the young nobility are said to have resorted to Marco, to listen to
+the recital of his wonderful travels and surprizing adventures; and they
+are said to have prevailed upon him to send to Venice for the notes which
+he had drawn up during his peregrinations, by means of which the following
+relation is said to have been written in Latin from has dictation. From the
+original Latin, the account of his travels was afterwards translated into
+Italian; and from this again, abridgements were afterwards made in Latin
+and diffused over Europe.
+
+According to Baretti[2], the travels of Marco Polo were dictated by him in
+1299, while in the prison of Genoa, to one Rustigielo, an inhabitant of
+Pisa, who was his fellow prisoner. They were afterwards published in
+Italian, and subsequently translated into Latin by Pessuri, a Dominican
+monk of Bologna. Copies of the original manuscript, though written in the
+Venetian dialect, which is extremely different from the Tuscan or pure
+Italian, were multiplied with great rapidity in all parts of Italy, and
+even made their way into France and Germany. From one or more of these,
+corrupted by the carelessness or ignorance of transcribers, some of whom
+may have abridged the work, or may even have interpolated it from other
+sources, a thing quite common before the invention of printing, the Latin
+translations may have been made and circulated over Europe. Ramusio, an
+early editor of voyages and travels, published these travels in an Italian
+translation from the Latin, which he erroneously supposed to have been the
+original dictation of Marco to Rustigielo; and many other editions have
+been published in the various languages of Europe, but all from one or
+other of these corrupted transcripts or translations.
+
+A manuscript of the travels of Marco polo, in the Venetian dialect, was
+long preserved by the Soranza family at Venice, but whether this now
+exists, or has ever been published, is unknown. Mr Pinkerton informs us
+[3], that a genuine edition of these travels, probably from the original
+MS. either of Marco himself, after his return from Genoa, or from that of
+his amanuensis Rustigielo, was published at Trevigi in 1590, in the dialect
+of Venice, which has hitherto escaped the attention of all editors and
+commentators. This curious publication is often worded in the names of all
+the three travellers, father, uncle, and son; but when the peculiar travels
+of Marco are indicated, his name only is employed. In the former case, the
+language runs thus, "_We_, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, have heard, seen, and
+know, &c.:" In the latter, "I Marco was in that place, and saw, &c." In
+this Venetian edition, the names of places and persons are often widely
+different from those in the other editions, and probably more genuine and
+correct. But that publication being at present inaccessible, we are under
+the necessity of being contented with the edition of Harris, in which he
+professes to have carefully collated the edition of Ramusio with most of
+the other translations, and with an original MS. in the royal library of
+Prussia. This latter labour, however, he seems to have taken entirely upon
+trust from Muller, a German editor and translator, probably through the
+intermediation of Bergeron, an early French editor of voyages and travels.
+The only freedom which has been assumed in the present edition is, by
+dividing it into sections for more ready consultation and reference, and by
+the addition of explanatory notes from various sources.
+
+Marco Polo is the chief of all the early modern discoverers; having been
+the first who communicated to Europe any distinct ideas of the immense
+regions of Asia, from the Euxine eastwards, through the vast extent of
+Tartary to China and Japan; and the very first author who has made any
+mention of that distant insular sovereignty. Even Columbus is supposed,
+with some considerable probability, to have been prompted to his
+enterprize, which ended in the discovery of America, by the study of these
+travels; believing, that by a western course through the unexplored
+Atlantic, he should find a comparatively short passage to those eastern
+regions of the Indies, which Polo had visited, described, or indicated. In
+this view he was, however, so far misled in his estimation of the distance,
+by the erroneously spread-out longitudes of Ptolomy, bringing these regions
+much farther towards the east, and consequently nearer by the west, than
+their actual situation; and was stopped in his western course, by the
+important and unexpected discovery of many islands, and a vast interposed
+continent; which, from preconceived theory, he named the West Indies.
+
+Such is the account of these travels which has been handed down to us from
+various sources, and which their importance and intrinsic merit have
+induced us to record at some length. Of these adventurous travellers, some
+notices yet remain, which may be worthy of being preserved. Signior Maffio
+Polo, the uncle of Marco, became a magistrate of Venice, and lived for some
+time in much respect among his countrymen. Nicolo Polo, the father of
+Marco, is said to have married during the captivity of his son at Genoa,
+and to have left three children by this second marriage. Marco himself
+married after his return to Venice from Genoa, and left two daughters,
+Moretta and Fantina, but had no male issue. He is said to have received
+among his countrymen the name of Marco Millioni, because he and his family
+had acquired a fortune of a million of ducats in the east. He died as he
+had lived, universally beloved and respected by all who knew him; for, with
+the advantages of birth and fortune, he was humble and beneficent and
+employed his great riches, and the interest he possessed in the state, only
+to do good.
+
+
+[1] Harris, I, 593. Forst. Voy. and Disc. p. 117. Modern Geogr. II. xvi.
+
+[2] Ital Libr. p. iv.
+
+[3] Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_Introductory General Account of the whole Travels, from the commencement
+of the first Journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, in 1260, to their final
+return along with Marco to Venice, in 1295_.
+
+[Illustration: MAP OF THE Eastern part of Tartary & ADJACENT COUNTRIES]
+
+In the year 1260, when Baldwin was emperor of Continople, two brothers of
+an illustrious family at Venice, Nicolo and Maffei Polo, embarked in a
+vessel which was laden with a various assortment of merchandize on their
+own account; and, after traversing the Mediterranean and Bosphoros with a
+fair wind, they arrived in safety at Constantinople. Having remained for
+some time in the imperial city, they crossed the Great Sea to Soldadia[1],
+from thence they went to the court of a Tartar prince, named Barha[2], who
+lived in the towns of Bolgara and Alsara[3]. To this prince they shewed the
+fine jewels which they had brought for sale, and presented him with some of
+the most valuable. He was far from ungrateful for their presents, which he
+kindly accepted, and for which he made them returns of greater value.
+Having remained a whole year at his court, they were desirous of returning
+to Venice; but before they had any opportunity of departing, a war broke
+out between Barha and another Tartar prince named Arau[4]; the armies of
+these rivals came to a battle, in which Barha was defeated, and obliged to
+fly. By this unfortunate incident, the roads to the westwards became quite
+unsafe for the journey of the Polos, and they were advised to make a large
+circuit round the north and east frontiers of the dominions of Barha; and
+by which route they made their escape from the seat of war to Guthacam, a
+town on the Tygris[5]. A little farther on, they crossed the Gihon, one of
+the four rivers of Paradise, and travelled afterwards for seventeen days in
+the desert, in which they saw neither town, castle, nor village, and only a
+few Tartars dwelling in huts or tents. Leaving the desert, they came to a
+considerable city, named Bochara, on the frontiers of Persia, then the
+residence of a prince called Barach[6], who gave them a good reception; and
+being unable to proceed any farther, on account of the great wars which
+then raged among the Tartars, they remained there for three years.
+
+At that time there came to Bochara a person of distinction, who was going
+as ambassador from Holagu to Kublai-khan, the great emperor of all the
+Tartars, who resided in the remotest countries of the earth, betwixt the
+north-east and the east. Meeting with the brothers, who had now become well
+versed in the Tartarian language, he was much taken with their
+conversation, and persuaded them to accompany him to the court of the great
+khan, knowing that he should gratify him in this circumstance, and promised
+them that they should be received with great honour, and gratified with
+large rewards. They were well aware that it was utterly impossible for them
+to return home at this period, without the most imminent danger, and agreed
+to this proposal, taking with them some Christian servants whom they had
+brought from Venice; and travelling toward the north-east, they employed a
+whole year on the journey, being often obliged to wait the melting of the
+snow, and the decreasing of the floods, which obstructed their passage.
+
+At length they arrived at the residence of the great khan, and being
+brought into his presence, were most courteously received, and treated with
+great distinction. He interrogated them much concerning many things
+relative to the countries of the west; particularly respecting the Roman
+emperor[7], and the other kings and princes of Europe; the forms of their
+different governments, the nature, number and discipline of their military
+force; how peace, justice and concord were established and maintained among
+them; of the manners and customs of the different European nations; and
+concerning the pope, the discipline of the church, and the tenets of the
+Christian faith. To all this Nicolo and Maffei made proper and suitable
+replies, as prudent and wise men, declaring the truth, and speaking orderly
+in the Tartarian language; with which the emperor was well satisfied, as he
+acquired a knowledge of the affairs of the Europeans; insomuch that he
+often commanded them to be brought into his presence.
+
+After some time, Kublai-khan having consulted with his great lords,
+informed them, that he was desirous to send them as his ambassadors to the
+pope of the Romans, accompanied by one of his lords named Chogatal[8],
+requesting that he would send an hundred men, learned in the Christian
+religion, to his courts, that they might instruct his wise men, that the
+faith of the Christians was preferable to all other sects, being the only
+way of salvation; that the gods of the Tartars were devils, and that they
+and other people of the east were deceived in the worship of these gods. He
+likewise commanded them, on their return from Jerusalem, to bring him some
+of the oil from the lamp which burns before the sepulchre of our Lord Jesus
+Christ, to whom the emperor had great devotion, believing him to be the
+true God. Yielding due reverence to the great khan, they promised
+faithfully to execute the charge which he had committed to them, and to
+present to the pope the letters in the Tartarian language, which he gave
+them for that purpose. According to the custom of the empire, the great
+khan caused to be given them a golden tablet, engraven and signed with the
+mark or signet of the khan, in virtue of which, instead of a passport, the
+bearers were entitled to be everywhere conveyed in safety through dangerous
+places, by the governors of provinces and cities, throughout the whole
+empire, having their expences everywhere defrayed, and should be furnished
+with whatever was needful for them and their attendants in all places, and
+for as long as they might have occasion to stay.
+
+Taking their leave of the great khan, they set out upon the journey into
+the west, carrying with them the letters to the pope, and the golden
+tablet. After travelling twenty days, the Tartar lord, who was associated
+in their embassy to the pope, fell grievously sick; on which, having
+consulted upon what was best to be done, they resolved to leave him, and to
+continue their journey, They were everywhere courteously received, through
+the authority of the imperial tablet; yet they were often compelled to
+wait, by the overflowing of the rivers, in the course of their journey, so
+that they spent three years before they reached the port in the country of
+the Armenians, called Giazza [9]. From thence they proceeded to Acre [10],
+where they arrived in the month of April 1269. On their arrival at Acre,
+they were informed of the death of Pope Clement IV., by Tibaldo Visconti of
+Placentia, the papal legate who then resided in that place. They related to
+him what had befallen them, and declared what commission they had received
+from the great khan to the pope, and he advised to wait the creation of a
+new pope, to whom they might deliver their letters. Upon this they took
+shipping for Venice, by the way of Negropont, intending to visit their
+friends and relations, and to remain there until a new pope should be
+elected. On their arrival, Nicolo found that his wife was dead, whom he had
+left pregnant at his departure; but that she had left a son, now nineteen
+[11] years of age, who is this very _Marco_, the author of this book, in
+which he will make manifest all those things which he has seen in his
+travels.
+
+The election of the pope was deferred two years, and the Polos became
+afraid least the great khan might be displeased at their delay. They went
+therefore back to Acre, carrying Marco along with them; and having gone to
+Jerusalem for the holy oil requested by Kublai, they received letters from
+the legate, testifying their fidelity to the great khan, and that a pope
+was not yet chosen. They then set out on their journey, and went to Giazza,
+in Armenia. In the mean time letters came from the Cardinals to the legate
+Visconti, declaring that he was elected pope, and he assumed the name of
+Gregory. On this the new pope sent messengers to the Polos to call them
+back, or to delay their departure from Armenia until he might prepare other
+letters for them, to present to the khan in his name, and to inform them,
+that he meant to join two friars predicants in commission with them, Nicolo
+of Vicenza and Guelmo of Tripoli, men of learning and discretion. The Polos
+accordingly remained at Giazza, where these two monks arrived with letters
+and presents of great value for the khan, and furnished with ample powers
+and privileges, and authority to ordain priests and bishops, and to grant
+absolution in all cases, as fully as if the pope were present. But learning
+that the sultan of Babylon, Bentiochdas[12], was leading a great army to
+invade Armenia, and where he committed the most cruel ravages, the two
+friars became afraid of themselves, and delivered the letters and presents
+of the pope to Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco; and to avoid the fatigues of the
+ways and the dangers of war, they remained with the master of the temple,
+then at Giazza, and returned with him to Acre.
+
+But the three Venetians proceeded boldly through many dangers and
+difficulties, and at length, after a journey of three years and a half,
+they arrived at the great city of Clemenisu[13]. In this lengthened journey
+they had often long stoppages, on account of the deep snow and extreme
+cold, and on occasion of floods and inundations. When the khan heard of
+their approach, though yet at a great distance, he sent messengers forty
+days journey to meet them, that they might be conducted with all honour,
+and to provide them with every accommodation during the remainder of their
+journey. On their arrival at the court, and being introduced into the
+presence, they prostrated themselves before the khan on their faces,
+according to the customary form of reverence; and being commanded to rise,
+were most graciously received. The khan then demanded an account of the
+many dangers through which they had passed by the way, and of their
+proceedings with the pope of the Romans. All this they distinctly related,
+and delivered to him the letters and presents from the pope, with which the
+khan was well pleased, and gave them great commendations for their care and
+fidelity. They presented to him also the oil which they had brought from
+the holy sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem, which he reverently received,
+and gave orders that it should be honourably preserved. The khan inquired
+who Marco was? On which Nicolo replied, "He is your majesty's servant, and
+my son." The khan graciously received him with a friendly countenance and
+had him taught to write among his honourable courtiers; whereupon he was
+much respected by all the court, and in a little time made himself familiar
+with the customs of the Tartars, and learned to read and write four
+different languages. After some time the great khan, to make experience of
+his capacity, sent Marco upon a mission or embassy, to a great city called
+Carachan or Zarazan, at such a distance as he could scarcely travel in six
+months. He executed the commission with which he had been entrusted with
+judgment and discretion, and perfectly to the satisfaction of the khan: And
+knowing that the khan would be delighted with an account of all the
+novelties in the places through which he had to pass, he diligently
+inquired into the manners and customs of the people, the conditions of the
+countries, and every thing worthy of being remarked, making a memorial of
+all he knew or saw, which he presented to the great khan for his
+information and amusement. By this means he got so much into the favour of
+the khan, that during the twenty-six years which he continued in his
+service, he was continually sent through all his realms and dependencies,
+chiefly on affairs of government, but sometimes on his own private matters,
+by the khan's orders; and this is the true reason that he should have seen
+and learnt so many particulars relating to the east, as he has declared in
+these his memoirs.
+
+After staying many years in the court of the great khan, and having become
+very rich in jewels of great value, and considering that if the khan, who
+was now grown very old, should happen to die, they should never be able to
+return home; the Venetians became exceedingly anxious to be permitted to
+return to their own country. Wherefore, one day that he found the khan in
+extraordinary good humour, Nicolo begged permission to return home with his
+family. At this the Khan was much displeased, and asked what could induce
+them to undertake so long and dangerous a journey; adding, that if they
+were in want of riches, he would gratify their utmost wishes, by bestowing
+upon them twice as much as they possessed; but out of pure affection, he
+refused to give them leave to depart.
+
+It happened, however, not long after this, that a king of the Indies named
+Argon, sent three of his counsellors, named Ulatai, Apusca, and Coza, as
+ambassadors to Kublai-khan on the following occasion. Bolgana, the wife of
+Argon, was lately dead, and on her death-bed had requested of her husband
+that he should choose a wife from among her relations in Kathay. Kubla
+yielded to this request, and chose a fair young maiden of seventeen years
+of age, named Cogalin[14], who was of the family of the late queen Bolgana,
+and determined to send her to Argon. The ambassadors departed with their
+charge, and journeyed eight months the same way they had come to the court
+of Kublai; but found bloody wars raging among the Tartars, insomuch, that
+they were constrained to return and to acquaint the great khan with the
+impossibility of their proceeding home in that road. In the mean time,
+Marco had returned from the Indies, where he had been employed with certain
+ships in the service of the khan, to whom he had reported the singularities
+of the places which he had visited, and the facility of intercourse by sea
+between Kathay and the Indies. This came to the knowledge of the
+ambassadors, who conferred with the Venetians on the subject; and it was
+agreed, that the ambassadors and the young queen should go to the great
+khan, and beg permission to return by sea, and should request to have the
+three Europeans, who were skilful in sea affairs, to accompany and conduct
+them to the dominions of king Argon. The great khan was much dissatisfied
+with this proposal, yet, at the earnest entreaty of the ambassadors, he at
+length gave his consent; and calling Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco into his
+presence, after much demonstration of his favour and affection, he made
+them promise to return to him after they had spent some time in Christendom
+among their relations; and he caused a tablet of gold to be given them, on
+which his commands were engraven for their liberty, security, and free
+passage throughout all his dominions, and that all the expences of them and
+their attendants should be defrayed, providing them everywhere with guides
+and escorts, where necessary. He authorized them also to act as his
+ambassadors to the pope, and the kings of France and Spain, and all other
+Christian princes.
+
+The khan ordered fourteen ships to be prepared for the voyage, each having
+four masts, and carrying nine sails. Four or five of these were so large as
+to have from 250 to 260 mariners in each, but the rest were smaller. In
+this fleet the queen and the ambassadors embarked, accompanied by Nicolo,
+Maffei, and Marco; having first taken leave of the great khan, who
+presented them, at parting, with many rubies and other precious stones, and
+a sum or money sufficient to defray all their expences for two years.
+Setting sail from Kathay or China, they arrived in three months at an
+island called Java, and sailing from thence they arrived in eighteen months
+in the dominions of king Argon. Six hundred of the mariners and others died
+during the voyage, and but one woman; and only Coza of the three
+ambassadors survived. On arriving at the dominions of Argon, he was found
+to be dead, and a person named Ghiacato or Akata, governed the kingdom for
+his son Casan; who was under age. On making the regent acquainted with
+their business, he desired them to carry the young queen to Casan, who was
+then on the confines of Persia, towards Arbor Secco[15] with an army of
+60,000 men, guarding certain passes of the frontiers against the
+enterprises of their enemies; Having executed this order, Nicolo, Maffei,
+and Marco, returned to the residence of Chiacato, and staid there for nine
+months.
+
+At the end of this period they took leave of Chiacato, who gave them four
+tablets of gold, each a cubit long and five fingers broad, and weighing
+three or four marks[16]. On these were engraven to the following purport:
+"In the power of the eternal God, the name of the great khan shall be
+honoured and praised for many years; and whosoever disobeyeth, shall he put
+to death, and all his goods confiscated." Besides this preamble, they
+farther commanded, that all due honour should be shown to the three
+ambassadors of the khan, and service performed to them in all the countries
+and districts subject to his authority, as to himself in person; that all
+necessary relays of horses and escorts, and their expences, and every thing
+needful should be supplied to them freely and gratuitously. All this was
+duly executed, so that sometimes they had 200 horse for their safeguard.
+During their journey, they were informed that the great emperor of the
+Tartars, Kublai-khan was dead, by which they considered themselves absolved
+from all obligations of the promise they had made to return to his court.
+They continued their journey to Trebisond, on the south side of the Euxine;
+whence they proceeded by the way of Constantinople and Negropont to Venice,
+where they arrived in safety, and with great riches, in the year 1295.
+
+On their arrival at their own house, in the street of St Chrysostom in
+Venice, they found themselves entirely forgotten by all their old
+acquaintances and countrymen, and even their relations were unable to
+recognize them, owing to their long absence, now thirty-five years from
+setting, out on their first journey into the east; besides being much
+altered by age they had become altogether resembling Tartars in their
+speech, dress and manners, and were obliged to use some extraordinary
+expedients to satisfy their family and countrymen of their identity, and to
+recover the respect which was their due, by a public acknowledgment of
+their name, family, and rank. For this purpose, they invited all their
+relations arid connections to a magnificent entertainment, at which all the
+three travellers made their appearance in rich eastern habits of crimson
+satin. After the guests were seated, and before the Polos sat down, they
+put off their upper garments which they gave to the attendants, appearing
+still magnificently dressed in habits of crimson damask. These they threw
+off at the appearance of the last course or service of the entertainment,
+and bestowed likewise on the attendants; while they themselves still
+appeared clad in magnificent dresses of crimson velvet. When dinner was
+over, and all the servants had withdrawn, Marco Polo produced to the
+company the coats of Tartarian cloth or felt, which he, and his father and
+uncle had ordinarily worn during their travels, from the folds of which he
+took out an incredible quantity of rich jewels; among which were some that
+were well known to those who were present at the entertainment, and by
+which the three travellers incontestibly proved themselves members of the
+Polo family, and the identical persons they represented themselves.
+
+
+[1] The Black-Sea, or Euxine, is here called the _Great_ Sea. Soldadia,
+    Soldaia, or Sudak, was a city in the Crimea, a little to the west of
+    Caffa.--Forst.
+
+[2] Barha or Barcha, more properly Bereke-khan, who reigned from 1256 to
+    1266.--E.
+
+[3] Bolgara is the town of Bolgari, the capital of Bulgaria, which
+    subsisted from 1161 to 1578. Alsara is Al-seray, which was built by
+    Baatu-khan, on the Achtuba, a branch of the Volga.--Forst.
+
+[4] Probably Holagu-khan, to whom all Persia was in subjection, quite to
+    Syria.--Forst.
+
+[5] Ukakah, Grikhata, Khorkang, or Urghenz on the Gihon.--Forst.
+
+[6] Bereke-khan.--Forst.
+
+[7] This probably refers to the Constantinopolitan or Greek emperor; his
+    dominions being called _Roum_ in the east to the present day.--E.
+
+[8] In different editions this name is corruptly written Gogoka, Gogatal,
+    Cogatal, and Chogatal.--E.
+
+[9] Otherwise called Glaza and Galza, but more properly Al-Ajassa, on the
+    south-east extremity of the Euxine or Black-sea.--Forst.
+
+[10] Acon, or more properly Akko. It is not easy to conceive what should
+    have taken them so much out of their way as Acre; unless they could
+    not procure shipping at Giazza, and travelled therefore by land
+    through Asia Minor and Syria; or that they intended here to procure
+    the holy oil for the khan.--E.
+
+[11] This is an error in transcription, and it has been already noticed in
+    the introduction to these travels, that Marco could not then have
+    exceeded the ninth year of his age.--E.
+
+[12] Bibars el Bentochdari, sultan of Kahira or Cairo, in Egypt, often
+    called Babylon.--Forst.
+
+[13] Chambalu, or Khan-balu, or the city of the Khan, now Peking.--Forst.
+
+[14] Called likewise; Kogatin, Gogatin, and Gogongin, in the different
+    transcripts of these travels.--E.
+
+[15] From the circumstance of this kingdom of Argon being near Arbor Secco
+    it would appear to have been one of the eight kingdoms of Persia
+    mentioned in the sequel; and from the sea voyage, it probably was
+    Mekran, which, reaches to the sea and the Indies,--E.
+
+[16] These were most princely letters-patent; equal in weight to 400
+    guineas, perhaps equal in efficacious value to 4000 in our times.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Description of Armenia the Lesser, of the country of the Turks of Greater
+Armenia, Zorzania, the kingdom of Mosul, of the cities of Bagdat and
+Tauris, and account of a strange Miracle[1]._
+
+There are two Armenias, the Greater and the Lesser. In the Lesser Armenia
+the king resides in a city called Sebaste; and in all this country justice
+and good government are strictly enforced. This kingdom has many cities,
+fortresses, and castles; the soil is fertile, and the country abounds with
+game and wildfowl, and every necessary article of provisions, but the air
+is not very good. Formerly the Armenian gentlemen were brave men and good
+soldiers, but are now become effeminate, and addicted to drinking and
+debauchery. The city of Giazza, on the Black Sea, has an excellent harbour,
+to which merchants resort from divers countries, even from Venice and
+Genoa, for several sorts of merchandize, especially for the different kinds
+of spices, and various other valuable goods, which are brought here from
+India, as this place is the settled market for the commodities of the east.
+
+Turcomania is inhabited by three different nations, Turcomans, Greeks, and
+Armenians. The Turcomans, who are Mahometans, are a rude, illiterate, and
+savage people, inhabiting the mountains and inaccessible places, where they
+can procure pasture, as they subsist only on the produce of their flocks
+and herds. In their country there are excellent horses, called Turkish
+horses, and their mules are in great estimation. The Greeks and Armenians
+possess the cities and towns, and employ themselves in manufactures and
+merchandize, making, especially, the best carpets in the world. Their chief
+cities are Cogno or Iconium, Caesarea, and Sebaste, where St Basil suffered
+martyrdom. This country is under subjection to one of the khans of the
+Tartars.
+
+The Greater Armenia is a large province, subject to the Tartars, which has
+many cities and towns, the principal of which is Arsugia, in which the best
+buckram in the world is made. In this neighbourhood there are excellent hot
+springs, which are celebrated as salutary baths in many diseases. The
+cities next in consequence are Argiron and Darziz. In the summer season
+many Tartars resort to this country on account of the richness of the
+pastures, and retire again in winter, because of the abundance of snow. The
+ark of Noah rested on Arrarat, one of the mountains of Armenia.
+
+This country has the province of Mosul and Meridin on the east, or
+Diarbekir; and on the north is Zorzania[2], where there is a fountain that
+discharges a liquid resembling oil; which, though it cannot be used as a
+seasoning for meat, is yet useful for burning in lamps, and for many other
+purposes; and it is found in sufficient quantities to load camels, and to
+form a material object of commerce. In Zorzania is a prince named David
+Melic or King David; one part of the province being subject to him, while
+the other part pays tribute to a Tartar khan. The woods are mostly of
+box-trees. Zorzania extends between the Euxine and Caspian seas; which
+latter is likewise called the sea of Baccu, and is 2800 miles in
+circumference: but is like a lake, as it has no communication with any
+other sea. In it there are many islands, cities, and castles, some of which
+are inhabited by the people who fled from the Tartars out of Persia.
+
+The people of Zorzania are Christians, observing the same rites with
+others, and wear their hair short like the western clergy. There are many
+cities, and the country abounds in silk, of which they make many fine
+manufactures. Moxul or Mosul, is a province containing many sorts of
+people; some are called Arahi, who are Mahometans; others are Christians of
+various sects, as Nestorians, Jacobites, and Armenians; and they have a
+patriarch stiled Jacolet, who ordains archbishops, bishops, and abbots,
+whom he sends all over India, and to Cairo, and Bagdat, and wherever there
+are Christians, in the same manner as is done by the pope of Rome. All the
+stuffs of gold and silk, called _musleims_, are wrought in Moxul[3]. In the
+mountains of this country of Diarbekir, dwelt the people called Curds, some
+off whom are Nestorians or Jacobites, and other Mahometans. They are a
+lawless people, who rob the merchants that travel through their country.
+Near to them is another province called Mus, Meridin, or Mardin, higher up
+the Tigris than Mosul, wherein grows great quantities of cotton, of which
+they make buckrams[4] and other manufactures. This province is likewise
+subject to the Tartars. Baldach, or Bagdat, is a great city in which the
+supreme caliph formerly resided, who was pope of all the Saracens. From
+this city it is counted seventeen days journey to the sea; but the river
+Tigris runs past, on which people sail to Balsora, where the best dates in
+the world grow, but in the passage between these; two cities there lies
+another named Chisi. In Bagdat are many manufactures of gold and silk, and
+damasks and velvets with figures of various creatures; in that city there
+is a university, where the law of Mahoment, physic, astronomy, and geomancy
+are taught; and from it come all the pearls in Christendom.
+
+When the Tartars began to extend their conquests, there were four brothers
+who possessed the chief rule; of whom Mangu, the eldest, reigned in
+Sedia[5]. These brethren proposed to themselves to subdue the whole world,
+for which purpose one went to the east, another to the north, a third to
+the west, and Ulau or Houlagu went to the south in 1250, with an army of an
+hundred thousand horse, besides foot. Employing stratagem, he hid a great
+part of his force in ambush, and advancing with an inconsiderable number,
+enticed the caliph to follow him by a pretended flight; by this means he
+took the caliph prisoner, and made himself master of the city, in which he
+found such infinite store of treasure, that he was quite amazed. Sending
+for the caliph into his presence, he sharply reproved him, that, possessing
+such riches, he had not employed them in providing soldiers to defend his
+dominions; and commanded him to be shut up in the tower where his treasure
+was placed, without any sustenance.
+
+This seemed a just judgment from our Lord Jesus Christ upon the caliph;
+for, in the year 1225, seeking to convert the Christians to the Mahometan
+superstition, and taking advantage of that passage in the gospel which
+says, "He that hath faith as a grain of mustard seed, shall be able to
+remove mountains," he summoned all the Christians, Nestorians, and
+Jacobites, and gave them their choice, "In ten days to remove a certain
+mountain, to turn Mahometans or to be slain;" alleging that there was not
+one among them who had the least grain of faith. The astonished and
+dismayed Christians continued ten days in prayer; when, by a revelation to
+a certain bishop, a certain shoemaker was chosen to perform this
+compulsatory miracle. This shoemaker was once tempted to lust in fitting a
+shoe to a young woman, and had literally and zealously performed the
+injunction of the gospel by putting out his right eye. On the day appointed
+by the caliph, he and all the Christians of the city followed the cross
+towards the mountain; then, lifting up his hands, he prayed to God to have
+mercy on his afflicted people, and, in a loud voice, commanded the
+mountain, in the name of the holy and ever blessed Trinity to remove: which
+it presently did, to the great astonishment and terror of the caliph and
+all his people, The anniversary of this day, and the evening before, is
+ever since kept holy by fasting and prayer[6].
+
+
+[1] Marco Polo having spent much the largest portion of his life
+among the Tartars, necessarily used their names for the countries, places,
+and people which he described, and these names have been subsequently much
+disfigured in transcription. This has occasioned great perplexity to
+commentators in endeavouring to explain his geography conformably with
+modern maps, and which even is often impossible to be done with any
+tolerable certainty. The arrangement, likewise, of his descriptions is
+altogether arbitrary, so that the sequence does not serve to remove the
+difficulty; and the sections appear to have been drawn up in a desultory
+manner just as they occurred to his recollection, or as circumstances in
+the conversation or inquiry of others occasioned him to commit his
+knowledge to paper.--E.
+
+[2] Gurgistan, usually called Georgia.--E.
+
+[3] This manufacture from Mosul or Moxul, on the Tigris, must be carefully
+    distinguished from the muslins of India, which need not be
+    described.--E
+
+[4] These buckrams seem to have been some coarse species of cotton cloth,
+    in ordinary wear among the eastern nations. The word occurs
+    frequently, in these early travels in Tartary, but its proper meaning
+    is unknown--E.
+
+[5] This word is inexplicable, unless by supposing it some corruption of
+    _Syra_ Horda, the golden court or imperial residence, which was
+    usually in Tangut or Mongalia, on the Orchen or Onguin. But in the
+    days of Marco, the khans had betaken themselves to the luxurious ease
+    of fixed residences and he might have misunderstood the information he
+    received of the residence of Mangu.--E.
+
+[6] Marco Polo is no more answerable for the truth of this ridiculous
+    legend of the 13th century, than the archbishop of Paris of the 19th
+    is for many, equally absurd, that are narrated in the French national
+    Catechism. Both were good catholics, and rehearsed what they had
+    heard, and what neither of them pretended to have seen.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION III
+
+_Of the Country of Persia, the Cities of Jasdi, Cermam and Camandu, and the
+Province of Reobarle._
+
+Tauris is a great city in the province of Hircania[1], and is a very
+populous place. The inhabitants live by the exercise of manufacture and
+trade, fabricating, especially, stuffs of silk and gold. The foreign
+merchants who reside there make very great gains, but the inhabitants are
+generally poor. They are a mixed people, of Nestorians, Armenians,
+Jacobites, Georgians, Persians, and Mahometans. These last are perfidious
+and treacherous people, who think all well got which they can filch or
+steal from those of other religions; and this wickedness of the Saracens
+has induced many of the Tartars to join their religion; and if a Saracen be
+killed by a Christian, even while engaged in the act of robbery, he is
+esteemed to have died a martyr. It is twelve days journey from Tauris to
+Persia[2]. In the confines stands the monastery of St Barasam, of which the
+monks resemble Carmelites: they make girdles, which they lay on the altars
+and give to their friends, who esteem them as holy. Persia is divided into
+eight kingdoms, _viz_. Casbin, Curdistan[3], Laristan, Susistan or
+Chorassan, Spahan, Ispahan or Fars, Shiras[4], Soncara[5], and lastly
+Timochaim, which is near Arboreseco, towards the north[6]. Persia breeds
+excellent horses, which are sold to the Indies; also very good asses, which
+are sold for a higher price than the horses, because they eat little, carry
+much, and travel far.  They have camels also, which, though not swift, are
+necessary in these countries, which, sometimes for a long way, yield no
+grass or water.
+
+The people in these countries are very wicked and covetous, thieves and
+murderers, killing the merchants unless they travel in caravans, yet they
+profess to follow the law of Mahomet. In the cities there are excellent
+artificers in gold, silk, and embroidery; and the country abounds with
+silk-worms, wheat, barley, millet, and other kinds of grain, with plenty of
+fruits and wine; and though wine is forbidden by the Mahometan law, they
+have a gloss to correct or corrupt the text, saying, that when boiled, it
+changes its taste and name, and may be then drank.
+
+Jasdi is a great city on the confines of Persia, which carries on a great
+trade, and has many manufactures of silk. Chiaman[7] is a kingdom on the
+frontiers of Persia to the east, which is subject to the Tartars. In the
+veins of the mountains, the stones commonly called turquoises are found,
+and other valuable jewels. They here make all sorts of warlike weapons; and
+the women work admirably with the needle in silken embroidery, on which
+they pourtray the figures of various animals in a most beautiful manner.
+They have the best falcons in the world, which are red breasted, of very
+swift flight and more easily trained than those of other countries.
+Proceeding from Chiaman or Crerina, for eight days journey through a great
+plain, in which are many towns and castles, and many habitations, with
+abundance of game, you come to a great descent, in which there are
+abundance of fruit trees, but no habitations, except those of a few
+shepherds, though, in ancient times, it was well inhabited. From the city
+of Crerina to this descent, the cold, in winter, is quite insupportable.
+After descending for two days journey, you come to a wide plain, at the
+beginning of which is a city called Adgamad or Camandu, which, in ancient
+times, was large and populous, but is now destroyed by the Tartars. This
+plain is very warm, and the province is called Reobarle[8], in which grow
+pomegranates, quinces, peaches, dates, apples of paradise, pistachios, and
+other fruits. The oxen are large, white, and thin haired, with thick short
+blunt horns, and having a hunch like a camel between the shoulders about
+two spans round. They are accustomed to bear great burthens, and when they
+are to be loaded, they are taught to bow their knees like camels, and rise
+again when loaded. The sheep of this country are as large as small asses,
+having such long and broad tails, that some of these weigh thirty pounds,
+and this part is most delicate and extremely rich food. In this plain there
+are many cities and towns, having high and thick ramparts of earth to
+defend them against the Caraons, who are a mixed race between Tartar
+fathers and Indian mothers, ten thousand of whom are commanded by one
+Nugodar, the nephew of Zagathai, who once ruled in Turkestan. This Nugodar
+having heard of the weakness of the Malabars subject to soldan Asiden,
+went, without his uncles knowledge, and took Dely and other cities, in
+which he erected a new sovereignty[9]; and his Tartar soldiers, by mixing
+with the women, of the country, produced this spurious breed called
+Caraons, who go up and down, committing depredations in Reobarle, and other
+neighbouring districts.
+
+When these people wish to commit robberies, by means of incantations
+addressed to the demons, they have the means of obscuring the air as if it
+were midnight darkness, that they may not be seen from any distance. This
+obscurity, when once raised, lasts for seven days; and they are perfectly
+acquainted with all the passes of the mountains, in which they march one
+after another in single file, so that no one can possibly escape them, but
+all who fall in their way, must encounter death or captivity, the old being
+slain, and the young sold for slaves. I Marco, who write this book, was
+once very near falling into their hands, and in the utmost danger, of being
+either killed or taken prisoner by them in midst of this darkness, if I had
+not been so fortunate as to make my escape in to a castle, called
+Ganosulmi, while many of my companions in the journey were either taken or
+slain[10].
+
+After travelling in this plain for five days, towards the south, the road
+again begins, by little and little, to descend for twenty miles together,
+the road itself being very bad, and not without danger from thieves. At the
+bottom of this declivity there is another plain of great beauty and
+fertility, which extend for two days journey in breadth. This fine country,
+which is called Cormos or Ormus[11], abounds in streams of water, and
+plantations of date palms, and there are abundance of birds of various
+kinds, particularly of popinjays, which are not like those of Europe.
+
+After two days journey across this plain country, we arrive at the sea, in
+which is the island and city of Ormus, which is the capital of the kingdom,
+and a great emporium of commerce, to which many merchants resort, bringing
+spices, pearls, precious stones, cloth of gold and silver, and all the
+other rich commodities of India, The king is called Ruchinad Ben Achomach,
+having many cities and castles under his authority, and he makes himself
+the heir of all merchants who happen to die in that placed; yet he is
+himself tributary to the king of Chermain or Kerman. In summer the heat of
+this country is quite outrageous, and the inhabitants betake themselves to
+their summer houses, which are built in the waters. From nine o'clock in
+the morning till noon, there blows a wind, with such extreme heat, from the
+sands, that it is quite stifling and insufferable, and during this time the
+people sit in the water. The king of Kerman once sent an array of 5000 foot
+and 1600 horse against the king of Ormus, to compel the payment of tribute,
+when the whole army was stifled by that wind. The inhabitants of Ormus eat
+no flesh, or bread made of corn; but live upon dates, salt fish, and
+onions. The ships of this country are not very stout, as they do not fasten
+them with iron nails, because the timber is too brittle, and would split in
+driving these home; but they are fastened with wooden pins, and sewed with
+twine made from the husks of certain Indian nuts, prepared in a peculiar
+manner; this twine or thread is very strong, and is able to endure the
+force and violence of the waters, and is not easily corrupted[12]. These
+ships have only one mast, one beam or yard, and one deck, and are not payed
+with pitch, but with the oil and fat of fishes; and when they cross the sea
+to India, carrying horses or other cargoes, they lose many ships, because
+they are not strengthened with iron. The people of this country are black,
+and have embraced the religion of Mahomet. It is the custom of this
+country, when the master of a family dies, that the widow shall mourn for
+him publickly once every day, for four years; but there are women who
+profess the practice of mourning, and are hired to mourn daily for the
+dead.
+
+In returning from Ormus to Kerman, you pass through a fertile plain, but
+the bread made there cannot be eaten, except by those who are accustomed to
+it, it is so exceedingly bitter, on account of the water with which it is
+made. In this country there are excellent hot baths, which cure many
+diseases.
+
+
+[1] Now Tebriz in Corcan.--E.
+
+[2] This must refer to Fars, or Persia proper; as Tebriz is in Persia.--E.
+
+[3] Perhaps Iracagemi?--E.
+
+[4] Perhaps Kerman?--E.
+
+[5] Inexplicably corrupt.--E.
+
+[6] Timochaim and Arboresecco are inexplicable, perhaps from corrupt
+    transcription. But Timochaim appears to nave been Mekran on the coast
+    of the Indian sea, and perhaps reached to the Indus, as observed in a
+    former note; and it may have included Sigistan.--E.
+
+[7] Jasdi is almost certainly Yezd in Fars. Pinkerton considers Chiaman to
+    be Crerina, which is impossible, as that place is afterwards named:
+    Perhaps it may be the province named Timochaim, mentioned in the
+    immediately preceding note.--E.
+
+[8] As the route may be considered as nearly in a straight line south from
+    Yesd, Crerina may possibly be the city of Kerrnan, and the cold
+    elevated plain, a table land between the top of the Ajuduk mountains
+    and a nameless range to the south, towards Gambroon or Ormus. Adgamad
+    being destroyed, cannot now be ascertained, but it must have stood on
+    the fine plain above described, and at the bottom of these southern
+    mountains. Reobarle is not to be found In our maps, but must have been
+    a name for the province of Ormus.--E.
+
+[9] There is a series of corruptions or absurdities here: a _Malabar_
+    government under a _Sultan_ Asiden, or Asi-o-din, situated at _Dely_,
+    conquered by a secret expedition from _Turkestan_, requires a more
+    correct edition of the original of Marco Polo to render intelligible.
+    We can suppose a tribe of Indians or Blacks not far from Gombroon, to
+    have been under the rule of a mussel man Sultan, and conquered or
+    subverted by a Tartar expedition from Touran, or the north of Persia:
+    But this remains a mere hypothetical explanation.--E.
+
+[10] For this paragraph, the editor is indebted to Mr Pinkerton, Mod. Geog.
+    II. xxii. who has had the good fortune to procure what he thinks an
+    original edition from the MS. of Marco Polo.--E.
+
+[11] By some singular negligence in translating, Mr Pinkerton, in the
+    passage quoted in the preceding note, has ridiculously called this
+    country the plain of _Formosa_, mistaking the mere epithet,
+    descriptive of its _beauty_ in the Italian language, for its name. The
+    district was obviously a distinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its
+    capital city; which, from its insular situation, and great trade with
+    India, long maintained a splendid independence.--E.
+
+[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, give precisely the
+    same account of the ships of Siraf, in the same gulf of Persia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Account of several other Countries, and their Principal Curiosities_.
+
+From Kerman[1], in three days riding, you come to a desert which extends to
+Cobin-ham[2], seven days journey across, the desert. In the first three
+days you have no water, except a few salt, bitter ponds, of a green colour,
+like the juice of herbs; and whoever drinks even a small quantity of this
+water, cannot escape a dysentery, and even beasts that are compelled to
+drink of it, do not escape without a scouring. It is therefore necessary
+for travellers to carry water along with them, that they may avoid the
+inconvenience and danger of thirst. In the fourth day you find a
+subterranean river of fresh water[3]. The three last days of this desert
+are like the first three. Cobin-ham is a great city, where great mirrors of
+steel are made[4]. Tutia also, which is a cure for sore eyes, and spodio
+are made here in the following manner: From the mines of this country they
+dig a certain earth, which is thrown into furnaces, from which the vapours,
+forced downwards, through an iron grate, condense below into tutia of
+tutty[5], and the grosser matter remaining in the furnace is called spodio.
+
+Leaving Cobin-ham, you meet with another desert of eight days journey in
+extent, and terribly barren, having neither trees or water, except what is
+extremely bitter, insomuch, that beasts refuse to drink of it, except when
+mixed with meal, and travellers are therefore obliged to carry water along
+with them. After passing this desert, you come to the kingdom of
+Timochaim[6], in the north confines of Persia, in which there are many
+cities and strong castles. In this country there is an extensive plain, in
+which one great tree grows, which is called the Tree of the Sun, and by
+Christians Arbore-secco[7], or the dry tree. This tree is very thick, the
+leaves being green on one side, and white on the other, and it produces
+prickly and husky shells, like those of chesnuts, but nothing in them. The
+wood is strong and solid, and of a yellow colour like box. There are no
+other trees within an hundred miles, except on one side, where there are
+trees at the distance of ten miles. In this place, the inhabitants say that
+Alexander fought a battle against Darius[8]. The cities of this place are
+plentifully furnished with good things; the air is temperate, and the
+people handsome, especially the women, who are in my opinion the handsomest
+in the world.
+
+
+[1] Marco here probably means the town or city of Kerm-shir, as that lies
+    in the course of his present route from Ormus to the north-east of
+    Persia.--E.
+
+[2] This name is inexplicable; yet from the circumstance of its mines, and
+    the direction of the journey, it may have been situated near the
+    Gebelabad mountains; and some German editor may have changed _abad_,
+    into the precisely similar significant termination _ham_. The original
+    probably had Cobin-abad.--E.
+
+[3] In confirmation of the idea entertained of the present route of Marco,
+    from Ormus by Kerm-shir, to the north-east of Persia, there is, in the
+    maps, a short river in the desert between Diden and Mastih, which has
+    no outlet, but loses itself in the sands, on which account he may have
+    called it subterraneous, as sinking into the earth.--E.
+
+[4] More probably of copper, whitened by some admixture of zinc, and other
+    metals, of the existence of which in this district there are
+    sufficient indications in the sequel. These mirrors may have been
+    similar to telescope metal.--E.
+
+[5] What is here called Tutty, is probably the sublimed floculent white
+    oxid, or flowers of zinc.--E.
+
+[6] Timochaim seems obviously Segistan, to which Mechran appears to have
+    been then joined, from the circumstance before related of the Polos
+    having gone from China by sea to this kingdom. The strange application
+    of Timochaim is probably corrupt, and may perhaps be explicable on the
+    republication of the Trevigi edition of these travels; till then, we
+    must rest satisfied with probable conjecture.--E.
+
+[7] The native name of this tree, and of the plain in which it grew,
+    appears obviously to have been translated by Marco into Italian.--E.
+
+[8] It is possible that this Arbore-secco may have some reference to
+    Arbela.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+_History of the Assassins, and the manner in which their Prince was killed:
+With the description of several other Countries_.
+
+Mulchet[1], in the Saracen language, signifies the place of Heretics, and
+the people of the place are called Hulehetici, or heretics in regard to the
+Mahometan law. The prince of this country is called the _old man_ of the
+mountain, concerning whom I Marco heard much from many persons during my
+travels. His name was Aloadin, and he was a Mahometan. In a lovely valley
+between two high and inaccessible mountains, he caused a pleasant garden to
+be laid out, furnished with the best trees and fruits that could be
+procured, and adorned with many palaces and banqueting houses, beautified
+with gilded bowers, pictures, and silken tapestries. Through this place, by
+means of pipes, wine, milk, honey, and water were distributed in profusion;
+and it was provided with beautiful damsels, skilled in music, singing and
+dancing, and in all imaginable sports and diversions. These damsels were
+dressed in silk and gold, and were seen continually sporting in the garden
+and its palaces. He made this garden with all its palaces and pleasures, in
+imitation of that sensual paradise, which Mahomet had promised to his
+followers. No man could enter into this garden, as the mouth of the valley
+was closed up by a strong castle, from which there was a secret entrance
+into the garden, which was called the Terrestrial Paradise.
+
+Aloadin had certain youths from twelve to twenty years of age, chosen among
+such as seemed of a bold and dauntless character, who were initiated in all
+the pleasures and delights of this paradise, and whom he employed to entice
+others to join the select company of young enthusiasts, by representing the
+joys and pleasures of the paradise of Aloadin. When he thought proper, he
+caused ten or twelve of these youths to be cast into a deep sleep, by means
+of a potion, and then had them conveyed severally into different chambers
+of the garden palaces; where they were attended upon at their awaking by
+the beautiful damsels, and supplied with all kind of delicious meats and
+fruits and excellent wines, and in whose company they enjoyed all manner of
+luxurious delights, so that they imagined that they were actually
+transported into paradise. When they had revelled in delights for a few
+days, they were again cast into a deep sleep, and removed from the garden
+of pleasure; and being brought into the presence of Aloadin, were
+questioned by him where they had been. The old man then represented that it
+was the command of the prophet, that whoever was faithful and obedient to
+his lord, should enjoy the delights of paradise; and that if they would
+faithfully obey all his commands, they should be admitted to reside
+continually among the joys of which they had been permitted to participate
+for a short time. Having thus roused their passions for pleasure, they
+thought themselves happy to execute whatever commands they might receive,
+even at the utmost hazard of their lives, being assured, whether living or
+dead, that their obedience would secure them the eternal enjoyment of
+paradise and all its delights. By these means Aloadin used to procure the
+murder of other lords who were his enemies, by these his assassins, who
+despised all dangers, and contemned their lives when employed in his
+service. By this procedure he was esteemed a tyrant, and greatly dreaded by
+all around; and he had two vicars or deputies, one in the neighbourhood of
+Damascus, and another in Curdistan, who had similarly instructed young men
+under their orders. Besides this, he used to rob all passengers who went
+past his borders. At length, in the year 1262, Ulau, or Houlagu-khan, sent
+an armed force against him, which besieged his castle for three years, and
+at length made themselves masters of it, partly by famine, and partly by
+undermining the walls[2].
+
+Departing from thence[3], you come to a pleasant enough country,
+diversified by hills and plains with excellent pasture, and abundance of
+fruits, the soil being very fertile[4]. This continues for six days
+journey, and then you enter a desert of forty or fifty miles without water;
+after which you come to the city of Sassurgan[5], where there are plenty of
+provisions, and particularly the best melons in the world, which are as
+sweet as honey. Passing from thence, we come to a certain city named
+Batach, Balach, or Balk, which was formerly large and famous, having
+sumptuous marble palaces, but is now overthrown by the Tartars. In this
+city it is reported that Alexander married the daughter of Darius. The
+eastern and north-eastern frontiers of Persia reach to this city; but in
+proceeding between the east and north-east from this place, We found no
+habitations for two days journey, the inhabitants having endured so many
+grievances from thieves, that they were compelled to fly to the mountains
+for safety. There are many rivers in this country, and much game, and lions
+are also to be met with. As travellers can find no food in this part of
+their journey, they must carry enough with them for two days. At the end of
+two days journey, we came to a castle called Thaican, Thalkan, or Thakan,
+where we saw pleasant fields and abundance of corn. The mountains to the
+south of this place are high, some of which contain white salt, so
+extremely hard that it has to be dug out and broken with iron tools; and
+the inhabitants, from thirty days journey all around, come here to procure
+salt, which is of most excellent quality, and is in such amazing
+quantities, that the whole world might be supplied from these mines. The
+other mountains produce abundance of almonds and pistachio nuts.
+
+Going between the east and north-east from hence, the country is fruitful,
+but the inhabitants are perfidious Mahometans, murderers, thieves, and
+drunkards. Their wine is boiled, and truly excellent. They go bareheaded,
+except that the men bind a string or fillet, ten handbreadths long, about
+their heads. They make breeches and shoes of the skins of wild beasts, and
+use no other garments. After three days journey is the town of Scasom[6],
+seated in a plain, through the middle of which there flows a great river;
+and there are many castles in the surrounding mountains[7]. There are many
+porcupines in this country, which are hunted by dogs; and these animals,
+contracting themselves with great fury, cast their sharp quills at the men
+and dogs, and often wound them. The nation has a peculiar language, and the
+shepherds dwell in caves in the mountains. We went three days journey from
+thence, without meeting any inhabitants, to the province of Balaxiam,
+Balascia or Balasagan, which is inhabited by Mahometans, who have a
+peculiar language. Their kings, who succeed each other hereditarily,
+pretend to derive their lineage from Alexander and the daughter of Darius,
+and are called Dulcarlen, which signifies Alexandrians. In this country the
+famous Ballas rubies are found, and other precious stones of great value,
+particularly in the mountains of Sicinam. No person dares either to dig for
+these stones, or to send them out of the country, without the consent and
+licence of the king, on pain of death; and he only sends them to such as he
+thinks fit, either as presents, or in payment of tribute; he likewise
+exchanges many of them for gold and silver, lest they should become too
+cheap and common. In other mountains of the same province, the best lapis
+lazuli in the world is found, from which azure or ultramarine is made.
+There are mines also of silver, copper, and lead. The climate is very cold,
+yet it produces abundance of large, strong, and swift horses, which have
+such hard and tough hoofs, that they do not require iron shoes, although
+they have to run among rocks. It is said, that not many years ago, the
+king's uncle was in the exclusive possession of a breed of horses descended
+from the famous Bucephalus, and marked on the forehead exactly as he was;
+and refusing to let the king have any of his stud, he was put to death, on
+which his widow, in revenge, destroyed the whole race. The mountains of
+this country produce the sacre falcon, the lanner, the goshawk, and the
+sparrowhawk, all excellent in their kind, and much used by the inhabitants
+in the chase, as they are all much addicted to hunting. The soil of this
+country produces excellent wheat, and barley without husks, and oil made of
+nuts and mustard, which resembles the oil from lintseed, but is more
+savoury than other oil. The men of the country are excellent archers and
+keen hunters, and are mostly clothed in the skins of beasts; while the
+women contrive to put sixty or eighty yards of cotton cloth into the skirts
+of their garments, as the bulkier they look they are esteemed the
+handsomer. The plains of this country are large, and well watered with fine
+rivers, but the hills are high and steep, and the passes very difficult of
+access, by which the inhabitants are secured against invasions; and in
+these mountains there are flocks of from four hundred to six hundred wild
+sheep, which are very difficult to catch. If any one contracts an ague by
+living in the moist plains, he is sure to recover his health by a few days
+residence in the mountains, which I Marco experienced in my own person
+after a whole years sickness.
+
+The province Bascia, or Vash, on a river of that name which falls into the
+Gihon, is ten days journey to the south of Balaxiam, and the country is
+very hot, on which account the people are of a brown colour. They have a
+language of their own, and wear gold and silver ear-rings, artificially
+ornamented with pearls and other precious stones; they eat flesh and rice,
+and are crafty and cruel idolaters.
+
+The province of Chesmur, Khesimus, Khaschimir, or Cashmere, is seven days
+journey from Bascia. The inhabitants have also a peculiar language of their
+own, and are given to idolatry beyond all others, and addicted to
+enchantment, forcing their idols to speak, and darkening the day. The
+people of this country are not wholly black, but of a brown complexion, the
+air being temperate. They are extremely lean, although they use abundance
+of flesh and rice; yet the natives will shed no blood, and employ the
+Saracens who live among them to slaughter their cattle. They have many
+strong cities and towns, and being surrounded by deserts and rugged
+mountains, they are in no danger of any foreign enemies, so that the king
+of this country yields tribute to none. Coral is held in great estimation
+in this country, and sells dearer than in any other part of the world.
+There are certain hermits in this province, who live with great abstinence
+in cells and monasteries, devoting their whole lives to the service of
+their idols, and observing the strictest chastity; Many of these men are
+reputed as saints and are held in high estimation among the people. From
+this province you may go to the Indies and the ocean; but I shall not now
+follow out the course to India, but returning to Balaxiam, shall trace the
+way to Kathay, betwixt the east and north-east.
+
+Beyond Balaxium is a certain river, on which there are many castles and
+villages, belonging to the brother of the king of Balaxium; and after three
+days journey, we came to Vachan[8], which extends three days journey in
+length, and as much is breadth, The inhabitants of this country have a
+peculiar language, and are Mahometans; they are brave Warriors, and good
+huntsmen, as their country abounds in wild beasts. Departing from thence,
+in a direction between the east and north-east, we ascended for three whole
+days journey, until we came to an exceeding high mountain, than which there
+is none said to be higher in the world. In this place, between two
+mountains, is a plain, in which is a great lake, and a fine river runs
+through the plain, on the banks of which are such excellent pastures, that
+a lean horse or ox will become quite fat in ten days. It contains also
+great quantities of wild beasts, and particularly very large wild sheep,
+having horns six spans long, out of which they make various kinds of
+vessels. This plain continues twelve days journey in length, and is called
+_Pamer_, in which there are no habitations, so that travellers must carry
+all their provisions along with them. This plain is so high and cold that
+no birds are to be found; and it is even said, that fires do not burn so
+bright in this place, and do not so effectually boil or dress victuals as
+in other places[9]. From hence, the way to Kathay leads, for forty days
+journey, between the east and the north-east, through mountains, hills, and
+vallies, in which there are many rivers, but no villages, neither any
+verdure, except that some huts and cottages are to be seen among the
+mountains; but the inhabitants are savage and wicked idolaters, who live by
+hunting, and are clothed in the skins of wild beasts; the country is called
+Palow[10]. After this you come to the province of Caschar[11], which is
+inhabited by Mahometans, who are tributary to the great khan of the Mongals
+or Tartars. The soil is fertile, and the country is full of pleasant
+fields, gardens, and orchards, producing vines, fruit trees, cotton, hemp,
+and flax, and extends five days journey. The inhabitants have a particular
+language, and have many merchants, manufacturers, and artizans, but they
+are so covetous, that they do not allow themselves either good meat or
+drink. Among them there are some Nestorian Christians, who also have some
+churches,
+
+
+[1] Called likewise Mulete or Alamut; Marco makes here a sudden
+    return to the north-west of Persia; and from the abruptness of the
+    transition, it has been probably disarranged in transcription. This
+    country has been likewise called the land of the Assassins; it is near
+    Cashbin in Dilem, on the borders of Mazenderan.--E.
+
+[2] The last of these princes was named Moadin, who, as mentioned
+    in the text, was made prisoner, and put to death by Houlagu-khan. In
+    the sequel of this work, there will be found other and more full
+    accounts of this old man of the mountain, or prince of the assassins.
+    --E.
+
+[3] The transition seems here again abrupt, and unconnected; at
+    least the intermediate country of Mazerderan and Chorassan to the
+    desert, probably of Margiana, is very slightly passed over.--E.
+
+[4] In this section, Marco seems to trace his journey along with
+    his father and uncle from Giazza towards Tartary; but the regular
+    connection appears to have been thrown into confusion, by ignorant
+    transcribers and editors.--E.
+
+[5] Probably Satugar of the modern maps, on the western border of
+    Balk.--E.
+
+[6] Forster considers this place to be Scasse or Al-shash, on the
+    river Sirr or Sihon, perhaps the Tashkund of modern maps, in the
+    province of Shash. The distances given by Marco must be strangely
+    corrupted by transcribers and editors, or Marco must have forgot when
+    he wrote his travels, perhaps twenty-six years after he passed this
+    country, when only a boy. The distance between Balk, on one of the
+    branches of the Sihon or Oxus, and Shash on the Jihon or Sirr, is at
+    least 350 miles in a straight line; which he appears to have travelled
+    in _five_ days, but which would more probably occupy fifteen.--E.
+
+[7] This river is probably the Sirr or Sihon; and the mountains of
+    Karatan and Arjun pervade the district, the two chains being separated
+    by the river.--E.
+
+[8] Vochan, Vocham or Vakhan, on the river Vash.--Forst.
+
+[9] This observation was made on the mountains of Savoy and
+    Switzerland, not many years ago, by M. de Luc, and published as a new
+    discovery. The phenomena must be owing to the diminished pressure of
+    the atmosphere at this great elevation, by which water boils at a much
+    lower temperature than is requisite for effective cookery: A digester
+    would effectually remove this evil, by enabling the water to become
+    sufficiently hot, without being dissipated.--E.
+
+[10] Beloro, Belor, or Belur, according to Forster. This immense
+    extent of forty days journey through deserts, seems to include the
+    deserts of Sultus, Cobi, and Shamo, and to reach to the frontiers of
+    Kathay, or Northern China.--E.
+
+[11] Cascar, Chascar, Cassar, Kaschgar, or Hasicar, according to
+    Forster. Cashgar is at the western end of the great desert, instead of
+    the eastern, as expressed in the text; indeed this route is most
+    confusedly, and almost unintelligibly laid down, probably from
+    corrupted transcription. The series ought to have been, the high table
+    land of Pamer, the province of Cashgar, and lastly, the desert of
+    Pelow or Belur. But care must be taken to distinguish this from the
+    chain of Belur-tag, which runs north and south, between Great and
+    Little Bucharia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+_Of the city of Samarcand, the town of Lop, the Great Desert in its
+Neighbourhood, and other remarkable Passages_.
+
+Samarcand[1] is a great and famous city, in a fertile plain, and surrounded
+by fine gardens. It is subject to the nephew of the great khan, and is
+inhabited by a mixed population of Christians and Mahometans, among whom
+there is little agreement; and in one of their disputes, the following
+miracle is said to have happened, about an hundred years ago. Zagathai, the
+brother of the great khan, then governed this country, and was persuaded to
+become a Christian; and the Christians, through his favour, built a church
+in honour of St John the Baptist, which was constructed with such skill,
+that the whole roof seemed to depend for support upon one central pillar,
+which was founded upon a large stone, which, by the permission of Zagathai,
+had been taken from a building belonging to the Mahometans. After the death
+of Zagathai, he was succeeded by a son who was not of the Christian faith,
+and from him the Mahometans obtained an order, by which the Christians were
+compelled to restore that stone; and though they offered a sum of money as
+a compensation, the Mahometans absolutely insisted to have the stone
+itself, hoping, by that means, to reduce the Christian church to ruins: But
+the pillar lifted itself up, that the Mahometans, might remove the
+contested stone, and still continues suspended in the air.
+
+Departing from this city, we came into the province of Charahan[2], which
+is about five days journey in length, and has plenty of provisions. The
+inhabitants are mostly Mahometans, intermixed with some Nestorian
+Christians, and are subject to the nephew of the great khan. They are
+diligent artificers in various manufactures, but are much subject to thick
+legs, and the _goitres_ or large wens on their throats, occasioned by the
+bad quality of the waters of the country. The province of Cotam follows
+between the east and the north-east[3]. It is subject to the nephew of the
+great khan, and has many cities and towns, the chief city being called
+Cotam. This province extends eight days journey in length, and possesses
+every thing necessary for life, in sufficient abundance; particularly
+cotton, flax, hemp, corn, and wine. The people are Mahometans, and not
+warlike, but are skilful in various articles of manufacture.
+
+Proceeding through the same country, we come to the province of Peim,
+extending four days journey in length, and containing many towns and
+castles, the city of Peim being the chief, near which there is a river in
+which jaspers and chalcedonies and other valuable stones are found. The
+inhabitants, who are Mahometans, are expert manufacturers, and are subject
+to the great khan. There is a custom in this province, that when any
+married man goes to a distance from home, and remains absent for twenty
+days, it is lawful for his wife to marry another husband; and reciprocally,
+if the wife absents herself for twenty days, the husband may take another
+wife.
+
+The next province, Ciascian[4], of which the chief city is named Sartan, is
+subject to the Tartars, and has many cities and castles. In its rivers
+abundance of jaspers, chalcedonies, and other fine stones are found, which
+are carried by merchants all the way to Ouchach or Kathay, and sold there
+with great profit From Peim to Sartem, and quite through this latter
+province, the soil is very sandy, having very little water, and that
+generally bad. When an army passes through this province, all the
+inhabitants take their wives and children, with all their cattle and
+valuables, two days journey into the sands, to places where they know that
+good water is to be found, and remain there till the army has quitted the
+country; after harvest also, they uniformly take all their corn into the
+desert, and hide it in pits, and the wind soon obliterates all traces of
+their footsteps, so that their enemies are unable to discover where they
+have deposited these precious hoards. After travelling for five days
+through the sands from this province, we arrive at the great city of Lop,
+which is at the entrance of a great desert called the Wilderness of Lop[5].
+The inhabitants of this place are Mahometans, and are subject to the great
+khan. All the before-mentioned provinces, Cashgar, Yarkand, Koten, Peim,
+Sartem, and Lop, are in the bounds of Turkestan.
+
+It requires a months journey to cross this desert from south to north, but
+to go through it lengthways would take up a whole year. Those who intend to
+cross the desert remain for some time in Lop, on purpose to prepare all
+necessaries for the journey, as no provisions are to be met with for a
+whole month. These, with their merchandize, are loaded on asses and camels,
+and if provisions fall short in the desert, the unfortunate travellers are
+reduced to the necessity of killing their beasts of burden for sustenance,
+preferring the asses for this purpose, as the camels can carry much heavier
+burdens, and are satisfied with less food. This journey is entirely through
+sands and barren mountains, in which water is found every day; yet at some
+of the resting places it is so scanty as hardly to suffice for a caravan of
+fifty of an hundred persons and their cattle. In three or four places the
+water is salt and bitter, but in all the rest of the journey it is very
+good. In the whole of this journey there are no beasts or birds to be seen.
+It is reported, that many evil spirits reside in the wilderness, which
+occasion wonderful illusions to travellers who happen unfortunately to lag
+behind their companions calling them even by their names, and causing them
+to stray farther from the right course, so that they lose their way and
+perish in the sands. In the night time also they hear noises as of their
+friends, and sometimes the sound of music is heard in the air, and people
+imagine that they hear the din of drums, as if armies were marching past.
+To avoid the danger of separation, the travellers in the desert keep close
+together, and hang bells about the necks of their beasts; and if any one
+stays behind, they set up marks in the route, that they may know how to
+follow.
+
+Having crossed the desert of Lop, we come to the city of Sachion[6] or
+Sachiou, which is subject to the great khan, and is situated in the great
+country of Tangut. The inhabitants of this city are mostly idolaters, who
+have a peculiar language, mixed with a good many Mahometans, and some
+Nestorian Christians; this people are little addicted to merchandize or
+manufacture, and live on the products of their soil. In this city there are
+many temples, consecrated to various idols, with monasteries of priests
+devoted to the service of these false deities, to which numerous sacrifices
+are offered with great reverence. When a son is born to any person, he is
+immediately consecrated to the protection of some particular idol, and the
+father nourishes a sheep in his house for a year with great care; and on
+the anniversary day of that idol, he presents his son and the sheep as a
+sacrifice, with great reverence and many ceremonies, before the shrine of
+this tutelary deity. The flesh of the sheep is boiled and set before the
+idol during the continuance of the prayers and invocations, as an offering
+for the preservation and protection of the boy, and the idol is supposed to
+inhale the savour of the meat. After the religious ceremonies are finished,
+the meat is carried home to the father's dwelling, where all the kindred of
+the family are convened, and feasted with great joy and devotion; but the
+bones are religiously kept in certain appropriated vessels. The priests
+receive the head, feet, skin, and intrails, with a portion of the flesh for
+their share.
+
+When a person of any estimation dies, his funerals are celebrated with much
+ceremony. An astrologer is sent for by the kindred, and informed of the
+year, month, day, and hour when the deceased was born, when he calculates
+the aspect of the constellation, and assigns the day when the burial is to
+take place, sometimes at the distance of seven days, or perhaps the planet
+may not have a favourable aspect for six months, during all which time the
+body is kept in the house. For this purpose a fit chest or coffin is
+provided, which is so artificially jointed that no noisome smell can
+escape, and in this the body is placed, having been previously embalmed
+with spices. The coffin is ornamented with painting, and is covered over
+with an embroidered cloth. Every day, while the body remains unburied, a
+table is spread near the coffin, and set out with meat, bread, and wine,
+which remains for as long a time as a living person would require to eat
+and drink, and the soul of the deceased is supposed to feed upon the
+savour. The astrologers sometimes forbid the body to be carried out for
+interment at the principal door of the house, pretending to be regulated in
+this by the stars, and order it to be carried out by some other way; or
+will even command a passage to be broken out in the opposite wall of the
+house, to propitiate the adverse planet. And if any one object to this,
+they allege that the spirit of the dead would be offended, and would
+occasion injury to the family. When the body is carried through the city to
+be buried, wooden cottages are built at certain distances by the way,
+having porches covered with silk, in which the coffin is set down, with a
+table spread out with bread and wine and delicate viands, that the spirit
+of the dead may be refreshed with the savour. When the body is carried to
+the place of the funeral, a number of pieces of paper, made of the bark of
+trees, curiously painted with figures of men and women servants, horses,
+camels, money, and garments of all kinds are carried in procession, all the
+instruments of music in the city sounding as the cavalcade moves along; and
+all these pieces of painted paper are burned in the same funeral pile with
+the body, under the idea that the deceased will have as many servants,
+cattle, and garments in the next world, and as much money, as there were
+pictures of these things burnt along with his body, and shall live
+perpetually hereafter in the enjoyment of all these things[7].
+
+
+[1] The text is here obviously transposed. While the editor endeavours to
+    illustrate and explain the descriptions of the author, he does not
+    consider himself at liberty to alter the text, even in the most
+    obviously faulty places.--E.
+
+[2] Charchan, Charcham, Carcam, Hiarkand, Jarkun, Jerket, Jerken, Urkend;
+    such are the varieties in the editions of these travels, for the
+    Yarkand of modern maps. This paragraph ought obviously to have
+    followed the account of Cashgar.--E.
+
+[3] Cotan, Cotam, Hotum, Khoten, Khotan, from which the useful material of
+    manufacture, _cotton_, takes its name. But instead of being between
+    the east and north-east direction from Yarkand, as in the text, or
+    E.N.E. it is actually E.S.E.--E.
+
+[4] Called likewise Ciarciam, Ciartiam, and Sartam, in different editions.
+    --E.
+
+[5] The journey from Sartem to Lop is obviously retrograde, and this course
+    must have been pursued by the Polos for commercial purposes; perhaps
+    for collecting those valuable stones which are mentioned by Marco as
+    giving so much profit when sold in China.--E.
+
+[6] Schatscheu, Tschat-scheu, or Chat-chou, on the Polonkir, which runs
+    into the Hara lake.--E.
+
+[7] It is highly probable that this emblematical representation had been
+    substituted by some humane legislator or conqueror, in place of the
+    actual sacrifice of the servants, cattle, and goods themselves, which
+    we are well assured was once the practice among many rude nations, in
+    honour of their deceased great men.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+_Of the Province of Chamil and several other Countries on the road from
+thence to the City of Ezina; and of another great Desert_.
+
+The province of Chamil, which abounds in all the necessaries of life, is
+situated in the wide country of Tangut, and is subject to the great khan.
+This province, of which the city of Chamil or Hami is the capital[1], is
+bounded by two deserts; the great desert of Lop already mentioned, and
+another which is only three days journey across[2]. The inhabitants are
+idolaters, have a peculiar language, and appear to live only for amusement,
+devoting their whole time to singing, dancing, and sports, playing upon
+instruments of music, and reading and writing after their fashion. When any
+traveller goes into a house for entertainment and lodging, the master of
+the family receives him with great joy, and commands his wife and family to
+obey the stranger in all things so long as he may choose to remain, and
+even departs immediately from his own house, that he may not be any
+restraint upon his guest. And while the traveller remains, he may choose a
+female bed fellow every night, either the wife, daughter, or servant of the
+polite host, as he feels inclined. The women of the country are very
+beautiful, and are perfectly ready to obey these singular commands; and the
+husbands believe that this strange hospitality is conducive to their own
+honour and glory, and is an acceptable service to their idols, from whose
+favour it secures prosperity and abundance to themselves and their country.
+Mangu-khan having received notice of this detestable custom, issued a
+peremptory order for its discontinuance, and it was accordingly laid aside
+for three years; but as these years happened to be unusually barren, and
+the inhabitants were vexed with some disasters in their domestic concerns,
+they sent ambassadors to the khan, earnestly entreating him to revoke so
+grievous a mandate, and to permit them to continue a custom which had been
+handed down by their ancestors. To this the khan answered, "Since you glory
+in your shame, you may go and act according to your customs." The
+messengers who brought back this favourable answer, were received with
+great rejoicings by the nation; and the above custom continued when I Marco
+was among them.
+
+After leaving the province of Chamil, we enter into that of
+Chinchintalas[3], subject to the great khan, which is bounded by the desert
+on the north, and is sixteen days journey in length. It has large cities
+and many castles, the inhabitants being divided into three sects or
+religions: The greater number are idolaters, a considerable number are
+Mahometans, and a small proportion are Nestorian Christians. In this
+province there are mountains containing mines of steel, and andanicum or
+audanicum, and also a mineral substance called salamander or asbestos, from
+the wool of which an incombustible cloth is manufactured, which, if cast
+into the fire does not burn. This cloth is actually made of stone in the
+following manner, as I was informed by a Turk named Curifar, an intelligent
+industrious person of my acquaintance, who had the superintendence of the
+mines in this province. A certain mineral is found in these mountains,
+which yields fibres resembling wool: After being thoroughly dried in the
+sun, this substance is pounded in a brass mortar, and then washed to remove
+all earthy impurities; and the clean fibrous matter is spun in the same
+manner as wool, and woven into cloth. When this cloth requires to be
+cleaned or whitened, it is thrown into the fire for an hour, and is then
+taken out unhurt, and as white as snow. It is said, there is a napkin at
+Rome of this salamander wool, in which the handkerchief of the Lord Jesus
+is kept wrapped up, which a certain king of the Tartars sent as a present
+to the Pope. But as for the salamander or serpent, which is reported to
+live in the fire, I could hear of no such creature in all the eastern
+countries.
+
+Leaving this province, we travel for ten days between the east and
+north-east, during which there are few habitations or things worthy of
+remark; after which we come to the province of Succir[4], in which there
+are many towns and villages, the chief city being called Succir. In this
+province, which is subject to the great khan, there are a few Christians
+among a great number of idolaters. The best rhubarb[5] is found in great
+quantities in this province, and is carried thence by merchants to various
+parts of the world. Strangers dare not go to the mountains where the
+rhubarb grows, on account of certain poisonous plants, which occasion any
+beasts that feed upon them to cast their hoofs; but the beasts of the
+country know this plant, and avoid feeding upon it Campion[6] is a great
+city, and is the chief place in all Tangut.  In it, besides idolaters and
+Mahometans, there are a good many Christians, who have three fair churches.
+The idolaters have many temples and monasteries dedicated to their idols.
+These idols are very numerous, and are made of stone, wood, or clay, some
+of them curiously inlaid with gold, and very artificially made: Some are
+very large, almost ten paces high, standing upright, and having many
+smaller idols placed around, which seem to give reverence to the great one.
+The priests of these idols appear to live more regularly, and are less
+addicted to voluptuousness than other idolaters. Yet wantonness is not
+looked upon in this country as any great sin; for they say if a woman
+invites a man, there is no harm in compliance, but if the man solicits the
+woman, it is quite otherwise.
+
+In this country they divide the year by lunations, and in every moon they
+keep certain days as holy, in some five, or four, or three days, in which
+they kill no beast or bird, and abstain from animal food. The people of
+this country marry twenty or thirty wives, or as many as they are able to
+maintain, but the first wife always has the precedence over the others. The
+husband receives no portion with his wife, but on the contrary has to
+assign her a dower in cattle, servants, and money, according to his
+ability. If any of the wives does not live in harmony with the rest, or if
+she becomes disliked by her husband, it is lawful for him to put her away.
+They marry their own near relations, and even the wives of their deceased
+father, excepting always their own mothers. In the manners and customs of
+this country, I Marco was sufficiently experienced, having dwelt a whole
+year in this place, along with my father and uncle, for the dispatch of
+certain affairs of business.
+
+In twelve days journey from Campion, we come to the city of Ezina[7], which
+borders on a sandy desert towards the north. All the provinces and cities
+before mentioned, viz. Sachion, Camul, Chinchintalas, Succair, Campion, and
+Ezina, are comprehended in the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of
+Ezina are idolaters, who live by agriculture, and on the produce of their
+flocks and herds, having great quantities of camels and other cattle, but
+carry on no trade. In this country there are forests of pine trees, in
+which there are wild asses, and many other wild beasts; there are likewise
+abundance of falcons, particularly the lanner and sacre, which are reckoned
+excellent. Such travellers as intend to pass through the great desert of
+Shamo, which is forty days journey in extent, must provide all their
+provisions in this place, as they afterwards meet with no habitations,
+except a few straggling people here and there on the mountains and valleys.
+
+
+[1] Called also Kamul, Chamul, Khami, and Came-xu.--Forst.
+
+[2] The desert of Noman-Cobi; or Tzokurin of modern maps.--E.
+
+[3] Called likewise Cinchincalas, Sanghin-talgin, Sankin-talai, and
+    Chitalas-dalai.--Forst. This appears to be the district stretching to
+    the S.E. of the Bogdo mountains, between the Changai ridge on the
+    north, and the Ungandag on the south, now occupied by a tribe of
+    Eluts, and in which there do not appear to be any towns.--E.
+
+[4] Suchur, Succuir, Souk, or Suck, on the river Suck, which empties itself
+    into the river of Pegu to the north of Thibet.--Forst.
+
+    This I suspect to be Chioming of our modern maps, on a river which
+    runs north into the Soukouk lake.--E.
+
+[5] The country of the genuine rhubarb has been described by the great
+    Russian traveller Palas, as situated on the river Selingol, not far
+    from the town of Selinga, which falls into the Chattungol, Hoang-ho,
+    Choango, or Karamuren.--Forst.
+
+    The travels of Palas will be found in an after portion of this work;
+    and it need only be remarked in this place, that there are at least
+    two kinds of true rhubarb, the China and Russia; and that two species
+    of the genus, the R. Palmatum and R. Undulatum, certainly produce the
+    drug nearly of the same quality, and are probably to be found in
+    various parts of central Asia or Tartary,--E.
+
+[6] Kampion, Kampition, Kampiciou, Kantscheu, or Kan-tcheou, in the Chinese
+    province of Shensi, on the Etzine-moren, or Etchine river, which joins
+    the Souk.--Forst.
+
+[7] Eziva, or Etzine, on a river of the same name, which runs into the Suck
+    or Souhouk.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+_Of the City of Caracarum and of the Tartars, with some account of their
+History, Monarchs, and Manners_.
+
+Having passed over the before mentioned desert of forty days, travelling
+always to the northward, we come to the large city of Charachoran, or
+Caracarum[1] which is three miles in circumference, and strongly fortified
+with an earthen rampart, as there is no stone in these parts. Near the city
+there is a great castle with an elegant palace, in which the governor
+usually resides. Near this place the Tartars used to assemble in old times,
+and here therefore I shall explain the original of their empire.
+
+They dwelt at first in the northern parts called Curza and Bargu[2], where
+there are many vast plains without cities and towns, but abounding in
+pastures, lakes, and rivers. They had no prince of their own nation, but
+paid tribute to a certain great king, named, as I have been told, in their
+language, _Umcan_, and which some people believe to signify, in the
+languages of Europe, Prester-John[3]; and to whom the Tartars gave yearly a
+tenth part of the increase of their flocks and herds, and of their horses.
+In process of time, the Tartars so increased in numbers, that Umcan became
+afraid of them, and endeavoured to disperse them into several parts of his
+empire; and when any of them rebelled, he used to send parties into their
+territories to reduce them to obedience; for which purpose, he even
+frequently deputed some of their own nobles. At length it became obvious to
+the whole nation, that their ruin was intended; and being unwilling to be
+separated from each other, they retired into the northern deserts, where
+they might be safe from the power of Umcan, to whom they refused the
+accustomed tribute. After continuing in the north for some time, they chose
+a king among themselves, named Zingis-khan, who was a wise and valiant man,
+and reigned with such justice, that he was beloved and feared of all as a
+god rather than as a prince, so that by his fame and prowess, he soon
+reduced all the Tartars in these parts under his authority. Seeing himself
+at the head of so many valiant men, he determined to leave the northern
+deserts; and commanding his people to provide themselves with bows and
+other weapons, he began to reduce the neighbouring cities and provinces
+under his dominion, in which conquests he placed such just governors, that
+the people were perfectly reconciled to his authority. In all his conquests
+he carried the chief persons along with him, bestowing upon them provisions
+and other gifts, and by that means attached them to his person, and
+continually augmented his power. After sometime, finding himself advanced
+to power and glory, he sent ambassadors to Umcan, to entreat that he would
+bestow his daughter upon him for a wife. Umcan received this message with
+the utmost indignation, saying to the messengers; "Does my servant presume
+to demand my daughter? Begone, and tell your master, that if ever he dare
+to repeat so insolent a proposal, I will make him die a miserable death."
+
+Zingis seems only to have wanted a reasonable pretence to justify him in
+the estimation of his nobles for entering into war against Umcan; he
+therefore immediately levied a great army, with which he marched boldly
+against Umcan, and encamped in a great plain named Tanduc[4], sending a
+message to Umcan to defend himself. Upon this Umcan collected a vast army,
+with which he advanced into the plains, and pitched his camp within ten
+miles of that of the Tartars. Zingis commanded his astrologers to shew him
+what was to be the event of the approaching battle; on which they split a
+reed into two pieces, on one of which they wrote the name of Zingis, and
+the name of Umcan on the other, and struck them separately into the ground,
+saying to Zingis: "While we read in our holy books, it shall come to pass
+through the power of the idol, that these two pieces of reed shall fight
+together, and whose part shall get the better, to that king shall the
+victory be given."  The astrologers began to mumble their prayers and
+incantations, while the multitude stood around to observe the result; and
+after some time, the two pieces of reed seemed spontaneously to fight
+together, and the portion inscribed with the name of Zingis got the mastery
+over that of Umcan; and the Tartars being encouraged by this prodigy, went
+into the battle fully assured of victory, which they actually obtained. By
+this battle, in which Umcan was slain, the sovereignty of all Tangut was
+transferred to Zingis, who took to wife the daughter of Umcan.  Zingis
+reigned six years after this, and conquered many provinces: But at last,
+while he endeavoured to take a certain castle called Thaigin, he approached
+too near the walls, and was wounded in the knee by an arrow, of which wound
+he died, and was buried in the mountain of Altai. Zingis was the _first_
+king of the Tartars; the second was Khen-khan, the third Bathyn-khan, the
+fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mangu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan, whose power
+is greater than that of all his predecessors, as, besides having inherited
+all their acquisitions, he has added almost the whole world to his empire,
+during a long and prosperous reign of sixty years[5]. All the great khans
+and princes of the blood of Zingis, are carried for burial to the mountains
+of Altai, even from the distance of an hundred days journey; and those who
+attend the body, kill all whom they meet by the way, ordering them to go
+and serve their lord in the other world, and a great number of fine horses
+are slain on the same occasion and pretence. It is said that the soldiers,
+who accompanied the body of Mangu-khan to the mountain of Altai, slew above
+ten thousand men during their journey.
+
+The Tartar women are remarkably faithful to their husbands, considering
+adultery as the greatest and most unpardonable of crimes; yet it is
+accounted lawful and honest for the men to have as many wives as they can
+maintain, but the first married is always accounted the principal and most
+honourable. These wives live all in one house, in the utmost harmony and
+most admirable concord; in which they carry on various manufactures, buy
+and sell, and procure all things necessary for their husbands and families,
+the men employing themselves only in hunting and hawking, and in martial
+affairs. They have the best falcons in the world, and great numbers of
+excellent dogs, and they live upon flesh and milk, and what they procure by
+hunting. They eat the flesh of horses and camels, and even of dogs, if fat;
+and their chief drink is cosmos, made of mares milk in a particular manner,
+and very much resembling white wine. When the father of a family dies, the
+son may marry all his fathers wives, except only his own mother, neither do
+they marry their sisters; and on the death of a brother, the surviving
+brother may marry the widow of the deceased. The husbands receive no
+portions with their wives, but must assign sufficient dowries to their
+wives and mothers. As the Tartars have many wives, they often have great
+numbers of children; neither is the multitude of their wives very
+burthensome, as they gain much by their labour, and they are exceedingly
+careful in the management of family concerns, in the preparation of food,
+and in all other household duties.
+
+The Tartars feed many herds of cattle, and numerous flocks of sheep, and
+great numbers of camels and horses. They remain with these during the
+summer in the pastures of the mountains and colder regions of the north,
+where they find abundance of grass and wood; but in winter they remove into
+the warmer regions of the south, in search of pasture, and they generally
+travel forwards for two or three months together. Their houses are made of
+slender rods covered with felt, mostly of a round form, and are carried
+along with them in carts or waggons with four wheels, and the doors of
+these moveable houses are always placed fronting the south. They have also
+very neat carts on two wheels, covered so closely with felt, that the rain
+cannot penetrate, in which their wives and children and household goods are
+conveyed from place to place. All these are drawn by oxen or camels.
+
+The rich Tartars are clothed in sables and ermines, and other rich furs,
+and in cloth of gold, and all their apparel and furniture is very costly.
+Their arms are bows, swords, battle-axes, and some have lances; but they
+are most expert in the use of the bow, in which they are trained from their
+infancy. They are hardy, active, and brave, yet somewhat cruel; are
+exceedingly patient and obedient to their lords, and will often remain two
+days and nights armed on horseback without rest. They believe in one
+supreme God of heaven, to whom they daily offer incense, praying to him for
+health and prosperity. But every person has a little image covered with
+felt, or something else, in his house, called _Natigay_; and to this
+household god they make a wife, which is placed on his left hand, and
+children, which are set before his face. This image or idol is considered
+as the god of earthly things, to whom they recommend the protection of
+their wives and children, their cattle, corn, and other valuables. This god
+is held in great reverence, and before eating any thing themselves, they
+anoint the mouth of the idol with the fat of their boiled meat, and they
+cast some broth out of doors in honour of other spirits; after which they
+eat and drink their fill, saying, that now their god and his family have
+had their due portion.
+
+If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another die unmarried, the
+parents meet together and celebrate a marriage between their deceased
+children. On this occasion they draw up a written contract, and paint
+representations of men and women for servants, of horses, camels, cattle,
+and sheep, of clothes of all kinds, and of paper money; and all these
+things are burned along with the contract, conceiving that these will all
+follow their children substantially to the other world to serve them, and
+that they will be there united in affinity, as if they had been actually
+married while living.
+
+When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an army of not less
+than an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each man having usually eight or
+more horses or mares. Their troops are regularly distributed into bands of
+tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred is
+called a _Tuc_, and a body of ten thousand is called a _Toman_. They carry
+them felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather. When
+necessity requires, they will ride for ten days together without victuals,
+subsisting upon the blood of their horses, by cutting a vein and sucking
+the blood. But they likewise prepare dried milk, for taking with them in
+their expeditions, in the following manner: After taking off the cream,
+which is made into butter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into a
+kind of hard curd, of which every man in the army carries about ten pounds
+along with him. Every morning they take about half a pound of this curd,
+which they put into a leathern bottle with a quantity of water, and as he
+rides along, the motion of the horse shakes and mixes these together, and
+this mess suffices for the food of one day. When they approach towards the
+enemy, they send out numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not be
+assaulted unawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, and
+posture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride about in apparent
+disorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimes make a show of
+precipitate flight, discharging their arrows backwards as they fly; and
+when by these means they have broken or dispersed the enemy, they suddenly
+rally their forces, and make an unexpected assault, which generally decides
+the victory, their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turn
+any way merely by a signal.
+
+If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put to death, but
+receives a certain number of blows with a cudgel, according to the measure
+of the offence; either seven, or seventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven,
+or forty-seven; though some die through the severity of this cudgelling.
+But if any one steal a horse or other thing of great value, for which he
+deserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with a sword,
+unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft nine fold. Such as have
+horses, oxen, or camels, brand them with their particular marks, and send
+them to feed in the pastures without a keeper.
+
+Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, we enter the
+champaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwards for about fifty
+days journey. The inhabitants of this country are called Medites[7], and
+are subject to the great, khan, and resemble the Tartars in their manners.
+They have no corn or wine, and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, in
+the chase of wild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which they
+subsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind of stags, which
+they render so tame that they allow themselves to be ridden. In the winter
+this country is so excessively cold, that fowls, and all other living
+things, remove to warmer regions. After forty days journey we arrive at the
+ocean, near which is a mountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, as
+a breeding place, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusement of
+the great khan.
+
+
+[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum,  Karakarin, Karakum, called
+    Holin by the Chinese. This city was laid down by Danville, with
+    acknowledged uncertainty, on the Onguin-pira river, in Lat. 44°. 50'.
+    N. Long. 107°. E.; while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in
+    Lat. 46°. 30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to the N.W.--E.
+
+[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis, whom Marco always calls
+    Tartars, appears to have been limited by the Selinga and lake Baikal
+    on the west, or perhaps reaching to the Bogdo Altai and Sayanak
+    mountains; the Soilki mountains on the east dividing them from the
+    Mandshurs, and the Ungar-daga mountains on the south, dividing them
+    from the great empire of Tangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have
+    been on the Baikal, near which there still is a place called Barsuzin.
+    Of Cursa no trace is to be found in our maps.--E.
+
+[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as called by the Germans,
+    Priester Johann, from which our English denomination, was prince of
+    the Naymanni or Karaites, a tribe residing on tke river Kallassui or
+    Karasibi, which, discharges itself into the Jenisei. His original name
+    is said to have been Togrul, and for some services to the Chinese in
+    their wars, he was honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from
+    whence arose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneously
+    written Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may have been
+    converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even have received
+    priests orders.--Forst.
+
+    It is more probable that he may have belonged to the Dalai-lama
+    religion, which some ignorant traveller, from resemblance in dress,
+    and the use of rosaries in prayer, may have supposed a Christian sect
+    residing in eastern Scythia.--E.
+
+[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst.
+
+[5] According to the genealogical history of the Tartars by Abulgasi
+    Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in 1230. In 1245 he was
+    succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, called Khen-khan by Marco in the
+    text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in 1247, who held the empire till
+    1257; when he was succeeded by Koplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned
+    thirty-five years, and died in 1292.--Harris.
+
+
+    Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which he extends to
+    sixty years, from his having received a great delegated government, a
+    long time before he became great khan, or emperor of the Tartars.--E.
+
+[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river on the east side of lake
+    Baikal, on which is a town or village named Barguzin, or Barguzinskoy
+    Ostrog, signifying the town of the Burguzians. But by the description
+    in the text, Marco appears to have comprehended the whole north-east
+    of Tartary, to the north of the Changai mountains, under the general
+    name of Bargu, in which he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at
+    the commencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation of
+    Bargu has been already more particularly described in a note.--E.
+
+[7] Metrites, Meclites, or Markaets.--Forst. No such appellation is to be
+    found in modern geography; but the discontinuance of the designations,
+    of temporary and continually changing associations of the wandering
+    tribes of the desert, is not to be wondered at, and even if their
+    records were preserved, they would be altogether unimportant.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+_Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and many other curious
+Particulars_.
+
+We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the river Etziné. Proceeding
+thence five days journey towards the east, we come to the country of
+Erginul[1] in the province of Tangut, which is subject to the great khan.
+In this kingdom there are many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks.
+It contains many cities and castles, the chief place being of the same name
+with the province.
+
+Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come to the famous city
+of Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the same name, which is tributary
+to the great khan, and is contained in the kingdom of Tangut. Some of the
+people are Christians, some of them Mahometans, and others are idolaters.
+In this country there are certain wild cattle, nearly as large as
+elephants, with black and white hair, which is short all over the body,
+except on the shoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine,
+pure white, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I brought some
+of this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen are tamed and broke
+in for labour, for which they are better adapted, by their strength, than
+any other creatures, as they bear very heavy burdens, and when yoked in the
+plough will do twice the work of others. The best musk in the world is
+found in this province, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the size
+of a goat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling an
+antelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw, above three
+inches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. When the moon is at the full,
+a tumor, or imposthume, grows on the belly of this animal, resembling a
+bladder filled with blood, and at this time people go to hunt this animal
+for the sake of this bag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sell
+at a high price, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal is
+good for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one of these
+animals to Venice.
+
+The people of this country of Singui live by trade and manufacture, and
+they have abundance of corn. They are idolaters, having fat bodies, small
+noses, black hair, and no beard, except a few scattered hairs on their
+chins. The women are exceedingly fair, and the men rather make choice of
+their wives by their beauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that when
+a great nobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often to assign
+a large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. This province extends
+twenty-five days journey in length, and is very fertile. In it there are
+exceedingly large pheasants, with tails eight or ten handbreadths long, and
+many other kinds of birds, some of which have very beautiful and finely
+variegated plumage.
+
+After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to the district of
+Egrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut, and subject to the
+great khan; it contains many cities and castles, Calacia being the
+principal city, which is inhabited by idolaters, though the Nestorian
+Christians have three churches. In this city, excellent camblets are
+manufactured from, white wool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exported
+by the merchants to all parts of the world, and particularly to Kathay.
+
+East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], in which there
+are many cities and castles. The king of this nation is called George, who
+is a Christian and a priest[7], and most of the people also are Christians;
+he is descended of Prester John, formerly mentioned under the name of
+Umcan, from whom he is the fourth in descent, and he pays tribute to the
+great khan; and ever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis,
+the great khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kings of this
+country, who do not possess all the dominions which were formerly subject
+to Prester John. There is a mixed race in this country, called Argons,
+descended of idolaters and Mahometans, who are the handsomest people in
+these parts, and are most ingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants.
+This province was the chief residence of Prester John, and there are two
+neighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives, which the
+people of Europe call Gog and Magog.
+
+Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there are many cities,
+inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians, who live by commerce
+and manufactures, and who make stuffs wrought with gold and flowers, and
+other silken stuffs of all kinds, and colours like those made among us, and
+also woollen cloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, or
+Sindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war are
+manufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, or Ydifu,
+there are great mines of silver.
+
+Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, named Iangamur[8],
+which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, the khan has a palace, in
+which he takes great delight, as he has fine gardens, with many lakes and
+rivers, and multitudes of swans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes,
+pheasants, partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here,
+some of which have black wings, others are white and bright; their feathers
+being ornamented with eyes like those of a peacock, but of a golden colour,
+with beautiful black and white necks; a third kind is not unlike our own,
+in size and appearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful,
+variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of a grey
+colour, with black and red heads. In a valley near this city, there are
+astonishing numbers of quails and partridges, for the maintenance of which
+the khan causes millet and other seeds to be sown, that they may have
+plenty of food; and a number of people are appointed to take care that no
+person may catch any of these birds, which are so tame, that they will
+flock around their keepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands.
+There are also a great number of small huts built, in different parts of
+the valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity of winter,
+where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By these means, when the
+emperor chooses to come to this part of the country, he is certain to find
+abundance of game; and during winter, he has great quantities sent to him
+on camels, or other beasts of burden.
+
+Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city of Ciandu[9], which
+was built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, and in which he had a palace
+erected, of marvellous art and beauty, ornamented with marble and other
+rare stones. One side of this palace extends to the middle of the city, and
+the other reaches to the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosed
+park, extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter but by
+the palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows, groves, and
+rivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallow deer, and other animals.
+The khan has here a mew of about two hundred ger-falcons, which he goes to
+see once a-week, and he causes them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. When
+he rides out into this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried on
+horseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when he gives command,
+a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes a stag or deer; and he
+takes great delight in this sport.
+
+In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very elegant house built all
+of wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished; on every one of the pillars
+there is a dragon gilt all over, the tail being wound around the pillar,
+while the head supports the roof, and the wings are expanded on each side.
+The roof is composed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, and
+ten yards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and so
+artificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole of this house
+can be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like a tent, and readily set
+up again, as it is all built of cane, and very light; and when it is
+erected, it is fastened by two hundred silken ropes, after the manner of
+tent cords, to prevent it from being thrown down by the winds. Every thing
+is arranged in this place for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, who
+spends three months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on the
+twenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to some other
+place, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always on the twentieth
+day of August, he is directed by the astrologers and sorcerers, to sprinkle
+a quantity of white mares milk, with his own hands, as a sacrifice to the
+gods and spirits of the air and the earth, in order that his subjects,
+wives, children, cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourish
+and prosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white, nearly
+ten thousand in number; of the milk of which none are permitted to drink,
+unless those who are descended from Zingis-khan, excepting one family,
+named _Boriat_, to whom this privilege was granted by Zingis, on account of
+their valour. These white horses are held in such reverence, that no one
+dare go before them, or disturb them in their pastures.
+
+There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth and Chesmu, who
+ascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms, and persuade the
+people they are so holy, that they can prevent any rain from falling on the
+roof. These people go about in a very filthy condition, as they never wash
+or comb themselves. They have also an abominable custom of eating the
+bodies of malefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed on
+any who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which is the name
+of their order, as our friars are named predicants, minors, and the like.
+These fellows are great sorcerers, and seem to be able to do any thing they
+please by magic art. When the great khan sits in his hall at a table, which
+is raised several feet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard of
+plate at some distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence these
+sorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khans table,
+whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have a mind to make
+feasts in honour of their idols, send word to the khan, through certain
+officers deputed for the purpose, that if their idols are not honoured with
+the accustomed sacrifices, they will send blights on the fruits of the
+ground, and murrains among the beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he will
+order a certain number of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood,
+to be delivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of the
+regular sacrifices.
+
+These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are as large as small
+cities, and several of them contain about two thousand monks, or persons
+devoted to the service of the idols, all of whom shave their beards and
+heads, and wear particular garments, to denote that they are set apart from
+the laity, for the service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. In
+their solemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carry
+lights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, or Santoms, lead
+an austere life, eating nothing but meal mingled with water, and when all
+the flour is expended, they content themselves with the bran, without any
+savoury addition. These men worship the fire, and those who follow other
+rules, allege that these austere Santoms are heretics against the religious
+law, because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. These Santoms
+shave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garments of a black, or
+bright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats, and live the severest
+life imaginable, amid every conceivable deprivation and austerity[11].
+
+
+[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this ought to be read _fifty_
+    days south-west, instead of five days east.--Forst. This may probably
+    be some district in the country of the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned
+    in our modern maps.--E.
+
+[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chinese province of Shensee.
+    --Forst.
+
+[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise to have two similar tusks
+    in the lower jaw, but this error must have been put in by some
+    ignorant editor.--E.
+
+[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted, and ought to be thus
+    read: "After eight days journey _west_ from Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we
+    come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum, or Irganekon." And he names the chief
+    town Calacia, Cailac, Gailak, or Golka.--Forst.
+
+[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copied camels by mistake.
+    --Forst.
+
+[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst
+
+[7] This foolish story of Prester John has been explained in a former
+    note.--E
+
+[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor, in lat. 45°. 30. N.
+    long. 117°. E. Marco, in these accounts of the different districts of
+    Tangut, seems to have followed no regular order, but goes from one to
+    another, as fancy or memory served.--Forst.
+
+[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu.--Forst.
+
+[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to be _eighty_ feet, perhaps a
+    typographical error for eight, as, in a subsequent passage, the table
+    of the khan is merely said to be higher than those of the rest who
+    have the honour to dine along with him; the particular height,
+    therefore, is left indeterminate in the text.--E.
+
+[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yet irrational ancient
+    superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind have vainly thought to
+    propitiate the Almighty beneficence, by ridiculous acts of austere
+    self-torment; and even the ignorant or designing followers of the pure
+    and rational religion of Jesus, have copied all the monstrous mummery,
+    and abominable practices of the heathen, which they have engrafted
+    upon his law of love and harmony.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+_Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circumstances respecting his
+Family, Government, and Dominions_.
+
+I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts of Kublai-khan, the
+great emperor of the Tartars. His name, expressed in our language,
+signifies lord of lords, and he certainly is the greatest prince in cities,
+people, and treasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineally
+descended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars, being the
+sixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256, being then
+_twenty-seven_ years of age[1] and he has long ruled this immense empire,
+with great gravity and wisdom. He is a very valiant man, strong of body and
+well exercised in arms, and evinced himself such, in many actions, before
+he attained to empire, which he effected by his superior wisdom and
+management, contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, he
+shewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general than ever the
+Tartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayed the empire, he has
+always deputed his sons and other generals upon military expeditions, and
+has only since then gone into the field on the following occasion.
+
+In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, being then thirty
+years of age, who had the command of so many countries and nations, that he
+could easily have mustered 400,000 horse, became puffed up with youthful
+vanity, determined to take away the empire from his lord, and drew into his
+schemes another great Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai,
+and commanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged to bring an
+100,000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitious project of Naiam. Both
+of these confederates began to gather forces; but this could not be done so
+secretly as not to come to the knowledge of the great khan, who immediately
+set guards on all the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forces
+which lay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperial residence. In
+twenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to 360,000 horse and
+100,000 foot, a large part of which vast force was composed of huntsmen and
+falconers, and persons belonging to the imperial household. With this army,
+Kublai marched with all expedition into the province occupied by Naiam,
+where he arrived at the end of twenty-five days march altogether
+unexpectedly, and before Naiam had completed his preparations, or had been
+joined by his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest, and
+having encouraged his men in the confident expectation of victory, by means
+of his astrologers and soothsayers, he advanced towards the encampment of
+Naiam, and appeared with his whole army on a hill, over against the camp of
+the rebels, who had not even sent out any scouts to procure intelligence.
+
+Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carried by four
+elephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men, from which the royal
+standard was displayed, on which the pictures of the sun and moon were
+pourtrayed. Dividing his army into three bodies, he kept one as a reserve
+on the hill beside himself, and sent the two wings to attack the army of
+Naiam, who resolved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousand
+horse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmen with lances
+were assigned, who had been taught to leap up behind the horsemen on any
+occasion when flight or retreat became necessary, and were instructed to
+alight, and kill the horses of the enemy during battle. The two armies
+joined in a well contested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day,
+when Naiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submitted themselves to
+the clemency of the victor; and having renewed their oaths of allegiance,
+were pardoned and dismissed, having a new governor set over them, in whose
+fidelity the great khan could confide[4].
+
+Naiam was ordered to be sewed up between two carpets, and tossed up and
+down till he died, to avoid shedding the blood of any one belonging to the
+imperial house of Zingis.
+
+Naiam is said to have been secretly baptized, and to have professed himself
+a Christian, having his principal ensign marked with the sign of the cross,
+and to have had a great number of Christians in his army who were all
+slain. On this occasion, the Jews and Mahometans, who served in the army of
+Kublai, upbraided his Christian soldiers with the disaster which had
+happened to the cross in this battle. The Christians complained to Kublai
+of this injurious conduct, who sharply reproved the Jews and Mahometans for
+their behaviour; then turning to the Christians, he addressed them as
+follows: "Surely your God and his cross would not give aid to Naiam. Be not
+you therefore ashamed of what has happened; seeing that God, who is good
+and just, did not defend iniquity and injustice. Naiam was a traitor and a
+rebel, and sought the aid of your God in his mischievous purpose: But your
+good and upright God would not favour his bad designs." Kublai-khan
+returned after this great victory to Cambalu; and on Easter day he called
+the Christians into his presence, and kissed their gospel with great
+reverence, making all his great officers and barons do the same. And he
+acts in a similar manner on the great festivals of the Mahometans, Jews
+[5], and heathens; that Segomamber-khan, the great god of the idol,
+Mahomet, Moses, and Jesus, or whosoever is greatest in heaven, may be
+favourable to him; yet he made the best shew of liking to the Christian
+faith, but alleged that the ignorance of the Nestorian priests, and the
+great interest of the sorcerers among the people, hindered him from making
+a profession of Christianity.
+
+For the better rewarding his brave and faithful soldiers, the khan has a
+military council, composed of twelve Tartar barons, who give him notice of
+the meritorious services of all commanders, that they may be promoted to
+higher stations, giving to one the command of an hundred, to another the
+command of a thousand, and to a third the command of ten thousand, and so
+on. The captain of an hundred men has a badge or tablet of silver; the
+captain of a thousand has a tablet of gold or silver gilt; and the
+commander of ten thousand has a tablet of gold, ornamented with the head of
+a lion. These tablets differ in size and weight, according to the dignity
+of the wearers. On each tablet there is an inscription of the following
+import: "By the strength and power of the Almighty God, and by the grace
+which He hath given to our empire: Let the name of the great khan be
+blessed, and let all die or be destroyed who will not obey his commands."
+Besides these badges of distinction all officers have commissions in
+writing, in which all their duties, privileges, and authorities are
+recited. When the generals appear in public, they have a cloth or canopy
+carried over their heads, and they give audience sitting on chairs of
+silver. The badge or tablet of a general, weighs three hundred _sagi_, or
+fifty ounces of gold, laving images of the sun and moon; and such as have
+the representation of a ger-falcon, may take with them a whole army for
+their guard.
+
+Kublai-khan is a comely handsome man of middle stature, with a fresh
+complexion, bright black eyes, a well formed nose, and every way well
+proportioned. He has four lawful wives, every one of whom has the title of
+empress, and the eldest born son of these wives is to succeed him in the
+empire. Each of these empresses has her own magnificent palace and peculiar
+court, and is attended by three hundred women, besides many eunuchs, and
+the suite of each extends at least to ten thousand persons. The great Khan
+has also many concubines; and every second year he sends messengers to a
+remarkably fair tribe among the Tartars named _Virgut_, to make search for
+die fairest young women among them for his use. These messengers usually
+bring with them four or five hundred young women, more or less as they see
+cause.  Examiners are appointed to take a view of all their beauties, who
+fix values upon them in proportion to their various merits, at sixteen,
+seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, or more carats; and only those are
+brought to court whose values reach to a certain appointed rate. On their
+arrival at Cambalu, other examiners again view them, and choose out twenty
+or thirty of the handsomest for the chambers of the khan. Those who are
+thus selected, are placed for some time under the care of some of the wives
+of the great barons about the court, who are directed to report whether
+they do not snore in their sleep, and if they are not offensive in smell or
+behaviour. Such as are finally approved, are divided into parties of five;
+and one such party attends in the chamber of the khan for three days and
+nights in their turn, while another party waits in an adjoining chamber to
+prepare whatever the others may command them. Those who are less prized in
+the course of these rigid examinations of their qualities, are employed in
+cookery or other offices about the palace, or are bestowed by the khan on
+his favoured officers, with large portions. The men of the country from
+whence these young women are brought, deem it a great honour when their
+daughters are found worthy of the khans regard, and esteem themselves
+unfortunate when they are rejected at court.
+
+Kublai had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives, and the first born
+of his first wife, named Zingis, would have succeeded him in the empire if
+he had not died before his father. Zingis left a son named Timur, who is a
+wise and valiant prince of great military experience, and who is destined
+to succeed his grandfather on the imperial throne, instead of his deceased
+father. By his concubines he has twenty-five sons, all of whom are daily
+exercised in martial employments, and are all promoted to high military
+posts and governments. Seven of his sons by his lawful wives are kings of
+great provinces, and rule the countries committed to their charge with
+great prudence and discretion.
+
+
+[1] In a former note, it has been mentioned, on the authority of Abulgazi-
+    khan, himself a descendant of Zingis, and prince, of Khuaresm, that
+    Kublai-khan was only the fifth emperor of the Tartars, and that he
+    ascended the throne in 1257.  The difference of date in this latter
+    circumstance is quite unimportant, and may have proceeded, either from
+    a different way of reckoning, or the delay of intelligence from so
+    vast a distance. But Kublai died in 1292, after reigning thirty-five
+    years, according to Abulgazi, and is said to have been then eighty
+    years of age. He must therefore have been forty-five years old at his
+    accession, instead of twenty-seven. Harris indeed mentions in, a note,
+    that the age of Kublai in the MSS. and even in many of the printed
+    editions, was left blank.--E.
+
+[2] In Harris, this date is 1286; but as, in a note, this war is said to
+    have occurred on occasion of the election of Kublai to the imperial
+    dignity in 1257, I have ventured to restore what seems to be the true
+    date. Besides Naiam, in 1286, thirty years of age, could not possibly
+    have been the uncle of Kublai.--E.
+
+[3] The new city of Pekin, of which hereafter.--E.
+
+[4] The followers of Naiam in this rebellion are said to have consisted of
+    four nations, or tribes of Tartars, named Ciazza, Cadi, Barscol, and
+    Sitinqui, but of whom no other information or notice remains.--E.
+
+[5] This is the only notice of the Jews in the east by Marco Polo, and
+    serves considerably to confirm the authenticity of Rabbi Banjamin;
+    who, as a Jew, felt more interest in attending to his countrymen.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+_Account of the Imperial City of Cambalu, and the Court of the Great Khan,
+or Emperor of the Tartars_.
+
+During the three winter months of December, January, and February,
+Kublai-khan generally resides in Cambalu[1] which is at the north-east
+border of Kathay. On the north part of the new city stands the great palace
+of the khan. In the first place is a great wall surrounding a vast square
+enclosure, each side being eight miles in length; the wall is environed on
+the outside by a deep ditch, and has a great gate in the middle of each
+side. Within this outer wall, there is another exactly a mile distant, each
+side of the square which it forms being six miles; and in the space between
+these two walls the soldiers attend and perform their exercises and
+evolutions. This inner square has three gates on its south side, and the
+same number on the north; the middle gate of both these sides being greater
+and more magnificent than the others, and is appropriated to the sole use
+of the khan, the others being open to all who have a right to pass. In each
+corner of this second wall, and in the middle of each side, there are very
+large and magnificent buildings, eight in all, which are appropriated as
+storehouses or arsenals for keeping the warlike weapons and furniture
+belonging to the khan: as horse trappings of all kinds in one; bows and
+arrows and cross-bows in a second; helmets, cuirasses, and leather armour
+in a third; and so on in the rest. Within this second circuit, and at a
+considerable distance, there is a third wall, likewise square, each side
+being a mile in length; this wall being ten paces high and very thick, with
+white battlements, has six gates as in the second wall. Between this third
+wall and the former there is an extensive park, with many fine trees and
+large meadows, well stocked with deer and other game, and the roads are
+raised two cubits above the meadows, to save the grass from being trodden.
+All of this park is kept in the finest order imaginable. In the four
+angles, and in the middle of each side of this interior wall, there are
+eight large and magnificent buildings, in which the khans provisions, and
+other things belonging to the court, are stored up.
+
+Within this last wall is the palace of the great khan, which is the largest
+and most magnificent of any in the world[2], extending the whole way
+between the north and south walls of the inner circuit, except an opening
+of sufficient width for the passage of the soldiers and barons attending
+the courts The palace hath no ceiling[3], but the roof is very high. The
+foundation of the pavement or floor is raised ten palms above the ground,
+and is surrounded by a marble wall of two paces wide, resembling a walk;
+and at the end of the wall without, there is a fair turret ornamented with
+pillars. In the walls of the halls and chambers, there are numerous figures
+of dragons, soldiers, birds and beasts of various kinds, and
+representations of battles, all finely carved and splendidly gilded, and
+the roof is so richly ornamented, that nothing is to be seen but splendid
+gold and imagery. In every square of the palace there is a great hall,
+capable of containing a prodigious multitude of people, and all the
+chambers are arranged and disposed in the best possible manner; the roofs
+being all richly painted red, green, azure, and all other colours. Behind
+the palace there are many great rooms and private storehouses, for the
+treasure and jewels of the khan, for the dwellings of his women, and for
+various other private purposes. Over against the palace of the khan, there
+is another, which was formerly inhabited by his deceased son Zingis, who
+held a court in all things resembling that of his father. Near the palace,
+and to the north, there is a high artificial mount, a mile in
+circumference, and an hundred paces high, planted with evergreen trees,
+which were brought from remote places, with all their roots, on the backs
+of elephants: This eminence is called the _Green Mountain_, and is
+extremely pleasant and beautiful. Where the earth was taken away to form
+this mount, there are two lakes corresponding with each other, supplied by
+a small river, and well stored with fish; and the passages of the water are
+grated in such a manner that the fish cannot escape.
+
+The city of Cambalu is seated on a great river in the province of Kathay,
+or Northern China, and its name signifies the city of the prince, having
+been the royal residence in former times. After the conquest,
+understanding, from his astrologers, that the inhabitants would rebel, the
+great khan removed the city to the other side of the river, calling the new
+city Taidu, which is twenty-four miles in circumference, every side of the
+square being six miles, and he commanded all the Kathayans to remove from
+the old city into the new one. The walls are of earth, ten paces thick at
+the bottom, and gradually tapering to three paces thick at the top, with
+white battlements. Each side of the square has three principal gates, or
+twelve in all, having sumptuous palaces built over each; and there are
+pavilions in all the angles of the wall, where the arms of the garrison are
+kept, being 1000 men for each gate. The whole buildings of this city are
+exactly squared, and all the streets are laid out in straight lines; so
+that a free prospect is preserved from gate to gate, through the whole
+city; and the houses are built on each side like palaces, with courts and
+gardens, divided according to the heads of families. In the middle of the
+whole, there is a noble building, in which a great bell is suspended, after
+the tolling of which, at a certain hour of the night, no person must go out
+of his house till the dawn of next morning, except it be for some urgent
+cause, as for assistance to a woman in labour, and even then they must
+carry lights. On the outside of the walls there are twelve large suburbs,
+extending three or four miles in length, from each gate, and there are more
+inhabitants in these suburbs than within the walls. In these, foreign
+merchants, and other strangers live, each nation having several storehouses
+and bazars, in which they lodge and keep their goods. No dead body is
+allowed to be burnt or buried within the city; but the bodies of the
+idolaters are burned without the suburbs, and the bodies of all other sects
+are buried in the same places. On account of the vast multitude of
+Mahometans who inhabit here, there are above 25,000 harlots in the city and
+suburbs: Over every 100 and every 1000 of these, there are chiefs or
+captains appointed, to keep them in order, and one general inspector over
+the whole. When any ambassador or other person, having business with the
+khan, comes to Cambalu, his whole charges are defrayed from the imperial
+treasury, and the general inspector of the harlots provides the ambassador,
+and every man of his family, a change of women every night at free cost.
+The guards of the city carry all whom they may find walking in the streets,
+after the appointed hour, to prison; and it these persons cannot give a
+valid excuse, they are beaten with cudgels, as the Bachsi allege that it is
+not right to shed mens blood; yet many persons die of this beating.
+
+There are 12,000 horse-guards, called Casitan, who attend on the person of
+the khan, more from state than from any suspicion of danger. These have
+four chief commanders, one to every 3000 men; and one commander, with his
+band of 3000, keeps guard over the khan for three days and nights, after
+which he is succeeded by another, and so on in regular order.
+
+When the khan holds a solemn court on any particular day of festival, his
+table is raised higher than all the rest, and is set on the north side of
+the hall, having his face to the south, his first queen or principal wife
+being placed on his left hand, and his sons and nephews, and other princes
+of the blood-royal being arranged on his right; but their table is placed
+so much lower, that their heads are hardly so high as the khans feet. The
+princes and other lords of the court sit lower still on the right hand; and
+the ladies being all placed in similar order on the left, those of the sons
+and kinsmen of the khan being next to the queen, and after these, the wives
+of the lords and officers, each according to their several ranks, in due
+order. By this means the khan, as he sits at table, can see all that feast
+along with him in the hall. There are not tables for all who are admitted
+to the feast, but the greatest part of the soldiers and captains sit down
+on carpets, where they are served with victuals and drink. At all the doors
+there are two gigantic fellows with cudgels, who observe carefully if any
+one touches the threshold in going in; and whoever does so, forfeits his
+garment, or receives a certain number of blows of a cudgel. Those who serve
+the khan, or who sit at his table, have their mouths covered with silken
+veils, lest their breath should touch the meat or drink which he is to use.
+When he drinks, the damsel who carries the cup kneels down, and then all
+the barons and others present kneel likewise, and all the musicians sound
+their instruments, till the khan has done drinking. If I were to describe
+all the pomp and magnificence of these festivals, and all die dainties and
+delicate dishes which are served up, I should become prolix and tiresome.
+
+The birth days of their lords are celebrated with great reverence among the
+Tartars. That of Kublai-khan, their great emperor, is held yearly, on the
+twenty-eighth day of September, and is kept with greater solemnity than any
+other festival, except that of the new year, which is celebrated on the
+first day of February, when the Tartar year commences. On his birth day the
+great khan is clothed in a most splendid robe of cloth of gold, and about
+2000 of his barons and soldiers receive, on this occasion, silken garments
+of a golden, colour, and girdles wrought in gold or silver, with each a
+pair of shoes. Some of those who are next to the khan in dignity, wear
+pearls and jewels of great value. These splendid garments are only worn on
+thirteen solemn festivals, corresponding to the thirteen moons or lunar
+months, into which the Tartar year is divided, when all the great men of
+the court are splendidly habited, like so many kings. The birth-day of the
+great khan is celebrated by all the Tartars throughout his extensive
+dominions; and on this day, all the kings, princes, governors, and nobles,
+who are subject to his authority, send presents to him in honour of the
+day, and in token of submission. Such as are desirous of obtaining any
+place of dignity or office, present their petitions to a council of twelve
+barons, appointed for that express purpose; and their decision is
+considered as equivalent to an answer from the khan in person. All the
+people of the immense dominions who acknowledge the authority of the great
+khan, whether Christians, or Jews, Mahometans, Tartars, or Pagans, are
+bound, on this anniversary, to pray solemnly to their Gods for the life,
+safety, prosperity, and health of the great khan.
+
+On the first of February, which is the commencement of the Tartar year, the
+great khan, and all the Tartars, wherever they may happen to be at the
+time, observe a very solemn feast; and all of them, both men and women, are
+desirous, on that occasion, to be clothed in white garments, that fortune
+may be favourable to them for the remainder of the year. On this occasion,
+the governors of provinces, and rulers of cities, and all who are in office
+or authority, send presents to the khan, of gold, silver, pearls, and
+precious stones, likewise of many white cloths of various kinds, and other
+white things, and many white horses. It is the custom of those who bring
+presents, if they can, to present nine times nine of every particular
+article, whether it be gold, or silver, or cloths, or horses; and on this
+occasion, the khan sometimes receives 100,000 horses. On this grand
+festival, all the elephants belonging to the great khan, about 5000, are
+brought into the great court of the palace, covered with splendid housings
+of tapestry, wrought with the figures of various kinds of birds and beasts,
+each of them bearing on their backs two chests filled with vessels of gold
+and silver; and many camels are paraded on the same occasion, covered over,
+with fine silken cloths, and loaded with other necessaries for the court.
+
+On the morning of this festival of the new year, all the captains, barons,
+soldiers[4], physicians, astrologers, governors of provinces, generals of
+armies, and other officers of the great khan, assemble before the emperor,
+in the great hall of the palace, all placed in due order, according to
+their rank and dignity, and those who have no place or employment, stand
+without, that they may see the ceremonies. One of the heads of their
+priests then rises, and cries out with a loud voice, "Bow down and adore,"
+on which all who are present bend down their foreheads to the earth. He
+then calls out aloud, "God preserve our khan, and grant him long life and
+happiness;" and all the people answer, "God grant this." Then he says, "May
+God increase and advance his empire, and preserve all his subjects, in
+peace, concord, and prosperity;" and the people say, "God grant this our
+prayer." All this is repeated four times. Then the chief priest goes
+forwards to a red table or altar, richly adorned, on which the name of the
+khan is written; and taking a censer, containing rich spices and perfumes,
+he perfumes the altar or table with great reverence, in honour of the khan,
+and returns to his place in the assembly. After the conclusion of this
+ceremony, the various gifts which have been already mentioned are presented
+to the khan. And then the tables are prepared, and a most solemn and
+splendid dinner is served up, of which all the assistants, with their
+wives, partake, eating and drinking with great joy, as formerly described.
+In the course of this solemn feast, a tame lion is led up to the khan,
+which lies down at his feet as gentle as a whelp, acknowledging and
+caressing his lord.
+
+In those three winter months during which the khan resides in Cambalu, viz.
+December, January, and February, all the imperial huntsmen who are
+maintained in the provinces contiguous to Kathay, employ themselves
+continually in hunting, and bring all the larger wild beasts, such as
+stags, deer, roe-bucks, bears, and wild-boars, to their governors or
+masters of the game; and if within thirty days journey of Cambalu, all
+these are sent in waggons to the court, being first embowelled; but such as
+are at a greater distance, send only the skins, which are used in making
+housings and other military articles.
+
+The khan has many leopards, wolves, and even lions, trained for hunting.
+These lions are larger than those which are found near Babylon, and are
+variegated with small spots of white, black, and red. They are bred to
+catch bears, boars, stags, roe-bucks, wild asses, and wild bulls, and it is
+wonderful to see their dexterity and fierceness in the chase. When these
+lions are taken out to hunt, they are carried in waggons, two together,
+accompanied by a dog, with which they are familiar. They are managed in
+this manner, because of their fierce and unruly disposition, and they must
+be drawn towards the game against the wind, otherwise the beast would scent
+them and fly away. There are also many tame eagles, so trained as to take
+hares, roe-bucks, deers, and foxes; and some of these will even seize upon
+wolves, and vex them so grievously, that the men may take them without
+danger. For the conduct of the imperial hunt, there are two great officers
+called Ciurco, or masters of the game, who are brothers, named Boyan and
+Mingan, each of whom have the command of 10,000 men; those who belong to
+one of these divisions being clothed in red, and the others in sky blue;
+and they keep various kinds of dogs, such as mastiffs and others, for
+hunting, to the number of 5000 or more. When the khan goes to hunt, one of
+these great companies of hunters stretches out on his right hand, and the
+other on his left, occupying the plain country to the breadth of a whole
+days journey, so that no beast can escape them; and when they have
+collected the game into a circle, it is delightful to see the khan going
+into the middle, with numbers of dogs, which hunt down the harts and bears,
+and other wild beasts. The masters of the game are bound by their
+commissions to send to court, between the beginning of October and end of
+March, 1000 head of beasts, besides birds of various kinds, and fish, the
+best they can procure.
+
+
+[1] The proper name of this place is Kan-balgassan, or, for shortness,
+    Khan-balga, signifying the city of the khan. Arabian authors have
+    changed it to Khan-balick or Khan-baligh; and the Italians to
+    Chanbalig, Chanbalu, Cambalu, and even Gamelecco. The Chinese call
+    this northern part of the imperial city King-tshing, which has the
+    same meaning with the Tartar name, and may be translated Kingstown.
+    Pe-king, the other part of the same city, signifies the northern court
+    or residence.--Forst.
+
+[2] The description of this palace is exceedingly confused and
+    unintelligible, most probably from erroneous transcription and
+    mistakes in translation.--E.
+
+[3] By this obscure expression, it seems to be implied that there are no
+    upper rooms.--E.
+
+[4] The soldiers mentioned here and in other places, as present in the
+    great hall upon solemn occasions, can only mean the officers of the
+    military actually on guard over the person of the khan at the time.
+    --E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XII.
+
+_Of the Magnificence of the Court of the Great Khan, and of the Manners and
+Customs of his Subjects_.
+
+In the beginning of March the great khan departs from Cambalu, and proceeds
+north towards the ocean[1], which is at the distance of two days journey,
+accompanied by 10,000 falconers, with falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and
+other birds of prey, that are trained to the sport. These falconers
+disperse themselves in companies of 100 or 200 together, and most of the
+birds that are taken are brought to the khan; who, on account of the gout,
+which has disabled him from riding, sits in a wooden house, covered with
+lions skins, and hung within with cloth of gold, which is carried on the
+backs of two elephants. For his particular recreation, he is accompanied by
+twelve choice hawks, carried by twelve nobles, many other noblemen and
+soldiers attending him. When any cranes, or pheasants, or other birds are
+seen, notice is given to the falconers who are near the khan, and by these
+to the khan himself, who then orders his travelling house to be removed,
+and the hawks to be flown at the game, and he, sitting in his bed, enjoys
+the sport. Ten thousand men attend the khan, who disperse two and two
+together, to mark where the falcons fly, that they may assist them when
+needful, and bring back them, and their game to the khan. These men are
+called _Tascoal_, which signifies watchmen or marksmen, and have a peculiar
+whistle by which they call in the hawks and falcons, so that it is not
+necessary that the falconers who let fly the hawks should follow them, as
+these tascoal are busily employed in taking up the hawks, and are very
+careful that none of them be hurt or lost. Every hawk has a small plate of
+silver attached to the foot, on which is the peculiar mark of its master,
+that each may be restored to its right owner. But if the mark be lost, or
+cannot be known, the hawk is delivered to a certain baron, whose name of
+office is Bulangazi, to whom all lost things whatever must be brought,
+otherwise the finder would be punished as a thief; and to the Bulangazi all
+who have lost any thing make application. This man is distinguished by a
+peculiarly conspicuous ensign, that he may be easily found out in so
+numerous an assemblage.
+
+While thus busily employed in hawking, the royal retinue came at length to
+a great plain called Carzarmodin, where the tents of the khan and all the
+courtiers are pitched, to the number of 10,000 or more. The grand pavilion
+of the khan is so large, that 10,000 men might stand within it, besides
+barons and noblemen. It is placed with its entrance to the south, supported
+upon curiously carved pillars, and is covered on the outside with the skins
+of lions and other wild beasts, to keep out the rain; but the whole inside
+is lined with sables and ermines, to an immense value. For so precious are
+these skins esteemed, that a sufficient number to make one garment only
+will sometimes cost 2000 gold sultanies, and the Tartars call the sable the
+queen of furs. All the cords of the imperial pavilions are of silk. Around
+this there are other pavilions for the sons, wives, and concubines of the
+khan. At a farther distance there are tents for the falcons, ger-falcons,
+hawks, and other birds of game; and the whole encampment seems at a
+distance like a great city, or the station of a large army. The khan
+remains all the month of March in that plain, employed in hawking; and the
+multitude of beasts and fowls which are taken in that time is quite
+incredible. From the beginning of March to the month of October, no person
+is permitted to hunt within five days journey of this plain of Carzarmodin
+in one direction, ten in another, and fifteen in a third, nor to keep any
+hawk or hunting dog, neither to use any device or engine whatever, for
+taking any stag, deer, roe-buck, hare, or other game, lest the breed should
+be injured; by which means the game is always in great abundance.
+
+It is quite wonderful to behold what numbers of merchants and other people,
+and what astonishing quantities of merchandize and goods of all sorts are
+to be seen in Cambalu. The money of the great khan is not of gold or
+silver, or other metal, but of a species of paper, which is thus made: They
+take the middle Dark of the mulberry tree, which they make firm in a
+particular manner, and this is cut out into round pieces of various sizes,
+on which the seal or mark of the khan is impressed. Of this paper money, an
+immense quantity is fabricated in the city of Cambalu, sufficient to supply
+the currency of the whole empire; and no person, under pain of death, may
+coin or spend any other money, or refuse to accept of this, in all the
+kingdoms and countries which are subject to his dominions. All who come
+into his dominions are prohibited from using any other money, so that all
+merchants coming from countries however remote, must bring with them gold,
+silver, pearls, or precious stones, for which they receive the khans paper
+money in exchange: And as that money is not received in other countries,
+they must exchange it again in the empire of the great khan, for
+merchandize to carry with them on their return. The khan pays all salaries,
+stipends, and wages to his officers, servants, and army, in this money, and
+whatever is required for the service of his court and household is paid for
+in the same. By all these means, there is no sovereign in the world who
+equals the great khan in extent of treasure; as he expends none in the
+mint, or in any other way whatever.
+
+The great khan has a council of war, composed of twelve barons, as formerly
+mentioned, who direct all martial affairs, and have the power of promoting
+or disgracing officers and soldiers as they think proper. Their office is
+called _Thai_, or the high court or tribunal, as no person in the empire is
+superior to them except the great khan. Other twelve barons are appointed
+as counsellors for the thirty-four provinces, into which the vast empire of
+the khan is divided; these have a splendid palace in Cambalu as their
+office, in which there is a judge for each province, and many notaries.
+This tribunal chooses proper persons to be appointed governors of the
+provinces, and presents their names to the khan for confirmation. They
+likewise have the charge of the collection and expenditure of the public
+treasure. The name of their office is _Singh_, or the second court, which
+is subordinate only to the khan, yet is considered as less noble than the
+_Thai_ or military tribunal.
+
+Many public roads lead from Cambalu to all the neighbouring provinces; and
+on every one of these there are inns or lodgings, called _lambs_, built at
+the distance of every twenty-five or thirty miles, which serve as post-
+houses, having large fair courts, and many chambers, furnished with beds
+and provisions, every way fit to lodge and entertain great men, and even
+kings. The provisions are furnished from the circumjacent country, out of
+the tributes. At every one of these, there are four hundred horses, two
+hundred of which are kept ready for use in the stables, and the other two
+hundred at grass, each division for a month alternately. These horses are
+destined for the use of ambassadors and messengers, who leave their tired
+horses, and get fresh ones at every stage. In mountainous places, where
+there were no villages, the khan has established colonies of about ten
+thousand people in each, in the neighbourhood of these post-houses, that
+they may cultivate the ground, and supply provisions. These excellent
+regulations extend to the utmost limits of the empire, in all directions,
+so that there are about ten thousand imperial inns or lambs in the whole
+empire; and the number of horses appointed in these, for the service of
+messengers, exceeds two hundred thousand[2]; by which means, intelligence
+is forwarded to the court without delay, from all parts of the empire. If
+any person should wonder how so many beasts and men can be procured and
+provided for, let him consider that the Mahometans and pagans have many
+women, and great numbers, of children, some having even so many as thirty
+sons, all able to follow them armed into the field. As for victuals, they
+sow rice, panik, and millet, which yield an hundred after one, and they
+allow no land that is fit to carry crops to remain uncultivated. As wheat
+does not thrive in this country it is little sown, and they use no bread,
+but feed upon the formerly mentioned grains, boiled in milk, or made into
+broth along with flesh. Their horses continually increase, insomuch, that
+every Tartar soldier carries six, eight, or more horses into the field for
+his own use, which he rides upon in their turns. All cities that are
+adjoining to rivers or lakes, are ordered to have ferry-boats in constant
+readiness for the posts; and those which are on the borders of deserts,
+must supply horses and provisions for such as have to pass through these
+deserts; for which service, they are allowed a reasonable compensation from
+the state.
+
+In cases of great conscience, the messenger has a gerfalcon badge, formerly
+mentioned, and is so equipped, that he will ride 200, or 250 miles in a day
+and night, being attended in dark nights by persons who run along with him
+on foot, carrying lights. On approaching a post-house, the messenger sounds
+a horn, that a fresh horse or horses, according to his company, may be
+brought out, and ready to mount immediately. These speedy messengers have
+then bellies, loins, and heads firmly swathed, and they always travel as
+fast as their horses can go; and such as are able to endure this excessive
+riding, are held in great estimation, as nothing is more admired among the
+Tartars than good horsemanship.
+
+Between the _lambs_, or large post-houses, there are other habitations, at
+three or four miles distance from each other, where foot-posts are
+established, every one of whom has his girdle hung round with shrill
+sounding bells. These are always in readiness; and when dispatched with the
+khans letters, they convey them with great speed to the next foot-post
+station, where they hear the sound of the bells from a distance, and some
+one is always in readiness to take the letters, and to run on to the next
+station: Thus, by constant change of swift runners, the letters are
+conveyed with great dispatch to their destinations. By this means, the khan
+often receives letters or new fruits in two days, from the distance often
+ordinary days journey: As for instance, fruits growing at Cambalu in the
+morning, are conveyed to Xandu by the night of the next day. All the people
+employed in the posts, besides being exempted from all tribute, have an
+ample recompense for their labour from the gatherer of the khans rents.
+There are inspectors employed, who examine the state and conduct of these
+posts every month, and are empowered to punish those who are guilty of
+faults.
+
+The khan sends every year to the different provinces of his empire, to
+inquire whether any injuries have been sustained to the crops by tempests,
+locusts, worms, or any other calamity; and when any province or district
+has suffered damage, the tribute is remitted for that year, and he even
+sends corn for food and seed from the public granaries: For in years of
+great abundance, he purchases large quantities of grain, which is carefully
+preserved for three or four years, by officers appointed for the purpose;
+by which means, when a scarcity occurs in any province, the defect may be
+supplied from the granaries of the khan in another province. On these
+occasions, he orders his grain to be sold at a fourth part of the market
+price, and great care is taken to keep his granaries always well supplied.
+When any murrain attacks the cattle of one of the provinces, the deficiency
+is supplied from the tenths which he receives in the other provinces. If
+any beast or sheep happens to be killed by lightning in a flock or herd, he
+draws no tribute from that flock, however great, for three years, under an
+idea that God is angry with the owner of the herd.
+
+That travellers may discern, and be able to discover the road in
+uninhabited places, trees are planted at convenient distances, along all
+the principal roads; and in the sandy and desert places, where trees will
+not grow, stones and pillars are erected to direct the passengers, and
+officers are appointed to see that all these things are performed.
+According to the opinion of the astrologers, the planting of trees conduces
+to lengthen the age of man, and therefore, the khan is the more induced to
+encourage their propagation by his order and example.
+
+In the province of Cathay, the people make excellent drink of rice and
+certain spices, which even excels wine in flavour; and those who drink too
+much of it become sooner drunk than with wine[3]. Through this whole
+province, certain black stones are dug from the mountains, which burn like
+wood, and preserve fire a long time, and if kindled in the evening, will
+keep on fire all night[4]; and many people use these stones in preference
+to wood, because, though the country abounds in trees, there is a great
+demand for wood for other purposes.
+
+The great khan is particularly attentive to the care of the poor in the
+city of Cambalu. When he hears of any honourable family that, has fallen to
+decay through misfortune, or of any who cannot work, and have no
+subsistence, he gives orders for issuing a whole years subsistence,
+together with garments, both for winter and summer, to the heads of those
+distressed families. There is an appropriate office or tribunal for this
+imperial bounty, to which those who have received the warrants or orders of
+the khan apply for relief. The khan receives the tenths of all wool, silk,
+and hemp, which he causes to be manufactured into stuffs of all kinds, in
+houses set apart for this purpose; and as all artificers of every
+description are bound to work for him one day in every week, he has immense
+quantities of every kind of useful commodity in his storehouses. By these
+means, likewise, there are similar imperial manufactures in every city of
+the empire, in which clothing is made from his tithe wool for his
+innumerable soldiers. According to their ancient customs, the Tartars gave
+no alms, and were in use to upbraid those who were in poverty, as hated of
+God. But the priests of the idolaters, especially those who have been
+formerly mentioned under the name of Bachsi, have convinced the khan that
+charity is a good work, and an acceptable service to God; so that in his
+court food and raiment are never denied to those who ask, and there is no
+day in which there is less than the value of 20,000 crowns distributed in
+acts of charily, particularly in rice, millet, and panik; by which
+extensive benevolence the khan is esteemed as a god among his subjects.
+
+There are in Cambalu about five thousand astrologers and diviners,
+Christians, Mahometans, and Kathayans, all of whom are provided yearly by
+the khan in food and raiment. These have an Astrolabe, on which all the
+signs of the planets are marked, together with the hours, and most minute
+subdivisions of the whole year. By this instrument, these astrologers, each
+religion apart, observe the course of the year, according to every moon,
+noting the prognostications of the weather, yet always referring to God, to
+do as they predict or otherwise, according to his pleasure. They write down
+upon square tablets, called _Tacuini_, all those things which are to fall
+out during the year, which they sell to any who will purchase; and those
+who are most fortunate in their predictions are held in the highest honour.
+If any one intends to commence an important labour, or to undertake a
+distant journey, and is anxious to be certified of the event, he has
+recourse to the astrologers to read, as they pretend, his destiny in the
+heavens, for this purpose, being instructed in the precise date of birth of
+the person consulting them, they calculate the present aspect of the
+constellation which ruled at his birth, and foretel that good or evil will
+flow from his intentions. The Tartars compute time by cycles of twelve
+lunar years; calling the first of each series the year of the lion; the
+second of the ox; the third of the dragon; the fourth of the dog; and so on
+through the whole twelve, and when these are gone through, they begin the
+series anew. Thus, if a man is asked when he was born, he answers that it
+was on such a division of such an hour, day, and moon, in the year of the
+lion, ox, or so forth. All this their fathers set down exactly in a book.
+
+It has been already said that the Tartars are idolaters. Each man of any
+consequence has a table aloft in the wall of one of his chambers, on which
+a name is written, to signify the great God of Heaven, whom he adores once
+each day, with a censer of burning incense; and lifting up his hands, and
+thrice gnashing his teeth, he prays to God to grant him health and
+understanding; this being the only petition addressed to the Almighty, of
+whom they pretend not to make any similitude. But they have a statue or
+image on the ground, called _Natigai_, the god of earthly things, and
+images of his wife and children. This is likewise worshipped with incense,
+gnashing of teeth, and lifting up the hands; and from this, they beg for
+favourable weather, productive crops, increase of children, and all manner
+of worldly prosperity. They believe the soul to be immortal, and that when
+a man dies, his soul enters into another body, better or worse, according
+to the merits or demerits of his former life: As that a poor man becomes a
+gentleman, then a prince or lord, and so higher, till at length the soul is
+absorbed in God. Or if he have deserved ill, it descends to animate the
+body of a lower and poorer man, after that the body of a dog, always
+descending to the lowest rank of baseness. In their manners, the language
+of the Tartars is comely; they salute one another with grace and
+cheerfulness, conducting themselves honestly, and they feed in a cleanly
+manner. They bear great reverence to their parents, and if any one be
+undutiful or regardless of their necessities, they are liable to the
+jurisdiction of a public tribunal, especially assigned for the punishment
+of ungrateful or disobedient children. Persons condemned to imprisonment
+for crimes, are discharged after three years confinement, when they are
+marked on the cheek, that they may be known as malefactors.
+
+All barons or others, who approach within half a mile of the residence of
+the great khan, must be still and quiet, no noise or loud speech being
+permitted in his presence or neighbourhood. Every one who enters the hall
+of presence, must pull off his boots, lest he soil the carpets, and puts on
+furred buskins of white leather, giving his other boots to the charge of
+servants till he quits the hall; and every one carries a small covered
+vessel to spit in; as no one dare spit in the halls of the palace.
+
+
+[1] The deserts or Tartarian wastes are probably meant in this passage.--E.
+
+[2] Instead of this number, 10,000 post-houses, at 400 horses each, would
+    require four millions of horses. The number and proportion of horses
+    in the text would only supply 500 inns; or would allow only 20 horses
+    each to 10,000 inns. The text, therefore, must be here corrupted.--E.
+
+[3] This must allude to a species of corn-spirits or brandy, distilled from
+    rice, fermented with water, named Arrak.--E.
+
+[4] This evidently points out the use of coal in northern China.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIII.
+
+_Some Account of the Provinces of Kathay, or Northern China, and of other
+neighbouring Countries subject to the Great Khan[1]_.
+
+Ten miles from Cambalu is a great river called Pulisangan[2], which empties
+itself into the ocean, and by which many vessels ascend with merchandize to
+a certain handsome bridge, all built of serpentine stone, curiously
+wrought. This bridge is 300 paces in length, and eight paces broad, so that
+ten men may ride abreast. It is secured on each side with a wall of marble,
+ornamented with a row of pillars. The pillar on each side, at the summit of
+the bridge, has the image of a great lion on the top, and another at its
+base; and all the others, which are at intervals of a pace and a half, have
+figures of lions on their tops only. After passing this bridge, and
+proceeding to the westwards for thirty miles, continually passing through
+vineyards, and fertile fields, with numerous palaces on all sides, you come
+to the fair and large city of Gouza, in which there are many idol temples,
+and in which cloth of gold and silk, and the purest and finest cambrics or
+lawns, are manufactured. It contains many common inns for strangers and
+travellers; and the inhabitants are very industrious in trade and
+manufactures. A mile beyond this city, the road divides into two; that to
+the west leading through the province of Kathay, and that to the south-east
+towards the province of Mangi, from Gouza to the kingdom of Tain-fu[3]. In
+this journey, you ride for ten days through Kathay, always finding many
+fair and populous cities, well cultivated fields, and numerous vineyards,
+from whence all Kathay is supplied with wine; and many plantations of
+mulberry trees, for rearing silk worms. Tain-fu is the name of the kingdom
+or province, and of the chief city, which is large and handsomely built,
+carrying on much trade, and containing great magazines of military stores
+for the khans army. Seven days journey farther to the west, there is a
+pleasant country, having many cities and castles, and carrying on great
+trade. We then come to a very large city, called Pian-fu, in which there is
+vast abundance of silk and much trade.
+
+Westwards from Pian-fu, there is a pleasantly situated castle called
+Thaigin, containing a spacious palace with a fine hall, in which there are
+portraits of all the famous kings who have reigned in this country. This
+castle and palace are said to have been built by a king named Dor, who was
+very powerful, and was only attended on by great numbers of young damsels,
+who used to carry him about the castle in a small light chariot. Confiding
+in the strength of this castle, which he believed impregnable, Dor rebelled
+against Umcan, to whom he was tributary. But seven of his courtiers or
+attendants, in whom he placed confidence, made him prisoner one day while
+hunting, and delivered him to Umcan, who dressed him in mean clothes, and
+set him under a strong guard to tend his cattle. At the end of two years,
+Umcan called Dor into his presence, and after a severe reproof and
+admonition for his future obedience, dressed him in princely robes, and
+sent him back to his kingdom with a powerful escort.
+
+About twenty miles beyond the castle of Thaigin, we come to the great river
+Caramaran[4]; which is so broad and deep that it has no bridge between this
+place and the ocean. There are many cities, towns, and castles, on the
+banks of this river, which carry on great trade. The country abounds in
+ginger and silk; and fowls of all kinds, particularly pheasants, are so
+plentiful, that three of them may be purchased for a Venetian groat. Along
+the banks of this river, there grow vast quantities of great reeds or
+hollow canes[5], some of which, are a foot or eighteen inches round, and
+are applied to many useful purposes. Two days journey beyond this river is
+the famous city of Carianfu, in which great quantities of silks and cloth
+of gold are made. This country produces ginger, galuigal, spike, and many
+spices; and the inhabitants are idolaters. Proceeding seven days journey
+westwards, we pass through many cities, and towns, and fine fields, and
+gardens, and everywhere there are plantations of mulberries for feeding
+silk-worms, and abundance of wild beasts and fowls. The inhabitants are
+mostly idolaters, with some Christians, or Nestorians, and Saracens or
+Mahometans. Continuing the journey for seven days, we come to a great city
+called Quenzanfu, which is the capital of the kingdom of that name, in
+which many famous kings have reigned. At the present time Mangalu, one of
+the sons of the great khan, has the supreme command of this kingdom. This
+country yields great plenty of silk, and cloth of gold, and all things
+necessary for the subsistence of an army, and the maintenance of its
+numerous inhabitants. The people are mostly idolaters, but there are some
+Christians and Mahometans among them. Five miles from the city stands the
+palace of Mangalu, in a fine plain, watered by numerous springs and
+rivulets, and abounding in game. This fine palace, all painted with gold
+and azure, and adorned with numberless statues, stands in the middle of a
+fine park of five miles square, surrounded by a high wall, in which all
+kinds of beasts and fowls are to be found in abundance; and in this place
+Mangalu and his courtiers take great delight to hunt. He follows his
+fathers excellent example, in conducting his government with great equity
+and justice, and is much beloved and respected by the people.
+
+Proceeding three days to the westward, from the palace of Mangalu, through
+a very beautiful plain, adorned with many cities and castles, which have
+great abundance of silk and other manufactures, we come to a mountainous
+district of the province of Chunchian, in the vallies of which there are
+many villages and hamlets; the inhabitants being idolaters and husbandmen.
+In these mountains they hunt lions, bears, stags, roebucks, deer, and
+wolves. The plain is two days over, and for twenty days journey to the
+west, the country is well inhabited, and finely diversified with mountains,
+vallies, and woods. At the end of these twenty days, there lies, towards
+the west, a populous province called Achbaluch Mangi, or the _white_ city
+on the borders of Mangi. On entering this province, we find a plain of two
+days journey in extent, and containing a prodigious number of villages;
+beyond which the country is diversified with mountains, vallies, and woods,
+yet all well inhabited. In these mountains there are plenty of wild beasts,
+among which are the animals that produce musk. This province produces rice
+and other grain, and abundance of ginger. After twenty days journey through
+these hills, we come to a plain and a province on the confines of Mangi,
+called Sindinfu. The city of the same name is very large, and exceedingly
+rich, being twenty miles in circumference; of old, this city and province
+was governed by a race of rich and powerful kings. On the death of an old
+king, he left the succession among three sons, who divided the city into
+three parts, each surrounded by its own wall, yet all contained within the
+former wall of the city; but the great khan subjected the city and province
+to his dominion. Through this city and its environs there run many rivers,
+some half a mile over, and some an hundred paces, all very deep; and on
+these there are many handsome stone bridges, eight paces broad, having
+marble pillars on each side, supporting wooden roofs, and on every bridge
+there are houses and shops. After passing this city, all these rivers unite
+into one great river called the Quian, or Kian, which runs from hence one
+hundred days journey before it reaches the ocean; having many cities and
+castles on its banks, with innumerable trading vessels. Proceeding four
+days journey farther, we pass through a fine plain, containing many cities,
+castles, and villages, and several beautiful green lawns or pastures, in
+which there are many wild beasts.
+
+Beyond this last mentioned plain is the wide country of Thebet, or Thibet,
+which the great khan vanquished and laid waste; and in it there are many
+ruined cities and castles, for the space of twenty days journey, which has
+become an uninhabited wilderness, full of lions and other wild beasts.
+Those who have to travel through this country must carry victuals along
+with them, and must use precautions to defend themselves against the
+ferocious animals of the desert. Very large canes grow all over this
+country, some of which are ten paces long and three palms thick, and as
+much between the knots or joints. When travellers take up their quarters
+for the night, they take large bundles of the greener reeds or canes, which
+they put upon the top of a large fire, and they make such a crackling noise
+in burning as to be heard for two miles off by which the wild beasts are
+terrified and fly from the place; but it has sometimes happened that the
+horses, and other beasts belonging to the merchants or travellers, have
+been frightened by this noise, and have run away from their masters: for
+which reason prudent travellers use the precaution of fettering or binding
+their feet together, to prevent them from running off.
+
+
+[1] Owing to the prodigious revolutions which have taken place in the East
+    since the time of Marco, and the difference of languages, by which
+    countries, provinces, towns, and rivers have received very dissimilar
+    names, it is often difficult or impossible to ascertain, with any
+    precision, the exact geography of the relations and descriptions in
+    the text. Wherever this can be done with any tolerable probability of
+    usefulness it shall be attempted.--E.
+
+[2] The Pei-ho, which runs into the gulf of Pekin, near the head of the
+    Yellow sea.--E.
+
+[3] Kathay, or Northern China, contained the six northern provinces, and
+    Mangi or Southern China, the nine provinces to the south of the river
+    Kiang, Yang-tse-Kiang or Kian-ku. Tain-fu may possibly be Ten-gan-fu:
+    Gouza it is impossible to ascertain, unless it may be Cou-gan, a small
+    town, about thirty miles south from Peking or Cambalu. I suspect in
+    the present itinerary, that Marco keeps on the north of the Hoang-ho.
+    --E.
+
+[4] Hara-moran, or Hoang-he. Thaigin may therefore be Tan-gin, about twenty
+    miles east from that river, in Lat. S6-1/4 N. In which case, Pian-fu
+    may be the city of Pin-yang; and Tain-fu, Tay-uen.--E.
+
+[5] Bamboos.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIV.
+
+_An account of Thibet, and several other Provinces, with the Observations
+made by the Author in passing through them_.
+
+At the end of twenty days journey through the before mentioned depopulated
+country, we met with cities and many villages, inhabited by an idolatrous
+people, whose manners are so licentious that no man marries a wife who is a
+virgin. Hence when travellers and strangers from other countries come among
+them, the women of the country who have marriageable daughters bring them
+to the tents of the strangers, and entreat them to enjoy the company of
+their daughters so long as they remain in the neighbourhood. On these
+occasions the handsomest are chosen, and those who are rejected return home
+sorrowful and disappointed. The strangers are not permitted to carry away
+any of these willing damsels, but must restore them faithfully to their
+parents; and at parting the girl requires some toy or small present, which
+she may shew as a token of her condition; and she who can produce the
+greatest number of such favours has the greatest chance of being soon and
+honourably married. When a young woman dresses herself out to the best
+advantage, she hangs all the favours she may have received from her
+different lovers about her neck, and the more acceptable she may have been
+to many such transitory lovers, so much the more is she honoured among her
+countrymen. But after marriage they are never suffered to have intercourse
+with strangers, and the men of the country are very cautious of giving
+offence to each other in this matter.
+
+The people of this country are idolaters, who live by hunting, yet
+cultivate the ground, and are much addicted to stealing, which they account
+no crime; they are clothed in the skins of wild beasts, or in coarse hempen
+garments, having no money, not even the paper money of the khan, but they
+use pieces of coral instead of money. Their language is peculiar to
+themselves. The country of which we now speak belongs to Thibet, which is a
+country of vast extent, and has been some time divided into eight kingdoms,
+in which are many cities and towns, with many mountains, lakes, and rivers,
+in some of which gold is found. The women wear coral necklaces, which they
+likewise hang about the necks of their idols. In this country there are
+very large dogs, almost as big as asses, which are employed in hunting the
+wild beasts, especially wild oxen called Boyamini. In this province of
+Thibet there are many kinds of spices which are never brought into Europe.
+This, like all the other provinces formerly mentioned, is subject to the
+great khan.
+
+On the west of the province of Thibet lies the province of Caindu, which
+was formerly governed by kings of its own, but is now ruled by governors
+appointed by the great khan. By the west, it is not to be understood that
+these countries are actually in the west; but that, as we travelled to them
+from those parts which are situate between the east and the north-east, and
+consequently came thither westwards, we therefore reckon them as being in
+the west[1]. The people are idolaters and have many cities, of which the
+principal is called Caindu, after the name of the province, and is built on
+the frontiers. In this country there is a large salt lake, which produces
+such extraordinary abundance of white pearls, but not round, that no person
+is allowed to fish for them under pain of death, without a licence from the
+great khan, lest by becoming too plentiful, the price should be too much
+reduced. There is likewise a mountain producing turquoises, the digging for
+which is restrained under similar regulations. There are great numbers of
+the animals called _gadderi_ in this province, which produce musk. The lake
+which produces pearls is likewise very abundant in fish, and the whole
+country is full of wild beasts of many kinds, as lions, bears, stags, deer,
+ounces, and roebucks, and many kinds of birds. Cloves also are found in
+great plenty, which are gathered from small trees, resembling the bay-tree
+in boughs and leaves, but somewhat longer and straighter, having white
+flowers. The cloves when ripe are black, or dusky, and very brittle. The
+country likewise produces ginger and cinnamon in great plenty, and several
+other spices which are not brought to Europe. It has no wine, but in place
+of it, the inhabitants make a most excellent drink of corn or rice,
+flavoured with various spices.
+
+The inhabitants of this country are so besotted to their idols, that they
+fancy they secure their favour by prostituting their wives, sisters, and
+daughters to strangers. When any stranger comes among them, all the masters
+of families strive to procure him as a guest, after which, they leave the
+stranger to be entertained by the females of the family, and will not
+return to their own house till after his departure; and all this is done in
+honour of their idols, thinking that they secure their favour by this
+strange procedure. The principal money in this country is gold, unstamped,
+and issued by weight. But their ordinary money consists in solid small
+loaves of salt, marked with the seal of the prince; and of this merchants
+make vast profits in remote places, which have abundance of gold and musk,
+which the inhabitants are eager to barter for salt, to use with their meat.
+
+Leaving this province, we proceeded fifteen days journey farther, passing
+through many cities and villages, the inhabitants of which have the same
+customs with those of Caindu; and at length we came to a river called
+_Brius_, which is the boundary of the province of Caindu. In this river
+gold dust is found in great abundance, by washing the sand of the river in
+vessels, to cleanse the gold from earth and sand. On the banks of this
+river, which runs direct to the ocean, cinnamon grows in great plenty.
+Having passed the river Brius, we come westwards to the province of
+Caraian, which contains seven kingdoms, and is under the command of
+Sentamur, as viceroy for his father the great khan. This prince is young,
+rich, wise, and just. The country produces excellent horses, is well
+peopled and has a peculiar and very difficult language; the inhabitants are
+idolaters, who live on their cattle and the produce of the earth. After
+proceeding five days journey through this country, we came to the great and
+famous city of Jaci[2]. In this large city there are many merchants and
+manufacturers, and many different kinds of people, idolaters, Christians,
+Nestorians, and Mahometans; but the great majority are idolaters. It has
+abundance of corn and rice, but the inhabitants only use bread made from
+rice, as they esteem it more wholesome; they make a drink also from rice,
+mixed with several kinds of spices, which is very pleasant. They use white
+porcelain instead of money, and certain sea shells for ornaments[3]. Much
+salt is made in this country from the water of salt wells, from which the
+viceroy derives great profit. There is a lake in this country 100 miles in
+circuit, which has great quantities of fish. The people of this country eat
+the raw flesh of beef, mutton, buffalo, and poultry, cut into small pieces
+and seasoned with excellent spices, but the poorer sort are contented with
+garlic shred down among their meat. The men have no objections to permit
+the intercourse of strangers with their wives, on condition only of being
+previously asked for their consent.
+
+We departed from Jaci or Lazi, and travelling westwards for ten days
+journey, we came to a province called Carazan after the name of its chief
+city, which is governed by a son of the great khan, named Cogatin[4]. The
+rivers in this province yield large quantities of washed gold, and,
+likewise in the mountains, solid gold is found in veins; and the people
+exchange gold against silver, at the rate of one pound of gold for six
+pounds of silver[5]. The ordinary currency of the country is in porcelain
+shells brought from India. In this country there are very large serpents,
+some of which are ten paces long, and ten spans in thickness, having two
+little feet before, near the head, with three talons or claws like lions,
+and very large bright eyes[6]. Their jaws have large sharp teeth, and their
+mouths are so wide, that they are able to swallow a man; nor is there any
+man, or living creature, that can behold these serpents without terror.
+Some of these are only eight, six, or five paces in length. In the day-time
+they lurk in holes to avoid the great heat, going out only in the night in
+search of prey, and they devour lions, wolves, or any other beasts they can
+find, after which they go in search of water, leaving such a track in the
+sands, owing to their weight, as if a piece of timber had been dragged
+along. Taking advantage of this circumstance, the hunters fasten great iron
+spikes under the sand in their usual tracks, by means of which they are
+often wounded and killed. The crows or vultures proclaim the serpents fate
+by their cries, on which the hunters come up and flea the animal, taking
+out his gall, which is employed as a sovereign remedy for several diseases,
+given to the quantity of a pennyweight in wine; particularly against the
+bite of a mad dog, for women in labour, for carbuncles, and other
+distempers. They likewise get a good price for the flesh, which is
+considered as very delicate.
+
+ This province breeds many stout horses, which are carried by the merchants
+into India. They commonly take out a bone from the tails of their horses,
+to prevent them from being able to lash them from side to side, as they
+esteem it more seemly for the tails to hang down. The natives, who are
+idolaters, use long stirrups in riding, like the French; whereas the
+Tartars and other nations use short stirrups, because they rise up when
+they discharge their arrows. In their wars, they use targets and other
+defensive armour made of buffalo hides; and their offensive weapons are
+lances and crossbows, with poisoned arrows. Some of them, who are great
+villains, are said always to carry poison with them, that if taken
+prisoners, they may swallow it to procure sudden death, and to avoid
+torture. On which occasion, the great lords force them to swallow dogs dung
+that they may vomit up the poison. Before they were conquered by the great
+khan, when any stranger of good appearance happened to lodge with them,
+they used to kill him in the night; believing that the good properties of
+the murdered person would afterwards devolve to the inhabitants of the
+house; and this silly notion has occasioned the death of many persons.
+
+Travelling still westwards from the province of Carazam, or Cariam, we
+came, after five days journey, to the province of Cardandan, of which the
+chief city is called Vociam[7]. The inhabitants, who are subject to the
+great khan, use porcelain shells, and gold by weight, instead of money. In
+that country, and many other surrounding provinces, there are no silver
+mines, and the people give an ounce of gold for five ounces of silver, by
+which exchange the merchants acquire great profits. The men and women cover
+their teeth with thin plates of gold, so exactly fitted, that the teeth
+seem as if they were actually of solid gold. The men make a kind of lists
+or stripes round their legs and arms, by pricking the places with needles,
+and rubbing in a black indelible liquid, and these marks are esteemed as
+great decorations. They give themselves up entirely to riding and hunting,
+and martial exercises, leaving all the household cares to the women, who
+are assisted by slaves, whom they purchase or take in their wars.
+Immediately after delivery, the woman leaves her bed and washes the child;
+after which, the husband lies down in her bed with the child, where he
+remains for forty days, during all which time, he receives the visits and
+compliments of the friends and neighbours. The wife looks after the house,
+carries broth to her husband in bed, and suckles the child. Their wine is
+made from rice and spiceries; and their ordinary food is rice and raw
+flesh, seasoned with spiceries or garlic, as formerly mentioned. There are
+no idols in this province, except that every family adores the oldest man
+in the house, from whom they say that they and all they have are come. The
+country consists mostly of wild and rugged mountains; into which strangers
+seldom come, because the air, especially in summer, is exceedingly noxious.
+They have no letters, but all their contracts and obligations are recorded
+by tallies of wood, one counterpart being kept by each party, and when the
+contract is fulfilled the tallies are destroyed.
+
+There are no physicians in this province or in Caindu, Vociam, or Caraiam;
+but when any one is sick, the magicians or priests of the idols are
+assembled, to whom the sick person gives an account of his disease. Then
+the magicians dance to the sound of certain instruments, and bellow forth
+songs in honour of their idols, till at length, the devil enters into one
+of these who are skipping about in the dance. The dance is then
+discontinued, and the rest of the magicians consult with him who is
+possessed as to the cause of the disease, and what ought to be done for its
+remedy. The devil answers by this person, "because the sick person has done
+this or that, or has offended some particular idol." Then the magicians
+entreat this idol to pardon the sick person, engaging, if he recover, that
+he shall offer a sacrifice of his own blood. But if the devil or the priest
+thinks that the patient cannot recover, he says that the person has so
+grievously offended the idol, that he cannot be appeased by any sacrifices.
+If, on the other hand, he thinks the sick person may recover, he orders an
+offering of a certain number of rams with black heads, to be prepared by so
+many magicians and their wives, and offered up to appease the idol. On this
+the kinsmen of the sick person immediately execute the orders of the devil.
+The rams are killed, and their blood sprinkled in the air. The assembled
+magicians light up great candles, and perfume the whole house with the
+smoke of incense and aloes wood, and sprinkle some of the broth made from
+the flesh, mixed with spices, into the air, as the portion of the idols.
+When these things are performed, they again skip and dance in honour of the
+idol, singing and making a horrible noise; and then ask the possessed
+priest whether the idol is now satisfied. If he answer in the negative,
+they prepare to obey any farther commands; but if he answer that the idol
+is satisfied, they sit down to table, and eat the flesh which was offered
+to the idol and drink the liquors; after which, the magicians being paid
+for their trouble, every one departs to his own home. If the sick person
+recover through the providence of God, he attributes the restoration of his
+health to the idol; but if he die, it is then supposed that the idol had
+been defrauded, by some of the assistants having eaten of the sacrifices
+before all the rites were duly performed. This ceremony is only practised
+for rich patients, on whom the devil, or the priests in his name, impose
+their blind belief.
+
+In 1272, the great khan sent an army of 12,000 veteran troops, under the
+command of aft experienced officer, named Nestardin, to reduce the kingdom
+of Vociam and Guarazan[8]. As soon as the kings of Mien[9] and Bengala
+heard of this invasion, they assembled an army of 60,000 horse and foot,
+besides a thousand elephants, carrying castles, in each of which there were
+from twelve to sixteen armed men. With this army, the king of Mien marched
+towards the city of Vociam, where the Tartar army was encamped. Nestardin,
+regardless of the great disparity of numbers, marched with invincible
+courage to fight the enemy; but when he drew near, he encamped under cover
+of a great wood, knowing that the elephants could not penetrate into the
+wood with the towers on their backs. The king of Mien drew near to fight
+the Tartars; but the Tartarian horses were so terrified with the sight of
+the elephants, who were arranged along the front of the battle, that it was
+impossible to bring them up to the charge. The Tartars, therefore, were
+compelled to alight from their horses, which they fastened to the trees,
+and came boldly forewards on foot against the elephants, among whom they
+discharged immense quantities of arrows; so that the elephants, unable to
+endure the smart of their wounds, became unmanageable, and fled to the
+nearest wood, where they broke their castles, and overturned the armed men,
+with which they were filled. On this, the Tartars remounted their horses,
+and made a furious attack on the enemy. The battle continued for some time
+undecided, and many men were slain on both sides. At length the army of the
+king of Mien was defeated and put to flight, leaving the victory to the
+Tartars; who now hastened into the wood, and made many prisoners, by whose
+assistance they seized two hundred of the elephants, which were sent to the
+great khan. Before this time, the Tartars were unaccustomed to the use of
+elephants in war; but the great khan has ever since had elephants in his
+army. After this victory, the great khan subjected the kingdoms of Mien and
+Bengala to his empire.
+
+Departing from the province of Carian, or Caraiam, there is a great desert
+which continues for two days and a half, without any inhabitants, at the
+end of which desert there is a large plain, in which great multitudes meet
+for traffic three days in every week. Many people come down from the great
+mountains, bringing gold, which they exchange for five times its weight of
+silver; on which account, many merchants come here from foreign countries
+with silver, and carry away gold, bringing likewise large quantities of
+merchandize to sell to these people; for no strangers can go into the high
+mountains where the people dwell who gather gold, oh account of the
+intricacy and impassable nature of the roads. After passing this plain, and
+going to the south for fifteen days journey, through uninhabited and woody
+places, in which there are innumerable multitudes of elephants,
+rhinoceroses[10], and other wild beasts, we come to Mien, which borders
+upon India. At the end of that journey of fifteen days, we come to the
+great and noble city of Mien, the capital of the kingdom, which is subject
+to the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiar
+language. There was formerly a king in this city, who being on the point of
+death, gave orders to erect two pyramidal monuments, or towers of marble,
+near his sepulchre, one at the head and the other at the foot, each of them
+ten fathoms high, and having a round ball on the top of each. One of these
+he ordered to be covered with gold, and the other with silver, a fingers
+breadth in thickness; and round about the tops of these pyramids many
+little bells of gold and silver were hung, which gave a pleasing shrill
+sound, when agitated by the wind. The monument or sepulchre between these
+was likewise covered with plates of gold and silver. When the great khan
+undertook the conquest of this country, he sent a valiant captain at the
+head of a large army, mostly of cavalry, of which the Tartarian armies
+principally consist. After the city was won, the general would not demolish
+this monument without orders from the khan; who, on being informed that the
+former king had erected it in honour of his soul, would not permit it to be
+injured, as the Tartars never violate those things which belong to the
+dead. In the country of Mien there are many elephants and wild oxen, large
+stags and deer, and various other kinds of wild beasts in great abundance.
+
+The province of Bengala borders on India towards the south[11], and was
+subdued by the great khan, while I Marco Polo resided in the eastern
+countries. It had its own proper king, and has a peculiar language. The
+inhabitants are all idolaters, and have schools in which the masters teach
+idolatries and enchantments, which are universal among all the great men of
+the country. They eat flesh, rice, and milk; and have great abundance of
+cotton, by the manufacture of which a great trade is carried on. They
+abound also in spike, galingal, ginger, sugar, and various other spices;
+and they make many eunuchs, whom they sell to the merchants. This province
+continues for thirty days journey going eastwards, when we come to the
+province of Cangigu[12]. This country has its own king, who is tributary to
+the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiar
+language. The king has about three hundred wives. The province has much
+gold and many spices, but these cannot be easily transported, as it is far
+distant from the sea. It has also many elephants and much game. The
+inhabitants live on flesh, rice, and milk, having no wine, but they make an
+excellent drink of rice and spices. Both men and women ornament their
+faces, necks, hands, bellies, and legs, with the figures of lions, dragons,
+and birds, and these are so firmly imprinted, as to be almost indelible.
+There are in this country professors of this foolish art of skin
+embroidery, who follow no other trade but this needle work, and dying of
+fools skins; and the person who has the greatest number and variety of
+these images, is considered the finest and most gallantly ornamented.
+
+Amu or Aniu, twenty-five days journey to the east of the province of
+Cangigu, is subject to the great khan, and its inhabitants are idolaters
+who have a peculiar language. This country abounds in provisions, and has
+great quantities of cattle and many horses; and these last being excellent,
+are carried by the merchants for sale into India. The country is full of
+excellent pastures, and therefore abounds in buffalos and oxen. Both men
+and women wear bracelets of gold and silver of great value on their legs
+and arms, but those of the women are the most valuable.
+
+The province of Tholoman, which is likewise subject to the great khan, is
+at the distance of eight days journey east from Amu; the inhabitants are
+idolaters, and use a peculiar language; both men and women are tall, well
+shaped, and of a brown complexion. This country is well inhabited, having
+many strong towns and castles, and the men are practised in arms, and
+accustomed to war. They burn their dead, after which they inclose the bones
+and ashes in chests, which they hide in holes of the mountains. Gold is
+found in great plenty, yet both here and in Cangigu and Amu, they use the
+cowrie shells which are brought from India.
+
+From this province of Tholoman, the high road leads eastwards by a river,
+on the banks of which there are many towns and castles, and at the end of
+twelve days journey, we come to the great city of Cintigui, the province of
+the same name being subject to the great khan, and the inhabitants are
+idolaters. They manufacture excellent cloths from the bark of trees, of
+which their summer clothing is made. There are many lions in this country,
+so that no person dare sleep out of doors in the night, and the vessels
+which frequent the river, dare not be made fast to the banks at night from
+dread of the lions. The inhabitants have large dogs, so brave and strong,
+that they are not afraid even to attack the lion, and it often happens that
+one man armed with a bow and arrows, and assisted by two of these dogs,
+will kill a lion. The dogs, urged on by the man, give the onset, and the
+lion endeavours to take shelter beside a tree, that the dogs may not be
+able to get behind him, yet he scorns to run away, and holds on his stately
+slow space, the dogs always fastening on his hinder parts; but so
+cautiously and nimbly do they manage their assaults, that whenever the lion
+turns upon them, they are beyond his reach. Then the magnanimous beast
+holds on his way towards a tree, the man all the while plying him with
+arrows, at every opportunity, and the dogs constantly tearing him from
+behind, till at length, with loss of blood, he falls down and dies. This
+country abounds in silk, which is carried by the merchants to various
+provinces, by means of the river. Their money is paper, and the inhabitants
+are valiant in arms.
+
+At the end of ten days journey from Cintigui, we come to the city of
+Sindinfu; twenty days from thence is Gingui, and four days from thence,
+towards the south, is Palan-fu in Kathay, returning by the other side of
+the province. The people are idolaters and burn their dead, but there are
+also some Christians who have a church.  The people use paper money, and
+are all under the dominion of the great khan. They make cloths of gold and
+silk, and very fine lawns. Past this city of Palan-fu, which has many
+cities under its jurisdiction, there runs a fine river, which carries great
+store of merchandize to Cambalu, by means of many canals made on purpose.
+Leaving this place, and travelling three days journey towards the south of
+the province of Kathay, subject to the great khan, is the great city of
+Ciangu. They are idolaters, who burn their dead, and their money is the
+mulberry paper coin of the khan. The earth, in the territories of this
+city, abounds in salt, which is extracted in the following manner: The
+earth is heaped up like a hill, and large quantities of water are poured
+on, which extracts the salt, and runs by certain conduits into cauldrons,
+in which it is boiled up into fine white salt; and this manufacture
+produces great profit to the people and the great khan, as large quantities
+are exported for sale to other countries. In this neighbourhood there are
+large and fine flavoured peaches, one of which weighs two pounds.
+
+Five days journey farther south from Ciangu is the city of Ciangli,
+likewise in Kathay, between which we pass many cities and castles, all
+subject to the great khan; and through the middle of this last city of
+Ciangli, there runs a large river, which is very convenient for the
+transport of merchandize. Six days journey from thence to the south is the
+noble kingdom and great city of Tudinfu, which was formerly subject to its
+own king, but was subdued by the arms of the great khan in 1272. Under its
+jurisdiction there are twelve famous trading cities. It is most pleasantly
+situated among gardens and orchards, and is rich in silks. A baron, named
+Lucanser, who was sent to govern this acquisition by the khan, with an army
+of 8000 horse, chose to rebel; but was defeated and slain by an army of
+100,000 horse sent against him by the khan under two other barons, and the
+country again reduced to obedience. Seven days journey farther south is the
+famous city of Singuimatu, to which, on the south, a great river runs,
+which is divided by the inhabitants into two rivers, one branch of which
+flows by the east towards Kathay, and the other by the west towards
+Mangi[13]. By these rivers or canals innumerable vessels, incredible for
+their size and wealth, carry vast quantities of merchandize through both of
+these provinces; and for sixteen days journey to the south from Singuimatu,
+we meet with many cities and towns, which carry on immense trade. The
+inhabitants of all these countries are idolaters, and subject to the great
+khan. You then come to a great river called Caramoran[14], which is said to
+take its rise in the dominions formerly belonging to Umcan, or Prester
+John, in the north. It is very deep, and carries ships of great burden, and
+is well stocked with fish. Within one days journey of the sea are the two
+cities of Coigan-zu and Quan-zu, on opposite sides of the river, the one a
+great city and the other a small one, where a fleet of 15,000 vessels is
+kept by the great khan, each fitted for carrying fifteen horses and twenty
+men. These are always in readiness to carry an army to any of the islands,
+or to any remote region in case of rebellion[15]. On passing the great
+river Caramoran, or Hoang-ho, we enter into the noble kingdom of Mangi: But
+it must not be supposed that I have described the whole province of Kathay,
+as I have not spoken of the twentieth part of it; for in passing through
+this province, I have only mentioned the principal cities on my way,
+leaving those on both sides, and many intermediate ones to avoid prolixity,
+and not to set down in writing what I only learned from hearsay.
+
+
+[1] The meaning of this sentence is obscure, unless it is intended to guard
+    the readers against the supposition that these countries were to the
+    west of Europe.--E.
+
+[2] Called Lazi by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition of these travels,
+    mentioned in the introduction. This place, therefore, may be Lassa, in
+    the kingdom or province of Ou, in Middle Thibet, the residence of the
+    Dalai Lama, situate on a branch of the Sampoo, or great Brahma-pootra,
+    or Barampooter river, which joins the Ganges in the lower part of
+    Bengal.--E.
+
+[3] This sentence most probably is meant to imply the use of cowries,
+    sometimes called porellane shells, both for money and ornament.--E.
+
+[4] Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, names the country Cariam, and the
+    governor Cocagio.--E.
+
+[5] The ordinary European price is about fourteen for one.--E.
+
+[6] The description of this creature seems to indicate an alligator or
+    crocodile; which probably Marco had not seen, and only describes from
+    an imperfect account of the natives.--E.
+
+[7] According to Pinkerton, this province is named Cariti, and its
+    principal town Nociam, in the edition of Trevigi.--E.
+
+[8] Named previously Carazam and Caraian, afterwards Caraiam, or Carian.
+    --E.
+
+[9] In some modern maps, Mien is introduced as a large province on the
+    river of Pegu, immediately to the south-west of Yunnan in China, and
+    divided from Bengal by the whole country of Ava. But the distribution
+    of eastern dominion has been always extremely fluctuating; and Mien
+    may then have included all the north of Ava.--E.
+
+[10] In the original text this animal is called the unicorn; a word of the
+    same import with rhinoceros.--E.
+
+[11] This either implies that Bengal on the borders of India is to the
+    south of Thibet; or _south_ is here an error for _east_, Bengal being
+    the eastern frontier province of India proper.--E.
+
+[12] The difficulty, or rather impossibility of tracing the steps of Marco
+    Polo, may proceed from various causes. The provinces or kingdoms,
+    mostly named from their chief cities, have suffered infinite changes
+    from perpetual revolutions. The names he gives, besides being
+    corrupted in the various transcriptions and editions, he probably set
+    down orally, as given to him in the Tartar or Mogul dialect, very
+    different from those which have been adopted into modern geography
+    from various sources. Many of these places may have been destroyed,
+    and new names imposed. Upon the whole, his present course appears to
+    have been from Bengal eastwards, through the provinces of the farther
+    India, to Mangi or southern China; and Cangigu may possibly be
+    Chittigong. Yet Cangigu is said in the text to be an inland country.
+    --E.
+
+[13] Kathay and Mangi, as formerly mentioned, are Northern and Southern
+    China, so that the direction of these rivers ought perhaps to have
+    been described as north and south, instead of east and west. About
+    seventy miles from the mouth of the Yellow river, or Hoang-ho, there
+    is a town called Tsingo, near which a canal runs to the north,
+    communicating with the river on which Pekin is situated, and another
+    canal, running far south into Mangi or Southern China. Tsingo, though
+    now an inferior town, may have been formerly Singui-matu, and a place
+    of great importance.--E.
+
+[14] Caramoran or Hora-moran, is the Hoang-ho, or Yellow river; and it must
+    be allowed, that the distance which is placed in the text, between
+    Singui-matu and this river, is quite hostile to the idea mentioned in
+    the preceding note, of Tsingo and Singui-matu being the same place.
+    The only other situation in all China which accords with the two
+    canals, or rivers, communicating both with Kathay and Mangi, is
+    Yotcheou on the Tong-ting-hou lake, which is on the Kian-ku river, and
+    at a sufficient distance from the Hoang-ho to agree with the text. In
+    the absence of all tolerable certainty, conjecture seems allowable.
+    --E.
+
+[15] There are no Chinese cities, in our maps, that, in the least
+    appearance of sound, correspond with the names of these towns or
+    cities near the mouth of the Hoang-ho. Hoain-gin is the only large
+    city near its mouth, and that is not on its banks. All therefore that
+    can be said, is, that the two cities in the text must have stood on
+    opposite sides of the Hoang-ho in the days of Marco Polo.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XV.
+
+_An account of the Kingdom of Mangi, and the manner of its Reduction under
+the dominion of the Great Khan; together with some Notices of its various
+Provinces and Cities_.
+
+The kingdom of Mangi is the richest and most famous of all that are to be
+found in the east. In the year 1269, this kingdom was governed by a king
+named Fanfur[1], who was richer and more powerful than any who had reigned
+there for an hundred years. Fanfur maintained justice and internal peace in
+his dominions, so that no one dared to offend his neighbour, or to disturb
+the peace, from dread of prompt, severe, and impartial justice; insomuch,
+that the artificers would often leave their shops, filled with valuable
+commodities, open in the night, yet no one would presume to enter them.
+Travellers and strangers travelled in safety through his whole dominions by
+day or night. He was merciful to the poor, and carefully provided for such
+as were oppressed by poverty or sickness, and every year took charge of
+20,000 infants who were deserted by their mothers from poverty, all of whom
+he bred up till they were able to work at some trade. But in process of
+time, betaking himself more to pleasures than was fit, he employed his
+whole time in delights, in the midst of 1000 concubines. His capital was
+encompassed with ditches full of water; but Fanfur was entirely addicted to
+the arts of peace, and so beloved of his subjects for his justice and
+charity, that, trusting to their numbers and attachment, and to the natural
+strength and resources of the country, both king and people neglected the
+use of arms, keeping no cavalry in pay, because they feared no one, and
+believed themselves invincible.
+
+Cublai-khan was of a different disposition from Fanfur, and delighted in
+war and conquest; and having resolved upon making a conquest of the kingdom
+of Mangi, he levied a great army of horse and foot for that purpose, over
+which he placed a general named Chinsan-Baian[2]. He accordingly marched
+with his army, accompanied by a fleet, into the province of Mangi, and
+summoned the city of Coiganzu[3] to surrender to the authority of the great
+khan. On this being refused, he departed without making any assault, to the
+second, the third, and the fourth city, all of which he summoned, and on
+their refusal, marched on without siege or assault. But receiving the same
+answer from the fifth, he assaulted it with great courage, and having taken
+it by storm, he massacred the whole inhabitants, without sparing any of
+either sex, or of any age or condition. This severe military execution so
+terrified the other cities, that they all immediately surrendered. On this
+successful commencement being reported to the khan, he sent a new army to
+reinforce Chinsan-Baian, whose army was now much diminished by the
+garrisons he had to leave in the conquered cities. With his army thus
+reinforced, Chinsan marched against Quinsai[4] the capital city of the
+kingdom of Mangi, in which Fanfur resided. He was much terrified at this
+formidable invasion, and having never seen any war, he fled with all his
+wealth on board a great fleet which he had prepared, retiring to certain
+impregnable islands in the ocean[5], committing the custody of his capital
+to his wife, whom he desired to defend it as well as she could, as being a
+woman, she need not fear being put to death if she were made prisoner. It
+may be observed, that Fanfur had been told by his diviners, that his
+kingdom would never be taken from him except by one who had an hundred
+eyes; and this being known to the queen, she was in hopes or preserving the
+city in all extremities, thinking it impossible for any one man to have an
+hundred eyes. But learning that the name of the commander of the Tartars
+had that signification, she sent for him and delivered up the city,
+believing him to be the person indicated by the astrologers, and to whom
+destiny had predetermined the conquest of the city and kingdom.[6] She was
+sent to the court of the great khan, where she was most honourably
+received, and entertained as became her former dignity. After the surrender
+of the capital, the citizens and inhabitants of the whole province yielded
+to the obedience of the great khan[7].
+
+I shall now speak of the cities in the kingdom of Mangi. Coiganzu is a very
+fair and rich city, situate towards the south-east and east, in the very
+entrance of the province of Mangi[8]. In this city, which is situated on
+the river Carama[9], there are vast numbers of ships employed in trade, and
+great quantities of salt are made in that neighbourhood. Proceeding from
+Coigan-zu, we ride one days journey to the south-east, on a stone causeway,
+on both sides of which are great fences with deep waters, through which
+people may pass with proper vessels[10], and there is no entrance into
+Mangi but by this causeway except by shipping. At the end of this days
+journey is a large and fair city called Paughin, of which the inhabitants
+are idolaters, and manufacturers of stuffs of silk and gold, in which they
+drive a considerable trade. It is plentifully supplied with all the
+necessaries of life, and the paper money of the khan is current in the
+whole province. One days journey farther south-east, is the large and
+famous city of Caim. The neighbouring country abounds in fish, beasts, and
+fowl of all kinds, especially with pheasants as large as peacocks, which
+are so plentiful, that three may be bought for a Venetian groat. Proceeding
+another days journey through a well cultivated, fertile, and well peopled
+country, we come to a moderate sized city called Tingui, which is much
+resorted to by ships and merchants, and abounds in all the necessaries of
+life. This place is in the south-east, on the left hand, three days journey
+from the ocean, and in the country, between it and the sea, there are many
+salt pits, in which great quantities of salt are made. After this is
+Cingui[11], a great city, whence the whole country is furnished with salt,
+of which the khan makes immense profit, almost beyond belief. The
+inhabitants are idolaters, and use paper money. Riding farther to the
+south-east is the noble city of Jangui[12], which has twenty-seven other
+cities dependent on its government. In this city, one of the twelve barons,
+who are governors of provinces, usually resides; but I, Marco, had the sole
+government of this place for three years, instead of one of these barons,
+by a special commission from the great khan. The inhabitants are idolaters,
+living chiefly by merchandize, and they manufacture arms and harness for
+war. Naughin[l3] is a province to the west[14] of Tangui, one of the
+greatest and noblest in all Mangi, and a place of vast trade, having
+abundance of beasts and fowls, wild and tame, and plenty of corn. The
+inhabitants are idolaters, and manufacture, stuffs of silk and gold, using
+only paper money. This country produces large revenues to the khan,
+especially in the customs which he receives from trade.
+
+Sian-Fu is a large and noble city in the province of Mangi, having twelve
+great and rich cities under its jurisdiction. This city is so strong that
+it was three years besieged by the army of the Tartars, and could not be
+vanquished at the time when the rest of the kingdom of Mangi was subdued.
+It was so environed with lakes and rivers, that ships came continually with
+plenty of provisions and it was only accessible from the north. The long
+resistance of this city gave much dissatisfaction to the khan; which coming
+to the knowledge of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, then at his court, they offered
+their services to construct certain engines, after the manner of those used
+in Europe, capable of throwing stones of three hundred weight, to kill the
+men, and ruin the houses in the besieged city. The khan assigned them
+carpenters, who were Nestorian Christians, to work under their direction,
+and they made three of these engines, which were tried before the khan and
+approved of. These were accordingly sent by shipping to the army before
+Sian-fu, and being planted against the city, cast great stones into it, by
+which some of the houses were beaten down and destroyed. The inhabitants
+were very much astonished and terrified by the effect of these machines,
+and surrendered themselves to the authority and dominion of the khan, on
+the same conditions with the rest of Mangi; and by this service, the
+Venetian brethren acquired great reputation and favour.
+
+From this city of Sian-fu, to another called Sin-gui, it is accounted
+fifteen miles to the south-east. This city, though not very large, has a
+prodigious number of ships, as it is situate on the greatest river in the
+world, called Quiam [l5], being in some places ten, in others eight, and in
+others six miles broad. But its length extends to a distance of above an
+hundred days journey from its source to the sea, receiving numberless
+navigable rivers in its course, from various and distant regions, by which
+means incredible quantities of merchandize are transported upon this river.
+There are about two hundred cities which participate in the advantages of
+this river, which runs through, or past, the boundaries of sixteen
+provinces. The greatest commodity on this river is salt, with which all the
+provinces and cities which have communication with its water are supplied.
+I, Marco, once saw at Singui five thousand vessels, yet some other cities
+on the river have a greater number. All these ships are covered, having but
+one mast and one sail, and usually carry 4000 Venetian Canthari and
+upwards, some as far as 12,000. In these vessels they use no cordage of
+hemp; even their hawsers or towing ropes being made of canes, about fifteen
+paces long, which they split into thin pieces from end to end, and bind or
+wreath together into ropes, some of which are three hundred fathoms long,
+and serve for dragging their vessels up or down the river; each vessel
+having ten or twelve horses for that purpose. On that river there are rocky
+hillocks in many places, on which idol temples, with monasteries for the
+priests are built, and in all the course of the river we find cultivated
+vallies and habitations innumerable.
+
+Cayn-gui is a small city on the same river to the south, eastwards of
+Sin-gui, where every year great quantities of corn and rice are brought,
+which is carried for the most part to Cambalu. For from the Quiam or
+Kian-ku river, they pass to that city by means of lakes and rivers, and by
+one large canal, which the great khan caused to be made for a passage from
+one river to another; so that vessels go all the way from Mangi or Southern
+China to Cambalu, without ever being obliged to put to sea. This great work
+is beautiful and wonderful for its size and vast extent, and is of infinite
+profit to the cities and provinces of the empire. The khan likewise caused
+great causeways to be constructed along the banks of this prodigious canal,
+for the conveniency of travelling by land, and for towing the vessels. In
+the middle of the great river there is a rocky island, with a great temple
+and monastery for the idolatrous priests.
+
+Cin-ghian-fu [16] is a city of the province of Mangi, which is rich in
+merchandize, and plentiful in game and provisions of all kinds. In 1274,
+the great khan sent Marsachis, a Nestorian Christian to govern this city,
+who built here two Christian churches. From the city of Cin-ghian-fu, in a
+journey of three days journey to the south-eastwards, we find many cities
+and castles, all inhabited by idolaters, and at length come to the great
+and handsome city of Tin-gui-gui, which abounds in all kinds of provisions.
+When Chinsan Baian conquered the kingdom of Mangi, he sent a large body of
+Christian Alani[17] against this city, which had a double inclosure of
+walls. The inhabitants retired from the outer town, within the inner wall,
+and the Alanians finding great store of wine, indulged themselves too
+freely after a severe march. In the night time, the citizens sallied out
+upon them, while all were drunk and asleep, and put every man of them to
+the sword. But Baian sent afterwards a fresh army against them, which soon
+mastered the city, and in severe revenge massacred the whole inhabitants.
+The great and excellent city of Sin-gui[18] is twenty miles in
+circumference, and contains a vast population, among whom are great numbers
+of physicians and magicians, and wise men or philosophers. It has sixteen
+other cities under its jurisdiction, in each of which there is much trade
+and many curious arts, and many sorts of silk are made in its territories.
+The neighbouring mountains produce rhubarb and ginger in great plenty. The
+name Sin-gui signifies the City of the Earth, and there is another city in
+the kingdom of Mangi called Quin-sai, which signifies the City of Heaven.
+From Singui it is one days journey to Vagiu, where also is abundance of
+silk, and able artisans, and many merchants, as is universally the case in
+all the cities of this kingdom.
+
+
+[1] Called Tou-tsong by the Chinese historians, the fifteenth emperor of
+    the nineteenth dynasty, who succeeded to the throne in the year
+    1264.--Harris.
+
+[2] The name of this general is said to have signified _an hundred eyes_;
+    doubtless a Tartar title, denoting his vigilance and foresight. By the
+    Chinese historians, this general is named Pe-yen; which may have the
+    same signification. These historians attribute the conquest of Mangi,
+    or Southern China, to the indolence, debauchery, and extreme love of
+    pleasure of this emperor, whom they name Tou-Tsong.--Harris.
+
+[3] The names of all places and provinces in the travels of Marco Polo, are
+    either so disguised by Tartar appellations, or so corrupted, that they
+    cannot be referred with any certainty to the Chinese names upon our
+    maps. Coiganzu, described afterwards as the first city in the
+    south-east of Mangi in going from Kathay, may possibly be Hoingan-fou,
+    which answers to that situation. The termination _fou_ is merely
+    _city_; and other terminations are used by the Chinese, as _tcheou_
+    and others, to denote the rank or class in which they are placed, in
+    regard to the subordination of their governors and tribunals, which
+    will be explained in that part of our work which is appropriated to
+    the empire of China.--E.
+
+[4] Or Guinsai, to be afterwards described.--E.
+
+[5] It does not appear where these islands were, situated; whether Hainan
+    or Formosa, properly Tai-ouan, or Tai-wan, or the islands in the bay
+    of Canton.--E.
+
+[6] These sagacious diviners must have been well acquainted with the
+    military energy of the Tartar government, and the abject weakness of
+    their own; and certainly knew, from their brethren in Kathay, the
+    significant name of the Tartar general; on which foundation, they
+    constructed the enigma of their prophecy, which, like many others,
+    contributed towards its own accomplishment.--E.
+
+[7] About a year after the surrender of his capital, Tou-Tsong died,
+    leaving three sons, who all perished in a few years afterwards. The
+    eldest was made prisoner, and died in captivity in Tartary. The second
+    died of a consumption at Canton, where he had taken refuge at eleven
+    years of age. The third, named Ti-Ping, after all the country was
+    seized by the Tartars, was carried on board the Chinese fleet, which
+    was pursued and brought to action by a fleet which the Tartars had
+    fitted out for the purpose. When the Chinese lord, who had the charge
+    of the infant emperor, saw the vessel in which he was embarked
+    surrounded by the Tartars, he took the young prince in his arms and
+    jumped with him into the sea. One considerable squadron of the Chinese
+    fleet forced a passage through that of the Tartars, but was afterwards
+    entirely destroyed in a tempest.--Harris.
+
+[8] This direction must be understood in reference to Kathay; as it is
+    perfectly obvious, that the entrance here spoken of must be in the
+    north-east of Mangi. Supposing the C aspirated, Coigan-zu and
+    Hoaingan-fu, both certainly arbitrarily orthographized from the
+    Chinese pronunciation, are not very dissimilar.--E.
+
+[9] Perhaps an error in transcription for Hara-moran, or Kara-moran, the
+    Mongul or Tartar name of the Hoang-ho, or Whang river, near, and
+    communicating with which, Hoaingan, or Whan-gan-fou is situated.--E.
+
+[10] This is an obscure indication of navigable canals on each side of the
+    paved road of communication to the south.--E.
+
+[11] Cin-gui, or in the Italian pronunciation, Chin, or Tsin-gui, may
+    possibly be Yen-tching. Tin-gui may be Sin-Yang, or Tsin-yang, to the
+    north-east of Yen-tching.--E.
+
+[12] Obviously Yang-tcheou, the latter syllable being its title or
+    designation of rank and precedency. Marco certainly mistakes, from
+    distant recollection, the direction of his travels, which are very
+    nearly south, with a very slight deviation towards the east.
+    South-east would by this time have led him into the sea.--E
+
+[13] Though called a province, this obviously refers to the city of Nankin;
+    the Nau-ghin of the text being probably a corruption for Nan-ghin.--E
+
+[14] For west, we ought certainly here to read south-west.--E.
+
+[15] Quiam, Kiang, Kian-ku, Kin-tchin-kian, or Yang-tsi-kiang. In modern
+    maps, there is a town on the northern shore of this river, named
+    Tsing-Kiang, which may possibly be the Singui of Marco, and we may
+    perhaps look for the Sian-fu of the Polos at Yang-tcheou, at the
+    southern extremity of a chain of lakes immediately to the north of the
+    river Kian-ku. The subject is however full of perplexity, difficulty,
+    and extreme uncertainty.--E.
+
+[16] This must be Tchin-kian-fou; the three separate syllables in both of
+    these oral orthographies having almost precisely similar sounds;
+    always remembering that the soft Italian _c_ has the power of _tsh_,
+    or our hard _ch_ as in the English word _chin_, and the Italian _gh_
+    the sound of the hard English _g_.--E.
+
+[17] This evinces the great policy of the military government of the
+    Tartars, in employing the subjugated nations in one corner of their
+    empire to make conquests at such enormous distances from their native
+    countries. The Alanians came from the country between the Euxine and
+    Caspian, in Long. 60° E. and were here fighting Long. 135° E.; above
+    4000 miles from home.--E.
+
+[18] By the language in this place, either Sin-gui and Tin-gui-gui are the
+    same place, or the transition is more than ordinarily abrupt; if the
+    same, the situation of Sin-gui has been attempted to be explained in a
+    former note. If different, Tin-gui-gui was probably obliterated on
+    this occasion, as no name in the least similar appears in the map of
+    China.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVI.
+
+_Of the noble City of Quinsai, and of the vast Revenues drawn from thence
+by the Great Khan_.
+
+In a journey of three days from Vagiu, we find numbers of cities, castles,
+and villages, all well peopled and rich, the inhabitants being all
+idolaters and subject to the great khan. At the end of these three days
+journey, we come to Quinsay, or Guinsai, its name signifying the City of
+Heaven, to denote its excellence above all the other cities of the world,
+in which there are so much riches, and so many pleasures and enjoyments,
+that a person might conceive himself in paradise. In this great city, I,
+Marco, have often been, and have considered it with diligent attention,
+observing its whole state and circumstances, and setting down the same in
+my memorials, of which I shall here give a brief abstract. By common
+report, this city is an hundred miles in circuit[1]. The streets and lanes
+are very long and wide, and it has many large market places. On one side of
+the city there is a clear lake of fresh water, and on the other there is a
+great river, which enters into the city in many places, and carries away
+all the filth into the lake, whence it continues its course into the ocean.
+This abundant course of running water causes a healthful circulation of
+pure air, and gives commodious passage in many directions both by land and
+water, through those numerous canals, as by means of these and the
+causeways, by which they are bordered, carts and barks have free
+intercourse for the carriage of merchandize and provisions. It is said that
+there are twelve thousand bridges, great and small, in this city, and those
+over the principal canals are so high, that a vessel without her masts may
+go through underneath, while chariots and horses pass above. On the other
+side of the city, there is a large canal forty miles[2] long, which
+incloses it on that side, being deep and full of water, made by the ancient
+kings, both to receive the overflowings of the river, and to fortify the
+city, and the earth which was dug out from this canal, is laid on the
+inside as a rampart of defence. There are ten great market places which are
+square, half a mile in each side[3]. The principal street is forty paces
+broad, having a canal in the middle with many bridges, and every four miles
+[_Li_] there is a market place, two miles [_Li_] in circuit. There is also
+one large canal behind the great street and the market places, on the
+opposite bank of which there are many storehouses of stone, where the
+merchants from India and other places lay up their commodities, being at
+hand and commodious for the markets. In each of these markets, the people
+from the country, to the number of forty or fifty thousand, meet three days
+in every week, bringing beasts, game, fowls, and in short every thing that
+can be desired for subsistence in profusion; and so cheap, that two geese,
+or four ducks, may be bought for a Venetian groat. Then follow the butcher
+markets, in which beef, mutton, veal, kid, and lamb, are sold to the great
+and rich, as the poor eat of all offal and unclean beasts without scruple.
+All sorts of herbs and fruits are to be had continually, among which are
+huge pears, weighing ten pounds each, white within, and very fragrant[4],
+with yellow and white peaches of very delicate flavour. Grapes do not grow
+in this country, but raisins are brought from other places. They likewise
+import very good wine; but that is not in so much esteem as with us, the
+people being contented with their own beverage, prepared from rice and
+spices. Every day there are brought up from the ocean, which is at the
+distance of twenty-five miles, such vast quantities of fish, besides those
+which are caught in the lake, that one would conceive they could never be
+consumed, yet, in a few hours all is gone. All these market places are
+encompassed with high houses, underneath which are shops for all kinds of
+artificers, and all kinds of merchandize, as spices, pearls, and jewels,
+and so forth, and in some the rice wine is sold. Many streets cross each
+other, leading into these markets; in some of which there are many cold
+baths, accommodated with attendants of both sexes, who are used to this
+employment from their infancy. In the same bagnios, there are chambers for
+hot baths, for such strangers as are not accustomed to bathe in cold water.
+The inhabitants bathe every day, and always wash before eating.
+
+In other streets, there are such numbers of mercenary prostitutes, that I
+dare not pretend to say how many. These are found near the market places,
+and in all quarters of the city, in places appointed for their residence,
+where they shew themselves, pompously adorned and perfumed, attended by
+many servants, and having their houses richly furnished. They are very
+skilful in sports and dalliances, and in contriving pleasures to rob men of
+their senses. In other streets there are physicians and astrologers, and
+persons who teach to read and write, and an infinity of other trades. At
+each end of every market place, there is a palace or tribunal where judges,
+appointed by the khan, are stationed for determining any disputes which may
+happen between merchants and others; also, to superintend the guards upon
+the bridges, and other matters of police, punishing all who are negligent
+or disorderly. Along both sides of the principal street, there are great
+palaces with gardens; and between these the houses of artificers; and such
+multitudes are perpetually going to and fro in all the streets, that one
+would wonder how so vast a population could be provided in food. I was
+informed by an officer of the customs, that it appeared, by a very accurate
+computation, the daily expenditure of pepper in Quinsai, was forty-three
+_soma_, each soma being 223 pounds[5]. From this some idea may be formed of
+the immense quantities of victuals, flesh, wine, and spices, which are
+expended in that place. There are twelve principal companies or
+corporations, each of which has a thousand shops; and in each shop or
+factory, there are ten, fifteen, or twenty men at work, and in some forty
+under one master[6].
+
+The rich tradesmen do not work themselves, although the ancient laws
+ordained that the sons of all should follow the trades of their fathers,
+but the rich are permitted not to work with their own hands, but to keep
+shops and factories, superintending the labour of others in their
+particular trades. These rich people, and especially their wives, stand in
+their shops, well dressed, or rather sumptuously arrayed in rich silks, and
+adorned with valuable jewels. Their houses are well built, and richly
+furnished, and adorned with pictures and other ornaments of immense price;
+and they exercise their trades with great integrity. The whole inhabitants
+are idolaters, of a very fair complexion, and mostly dressed in silken
+garments, as silk is produced in great abundance in their neighbourhood, or
+brought from other places. They dwell together in great amity, insomuch,
+that the inhabitants of a street seem only to compose one family, and are
+particularly circumspect in their behaviour to females, as it would be
+reputed exceedingly disgraceful to use any indecorous language to a married
+woman. The natives are of a most peaceable disposition, and no way addicted
+to strife or quarrelling, and altogether unused to arms, which they do not
+even keep in their houses. They are extremely hospitable to foreign
+merchants, whom they entertain kindly in their houses, giving them the best
+advice in regard to the conduct of their affairs: But they are by no means
+fond of the soldiers and guards of the great khan, as by their means they
+have been deprived of their natural kings and rulers. About the lake there
+are many fair buildings and palaces of the principal men, and numerous idol
+temples, with monasteries of idolatrous priests. There are two islands in
+the lake, on each of which is a palace, containing an incredible number of
+rooms, to which they resort on occasion of marriages and other festivals.
+In these palaces, abundance of plate, linens, and all other things
+necessary for such purposes, are kept up at the common expence, and
+sometimes 100 separate companies are accommodated at one time in the
+several apartments. In the lake also there are vast numbers of pleasure
+boats and barges, adorned with fair seats and tables under cover, being
+flat on the tops, where men stand to push the boats along with poles, as
+the lake is very shallow. These are all painted within, and have windows to
+open or shut at pleasure. Nothing in the world can be more pleasant or
+delightful than this lake, from its immense variety of rich objects on all
+sides; particularly the city ornamented with so many temples, monasteries,
+palaces, gardens, trees, barges, and innumerable people taking their
+recreations; for they ordinarily work only a part of each day, spending the
+remainder in parties of pleasure with their friends, or with women, either
+on the lake, or in driving through the city in chariots. All the streets
+are paved with stone, as are all the highways in the kingdom of Mangi, only
+a space on one side being left unpaved for the use of the foot posts. The
+principal street of Quinsai has a pavement of ten paces broad on each side,
+the middle being laid with gravel, and having channels in every place for
+conveying water, it is kept always perfectly clean. In this street there
+are innumerable long close chariots, each of which is accommodated with
+seats and silk cushions for six persons, who divert themselves by driving
+about the streets, or go to the public gardens, where they pass their time
+in fine walks, shady bowers, and the like, and return at night in the same
+chariots to the city[7].
+
+When a child is born, the father notes down the exact point of time, and
+with this memorandum goes immediately to some astrologer, of whom there are
+many in every market place, to consult the destiny in regard to his future
+fortunes; and they use the same forms before celebrating their marriages,
+to ascertain the lucky times. When a person of note dies, the kindred
+clothe themselves in canvas or sackcloth, and accompany the body to the
+funeral, both men and women, people being employed to play on musical
+instruments, and singing all the way prayers to their idols; and being come
+to the place, they cast into the fire in which the body is burnt, many
+pieces of cotton paper, on which figures of slaves, horses, camels, stuffs
+of silk and gold, money, and all other things are painted, which, by this
+means, they believe the dead person will really possess in the next world;
+and they make a grand concert of music, under the idea of the joy with
+which the soul of their departed friend will be received by their idols in
+the other life which he is now to begin. As their timber houses are very
+liable to accidents by fire, there are stone towers in every street, to
+which they carry their goods for security on such occasions. On most of the
+bridges there are guard-houses, in which soldiers continuallv watch, five
+in each by day, and five by night, in case of any alarm or disturbance. In
+every guard-house there hangs a great bason[8], on which the warders strike
+the successive hours, beginning one at sunrise, and beginning a new series
+at sunset. These guards patrole during the night, and if they see any light
+or fire in a house after the appointed time, or meet any person in the
+streets after legal hours, they cause them to answer before the judges or
+magistrates of the district. When a fire happens, the guards collect from
+their different stations to assist in quenching it, and to carry away the
+goods to the stone towers, or into the islands in the lake; for during the
+night none of the citizens are permitted to go out, except such as are in
+danger from fires.
+
+The khan keeps always a large body of his best and most faithful soldiers
+for the security of the city, which is the largest and richest in the whole
+earth; and besides the small guard-houses on the bridges already mentioned,
+there are larger lodges built of wood all over the city, for the
+accommodation of parties of guards to preserve peace and order. On the
+reduction of Mangi to obedience, the khan divided it into nine great
+provinces, placing a viceroy in each, to administer the government, and to
+dispense justice. Every year each of these viceroys gives an account to the
+tribunals of the khan at Cambalu, of the revenues, and all other matters
+connected with his government; and every third year, the viceroy, and all
+the other officers are changed. The viceroy, who resides in Quinsai,
+commands over 140 other cities, all large, rich, and populous; nor is the
+extent of this government to be wondered at, as there are in Mangi 12,000
+cities, all inhabited by rich and industrious people, in every one of which
+the khan maintains a garrison proportional to its greatness and importance,
+in some 1000 men, and even up to 10 or 20,000 men[9]. These are not all
+Tartars, for the Tartar soldiers are cavalry only, and are kept in places
+where there is conveniency for exercising their horses. The great majority
+of the troops in Mangi are Kathayans, and the garrisons in Kathay are
+composed of people from Mangi. Every third year, such a number of men fit
+to carry arms as are wanted, are selected for filling up the garrisons, and
+are sent to serve in places, at least twenty days journey from their homes;
+and, after serving four or five years, they are permitted to go home, and
+are replaced by fresh recruits. Most part of the revenues of the khan are
+expended in this way, and on the other necessary expences of government;
+and by this distribution of so powerful a military force, an army can be
+suddenly called together in the event of any town rebelling. In the city of
+Quinsai there is a constant garrison of 30,000 soldiers, and the smallest
+city in all Mangi contains at least 1000 regular troops. If any person is
+not able to work, he is carried to some hospital, of which there are many
+in Quinsai, founded by the ancient kings, and endowed with large revenues:
+But when they are well again, they must return to their labour.
+
+I come next to speak of the palace of the late king Fanfur. His
+predecessors caused a large park to be inclosed with high walls, ten miles
+in circuit[10], and divided within into three parts. That in the middle was
+entered by a gate leading to a range of large galleries or halls, whose
+roofs were sustained by pillars finely wrought and painted, and richly
+adorned with gold and azure. The smallest of these galleries was that
+nearest the gate of entrance, and they gradually became larger and fairer
+in succession, the most sumptuous being at the farthest end. The walls of
+all these apartments were elegantly painted with the portraits and
+histories of the former kings. Every year, on certain holidays dedicated to
+the idols, Fanfur used to hold open court, on which occasion he feasted his
+chief lords, the principal merchants, and rich artificers of Quinsai,
+10,000 at a time in these halls, the feasts continuing for ten or twelve
+successive days, with incredible magnificence, every guest using his utmost
+endeavours to appear in the most pompous dresses. On one side of this
+magnificent range of galleries, there was a wall dividing it from a great
+cloistered court, having a terrace all round, set with pillars,
+communicating with which were the chambers of the king and queen, all
+curiously wrought, carved, gilded, and painted with the utmost splendour
+and magnificence. From this cloister, a covered gallery, six paces wide,
+extended a great length all the way to the lake; and on each side of this
+gallery there were ten courts, answering to each other like cloisters, each
+having fifty chambers with their gardens, and in these there were 1000
+concubines for the kings service. Sometimes with the queen, and sometimes
+with these concubines, the king used to go in his barge for recreation on
+the lake, or to visit the idol temples. The rest of the great inclosure was
+divided into graves, lakes, and gardens, in which all sorts of beasts of
+chase were kept, as stags, roebucks, hares, conies, and others, and there
+the king used to divert himself with his damsels, in chariots, or on
+horseback, no man being allowed to enter there. In this place the ladies
+hunted with dogs, and when wearied with sport they retired into the groves,
+and throwing off their garments, came forth naked, and fell to swimming in
+the lakes in the kings presence. Sometimes he banqueted in these groves,
+being served by his damsels. All of these particulars I learnt from an old
+rich merchant of Quinsai, who had been familiar with king Fanfur, and knew
+all the incidents of his life and reign, and had seen the palace in its
+most flourishing state; and he carried me to see it. The viceroy now
+resides there, the first described galleries remaining, still in their
+original state, but the chambers of the damsels are fallen to ruin; the
+walls also which encompassed the woods and gardens, are all fallen down,
+the beasts and trees are all gone, and all the other ornaments are
+destroyed.
+
+Twenty-five miles from Quinsai we come to the ocean, between the east and
+the north-east, near which is a city called Gampu[11], having an excellent
+port frequented by merchant ships from the Indies. While I Marco was in
+Quinsai, an account was taken for the great khan, of the revenues, and the
+number of inhabitants, and I saw that there were enrolled 160 toman of
+fires, reckoning for each fire a family dwelling in one house. Each toman
+is 10,000, which makes 1,600,000 families[12]; and for all this population
+there is only one Nestorian church, all the rest being idolaters. Every
+householder is obliged to have written over his door the names of every
+individual in his family, whether males or females, as also the number of
+horses, adding or effacing as the family increases or diminishes, and this
+rule is observed in all the cities of Mangi and Kathay. Those also who keep
+inns, must write down in a book the names of all their guests, with the day
+and hour of their arrival and departure; and these books are sent daily to
+the magistrates who preside at the market places. The revenues which accrue
+to the khan from Quinsai, and the other cities under its authority, are,
+first from salt eight tomans of gold, every toman being 80,000 sazzi, and a
+sazzi is more than a gold florin, which will amount to six millions, and
+four hundred thousand ducats. The cause of this is, that being near the
+sea, there are many lakes or salines of sea water, which dry up and
+coagulate into salt in summer, and five other provinces in Mangi are
+supplied from the coast of Quinsai. This province produces plenty of sugar,
+which pays, like all other spices, three and a third in the hundred, which
+is likewise paid for rice-wine. All the twelve companies, which, we said
+before, have twelve thousand shops, and all merchants who bring goods
+hither by sea, or carry any away, pay a similar rate. Those who come from
+India or other remote countries, pay ten per cent. All breeding cattle, and
+all productions of the earth, as silk, rice, corn, and the like, pay to the
+khan. The whole computation being made in my presence, amounted yearly,
+besides the above mentioned produce from salt, to two hundred and ten
+tomans of gold, which are equal to sixteen millions and eight hundred
+thousand golden ducats[13].
+
+A days journey from Quinsai to the south-east, we pass the whole way
+through houses, villages, fine gardens, and abundant cultivation, and then
+come to a fine city called Tapin-zu. Three days hence is Uguiu, and two
+days farther, we still ride past castles, cities, and well cultivated
+fields, so near adjoining, that the whole seems, to travellers, like one
+continued city; in this district are great canes, fifteen paces long, and
+four palms thick. Two days farther is the large and handsome city of
+Congui, and travelling thence for four days, through places well filled
+with industrious people, having plenty of beeves, buffaloes, goats, and
+swine, but no sheep, we come to the city of Zengian, which is built on a
+hill in the middle of a river, which, after encompassing it, divides into
+two branches, one of which runs to the south-east and the other to the
+north-west. Three days journey thence, through a most pleasant country,
+exceedingly well inhabited, we come to the large city of Gieza, which is
+the last in the kingdom of Quinsai, After this we enter into another
+province of the kingdom of Mangi called Concha, the principal city of which
+is Fugiu, by which you travel six days journey south-east, through hills
+and dales, always finding inhabited places, and plenty of beasts, fowls,
+and game, and some strong lions are found in the mountains and forests.
+Ginger, galingal, and other spices, grow here in great plenty, and there is
+an herb, of which the fruit has the same colour, smell, and effect with
+saffron, which it is not, and is much used in their meats[15], The
+inhabitants are idolaters, and subjects of the great khan, and eat mans
+flesh, if the person has not died of disease, even considering it as better
+flavoured than any other. When they go into the fields, they shave to the
+ears, and paint their faces with azure. All their soldiers serve on foot,
+except the captains, who are on horseback, and their arms are swords and
+lances. They are very cruel, and when they kill an enemy, they immediately
+drink his blood, and afterwards eat his flesh.
+
+After six days journey is Quelinfu, a great city with three bridges, each
+of which is eight paces broad, and above an hundred paces long. The men are
+great merchants and manufacturers, and the women are fair and delicately
+shaped. The country produces plenty of ginger and galingal, and great
+abundance of silk and cotton. I was told, but saw them not, that they have
+hens without feathers, hairy like cats, which yet lay eggs, and are good to
+eat[16]. In this part of the country there are many lions, which make the
+ways very dangerous. After three days journey, we arrive in a populous
+country inhabited by idolaters, who make great quantities of silk stuffs.
+The chief city is Unguem, near which abundance of sugar is produced, and
+sent from thence to Cambalu. Before the reduction of this country by the
+great Khan, the inhabitants of this country could only manufacture a bad
+kind of sugar, by boiling down the juice of the cane into a black paste;
+but certain inhabitants from _Babylonia_, taught them refine it by means of
+the ashes of a certain tree[17]. Fifteen miles farther is the city of
+Cangiu, still in the province of Concha, and here the Khan has always an
+army in readiness for keeping the country under subjection. Through this
+city there runs a river of a mile broad, with handsome buildings on both
+sides, and the river is constantly covered with vessels carrying sugar and
+other goods. This river disembogues itself at the distance of five days
+journey south-east from Cangiu, into the sea at Zaitum all the country
+between being extremely pleasant, and abounding in trees and shrubs of
+camphor. Zaitum is a famous port, and much frequented by ships with rich
+cargoes from India, for the supply of Mangi and Kathay, and from this port
+the productions of these regions are dispersed all over India. At this port
+such quantities of pepper are imported, that what comes through Alexandria
+into our western world is not to be compared to it, being hardly an
+hundredth part. The concourse of merchants to this famous emporium is
+incredible, as it is one of the most commodious ports in the whole world,
+and is exceedingly productive in revenue to the great Khan, who receives
+ten in the hundred of all merchandize. The merchants pay likewise so high
+for freights, that not above a half of their cargoes remains to themselves
+for sale, and yet of that moiety they make immense profits. The inhabitants
+of Zaitum are idolaters, and much given to pleasure, and in it there are
+many artizans employed in embroidery and arras-work[18].
+
+This river is large, wide, and swift, one arm of it reaching to Quinsai,
+and the other to Zaitum[19], and at the parting of these branches, the city
+of Tringui is situated, where porcelain dishes are made[20]. I was told of
+a certain earth which is cast up into conical heaps, and left exposed to
+the weather for thirty or forty years without stirring; after which,
+refined by time, it is made into dishes, which are painted and baked in
+furnaces; and so cheap is this manufacture, that eight of these dishes may
+be bought for one Venetian groat[21]. From this province of Concha, the
+great Khan derives nearly as great a revenue as he does from Quinsai. In
+these two provinces I travelled, but in none of die other provinces of
+Mangi; in all of which one language Is used, with considerable variety in
+dialect, and but one kind of writing.
+
+
+[1] There are two Chinese measures called Li; of the greater there are 200
+    to a degree of latitude, and of the smaller 250. It is possible that
+    Marco may have mistaken one or other of these measures for miles;
+    either of which suppositions would reduce the bounds of Quinsai to
+    some decent moderation, being thirty-four miles for the greater, and
+    twenty-seven miles for the smaller li, yet a large city on even the
+    latter substitution. Koan-sing, which may likewise be written Quan-
+    sing, all Chinese names in alphabetical characters, being quite of
+    arbitrary orthography, is the only place which can be supposed the
+    same with Quinsai. But similarity of sounds is a very uncertain guide.
+    From other circumstances in the text, the modern Kua-hing may have
+    once been Quinsay.--E.
+
+[2] Calculating by Li, this extent will be reduced to eleven or thirteen
+    miles.--E.
+
+[3] By the same reduction, these squares will be reduced to half a quarter
+    of a mile in the sides.--E.
+
+[4] Probably a mistaken translation or transcription for melons, pumpkins,
+    or gourds.--E.
+
+[5] This amounts to more than one sixth of an ounce daily for a population
+    of a million, including infants. A thing utterly incredible, and which
+    must arise from some corruption of the text. It exceeds 9000 tons
+    yearly. Perhaps, instead of _pepper_ the original had _salt_.--E.
+
+[6] This alone would give a working population exceeding a million,
+    including the women, children, and aged, belonging to these. But
+    populous as the country certainly is, the Chinese, in all ages, from
+    Polo down to Staunton, have imposed those ridiculously exaggerated
+    accounts upon all inquisitive travellers. This subject will be
+    discussed in that division of this work, which particularly relates to
+    China.--E.
+
+[7] The contrast between the cleanness and splendour of Quinsay and the
+    gloomy dirt of European cities in the thirteenth century is very
+    striking. China then enjoyed hackney coaches, tea gardens, and
+    hilarity; while the delights of European capitals were processions of
+    monks among perpetual dunghills in narrow crooked lanes.--E.
+
+[8] Probably meaning a gong.--E.
+
+[9] There must be some corruption in the text here; for even Chinese
+    exaggeration could hardly venture upon this computation, which would
+    extend the garrisons in Mangi alone to many millions.--E.
+
+[10] If Li, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 miles.--E.
+
+[11] Supposing Kua-hing to have been Quan-sai, no city appears in the
+    direction indicated in the text for the situation of Gampu. But if we
+    might venture to suppose north-east an error for south, the city of
+    Hanfcheou is nearly at the distance mentioned by Marco, and stands at
+    the bottom of a deep bay of the ocean, in a very convenient situation
+    for trade, communicating with Kua-hing by the great canal--E.
+
+[12] Multiplying this number of families by five, would give a population
+    of eight millions of individuals of every age and sex. Fortunately
+    Marco permits us to suppose that this population belonged to the
+    viceroyalty, or province over which Quinsai presided.--E.
+
+[13] Either this computation, or that of the duty on salt, is erroneous. If
+    8 tomans are 6,400,000 ducats, 210 tomans would amount to 168,000,000,
+    instead of the sum in the text. If the latter computation be right,
+    16,800,000 ducats from 210 tomans; the duty on salt, or 8 tomans,
+    ought only to have been 640,000 ducats, which appears to be the truth.
+    The whole revenue, therefore, of the province, will be 17,440,000
+    ducats, equal to L. 2,911,250 Sterling, at 3s. 7d. the ducat.--E.
+
+[14] Besides the utter discrepancy of these names to those of any cities
+    now in China, it appears obvious, that the direction of the itinerary
+    in the text is erroneous or corrupted. We have been already on the
+    ocean or bay of Nankin, the eastern boundary of China and of the land;
+    yet the text persists continually to travel _south-east_, which is
+    impossible. The direction of the itinerary must have been westwards,
+    probably south-west.--E.
+
+[15] This was probably Turmeric, so much used in the Eastern cookery,
+    though it is the root which is employed.--E.
+
+[16] Obviously what are now called Friesland, but more properly frizzled
+    hens.--E.
+
+[17] In the manufacture of sugar it is necessary to neutralize a certain
+    redundant acid in the juice of the cane, by a fit proportion of some
+    alkaline ingredient to enable the sugar to crystallize: The ordinary
+    _temper_, as it is called, for this purpose, in the West Indies, is
+    lime, but any alkali will produce nearly the same effect. This subject
+    will be fully elucidated in that part of our work which is peculiarly
+    appropriated to the sugar colonies in the West Indies,--E.
+
+[18] There can hardly be a doubt that the Zaiturn of Marco is the modern
+    Canton; yet from the causes already mentioned in several notes, it is
+    next to an impossibility to trace the route or itinerary from Quinsai
+    to this place.--E.
+
+[19] This is an obvious error, corruption, or interpolation; for on no
+    conceivable hypothesis of the situations of Quinsai and Zaitum, can
+    any river be found in China which answers to this description.--E.
+
+[20] This is the only hint in Marco, of the peculiarly famous manufacture
+    of China, from which all the best _earthen ware_ of Europe has
+    acquired this name as _par excellence_. From this circumstance, and
+    from the fame of Nankin for this manufacture, I strongly suspect that
+    this passage has been foisted in by some ignorant or careless editor
+    in a wrong place.--E.
+
+[21] It is singular that Marco should make no mention whatever of the
+    peculiar beverage of the Chinese, _tea_, though particularly described
+    both in name and use, by the Mahometan travellers in the _ninth_
+    century, four hundred years earlier, as used in all the cities of
+    China.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVII
+
+_Of the island of Zipangu, and of the unsuccessful attempts made by the
+Tartars for its Conquest_.
+
+I shall now leave the country of Mangi, and proceed to discourse of India
+the greater, the middle, and lesser; in which I have been, both in the
+service of the great khan, and also on our return home along with the
+queen, who was sent from Kathay to Argon. The ships which are built in the
+kingdom of Mangi are made of fir, having only one deck, on which are built
+twenty cabins, more or less, according to their size, each for one
+merchant. They have each a good rudder, and four masts, with four sails,
+which they raise or let down at pleasure, but some have only two masts.
+Some of the largest ships have thirteen divisions in the inside, made of
+boards let into each other, so that if, by the blow of a whale, or by
+touching on a rock, water should get into one of these divisions, it can go
+no farther, and the leak being found, is soon stopped. They are all built
+double, or have two courses of boards, one within the other, both of which
+are well caulked with oakum, and nailed with iron; but they are not
+pitched, as they have no pitch in Mangi, instead of which they are payed
+all over with the oil of a certain tree, mixed up with lime and chopped
+hemp which binds faster than pitch or lime. The largest of these ships have
+three hundred marines, others two hundred, or an hundred and fifty,
+according to their size; and they carry from five to six thousand bags of
+pepper. In ancient times they used to build larger ships than now; but
+owing to the great numbers of islands and shoals in some places of these
+seas, they now build them less[1]. Besides their sails, they use oars.
+occasionally to propel these ships, four men being employed to each oar.
+The larger ships are usually attended by two or three of a smaller size,
+able to carry a thousand bags of pepper, and having sixty mariners in each
+and these smaller ships are sometimes employed to tow the greater vessels.
+Each of the larger ships hare ten small boats for fishing and other
+services, which are fastened aloft on their sides, and let down when wanted
+for use. After having been employed for a year, these ships are sheathed
+all over, so that they then have three courses of boards: and they proceed
+in this manner till they sometimes hare six courses, alter which they are
+broken up.
+
+Zipangu[2] is a very large island on the east, and fifteen hundred miles
+distant from the shores of Mangi. The people of this island are of a white
+complexion and of gentle manners, and have a king of their own. They have
+gold in great plenty, as Jew merchants report thither, and no gold is
+allowed to be exported. Such as have traded to this island speak of the
+kings palace as being covered over with gold as our churches are with lead,
+and that the windows and floors are likewise of gold. It abounds in pearls,
+and is amazingly rich. Hearing of the vast opulence of this island, Kublai
+Khan sent two of his barons, Abasa and Vensaasin[3], with a fleet and a
+great army, to attempt the conquest. Sailing from Zaitum and Quinsai[4],
+they arrived safely on the island, but falling out between themselves, they
+were only able to take one city, all the garrison of which they beheaded,
+except eight persons, who could not be wounded with steel, because each had
+an enchanted stone inclosed between the skin and flesh of their right arms.
+These men were beaten to death with clubs, by order of the generals. Soon
+after this a violent north wind arose, which flew so hard as greatly to
+endanger the ships, some of which were lost, and others blown out to sea.
+On this, the whole army re-embarked, and sailed to an uninhabited island,
+at the distance of about ten miles: But the tempest continuing, many of the
+ships were wrecked, and about thirty thousand of the people escaped on
+shore, without arms or provisions; the two generals with a few of the
+principal persons, returning home. After this tempest ceased, the people of
+Zipangu sent over an army, in a fleet of ships, to seize the Tartars; but
+having landed without any order, the Tartars took the advantage of a rising
+ground in the middle of the island, under cover, of which, they wheeled
+suddenly round between the Zipanguers and the ships, which had been left
+unmanned, with ail their streamers displayed. In these ships, the Tartars
+sailed to a principal city of Zipangu, into which they were admitted
+without any suspicion, finding hardly any within its walls except women,
+the men being all absent on the expedition into the uninhabited island. The
+Zipanguers collected a new fleet and army to besiege the city, and the
+Tartars receiving no succour, were constrained to surrender, after a
+defence of six months, on terms by which their lives were spared. This
+happened in the year 1264[5]. For the bad conduct of the two commanders,
+the great khan ordered one to be beheaded, and sent the other to the desert
+island of Zerga, in which malefactors are punished, by sewing them up in
+the new flayed hide of a buffalo, which shrinks so much in drying, as to
+put them to exquisite torture, and brings them to a miserable death.
+
+The idols in Zipangu and the adjoining islands are strangely made, some
+having the head of a bull, others of a hog, or a dog, and in other most
+monstrous fashions. Some have heads with four faces, others three heads on
+one neck, while some have faces on their shoulders. Some have four arms,
+others ten, or even an hundred arms; and that idol is reputed the most
+powerful, and is held in greatest reverence, which has the greatest number.
+When asked the reason of making their idols in such distorted and
+ridiculous forms, they answer that such is the custom which has been handed
+down from their ancestors. It is reported of these islanders, that they eat
+such of their enemies as they take prisoners; esteeming human flesh a
+peculiar dainty. The sea in which Zipangu lies is called the sea of _Chi_
+or _Chin_, or the sea over against Mangi, which is called _Chan_ or
+_Chint_, in the language of that island. This sea is so large, that
+mariners who have frequented it, say it contains seven thousand four
+hundred and forty islands, most of them inhabited; and that in ail those
+islands there is no tree which is not odoriferous, or does not bear fruit,
+or is not useful in some other respects. In them likewise there are great
+abundance of spices of various kinds, especially black arid white pepper,
+and lignum aloes[6]. The ships of Zaitum are a whole year on their voyage
+to and from Zipangu, going there during the winter, and returning again in
+summer, as there are two particular winds which regularly prevail in these
+seasons. Zipangu is far distant from India. But I will now leave Zipangu,
+because I never was there, as it is not subject to the khan, and shall now
+return to Zaitum and the voyage from thence to India.
+
+
+[1] In this passage, in the edition of Harris, the sense seems obscurely to
+    insinuate that this had been occasioned by the sea having broken down
+    or overwhelmed certain lands or islands, producing numbers of smaller
+    islands and extensive shoals.--E.
+
+[2] Zipangu, Zipangri, or Cimpagu, is Japan without any doubt.--E.
+
+[3] Named Abataa and Yonsaintin by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition. The
+    latter Ven-san-sui, or Von-sain-cin, by his name seems to have been a
+    Chinese.--E.
+
+[4] Called Caicon, or Jaiton in the Trevigi edition. Caicon is not very far
+    removed from the sound of Cangtong or Canton, which has already been
+    considered to be the Zaitum of the text.--E.
+
+[5] A.D. 1269, according to the Trevigi edition.--E.
+
+[6] Marco obviously extends this sea and these islands to all those of the
+    Chinese sea and the Indian ocean, from Sumatra in the SW. to Japan in
+    the NE.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVIII.
+
+_Account of Various Countries, Provinces, Islands, and Cities in the
+Indies_.
+
+Sailing from Zaitum, 1500 miles to the south westwards, we pass a gulf
+called Cheinan[1], which extends two months sail to the northward, still
+confining on the south-east[2] of Mangi, and elsewhere, with Ania and
+Toloman, and other provinces mentioned formerly. Within it are infinite
+islands all in a manner inhabited [3], and in them is found abundance of
+gold, and they trade with each other. This gulf seems like another world;
+and after 1500 miles sailing, is the rich and great country of Ziambar[4].
+The people are idolaters, and pay an yearly tribute to the great khan of
+twenty elephants, and great quantities of aloes wood. In the year 1268,
+hearing of the riches of this country, the khan sent one of his generals,
+named Segatu, to invade it, Acambute, who was then king of the country, was
+old, and chose to avoid the dangers and miseries of war, by agreeing to pay
+the before-mentioned tribute. In Ziambar there are many woods of black
+ebony, of great value.
+
+Sailing thence for 1500 miles, betwixt the south and southeast, we came to
+Java[5], which is considered by mariners to be the largest island in the
+world, being above 3000 miles in circumference. It is governed by a king
+who pays tribute to none; as, owing to the length and danger of the voyage,
+the great khan has made no attempt to annex it to his vast dominions. The
+merchants of Zaitum and Mangi, bring from thence abundance of gold and
+spices. South and south-westwards six hundred miles, are the islands of
+Sondur and Condur, both desolate, of which Sondur is the larger[6]. Fifty
+miles south-east from them is a rich and great province, or island, called
+Lochae[7]. The people are idolaters, and have both a king and language of
+their own. In it there grows great plenty of Brazil wood; and it has much
+gold, many elephants, wild beasts, and fowls, and an excellent fruit called
+bercias, as large as lemons. The country is mountainous and savage, and the
+king permits no person to come into his dominions, lest they should get
+acquainted with the county and attempt its conquest. It produces abundance
+of porcelain shells, which are transported to other places, where they
+serve as money.
+
+Five hundred miles southward from Lochae, is the isle of Pentan[8], a
+savage place, which produces sweet trees in all its woods. For sixty miles
+of this voyage, between Lochae and Pentan, the sea in many places is only
+four fathoms deep Thirty miles to the south-east from Pentan, is the island
+and kingdom of Malaiur[9], which has a king and a peculiar language of its
+own, and has a great trade carried on in spices from Pentan. One hundred
+miles south-east is Java the less[10], which is about two thousand miles in
+circuit, and is divided into eight kingdoms, each having its own language.
+I was in six of these kingdoms, of which I shall give some account,
+omitting those I did not see.
+
+One of these kingdoms is Felech or Ferlach, in which the formerly
+idolatrous inhabitants of the cities have been converted to the Mahometan
+religion, in consequence of much trade and intercourse with the Saracens;
+but the mountaineers are very savage, eating human flesh, and living upon
+every kind of unclean food, and they worship all day what they first happen
+to meet in the morning. The next kingdom is called Basma, which has a
+language peculiar to itself, the people living without law or religion like
+beasts: But they sometimes send hawks to the khan, who lays claim to the
+sovereignty of the whole island. Besides wild elephants, there are unicorns
+in this country, which are much less than elephants, being haired like the
+buffalo, but their feet are like those of die elephant. These animals have
+one horn in the middle of their foreheads; but they hurt no one with this
+weapon, using only their tongue and knee, for they trample and press any
+one down with their feet and knees, and their tongue is beset with long
+sharp prickles, with which they tear a person to pieces. The head is like
+that of a wild boar, which the animal, carries hanging down to the ground.
+They are filthy beasts that love to stand and wallow in the mire, and they
+do not in the least resemble those unicorns which are said to be found in
+some other parts of the world, which allow themselves to be taken by
+maids[11]. In this country, there are many apes of different kinds, some of
+them, being black with faces like men, which they put into boxes, preserved
+with spices; these they sell to merchants, who carry them to various parts
+of the world, and pass them for pigmies or little men. This country
+likewise produces large goshawks, as black as ravens, which are excellent
+for sport.
+
+Samare or Samara is the next kingdom, in which I remained for five months
+against my will, in consequence of bad weather[12], during all which time,
+none of the stars in the constellation of the great-bear were seen. Being
+forced to remain here for five months. I landed with 2000 men, and erected
+fortifications to defend us against any unforeseen attack from the savage
+cannibals of the island, with whom we established a trade for provisions.
+They have excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palm tree,
+which is a very wholesome beverage, as it is medicinal for consumption, the
+dropsy, and for disorders of the spleen. They have likewise abundance of
+fine fish, and eat of all sorts of flesh, without making any difference.
+Their cocco nuts are as large as a mans head, and the middle of them is
+full of a pleasant liquor, better than wine.
+
+Dragoian[13] is another of those kingdoms claimed by the khan, which has a
+king and a peculiar language. I was told of an abominable custom in this
+country; that when any one is sick, his relatives send to inquire at the
+sorcerers if he is to recover? If they answer no, the kindred then send for
+a person, whose office it is to strangle the sick person, whom they
+immediately cut in pieces and devour, even to the marrow of their bones,
+for they allege, that if any part were to remain, worms would breed in it,
+which would be in want of food, and would therefore die, to the great
+torture of the soul of the dead person. They afterwards carry away the
+bones, and conceal them carefully in caves in the mountains, that no beast
+may touch them. If they can lay their hands on any stranger, they treat him
+in the same barbarous manner.
+
+Lambri is the fifth kingdom of Java-minor, or Sumatra, in which is great
+plenty of Brazil wood, some of the seeds of which I brought to Venice, but
+they would not vegetate, as the climate was too cold for them. In this
+country there are great numbers of unicorns or rhinoceroses, and plenty of
+other beasts and birds. Fanfur is the sixth kingdom, having the best
+camphor, which Is sold weight for weight with gold. In that kingdom, they
+make a kind of meal from great and long trees, as thick as two men are able
+to fathom. Having taken off the thin bark, the wood within is only about
+three fingers thick, all the rest being pith, from which the meal is made.
+This pith is broken to pieces, and stirred among water, the light dross
+swimming, and being thrown away, while the finer parts settle at the
+bottom, and is made into paste[14]. I brought some of this to Venice, which
+tastes not much unlike barley bread. The wood of this tree is so heavy as
+to sink in water like iron, and of it they make excellent lances, but being
+very heavy, they are under the necessity of making them short. These are
+hardened in the fire, and sharpened, and when so prepared, they will pierce
+through armour easier than if made of iron. About 150 miles to the
+northward of Lambri, there are two islands, one called Nocueran and the
+other Angaman,[l5] in the former of which the inhabitants live like beasts,
+and go entirely naked, but have excellent trees, such as cloves, red and
+white sanders, coco-nuts, Brazil, and various spices in the other island
+the inhabitants are equally savage, and are said to have the heads and
+teeth of dogs.
+
+
+[1] Probably the gulph of Siam.--E.
+
+[2] South-west, certainly.--E.
+
+[3] The inlands in the gulf of Siam are small, and not numerous; so that
+    the passage is probably corrupted; and may have been in the original,
+    "that, leaving the gulf of Cheinan on the north, they left infinite
+    islands, &c; on the south." After all, the gulf of Cheinan may mean
+    the whole sea of China.--E.
+
+[4] It is difficult to say precisely what division of farther India is here
+    meant by Ziambar. 1500 miles would carry us to the coast of Malaya;
+    but 1500 li, or about 500 miles reach only to the coast of
+    Cochin-China, or it may be Tsiompa. Ziambar, in the editions, is
+    variously written Ciambau, Ciariban, and Ziambar.--E.
+
+[5] The direction of the voyage is here obviously erroneous, it must have
+    been between the south and the south-west, or south-south-west. In the
+    Trevigi edition, the Java of this part of our text is Lava, and
+    according to Valentine, Lava is the name of the principal city and
+    kingdom in Borneo; which at all events must be the island here
+    mentioned by Marco.--E.
+
+[6] According to the Trevigi edition, as reported by Pinkerton, these
+    islands are only seven miles from Lava or Borneo. At about seventy
+    miles distance to the south-west, there are two islands named Caremata
+    and Soorooto, which may be those mentioned in the text.--E.
+
+[7] Called Lochach in some of the editions, and said to be 200 miles from
+    Sondor and Condur. Whether this may be Ma-lacca or Ma-laya, it is
+    impossible to determine.--E.
+
+[8] In the Trevigi edition only five miles, and the island is called
+    Pentara. This may possibly be the island of Bintang in the
+    south-eastern entrance of the straits of Malacca.--E.
+
+[9] Most probably the kingdom of Malacca. From the Trevigi edition
+    Pinkerton calls this Malonir, and curiously identifies Pepetam,
+    Pentara, or Pentan, as the name of the city and kingdom of Malonir or
+    Malaiur.--E.
+
+[10] If right in our former conjectures, the island spoken of in the text
+    must be Sumatra not that now called Java. Indeed, the mention
+    immediately afterwards of the islands of Nocueran and Angaman 150
+    miles to the north, which can only he the Nicobar and Andaman islands,
+    establish the identity of Java-minor, here called Java the less, and
+    Sumatra.--E.
+
+[11] The animal here described under the name of unicorn is the Rhinoceros
+    monoceros, or one-horned rhinoceros of naturalists; but the single horn
+    is placed a little above the nose, not on the middle of the forehead,
+    as here erroneously described by Marco.--E
+
+[12] He had evidently missed the Monsoon, and had to await its return. From
+    this kingdom or division of the island, it probably acquired the name
+    of Sumatra, by which it is known in modern geography. From the
+    circumstance in the text of not seeing the great bear, it is probable
+    that Marco was stopped near the south-eastern extremity of the island.
+    What is here translated the great bear, Pinkerton calls, from the
+    Trevigi edition _del Maistro._ The polar star was invisible of
+    course.--E.
+
+[13] Called Deragola by Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition.--E.
+
+[14] He here distinctly indicates the manufacture of sego.--E.
+
+[15] Nicobar and Andaman, on the east side of the bay of Bengal; called
+    Necunera and Namgama in the Trevigi edition.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIX.
+
+_Of the Island of Ceylon, and various parts of Hither India_.
+
+Sailing from Angaman 1000 miles west, and a little to the south, we come to
+the island of Zelan or Ceylon, which is 2400 miles in circumference; but
+was anciently 3600 miles round, as appears from the former charts of the
+country, the north winds having occasioned the sea to destroy a great part
+of it. This is the finest island in the world, and its king is called
+Sendernaz. The men and women are idolaters, and go entirely naked, except a
+small cloth before them. They grow no corn except rice; and they have
+plenty of oil of sesame, milk, flesh, palm wine, Brazil wood, the best
+rubies in the world, sapphires, topazes, amethysts, and other gems. The
+king of the island is said to have the finest ruby that ever was seen, as
+long as the hand, and as thick as a mans wrist, without spot or blemish,
+and glowing like a fire. Cublai-Khan once sent to purchase this ruby,
+offering the value of a city for it; but the king answered that he would
+not part with it for all the treasure in the world, because it had belonged
+to his ancestors. The men of this island are unfit for soldiers, and hire
+others when they have occasion to go to war.
+
+There is a high mountain in Ceylon, to the top of which no one can ascend,
+without the assistance of iron chains, and on which the Saracens report
+that the sepulchre of Adam is situated; but the idolaters say that it is
+the body of Sogomon Burchan, the first founder of idol worship, son of a
+king of the island, who betook himself to a recluse life of religious
+contemplation on the top of this mountain, from whence no pleasures or
+persuasions could induce him to withdraw. After his death, his father
+caused an image of him to be made of solid gold, and commanded all his
+subjects to adore him as their god: and hence they say is the origin of
+idol worship. People come here in pilgrimage from remote regions, and there
+his fore-teeth, and a dish which he used, are solemnly exhibited as holy
+relics. As the Saracens pretend that these belonged to Adam, Cublai-Khan
+was induced, in 1281, to send ambassadors to the king of this country, who
+obtained the dish, two teeth, and some of the hairs of Sogomon Barchan:
+These the great khan caused to be received without the city with great
+reverence and solemnity, by the whole people of Cambalu, and brought into
+his presence with great honour.
+
+Sixty miles to the west of Ceylon is Moabar[1]. This is no island, but lies
+on the firm continent, which may be called the greater India. In it there
+are four kings, the principal one of whom is Sinder Candi, in whose kingdom
+they fish for pearls, between Ceylon and Moabar, in a bay where the sea
+does not exceed ten or twelve fathoms deep. Here the divers descend to the
+bottom, and in bags or nets which are tied about their bodies, bring up the
+oysters which contain the pearls. On account of certain great fish which
+kill the divers, they hire bramins to charm them from doing harm, and these
+have the twentieth part of the pearls, the king getting the tenth part[2];
+These oysters are only found from the beginning of April to the end of May
+in this place; but from the beginning of September to the middle of
+October, they are got in another place, about three hundred miles distant.
+The king of this country goes naked, like the rest of his subjects, except
+that he wears some honourable marks of distinction, as a collar of precious
+stones about his neck, and a thread of silk hanging down to his breast, on
+which are strung 104 large fine pearls, by which he counts his prayers as
+with a rosary. These prayers are merely the word _Pacaupa_, repeated 104
+times over. He wears a sort of bracelets on three places of his arms and on
+his legs, and rings on all his fingers and toes. This king has a thousand
+concubines, and if any woman pleases his fancy, he takes her away from
+whoever she may happen to belong to. He once did this unjust deed to his
+own brother, in consequence of which a civil war had nearly ensued; but as
+their mother threatened to cut off her own breasts if they continued their
+enmity, they were reconciled. He has a numerous guard of horsemen, who are
+under a vow, when he dies, to throw themselves into the fire in which his
+body is consumed, that they may serve him in the next world.
+
+This prince, and the other kings of Moabar, buy their horses from Ormus and
+other parts, as their country produces none, or if any happen to be bred
+there, they are ugly and useless[3]. Condemned persons often offer
+themselves to die in honour of a particular idol; on which the devotee puts
+himself to death with twelve knives, giving himself twelve deep wounds in
+various parts of his body, calling out aloud on the infliction of each,
+that he does this in honour of such or such an idol; and the last of all is
+through his own heart, after which his body is burned by his kindred. The
+women of this country voluntarily burn themselves along with the bodies of
+their deceased husbands, and those who neglect to do this are held in
+disrepute. They worship idols, and most of them hold cows in such high
+veneration, that they would not eat their holy flesh for any consideration
+on earth. A certain tribe is called Gaui, who feed upon such oxen as die of
+themselves, but never kill any. These Gaui are descended from the people
+who slew St Thomas, and dare not enter the shrine in which his body is
+preserved. The people of this country sit on carpets on the ground, using
+no chairs or stools. Their only grain is rice. They are not a martial
+people, and kill no animals; but when they are inclined for animal food,
+they get the Saracens or some other people to kill for them. Both men and
+women wash themselves twice a-day, and always before eating; and those who
+neglect this ceremony are reputed heretics. They never touch their meat
+with their left hands, which they only employ for wiping themselves, or
+other unclean purposes. Each drinks from his own pot, neither do they allow
+it to touch their mouths, but hold it above, and pour in the drink; and to
+strangers who have no pot, they pour liquor into their hands, from which
+they must drink, as they will not allow their pots to be touched by any
+other person.
+
+Justice is severely administered for crimes; and in some cases, a creditor
+has a singular manner of compelling payment, by drawing a circle round his
+debtor, out of which he must not stir till he has satisfied his creditor,
+or given security for the debt, under the pain of death. I, Marco, once saw
+the king on horseback thus encircled, by a merchant whom he had long put
+off with delays; and the king would not come out of the circle, which the
+merchant had drawn; till he had sent for the means of paying the merchant,
+all the people who were present highly applauding the kings justice. They
+are very scrupulous of drinking wine, and those who are addicted to that
+practice, are held disreputable and unworthy of being admitted as
+witnesses; which is the case likewise with those who go to sea, as they
+reckon them desperate persons. They look on letchery as no sin. In the
+months of June, July, and August, they have no rains, and it is excessively
+hot, insomuch, that they could not live if it were not for the refreshing
+winds which blow from the sea. They have many physiognomists and
+soothsayers, who observe omens from birds and beasts, and other signs.
+These people consider one hour in every day of the week as unlucky, which
+they name Choiach, and which is different on all the days, all of which are
+carefully recorded in their books, and they are curious observers of
+nativities. At thirteen years of age, their boys are put out to gain their
+living, who go about buying and selling, by means of a small stock given
+them to begin with. In the pearl season, these boys will buy a few pearls,
+and sell them again for a small profit to the merchants, who are unable to
+endure the sun. What gain they get they bring to their mothers, to lay out
+for them, as it is not lawful for them to live at their fathers cost. Their
+daughters are dedicated to the service of the idols, and appointed by the
+priests to sing and dance in presence of the idols; and they frequently set
+victuals before the idols for some time, as if they would eat, singing all
+the while, when they fall to eat themselves, and then return home. The
+great men have a kind of litters, made of large canes artificially wrought,
+which are fixed in some high situation, to avoid being bitten by
+tarantulas[4], and other vermin, and for the benefit of fresh air.
+
+The sepulchre of St Thomas is in a small city, not much frequented by
+merchants, but very much by Christians and Saracens, on account of
+devotion. The Saracens hold him as a great prophet or holy man, and call
+him Ananias. The Christians take of a red earth which is found in the place
+where he was slain, which they mix with water, and administer to the sick
+with great reverence. It happened in the year 1288, that a great prince,
+who had more rice than he had room to keep it in, chose to make bold with
+that room in St Thomas's church in which pilgrims are received, and
+converted it into a granary: But he was so terrified by a vision of St
+Thomas in the night following, that he was glad to remove it with great
+speed. The inhabitants are black, although not born so, but by constantly
+anointing themselves with the oil of jasmine they become quite black, which
+they esteem a great beauty, insomuch, that they paint their idols black,
+and represent the devil as white. The cow worshippers carry with them to
+battle some of the hairs of an ox, as a preservative against dangers.
+
+
+[1] This Pinkerton calls Moabar on the margin, and Nachabar in the text, of
+    his dissertation on the Trevigi edition of Marco Polo, very justly
+    observing that it refers to Coromandel, or the Carnatic below the
+    gauts. Harris erroneously substitutes Malabar. Moabar and Madura may
+    have a similar origin, as may Nachabar and Nega-patnam.--E.
+
+[2] The fish here alluded to are sharks; and the same custom of employing
+    bramins to defend the fishermen, by conjuration, against this
+    formidable enemy, is continued to the present day.--E.
+
+[3] Mr Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, has this passage as follows:
+    "The king of Vor, one of the princes of Nacbabar, purchases about
+    10,000 horses yearly from the country of Cormos, formerly mentioned,
+    each horse costing five _sazi_ of gold."--E.
+
+[4] Tarantulas is assuredly, a mistake here for centipedes and scorpions,
+    which are common all over India.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XX.
+
+_Of the Kingdom of Murfili, and the Diamond Mines, and some other Countries
+of India_.
+
+Murfili or Monsul[1], is five hundred miles northwards from Moabar, and is
+inhabited by idolaters. In the mountains of this country there are
+diamonds, which the people search for after the great rains. They
+afterwards ascend these mountains in the summer, though with great labour,
+on account of the excessive heat, and find abundance of these precious
+stones among the gravel; and are on these occasions much exposed to danger
+from the vast numbers of serpents which shelter themselves in the holes and
+caverns of the rocks, in which the diamonds are found in greatest
+abundance. Among other methods of obtaining the diamonds, they make, use of
+the following artifice: There are great numbers of white eagles, which rest
+in the upper parts of these rocks for the sake of feeding on the serpents,
+which are found at the bottom of the deep vallies and precipices where the
+men dare not go. They therefore throw pieces of raw meat down into these
+deep places, which the eagles seeing, stoop for, and seize with all the
+little stones and gravel which adhere to them. The people afterwards search
+the eagles nests when they leave them, and carefully pick out all the
+little stones they can find, and even carefully examine the eagles dung in
+quest of diamonds[2]. The kings and great men of the country keep all the
+largest and finest diamonds that are procured from these mines, and allow
+the merchants to sell the rest.
+
+Lac is westwards from the shrine of St Thomas, from whence the Bramins have
+their original, who are the honestest merchants in the world, and will not
+lie on any account. They faithfully keep any thing committed to their
+charge, or as brokers, they will sell or barter merchandize for others,
+with great fidelity. They are known by a cotton thread, which they wear
+over their shoulders, and tied under their arms across their breast. They
+have but one wife, are great astrologers, of great abstinence, and live to
+great ages. They constantly chew a certain herb, which keeps their teeth
+good and helps digestion. There are certain religious persons among them
+called _Tangui_, who live with great austerity, going altogether naked;
+their principal worship is addressed to cows, of which they wear a small
+brass image on their foreheads, and they make an ointment of ox bones, with
+which they anoint themselves very devoutly. They neither kill nor eat any
+living creature, and even abstain from green herbs, or fresh roots till
+dried, esteeming every thing that lives to have a soul. They use no dishes,
+but lay their victuals on dry leaves. They ease themselves in the sands,
+and they disperse it, lest it should breed worms, which might die for want
+of food. Some of these people are said to live to 150 years of age, and
+when they die their bodies are burned.
+
+Cael is a great city governed by Aster, one of the four brethren[3], who is
+very rich and kind to merchants. He is said to have three hundred
+concubines. All the people this country are continually chewing a leaf
+called Tembul[4], with lime and spices. Coulam[5] is 500 miles south-west
+from Moabar, being chiefly inhabited by idolaters, who are very much
+addicted to venery, and marry their near kindred, and even their own
+sisters. It also contains Jews and Christians, who have a peculiar
+language. They have pepper, Brazil, indigo, black lions, parrots of many
+kinds, some white as snow, some azure, and others red, peacocks very
+different from ours, and much larger, and their fruits are very large. In
+this country there are many astrologers and physicians. In Camari, there
+are apes so large, that they seem like men, and here we again came in sight
+of the north star. Delai has a king, and its inhabitants have a peculiar
+language[6] and are idolaters. Ships from Mangi come here for trade.
+
+Malabar is a kingdom in the west, in which, and in Guzerat[7], there are
+many pirates, who sometimes put to sea with an hundred sail of vessels, and
+rob merchants. In these expeditions they take their wives and children to
+sea along with them, where they remain all summer. In Guzerat there is
+great abundance of cotton, which grows on trees six fathoms high, that last
+for twenty years; but after twelve years old, the cotton of these trees is
+not good for spinning; and is only fit for making quilts.
+
+Canhau is a great city, having plenty of frankincense, and carrying on a
+great trade in horses. In Cambaia is much indigo, buckram, and cotton.
+Semenath or Sebeleth, is a kingdom of idolaters, who are very good people,
+and greatly occupied in trade. Resmacoran is a great kingdom of idolaters
+and Saracens, and is the last province towards the north in the Greater
+India. Near this there are said to be two islands, one inhabited by men and
+the other by women; the men visiting their wives only during the months of
+March, April, and May, and then returning to their own island; and it is
+reported, that the air of that country, admits of no other procedure. The
+women keep their sons till twelve years old, and then send them to their
+fathers. These people are Christians, having a bishop, who is subject to
+the archbishop of Socotora; they are good fishermen, and have great store
+of amber. The archbishop of Socotora[8] is not subject to the Pope, but to
+a prelate called Zatulia, who resides at Bagdat. The people of Socotora are
+said to be great enchanters, though excommunicated for the practice by
+their prelate, and are reported to raise contrary winds to bring back the
+ships of those who have wronged them, that they may obtain satisfaction.
+
+
+[1] Muis in the Trevigi edition, according to Pinkerton, and which, he
+    says, is 10OO miles, instead of the 500 in the text. This certainly
+    refers to Golconda. The districts of India have been continually
+    changing their names with changes of dominion; and one or other of
+    these names given by Marco to the diamond country, may at one time
+    have been the designation of some town or district at the mines--E.
+
+[2] One would suppose we were here reading a fragment of the adventures of
+    Sinbad the sailor, from the Arabian Nights. But on this and a few
+    other similar occasions in the narrative of Marco, it is always proper
+    to notice carefully what he says on his own knowledge, and what he
+    only gives on the report of others.--E.
+
+[3] This obscure expression seems to imply, that Aster was one of the four
+    kings in Moabar, or the Carnatic.--E.
+
+[4] Now called Betel, and still universally used in India in the same
+    manner.--E
+
+[5] Coulam may possibly be Cochin or Calicut, on the Malabar coast as being
+    south-west from Moabar or Coromandel, and having Jews and Christians;
+    as the original trade from the Red Sea to India was on this coast.--E.
+
+[6] Camari or Comati, and Delai or Orbai, are obviously the names of towns
+    and districts on the Malabar coast going north from Coulain. Yet
+    Comari may refer to the country about Cape Comorin.--E.
+
+[7] According to Pinkerton, these are called Melibar and Gesurach in the
+    Trevigi edition, and he is disposed to consider the last as indicating
+    Geriach, because of the pirates. But there seems no necessity for that
+    nicety, as all the north-western coast of India has always been
+    addicted to maritime plunder or piracy.--E.
+
+[8] Socotora is called Scorsia or Scoria in the Trevigi edition.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXI.
+
+_Of Madagascar, Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and several other Countries[1]_.
+
+A thousand miles south from Socotora is Magaster[2] or Madagascar, one of
+the largest and richest islands in the world[3], 3000 miles in
+circumference, which is inhabited by Saracens, and governed by four old
+men. The currents of the sea in those parts are of prodigious force. The
+people live by merchandize, and sell vast quantifies of elephants teeth
+[4]. Mariners report strange stories of a prodigiously large bird like an
+eagle, called _Ruch_, said to be found in this country.
+
+Zensibar or Zanguebar, is also said to be of great extent, and inhabited by
+a very deformed people; and the country abounds in elephants and antelopes,
+and a species of sheep very unlike to ours.
+
+I have heard from mariners and skilful pilots, much versant in the Indian
+seas, and have seen in their writings, that these seas contain 12,700
+islands, inhabited or desert.
+
+In the Greater India, which is between Moabar or the Coromandel coast on
+the east, round to Chesmacoran on the north-west, there are thirteen
+kingdoms. India Minor is from Ziambo to Murfili[5], in which are eight
+kingdoms and many islands.
+
+The second or Middle India is called Abascia[6], of which the chief king is
+a Christian, who has six other kings subject to his authority, three of
+whom are Christians and three of them Mahometans; there are also Jews in
+his dominions. St Thomas, after preaching in Nubia, came to Abascia, where
+he preached for some time, and then went to Moabar or Coromandel. The
+Abyssinians are valiant soldiers, always at war with the sultan of Aden and
+the people of Nubia. I was told, that in 1288, the great emperor of the
+Abyssinians was extremely desirous to have visited Jerusalem; but being
+dissuaded from the attempt, on account of the Saracen kingdoms which were
+in the way, he sent a pious bishop to perform his devotions for him at the
+holy sepulchre. On his return, the bishop was made prisoner by the sultan
+of Aden, and circumcised by force. On this affront, the Abyssinian monarch
+raised an army, with which he defeated the sultan and two other Saracen
+kings, and took and destroyed the city of Aden. Abyssinia is, rich in gold.
+Escier, subject to Aden, is forty miles distant to the south-east, and
+produces abundance of fine white frankincense, which is procured by making
+incisions in the bark of certain small trees, and is a valuable
+merchandize. Some of the people on that coast, from want of corn, use fish,
+which they have in great abundance, instead of bread, and also feed their
+beasts on fish. They are most abundantly taken in the months of March,
+April, and May.
+
+I now return to some provinces more to the north, where many Tartars dwell,
+who have a king called Caidu, of the race of Zingis, but who is entirely
+independent. These Tartars, observant of the customs of their ancestors,
+dwell not in cities, castles, or fortresses, but continually roam about,
+along with their king, in the plains and forests, and are esteemed true
+Tartars. They have no corn of any kind, but have multitudes of horses,
+cattle, sheep, and other beasts, and live on flesh and milk, in great
+peace. In their country there are white bears of large size, twenty palms
+in length; very large wild asses, little beasts called _rondes_, from which
+we have the valuable fur called sables, and various other animals producing
+fine furs, which the Tartars are very skilful in taking. This country
+abounds in great lakes, which are frozen over, except for a few months in
+every year, and in summer it is hardly possible to travel, on account of
+marshes and waters; for which reason, the merchants who go to buy furs, and
+who have to travel for fourteen days through the desert, have wooden houses
+at the end of each days journey, where they barter with the inhabitants,
+and in winter they travel in sledges without wheels, quite flat at the
+bottom, and rising semicircularly at the top, and these are drawn by great
+dogs, yoked in couples, the sledgeman only with his merchant and furs,
+sitting within[7].
+
+Beyond these Tartars is a country reaching to the extremest north, called
+the _Obscure land_, because the sun never appears during the greatest part
+of the winter months, and the air is perpetually thick and darkish, as is
+the case with us sometimes in hazy mornings. The inhabitants are pale and
+squat, and live like beasts, without law, religion, or king. The Tartars
+often rob them of their cattle during the dark months; and lest they might
+lose their way in these expeditions they ride on mares which have sucking
+foals, leaving these at the entrance of the country, under a guard; and
+when they have got possession of any booty, they give the reins to the
+mares, which make the best of their way to rejoin their foals. In their,
+long-continued summer[8], these northern people take many of the finest
+furs, some of which are carried into Russia, which is a great country near
+that northern land of darkness. The people in Russia have fair complexions,
+and are Greek Christians, paying tribute to the king of the Tartars in the
+west, on whom they border. In the eastern parts of Russia there is
+abundance of fine furs, wax, and mines of silver; and I am told the country
+reaches to the northern ocean, in which there are islands which abound in
+falcons and ger-falcons.
+
+
+[1] This concluding section may be considered as a kind of appendix, in
+    which Marco has placed several unconnected hearsay notices of
+    countries where he never had been personally.--E.
+
+[2] Mandeigascar in the Trevigi edition, and certainly meant for
+    Madagascar.--E.
+
+[3] Madagascar has no pretensions to riches or trade, and never had; so
+    that Marco must have been imposed upon by some Saracen or Arab
+    mariner. Its size, climate, and soil certainly fit it for becoming a
+    place of vast riches and population; but it is one almost continued
+    forest, inhabited by numerous independent and hostile tribes of
+    barbarians. Of this island, a minute account will appear in an after
+    part of this work.--E.
+
+[4] There are no elephants in Madagascar, yet these teeth might have been
+    procured from southern Africa.--E.
+
+[5] By India Minor he obviously means what is usually called farther India,
+    or India beyond the Ganges, from the frontiers of China to Moabar, or
+    the north part of the Coromandel coast, including the islands.--E.
+
+[6] Abyssinia, here taken in the most extended sense, including all the
+    western coast of the Red Sea, and Eastern Africa.--E.
+
+[7] This paragraph obviously alludes to the Tartar kingdom of Siberia.--E.
+
+[8] The summer in this northern country of the Samojeds is extremely short;
+    but the expression here used, must allude to the long-continued summer
+    day, when, for several months, the sun never sets.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XII.
+
+_Travels of Oderic of Portenau, into China and the East, in_ 1318[1].
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Oderic of Portenau, a minorite friar, travelled into the eastern countries
+in the year 1318, accompanied by several other monks, and penetrated as far
+as China. After his return, he dictated, in 1330, the account of what he
+had seen during his journey to friar William de Solona, or Solangna, at
+Padua, but without order or arrangement, just as it occurred to his memory.
+This traveller has been named by different editors, Oderic, Oderisius, and
+Oldericus de Foro Julii, de Udina, Utinensis, or de Porto Vahonis, or
+rather Nahonis. Porto-Nahonis, or Portenau, is the _Mutatio ad nonum_, a
+station or stage which is mentioned in the Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, or
+description of the various routes to Jerusalem, a work compiled for the use
+of pilgrims; and its name is apparently derived from the Kymerian language,
+apparently a Celtic dialect, in which _port_ signifies a stage, station, or
+resting-place, and _nav_ or _naou_ signifies nine; _Port-nav_, Latinized
+into Portus naonis, and Frenchified into Portenau, implies, therefore, the
+ninth station, and is at present named Pordanone in the Friul. The account
+of his travels, together with his life, are to be found: in _Bolandi Actis
+Sanctorum, 14to Januarii_; in which he is honoured with the title of Saint.
+Oderic died at Udina in 1331. In 1737, Basilio Asquini, an Italian
+Barnabite of Udina, published _La Vita e Viaggi del Beato Qderico da
+Udihe_, probably an Italian translation from the Latin of Bolandi. The
+account of these travels in the collection of Hakluyt, is called "The
+Journal of Friar Odericus, concerning the strange things which he sawe
+among the Tartars of the East;" and was probably transcribed and translated
+from Bolandi, in which these travels are entitled _De mirabilibus Mundi_,
+or the Wonders of the World. They have very much the air of an ignorant
+compilation, fabricated in the name of Oderic, perhaps upon some slight
+foundation, and stuffed with ill-assorted stories and descriptions from
+Marco Polo, and other, writers, interspersed with a few ridiculous
+miracles, for the honour or disgrace of the minorite order. Mr Pinkerton
+asserts, that Oderic was not canonized until 1753. But the Acts of the
+Saints is a publication of considerable antiquity, and he is called
+_Beatus_ in the work of Asquini, already mentioned as having been published
+in 1787.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt, II. 142, for the Latin; II. 158, for the old English
+    translation.--Forst. Voy. and Disc. 147.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_The Commencement of the Travels of Oderic_.
+
+Many things are related by various authors, concerning the customs,
+fashions, and conditions of this world: Yet, as I, friar Oderic of Portenau
+in the Friul, have travelled among the remote nations of the unbelievers,
+where I saw and heard many great and wonderful things, I have thought fit
+to relate all these things truly. Having crossed over the great sea[1] from
+Pera, close by Constantinople, I came to Trebizond, in the country called
+Pontus by the ancients. This land is commodiously situated as a medium of
+intercourse for the Persians and Medes, and other nations beyond the Great
+Sea, with Constantinople, and the countries of the west. In this island I
+beheld a strange spectacle with great delight; a man, who led about with
+him more than 4000 partridges. This person walked on the ground, while his
+partridges flew about him in the air, and they followed him wherever he
+went; and they were so tame, that when he lay down to rest, they all came
+flocking about him, like so many chickens. From a certain castle called
+Zauena, three days journey from Trebizond, he led his partridges in this
+manner to the palace of the emperor in that city. And when the servants of
+the emperor had taken such a number of the partridges as they thought
+proper, he led back the rest in the same manner, to the place from whence
+he came.
+
+From this city of Trebizond, where the body of St Athanasius is preserved
+over one of the gates, I journeyed into the Greater Armenia, to a city
+named Azaron, which was rich and flourishing in former times, but the
+Tartars have nearly laid it entirely waste; yet it still has abundance of
+bread and flesh, and victuals of all sorts, excepting wine and fruits. This
+city is remarkably cold, and is said to be situated on a higher elevation
+that any other city of the world. It has abundance of excellent water,
+which seems to originate from the great river Euphrates[2], which is only
+at the distance of a days journey. Azaron stands in the direct road between
+Trebizond and Tauris. In journeying farther on, I came to a mountain named
+Sobissacalo; and we passed by the very mountain of Ararat, on which the ark
+of Noah is said to have rested. I was very desirous to have gone to the top
+of that mountain, but the company with which I travelled would not wait for
+me; and the people of the country allege that no one was ever able to
+ascend to its top, because, say they, it is contrary to the will of God.
+Continuing our journey, we came to Tauris[3], a great and royal city
+anciently called Susa, which is reckoned the chief city in the world for
+trade and merchandize; for every article whatever, both of merchandize and
+provision, is to be had there, in the greatest abundance, Tauris is most
+conveniently situated, and to it may all the nations of the earth, almost,
+resort for trade. The Christians in those parts report, that the emperor of
+Persia derives more tribute from this city alone than the king of France
+receives from the whole of his dominions. Near this city there is a hill of
+salt, from whence every one may take as much as he pleases, without paying
+any thing whatever to any person. Many Christians from all parts of the
+world are to be found in this place, over whom the Saracens have the
+supreme authority.
+
+From Tauris I travelled to the city called Soldania[4], where the Persian
+emperor resides during the summer; but in winter he changes his residence
+to another city upon the sea of Baku[5]. Soldania is a large city, but very
+cold, from its situation in the mountains, and has considerable trade, and
+abundance of good water. From thence I set out with a caravan of merchants,
+for the Upper India, and in our way, after many days journey, we came to
+Cassan or Casbin[6], the noble and renowned city of the three wise men,
+which abounds in bread and wine, and many other good things, but the
+Tartars have nearly destroyed it. From this city to Jerusalem, to which the
+three wise men we're led by miracle, the distance is fifty days journey.
+For the sake of brevity I omit many wonderful things which I saw in this
+city. Going from thence, we came to the city of Geste[7], whence the sea of
+sand, a most wonderful and dangerous track, is distant only one days
+journey. In the city of Yezd there is abundance of all kinds of victuals,
+especially of figs, grapes, and raisins, which are there more plentiful, in
+my opinion, than in any other part of the world. It is one of the principal
+cities in all Persia, and its Saracen inhabitants allege that no Christian
+can live there above a year. Continuing our journey forwards for many days,
+I came to a city named Comum[8], which was a great city in old times, near
+fifty miles in circumference, and often did much damage to the Romans. In
+this place there are stately palaces, now destitute of inhabitants, yet it
+hath abundance of provisions. Travelling from thence through many
+countries, I came at length into the land of Job, named Us[9], which
+borders on the north of Chaldea. This land is full of all kinds of
+provisions, and manna is here found in great abundance. Four partridges are
+sold here for less than an Italian groat; and the mountains have excellent
+pastures for cattle. In this country the men card and spin, and not the
+women; and the old men are very comely.
+
+
+[1] Perhaps the sea of Marmora; or it may indicate the Euxine or Black
+    Sea.--E.
+
+[2] The holy traveller ought rather to have said, that the springs or
+    rivulet near Azaron flowed into the Euphrates. Azaron is obviously
+    Erzerum, on or near one of the higher branches of the Frat or
+    Euphrates.--E.
+
+[3] Tebriz in Persia.--E.
+
+[4] Sultania or Sultanie.--E.
+
+[5] The Caspian; so called in this place, from Baku or Baccou, a city on
+    its banks, in the province of Shirvan.--E.
+
+[6] Oderic must have made a mistake here, as Casbin is not above seventy or
+    eighty miles from Sultanie, and the journey of the caravans between
+    these cities, could not have exceeded four or five days.--E.
+
+[7] Yezd, about 500 miles east from Ispahan.--E.
+
+[8] This is obviously the city of Kom or Koom, above 400 miles to the
+    north-west of Yezd, and much nearer Sultanie. Our traveller,
+    therefore, must either have strangely forgotten his route or he came
+    back again from Yezd, instead of journeying forwards.--E.
+
+[9] Khus or Khosistan, the south-western province of Persia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION II
+
+_Of the Manners of the Chaldeans, and concerning India_.
+
+From thence I travelled into Chaldea, which is a great kingdom, having a
+language peculiar to itself, and I passed beside the Tower of Babel. The
+men of this country have their hair nicely braided and trimmed, like the
+women of Italy, wearing turbans richly ornamented with gold and pearls, and
+are a fine looking people: but the women are ugly and deformed, and are
+clad in coarse shifts, only reaching to their knees, with long sleeves
+hanging down to the ground, and breeches or trowsers which likewise reach
+the ground, but their feet are bare. They wear no head-dresses, and their
+hair hangs neglected and dishevelled about their ears. There are many other
+strange things to be seen in this country.
+
+From thence I travelled into the lower India, which was overrun and laid
+waste by the Tartars[1]. In this country the people subsist chiefly on
+dates, forty-two pound weight of which may be purchased for less than a
+Venetian groat. Travelling on for many days, I arrived at Ormus on the main
+ocean, which is a well fortified city, having great store of merchandize
+and treasure. The heat of this country is excessive, and constrains the
+people to make use of extraordinary expedients to preserve their lives[2].
+In this place, their ships or barks are called _jase_, the planks of which
+are sewed together with hemp. Embarking in one of these vessels, in which I
+could find no iron whatever, I arrived in twenty-eight days sail at
+Thana[3], in which place four of our friars suffered martyrdom for the
+Christian faith. This country is well situated for trade, and has abundance
+of bread and wine, and of all other articles necessary for the food of man.
+The kingdom in ancient times was very large and populous, and was under the
+dominion of King Porus, who fought a great battle with Alexander the
+Macedonian conqueror. The inhabitants are idolaters, worshipping the fire,
+and likewise paying divine honours to serpents, and even to trees. The
+Saracens have conquered the whole of this land, and are themselves under
+subjection to king Daldili[4]. In this country there are great numbers of
+black lions; apes and monkies are also very numerous, and their bats are as
+large as our pigeons. They have rats also, as large as the dogs in Italy,
+which are hunted by means of dogs, as cats are unable to cope with them. In
+this country every one has a bundle of great boughs of trees, as large as a
+pillar, standing in a pot of water before the door; and there are many
+other strange and wonderful novelties, a relation of which would be
+exceedingly delightful.
+
+
+[1] By lower India, our author seems here to indicate the southern
+    provinces of Persia.--E.
+
+[2] Tantus est calor, quod virilia hominum exeunt corpus, et descendant
+    usque at mediam tibiarum: ideo faciunt unctionum, et ungunt illa, et
+    in, quibusdam sacculis ponunt circa se cingentes, et aliter
+    morerentur.
+
+[3] This place seems to have been Tatta, in the Delta of the Indus.--E.
+
+[4] This unknown king, rex Daldili, is probably an error in translating
+    from the Venetian or Friul dialect of Oderic into Monkish Latin, and
+    may have been originally _Il Re dal Deli_, or the King of Delhi.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+_Of the Martyrdom of the Friars_[l].
+
+Four of our friars, Tolentinus de Marchia, James of Padua, Demetrius, a lay
+brother, and Peter de Senis, suffered martyrdom in the city of Thana. These
+friars had engaged for their passage at Ormus to Polumbrum, but were
+forcibly carried to Thana, where there are fifteen houses of Christians,
+schismatics of the Nestorian communion, and on their arrival they were
+hospitably entertained in one of these houses. A strife happened to take
+place between the man of that house and his wife, in which the man beat his
+wife severely. She complained to the kadi, who interrogated her how she
+could prove her assertion. On which she answered that there were four
+priests of the Franks who were present, and could attest the bad usage she
+had received. On this a person of Alexandria, who was present, requested of
+the kadi that these men might be sent for, since they were learned men,
+versant in the scriptures, and it would be right to dispute with them
+concerning the faith. Our friars were accordingly sent for, and, leaving
+Peter to take charge of their goods, the other three went to the kadi; who
+began to dispute with them concerning our faith, saying, "That Christ was a
+mere man, and not God." But friar Thomas[2] shewed evidently, both from
+reason and by examples drawn from Scripture, that Christ was really God and
+man, and so confounded the kadi and the other infidels, that they were
+unable to produce any rational arguments in contradiction to him. On this
+some one exclaimed, "And what do you say concerning Mahomet?" To this friar
+Thomas replied; "Since I have proved to you that Christ is really God and
+man, who hath given the law to mankind, and since Mahomet set himself
+contrary thereto, and taught an opposite law, if ye are wise, you may well
+know what ought to be concluded respecting him." But the kadi and the other
+Saracens insisted that he should declare his own opinion concerning
+Mahomet. "You may all see," said he, "what must be my opinion; and as you
+insist that I should speak out plainly, I must declare that your Mahomet is
+the son of perdition, and is in hell with his father the devil. And not him
+only, but all who have held his law, which is entirely abominable and
+false, contrary to GOD, and adverse to the salvation of souls." On hearing
+this, the Saracens cried out, "Let him die! let him die! who hath thus
+blasphemed against the prophet."
+
+Then they seized upon the friars, and exposed them to the burning sun, that
+they might suffer a severe death by the adust heat of the suns rays: For
+such is the excessive heat of the sun in that place, that any person who
+remains exposed to its direct influence, during the time necessary to say
+the mass, is sure to die. But the friars remained hale and joyful, from the
+third to the ninth hour of the day, praising and glorifying the Lord. The
+Saracens, astonished at this, came to the friars, saying, "We intend to
+make a large fire, and to throw you therein; and if your faith is true, as
+you say, the fire will not be able to burn you; but if you are burnt, it
+will plainly appear that your faith is false." To this the friars answered,
+that they were ready to endure chains and imprisonment, and even the fire,
+and all other torments for the faith; but should the fire consume them it
+was not to be inferred that it did so on account of their faith, but as a
+punishment for their sins: declaring that their faith was most true and
+perfect, and the only one by which the souls of men could possibly be
+saved. While they thus determined upon burning the friars, the report of
+this affair spread over the whole city, and all the people of both sexes,
+young and old, flocked to behold the spectacle. The friars were accordingly
+led to the most public square of the city, where a great fire was lighted
+up, into which friar Thomas endeavoured to throw himself; but a Saracen
+held him back, saying: "You shall not do so, old man, as you may have some
+spell or contrivance about you, for preventing the fire from hurting you,
+and you must allow another of your people to go into the fire." Then four
+of the Saracens seized upon friar James, intending to have thrown him into
+the fire, but he requested permission to walk in of his own accord, to shew
+his devotion to the faith. This, however, they refused, and threw him in
+headlong. The fire was so large and fierce that he could not be seen; yet
+his voice was heard from the midst of the flames, calling upon the name of
+the Glorious Virgin. When the fire was totally consumed, friar James was
+seen standing on the embers, unhurt and joyful, with his hands raised to
+heaven in form of the cross, and himself praising and glorifying GOD, who
+had thus manifested the greatness of his faith; and nothing whatever about
+his person, not even his clothes or his hair, was found in the slightest
+degree injured by the fire. Upon this, all the people began to cry aloud,
+"They are holy! they are holy! it is sinful to do them any injury, for we
+see now that their faith is good and holy." To this the kadi objected,
+saying that he was not holy, notwithstanding he remained unhurt amid the
+fire; but that his tunic, being fabricated from the wool of the land of
+Habraa, had protected him: That he ought therefore to be thrown naked into
+the fire, and they should then see whether or not he would be consumed.
+
+After this, the wicked Saracens, by direction of the kadi, made a fire
+twice as large as the former; and, having stripped James quite naked, they
+washed his body, and anointed him abundantly with oil, besides pouring a
+great quantity of oil upon the faggots which composed the fire; and when
+the fire was fully kindled, they threw friar James into the midst. Friars
+Thomas and Demetrius, retiring from among the people, remained on their
+knees praying to GOD, with many tears. Friar James, however, came a second
+time unhurt from the fire, and the people again cried out that it was
+sinful to injure these holy men. Upon this the Melich, or governor of the
+city, called friar James to his presence, and causing him to put on his
+garments, said to the friars, "We see, brothers, that by the Grace of God
+ye have suffered no harm from us: wherefore we are convinced that ye are
+holy men, and that your faith is good and true; we advise you to take
+yourselves away out of this land as quickly as possible, as the kadi will
+do his utmost to destroy you, because you have confounded his arguments".
+At this time, likewise, the people were full of astonishment and
+admiration of what they had seen, and were so filled with wonder at the
+miracle, that they knew not what to believe, or how to conduct themselves.
+The melich ordered the three friars to be carried across a small arm of
+the sea, into a village at a moderate distance from the city, where he
+ordered them to be lodged in the house of an idolater.
+
+Afterwards the kadi went to the melich, and represented to him that the law
+of Mahomet would be overthrown if these people were allowed to live. He
+observed farther, that, by the precepts of Mahomet in the alcoran, it was
+declared, that any one who slew a Christian, acquired as much merit by that
+action as by the pilgrimage to Mecca. Then said the melich unto him, "Go
+thy way, and do what thou wilt." Whereupon the kadi took four armed men,
+whom he directed to go and slay the friars. These men crossed over the
+water while it was night, but were then unable to find the friars. In the
+meantime, the melich caused all the Christians in the city to be taken up
+and thrown into prison. In the middle of the night, the three friars rose
+up to say matins, and being then discovered by the four armed Saracens,
+they were dragged out of the village to a place beneath a certain tree,
+where they thus addressed our friars: "Know ye that we are ordered by the
+kadi and the melich to slay you, which we are very unwilling to do, as you
+are good and holy men; but we dare not refuse, as we and our wives and
+children would be put to death." Then answered the friars, "Do ye even as
+you have been commanded, that by a temporal death we may gain eternal life;
+since, for the love of our Lord Jesus Christ, who was crucified and died
+for us, and in honour of our faith in his holy gospel, we are prepared
+willingly to suffer every kind of torment, and even death itself." A
+Christian man, who had joined company with the friars, reasoned much with
+the four armed Saracens, declaring, if he had a sword, he would either
+defend these holy men from death, or would die along with them. Then the
+armed men caused the friars to take off their garments, and friar Thomas,
+on his knees, and with his arms folded in form of the cross, had his head
+smitten off. Friar James had his head divided to the eyes by the first
+blow, and by a second, his head was severed from his body. They wounded
+friar Demetrius at first in the breast, and then cut off his head. In the
+moment of the martyrdom of these holy men, the moon shone out with unusual
+splendour, and the night became so exceedingly light, that all admired
+greatly: After which, it suddenly became excessively dark, with great
+thunder and lightning, and violent coruscations, so that all expected to be
+destroyed; and the ship, which ought to have carried away the friars, was
+sunk, with all on board, so that no tidings of it were ever heard
+afterwards.
+
+In the morning, the kadi sent to take possession of the goods belonging to
+the friars, and then friar Peter de Senlis, who had been left in charge of
+the goods, was found, and carried before the kadi; who, together with the
+other Saracens, promised him great things, if he would renounce the
+Christian faith, and conform to the law of Mahomet. But friar Peter scorned
+all their offers, and derided them: Whereupon they inflicted every species
+of torment upon him, from morning until mid-day, which he bore with
+patience and constancy in the faith, continually praising God and holding
+out the belief in Mahomet to scorn and contempt. The Saracens then hung him
+up on a tree; and, seeing that he bore this unhurt from the ninth hour till
+evening, they cut him in two. In the morning after, when they came to look
+for his body, no part of it was to be found. It was afterwards revealed to
+a person worthy of credit, that God had hidden his body for a season, until
+he should be pleased to manifest the bodies of his saints, and should shew
+the souls of the saints, rejoicing together with GOD and his angels and the
+saints, in bliss.
+
+On the night following the martyrdom of these holy friars, they appeared to
+the melich in a vision, glorious and resplendent like the noon-day sun,
+each holding a sword on high, in a menacing posture, as if about to stab or
+cut him in pieces. In horror at the sight, he cried out aloud, to the great
+terror of his family, to whom he said, that these rabbis of the Franks,
+whom he had ordered to be slain, had come upon him with swords to slay him.
+The melich likewise sent for the kadi, to whom he communicated his vision,
+seeking advice and consolation, as he feared to be slain by the martyrs.
+And the kadi advised him to give large alms to their brethren, if he would
+escape from the hands of those whom he had slain. Then the melich sent for
+the Christians, whom he had thrown into prison, from whom he begged
+forgiveness for what he had done, promising henceforwards to be their
+companion and brother; and he ordained, that if any person in future should
+injure a Christian, he should suffer death; and sending away the Christians
+unhurt, each man to his home, the melich caused four mosques or chapels to
+be built in honour of the four martyrs, and appointed Saracen priests to
+officiate in them. When the Emperor Dodsi[3] heard of the slaughter of the
+four friars, he ordered the melich to be brought bound before him, and
+questioned him why he had cruelly ordered these men to be slain. The melich
+endeavoured to justify himself, by representing that they had exerted
+themselves to subvert the laws of Mahomet, against whom they had spoken
+blasphemously. The emperor thus addressed him; "O! most cruel dog! when you
+had seen how the Almighty God had twice delivered them from the flames, how
+dared you thus cruelly to put them to death?" And the emperor ordered the
+melich, and all his family, to be cut in two; sentencing him to the same
+death which he had inflicted on the holy friars. On these things coming to
+the knowledge of the kadi, he fled out of the land, and even quitted the
+dominions of the emperor, and so escaped the punishment he had so justly
+merited.
+
+
+[1] The whole of this and the following section is omitted in the old
+    English of Hakluyt, and is here translated from the Latin.--E.
+
+[2] Probably he who is named above Tolentinus.--E.
+
+[3] Probably the same called, at the close of the former sections, Daldili,
+    and there conjecturally explained as the King of Delhi.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IV.
+
+_Of the Miracles performed by the four Martyrs_.
+
+It is not the custom in that country to commit the bodies of their dead to
+the grave, but they are exposed in the fields, that they may be consumed by
+the heat of the sun. But after the bodies of these martyrs had remained
+fourteen days exposed to the sun, they remained as fresh and uncorrupted as
+on the day of their martyrdom. On this being seen by the Christians who
+inhabited the land, they buried the bodies with great reverence. When I,
+Oderic, heard of the circumstances attending the death of these martyrs, I
+went to the place and dug up their bodies; and having collected all their
+bodies into beautiful _towallias_, I carried them with me into upper India
+to a certain place, assisted by a companion and a servant. While we were on
+our way, we rested in the house of a hospitable person, and placing the
+bones at my head, I went to sleep. And while I was asleep, the house was
+suddenly set on fire by the Saracens, that I might be burnt therein. My
+companion and servant made their escape, leaving me and the bones in the
+burning house. Seeing the fire above and all around me, I took up the
+bones, and withdrew, with them into one of the angles of the house; whence
+I saw all the other three corners on fire, while I remained safe along with
+the bones. So long as I remained there with the bones, the fire kept itself
+above my head, like lucid air; but the moment that I went out with the
+bones, the whole of that place where I had stood was enveloped in the
+flames, and many other surrounding buildings were likewise burnt to the
+ground.
+
+Another miracle happened as I was going by sea with the bones to the city
+of Polumbrum, where, pepper grows in great abundance, when the wind totally
+failed us. On this occasion, the idolaters began to pray to their gods for
+a favourable wind; but which they were unable to attain. Then the Saracens
+industriously made their invocations and adorations, to as little purpose.
+After this, I and my companion were ordered to pray to our God, and the
+commander of the ship said to me in the Armenian language, which the rest
+of the people on board did not understand, that unless we could procure a
+favourable wind from our God, he would throw both us and the bones into the
+sea. Then I and my companion went to our prayers, and we vowed to celebrate
+many masses in honour of the Holy Virgin, if she would vouchsafe us a wind.
+But as the time passed on, and no wind came, I gave one of the bones to our
+servant, whom I ordered to go to the head of the ship, and cast the bone
+into the sea; which he had no sooner done, than a favourable gale sprung
+up, which, never again failed us till we had arrived at our destined port
+in safety, owing entirely to the merit of these holy martyrs. We then
+embarked in another ship, on purpose to sail to the higher India; and we
+arrived at a certain city named Carchan, in which there are two houses of
+the brethren of our order, and we intended to have deposited these holy
+relics in that place. There were in that ship above 700 merchants and
+others; and the idolaters have a custom, that always before they go into
+port, they search the whole ship carefully for, the bones of dead animals,
+which they throw into the sea, thinking by that means the more readily to
+reach the harbour, and to escape the danger of death. But though they
+searched frequently and carefully, and even often touched the bones, of the
+martyrs, their, eyes were always deluded, so that they could not perceive
+them: And thus we brought them reverently to the dwelling of our brethren,
+where they rest in peace, and where God continually works miracles by their
+means among the idolaters. When any one labours under heavy sickness, they
+go to the place where the bodies of the martyrs are deposited, and taking
+some of the earth, it is mixed among water, which is drank by the diseased
+persons, who are thus freed from their infirmities.
+
+
+
+SECTION V.
+
+_Of the places where Pepper grows, and in what Manner it is procured_.
+
+Pepper grows in the kingdom of Minibar (Malabar), where it is more
+plentiful than in any other part of the world, being found abundantly in
+that country, in a forest which extends for eighteen days journey in
+circuit. In the wood, or forest, there are two cities, named Flandrina and
+Cynci lim[1]. Flandrina is inhabited both by Jews and Christians, who are
+often engaged in quarrels, and even in war, in which the Christians are
+always victorious. In this forest which we have mentioned, the plant which
+produces the pepper is planted near the large trees, as we plant vines in
+Italy. It grows with numerous leaves, like our pot herbs, and climbs up the
+trees, producing the pepper in clusters like our grapes. When these are
+ripe, they are of a green colour, and, being gathered, are laid in the sun
+to dry, after which they are put into earthen vessels for sale. In this
+forest there are many rivers, having great numbers of crocodiles and
+serpents; and the natives make large fires of straw and other dry fuel, at
+the proper season for gathering the pepper, that they may do so without
+danger from these noxious animals. At one end of this forest the city of
+Polumbrum is situated, which abounds in all kinds of merchandize.
+
+The inhabitants of that country worship a living ox as their god, which is
+made to labour in husbandry for six years, and in his seventh year, he is
+consecrated as holy, and is no more allowed to work. With this strange
+animal god, they use the following strange ceremony: Every morning they
+take two basons of silver or gold, in one of which they collect the urine
+of the holy ox, and his dung in the other; and the devotees wash their
+faces, eyes, and all their five senses in the urine; and anoint their eyes,
+cheeks, and breasts with the dung; after which, they consider themselves
+sanctified for the whole of that day; and even the king and queen of the
+country use this absurd superstition. They worship an idol also, which
+resembles a man from the navel upwards, all below being in the likeness of
+an ox; and this idol delivers oracles, as they believe, and sometimes
+requires the sacrifice of forty virgins. On this account, the people
+consecrate their sons and daughters to the idols, even as we Christians
+dedicate our sons and daughters to some particular order of religion, or to
+some of the saints in Heaven. They even sacrifice their sons and daughters,
+so that many are put to death in honour of this accursed idol; and they
+commit many other abominable and beastly actions; and I saw many other
+strange things among them which I refrain from relating[2].
+
+This nation has another most abominable custom; that when a man dies, his
+body is burned to ashes, and his living wife is burned along with him, that
+she may assist her husband in his trade or husbandry in the next world.
+Yet, if she have children by her husband, she may remain alive with them,
+if so inclined, without shame or reproach; yet most of them prefer to be
+burnt with the bodies of their husbands. But husbands are not influenced by
+any similar law, as when they lose their wives they may marry again. There
+are some other strange customs among the people of this country; insomuch,
+that the women drink wine, which the men do not; and the women shave their
+eyebrows, and eyelids, and their beards, besides many other filthy customs,
+contrary to the true decorum of the sex. From that country I travelled ten
+days journey to another kingdom called Moabar[3], in which there are many
+cities; and in a certain church of that country, the body of St Thomas the
+apostle lies buried; which church is full of idols, and round about it
+there are fifteen houses inhabited by Nestorian priests, who are bad
+Christians, and false schismatics.
+
+
+[1] The names of these cities or towns, in the pepper country of
+    Malabar, which is called Minibar in the text, are so thoroughly
+    corrupted, that no conjectural criticism can discover them in our
+    modern maps. Hakluyt on the margin, corrects Flandrina, by an equally
+    unknown, Alandrina. They may possibly refer to places now fallen into
+    ruin, in the kingdom or province of Travancore, which has always been
+    a great mart of pepper.--E.
+
+[2] Friar Oderic appears only to have observed the superstitions
+    in the southern part of India very superficially, if at all; and as
+    many opportunities will occur in the course of this collection, for
+    explaining the strange beliefs, customs, and ceremonies of the
+    braminical worship, it has not been thought necessary to discuss these
+    in notes on the present occasion.--E.
+
+[3] Hakluyt has explained Moabar on the margin by Maliassour or
+    Meliassour. The country here indicated is obviously the Carnatic, or
+    kingdom of Arcot of modern times, from the circumstance of containing
+    the shrine of St Thomas. The idols mentioned by Oderic, as filling the
+    church of St Thomas, were probably Nestorian images; not sanctioned by
+    the Roman ritual.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VI.
+
+_Of a Strange Idol, and of certain Customs and Ceremonies_.
+
+In the kingdom of Moabar there is a wonderful idol in the shape of a man,
+all of pure and polished gold, as large as our image of St Christopher; and
+there hangs about its neck a string of most rich and precious stones, some
+of which are singly more valuable than the riches of an entire kingdom. The
+whole house, in which this idol is preserved, is all of beaten gold, even
+the roof, the pavement, and the lining of the walls, both within and
+without[1]. The Indians go on pilgrimages to this idol, just as we do to
+the image of St Peter; some having halters round their necks, some with
+their hands bound behind their backs, and others with knives sticking in
+various parts of their legs and arms; and if the flesh of their wounded
+limbs should corrupt, owing to these wounds, they believe that their god is
+well pleased with them, and ever after esteem the diseased limbs as sacred.
+Near this great idol temple, there is an artificial lake of water in an
+open place, into which the pilgrims and devotees cast gold and silver, and
+precious stones, in honour of the idol, and as a fund for repairing the
+temple; and when any new ornament is to be made, or any repairs are
+required, the priests take what is wanted from the oblations that are
+thrown into this lake.
+
+At each annual festival of this idol, the king and queen of the country,
+with all the pilgrims, and the whole multitude of the people assemble at
+the temple; and placing the idol on a rich and splendid chariot, they carry
+it from the temple with songs and all kinds of musical instruments, having
+a great company of young women, who walk in procession, two and two,
+singing before the idol. Many of the pilgrims throw themselves under the
+chariot wheels, that they may be crushed to death in honour of their god,
+and the bodies of these devotees are afterwards burned, and their ashes
+collected as of holy martyrs. In this manner, above 500 persons annually
+devote themselves to death. Sometimes a man devotes himself to die in
+honour of this abominable idol. On which occasion, accompanied by his
+relations and friends, and by a great company of musicians, he makes a
+solemn feast; after which, he hangs five sharp knives around his neck, and
+goes in solemn procession before the idol; where he takes four of the
+knives successively, with each of which he cuts off a piece of his own
+flesh, which he throws to the idol, saying, that for the worship of his god
+he thus cuts himself. Then taking the last of the knives, he declares aloud
+that he is going to put himself to death in honour of the god; on uttering
+which, he executes his vile purpose. His body is then burned with great
+solemnity, and he is ever after esteemed as a holy person.
+
+The king of this country has vast treasures in gold and silver, and
+precious stones, and possesses the largest and fairest pearls that are to
+be seen in the whole world. Leaving this country, I travelled fifty days
+journey to the southward, along the shore of the ocean, when I came to a
+country called Lamouri[2], in which, owing to the extreme heat, the whole
+inhabitants go stark naked, both men and women, and they derided me for
+wearing clothes, saying, that Adam and Eve were created naked. In this
+country the women are all common, so that no one has a wife; and when a
+child is born, the mother gives it to any of the men she pleases, who may
+have been connected with her. The whole of the land, likewise, is possessed
+in common, but everyone has his own house. Human flesh, if fat, is used as
+commonly in that country as beef with us; and though the manners and
+customs of the people are most abominable, the country is excellent, and
+abounds in flesh and corn, gold and silver, aloes-wood, and camphor, and
+many other precious commodities. Merchants who trade to this country,
+usually bring with them fat men, among their other commodities, which they
+sell to the natives as we do hogs, and these are immediately slain and
+devoured.
+
+In this region, toward the south, there is an island or kingdom called
+Symolora[3], where both the men and women mark themselves with a hot iron
+in twelve different parts of their faces[4]; and this nation is continually
+at war with a certain naked people in another region. I then went to
+another island named Java, the coast of which is 3000 miles in circuit; and
+the king of Java has seven other kings under his supreme dominion. This is
+thought to be one of the largest islands in the world, and is thoroughly
+inhabited; having great plenty of cloves, cubebs, and nutmegs, and all
+other kinds of spices, and great abundance of provisions of all kinds,
+except wine. The king of Java has a large and sumptuous palace, the most
+lofty of any that I have seen, with broad and lofty stairs to ascend to the
+upper apartments, all the steps being alternately of gold and silver.
+
+The whole interior walls are lined with plates of beaten gold, on which the
+images of warriors are placed sculptured in gold, having each a golden
+coronet richly ornamented with precious stones. The roof of this palace is
+of pure gold, and all the lower rooms are paved with alternate square
+plates of gold and silver. The great khan, or emperor of Cathay, has had
+many wars with the king of Java, but has always been vanquished and beaten
+back.
+
+
+[1] More recent and more accurate travellers have informed us, that this
+    profusion of gold, on the idols and temples of the Buddists,
+    especially, is only rich gilding.--E.
+
+[2] This seems properly enough corrected on the margin by Hakluyt, by the
+    word Comori, or the country about Cape Comorin.--E.
+
+[3] Simoltra or Sumatra.--Hakluyt.
+
+[4] Probably alluding to tatooing, which will be explained in the voyages
+    to the islands of the Pacific ocean.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VII.
+
+_Of certain Trees which produce Meal, Honey, Wine, and Poison_.
+
+Near to Java is another country called Panten, or Tathalmasin[1], the king
+of which has many islands under his dominion. In this country there are
+trees which produce meal, honey, and wine, and likewise the most deadly
+poison in the world; the only remedy for which is human ordure dissolved in
+water, which, drank in considerable quantify, acts as a cathartic, and
+expels the poison. These trees are very large; and, when cut down, a
+quantity of liquor exudes from the trunk, which is received into bags made
+of leaves, and after exposure for fifteen days to the sun, it hardens into
+meal. This is first steeped in sea water, and is afterwards washed in fresh
+water, when it becomes a savoury paste, which may either be eaten as bread,
+or cooked in various ways[2]. I have eaten of this bread, which is fair on
+the outside, and somewhat brown within. Beyond this country, the _Mare
+Mortuum_, or Dead Sea[3], stretches with a continual current far to the
+south, and whatever falls into it is seen no more. In this country there
+grow canes of an incredible length, as large as trees, even sixty paces or
+more in height. There are other canes, called _cassan_, which spread over
+the earth like grass, even to the extent of a mile, sending up branches
+from every knot; and in these canes they find certain stones of wonderful
+virtue, insomuch, that whoever carries one of these about him, cannot be
+wounded by an iron weapon; on which account, most of the men in that
+country carry such stones always about them. Many of the people of this
+country cause one of the arms of their children to be cut open when young,
+putting one of these stones into the wound, which they heal up by means of
+the powder of a certain fish, with the name of which I am unacquainted. And
+through the virtue of these wonderful stones, the natives are generally
+victorious in their wars, both by sea and land. There is a stratagem,
+however, which their enemies often successfully use against them, to
+counteract the power of these stones. Providing themselves with iron or
+steel armour, to defend them from the arrows of these people, they use
+wooden stakes, pointed like weapons of iron, and arrows not having iron
+heads, but infused with poison which they extract from certain trees, and
+they thus slay some of their foes, who, trusting to the virtue of these
+stones, wear no defensive armour. From the canes formerly mentioned, named
+cassan, they build themselves small houses, and manufacture sails for their
+ships, and many other things are made from them. From thence, after many
+days travel, I came to another kingdom, called Campa[4], which is a very
+rich and beautiful kingdom, abounding in all kinds of provisions. The king
+who reigned at the time of my being there, had so many wives and
+concubines, that he had three hundred sons and daughters. He had likewise
+10,004[5] tame elephants, which were pastured in droves as we feed flocks
+and herds.
+
+
+[1] Hakluyt endeavours to explain this on the margin by Malasmi. It is
+    possible the river Banjar, and the port of Masseen, otherwise called
+    Bendermassin, or Banjar-massin, in the great island of Borneo, may be
+    here indicated. Panten, Petan, or perhaps Bentam, is perhaps a small
+    woody island mentioned by Marco Polo, near great Java or Borneo. The
+    names of places, however, in these early travellers, have been so
+    confounded by ignorant transcribers as often to defy all criticism.
+    --E.
+
+[2] This seems an ill-collected account of Sago.--E.
+
+[3] The Pacific Ocean, the navigation of which was then so much unknown,
+    that those who ventured to navigate it never returned.--E
+
+[4] Probably Siampa, called likewise Ciampa, and Tsiompa.--E.
+
+[5] In the Latin, this number is decies millesies et quatuor, which may
+    even be read 14,000; certainly a vast exaggeration either way.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION VIII.
+
+_Of vast multitudes of Fish, which throw themselves on the dry Land_.
+
+The following most wonderful circumstance is to be observed in this country
+of Siampa. All the kinds of fishes which frequent those seas, swim towards
+the shore at certain times in such abundance, that nothing can be seen for
+a great way but the backs of fishes. The fish throw themselves upon the
+shore, and for the space of three days allow the people to take up as many
+of them as they please. At the end of these three days this shoal returns
+again to sea, and a different kind comes to the shore in the same manner,
+and remains for a similar period. And in the same way, all other kinds of
+fish in these seas come to the shore in succession, each kind by itself.
+This strange phenomenon happens once every year, and the natives pretend
+that the fishes are taught by nature to do this, in token of homage to
+their emperor. I saw many other strange things in this country, which would
+be incredible to any one who had not seen them; and among these, I may
+mention that they have tortoises as large as ovens. In this country, the
+bodies of their dead are burned, and the living wives are burned along with
+their dead husbands, as has been already mentioned when describing the
+customs of the city of Polumbrum; and they are believed by this means to
+accompany their husbands into the other world.
+
+Travelling from this country to the southward, along the coast of the
+ocean, I passed through many countries and islands, one of which is called
+Moumoran[1], and is 2000 miles in circumference. The people of this
+country, both men and women, go naked, except a small cloth before the
+middle of their bodies. They have dogs faces, and worship an ox as their
+god, and all of them wear the image of an ox in gold or silver on their
+foreheads. The men are very tall and strong, and when they go to battle,
+they carry targets of iron or steel, large enough to cover and protect
+their whole bodies. All the prisoners whom they take in war, unless they
+can ransom themselves with money, are eaten; but those who are able to pay
+ransom are set free. The king of this country wears a string of 300 large
+and fair pearls about his neck, which he employs as a rosary for counting
+his prayers; and says every day as many prayers to his god. He wears also
+on his finger a marvellously large and brilliant stone, of a span long,
+which resembles a flame of fire, so that no one dare approach him, and it
+is said to be the most valuable precious stone in all the world. The great
+Tartar emperor of Cathay, hath often used every endeavour to procure this
+wonderful jewel, but has never been able to prevail, either by force,
+policy, or money.
+
+
+[1] It is impossible even to conjecture what island is here meant; but as
+    Ceylon follows next in succession, it may possibly refer to Sumatra,
+    though that island appears to have been mentioned already, under the
+    name of Symolora--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION IX.
+
+_Of the Island of Ceylon, and of the Mountain where Adam mourned the Death
+of Abel_.
+
+From thence I passed another island named Sylan, or Ceylon, which is 2000
+miles in circuit, in which there are infinite multitudes of serpents, great
+numbers of lions, bears, and all kinds of ravenous beasts, and a great many
+of elephants. In this island there is a great mountain, on which the
+inhabitants pretend that Adam mourned for the death of his son Abel, during
+500 years. On the top of this mountain there is a most beautiful plain, in
+which is a small lake always full of water, which the inhabitants allege to
+have proceeded from the tears of Adam and Eve; but this I proved to be
+false, as I saw the water to flow out of the lake. This lake is full of
+horse-leeches, and numbers of precious stones are to be found on its
+bottom, which the king of the island, instead of appropriating to his own
+use, allows certain poor people to dive for once or twice a-year, for their
+own profit, that they may pray for blessings upon his soul. On this
+occasion they smear their bodies with lemon juice, which prevents the
+leeches from hurting them while they are in the water. The water from this
+lake runs into the sea, at which place the inhabitants dig on the shore, at
+low water, for rubies, diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, which
+are found in such abundance, that the king of this island is believed to
+possess more precious stones than any other monarch in the world. There are
+wild beasts and birds of all kinds in this island in great numbers; and I
+was informed by the natives, that these beasts never attack or do harm to
+strangers, but only kill the indigenous inhabitants. I saw in this island
+certain birds, as large as our geese, having two heads, and other wonderful
+things I do not here write of.
+
+Still farther to the south, I came to a certain island, called Bodin[1],
+which name signifies _unclean_; and this island is inhabited by a most
+wicked people, who devour raw flesh, and commit all manner of wickedness
+and abominable uncleanness to an incredible extent; insomuch, that they
+kill and eat each other, the father eating his son, the son his father, the
+husband his wife, and the wife her husband. If any man be sick, the son
+goes to the soothsayer, or prognosticating priest, requesting him to
+inquire of his god, whether or not his father is to recover. Then both go
+to an idol of gold or silver, which they thus address: "We adore thee as
+our lord and god, and we beseech thee to inform us, whether such a man is
+to die or to recover from his present infirmity." Then the devil returns an
+answer from the idol, and if he says the man is to recover, the son returns
+to the house of his father, and ministers to him in all things necessary,
+until he regain his former health; but if the response is that the man is
+to die, the priest then goes to him, and putting a cloth into his mouth,
+immediately strangles him. After this the dead body is cut in pieces, and
+all the friends and relations are invited to feast upon this horrible
+banquet, which is accompanied with music and all manner of mirth; but the
+bones are solemnly buried. On my blaming this abominable practice, they
+alleged, as its reason and excuse, that it was done to prevent the worms
+from devouring the flesh, which would occasion great torments to his soul;
+and all I could say was quite insufficient to convince them of their error.
+There are many other novel and strange things in this country, to which no
+one would give credit, who had not seen them with his own eyes; yet, I
+declare before God, that I assert nothing of which I am not as sure as a
+man may be of any thing. I have been informed by several credible persons,
+that this India contains 4400 islands, most of which are well inhabited,
+among which there are sixty-four crowned kings.
+
+
+[1] Explained on the margin by Hakluyt, _or Dadin_, which is equally
+    inexplicable.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION X.
+
+_Of Upper India, and the Province of Mancy_[1].
+
+After sailing for many days on the ocean towards the east, I arrived at the
+great province of Mancy, or Mangi, which is called India by the Latins; and
+I was informed by Christians, Saracens, and idolaters, and by many persons
+in office under the great khan, that this country contains more than 2000
+great cities, and that it abounds in all manner of provisions, as bread,
+wine, rice, flesh, and fish. All the men of this country are artificers or
+merchants, and so long as they are able to help themselves by the labour of
+their hands, they never think to beg alms, however great may be their
+poverty. The men of this country are fair and of a comely appearance, yet
+somewhat pale, having a small part of their heads shaven; but their women
+are the most beautiful of any under the sun. The first city that I came to
+belonging to this country is called Ceuskalon[2], which is a days journey
+from the sea, standing on a river, which at its mouth overflows the land,
+to the extent of twelve days journey. This city has so prodigious a number
+of ships and vessels, as would be quite incredible by any person who had
+not been an eye-witness. In this city I saw 300 pounds of good and new
+ginger sold for less than a groat. They have the largest and finest geese,
+and the greatest plenty of them is to be sold, more than in any other part
+of the world. They are as white as milk, having a bone the size of an egg
+on the crown of the head, of a blood-red colour, and a skin or bag under
+their throat, which hangs down half a foot or more[3]. These birds are
+exceedingly fat, and are sold at reasonable rates. The ducks and hens of
+this country are twice the size of ours. There are likewise large and
+monstrous serpents, which are caught and eaten by the natives, and are held
+in such estimation as to be produced at all their feasts. In short, this
+city abounds in all kind of provisions.
+
+Travelling from thence through many cities, I came at length to a city
+called Caitan or Zaiton[4], in which the minorite friars have two places of
+abode, unto which I transported the bones of the dead friars formerly
+mentioned, who suffered martyrdom for the faith of Christ. In this city,
+which is twice as long as Bologna, there are abundance of provisions, and
+it contains many monasteries of religious persons, who are devoted to the
+worship of idols. I was in one of these monasteries, which was said to
+contain 3000 religious men, and 11,000 idols, one of the smallest of which
+was as large as our St Christopher. These religious men feed their idols
+daily, serving up a banquet of good things before them, smoking hot, and
+they affirm that their gods are refreshed and fed by the steam of the
+victuals, which are afterwards carried away, and eaten up by the priests.
+
+
+[1] Otherwise Mangi, or Southern China.--E.
+
+[2] This place, which on the margin is corrected by the equally unknown
+    name of Ceuskala, was probably Canton; but having endeavoured to
+    explain the distorted names of places in China, in the travels of
+    Marco Polo, it is unnecessary to resume the almost impossible task in
+    these much less interesting, and perhaps fabricated travels of
+    Oderic.--E.
+
+[3] Oderic here means pelicans, called alca-trarzi by the Spaniards.
+    --Hakluyt.
+
+[4] Called in p. 404. Carchan.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XI.
+
+_Of the City of Fuko, or Foquien_.
+
+Continuing my journey still farther to the east, I came to the city of
+Foquien, which is thirty miles in circuit. The poultry here are very large,
+and as white as snow, but have wool like sheep instead of feathers. This is
+a stately and most beautiful city, and standeth on the sea. Travelling
+onwards for eighteen days, I passed through many provinces and cities; and
+in my way, I passed over a certain great mountain, on one side of which all
+living creatures were quite black, whereas, on the other side, all were as
+white as snow; and the inhabitants of the two sides of the mountain
+differed exceedingly from each other, in their manners and customs. In
+these parts, all the married women wear a large tire or cap of horn, like a
+small barrel, on their heads, as a mark that they have husbands.
+
+Journeying onwards for other eighteen days, I came to a city on a large
+river, over which there is a prodigiously great bridge. The host with whom
+I lodged in that city, willing to amuse me, carried me along with him to
+this bridge, taking with him in his arms certain diving birds bound to
+poles, and he tied a thread about every one of their necks, lest they might
+swallow the fish they were to catch. He carried likewise three large
+baskets to the river side. He then loosed his divers from the poles, on
+which they went into the water, and in less than an hour, they caught as
+many fish as filled the three baskets. Mine host then untied the threads
+from their necks, and sent them again into the water, where they fed
+themselves with fish. And, when satisfied, they returned to their master,
+allowing themselves to be fastened to the poles as before. I eat of these
+fish, and found them very good.
+
+Travelling thence many days, I came to another city named Canasia[1], which
+signifies in their language the city of Heaven. I never saw so great a
+city, for it is an hundred miles in circumference, and every part of it is
+thoroughly inhabited, yea, many of its houses are ten or even twelve
+stories high. It has many large suburbs, which contain more inhabitants
+than even the city itself. There are twelve principal gates; and at the
+distance of about eight miles from every one of these there is a large
+city, each of them larger, in my opinion, than Venice or Padua. The city of
+Canasia is situated among waters or lakes, which are always stagnant,
+without flux or reflux, and it is defended against the violence of the wind
+in the same manner as Venice. In this city there are more than 10,002
+bridges[2], many of which I counted and passed over; and on every one of
+these, there stand certain watchmen, constantly keeping guard for the great
+khan, or emperor of Cathay. The people of the country informed me that they
+have to pay, as tribute to their lord, one _balis_ for every fire. Now one
+balis consists of five pieces of silken paper, which are worth one florin
+and a half of our coin. Ten or twelve households are counted as one fire,
+and only pay accordingly. All these tributary fires amount to eighty-five
+tomans, besides four tomans of the Saracens, making in all eighty-nine
+tomans; and one toman contains 10,000 fires[3]. The residue of the people
+consist of some Christians, some merchants, and some who travel through the
+country. I marvelled how it were possible for such an infinite number of
+people to live together, and get food; yet there is great abundance of
+provisions, such as bread and wine, and other necessaries, especially hogs
+flesh.
+
+
+[1] Cansai, Quinzay, or Quinsay.--Hakluyt.
+
+[2] In the Italian copy, published by Ramusio, the number of bridges is
+    extended to 11,000.--Hakluyt.
+
+[3] This enumeration would give 890,000 fires, or almost ten millions of
+    households; which at four persons to each, would produce an aggregate
+    population of 39 millions of people for Quinsay alone. The tribute, as
+    stated by Oderic, amounts to 6,675,000 florins.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XII.
+
+_Of a Monastery, having many different kinds of Animals on a certain Hill_.
+
+In this city of Quinsay, four of our friars had converted a powerful man to
+the Christian faith, in whose house I abode all the time I remained in that
+place. This man once addressed me, by the name of _Ara_ or father, asking
+me to visit the city. Embarking in a boat, he carried me to a certain
+monastery, where he spoke to one of the priests of his acquaintance,
+saying, "this Raban, or religious man of the Francs, coming from the
+western parts of the earth, is on his way to Cambalu to pray for the life
+of the great khan, and you must shew him some rare thing, that he may be
+able to say on his return to his own country, what strange and novel sights
+he has beheld in our city of Quinsay." Then the priest took two great
+baskets full of broken victuals, and led me to a small walled inclosure, of
+which he had the key, the door of which he unlocked, and we went into a
+pleasant green plot, in which stood a small hillock like a steeple, all
+adorned with fragrant herbs and trees. He then beat upon a cymbal, at the
+sound of which many animals of various kinds came down, from the mount,
+some like apes, some like cats, others like monkeys, and some having human
+faces, which gathered around him to the number of four thousand, and placed
+themselves in seemly order. He set down the broken victuals for them to
+eat; and when they had eaten, he rung again upon his cymbal, and they all
+returned to their places of abode. Wondering greatly at this strange sight,
+this man informed me that these creatures were animated by the souls of
+departed persons of rank, and that they were fed by him and his brethren
+out of love for the God that governs the world. He added, that, when a man
+was noble in this life, his soul entered, after death, into the body of
+some excellent beast, while the souls of the deceased common rude people,
+possess the bodies of vile animals. I then endeavoured to refute that gross
+error, but my arguments were all in vain, as he could not believe that any
+soul could exist without a body.
+
+From Quinsay I went to the city of Chilenso, which is forty miles round,
+and contains 360 stone bridges, the fairest I ever saw. This place is well
+inhabited, has a vast number of ships, and abundance of provisions and
+commodities. From thence I went to a great river called Thalay, which is
+seven miles broad where narrowest, and it runs through the midst of the
+land of the Pigmies, whose chief city is Kakam, one of the finest of the
+world. These Pigmies are only three spans in height, yet they manufacture
+larger and better cloths of cotton and silk, than any other people. Passing
+that river, I came to the city of Janzu, in which there is a house for the
+friars of our order, and there are also three churches belonging to the
+Nestorians. This Janzu is a great and noble city, having forty-eight tomans
+of tributary fires, and abounds in all manner of victuals, flesh, fish, and
+fowl. The lord of this city has fifty tomans of _balis_ in yearly revenue
+from salt alone; and as every bali is worth a florin and a half of our
+money, one toman is worth 15,000 florins, and the salt revenue of this city
+is 750,000 florins. This lord has been known to forgive 200 tomans of
+arrears at one time to his people, or three millions of florins, lest they
+should be reduced to distress. There is a strange fashion in this city,
+when any one inclines to give a banquet to his friends: He goes about to
+certain taverns or cooks shops, informing each of the landlords, that such
+and such of his friends are to come there for entertainment in his name,
+and that he will allow a certain sum for the banquet. By this means his
+friends are better entertained in divers places, than if all had been
+collected into one. Ten miles from the city of Janzu, and at the mouth of
+the river Thalay, there is another city named Montu, which has a greater
+number of ships than I ever saw in any part of the world. All the ships are
+white as snow, and have banquetting houses in them; and there are many
+other rare and wonderful things, that no one would give credit to, unless
+he were to see them with his own eyes.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIII.
+
+_Of the city of Cambalu_.
+
+Travelling eight days farther, through divers provinces and cities, I came
+by fresh water to a city called Lencyn, on the river Karamoran, which
+pervades the middle of Cathay, and does much injury when it breaks its
+banks and overflows the land. Passing from thence many days journey to the
+eastwards, and within sight of many different cities, I came to the city of
+Sumakoto, which abounds more in silk than any city of the earth; insomuch
+that silk is reckoned scarce and dear, when the price of forty pounds
+weight amounts to four groats. It likewise abounds in all kinds of
+merchandize and provisions. Journeying still towards the east past many
+cities, I arrived at length at the great and renowned city of Cambalu, or
+Cambaleth, which is of great antiquity, and is the capital of Cathay. Being
+taken by the Tartars, they built a new city at the distance of half a mile,
+which they named Caido, which has twelve gates, each two miles distant from
+the other. The space also between the two cities is thoroughly built upon,
+and inhabited; so that the whole is as one city, and is forty miles in
+circuit. In this city the great khan or emperor has his palace, the walls
+of which are four miles in circuit; and near to the imperial palace there
+are many other houses and palaces of the nobles who belong to the court.
+Within the precincts of the imperial palace, there is a most beautiful
+mount, all set over with trees, called the Green Mount, having a sumptuous
+palace on the top, in which the khan mostly resides. On one side of the
+mount is a great lake, abounding in geese and ducks, and all manner of
+water fowl, and having a most magnificent bridge; and the wood upon the
+mount is stored with all kinds of beasts and land birds. Hence when the
+khan is inclined to take the diversion of hunting or hawking, he needs not
+to quit his palace.
+
+The principal palace in which the khan resides is very large, and contains
+fourteen pillars of gold, and all the walls are hung with red skins, which
+are reckoned the most costly in the world[1]. In the midst of this palace,
+there is a cistern two yards high, all of a precious stone called
+_merdochas_, which is wreathed round with gold, having the golden image of
+a serpent at each corner, as it were furiously menacing with their heads.
+This cistern is farther ornamented by a rich net-work of pearls; and, by
+means of certain pipes and conduits, it continually supplies certain kinds
+of drink that are used at the court of the emperor[2]. Around this there
+stand many golden vessels, so that all who choose may drink abundantly.
+There are likewise many golden peacocks; and when any of the Tartars drink
+to the prosperity of their lord, and the guests clap their hands from mirth
+and joy, the golden peacocks spread their wings and expand their trains,
+and appear to dance. This, I presume, is occasioned by magic art, or
+perhaps by means of some secret machinery below ground.
+
+
+[1] These red skins, in the Latin of Hakluyt, _pelles rubes_, are probably
+    the zaphilines pelles, or sables, of other travellers; converted into
+    _red_ skins by some strange blunder.--E.
+
+[2] This fountain of _four_ drinks, seems copied from honest Rubruquis; but
+    with corrections and amendments.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIV.
+
+_Of the Magnificence of the Great Khan_.
+
+When the great khan sits upon his imperial throne of state, his queen or
+empress sits upon his left hand; and on another and lower seat two women
+are seated, who accompany the emperor in the absence of his spouse; and
+underneath them all the other ladies of the imperial family are placed. All
+the married ladies wear ornaments on their heads, shaped like a mans foot,
+a cubit and a half long[1], ornamented with cranes feathers, and richly set
+with large oriental pearls. The eldest son and heir apparent of the
+emperor, is seated on the right hand of the throne, and below him sit all
+the nobles of the imperial race. There are likewise four secretaries, who
+write down every word spoken by the emperor. The barons and others of the
+nobility stand all around, with numerous trains of their followers, and all
+preserve the most profound silence, unless permitted to speak by the
+emperor; except his jesters and stage-players, nor even they but as they
+are ordered. Certain barons are appointed to keep the palace gate, to
+prevent all who pass from treading on the threshold.
+
+When the khan holds a solemn feast, he is attended upon by about 14,000
+barons, who have their heads ornamented by circlets or coronets of gold,
+and who minister to him in all things; and they are all richly dressed in
+cloth of gold, ornamented with precious stones, the dress and ornaments of
+each being worth 10,000 florins[2]. His court is kept in the most perfect
+order, the immense multitude of attendants being regularly arranged under
+officers of tens, hundreds, and thousands, so that every one perfectly
+knows his own place and performs his duty. I, friar Oderic, was personally
+at Cambalu for three years, and was often present at the royal banquets;
+for we of the minorite order have a habitation appointed for us in the
+emperors court, and are enjoined to go frequently into the presence, that
+we may bestow our blessing on the emperor. I inquired from some of the
+attendants at court concerning the numbers in the imperial establishment,
+who assured me that, of stage-players, musicians, and such like, there were
+at least eighteen tomans, and that the keepers of dogs, beasts, and fowls,
+were fifteen tomans[3]. There are four hundred physicians of the body to
+the emperor, eight of whom are Christians, and one Saracen. The whole of
+these attendants are supplied with all manner of apparel, victuals, and
+necessaries, from the palace.
+
+When the khan makes a progress from one country to another, there are four
+troops of horsemen appointed, having orders to keep each at the distance of
+a days journey from the presence; one in advance, one in the rear, and one
+on either hand, like a cross, the emperor being in the middle; and each
+troop has its regular days journey appointed for it, that all may keep in
+due order, and be regularly supplied with provisions. The great khan is
+carried in a chariot, having two wheels, on which a splendid throne is
+built of aloes wood, magnificently adorned with gold, precious stones, and
+pearls; and this moving throne is drawn by four elephants, richly
+caparisoned; before which, four war horses, in magnificent housings, are
+led for his particular use. Close to the chariot, and keeping hold of it,
+eight barons attend on either side, to prevent all persons from approaching
+too near, or from incommoding the emperor. Two milk-white ger-falcons are
+carried in the chariot along with the emperor, that he may fly them at any
+game that comes in the way. No one dare come within a stones throw of the
+chariot in which the emperor rides, except those who are expressly
+appointed. The number of his own followers, and of those who attend the
+empress, and on his eldest son, would appear quite incredible to any person
+who had not seen the same, and is therefore omitted. The whole empire is
+divided into twelve great provinces, one only of which has 2000 great
+cities within its bounds; and the whole is so extensive, that one may
+travel continually for six months in any one direction, besides the islands
+under his dominion, which are at least 5000 in number.
+
+
+[1] In the plates of La Monarchie Francaise, by Pere Montfaucon, the French
+    ladies of the fourteenth century are represented as wearing conical
+    caps on their heads, at least one third of their own height.--E.
+
+[2] One hundred and forty millions of florins, as the value of the dresses
+    of the nobles of the imperial court! It seems that most writers
+    concerning China are apt entirely to forget the power of numbers, in
+    the fervour of their admiration.--E.
+
+[3] Odericus, or his Bolandist biographer, seems to have forgot that
+    thirty-three tomans make 330,000 useless ministers of luxury and
+    folly. I strongly suspect the Minorites, for the honour of Oderic,
+    have ignorantly borrowed and exaggerated from Marco Polo, to decorate
+    the legend of the favourite Saint of Udina.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XV.
+
+_Of the Inns established over the whole Empire, for the use of Travellers_.
+
+That travellers may have all things necessary throughout the whole empire,
+the emperor has caused certain inns to be provided in sundry places upon
+the highways, where all kinds of provisions are in continual readiness.
+When any intelligence is to be communicated to him, his messengers ride
+post on horses or dromedaries; and when themselves and their beasts are
+weary, they blow their horns, and the people at the next inn provide a man
+and horse in readiness to carry forward the dispatch. By this means,
+intelligence, which would take thirty days in the ordinary way of
+travelling, is transmitted in one day, and he is consequently immediately
+informed of any important matter which may occur in the most distant parts
+of his dominions.
+
+About twenty days journey from Cambalu, there is a forest of six days
+journey in circuit, containing an incredible number of different kinds of
+beasts and birds, to which the khan usually goes for hunting, once in three
+or four years, attended by his whole train. The attendants environ the
+whole forest, and, with the assistance of dogs, drive all the lions, stags,
+and other beasts before them, into a beautiful open plain in the midst of
+the forest. Then the khan, mounted on a throne, carried by three elephants,
+rides forwards to the throng of animals, and shoots five arrows among the
+herd; and after him, all his barons in succession, and the rest of his
+courtiers and family attendants, discharge their arrows in like manner.
+Then all the surviving beasts are allowed to go away into the forest, and
+all the people go among those beasts which are slain, and each person knows
+by the particular marks on their own arrows, which of the beasts he has
+right to.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVI.
+
+_Of the four Solemn Feasts held yearly by the Great Khan_.
+
+The great khan celebrates four great feasts every year; on the
+anniversaries of his birth, his circumcision, his coronation, and his
+marriage. Sitting upon his throne of state, all his kindred, barons, and
+stage-players, attend in great ceremony and in rich attire; the highest
+order being dressed in green, the second in red, and the third in yellow,
+all girt with golden girdles, half a foot broad, and every one holding a
+small ivory tablet in his hand, they all stand in regular order, keeping
+the most profound silence. On the outside, all the stage-players, and the
+musicians, with their musical instruments, are arranged. In one of the
+corners of a certain great gallery, all the philosophers or magicians
+attend, waiting for certain hours and moments, and when the fortunate
+moment is arrived, a crier calleth out in a loud voice, "Prostrate
+yourselves before the emperor," and then all fall upon their faces. After a
+certain interval, the crier again orders the whole assembly to rise up, and
+they do so. At another particular moment, fixed by the philosophers, orders
+are given in a loud voice, for every one to stop their ears with their
+fingers; afterwards they are called upon to take out their fingers. Many
+similar things are performed in this manner, which they pretend to be
+significant, but which, being vain and ridiculous, I gave no attention to,
+and am not inclined to write. When the hour of music comes, the
+philosophers give the word, and they all sound their instruments, making a
+great and melodious noise; after which, orders are given to cease from the
+music. Then come the women musicians, who sing sweetly before the emperor,
+which I thought delightful. After them, the lions are led in, and are made
+to pay their obeisance to the emperor. Then the jugglers cause golden cups,
+full of wine, to fly up and down in the air, and to apply themselves to
+mens mouths, that they may drink. And many other strange things are
+performed, which I omit to mention, as no one would believe me.
+
+I was informed by certain credible persons, that in the mountains of
+Kapsei, in the kingdom of Kalor, which is in the dominions of the great
+khan, there grow certain gourds, or pompions, which open when ripe, and a
+little beast is found within them, resembling a young lamb. I have likewise
+heard, that there grow certain trees upon the shore of the Irish sea, which
+carry a fruit like gourds, and that these fall into the sea at certain
+times, and are changed into birds called Bernacles.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVII.
+
+_Of various Provinces and Cities of the East_.
+
+After a residence of three years in Cambalu, I departed from the empire of
+Kathay, and travelled fifty days to the west, when I arrived in the
+dominions of Pretegoani[1], whose principal city is Cosan. Continuing my
+journey for many days, I came to the province of Casan, which is well
+inhabited, and one of the first countries in the world, for abundance of
+provisions, and commodities of all kinds, especially of chesnuts; and, is
+so extremely populous, that, on leaving the gates of any one city, we may
+always have the gates of another within sight. This country is fifty days
+journey in breadth, and it is above sixty days journey in length. This is
+one of the twelve great provinces belonging to the great khan.
+
+Farther on, I came into another kingdom belonging to the khan, called Tebek
+or Thibet, which is, in my opinion, more abundant in bread and wine than
+any other country in the world. The inhabitants mostly dwell in tents of
+black felt, The principal city is surrounded by beautiful walls, built of
+large white and black stones, disposed chequerwise; and all the highways of
+the country are well paved. In this country, from certain religious
+notions, no one dares shed the blood of a man, or of any beast. The Abassi,
+who is their Pope, dwells in the city already mentioned, being the head or
+prince of all the idolaters, on whom he bestows gifts; just as our Pope of
+Rome considers himself to be the head of all the Christians. The women of
+this country wear a prodigious number of ornaments, and they have two long
+teeth like the tusks of a boar. When any man dies in this country, his son
+assembles all the priests and musicians that he can procure, to do honour
+to his father, whose body he causes to be carried out into the fields,
+accompanied by all the kindred, friends, and neighbours of the family. Then
+the priests, with great solemnity, cut off the head of the deceased, which
+they give to his son; after which, they divide the whole body into small
+pieces, which they leave strewed about the place; and then the whole
+company return home in solemn procession, accompanied with prayers, the son
+bearing his fathers head. On their departure from the field, the vultures
+of the country, accustomed to similar banquets, come down from the
+mountains, and carry off all the remains of the deceased person; who is
+thereupon pronounced holy, because the angels of God, as they say, have
+carried him to paradise. When the procession returns to the dwelling of the
+deceased, the son boils the head of his father, and eats the flesh,
+converting the skull into a drinking cup, out of which he, and all his
+family, and kindred, carouse with much, mirth and solemnity, in remembrance
+of his father. This nation has many other vile and abominable customs,
+which I refrain from describing, because no one would believe them unseen.
+
+
+[1] This strange word, both in the Latin and English of Hakluyt, is
+    obviously the Italian for Prester John, information concerning whom
+    will be found in the travels of Marco Polo.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XVIII.
+
+_Of a certain Rich Man, who was Fed by fifty Virgins_.
+
+While in the province of Mangi, or Southern China, I passed by the palace
+of a rich man, who is continually attended upon by fifty young virgins, who
+feed him at every meal as a bird feeds her young; and all the time they are
+so employed, they sing to him most sweetly. The revenues of this man are
+thirty toman of tagars of rice, each toman being 10,000 tagars, and one
+tagar is the burthen of an ass. His palace is two miles in circuit, and is
+paved with alternate plates of gold and silver. Near the wall of his
+palace, there is an artificial mound of gold and silver, having turrets and
+steeples, and other magnificent ornaments, contrived for the solace and
+recreation of this great man.[l] I was further informed, that there are
+four such great men in the kingdom of Mangi. It is reckoned a great mark of
+dignity, among the great men of this country, to have their nails of great
+length; more especially their thumb nails, which are sometimes of
+sufficient length to be wrapped round the hand. The beauty, and even the
+rank of their women is supposed to consist in the smallness of their feet;
+for which reason, mothers bind up the feet of their daughters when young,
+to prevent them from growing large.
+
+
+[1] This seems an ill-digested account of a pagoda, or idol temple, of
+    great extent and magnificence, richly gilt, similar to those of which
+    we have splendid views in the relation of the embassy to Ava, by
+    Colonel Symes.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XIX.
+
+_Of the Old Man of the Mountain_.
+
+Proceeding on my travels towards the south, I arrived at a certain pleasant
+and fertile country, called Melistorte[1], in which dwells a certain aged
+person called the Old Man of the Mountain. This person had surrounded two
+mountains by a high wall, within which he had the fairest gardens, and
+finest fountains in the world, inhabited by great numbers of most beautiful
+virgins. It was likewise supplied with fine horses, and every article that
+could contribute to luxury and delightful solace; on which account it was
+called by the people of the country the terrestrial paradise. Into this
+delightful residence, the old man used to entice all the young and valiant
+men he could procure, where they were initiated into all the delights of
+the earthly paradise, in which milk and wine flowed in abundance, through
+certain hidden conduits. When desirous of assassinating any prince or
+nobleman, who had offended him, the old man would order the governor of his
+paradise to entice into that place, some acquaintance or servant of the
+prince or baron whom he wished to slay. Allowing this person to take a full
+taste of the delights of the place, he was cast into a deep sleep by means
+of a strong potion, in which state he was removed from paradise. On
+recovering from his sleep, and finding himself excluded from the pleasures
+of paradise, he was brought before the old man, whom he entreated to
+restore him to the place from whence he had been taken. He was then told,
+that, if he would slay such or such a person, he should not only be
+permitted to return into paradise, but should remain there forever. By
+these means the old man used to get all those murdered, against whom he had
+conceived any displeasure; on which account all the kings and princes of
+the east stood in awe of him, and paid him tribute.
+
+When the Tartars had subdued a large portion of the earth, they came into
+the country of the old man, and took from him his paradise. Being greatly
+incensed at this, he sent out many of his resolute and desperate
+dependents, by whom numbers of the Tartar nobles were slain. Upon this, the
+Tartars besieged the city of the old man of the mountain; and, making him
+prisoner, they put him to a cruel and ignominious death.
+
+
+[1] It is impossible to explain this strange word, Melistorte. the
+    dominions of the old man of the mountain, and his earthly paradise, in
+    some other travels of the present volume, are said to have been
+    situated in the north of Persia.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XX.
+
+_Of several wonderful things in those parts_.
+
+In that place[1], the friars have the special gift, that, through the power
+of the name of Jesus Christ, and of his precious blood, which was shed on
+the cross for the remission of our sins, they speedily expel devils from
+those who are possessed. And as there are many possessed persons in those
+parts, they are brought bound, from the distance of ten days journey all
+around, to the friars; and being dispossessed of the unclean spirits, they
+immediately believe in Christ, who hath delivered them, and are baptized in
+his name, delivering up to the friars all their idols, and the idols of
+their cattle, which are usually made of felt, or of womens hair. Then the
+friars kindle a great fire in some public place, into which they cast the
+idols before all the people. At the first, the idols used to come out of
+the fire; but the friars, having sprinkled the fire with holy water, threw
+in the idols again, where they were consumed to ashes; and the devils fled
+away in the likeness of black smoke, when a noise was heard in the air,
+crying out aloud, "Behold how I am expelled from my habitation!" By these
+means, the friars have baptized great multitudes; but they mostly return
+soon again to their idols, on which account, the friars have continually to
+abide among them, to exhort and instruct them in the faith.
+
+I saw another terrible thing in those parts. Passing by a certain valley,
+near a pleasant river, I saw many dead bodies therein, and I heard issuing
+therefrom many sweet and harmonious musical sounds, especially of lutes;
+insomuch that I was much amazed. This valley is at least seven or eight
+miles long, into which, whoever enters, is sure to die immediately; for
+which cause, all who travel by that way pass by on one side, no one being
+able to travel through that valley and live. But I was curious to go in,
+that I might see what it contained. Making therefore my prayers, and
+recommending myself to God, I entered in, and saw such vast quantities of
+dead bodies, as no one would believe, unless he had seen them with his own
+eyes. At one side of the valley, I saw the visage of a man upon a stone,
+which stared at me with such a hideous aspect, that I thought to have died
+on the spot. But I ceased not to sign myself with the sign of the cross,
+continually saying "The Word became flesh, and dwelt with us." Yet I dared
+not to approach nearer than seven or eight paces; and at length, I fled to
+another part of the valley. I then ascended a little sand hill; from
+whence, looking around, I saw on every side the before mentioned lutes,
+which seemed to me to sound of themselves in a most miraculous manner,
+without the aid of any musicians. On the top of this sand hill, I found
+great quantities of silver, resembling the scales of fishes, and gathered
+some of this into the bosom of my habit, to shew as a wonder; but, my
+conscience rebuking me, I threw it all away, and so, by the blessing of
+God, I departed in safety. When the people of the country knew that I had
+returned alive from the valley of the dead, they reverenced me greatly;
+saying, that the dead bodies were subject to the infernal spirits, who were
+in use to play upon lutes, to entice men into the valley, that they might
+die; but as I was a baptized and holy person, I had escaped the danger.
+Thus much I have related, which I certainly beheld with mine own eyes; but
+I have purposely omitted many wonderful things, because those who had not
+seen them would refuse to believe my testimony.
+
+
+[1] The place in which these wonderful things were seen, is no where
+    indicated; neither is the omission to be regretted, as the whole is
+    evidently fabulous.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXI.
+
+_Of the Honour and Reverence shewn to the Great Khan_.
+
+I shall here report one thing more concerning the great khan of Cathay, of
+which I was a witness. It is customary, when he travels through any part of
+his wide dominions, that his subjects kindle fires before their doors, in
+such places as he means to pass, into which they fling spices and perfumes,
+that he may be regaled by their sweet odour. And numberless multitudes
+flock from all quarters, to meet him, and do him homage. Upon a certain
+time, when the approach of the khan to Cambalu was announced, one of our
+bishops, together with several minorite friars and myself, went out two
+days journey from the city to meet him. When we came nigh to his presence,
+we bore aloft a cross upon a pole, and began to sing _Veni Creator_, in a
+loud voice, while I carried the censer. When he came up to the place where
+we were singing by the way side, he called us to come towards him; for no
+man dare approach within a stones throw of his chariot, unless called,
+except those only who are appointed to attend upon his person. When we came
+near, he took off his cap or helmet, of inestimable value, and did
+reverence to the cross. I immediately put incense into the censer; and the
+bishop, taking the censer into his own hands, perfumed the khan, and gave
+him his benediction. Besides this, as those who approach the great khan
+always bring with them some offering to present to him, according to the
+ancient law. "Thou shalt not come empty handed into my presence," so we
+carried some apples along with us, and reverently offered them to him on a
+salver; and he was pleased to take two of our apples, of one of which he
+eat a part. The khan then gave a sign for us to depart, lest we might have
+been injured by the crowd of horses; upon which we turned aside to certain
+of his barons, who had been converted to the Christian faith, and who were
+then in his train, to whom we offered the remainder of our apples, which
+they joyfully received, as If we had made them some great gift.
+
+
+
+SECTION XXII
+
+_Conclusion of the Travels, and Account of the Death of Friar Oderic_.
+
+All the above were put down in writing by friar William de Solanga, as
+dictated to him by friar Oderic, in the year of our Lord 1330, in the month
+of May, and in the place of St Anthony at Padua. He hath not attempted to
+render these relations into fine Latin, or in an eloquent style, but hath
+written them even as rehearsed by Oderic himself.
+
+I, friar Oderic of Portenau, in the Friuli, of the order of minorites, do
+hereby testify, and bear witness to the reverend father Guidotus, minister
+of the province of St Anthony, in the marquisate of Trevigi, by whom I was
+commanded so to do, that all which is here written, was either seen by
+myself or reported to me by credible and worthy persons; and the common
+report of the countries through which I travelled, testifies all those
+things which I have seen and related to be true. Many other wonderful
+things I have omitted, because they were not seen by myself. It is farther
+mine intention, soon again to travel into foreign and far distant lands, in
+which I may live or die, as it may please the Almighty Disposer of events.
+
+In the year of our Lord 1331, friar Oderic, resolving to enter upon his
+intended journey, determined to present himself before Pope John XXII[1] on
+purpose to receive his benediction, that his labour might be the more
+prosperous; as he intended to travel into the countries of the infidels,
+with certain friars who had agreed to accompany him. While journeying to
+the residence of the pope, and not far distant from the city of Pisa, he
+was encountered by an old man in the garb of a pilgrim, who saluted him by
+name, saying, "Hail to you, friar Oderic." And when Oderic inquired how he
+should know him, the old man answered, "While you were in India, I well
+knew both you and your holy purpose; but now be warned from me, and return
+to the convent whence you came, for in ten days you shall depart out of
+this world." Upon this the old man immediately vanished, from his sight;
+and Oderic, amazed at his words, determined to return to his convent, which
+he did in perfect health, feeling no illness, or decay of his body or
+faculties. And ten days afterwards, being then in his convent at Udina, in
+the province of Padua, and having received the holy communion, as preparing
+himself unto God, yea, being strong and sound of body, he happily rested in
+the Lord, according as it had been revealed. Which holy death was signified
+unto the foresaid supreme pontiff, under the hand of a public notary, in
+the following words:
+
+"On the 14th of January, in the year of our Lord 1331, the blessed Oderic,
+a friar of the minorite order, deceased in Christ; at whose prayers God
+shewed many and sundry miracles, which I, Guetelus, public notary of Udina,
+son of Dora. Damiano de Portu Gruario, at the command and direction of the
+noble lord Conradus, of the borough of Gastaldion, one of the council of
+Udina, have written down with good faith to the best of my abilities; and I
+have delivered a copy of the same to the friars minors: Yet not of the
+whole, because they are innumerable, and too difficult for, me to write."
+
+
+[1] This pope reigned from about 1317 to 1334, so that the original editor,
+    or fabricator of these travels, has so for been fortunate in his
+    chronology.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XIII.
+
+_Travels of Sir John Mandeville into the East, in_ 1322[1].
+
+
+The travels of Sir John Mandevil, or Mandeville, are to be found in Latin
+in Haklyuts collection. An edition of this strange performance was
+published in 8vo. at London in 1727, by Mr Le Neve, from a MS. in the
+Cotton Library. This old English version is said to have been made by the
+author from his own original composition in Latin. It is a singular mixture
+of real or fictitious travels, and compilation from the works of others
+without acknowledgement, containing many things copied from the travels of
+Oderic, and much of it is culled, in a similar manner, from the writings of
+the ancients. Though, from these circumstances, it is a work of no
+authenticity and unworthy of credit, it has been judged indispensable to
+give some account of its nature and contents.
+
+Mandeville affirms that he was descended of an ancient and noble family,
+and was born at St Albans. After receiving the rudiments of a liberal
+education, he says that he studied mathematics, physic, and divinity, and
+wrote books on all these sciences; and became expert in all the exercises
+then befitting a gentleman. Having a desire to travel, he crossed the sea
+in 1322, or 1332, for different manuscripts give both dates, and set out on
+a journey through France towards the Holy Land, a description of which
+country, replete with monkish tales, and filled with the most absurd holy
+fables, occupies half of his ridiculous book. In the very outset he
+pretends to have visited India, and the Indian islands, and other
+countries; all of which appears to be fabulous, or interpolation. Before
+proceeding to the Holy Land, perhaps the sole country which he really
+visited, he gives various routes or itineraries to and from Constantinople,
+containing no personal adventures, or any other circumstances that give the
+stamp of veracity; but abundance of nonsensical fables about the cross and
+crown of our Saviour, at the imperial city.
+
+He pretends to have served in the army of the sultan of Egypt, whom he
+calls Mandybron, who must have been Malek el Naser Mohammed, who reigned
+from 1310 to 1341, and states a war against the Bedouins, or Arabs of the
+desert, as the scene of his own exploits. Yet he seems to have been
+entirely unacquainted with Egypt, and gives only a slight mention of Cairo.
+He represents the sultan as residing in Bablyon, and blunders into pedantic
+confusion between Babylon in Egypt, and Babylon in Chaldea, all of which is
+probably an injudicious complement from books common at the time.
+
+About the middle of the book he gives some account of the ideas of the
+Saracens concerning Christ; and then falls into a roaming description of
+various countries, obviously compiled without consideration of time or
+changes of people and names; deriving most of his materials from ancient
+authors, particularly from Pliny, and describing Mesopotamia, Chaldea,
+Albania, Hircania, Bactria, Iberia, and others, as if such had actually
+existed in the geography of the fourteenth century. Where any thing like
+modern appears, it is some childish fable, as that the ark of Noah was
+still visible on mount Ararat. He even gives the ancient fable of the
+Amazons, whom he represents as an existing female nation.
+
+He next makes a transition to India, without any notice of his journey
+thither; arid gravely asserts that he has often experienced, that if
+diamonds be wetted with May-dew, they will grow to a great size in a course
+of years. This probably is an improvement upon the Arabian philosophy or
+the production of pearls by the oysters catching that superlative seminal
+influence. The following singular article of intelligence respecting India,
+may be copied as a specimen of the work: "In that countree growen many
+strong vynes: and the women drynken wyn, and men not: and the women shaven
+hire berdes, and the men not." From India he proceeds to the island of
+Lamary, the Lambri of Marco Polo; and by using the Italian term "the star
+transmontane," at once betrays the source of his plagiarism. His
+descriptions seem disguised extracts from Polo, with ridiculous
+exaggerations and additions; as of snail shells so large as to hold many
+persons. His account of the pretended varieties of the human race, as of
+nations of Hermaphrodites, and others equally ridiculous, which he places
+in separate islands of the Indian ocean, are mere transcripts from Pliny.
+
+His accounts of Mangi and Kathay, or southern and northern China, are most
+inaccurately stolen from Marco Polo, and disguised or rather disfigured to
+conceal the theft. "The city with twelve thousand bridges, has twelve
+principal gates, and in advance from each of these a detached town, or
+great city, extends for three or four miles." Though he pretends to have
+resided three years in Cambalu, he does not seem to have known the name of
+the khan, whom he served for fifteen months against the king of Mangi.
+Leaving Cathay he goes into Tharsis, Turquescen, Corasine, and Kommania, in
+which he seems to have transcribed from Oderic; and makes Prester John
+emperor of India, a country divided into many islands by the great torrents
+which descend from Paradise! He gives also an account of a sea of sand and
+gravel, entirely destitute of water, the Mare arenosum of Oderic; to which
+he adds that it moves in waves like the ocean. Though he makes Prester John
+sovereign of India, he assigns Susa in Persia for his residence; constructs
+the gates of his palace of sardonyx, its bars of ivory, its windows of rock
+crystal, and its tables of emeralds; while numerous carbuncles, each one
+foot in length, served infinitely better than lamps to illuminate the
+palace by night. To many absurdities, apparitions, and miracles, copied and
+disguised from Oderic, he adds two islands in the middle of the continent,
+one inhabited by giants thirty feet high, while their elder brethren in the
+other are from forty-five to fifty feet.
+
+He borrows many fabulous stories from Pliny, and from the romances of the
+middle, ages, yet so ignorantly as to reverse the very circumstances of his
+authors. Andromeda is not the lady who was rescued by Perseus, but the
+monster by which she was to have been devoured. Two _islands_ in India, one
+called Brahmin, and the other Gymnosophist. And a thousand other fictions
+and absurdities, too ridiculous even for the credulity of children. Of this
+worse than useless performance, the foregoing analysis is perhaps more than
+sufficient for the present work.--E.
+
+
+[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. in the Nerth, p. 148.  Pinkert. Mod. Geogr. II.
+    xxxvi.  Hakluyt, II. 76.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XIV.
+
+_Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in_ 1355[1].
+
+
+In the year 1355, Francisco Balducci Pegoletti, an Italian, wrote a system
+of commercial geography, of great importance, considering the period in
+which it was written. Its title translated into English, is, "Of the
+Divisions of Countries, and of their Measures, Merchandize, and other
+things useful to be known by the Merchants of various parts of the World."
+All of this curious work which has any reference to our present
+undertaking, is the chapter which is entitled, "Guide or the Route from
+Tana to Kathay, with Merchandize, and back again." This is published entire
+by J. R. Forster, with several learned notes and illustrations, and is here
+reprinted.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From _Tana_ or Asof to _Gintarchan_ or Astracan[2], is twenty-five days
+journey with waggons drawn by oxen; but may be accomplished in ten or
+twelve days, if the waggons are drawn by horses. On the road one meets with
+a great number of armed _Moccols_, Moguls or Mongals. From Gintarchan to
+_Sara_[3] by the river, it is only one days sail; but from Sara to
+_Saracanco_[4], it takes eight days by water; one may, however, travel
+either by land or water, whichever is most agreeable; but it costs much
+less expence to go with merchandize by water. From Saracanco to Organci[5]
+is a journey of twenty days with loaded camels; and whoever travels with
+merchandize, will do well to go to Organci, as it is a very convenient
+place for the expeditious sale of goods. From Organci to Oltrarra[6], it is
+thirty-five or forty days journey, with camels: But in going direct from
+Saracanco to Oltrarra, it takes fifty days journey; and if one has no
+merchandize, it is a better way than to go by Organci. From Oltrarra to
+Armalecco[7], it is forty-five days journey with loaded asses, and in this
+road, one meets every day with Moguls. From Armalecco to Camexu[8], it is
+seventy days journey on asses; and from Camexu to a river called the _Kara
+Morin_[9], it is fifty days journey on horses. From this river, the
+traveller may go to Cassai[10] to dispose of his silver there, as it is an
+excellent station for the expeditious sale of merchandize; and from Cassai,
+he may go through the whole land of Gattay or Kathay, with the money he has
+received at Cassai for his silver[11]. This money is of paper, and called
+balischi, four of which balischies are equal to one silver _somno_[12].
+From Cassai to _Galmalecco_[l3], which is the capital of the empire of
+Kathay, it is thirty days journey.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+If the reader has any idea of the difficulty attendant on making out so
+many places, disguised by a vicious orthography, a difficulty, which is
+still more increased by the necessity there is for determining, with
+accuracy, the situation of these places, and their probable distances from
+each other, he will be ready to allow that the task is certainly not very
+trifling, nor to be accomplished without much labour. In the foregoing
+itinerary, Pegoletti certifies the existence of the paper money which had
+been previously mentioned by Rubraquis, Haitho, Marco Polo, and Oderic:
+Some of these authors describe it as having been fabricated of cotton
+paper; while others remark very justly, that it was made of the bark of the
+paper mulberry tree. Oderic calls it Balis, Pegoletti gives it the name of
+Balis-chi. A Jesuit named Gabriel de Magaillans, pretends that Marco Polo
+was mistaken in regard to this paper money; but the concurrent testimony of
+five other credible witnesses of the fact, is perfectly conclusive that
+this paper money did actually exist during the first Mogul dynasty, the
+descendants of Zinghis, called the legal tribe of _Yu_ by the Chinese. On
+the downfall of that race it was abolished.
+
+Supposing the station on the Kara-morin and Cassai to be the same, which is
+highly probable, the whole journey in this itinerary, from Asof to Pekin,
+extends to 276 days, besides nine days more by water, or 285 in all; so
+that allowing for delays, rests, accidents, and occasional trafficking, a
+whole year may fairly be allowed, and as much for the return.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North, p. 150.
+
+[2] Gintarchan, or Zintarchan, is, by Josaphat Barbaro, called also
+    Gitarchau; and Witsan, in his account of Northern and Eastern Tartary,
+    says Astracan was called of old _Citracan_. By the Calmuks, it is
+    called Hadschi-Aidar-Khan-Balgassun, or the city of Hadschi Aidar
+    Khan, whence all these names are derived by an obvious corruption,
+    like [Greek: Eis tnae polis], or the city, by way of eminence, by
+    which the Greeks distinguished Constantinople, and which the Turks
+    have corrupted into Estambol, and Stambol.--Forst.
+
+[3] Sara is undoubtedly the town of Saray, situated on the eastern arm of
+    the Wolga, or Achtuba. The Astracan mentioned in the text by
+    Pegoletti, was not on the spot where that city now stands; both that
+    ancient Astracan and Saray having been destroyed by Timur Khan, or
+    Tamerlane, as he is usually called, in the winter 1395. The old town
+    of Saray was at no great distance from ancient Astracan.--Forst.
+
+[4] Saracanco is probably the town which formerly existed on the river Jaik
+    or Ural, the remains of which are now known by the name of
+    Saratschik.--Forst.
+
+[5] The name of Organci is easily recognized In the town of Urgenz in
+    Kheucaresm; which is named Dschordschanio by Abulfeda, and Korkang by
+    the Persians. But there were two towns of this name, the greater and
+    the lesser Urgenz, or Old and New Urgenz. The Old or Greater Urgenz
+    was situated near to where the Gihon discharges its waters into lake
+    Aral; the New or Ixsser Urgenz is to be found near Chiwa, or Chiva, on
+    the Gihon--Forst.
+
+[6] Oltrarra is properly called Otrar, and also Farab, which latter name is
+    to be found in Abulfeda. It is situate on the river Sihon or Sire. The
+    Chinese, who cannot pronounce the letter _r_, call it Uotala.--Forst.
+
+[7] Armalecco is the name of a small town called Almalig, which, according
+    to Nassir Ettusi and Ulug-beg, is in Turkestan.  From the life of
+    Timur Khan, by Shersfeddin Ali, it appears that Almalig is situate
+    between the town of Taschkent and the river Irtiah, in the country of
+    the Gete, and on the banks of the river Ab-eile, which discharges
+    itself into the Sihon, or Sirr-Daria.--Forst.
+
+[8] Came-xu is in all probability the name of Khame or Khami with the
+    addition of xu, instead of Tcheou or Tsheu, which, in the Chinese
+    language, signifies a town of the second rank.--Forst.
+
+[9] Obviously the Kara-Moran, called Hoang-ho by the Chinese, or the Yellow
+    River.--Forst.
+
+[10] Cassai, or Kaway, seems to be the place called Kissen, on a lake of
+    that name, near the northernmost winding branch of the Kara-moran, in
+    Lat. 41º.50'. N. long. 107°. 40'. E.--Forst.
+
+[11] It is curious to notice, in the writings, of this intelligent
+    commercial geographer, and in the travels of Marco Polo, the peculiar
+    advantages in commerce enjoyed by the Chinese at so early a period, of
+    being paid in sliver for their commodities and manufactures. This
+    practice, which prevailed so early as 1260, the era of the elder
+    Polos, and even, in 851, when the Mahometan travellers visited
+    Southern China, still continues in 1810.--E.
+
+[12] The value of the silver _somno_ is nowhere mentioned; but it is of no
+    importance, as it would not enable us to institute any comparison of
+    values whatsoever.--E.
+
+[13] Gamalecco is undoubtedly Cambalu, Cambalig, or Khan-balig, otherwise
+    Pekin; exactly as Gattay is substituted for Katay Kathay, or Cathay.
+    --Forst.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XV.
+
+_Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno in 1380_.[1]
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Although we have admitted this article into our collection, on the
+authority of Ramusio and J. R. Forster, we are disposed to consider the
+whole as a fabrication, altogether unworthy of any credit. The first
+section, indeed, may possibly have had some foundation in truth, as the
+Zenos may have navigated about the close of the fourteenth century to the
+Orkneys, and some imperfect and disfigured narrative of their voyage may
+have fallen into the hands of Marcolini, the author or editor of these
+strangely distorted and exaggerated or pretended voyages. In regard to the
+second section, unless we could suppose, that, by Estoitland and Drogio,
+some strangely distorted account of different districts in Ireland were
+meant to be enigmatically conveyed, the whole of that section must be
+pronounced a palpable and blundering forgery. But it appears obviously
+intended by the relater, to impress upon his readers, that some portion of
+the western hemisphere, afterwards named America, had been visited by
+Antonio Zeno; and the high probability is, that Marcolini, a patriotic
+Venetian, had invented the whole story, on purpose to rob the rival
+republic of Genoa of the honour of haying given birth to the real
+discoverer of the New World. If there be any truth whatever in the voyages
+of the Zenos, it is only to be found in the first section of this chapter;
+and even there the possible truth is so strangely enveloped in
+unintelligible names of persons and places, as to be entirely useless. The
+_second_ section is utterly unworthy of the slightest serious
+consideration; and must either have been a posterior fabrication, engrafted
+upon an authentic, but ignorantly told narrative; or the seeming
+possibility of the _first_ section was invented to give currency to the
+wild forgery of the _second_. Latin books, a library, gold, ships, and
+foreign trade, corn, beer, numerous towns and castles, all in the most
+northern parts of America in the _fourteenth_ century, where only nomadic
+savages had ever existed, are all irrefragable evidence, that the whole, or
+at least that portion of the voyages of the Zenos, is an idle romance. To
+increase the absurdity, as if to try the gullability of the readers,
+_Dedalus_, a king of Scotland! is assumed to have been the first discoverer
+of the Western World; and his son _Icarus_ is introduced to give his name
+to a civilized island, already named Estoitland in the narrative.
+
+After this decided opinion of the falsehood and absurdity of the whole of
+this present chapter, it may be necessary to state, that, in a work so
+general and comprehensive as that we have undertaken, it did not seem
+advisable or proper to suppress an article which had been admitted into
+other general collections of voyages and travels. The remainder of this
+introduction is from the work of Mr J. R, Forster, extracted partly from
+Ramusio, and partly consisting of an ingenious attempt to explain and
+bolster up the more than dubious production of Marcolini: But these
+observations are here considerably abridged; as an extended, grave, and
+critical commentary on a narrative we believe fabulous, might appear
+incongruous, though it did not seem proper to omit them altogether.--E.
+
+The family of Zeno, in Venice, was very ancient, and not only of the
+highest rank of nobility, but celebrated for the performance of great
+actions, and the highest offices of the state had been filled from time
+immemorial by persons of the family. About the year 1200, Marin Zeno
+assisted in the conquest of Constantinople, and he was Podesta, or governor
+of that city, about 1205. He had a son named Pietro Zeno, who was father to
+Rinieri Zeno, who was elected doge, or Duke of Venice, in 1282, and
+governed the republic for seventeen years, during which period he waged a
+successful war against the Genoese. he adopted Andrea, the son of his
+brother Marco, who was afterwards raised to be captain-general of the
+Venetian fleet, in the war against Genoa. Rinieri Zeno, the son of Andrea,
+was the father of Pietro Zeno, who, in 1362, was captain-general of the
+Venetian squadron in the allied fleet of the Christians against the Turks,
+and had the surname of Dracone, from the figure of a dragon which he wore
+on his shield. Pietro had three sons; Carlo Leone, the eldest, who was
+procurator and captain-general of the fleet: of the republic, and; rescued,
+her from imminent danger in a war in which, almost all Europe was leagued
+for her destruction; the second, Nicolo, called likewise il Cavaliere, or
+the night, shewed great valour in the last mentioned war of _Chioggia_
+against the Genoese; Antonio was the youngest.
+
+Francesco Marcolini, a learned Italia, extracted the whole of the ensuing
+relation from the original letters of the two Zenos, Nicole and Antonio,
+which is published in the collection of Ramusio; and declares that Antonio
+laid down all the particulars of these voyages, and of the countries he and
+his brother had visited, on a map, which he brought with him to Venice, and
+which he hung up in his house as a sure pledge and incontestible proofs of
+the truth of his relations, and which still remained as an incontrovertible
+evidence in the time of Marcolini. Many have been inclined to reject the
+whole of this narrative because the names which it assigns to several of
+the countries are nowhere else to be found. After having carefully
+examined, and made a translation of the whole, I am fully convinced that
+the narrative is true, and that it contains internal proofs of its own
+authenticity, and I hope fully to solve, in the course of this
+dissertation, all the difficulties attending the names, which have been
+strangely perverted by a vicious orthography.
+
+It has been alleged that the whole narrative has the appearance of a mere
+fable; and it may be asked where is _Friesland_ and the other countries
+which it mentions, to be found? Who has ever heard of a _Zichmuni_ who
+vanquished Kako, or Hakon, king of Norway, in 1369, or 1380? All this is
+very plausible; but we think a good deal may be done for clearing away the
+difficulties.
+
+Marcolini extracted this relation from the original letters of the two
+Zenos, who were of one of the most considerable families in Venice; a
+family which could not be supposed to have boldly forged a story of this
+kind. The truth could easily have been detected, whether these brothers
+existed or not, and whether they ever made voyages to the north. Besides
+this, the map, actually constructed by Antonio, and hung up in his house at
+Venice, existed in the time of Marcolini, as a sure and incontestable proof
+of the fidelity of the narrative. How then is it possible to harbour any
+doubts? In this case, there must be an end of all faith in history.
+
+I once held, that the countries described by the Zenos had been swallowed
+up by an earthquake; but, reflecting that so great a revolution in nature
+must have left some historical vestiges, or traditions, I examined the
+matter over again, and found that the countries described, bore a strong
+resemblance to the Orkneys, Shetland, Faro, and Western Islands, &c. The
+Zenos having represented _Porland_ as composed of a cluster of small
+islands, I suspected the other names might likewise refer to collective
+groups. Thus _Estland_ appeared to resemble in name the Shetland, Zetland,
+or Hitland Islands; and on comparing the names of _Tolas, Broas, Iscant,
+Trans, Mimant, Dambre_, and _Bres_, with those of Yell, Zeal or Teal,
+Burray or Bura, of which name there are two places, West Bura, and East
+Bura, and when taken collectively the Buras, Unst, Tronda, Main-land,
+Hamer, which is the name of a place in the mainland of Orkney, and Brassa,
+or Bressa, the resemblance seemed so obvious, that I no longer harboured
+any doubt. The land of _Sorani_, which lay over against Scotland, naturally
+suggested the _Suderoe_, or southern islands of the Norwegians, now called
+the Western Islands or Hebrides. _Ledovo_ and _Ilofe_, are the Lewis and
+Islay. _Sanestol_, the cluster of islands named _Schants-oer. Bondendon_,
+Pondon, or Pondon-towny in Sky. _Frisland_, is Faira or _Fera_, also called
+Faras-land. _Grisland_ seems Grims-ay, an island to the North of Iceland:
+though I would prefer Enkhuysan to the eastwards of Iceland, but as that
+was probably nothing more than an island of ice, we are compelled to assume
+Grims-ay, _Engroneland_ is obviously Greenland. _Estoitland_ must have been
+_Winland_, the Newfoundland of the moderns; and the Latin books may have
+been carried there by bishop Eric of Greenland, who went to Winland in
+1121. _Drogio_ lay much farther south, and the people of _Florida_, when
+first discovered, had cities and temples, and possessed gold and silver.
+
+_Icaria_ with its king _Icarus_, could be no other than Ireland[2] and
+perhaps the name took its origin from Kerry; and as _Icarus_ was chosen for
+the name of its first king and lawgiver, his father must of course be
+_Dedalus_ who, in all probability, was some Scottish prince, having a name
+of a similar sound. _Neome_ I take to be Strom-oe, one of the Faro isles,
+_Porland_ probably meant the Far-oer, or Faro islands; as Far-oe, or Far-
+land, is easily transmuted into _Porland_.
+
+It is true that we find no such name as _Zicumni_ among the princes of the
+Orkneys. The race of the ancient earls of Orkney, descendants of Jarl
+Einar-Torf, becoming extinct, Magnus Smak, king of Norway, nominated, about
+1343, Erngisel Sunason Bot, a Swedish nobleman, to be Jarl or Earl of
+Orkney. In 1357 Malic Conda, or Mallis Sperre, claimed the earldom.
+Afterwards, in 1369, Henry Sinclair put in his claim, and was nominated
+earl in 1370, by King Hakon. In 1375, Hakon nominated Alexander Le-Ard to
+be earl for a year. But Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, and by a large sum
+procured the investiture from Hakon in 1379, and we know from history, that
+he remained earl in 1406, and was likewise possessed of Shetland. The name
+_Sinclair_, or _Siclair_, might easily to an Italian ear seem _Zichmni_;
+and as Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, who represented the king of Norway, it
+was no great impropriety to say that he had beaten the king of Norway.
+After these elucidations, there can be no reason left to doubt of the truth
+of this narrative of the Zenos which besides, as considered with relation
+to the geography of the north at that period, is of great importance
+--Forst.
+
+
+[1] Ramusio. Forst. Voy. and Disc, p. 158.
+
+[2] This is a most unlucky blunders as Icaria and Estoitland are obviously
+    one and the same place in the narrative of Marcclini, and therefore,
+    both must be America, or both Ireland, or both in nubibus.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION I
+
+_Narrative of Nicolo Zeno_.
+
+Nicolo Zeno, surnamed _il Cavaliere_, or the knight, had a strong desire to
+see distant countries, that he might become acquainted with the manners and
+languages of foreign nations, by which he might acquire credit and
+reputation, and might render himself the more useful to his country. Being
+a man of great property, he fitted out a ship with this view, at his own
+expence, in 1380, and sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar to the
+northwards, intending to visit England and Flanders. By a storm, which
+lasted many days, his ship was cast away on the coast of _Frislanda_[1].
+
+The vessel was entirely lost, but the crew got safe on shore, and part of
+the cargo was saved. Zeno and his people were soon attacked by the natives,
+attracted by the hopes of a rich plunder, against whom they were hardly
+able, in their weary and weather-beaten state, to defend themselves; but,
+fortunately for them, _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, the reigning prince or lord
+of _Porlanda_[2], who happened to be then in _Frislanda_, and heard of
+their shipwreck, came in all haste to their relief, of which they stood in
+great need. After discoursing with them for some time in Latin, he took
+them under his protection; and finding Nicolo Zeno very expert, both in
+naval and military affairs, he gave him, after some time, the post of
+admiral of his fleet, which Nicolo for some time refused, but at length
+accepted.
+
+Not long afterwards, Nicola wrote an account of these circumstances to his
+brother Antonio, inviting him to come to _Frislanda_; who accordingly soon
+arrived there, and lived four years along with Nicolo in that country; and
+remained ten years in the service of _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, the prince of
+that country, after the death of his brother Nicolo.
+
+Nicolo Zeno having been shipwrecked in 13SO, on the island of _Frislanda_,
+and saved by prince _Zichmni_ from the rude attacks of the natives, put
+himself and all his people under the protection of this prince, who was
+lord of certain islands lying to the south of _Frislanda_, which were
+called _Porlanda_, and were the most fertile and most populous of all the
+islands in those parts. _Zichmni_, or Sinclair, was besides this duke of
+_Sorany_[3], a place which lies on one side of Scotland. Of these northern
+parts, I, Antonio Zeno, have constructed a map, which hangs up in my house;
+and which, though it be much decayed by time, may serve to give some
+information to the curious.
+
+_Zichmni_ the lord of all these countries, was a man of great courages and
+famous for his skill in navigation. The year before the arrival of Nicolo
+Zeno, he had defeated the king of Norway in a pitched battle, and was now
+come with his forces to conquer _Frislandia_, which is much larger than
+Iceland. On account of the knowledge of Nicolo Zeno in maritime affairs,
+the prince took him and all his crew on board his fleet, and gave orders to
+his admiral to treat him with the highest respect, and to take his advice
+in every affair of importance.
+
+_Zichmni_ had a fleet consisting of thirteen vessels, two of which only
+were galleys, the rest being small barks, and only one of the whole was a
+ship[4]. With all these they sailed to the westward, and without much
+difficulty made themselves masters of _Ledovo_ and _Ilofe_[5], and several
+other smaller islands and turning into a bay called _Sudero_, in the haven
+of the town of _Sanestol_[6] they took several small barks laden with
+fish[7]; and here they found _Zichmni_ who came by land with his army,
+conquering all the country as he went. They stayed here but a short time,
+and then shaped their course to the westwards, till they came to the other
+cape of the gulf or bay, and here turning again, they found certain islands
+and broken lands, all of which they brought under subjection to _Zichmni_,
+or Sinclair. These seas were all full of shoals and rocks, insomuch that if
+Nicolo Zeno and the Venetian mariners had not acted as pilots, the whole
+feet, in the opinion of all who were in it, must have been lost; so small
+was the skill of their people in comparison with ours, who had been trained
+up in the art and practice of navigation from their childhood. After the
+proceedings already mentioned, the admiral, by the advice of Nicolo Zeno,
+determined to make for the shore, at a town called _Bondendon_[8], with a
+view to get intelligence of the success which _Zichmni_ had met with in the
+prosecution of the war on land. They here learned, to their great
+satisfaction, that he had fought a great battle, in which he had put the
+army of the enemy to flight; and in consequence of this intelligence, the
+inhabitants sent ambassadors from all parts of the island, agreeing to
+yield the country to his pleasure, and took down their flags and ensigns in
+every town and castle. It was therefore thought advisable to remain at
+_Bondendan_ for his arrival, as they had received reports that he would
+certainly be there in a short time. On his arrival there were great
+congratulations and rejoicings, as well for the victory obtained by land as
+for the success of the naval expedition; and the Venetians were much
+honoured and extolled for their skill, every tongue being loud in their
+praises, and Nicolo Zeno was much applauded for his prowess. The prince
+caused Nicolo to be brought into his presence, and bestowed high
+commendations for the skill he had exerted in saving the fleet, and for the
+great valour he had displayed in the taking of many towns, where indeed
+there was no great difficulty or opposition; in reward for which he
+bestowed upon him the honour of knighthood, and distributed rich and
+liberal presents among his followers. Departing from _Bondendon_, the fleet
+returned in triumph to _Frislanda_, the chief city of which is situated on
+the south-east side of the island within a gulf, of which there are many in
+that island. In this gulf or bay, there are such vast quantities of fish
+taken, that many ships are yearly laden thence to supply Flanders,
+Britannia[9], England, Scotland, Norway, and Denmark; and the produce of
+this fishing brings great riches into the country.
+
+The foregoing circumstances were contained in a letter sent by Nicolo Zeno
+to his brother Antonio, in which he invited him to come to _Frislanda_; and
+accordingly the latter set sail for this purpose, and, having surmounted
+many dangers, safely joined his brother in that far distant country.
+Antonio remained fourteen years in Frisland or Orkney; four years of that
+time along with his brother, and ten years alone after the death of Nicolo.
+The elder Zeno ingratiated himself so much into the favour of the prince,
+that he was appointed admiral of a fleet which was sent out upon an
+expedition against _Estland_[10], which lies between Frisland and Norway.
+The invaders committed great ravages in that country, but hearing that the
+king of Norway was coming against them with a considerable fleet, they
+departed in haste; and being assailed by a violent tempest, they were
+driven on certain shoals where a part of their ships were lost, and the
+remainder were saved upon _Grisfand_[11], a large but uninhabited island.
+The fleet of the king of Norway was overtaken by the same storm and mostly
+perished; of which _Zichmni_, who was personally engaged in this
+expedition, was apprized in consequence of one of the enemy's ships having
+likewise been forced to take refuge in _Grisland_. Finding himself driven
+so far to the north, and having repaired his ships, Zichmni now resolved to
+make an attack upon the island of Iceland, which was under the dominion of
+the king of Norway; but finding it too well fortified and defended for his
+small force, and reflecting that his diminished fleet was now in bad
+repair, he deemed it prudent to retire. In his way homewards, however, he
+made an attack upon the islands of _Estland_, of which there are seven in
+number. These are _Tolas_, Yeal or Zel; _Broas_, Brassa sound; _Iscant_,
+Unst or Vust; _Trans_, Trondra; _Mimant_, Mainland; _Danbert_[12]; and
+_Bres_, or Bressa; all of which he plundered, and built a fort in Bres,
+where he left Nicolo Zeno in the command, with a sufficient garrison and a
+few small barks, while he returned himself to Frisland. In the ensuing
+spring, Nicolo Zeno resolved to go out upon discoveries; and, having fitted
+out three small vessels, he set sail in July, shaping his course to the
+northwards, and arrived in _Engroveland_[13], where he found a monastery of
+predicant friars, and a church dedicated to St Thomas, hard by a mountain
+that threw out fire like Etna or Vesuvius.
+
+In this place there is a spring of boiling hot water, by means of which the
+monks heat their church, monastery, and cells. It is likewise brought info
+their kitchen, and is so hot that they use no fire for dressing their
+victuals; and by enclosing their bread in brass pots without any water, it
+is baked by means of this hot fountain as well as if an oven had been used
+for the purpose. The monks have also small gardens, covered over in winter,
+which being watered from the hot spring are effectually defended from the
+extreme cold and snow, which are so rigorous in this region so near the
+pole. By these means they produce flowers, and fruits, and different kinds
+of herbs, just as they grow in temperate climates; and the rude savages of
+those parts, from seeing these to them supernatural effects, take the
+friars for gods, and supply them with poultry, flesh[14], and various other
+things, reverencing the monks as their lords and rulers. When the frost and
+snow is considerable, the monks warm their apartments as before described,
+and by admitting the hot water, or opening their windows, they are able in
+an instant to produce such a temperature as they may require.
+
+In the buildings of their monastery they use no more materials than are
+presented to them by the before mentioned volcano. Taking the burning
+stones which are thrown from the crater, they throw them, while hot, into
+water, by which they are dissolved into excellent lime; which, when used in
+building, lasts forever. The same stones, when cold, serve to make their
+walls and vaults, as they cannot be broken or cut except with an iron
+instrument. The vaults which they build with these stones are so light as
+to require no props for supporting them[15]. On account of these great
+conveniences, the monks have constructed so many walls and buildings of
+different kinds, as is really wonderful to see. The coverings or roofs of
+their houses are constructed for the most part in the following manner:
+Having carried the wall to its full height, they make it to incline or bend
+in gradually till it form a regular vault. They are little incommoded with
+rain in this country; as the climate is so extremely cold, that the first
+snow that falls does not thaw for nine months.
+
+The monks live mostly on fish and wild fowl; for, in consequence of the
+boiling hot water running into a large and wide haven of the sea, that bay
+is kept from freezing, and there is so great a concourse of sea fowl and
+fish in that place, that they easily take as many of them as they can
+possibly have occasion for, with which they maintain a great number of
+people round about, whom they keep constantly employed either in building
+or in catching fish and fowls, and in a thousand other necessary
+occupations relative to the monastery. The houses of these natives are
+built on the hill near the monastery, of a round form, about twenty-five
+feet wide at the bottom, and growing gradually narrower as they go up, in a
+conical form, ending in a small hole at top, to admit light and air; and
+the floor of the house is so hot, that the inhabitants feel no cold within
+doors at any season. To this place many barks resort in summer from the
+neighbouring islands, from the cape above Norway, and from _Trondon_ or
+Drontheim, which bring to the fathers all kind of commodities and
+merchandize that they have occasion for; taking fish in exchange, dried
+either in the sun or by means of cold, and the furs of various animals. The
+commodities brought here for sale are, wood for fuel, wooden utensils, very
+ingeniously carved, corn, and cloth for making into garments. By these
+means the monks are plentifully supplied with every thing they need, in
+exchange for their furs and fish, which are in great request by all the
+neighbouring nations. Monks resort to this monastery from Norway and
+Sweden, and other countries; but principally from Iceland. It often happens
+that many barks are detained here ail the winter, by the sea becoming
+frozen over.
+
+The fishermens boats of this country are made in the form of a weavers
+shuttle, long and narrow, and pointed at each end; constructed of a light
+frame of fish bones, cased all over with the skins of fishes, sewed
+together in many doubles, and so tight and strong, that it is wonderful to
+see the people bind themselves fast within them during storms, and allow
+the winds and waves to drive them about, without fear of their boats
+splitting or of themselves being drowned. Even when they are driven against
+a rock, they remain sound and without hurt or damage. In the bottom of each
+boat there is a kind of sleeve or nose, tied fast in the middle by a
+string; and when any water gets into the boat, they let it run into the
+upper half, of the sleeve, which they then fasten with two pieces of wood,
+after which they loosen the under band, and squeeze the water out; and they
+repeat this operation as often as may be necessary with great facility, and
+without danger.
+
+The water, of the boiling spring, being sulphureous, is conveyed into the
+monastery, and the cells of the principal friars, by means of pipes made of
+copper, tin, or stone; and is so hot that it heats the apartments like a
+stove, without communicating any disagreeable or unwholesome stench. Their
+sweet water for drinking is conveyed in a subterraneous canal of masonry,
+into a great copper reservoir in the middle of the court of the convent;
+and this reservoir being contained within a larger bason supplied from the
+boiling, spring, is continually kept of a proper temperature, and prevented
+from freezing. This they use in the preparation of their victuals, for
+drinking, and for watering their gardens. Thus they derive much convenience
+and comfort from the adjoining volcano, and these good friars make it their
+chief study to keep their gardens in order, and to erect commodious and
+even elegant buildings. For this latter purpose they are in no want of good
+workmen and ingenious artizans, as they give good wages, so that there is a
+great resort of workmen and artizans of every denomination; they are
+likewise very bountiful to those who carry them fruits, and seeds, and
+other articles; and as great profits are to be made, and provisions are
+very cheap, there is a great resort of workmen and artists of every
+denomination, and of traders to this place. Most of these monks speak
+Latin, particularly the superiors and principals of the monastery.
+
+This is all that is known of _Engroveland_ or Greenland, from the relation
+of Nicolo Zeno, who gives likewise a particular description of a river that
+he discovered, as is to be seen in the map which I, Antonio Zeno, have
+drawn of all these countries. Not being able to bear the cold of these
+northern and inhospitable regions, Nicolo Zeno fell sick, and soon
+afterwards returned to Frisland, where he died. He left two sons behind
+him, John and Thomas; the latter of whom had likewise two sons, Nicolo, the
+father of the celebrated Cardinal Zeno, and Peter, from whom was descended
+the rest of the Zenos who are now living. After the death of Nicolo, his
+fortune, honours, and dignity, devolved upon his brother Antonio; and,
+though he made great supplications and entreaties for the purpose, he was
+not permitted to return to his native country; as Zichmni, who was a man of
+a high spirit and great valour, had resolved to make himself master of the
+sea, and for this purpose made use of the talents and advice of Antonio,
+and ordered him to go with a few barks to the westwards, because in the
+summer several islands had been discovered by some of the fishermen. Of
+this voyage and the discoveries which were made in consequence of it,
+Antonio gives an account in a letter to his brother Carlo, which we here
+give exactly as it was written, having only altered a few antiquated
+words[16].
+
+
+[1] Faira, or Fara, in the Orkneys, called Farras-land, and corrupted into
+    Feislanda or Frisland.--Forst.
+
+[2] Mr Forster is not happy in his explanation of this word, Porlanda or
+    Porland, which he endeavours to derive from Fara-land; precisely the
+    same with Fris-land from Faras-land, only dropping the genitive _s_.
+    Porland seems used as a general name of the earldom, perhaps connected
+    with the strange name Pomona, still used for mainland, the largest of
+    the Orkney islands. Frisland the particular Fara islands, or one of
+    them.--E.
+
+[3] Sorany or Sorani, of which Sinclair is said to have been duke or lord,
+    Mr Forster considers to have been the Sodor-oe, or southern islands of
+    the Norwegians, or those now called the Western Islands; and traces
+    the corruption from the Norwegian plural _Suder-oer_ contracted
+    _Soroer_, varied _Soroen_ and transmuted to _Sorani_. All this may be
+    possible; but it does not appear in Scots history that the Sinclairs
+    ever held the Western Islands, and certainly not at this period:
+    Sorani ought therefore to be looked for in Caithness; or it may
+    possibly refer to _Roslin_ near Edinburgh, which belonged to the
+    family of Sinclair.--E.
+
+[4] By this latter distinction, Zeno probably means a decked vessel.--E.
+
+[5] It is hardly possible to mention all the little islands, and the places
+    situated on the largest of the Orcadian Islands, which by the ancients
+    was called Pomona, and on account of its size, is likewise called
+    Mainland, also _Hross-ey_, i.e. _Gross-ey_, or large island. The town
+    was called _Kirkiu-og_ or the harbour near the church, now called by
+    the Scots, Kirkwall.--Forst.
+
+    In this note Mr Forster wanders from the subject in hand, and his
+    observations have no reference to the present expedition. _Ledovo_ is
+    probably the Island of Lewis, and _Ilofe_ may possibly be Hay, though
+    that conjecture would lead them too far to the south.--E.
+
+[6] _Sudero_, or _Suder-oe_, might mean the Western Islands so called by
+    the Norwegians; but certainly here means some bay of Sutherland, as
+    they here met the troops of Sinclair, who had marched by land. The
+    town of _Sanestol_ is quite inexplicable. Though Mr Forster supposes
+    it to have been the cluster of islands called Schant, or Shanti-oer,
+    which he thinks is here corrupted into Sanestol: But, if correct in
+    our opinion, that they must have been on the main land of Scotland,
+    his conjecture must be erroneous. These conquests could be nothing
+    more than predatory, incursions, strangely exaggerated.--E.
+
+[7] This is a very early mention of salted fish, yet within the lifetime of
+    William Beukels, the supposed inventor of the art of pickling herrings
+    who died in 1397. Professor Sprengel has shewn that herrings were
+    caught at _Gernemue_, or Yarmouth, so early as 1283. In Leland's
+    Collectanea we meet with a proof that pickled herrings were sold in
+    1273; and there are German records which speak of them so early as
+    1236. Vide Gerken, Cod. Diplom. Brandenb. I. 45. and II. 45l.--Forst.
+
+[8] This is certainly a place in the isle of Sky called Pondontown.--Forst.
+
+[9] Britannia in this place is assuredly put for Britany in France.--E.
+
+[10] Estland is probably meant for Shetland, formerly called Yaltaland or
+    Hitland, and afterwards changed into Zet-land and Shetland. This will
+    appear more distinctly in the sequel, when the names given by Zeno to
+    the particular islands of the group, come to be compared with, the
+    modern names.--Forst.
+
+[11] Grisland seems to be the island which lies to the eastward of Iceland,
+    called Enkhuyzen; perhaps the island of Grims-ey to the north, of
+    Iceland.--Forst.
+
+[12] Probably Hamer, a place on the north of Mainland.--Forst.
+
+[13] Engrgroneland, Groenland, or Greenland.--Forst.
+
+[14] The poultry here mentioned in the text; must have been ptarmagans and
+    the flesh that of the reindeer.--Forst.
+
+[15] The lime or mortar here described, appears to be the terra puzzuolana
+    or terras, a compound of lime and oxid of iron, which forms an
+    indestructible cement, even under water; and the remarkably light
+    stones ejected from the volcano, and used in the construction of their
+    vault, were probably of pumice.--E.
+
+[16] The greater part of this concluding paragraph must necessarily be in
+    the language of the editor; perhaps of Ramusio. It contains, however,
+    some palpable contradictions, since Nicolo Zeno could hardly be
+    supposed to mention the _rest_ of the Zenos, descendants of his
+    grand-nephew, while still living himself; neither does it appear how
+    the sons of Nicolo got back to Venice; and there is no account of
+    Antonio ever being allowed to return at all.--E
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Sequel of the Narrative by Antonio Zeno_.
+
+Twenty-six years ago, four fishing boats, which had been overtaken by a
+violent storm, were driven out to sea for a great many days; and on the
+cessation of the tempest, they discovered an island called _Estoitland_,
+which lay above a thousand miles to the westward of _Frisland_. One of the
+boats, containing six men, was cast away upon this island; and the men,
+being made prisoners by the inhabitants, were conducted to a fine and
+populous city where the king resided, who sent for various interpreters,
+but none could be found except one who spoke Latin. This man, who, in like
+manner, had been cast by accident on the same island, asked them, by order
+of the king, from what country they had come; and being made acquainted
+with their case, the king ordered that the should stay in the country.
+These orders they obeyed, as indeed they could not do otherwise, and they
+remained five years on the island, during which time they learned the
+language of the people. One of them was in various parts of the island, and
+affirms that it is a very rich country, abounding in every commodity and
+convenience in life, being little less than Iceland, but much more fertile,
+having a very high mountain in the centre, from whence four great rivers
+take their source, and traverse the whole country.
+
+The inhabitants are a very ingenious and sensible people, and have arts and
+handicrafts of every kind as we have; and it is highly probable that they
+formerly carried on some traffic with Europe, as this man says he saw Latin
+books in the kings library, but which at present they do not understand;
+for they have a language of their own, and peculiar letters or characters
+in which it is written. They trade with _Engroveland_ or Greenland, and get
+from thence furs, brimstone, and pitch. To the south of _Estoitland_ there
+is a very large and populous country, which abounds with gold. The people
+sow corn, and make the liquor called beer, which is drank by the people of
+the north as wine is among us in Italy. They have large and extensive
+woods; make their buildings with walls; and have a great number of towns
+and castles. They build ships and navigate the sea; but they have not the
+loadstone, and know nothing about the use of the compass; on which account
+these fishermen were held in high estimation, insomuch that the king sent
+them with twelve ships to the southward to a country called Drogio. In
+their voyage thither, they had such contrary winds and stormy weather that
+they thought to have foundered at sea; but escaping that death, they met
+with a fate still more dreadful, as they were made prisoners by the
+savages, who are cannibals, and most of them were devoured. But the
+Frisland fisherman and his companions, by teaching these barbarians the way
+to catch fish with nets, saved their lives. This man used to go every day
+to the sea or the rivers, in which he caught vast quantities of fish, which
+he gave away among the principal people of the country; by which means he
+got into such high favour that he was beloved and respected by every body.
+
+The fame of this man spread abroad through the whole country; and one of
+the lords, being very desirous to have him, that he might see and learn
+this new and wonderful art of catching fish, made war against the lord with
+whom he lived, and prevailing in consequence of his superior power and
+greater skill in war, the fisherman and his companions were given up to him
+as the price of peace. During thirteen years that he resided in these
+parts, he says that he was transferred in this manner to twenty-five
+different lords, as they were continually at war with each other to procure
+possession of him; so that by wandering about the country in this manner he
+became perfectly well acquainted with every part of it, He says that it is
+a very extensive country, and as it were a new world; but that the
+inhabitants are a rude unpolished people, without the enjoyment of any
+convenience of life; for, although they take or kill many wild animals in
+hunting, they have not the sense to make their skins into garments, but all
+go naked, and are miserably pinched with cold. They are besides extremely
+uncivilized and savage, continually engaged in wars against each other, in
+which they commit horrible ravages, and devour their prisoners. They know
+not the use of any metal, and live by the chase, being armed with spears of
+wood made sharp at the point, and use bows, the strings of which are made
+of slips of hide. They are divided into small tribes, each of which has its
+lord or governor, and the laws or customs of the several tribes differ much
+from each other. Farther to the southwest, however, the manners are more
+civilized in proportion to the increasing mildness of the climate; and
+there the people are not without some degree of knowledge, making use of
+gold and silver, and having cities and temples dedicated to idols, in which
+they offer up human sacrifices.
+
+After residing many years among this savage people, the principal fisherman
+became desirous of returning into his own country, but his companions being
+without hope of ever seeing it again, wished him prosperity in his attempt,
+and resolved to remain where they were. Bidding them farewell, he fled
+through the woods, in the direction which led towards _Drogio_, and was
+received with great kindness by one of the lords of that country who knew,
+him, and who was a determined enemy to the lord from whence he had escaped.
+Thus passing from one lord to another, with all of whom he was well
+acquainted, as he had formerly resided with them all, he at length, and
+with great difficulty, arrived in Drogio, where he stayed three years. Then
+fortunately hearing that some small vessel had arrived on the coast, he
+went thither, and learned, to his unspeakable satisfaction, that they were
+from _Estoitland_. Upon this, he earnestly requested to be taken on board,
+which they did very willingly; and as he understood the language of the
+country, which the others did not, he became their interpreter. He
+afterwards made repeated voyages from _Estoitland_ to _Drogio_ and acquired
+great riches. After which, he equipped a bark of his own, in which he
+returned to _Frisland_ where he made a report to his lord of all that had
+befallen him, and of the discovery he had made of an extensive and wealthy
+country.
+
+As this strange and marvellous story was confirmed by the testimony of the
+sailors he had brought along with him, it gained full credit; and
+accordingly Zichmni determined to send me, Antonio Zeno, with a fleet into
+these parts; and so great was the desire among the people to embark in this
+expedition, that our fleet was well manned and equipped without expence to
+the public. I accordingly set sail with a great number of ships and men,
+but not commander in chief as I expected, for Zichmni went in person on the
+expedition. Our great preparation for the voyage to _Estoitland_ began in
+an unlucky hour as, three days before our departure, the fisherman died who
+was to have been our guide; yet Zichmni would not give up the enterprise,
+but took for, his guides several of the sailors who had returned with the
+fisherman from _Estoitland_. Shaping our course to the westwards, we passed
+several islands subject to _Frisland_, and arrived at _Ledovo_, or the
+Lewis, where we staid a week to refresh ourselves, and to provide the fleet
+with necessaries. Departing thence, we arrived on the first of July off the
+island of _Ilofe_, or Islay; and the wind being favourable, did not stop
+there but stood on our voyage. Not long afterwards, being in the main sea,
+we were overtaken by a dreadful tempest, which tossed us to and fro, at the
+mercy of the winds and waves for eight days, so that we knew not
+whereabouts we were. By the violence of this tempest, we lost many of our
+vessels, but after the return of good weather, we collected the remains of
+our shattered fleet, and having a fair wind, we stood on to the westwards,
+and at length descried the coast of _Estoitland_, and arrived in a good and
+safe harbour. Here we saw an infinite number of armed men running furiously
+towards the shore, apparently for the purpose of defending the island. Upon
+this, Zichmni commanded signs of peace to be made, and the islanders sent
+ten men to us who could speak ten different languages; but we could
+understand none of these, excepting one man who happened to be an
+Icelander. This man was brought to our prince, and gave the following
+account of the country; and people.
+
+The land was called _Icarta_, and all its kings were named _Icarus_, after
+the name, of its first king, who was the son of _Daedalus_ king of
+Scotland. This _Daedalus_ had discovered and conquered the island, and
+after instituting the body of laws by which they are still governed, had
+left them his son to be their king. After this, _Daedalus_[1] sailed in
+quest of farther discoveries, but was overtaken by a violent storm and
+drowned. In memory of which, they named their island Icaria, the sea
+surrounding it the _Icarian_ sea, and all their successive kings _Icarus_.
+He stated, moreover, that they were perfectly contented with the state in
+which they had been placed by Providence, and not choosing to make the
+smallest change in their manners and customs, would admit no strangers into
+their land; and therefore requested the prince not to attempt violating the
+laws of their king, of glorious memory, as any such attempt would turn to
+his manifest destruction, since they were resolved to sacrifice their lives
+in defence of their laws. They were willing, however, to receive _one_ of
+our men, who should be advanced to the rank of a chief, on purpose to learn
+our language; having already received _ten_ different men with that view
+from ten different nations.
+
+Upon this _Zichmni_ sailed from the harbour, as if meaning to go away from
+the island; but being in want of wood and water, he skirted along the coast
+at some distance, and put into another harbour on the eastern side of the
+island with all his fleet. Here the mariners went on shore, and procured
+the necessary supplies with all possible speed, lest they might be attacked
+by the natives. This precaution was by no means unnecessary, for the
+inhabitants near this harbour made signals by fire and smoke to the rest of
+the country; and taking to their arms, were soon joined by others, and came
+down upon our men with bows and arrows, and other weapons, and in the
+conflict, many of them were killed, and others dangerously wounded[2]. We
+were therefore obliged to depart, and made a large circuit round the
+island, always accompanied on the shore and on the hills by a vast number
+of armed men to oppose our landing. Seeing that nothing could be done here,
+Zichmni set sail to the eastwards with a fair wind; and after six days
+sail, we came in sight of land, which we found to be a very good country,
+with an excellent harbour. We descried a mountain at a considerable
+distance, which emitted smoke, and Zichmni sent an hundred soldiers to
+explore the country, and to inquire if it were inhabited. In the meantime,
+we took in wood and water, and caught vast quantities of fish and sea-fowl,
+and procured immense numbers of eggs; so that our people, before almost
+famished, had now more provisions than they could eat. To this harbour, we
+gave the name of port _Trin_, and the point that stretched out into the sea
+was named Cape _Trin_. The soldiers who had been sent out to examine the
+country, returned at the end of eight days, and reported they had been all
+through the island, quite to the smoking mountain, and that the smoke we
+saw proceeded from a fire at its bottom, where there was a spring of liquid
+pitch which ran into the sea. They said likewise, that the interior of the
+island was inhabited by a wild people, who were very short in stature, and
+timid, and hid themselves in, caves.
+
+On receiving this piece of intelligence, and considering that the island
+was blest with a pure and wholesome air, good soil, fine rivers, and many
+other advantages, Ziehmni resolved to people it and to build a town at Port
+Trin, and took, great pains to discover the whole of it, and to explore the
+seas on both sides of _Engroveland_, or Greenland. But many of his people
+began to murmur, being quite wearied with so tedious a voyage, alleging,
+that as the winter was fast approaching, they should not be able to return
+home before the ensuing summer, if they made any longer delay. On this
+account, retaining only the row-boats, and as many men as were willing to
+stay with him. Zichmni sent away all the rest of the people with the ships,
+giving the command to me, Antonio Zeno, much against my will. Taking
+therefore our departure, we sailed twenty days to the eastwards, without
+seeing any land; on which we shifted our course to the south-east, and
+after five days, we came in sight of the island of Neome[3], so that we
+passed Iceland without seeing it. We here procured refreshments from the
+inhabitants, who were subject to Zichmni, and sailed thence in three days
+to _Frisland_, where we were received with great joy, as the people
+thought, in consequence of our long absence, that their prince and the
+whole armament had been lost.
+
+As to the particulars concerning the people and their customs, the animate,
+and the productions of these countries, I have written all these in a
+separate book, in which I have described the country, and the wonderful
+fishes of _Frisland, Estland_, Norway, _Estoitland, Drogio, Icaria_, and
+_Engroveland_, on both its sides. I have composed likewise, the life of my
+brother Nicolo Zeno, with an account of his discoveries; and a history of
+the life and acts of _Zichmni_, a prince as worthy of immortal fame as any
+that ever lived, having been famous for his valour, enterprising spirit,
+and humanity.
+
+
+[1] Or Icarus, for the language in Forster is ambiguous, and does not
+    clearly fix this important historical fact!--E.
+
+[2] The expression is here so equivocal as to leave in doubt whether the
+    killed and wounded were _Icarians_ or _Frislanders_, or part of
+    both.--E.
+
+[3] _Neome_ seems to be the isle or Stromoe, one of the Faro Islands; as it
+    is in fact to the southward of Iceland, and only three days sail from
+    the Orkneys, the Faras-islands, or _Frisland_ of this author.--Forst.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XVI.
+
+_Travels of John Schildtberger into Tartary, in 1394_[1].
+
+
+John Schildtberger, a native of Munich in Bavaria, went with the army of
+King Sigismund of Hungary, against the Turks in 1394. In 1395, being taken
+prisoner, he was sent by Bajazet, whose name he always writes _Weyasit_,
+into Asia. In the great battle, in which Bajazet was defeated, and taken
+captive by Timur, Schildtberger was again made prisoner, and accompanied
+that conqueror in all his expeditions, till his death in 1405, at Otrar or
+Farab, though Schildtberger says that he died in his capital of Samarcand.
+After the death of Timur, he entered into the service of Shah-Rokh, and was
+left by that prince among the auxiliary troops, which assisted his brother
+Miran-Shah against Kara-Joseph, a Turkomanian emir of the black-weather
+tribe. Miran-shah having been made prisoner and beheaded by Kara-Joseph,
+Schildtberger followed the standards of Abubekr, the son of Miran-shah.
+
+At this time, there lived in the court of Abubekr, a prince named Zegra, a
+son of the khan of Great Tartary, to whom Ideku[2] sent word that he would
+resign to him the sovereignty of Kiptschak. Zegra accordingly set out for
+Great Tartary, accompanied by Schildtberger, and four others. Their route
+lay through _Strana_[3], which produces good silk; then through _Gursey_,
+Gurghia, or Georgia, which is inhabited by Christians; after this, through
+the country of, _Lahinsham_[4], where silk is cultivated; and through
+_Schurban_, or Shirvan, where the silk is produced from which the silk
+stuffs of Damascus and _Kaffer_[5] are made. They next passed through
+_Bursa_[6], which is situated in Turkey, and from whence the fine silk, of
+which velvet is manufactured, is sent to Venice and Lucca: This is an
+unhealthy country. Their route next lay through _Temur-capit_, Demir-Kapi
+or, Derbent, which signifies, in the Tartarian language, the Iron-gate, and
+which separates Persia from Tartary. They then went through a town of great
+strength, called _Origens_[7], situated in the middle of the _Edil_. After
+this, their way was through the mountainous country of Setzalet, in which
+there are many Christians, who have a bishop and some Carthusian monks, who
+perform the service in the Tartarian language, that the common people may
+understand what is sung and read. They were now arrived in Great Tartary,
+at the camp of Ideku, who had just assembled all his forces and was going
+to march into the land of _Ibissibur_[8]. In this expedition, they employed
+two months of continual marching; in the course of which, they crossed a
+range of mountains, thirty-two days journey in length, and at their
+extremity, there is a desert, which is the end of the world[9]; which
+desert is uninhabitable from the number of reptiles and wild beasts with
+which it is infested. These mountains are inhabited by roaming savages, who
+are hairy all over, except their faces and hands[10], and who subsist on
+green leaves and roots, or whatever they can procure. In this country,
+also, there, are wild asses as large as horses. The inhabitants employ
+dogs, as large as asses, to draw carts and sledges, and some times feed
+upon them. They are Christians, and they bury, their young people who die
+in celibacy, with music and rejoicing, eating and drinking at their graves.
+In this country they cultivate nothing but beans, and they eat no bread.
+Having made a conquest of _Bissibur_, they marched into. _Walor_[11], which
+they also conquered, and then returned into Kiptschak.
+
+At this period, there was a high officer of state among the Tartars, called
+Obmann, who had usurped the power of nominating and deposing the khan, and
+to whom all the lords or chiefs were subservient. This anomalous dignity
+was now held by Ideku; who, as has been already mentioned, had invited
+Zegra to accept the dignity of khan. This Ideku, with the khan, all the
+nobility, and the whole people, wandered continually up and down the
+country, with their wives and children, their cattle, and whole property,
+to the number of about 100,000 people, having no fixed abodes, but dwelling
+in moveable huts, at all seasons of the year. At this time there was a king
+in Tartary, named _Schudicho chey_ or _Kom_, or Schadibeck-knan, the son of
+Timur-Utluck, grandson of Timur-melik-aglen, and great-grandson of Urus-
+Khan, This Schadibeck reigned from 1401 to 1406. Immediately on hearing
+that Ideku was approaching, he took to flight; but was pursued, and killed
+in a skirmish. Ideku appointed _Polat_ or Pulad-khan, the son[12] of
+Schadibeck, to be his successor, who reigned a year and a half, between
+1406 and 1408. After him _Segel-Aladie_, or Zedy-khan, the son of
+_Tokatmysch_ or Toktemysch-khan, got possession of the throne; but he was
+soon expelled by Timur-Khan, the son of Timur-Uduck, and brother of Pulad-
+Khan, who reified fourteen months. Thebak, the brother of Pulad-khan, took
+the field against Timur-khan, and killed him, but was unable to attain the
+sovereignty, as his brother Kerunhardin ascended the throne, which he only
+held for five months. Thebak again endeavoured to dispossess his brother
+Kerunhardin, but was unable to effectuate his purpose; for at this
+juncture, Ideku interposed, and conferred the sovereignty on Zegra, in the
+room of both. Zegra, however, continued khan only for nine months, when
+Mohammed-khan, son of the before-mentioned Timur-khan, and grandson of
+Timur Utluck, gained a pitched battle against Ideku and Zegra, in which
+Ideku was made prisoner, and Zegra fled into a country called
+Descht-Kiptscha. Mohammed was in his turn driven from the throne by Waroch;
+from whom Mohammed soon after retook his dominions. He was again driven out
+by Doblaberd, who only kept possession for three days, when he was in his
+turn dethroned by Waroch. He again was soon afterwards slain by Mohammed,
+who a third time attained the sovereign power. After these repeated
+revolutions, Zegra made ah unsuccessful attempt to recover the throne, in
+which enterprize he lost his life.
+
+On the death of Zegra, Schildtberger, and the other four Christians who had
+been in his service, attached themselves to Manustzusch, who had been
+counsellor to that prince. This person went upon a journey to Kaffa in the
+Crimea, where six different religions are professed among the mixed
+inhabitants of that peninsula, a part of whom are Christians; After a
+residence there of five months, Manustzusch crossed the straits of Zabake
+in the country called _Zeckchas_ or Zikchia, where he sojourned for six
+months. But the sultan of Turkey sent a message to the sovereign of that
+country, requesting that Manustzusch might not be allowed to remain there
+any longer; and upon this he removed into the land of _Magrill_[13].
+
+Schildtberger and his Christian companions, reflecting that they were now
+only three days journey from the Black Sea, formed a resolution to
+endeavour to return into their own country. With this view, having taken
+leave of Manustzusch, they went, to the capital of the country of
+_Bathan_[14] whence they requested to be conveyed across into Christendom,
+but were refused. Upon this they rode four days journey along the coast,
+when at length they espied a ship at about eight Italian miles from the
+shore. They made signals to the people on board by means of fire, and a
+boat was sent to inquire their purpose; and having convinced the boats crew
+that they, were Christians, by rehearsing the Lords prayer, Ave Maria, and
+creed, and these people having reported an account of them to the captain,
+of the ship, boats were sent back to bring them, on board. Having escaped
+many dangers, they landed at Constantinople, where they were well received
+by John Palaeologus, the Grecian emperor, who: sent them by sea to the
+castle of Kilia, at the mouth of the Danube. Schildtberger here parted from
+his companions, and went with some merchants to Akkerman[15] in Wallachia.
+From thence he went to _Sedhof_ Sutschawa the capital of Moldavia, or the
+lesser Walachia. Hence to _Lubick_ called otherwise Lwow or Lemberg, the
+capital of White Russia, where he was detained by illness for three months.
+From that place he went to Cracow, the capital of Poland; and by Breslau in
+Silesia, Misnia, Eger, Ratisbon, and Freysingen, back to Munich, having
+been absent for more than thirty-two years.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. 158.
+
+[2] About this period, many abuses subsisted among the Golden Tribe on the
+    Wolga. Mamay and Ideku, or Yedeghey-khan, called Edigi by
+    Schildtberger, had not the title of great khan of the Golden Tribe in
+    Kiptschak, but held in fact the supreme power in their hands, and set
+    up khans from among the royal family, or deposed them at their
+    pleasure.--Forst
+
+[3] The names are much disfigured, and the commencement of the journey is
+    not mentioned; but, from the course afterwards, this may be some
+    corruption for Armenia, or one of its districts.--E.
+
+[4] Perhaps a corruption for Daghistan.--E.
+
+[5] Perhaps Kahira, or Cairo.--E.
+
+[6] Schildtberger, or his transcriber, calls this the town of Bursa, by
+    mistake for the mountain of Al-Burs.--Forst.
+
+[7] Probably Agrachan; as both Astracan and Saray had been demolished by
+    Timur. As to his saying that it stood in the middle of the Edil,
+    Etilia, or Wolga, that may be a mistake; but at any rate, Edil
+    signifies any river whatever.--Forst.
+
+[8] Bissibur or Issibur, is the ancient Russian town of Isborsk.--Forst. It
+    would appear that the present expedition was into Siber, or Siberia
+    --E.
+
+[9] This appears to refer to the Uralian chain, and the frozen regions of
+    the north of Russia.--E.
+
+[10] A mistake, by confounding close-made dresses of fur with the notion of
+    naked men, covered all over with shaggy hair.--E.
+
+[11] Probably Wolgar, Bulgar, or Bulgaria, is here meant.--E
+
+[12] From the sequel he appears rather to have been his brother.--E.
+
+[13] This is probably a corruption for Mangrill, or Mingrelia.--E.
+
+[14] Forster explains this by substituting the names of Bebian and Bedias
+    as synonymous. No such name occurs in our best maps; but there is a
+    place near the country of Mingrelia in Guria on the Black-Sea, named
+    Batum, which may be here indicated--E.
+
+[15] This place is called in the text Weisseburgh, signifying the White
+    Town, otherwise named Akkerman or Akkiermann, Asprecastro,
+    Tschetatalba, and Belgorod.--Forst.
+
+    From the concluding sentence, Schildtberger, who began his travels,
+    or rather captivity in 1394, must have returned to Munich about 1426
+    or 1427--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XVII.
+
+_Travels of the Ambassadors of Mirza Shah Rokh, King of Persia, from Herat
+to Khanbalek in Katkay, in 1419_[1].
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+This curious embassy, sent by Mirza Shah Rokh one of the sons of Timur, or
+Timour the Great, better known in Europe by the name of Tamerlane,
+travelled from Herat, in Persia, the residence of their sovereign, to
+Khanbalek, Cambalu, or Peking, the imperial city of Kathay, Khatay, Kitay,
+or Northern China, where Yong-lo, or Ching-tsu, the third emperor of the
+race of Ming then kept his court. Yong-lo began to reign, in 1404, and died
+in 1425, the year in which the ambassadors returned to Persia, the race of
+Ming, a Chinese dynasty, was founded in 1368, fifty-one years before the
+present embassy, by Hoang-vu, who had expelled the Mongol khans, the
+degenerate and enervated descendants of Gingis or Zengis. This journey was
+described by the famous Persian historian, Emir-Khond, or Emir-Khovand,
+usually known by the name of Mirchond, in his performance, entitled, "Of
+the Wonders of the World." Nicolas Witsen[2], a learned burgomaster of
+Amsterdam, has inserted this curious journey, in his curious work, "Of
+North and East Tartary," Having translated it for that purpose from the
+Persian into Dutch. The singularly excellent work of Witsen is extremely
+rare, and very seldom to be met with, as the author suppressed the work,
+from motives which are now unknown. The library of the university of
+Goettingen; formerly possessed a copy, which had belonged to the library of
+the Empress of Russia, and which was purchased at the sale of the effects
+of the late Mr Thunnman for eighty-six dollars. These travels are contained
+in the fourth volume of the French collection by Thevenot; who says that it
+was written in Persian, in twelve pages, without notes or explanation. He
+makes no mention of the translator, but probably borrowed the article from
+Witsen, without acknowledgment. The present edition is taken from Astleys
+collection, and is enriched by several notes and elucidations, by Mr John
+Reinhold Forster; who, while he regrets the scarcity of Witsens valuable
+work in Dutch, forgets to inform us of the existence of this tract in
+Thevenot, or in the collection of Astley. This journey throws some light on
+the interior part of Tartary, or Central Asia; and is therefore an
+important addition to our scanty knowledge of that little known and
+interesting country, the real storehouse of nations, and the scourge,
+during many centuries, of all the surrounding countries, from the sea of
+Japan to the Baltic, and from the Frozen Ocean, to the seas of China,
+India, Persia, Arabia, and Roum, or the Mediterranean.
+
+The present edition has been carefully corrected and enlarged, by collation
+with the abstract which Forster published from the Dutch translation by
+Witsen. This journal gives many curious remarks on the magnificence of the
+Chinese court, and respecting the ceremonial observed in giving audience to
+ambassadors, which still continue nearly the same. The editor of Astley
+labours hard to explain away the want of notice In these travels, and in
+the repeated journeys of Marco Polo, respecting the great Chinese wall. But
+the only rational explanation of this omission, is the clear conclusion
+that it was not then built. We learn from this narrative, that the paper
+money of the former Mogul Khans of Kathay was no longer in use, and that
+silver money, under the same denomination of Balishes, had been substituted
+in its place.
+
+
+[1] Astley IV. 621. Forst. Voy. and Disc. 158.
+
+[2] I suspect this learned Dutchman has been sometimes quoted in Latin, by
+    the name of Candidius.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_The Journey of the Ambassadors from Herat to Khanbalek, and their
+reception at the Court of the Emperor of Kathay_.
+
+In the year of the Hejirah 822, or 1419 of the Christian era, the Sultan
+Mirza Shah Rokh, king of Persia, sent ambassadors from Herat, his royal
+residence, to the emperor of Kathay, or China, of whom Shadi Khoja was the
+chief. At the same time, Mirza Baysangar, the son of Shah Rokh, sent Soltan
+Ahmet, and a painter named Khoja Gayath Addin, to accompany his fathers
+ambassadors, giving orders to his servants to keep an exact journal of
+their travels, and to take notice of every thing that was remarkable in
+every city and country they travelled through; carefully noting the nature
+of the roads, the police, and customs of the people, and the magnificence
+and government of the various sovereigns. Leaving Herat[1] on the 11th of
+the month Zi'lkaa-deh[2], the ambassadors arrived at Balkh on the 8th of
+Zi'lhejjeh, where they were detained by the rains till the first of
+Moharram, in the year 823 of the Hejira[3], or Thursday, 16th January 1420;
+on which day they departed from Balkh, and arrived in twenty-two days
+journey at Samarkand. They here found Soltan Shars, and Mehemmed Bakhshi,
+the ambassadors of Ulug-Beg[4], who had been sent to accompany them,
+together with all his Kathayans: And the ambassadors of Khorassan,
+Badakshan, and from other princes, having here joined company, they all set
+out together with those of Kathay[5].
+
+Having passed through the cities of Tashkend, Sayram, and Ash[6], they
+entered into the country of the Mongols[7] on the eleventh of _Rabiya-al-
+akher_, and learnt that the _horde_ was in great confusion, Awis-khan being
+at war with Shir Mehemmed Aglan. These disturbances being settled, Amir
+Khudadad, who commanded in that country, came to inform them, that the
+ambassadors might proceed safely on their journey. On the 18th of Jomada-
+al-awal, they came to a place named Bilgotu[8], on the territories of
+Mehemmed-Beg, where they waited for the Dajis[9], and the retinue of the
+Shah of Badakshan. After their arrival, they passed the river _Kenker_[10]
+on the twenty-second of Jomada-al-awal, and next day, they saw Mehemmed-
+Beg, prince of that horde, whose son, Soltan Shadi Karkan[11], was son-in-
+law to Shah Rokh, and a daughter of that prince had married Mirza Mehemmed
+Juki[12]. On the twenty-eighth of the before named month, they entered the
+country of Ilduz[13], which was occupied by the tribe of Jel, and under the
+dominion of Shir Behram, or Scheir Begrahim; and though the sun was then in
+the summer solstice, they were often astonished to find ice two inches
+thick in this vast desert. On the eighth of Jomada-al-akher, they were
+alarmed, by receiving, news that the son of Ahmed Beg had plundered the
+Daji, who was ambassador from Awis, or Oweys Khan; and they made every
+possible haste to pass through the defiles of the mountains,
+notwithstanding of much hail and rain falling at the time. At the end or
+the month, they arrived at Tarkan[14], where there is a great temple, with
+a huge idol, which the idolatrous inhabitants say is the image of
+Shakmonni, or Shamku. Departing from thence on the second of Rajeb, they
+came on the fifth to Karakoja.[l5] And certain Kathayans came here on the
+tenth, who took a list of the names of the ambassadors and all their
+retinue. On the nineteenth they arrived at the town of Ata-Sufi, where Kha
+Zadeh Taj'oddin resided, a person descended from the prophet, originally of
+the city of Tormul, and son-in-law to Amir Fakr'oddin, chief of the Moslems
+in Kabul[16].
+
+On the twenty-second of Rajeb they arrived at Kabul[17], in which place
+Amir Fakr'oddin had built a fine mosque; near which was a temple of the
+idolaters, set round with images, and strange figures of various sizes, and
+at the doors there were two gigantic statues that seemed to fight. Mengli
+Timur Bayri, a handsome young man, was governor of this city. Departing
+thence on the twenty-fifth of Rajeb, they entered on the desert of Noman
+Cobi, where they only found water once in two days; and on the twelfth of
+Shaaban, they saw lions, oxen, and other wild beasts; the oxen, named Gau
+Kottahs, are very large and strong, insomuch that they are able to toss a
+man and horse into the air. Their tails are remarkably long and hairy, and
+are in great estimation all over the East, where they are often carried on
+long poles, by way of ornament, and are likewise much employed for driving
+away flies. On the fourteenth, they arrived at a place within twelve stages
+of Sekju[18], the first city in Kathay. From this time, the Kathayans came
+daily to meet them, erecting tents or huts, adorned with green boughs, in
+the desert for their accommodation, and plentifully supplied their tables
+with fowls, and various kinds of flesh, fruits, fresh and dried, and other
+victuals, all served on porcelain or china dishes, besides several kinds of
+strong liquors; and henceforwards they were as splendidly regaled in the
+desert as they afterwards were in the cities of Kathay. According to the
+list taken by the Kathayans, Amir Shadi Khoja, and Gaksheh, had 200 persons
+in their retinue; Soltan Ahmed and Gayath-addin, 500; Argdak, sixty;
+Ardvan, fifty; and Taj'oddin, fifty; in all 860 persons; among whom were
+many merchants, who were passed as belonging to the retinue of the
+ambassadors, and who were, afterwards under the necessity of performing the
+services which fell to their lot, according to the register. In taking this
+list, the Kathayan officers made them swear that there were no other
+persons besides those named, and informed them that they would be despised
+if they did not tell the truth.
+
+It is remarkable, that among the many viands and liquors supplied to them,
+in the before-mentioned entertainment, there was a pot of Chinese _tea_,
+which the Jesuit Trigault imagined had only come into use in China of late
+years. Tea is called _Tscha_ by the Chinese, and its use is very ancient,
+as the earlier of the two Mahometan travellers, who wrote in 851 and 867,
+mention the use, by the Chinese in that early period, of the infusion of
+the leaves of a shrub called _sah_ or _tsha_. Even at that time, the use of
+tea must have become an article of constant and extensive consumption in
+China, as the emperor derived a large revenue from the tax on that
+article[19].
+
+On the sixteenth of the month Shaaban, they were informed that the Dankji,
+governor of the borders of Kathay, intended to entertain them that day with
+an imperial feast; and on their arrival at his encampment, they found a
+square arpent[20] of ground inclosed with tents, the cords of which,
+fastened to pegs in the ground, were so interlaced together that there was
+no entrance into the inclosure but by four gates, which were left on
+purpose. In the midst of this place, they had erected a great and very high
+awning of cloth, supported on wooden pillars; at one end of which was an
+imperial canopy of state, erected on two richly varnished pillars, between
+which stood a great chair of state as if for the emperor, and other seats
+on both sides. The ambassadors were placed on the left hand of the imperial
+throne, arid the Kathayan officers on the right. Before each ambassador
+there were two tables, one of which was covered with various meats and
+fruits, and the other with cakes and delicate bread, ornamented with
+festoons of silk and paper. The other persons present had only one table to
+each. At the opposite end of this great banqueting tent, there stood a
+buffet or side-board, full of vessels of china and of silver, for serving
+the liquors. During the entertainment, they were regaled by a band of
+music, and a number of young persons, in strange dresses, performed various
+tricks for their amusement. They were likewise much amused by the
+performance of a comedy, the actors of which wore masks representing the
+faces of animals; and a child, inclosed in the body of an artificial stork,
+walked about and performed a variety of surprising motions. In short,
+nothing could be more magnificent.
+
+Next day, being the seventeenth of Shaaban, they continued their journey
+through the desert, and arrived in a few days at a karaul[21] or strong
+fortress, in the mountains, which is built across the road in a pass or
+defile, so that travellers must necessarily enter by one gate and pass
+through the other. Here the ambassadors and all the members of their
+retinues were carefully numbered, and a new list made of all their names.
+From the karaul they went to Sekju or So-chew[22], where they were lodged
+in a large public building over the gate of the city; in which, as in all
+their other lodgings, they were amply provided with every necessary and
+convenience, as provisions, beds, and horses; and even the servants had
+mattresses and coverlets allowed for their beds. So-chew is a large and
+strong city, quite square, in the entrance into Kathay. It has sixteen
+market places, each fifty cubits square, which are always kept clean. In
+these there are several covered halls or galleries, having shops on both
+sides; and a handsome hall of entrance, adorned with pictures. There are
+hogs kept in every house, and the butchers hang their pork in the shambles
+along with the mutton[23]. The city wall is flanked with towers at every
+twenty paces distance; and there is a gate in the middle of each side, from
+each of which one may see the opposite gate, as the streets pass straight
+through the middle of the city, dividing it into four quarters. Over each
+gate there is a pavilion of two stories, the roof of which is tiled with
+porcelain, and is shaped like an asses back, or penthouse, according to the
+fashion of Kathay, which is likewise followed in Mazanderan. Each of the
+temples in this place occupy nearly ten arpents of ground, and all are very
+neat, with their brick pavements polished like glass. At the gates there
+stand a number of fine youths, who, after regaling strangers, show them the
+temples.
+
+From So-chew it is ninety-five days journey to Cambalu, or Khanbalek, where
+the emperor resides, the whole way leading, through a populous country,
+insomuch that travellers always lodge at night in a large town. Throughout
+the whole way there are many structures named Kargu, and Kidifu. The former
+are a species of corps-de-garde, which are sixty cubits high, and are built
+within sight of each other, having always persons on guard, who are
+relieved every ten days. These are intended to communicate alarms speedily
+to the seat of government, which they do by means of fires; and
+intelligence can be sent, in this manner, in the space of a day and a
+night, from the distance of three months journey[24]. The Kidifus are a
+kind of post-houses, which are built at ten _merres_[25] from each other,
+having fixed establishments of people, with houses to live in, and ground
+to cultivate for their support; and all letters to the imperial city are
+sent by couriers from one to another. From Sakju, or So-chew, to Kamju[26],
+there are nine stages or days journey, and the dankji who resides in
+Kan-chew is superior to all the other governors on the frontiers. At each
+stage the ambassadors were furnished with 450 horses, mules, and asses, and
+fifty-six chariots or waggons. The servants who tended the horses were
+called _Ba-fu_; the muleteers, who had charge of the mules and the
+asses,_Lu-fu_; and the men who drew the chariots, _Jip-fu_. These chariots
+were each drawn by twelve young men with cords on their shoulders, and they
+dragged through all difficulties from one lodging to another, the _Ba-fu_
+always running before as guides. At all the lodging places, where the
+ambassadors and their retinue stopped nightly, provisions were always found
+in abundance. At every city the ambassadors were feasted in a hall set
+apart for that special purpose, called _Rasun_, in each of which there
+stood an imperial throne under a canopy, with curtains at the sides, the
+throne always facing towards the capital of the empire. At the foot of the
+throne there always was a great carpet, on which the ambassadors sat,
+having their people ranked in regular rows behind them, like the Moslems at
+their prayers. When all were properly arranged, a guard beside the throne
+gave a signal, by calling out aloud three times; on which all the Kathayan
+officers bowed their heads to the ground towards the throne, and obliged
+the ambassadors to make a similar reverence; after which every one sate
+down to his appointed table.
+
+On the twenty-fifth of Ramazan, the dankji, or governor of Kan-chew invited
+the ambassadors to a feast, intimating that they were to consider it as a
+banquet given them by the emperor; but as it was the fast of the Moslems,
+the ambassadors sent an apology, yet he sent them all the victuals which
+had been prepared for the entertainment. In Kanchew they saw a temple, each
+side of which extended 500 _kes_ or cubits, having in the middle of it an
+idol fifty feet in length, lying as if asleep. The hands and feet of this
+gigantic idol were nine feet long, and the head was twenty-one feet round.
+There were numbers of smaller idols, each a cubit high, behind this large
+one and above his head, in such natural attitudes that they seemed alive.
+The great idol was gilt all over, having one hand under his head, and the
+other stretched down along his thigh.  This idol was called _Samonifu_, and
+vast numbers of people were constantly prostrating themselves before him.
+The walls were also adorned with many figures. All round the great temple,
+there were numerous small temples, like the chambers in caravanseras,
+having curtains of tapestry or brocade, gilded easy chairs and stools,
+chandeliers, and vessels, for ornament. There were ten other temples in the
+city of Kan-chew like the former, and a tower having eight fronts, twenty
+cubits in circumference, and fifteen stories high. Each story was twelve
+cubits high, so that the whole tower was 180 cubits in height. In every
+story was a chamber finely varnished, and a gallery round, embellished with
+paintings. One of these paintings represented the emperor of Kathay sitting
+among his courtiers, and with boys and girls on either hand. This structure
+is called _Teherki felek_ by the Moslems, and resembles a kiosk. At the
+bottom there were the figures of giants, which seemed to carry the whole
+tower on their backs. The whole was constructed of wood, richly gilded and
+varnished, and so exquisitely polished, that it seemed of burnished gold.
+In a vault under the edifice, there is an iron axis resting on a plate of
+iron, and reaching from the bottom to the top of the tower: and the whole
+was so ingeniously contrived, that it could easily be turned round on this
+axis, in so surprizing a manner, that all the smiths, carpenters, and
+painters of the world ought to go there, to learn the secrets of their
+respective trades[27].
+
+Before the ambassadors left Kan-chew, they were furnished with horses and
+carriages, which they returned here in their way back. In this place also,
+they consigned the presents which were intended for the emperor, except a
+lion, which they carried along with them, to the imperial court. In
+proportion as they approached towards the capital, the Kathayan
+magnificence always increased. Every evening they arrived at a _Yam_[28] or
+lodging, and once every week at a city. On the fourth of the month Shawal
+they reached the river Karamuran[29], which is as large as the Jihon or
+Amu. Across this river there is a bridge of twenty-six boats, laid over
+with planks, and kept together by iron hooks and chains, which are fastened
+to iron pillars on each bank, as thick as a mans thigh, so that the whole
+is kept perfectly firm and even. On crossing this river they came to a
+great city, where the ambassadors were more splendidly, feasted that in any
+other place; and here they saw a more magnificent idol temple than any of
+the former. They took notice also of three public stews, full of very
+beautiful harlots; and as the women here are handsomer than any other in
+Kathay, this place has the name of _Rosnabaad_, or the _City of Beauty_.
+After passing through several other cities, they arrived on the twelfth of
+the month Zu'lkaadeh, at another river[30] twice as large as the Jihon,
+which they passed over in boats. Continuing their journey, and crossing
+over several rivers, some in boats and others by means of bridges, they
+arrived, on the twenty-seventh of the last mentioned month, at the great
+and populous city of _Sadin-fu_[31]. In one of the temples of this city
+there stands a gilded brass image fifty cubits high, called the _image with
+a thousand hands_, for such is the number with which this idol is
+furnished, and on the palm of each there is an eye. The feet of this idol
+are near ten cubits long. Round this idol there are several others of
+different heights, placed in chambers or niches, some reaching only as high
+as the ankle of the great one, others to the knee, and others again as high
+as the breast. It is reckoned that this prodigious work required 100,000
+loads of brass. The top of the temple is exquisitely finished, and
+terminates in an open hall. It is surrounded by eight mounts or eminences,
+which may be ascended both on the outside and the inside; and these have
+several grottos, the walls of which are adorned with various paintings,
+representing priests, idols, hermits, tigers, leopards, serpents, and
+trees. These, with the idols, mountains, and arches, seem all to be
+composed of plaster. Around this great temple there are many fine
+buildings, and among these a turning tower, similar to that of Kan-chew,
+but larger and finer.
+
+Continuing their journey, at the rate of four or five pharasangs each
+day[32], the ambassadors arrived before day-break of the eighth of
+Zu'lhajieh, at the imperial city of Khanbalik[33], or Pekin. This city is
+so great that each side is a pharasang in length, or about four and a
+quarter English miles. But at this time 100,000 houses within its walls lay
+in ruins. The ambassadors and their retinue were conducted on foot along a
+causeway 700 feet long, to the palace gate, where there stood five
+elephants on either side. On passing this outward gate, they entered a very
+beautiful paved court of great extent, where they found 100,000 men waiting
+at the emperors gate, although it was not yet day. Facing this court there
+was a great _kiosk_ or pavilion, the basis of which was thirty cubits high,
+on which stood pillars fifty cubits high, supporting a gallery sixty cubits
+long and forty cubits wide. This pavilion had three gates, the middle one
+being reserved for the emperor, and that on each side was smaller. Above
+this kiosk, and over the right and left gates, was a _kurkeh_, or great
+drum; and a bell hung over the middle gate, attended by two persons, to
+give notice of the appearance of the emperor on his throne. They reckoned
+that near 300,000 persons were assembled before the palace, among whom were
+2000 musicians, who sung hymns for the prosperity of the emperor. Two
+thousand men, armed with halberts, batons, darts, arrows, lances, swords,
+and maces, had enough of business in keeping the crowd in order. Others
+held fans and umbrellas. Around this court there were many apartments, and
+it was surrounded by high porticos closed with grates, and containing
+sofas. When day appeared, the drums, trumpets, flutes, and hautboys, began
+to sound, and the great bell tolled; at which the great gates were thrown
+open, and the people crowded in to see the emperor. On passing from the
+first court into the second, the ambassadors found a larger and more
+magnificent pavilion than the former, on which was a raised platform, or
+sofa, of a triangular form, four cubits high, covered with yellow satin,
+and sumptuously adorned with gildings and paintings, representing the
+_Simorg_[34], or Phoenix, which the Kathayans call the royal bird. On this
+sofa was a seat or throne of massy gold, and on both sides stood ranks of
+officers of different orders, some commanders of 10,000 men, some of a
+1000, and others of 100 men. Each of these held a tablet in his hand, a
+cubit long and a quarter broad, on which they all continued to look with
+much gravity, without attending to any thing around them; and behind these,
+stood an infinite number of guards, all in profound silence. At length the
+emperor made his appearance from an inner apartment, and ascended the
+throne by nine steps of silver. The emperor was a man of middle stature,
+and his beard consisted of 200 or 300 long hairs, which descended from his
+chin upon his breast. On each side of the throne there stood two very
+beautiful maidens, having their faces and necks bare, with their hair tied
+on the top of their heads, and large pearls in their ears. Each of these
+held paper and a pen in their hands, and wrote down with great attention
+whatever was spoken by the emperor; and when he retires, they present him
+with the papers, to see if he has any alterations to make in his orders.
+These are afterwards carried to the _Diwan_, or tribunal of state, that
+they may be carried into execution.
+
+When the emperor was seated on his throne, the seven ambassadors were
+brought forwards, facing the emperor, and at the same time a great number
+of criminals were presented. There were seven hundred of these, some of
+whom were fastened by the neck, others having their heads and hands
+inclosed by a board, six sometimes fastened thus to one board. Each
+criminal was attended by a keeper, who held his prisoner by the hair: and
+all thus waited the imperial sentence. Most of these were remanded to
+prison, and only a few were condemned to die, which power resides solely in
+the emperor. All the governors of this vast empire, however distant from
+court, send all malefactors to Khanbalik, to appear in presence of the
+emperor. Each persons crime is written on one end of the board which he
+carries about his neck; and the crimes against religion are the most
+severely punished of all. Great care is taken to examine into all the facts
+on these occasions, insomuch that the emperor holds council twelve several
+times before he condemns any one to death. Hence a person who has been
+condemned in eleven successive councils, is sometimes acquitted in the
+twelfth, which is always held in presence of the emperor, who never
+condemns any but those he cannot save. When the criminals were dismissed,
+the ambassadors were led by an officer within fifteen cubits of the throne;
+and this officer, on his knees, read out of a paper the purport of their
+embassy; adding that they had brought rarities as presents to his majesty,
+and were come to knock their heads against the ground before him. Then the
+_Kadhi Mulana Haji Yusof_, a commander of ten thousand, who was a favourite
+of the emperor and one of his twelve councillors, approached to the
+ambassadors, with some Moslems who spoke the Persian language, and ordered
+them to fall on their knees and knock their ground with their foreheads;
+but they only bowed their heads three times. Then they delivered the
+letters of Shah Rokh and the other princes, wrapped up in yellow satin, to
+Kadhi Mulana, who gave them into the hands of a khoja of the palace at the
+foot of the throne, and he presented them to the emperor. He took them into
+his own hands, opened them and looked at them, and delivered them back to
+the khoja, who descended from the throne, and sat down on a seat at the
+foot of the steps. At the same time were brought out three thousand
+vestments of fine stufis, and two thousand coarse, such as are the usual
+clothing of the imperial children and household[35]. The emperor then
+commanded the ambassadors to draw near, and being on their knees, he
+inquired after the health of Shah Rokh, and put many other questions to
+them, all of which they answered. He then ordered them to rise, and go eat,
+saying that they had come a far journey. From thence the ambassadors were
+conducted back to the first court, where they were feasted in a similar
+manner as at other times already mentioned.
+
+When this entertainment was finished, they were conducted to their
+lodgings, in which the principal chamber was furnished with a large sofa or
+raised platform, laid with fine silk cushions, a great basin, and a pan for
+fire. On the right and left of this, there were other chambers, with beds,
+silk cushions, and foot carpets or fine mats, for lodging the ambassadors
+separately. Each person had a kettle, a dish, a spoon, and a table. Every
+day, for six persons, there were allowed a sheep, a goose, and two fowls;
+and to each person two measures of flour, a large dish of rice, two great
+basins full of things preserved with sugar, a pot of honey, some garlic,
+onions, salt, several sorts of herbs, a bottle of _dirapum_[36], and a
+basin of walnuts, filberts, chesnuts, and other dried fruits. They were
+likewise attended from morning till night by a number of handsome servants.
+
+
+[1] The capital of Khorassan, or Corassan, in the north-east of Persia,
+    then the residence of Shah Rokh.--Astl.
+
+[2] Or Zu'lkaadeh, as pronounced by the Persians, called Dhu'lkaddeh by the
+    Arabians, which is the eleventh month of the Mahometan year.  As this
+    year is lunar, the months run through all the seasons, for want of a
+    properly regulated kalendar, or a period like the Julian or Gregorian.
+    To enable the reader to understand the journal, we give the Persian
+    names of the months in their order: 1. Moharram; 2. Safar; 3.
+    Rabiya-al-awal, or Prior; 4, Rabiya-al-Akher, or Latter; 5. Jomada-al-
+    awal; 6. Jomada-al-akher; 7. Rajeb; 8. Shaaban; 9. Ramazan; 10.
+    Shawal; 11. Zu'lkaadeh; 12. Zu'lhejjeh.--Astl.
+
+[3] This year began on Thursday, 16th January, 1420.--Astl.
+
+[4] Ulug-Beg was the son and successor of Shah-Rokh, and was famous for his
+    astronomical tables.--Astl.
+
+    The Kathayans of Ulug-Beg, here mentioned, were probably Chinese
+    astronomers in the service of that prince, sent on the present
+    occasion to ascertain and report the geographical circumstances of the
+    journey.--E.
+
+[5] The text here is obscure, as appearing to indicate Kathayan ambassadors
+    going to Kathay. They may have been ambassadors from Yong-lo to
+    Shakh-Rokh, now on their return.--E.
+
+[6] Called Asperah by Forster.--E.
+
+[7] From this description of the route, and the implied division of empire,
+    it would appear that Shah-Rokh ruled over a very ample portion of the
+    vast conquests of Timur, having under has command the countries of
+    Iran and Touran; or Persia, Chorassan, Balkh, Kharism, Great Bucharia,
+    and Fergaana; even including Samarkand, the imperial residence of
+    Timur.--E.
+
+[8] Mr Forster calls this place Pielgutu, and explains the name by the
+    substitution of _Palchas_ with a mark of interrogation as doubtful.
+    The geography of the East is rendered difficult and obscure, by the
+    frequent recurrence of names in different languages, and by a lax
+    orthography. Perhaps Pielgutu or Palchas, may have been situated on
+    the lake Balcash, otherwise named Palkati-nor, and Tengis--E.
+
+[9] Otherwise Dagis and Dakgis--Astl.
+
+[10] Called Lenger in Forster, who gives, as synonymous, Ab-lenger and Abi-
+    longur; which merely repeat the original name Lenger, with the prefix
+    abi, which signifies water or river. Of this river no mention is made
+    on our maps; but, from the direction of the route, it must have
+    crossed their way somewhere between the Palkati-nor and Turfan, which
+    is the next station mentioned.--E.
+
+[11] Called Gurgu by Forster.--E.
+
+[12] Fifth son of Shah-Rokh.--Astl.
+
+[13] Perhaps the same place called Yulduz, and Yilduz by others, and
+    supposed to be the Chialis of later authors, in Little Bucharia. In
+    the Jesuits maps there is a river called Cheldos, near the Ili, on
+    which this town may have stood.--Astl.
+
+[14] This is doubtless a mistake for Tarfan, or Turfan, in little Bucharia;
+    the Arabic F and K differing only by a point. Astl. Turfan, Turkhan,
+    or Farkhaan, is situated in Tenduc or Uiguria, in Lat. 43° N. Long.
+    85°. SO. E. The snowy mountains crossed in such haste must have been
+    the Alahtag. The cold desert of the tribe of Jel, was probably in the
+    eastern part of Soongria; perhaps the Karang desert, north from
+    Turfan and the Alak mountains.--E.
+
+[15] This is supposed to be the same place with Aramuth in other Journals;
+    and to be named Oramchi in the Jesuits map--Astl. Called Kharadztah,
+    Harasliar, Hara-cosa, and Asarlic, by Forster. Now named Asarleak on
+    our best maps.--E.
+
+[16] In Forsters edition, this sentence is differently expressed, as
+    follows: "On the nineteenth they came to a town called Naas, or Naar,
+    near which several Zeijids, or descendants of Mahomet, are settled, at
+    a place named Termed".--E.
+
+[17] This name Kabul is evidently a mistake for Kamul, Khamul, Khamil,
+    Kamyl, or Chamil; called Hami by the Chinese.--Astl.
+
+[18] This is certainly So-chew, near the entrance of the great wall in
+    Shensi.--Astl. Called by Forster Katasekt-schen, Sekt-scheu, Schel-
+    scheu, or Su-tcheu.--E.
+
+[19] This commentary on tea is placed in the text of Forster, and is
+    therefore here preserved in the same form, though no part of the
+    original.--E.
+
+[20] An arpent is a French measure nearly one and a half of which are equal
+    to an English acre.--Astl.
+
+[21] This Persian term Karawl or Karawul, is also introduced into the
+    Tartarian language, from which it has been adopted into Russian, in
+    which language a guard or outpost is termed a Karaul.--Forst.
+
+    It seems more probable that the Tartar conquerors had introduced their
+    own military term into the languages of subjugated Persia, and
+    tributary Russia.--E.
+
+[22] In the description of this route by Forster, he brings the ambassadors
+    to Su-tchew before their arrival at the Karaul, and interposes a
+    desert of several days journey between these two places.--E.
+
+[23] This seemingly trifling circumstance was matter of great surprize and
+    scandal to the Mahometans, who consider hogs as unclean animals, and
+    to whom pork is a forbidden food.--Astl.
+
+[24] It is singular how very nearly this arrangement resembles the supposed
+    modern invention of a chain of telegraphs.--E.
+
+[25] Six merres make a pharasang, or Persian league, which is equal to four
+    English miles, and 868 feet. One merre is therefore equal to 1221
+    yards, and each post station of ten merres is equal to 12,213 yards,
+    or almost seven English miles.--Astl.
+
+[26] Otherwise Kamgiou or Kan-chew, the Kampion or Kainpiou of Marco Polo;
+    which is a city of Shen-si, near the great wall and the desert.--Astl.
+
+    In Forsters account of this journey, the ambassadors arrived from the
+    Karaul, or fortified pass, at Natschieu, Nang-tsiew, or Naa-tsieu;
+    after which, they are said to have arrived at Kham-tcheou, the Kan-
+    chew of the text.--E.
+
+[27] The description given in the text of this Chinese pagoda has much the
+    air of a fiction; yet we can hardly conceive the author would venture
+    to report to Shah-Rokh what must have been contradicted by his
+    ambassadors, if false.--Astl.
+
+[28] This is called Lam in the French of Thevenot, and is the same with
+    the Lamb of Marco Polo.--Astl.
+
+[29] This is the Cara-moran or Whang-ho, which they crossed a second time
+    between Shen-si and Shan-si, where it is much larger than at Lan-chew,
+    the place probably alluded to in this part of the text.--Astl.
+
+    In the edition, by Forster, this river is named Abi Daraan, or the
+    Daraan, afterwards Kara-raan; but is obviously the Kara-moran, Whang-
+    ho, or Hoang-ho.--E.
+
+[30] This _other_ river, certainly is the same Kara-moran, passed again at
+    a different part of their route.--Astl.
+
+[31] This must have been some city in the province of Pe-che-li, or near
+    its borders in Shan-si; but no such name as that of the text is to be
+    found in any of the maps of China.--Astl.
+
+    In Forsters edition, this place is named Chien-dien-puhr, perhaps
+    Tchin-teuen-pou, a city at some distance to the west of the Hoan-ho
+    river. The route is not distinctly indicated in the text; but seems to
+    have been from Soutcheo, at the N.W. extremity of Chensi, in lat. 40°
+    N. following a S. E. direction to the Hoan-ho, somewhere about Yung-
+    nam, in lat. 37° N. long. 104° E.; and Yung-nam may have been the fine
+    city which the Persians named Rosna-baad, or the Habitation of
+    Beauty.--E.
+
+[32] About seventeen or twenty-one English miles, or nineteen miles on the
+    average.--E.
+
+[33] This is the same with the Khambalu of Polo. One name signifies the
+    palace of the Khan, the other the city of the Khan.--Astl.
+
+[34] This is the Fong-whang, or fabulous bird of the Chinese. The Simorg-
+    Anka, is supposed among the Persians to have existed among the
+    Preadamites, and to have assisted Solomon in his wars.--Astl.
+
+[35] The text is here abrupt and inconclusive: These vestments were
+    probably presented to the ambassadors and their suite.--E.
+
+[36] What this may have been does not appear; it may possibly have been
+    arrack, or the wine made of rice and spices, which is frequently
+    mentioned in the travels of Marco Polo.--E.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_The several Audiences of the Ambassadors, their Entertainments, Presents,
+and Return_.
+
+On the ninth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, the _Sekjin_, or officer belonging to
+the court who had charge of the ambassadors, came to their lodgings before
+day, and raised them from their beds, saying that the emperor meant to
+feast them that day. He brought them to the palace on horses which were
+sent for the purpose, and placed them in the outer court, where two hundred
+thousand persons were in attendance. As soon as the sun was up, they were
+led to the foot of the throne, where they saluted the emperor, by bowing
+their heads to the ground five several times. At length the emperor
+descended from the throne, and the ambassadors were led back to the outer
+court, where they were separated for a while, that they might perform the
+deeds of necessity; being told that no person could be allowed to stir out
+on any pretence during the continuance of the feast. After this, they were
+led through the first and second courts, and thence into a third, which was
+entirely open, and paved with fine freestone. In the front of this court
+there was a great hall sixty cubits long, having chambers over it; and in
+the hall was a great sofa, higher than a man, which was ascended by three
+silver stairs, one in front, and the others at the two sides. In this place
+there stood two khojas of the palace, having a kind of pasteboard covers on
+their mouths, and fastened to their ears. Upon the great sofa or platform,
+there was a smaller one in form of a couch, having pillows and cushions for
+the feet; and on each side there were pans for fire, and perfuming pans.
+This smaller sofa was of wood, beautifully gilded, and looking quite fresh,
+though sixty years old, and every thing was finely varnished. The most
+eminent of the Dakjis stood on each side of the throne, armed, and behind
+them were the soldiers of the imperial guard, with naked sabres. The
+ambassadors were placed on the left hand, as the most honourable station.
+Three tables were placed before each of the _Amirs_ and other most
+distinguished persons, while others had only two, and the more ordinary
+persons but one; and there were at least a thousand tables at this
+entertainment.
+
+Before the throne, near a window of the hall, there was a great kurkeh or
+drum, on a raised stage, attended by two men, and near it a great band of
+musicians. Part of the hall was divided off by curtains which came close to
+the throne, that the ladies belonging to the palace might see the company
+without being seen. After all the victuals and liquors were brought in and
+properly distributed, two khojas withdrew, the curtains which covered a
+door behind the throne, and the emperor came forth, amid the sound of many
+instruments of music, and took his seat under a canopy of yellow satin,
+ornamented with four dragons. After the ambassadors had made five
+prostrations, they sat down to table, and were treated as at other times.
+During the entertainment, many comic tricks were acted for the amusement of
+the emperor and the company. The first performers that appeared were
+painted with white and red, like girls, and dressed in gold brocade,
+holding nosegays of artificial flowers. After this, a man lay down on his
+back, as if asleep, holding his feet raised up in the air; then another
+person held several thick canes in his hands, seven cubits long, placing
+the other ends between his legs, on which a youth of ten or twelve years of
+age mounted, with surprising agility, and performed several tricks at the
+top. At last the canes slipped away from under him, and every person
+thought he must have fallen to the ground and been dashed to pieces; but
+the pretended sleeper instantly started up and caught him in the air. There
+was one musician who played tunes after the twelve different modes of the
+Kathayans. Two men played the same air together, each having one hand on
+his own instrument, and the other on that of his companion. During this
+entertainment, several thousand birds of different kinds flew about the
+court of the palace, and lighted among the people, to eat up what they
+could find scattered on the ground, without appearing to be in the least
+scared at the multitude. During the five months that the ambassadors
+remained at Khanbalik, they were regaled at several other banquets, where
+plays were acted, much surpassing that now mentioned.
+
+On the seventeenth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, all the criminals were carried
+to be punished according to the nature of their offences, and as prescribed
+by the laws. The twenty-fifth of Moharram, Mulana Kadhi Yusof sent to
+acquaint the ambassadors that next day, being the first of the new year,
+according to the reckoning of the Kathayans, the emperor was to go to his
+new palace, and that no person must wear white, as that was the dress of
+mourning in this country. On the twenty-eighth, at midnight, the Sekjin
+came to conduct them to the new palace, which had been nineteen years
+building, and was only newly finished. Every person had his house or shop
+illuminated, with torches, lanterns, candles, and lamps, so that it
+appeared as light as noon-day. At the palace they found an hundred thousand
+people, who had come from all parts of Kathay, the countries of Tachin and
+Machin, Kalmak, Kabul, Karakoja, Jurga, and the sea coasts. This day the
+ambassadors tables were set out of the hall where the throne stood, while
+those of the _Amirs_, or great officers and lords of the court were within;
+and there were near two hundred thousand armed men, carrying umbrellas and
+bucklers. This feast lasted till the afternoon, and among the music were
+many songs in praise of the new palace. To give some idea of this superb
+structure, it may be mentioned that, from the gate of the hall to the first
+inclosure, measured 1925 paces. On each side are buildings and gardens one
+within another. The edifices were of freestone, porcelain, or marble, so
+delicately put together that they seemed inchased. There are many hundred
+cubits of pavement, the stones of which are so even and well joined, that
+they looked like the checkered ruling in books. Nothing in other countries
+can equal the Kathayans in masonry, joiner-work, making relievos or raised
+figures in plaster, and in painting.
+
+The ambassadors were called early to audience, on the ninth of the month
+Safar; the emperor having then come out from a retirement of eight days;
+for it is his custom to retire every year for some days, during which he
+eats no kind of victuals and abstains from going near his ladies, neither
+does he, during all that time, see or converse with any one. In this
+retirement, the emperor has no picture or idol of any of his gods; as
+during this period, all his devotions are addressed solely to the GOD of
+Heaven. On this occasion, the imperial elephants were all adorned in a
+style of magnificence, which is quite inexpressible; many of them having
+silver seats, like litters, on their backs, adorned with standards of seven
+different colours, and the seats were filled with armed men; fifty of the
+elephants carried the imperial musicians. This grand procession of
+elephants was preceded, or followed, by at least 50,000 persons, who all
+preserved the most exact order, and the most profound silence. In all this
+pomp and splendour, the emperor was conducted from, the place of his
+religious retirement to the female apartments of the palace. The court
+astrologers had predicted that the palace of the emperor was this year to
+suffer by fire, on which account, a solemnity, accompanied by splendid
+fireworks and illuminations, was exhibited during seven days. On this
+occasion, an artificial mount was erected in the middle of the imperial
+court, covered all over with branches of cypress, and planted with 100,000
+torches; by means of little artificial mice, made of bitumen or wild fire,
+which ran along a number of ropes, fixed for the purpose, these torches
+were all lighted up in a moment, forming a wonderful blaze of lights from
+the bottom of the mountain to the top; and many other lights appeared all
+over the city. During all the seven days of this festival, no criminals
+were sought after; the emperor discharged all debtors under arrest for
+debt, and set free all persons in prison for crimes, except murderers, and
+he distributed large presents. All this was notified on the thirteenth of
+the month Safer, by an imperial edict or proclamation, the emperor being
+seated on his throne, in the grand _kiosk_, or pavilion of the first court,
+surrounded by more than 100,000 persons; and in this edict, the emperor
+notified that he would send no ambassadors to any country during three
+years. After this edict had been read aloud by three officers of the court,
+who stood on a bench before the emperor, it was conveyed down from the
+pavilion into the court below, by means of rings fastened to yellow silk
+cords; and, being reverently placed on a board with a golden border, it was
+carried to the city, followed by music, and accompanied by a multitude of
+the people. After the conclusion of this ceremony, the emperor left the
+pavilion, and the ambassadors were feasted, as at other times.
+
+On the first of the month Rabiya-al-awal, the ambassadors were again called
+to court before the emperor, who had several Shankars[1] brought in, which
+he said he meant to give to those who had presented him with good horses;
+and at this time, he caused three to be given to each of the ambassadors of
+the Mirza Ulug-Beg, Mirza Baysangar, and Sultan Shah-Rokh. Next day he sent
+for them again; when, addressing himself to Arjak, the ambassador of Mirza
+Siurgatmish, he said, "I have no Shankar to give you; and even if I had, I
+should not give you any, lest it should be taken from you, as was done from
+Ardeshir, a former ambassador from your, master." To this Arjak made
+answer: "If your majesty will do me that honour, I will engage my word that
+no person shall take it from me." To this the emperor replied: "On that
+condition I will give you two, which I have ordered to be brought for that
+purpose." On the eighth day of the month, the ambassadors of Soltan Shah,
+and Bakshi Malek were sent for, to receive the Shankish, or imperial
+present. The first received eight _balish_ of silver[2], thirty furred
+imperial vestments, twenty-four under petticoats[3], two horses, one of
+which was provided with furniture, 100 bundles of cane arrows, twenty-five
+great porcelain vases, and 5000 ***[4]. Bakshi Malek had as much, bating
+one balish of silver; the women belonging to the ambassadors had no silver
+given them, but they each received half the quantity of stufis that had
+been given to their lords. On the thirteenth of the same month, the
+ambassadors were sent for to court, when the emperor said to them: "I am
+going to hunt; take your shankars, therefore, which fly well, and divert
+yourselves; but the horses you brought me are good for nothing." About this
+time, the emperors son returned from the country of _Nemray_, and the
+ambassadors went to pay their compliments to him in his particular court,
+to the east of the imperial palace, where they found him seated in state,
+amid his attendants, and having his table served in the same manner with
+that of the emperor.
+
+On the first of the month Rabiya-al-akher, the ambassadors received notice
+to go to meet the emperor, who was then on his return from hunting; and, on
+getting on horseback before day for that purpose, they found Mulana Kazi
+Yusof waiting for them at the door of their hotel, in great dejection.
+Inquiring the cause, he told them privately that the emperor had been
+thrown in hunting from the horse they had presented him from Shah Rokh, and
+had given orders that they should be carried in chains to certain cities in
+the east of Kathay. The ambassadors were much afflicted at this news, and
+continued their journey for about twenty miles to the emperors camp. At
+this place, the Kathayans had in one night inclosed a plot of ground 500
+paces square, with walls ten feet high. This wall was composed of earth,
+hard pressed down between two planks, as in a mould, leaving two gates; and
+the place whence the earth was dug, served for a ditch. There were strong
+guards posted at both of the gates, and other soldiers posted along the
+ditch. Within this outer inclosure, there were two others, each twenty-five
+cubits high, formed of yellow satin, supported upon square posts and all
+set round with tents of yellow satin. When the ambassadors were arrived
+within 500 paces of the imperial quarters, Mulana. Cazi Yusof desired them
+to alight, and wait for the emperor, while he went forwards to the
+presence. The emperor was on the point of giving orders for having the
+ambassadors arrested, when _Lidaji_ and _Jandaji_, officers named _Setalid_
+and _Jik-fu_, in the Kathayan or Chinese language, who stood before the
+emperor, and Kazi Yusof, fell prostrate before him, entreating him not to
+proceed to that extremity, as it might have very bad consequences to put
+them to death, and would give occasion for the world to say that the
+emperor had violated the law of nations in the persons of these
+ambassadors. The emperor at length yielded to their reasons and entreaties,
+and Kazi Yusof went with great joy to let them know that they were
+pardoned. The emperor even condescended to send them victuals; but, being
+mixed with pork, they could not eat of it, on account of their religion.
+
+Afterwards, the emperor approached, mounted on a great black horse, with
+white feet, richly caparisoned with brocade housings, which had been sent
+to him by Mirza Uleg Beg, and haying two attendants on each side at the
+saddle-bow. He was dressed in a vest of rich gold brocade on a red ground,
+and had his beard inclosed in a bag of black satin. The emperor marched
+slowly forwards, followed by his women, who were carried by men in seven
+covered litters, after whom came a large covered litter, carried by seventy
+men. A body of horse marched in squadrons before the emperor, each squadron
+twenty paces asunder, and the cavalcade reached all the way to the city.
+The emperor rode in the middle, attended by ten Dajis, or governors of
+provinces, and by the three lords who had so warmly pled in flavour of the
+ambassadors. When the emperor drew near, Kazi Jusof, one of these friendly
+lords, came up and ordered the ambassadors to prostrate themselves; and
+when they had done so, the emperor ordered them to arise and mount their
+horses, and to accompany him. Then turning to them, he thus addressed Shadi
+Khoja, one of the ambassadors: "The presents, rarities, horses, and wild
+beasts which are sent to me in future must be better chosen, in order to
+preserve and increase the amity which I have for your princes. At the hunt,
+I mounted the horse which you presented me; but he is so vicious, and I am
+so old, that he threw me, by which I was wounded, and have received a
+contusion on my head, which gave me great anguish; but by laying much gold
+on the place, the pain is assuaged." Upon this, Shadi Khoja said, that it
+was the horse on which the great Amir Timid Karkan[5] used to ride; and
+that Shah Rokh, who kept him as a rarity, had sent him to the emperor, as
+the most valuable horse in all his dominion. Being satisfied with this
+apology, the emperor called for a shaker, which he let fly at a crane; but
+on the bird returning, without seizing his prey, the emperor gave it three
+strokes on the head. He then alighted from his horse, and sat down in a
+chair, resting his feet on another, and gave a shaker to Soltan Shah, and
+another to Soltan Ahmed, but none to Shadi Khoja. After this he mounted his
+horse, and as he approached towards the city, was received by vast crowds
+of people with a thousand acclamations.
+
+On the fourth of the before named month, the ambassadors were brought to
+court to receive their presents from the emperor; who was seated on his
+throne, and caused tables to be set before him, on which the presents were
+displayed. These were much of the same nature with those already mentioned,
+which were given to Soltan Shah, and Bakshi Malek. Sometime afterwards, the
+most beloved of the emperor's wives died, and her death was made public on
+the eighth day of the month Jomada-al-awake, the next day being appointed
+for her interment. The ladies belonging to the imperial family are buried,
+on a certain mountain, on which all the horses that belonged to them are
+turned out to graze at liberty for the rest of their lives. At the same
+time, several maidens and Khojas of the palace, who had belonged to the
+retinue of the deceased, are placed in attendance on the grave, having
+provisions allowed them to subsist upon for live years, perhaps more; and
+when their victuals are expended, they are permitted to die of famine. But
+on the ensuing night, the new palace took fire, not without suspicion of
+the astrologers haying a hand in it. By this misfortune, the principal
+apartment, which was eighty cubits long, and thirty cubits broad, adorned
+with pillars, painted blue, and richly varnished, so large that three men
+could hardly grasp them, was entirely consumed. From thence, the flames
+communicated to a kiosk or gallery of twenty fathoms, and to the apartment
+of the ladies, which was still more magnificent. By this fire, 250 houses
+were destroyed, and several men and women lost their lives[6]. The emperor
+and his _Amirs_ did not consider that this chastisement fell upon them for
+being infidels. On the contrary, the emperor went to an idol temple[7],
+where he said on his knees, "The GOD of Heaven is angry with me, and
+therefore hath burned my palace. Yet have I done no evil; for I have
+neither offended my father nor my mother, nor can I be charged with the
+exercise of any tyranny on my people."
+
+The emperor was so deeply affected by these untoward circumstances, that he
+fell sick, and the prince his son assumed the administration of the
+government, and gave the ambassadors an audience of leave[8]; after which,
+they received no farther subsistence from the court, till their departure.
+They left Kham-balik on the fifteenth of the month Jomada-al-awal,
+accompanied by certain dajis from the court; and they were lodged and
+treated with all necessaries on their return, in the same manner as they
+had been on their journey to court. They arrived on the first of Rajeb at
+the city of _Nikian_[9], where the magistrates came out to meet them, but
+did not search their baggage, as is customary there, as they had an express
+order from the emperor to the contrary. On the day after their arrival at
+that place, they were magnificently feasted. On the fifth of Shaaban,
+thirty-five days afterwards, they reached the river Karamuran, Whang-ho, or
+Hoang-ho; and on the twenty-fifth of that month arrived at Kamju[10], where
+they had left their servants, and heavy baggage; where every thing that
+they had committed to the custody of the Kathayan officers, when on their
+journey to the capital, was faithfully restored. After remaining
+seventy-five days in this place, they resumed their journey, and came soon
+afterwards to Nang-tschieu, or Nang-chew[11]. At this place, or rather at
+Sa-chew, they met with ambassadors from Ispahan and Shiras in Persia, on
+their way to Khambalik, who told them that they had met with many
+difficulties on their journey.
+
+As the roads through the country of the Mongals were very unsafe, owing to
+confusions and civil wars among the hordes, they remained ten months at
+So-chew, whence they set out at full moon in the month of Moharram, of the
+year 825 of the Hegira[12], and came in a few days to the Karaul at the
+pass leading into the desert, where their baggage was searched. Leaving
+this place on the nineteenth of Moharram, on purpose to avoid the obstacles
+and dangers they were likely to encounter, on account of intestine war
+among the tribes of the Mongals, they took the road through the desert[13],
+where they suffered much distress on account of the scarcity of water. They
+got out from the desert on the sixteenth of Rabiya-al-awal, and arrived at
+the city of Khoten[14] on the ninth of Jomada-al-akher. Continuing their
+journey from thence, they came to the city of Kashgar[15] on the sixth of
+Rajeb. On the twenty-first of the same month, the ambassadors separated a
+little way beyond the city of Endkoien[16], some taking the road towards
+Samarkand, and the rest directing their way for Badakshan. Those of Shah
+Rokh arrived at the castle of Shadman on the twenty-first of Shaaban; at
+Balkh on the first of Ramazan; and on the tenth of that month at Herat, the
+residence of their sovereign.
+
+
+[1] Shankars, Shonkers, or Shongars, are birds of prey, famous among the
+    Tartars, and may probably have been the most esteemed species of
+    falcon, and which are said to have been white.--Astl.
+
+[2] These silver _balishes_ seem to have come in place of the paper money
+    of the emperors of the race of Zingis, formerly mentioned; but its
+    value is nowhere described.--E.
+
+[3] This surely must be an error for under garments--E.
+
+[4] In Forsters account of these travels, the blank in the text is filled
+    up with Dzjau, or Tzjau; which he supposes to have been tea, and that
+    the numbers refer to certain Chinese weights or packages of that
+    commodity. Forster adds, that small pieces of tin were given to the
+    ambassadors, to some twenty-four, and to others as far as seventy
+    pieces; and he says that Witsen left many of the articles enumerated
+    in the original untranslated, as not understanding the terms.--Forst.
+
+[5] This is the famous Timur-Beg, or Tamerlane the Great.--Astl.
+
+[6] In the abstract of these travels, as given by Forster, this fire is
+    said to have been caused by lightning.--E.
+
+[7] It is to be remarked, that the author of these travels was a Mahometan.
+    The circumstances of the idol temple, says the editor of Astleys
+    Collection, seems malicious; as, in his opinion, there are no images
+    in the imperial temples of Pe-king. I suspect the editor is mistaken;
+    for however strongly the philosophical sect of Confucius may be
+    convinced of the absurdity of idolatry, the religion of Fo is as
+    grossly idolatrous as any on the face of the earth; and it is to be
+    noticed, that the dynasty then reigning in China was native.--E.
+
+[8] The emperor died in the same year; but after the departure of the
+    ambassadors.--Astl.
+
+[9] No such name can be found among the cities of Pe-che-li or Shan-si
+    --Astl.
+
+    In the abstract given by Forster, this place is called Sekan or
+    Segaan; named in the maps Sigan-fou, or more properly Si-Ngan-Fou.--E.
+
+[10] Or Kan-chew, in the province of Shen-si; otherwise called Kam-tsiu, or
+    Kan-tcheou, on the river Etchine.--Forst.
+
+[11] This name is probably erroneously substituted for Sou-chew; as that is
+    the regular station for retracing their former journey, which the text
+    distinctly indicates to have been the case hitherto.--E.
+
+[12] This month began on Thursday the twenty-fifth December, 1421.--Astl.
+
+    According to Forster, they recommenced their journey in the month of
+    January, 1421.--E.
+
+[13] Probably taking their route by the lake of Lop, to the south of Little
+    Bucharia.--Astl.
+
+[14] Called likewise Koton, Khateen, and Hotam, in Little Bucharia, or
+    Eastern Turkistan.--E.
+
+[15] Named likewise Khasiger, Kashar, Cashgar, and Hasiker.--Forst.
+
+[16] Probably the same with Anghein, on the river Sir.--Astl.
+
+    In Forsters abstract, this place is called Andigan, and the names of
+    Andischdan and Dedschan are said to be synonymous.--E.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XVIII.
+
+_Voyage and Travels of Pietro Quirini into Norway, in 1431_.[1]
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Pietro Quirini, a Venetian nobleman, was a merchant and master of a ship
+belonging to the island of Candia, which at that time was in the possession
+of the Venetian republic. With a view both to fame and profit, he undertook
+in 1431 a voyage from Candia to Flanders; and towards the end of autumn of
+that year suffered shipwreck on the coast of Norway, not far from the
+island of Rost. He wintered in that island, and in the following summer,
+1432, travelled through Drontheim to Wadstena, in Sweden, and from thence
+returned to Venice that year. He has himself given an account of his
+adventures, and two of his companions, Christopho Fioravente and Nicolo di
+Michiel, did the same. Both of these journals are to be found in the
+collection of Ramusio; and extracts have been published from them by
+Hieronimus Megiserus, in a work entitled, Septentrio Novantiquus, printed
+in 8vo, at Leipsic in 1613.--Forst.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p. 209.
+
+
+
+SECTION I.
+
+_Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini_.
+
+On the 25th of April 1431, Pietro Quirini set sail from Candia, steering
+westwards to the straits of Gibraltar; but, owing to contrary winds, he was
+obliged to keep near the coast of Barbary. On the 2d of June, he passed the
+straits, and, through the ignorance of the pilot, the ship got upon the
+shoals of St Peter, in consequence of which accident the rudder was thrown
+off the hinges, and the ship admitted water in three several places;
+insomuch that it was with great difficulty they could save the vessel from
+sinking, and get her into Cadiz. The vessel was here unloaded; and, having
+given her a thorough repair, the lading was again put on board in
+twenty-five days after their arrival. Having learned in the meantime that
+the republic of Venice had entered into a war with Genoa, he thought proper
+to augment the number of his men, so that his crew in all amounted to
+sixty-eight. He set sail again on the 14th of July, and endeavoured to bear
+up for Cape St Vincent; but, owing to a strong north-east wind, which on
+that coast is called _Agione_, he was forced to beat up to windward
+forty-five days at a great distance from land, and was driven into
+dangerous and unknown seas near the Canary islands. When at length their
+stock of provisions was nearly exhausted, they got a fair wind from the
+south-west, and directed their course towards the north-east; and the iron
+work about their rudder giving way, they mended it up as well as they
+could, and arrived safe at Lisbon on the 25th of August.
+
+Having here carefully repaired the iron work of their rudder, and taken in
+a fresh stock of provisions, they again set sail on the 14th of September;
+and were a second time baffled by contrary winds, insomuch that they had to
+put in at the port of Mures in Spain, whence Quirini went with thirteen of
+his crew to perform his devotions at the shrine of St Jago di Compostella.
+They returned from thence with all speed, and again set sail with a fair
+wind at south-west, and kept at the distance of 200 miles from the land, in
+hopes the wind might continue. But on the 5th November the wind shifting to
+the east and south-east, prevented them from entering the English channel,
+and forced them beyond the Scilly islands. The wind now again increased in
+violence, and on the 10th November carried the rudder a second time from
+its hinges. They slung it by means of ropes to the quarters of the ship,
+but it soon broke loose, and was dragged after the ship for three days,
+when, by exerting their utmost efforts, it was again made fast. The vessel
+now drove continually farther from land; and as the crew consumed the
+victuals and drink without bounds or moderation, two or three of the men
+were appointed to guard the provisions, with orders to distribute regular
+shares to each person on board twice a day, Quirini himself not excepted.
+
+As a substitute for their disabled rudder, they constructed, by the advice
+of the carpenter, out of some spare masts and yards, two rudders with
+triangular boarded ends, in order to steady the course of the vessel. These
+being properly fastened proved highly serviceable, and inspired them with
+fresh hopes of safety; but, by the extreme violence of the winds and waves,
+this their last refuge was torn away. On the 26th of November the storm
+increased to such extreme violence, that they expected every moment to
+founder, and had no doubt this was to have proved the last day of their
+lives. By degrees, indeed, the storm abated; but they were driven out to
+sea to the W.N.W., and the sails, from being perpetually fatigued by the
+rain and wind, were now torn to shivers; and though they put up new ones,
+they were soon likewise destroyed. The ship now drove without either sails
+or rudder, at the mercy of the winds and waves, and was filled by the sea
+which continually beat over it; insomuch that the crew, worn out with
+constant labour, anxiety, and watching, were scarcely able to keep the
+water under. On heaving the lead they found water at 80 fathoms; on which
+they spliced all their four cables on end, and rode at anchor for the space
+of forty hours; when one of die crew, terrified at the dreadful working of
+the ship occasioned by the winds and waves, cut the cable at the
+forecastle, and the ship now drove about as before. On the 4th December,
+four large waves broke in succession over their ill-fated vessel, and
+filled it so full of water that it seemed just ready to sink. By exerting
+their utmost strength and resolution, the crew baled the water out, though
+it reached to their waists, and at length succeeded in emptying the vessel
+entirely. On the 7th, the tempest increased with such violence, that the
+sea flowed into the ship uninterruptedly from the windward, and their
+speedy destruction seemed quite inevitable; so that they were now of
+opinion their only chance of safety was by cutting away the mainmast, which
+might lighten the ship. This was done therefore immediately; and a large
+wave fortunately carried the mast and yard clear away, by which the ship
+worked with considerably less strain and violence. The wind and waves too,
+now became less violent, and they again baled out the water. But now the
+mast was gone, the ship would no longer keep upright, and lay quite over on
+one side, so that the water ran into her in torrents; and the people, being
+quite exhausted with labour and want of food, had not strength remaining to
+clear out the water.
+
+In this desperate situation, expecting every moment that the vessel would
+sink or go to pieces, they came to the resolution of endeavouring to save
+themselves in the boats, of which the larger held only forty-seven men, and
+the smaller twenty-one. Quirini had the choice of either of the boats, and
+at last went with his servants, into the larger boat, in which the officers
+had embarked. They took with them a stock of provisions; and on the 17th
+December, the winds and waves having somewhat moderated, they quitted their
+unfortunate ship. Among other costly articles of commerce, the ship was
+laden with 800 casks of Malmsey wine, and a great quantity of sweet-scented
+Cyprus wood, with pepper and ginger. On the following night, the small boat
+in which twenty-one of the crew were embarked, was separated from them by
+the violence of the storm, and they never heard of her more. Those in the
+larger boat were obliged to throw overboard most of their stock of wine and
+provisions, and all their clothes except those they had on, in order if
+possible to lighten her a little. As the weather proved fair for some time,
+they steered to the eastwards, in hopes of getting as they thought to
+Iceland; but the wind again chopping about, drove them about at its will,
+and they were quite ignorant whereabouts they were.
+
+Their liquor now began to fail, and many of the people being quite
+exhausted with incessant labour, long watchings, and the other hardships
+they had undergone, and through scarcity of provisions, a great number of
+them died. So great particularly was the scarcity of drink, that the
+allowance for each man was only a fourth part of a moderate cupful once in
+twenty-four hours. They were better provided with salted meat, cheese, and
+biscuit; but this dry and salt food excited an intolerable thirst, which
+they had no means to quench; in consequence of which some of them died
+suddenly, and without having exhibited any previous symptoms of illness;
+and it was particularly observed, that those were first carried off who had
+formerly lived in the most intemperate manner, and had given themselves up
+to drunkenness, or had continually indulged themselves in hovering over the
+fire. Though these had the external appearance of being strong and healthy,
+they were least able to endure the hardships they had now to suffer, and
+two or three of them used to die in a day. This mortality prevailed for ten
+days, from the 19th to the 29th of December. On the 29th the last remainder
+of the wine was served out, and every one resigned himself to meet death,
+which seemed at hand. Some of the people, urged by raging thirst, drank sea
+water, which evidently hastened their dissolution. Others had recourse to
+their own urine, and this nauseous beverage, joined to the precaution of
+eating as little salt provision as possible, contributed most of all to the
+preservation of their lives.
+
+For the space of five days they continued in this dreadful situation,
+sailing all the time to the north-eastward. At length on the 4th of
+January, one of the people who sat in the bow of the boat, descried
+somewhat to leeward which he conceived to be the shadow of land, and
+immediately informed the crew of his discovery in an anxious voice. All
+eyes were now eagerly directed to this object, and as day broke they saw
+with extreme joy that it really was the land. The sight of this welcome
+object inspired them with fresh vigour, and they now plied their oars in
+order to arrive the sooner at the shore; but on account of its great
+distance, as well as the shortness of the day, which was only two hours
+long, they were unable to accomplish this desire. Besides, they were now so
+weak as to be unable to make use of their oars for any length of time; and
+as night soon overtook them, and was of long continuance, it seemed to men
+in their forlorn state as if it would never end. When the next day broke,
+they could no longer discern the land which they had seen the day before;
+but they discovered another mountainous country very near them and to
+leeward. That they might not lose the way to this during the ensuing night,
+they took its bearings by the compass, and hoisting sail with a fair wind
+they reached it about four o'clock in the evening. On approaching the
+shore, they observed that it was surrounded by many shallows, as they
+distinctly heard the sea breaking over these; but they gave themselves up
+to the guidance of providence, and at one time the boat grounded on a
+shoal, but a vast wave came and floated them over, and at the same time
+carried them safely to land upon a shelving rock, which was now their great
+security, as the spot was encompassed on every side with rugged projecting
+rocks, and they could not possibly have got on shore in any other place.
+Here therefore they ran their boat on shore; and those who were on the bows
+leaped directly on the coast, which they found entirely covered with snow,
+which they swallowed in immense quantities, filling their parched and
+burning stomachs and bowels. They likewise filled a kettle and pitcher for
+those who from weakness remained in the boat; and Quirini alleges, that he
+swallowed as much snow as he would have found it difficult to have carried
+on his back, all his happiness and welfare seeming to depend upon the
+quantity of it he could swallow. This extravagant quantity of snow agreed
+so ill with some of the people, that five of them died that night; though
+their deaths were attributed to the sea water which they had previously
+drank.
+
+
+
+SECTION II.
+
+_Preservation of Quirini on the Coast of Norway, and Residence In the Isle
+of Rostoe_.
+
+As they had no rope with, which to make fast their boat to the shore and
+prevent it from being dashed to pieces, they remained in it the whole
+night. Next day at dawn, sixteen weak, miserable and exhausted wretches,
+the sad remains of forty-seven who had originally taken refuge in the large
+boat, went on shore and laid themselves down in the snow. Hunger, however,
+soon obliged them to examine if there might not remain some of the
+provisions which they had brought with them from the ship: All they found
+was a very small ham, an inconsiderable remnant of cheese, and some biscuit
+dust in a bag, mixed with the dung of mice. These they warmed by means of a
+small fire, which they made of the boat seats, and in some measure appeased
+their hunger. On the following day, having convinced themselves beyond
+doubt that the rock on which they then were was quite desert and
+uninhabited, they resolved to quit it in hopes of being able to reach some
+inhabited island, or part of the adjacent coast of Norway; but, after
+filling five small casks with snow water, and getting into the boat to put
+their resolution into execution, the water ran in torrents through all the
+seams, and the boat went to the bottom immediately, so that they were
+forced to get on shore again quite drenched in the sea. During the whole of
+the preceding long night, the boat had been beating against the rock, which
+had loosened its planks and opened all the seams. Despairing now of any
+relief, as they were utterly destitute of any means to repair their boat,
+they constructed two small tents of their oars and sails, to shelter
+themselves from the weather, and hewed the materials of their boat in
+pieces to make a fire to warm themselves. The only food they were able to
+procure consisted in a few muscles and other shell-fish, which they picked
+up along the shore. Thirteen of the company were lodged in one of the
+tents, and three in the other. The smoke of the wet wood caused their faces
+and eyes to swell so much that they were afraid of becoming totally blind;
+and, what added prodigiously to their sufferings, they were almost devoured
+by lice and maggots, which they threw by handfuls into the fire. The
+secretary of Quirini had the flesh on his neck eaten bare to the sinews by
+these vermin, and died in consequence; besides him, three Spaniards of a
+robust frame of body likewise died, who probably lost their lives in
+consequence of having drank sea water while in the boat; and so weak were
+the thirteen who still remained alive, that during three days they were
+unable to drag away the dead bodies from the fire side.
+
+Eleven days after landing on this rock or uninhabited island, Quirini's
+servant, having extended his search for shellfish, their only food, quite
+to the farthest point of the island, found a small wooden house, both in
+and around which he observed some cow-dung. From this circumstance the
+forlorn people concluded that there were men and cattle at no great
+distance, which inspired them with, fresh hopes of relief, and revived
+their drooping spirits. This house afforded them abundant room and good
+shelter; and all, except three or four, who were too weak to be able for
+the fatigue of removing to such a distance, changed their abode to this
+hut, crawling with great difficulty through the deep snow, the distance
+being about a mile and a half, and they took with them as much as they were
+able of the ruins of their boat, to serve them for fire-wood. Two days
+after this, while going along the shore in search of the usual supply of
+shell-fish, one of the company found a very large fish quite recently cast
+up by the sea, which appeared to weigh about two hundred pounds, and was
+quite sweet and fresh. This most providential supply they cut into thin
+slices and carried to their dwelling, where they immediately set to work to
+broil and boil it; but so great was their famine, and so tempting its
+smell, that they had not patience to wait till it was thoroughly dressed,
+but devoured it eagerly half raw. They continued to gorge themselves with
+this fish almost without intermission for four days; but at length the
+evident and rapid decrease of this stock of food taught them more prudent
+economy, and by using it sparingly in future it lasted them ten days more.
+Those who staid behind in one of the tents near the place of their first
+landing, sent one of their number to see what had become of the rest; and,
+when he had been refreshed with some of the fish, he carried a portion to
+his two companions, and the whole survivors were soon afterwards
+reassembled in the wooden hut. During the whole time that they subsisted
+upon the providentially found fish, the weather was so exceedingly
+tempestuous that they certainly would not have been able to have looked out
+for shellfish, and they must inevitably have perished of famine.
+
+Having made an end of the large fish, which seems to have lasted them for
+fourteen days, they were obliged to have recourse again to the precarious
+employment of gathering shellfish along the shore for their subsistence.
+About eight miles from the rock upon which they now were, which Fioravente
+informs us was called _Santi_, or Sand-ey by the natives, there was another
+isle named _Rustene_[1], which was inhabited by several families of
+fishers. It happened that a man and two of his sons came over from Rost to
+Sandey to look after some cattle which were amissing. Observing the smoke
+from the hut in which Quirini and his wretched companions had taken
+shelter, curiosity led them to examine the hut. On their approach, their
+voices were heard by the people within the hut; but they believed it to be
+only the screaming of the sea-fowl who devoured the bodies of their
+deceased companions. Christopher Fioravente, however, went out to examine
+whence the unusual sound proceeded; and espying the two youths, he ran back
+in haste, calling aloud to his companions that two men were come to seek
+them. Upon this the whole company ran out immediately to meet the lads, who
+on their parts were terrified at the sight of so many poor famished
+wretches. These latter debated for some time among themselves whether they
+should not detain one of their visitors, with the view of making themselves
+more certain to procure assistance; but Quirini dissuaded them from this
+projected violence. They all accompanied the youths to the boat, and
+entreated the father and sons to take two of their people along with them
+to their habitations, in order the sooner to procure them assistance from
+thence. For this purpose they chose one Gerrard of Lyons, who had been
+purser of the ship, and one Cola a mariner of Otranto, as these men could
+speak French and a little German.
+
+
+The boat with the fishermen, and the two men who had been deputed to seek
+assistance, went over to Rostoe on Friday the 31st. of January 1432. On
+their landing, the inhabitants were much astonished at their appearance,
+but were not able to understand them, though the strangers addressed them
+in different languages; till at last one of the strangers began to speak a
+little German with a German priest of the order of friars predicant who
+lived there, and informed him who they were and whence they came. On Sunday
+the 2d February, which happened to be the festival of the purification of
+the blessed Virgin, the priest admonished all the people of Rostoe to
+assist the unhappy strangers to the utmost of their power, at the same time
+representing the hardships and dangers they had undergone, and pointing to
+the two famished wretches then present. Many of the congregation were
+softened even to tears at the recital, and a resolution was formed to bring
+away the miserable survivors as soon as possible, which they accomplished
+next day. In the mean time, those who remained behind at Sandey considered
+the absence of their companions as extremely long; and what with hunger,
+cold and anxiety, they were almost dead. Their joy may be more easily
+conceived than expressed, when they perceived six boats approaching to
+their relief. On landing, the Dominican priest inquired which of them was
+the captain of the unhappy crew; and when Quirini made himself known as
+such, the priest presented him with some rye bread and some beer, which he
+looked upon as manna sent from heaven. After this the priest took him by
+the hand, and desired him to choose two of his companions to accompany him;
+and Quirini pitched upon Francis Quirini of Candia, and Christopher
+Fioravente a Venetian, all three embarking in the boat of the principal man
+of Rostoe along with the priest. The rest of the company were distributed
+in the other five boats; and these good Samaritans went even to the tents
+where these unfortunates had first dwelt, taking away with them the only
+survivor of the three men who had staid behind from weakness, and buried
+the other two; but the poor invalid died next day.
+
+On the arrival of the boats at Rostoe, Quirini was quartered with the
+principal person of the island: This man's son led him to his father's
+dwelling, as his debility was so great he was unable to walk without
+assistance. The mistress of the house and her maid came forwards to meet
+him, when he would have fallen at her feet; but she would not permit him,
+and immediately got him a bason of milk from the house, to comfort him and
+restore his strength. During three months and a half that Quirini dwelt in
+this house, he experienced the greatest friendship and humanity from the
+owners; while in return he endeavoured by complaisance to acquire the good
+will of his kind hosts, and to requite their benevolence. The other
+partners of his misfortunes were distributed among the other houses of the
+place, and were all taken good care of.
+
+The rocky isle of Rost, or Rostoe, lies 70 Italian miles to the westwards
+of the southern promontory of Norway, which in their language they call the
+worlds backside, and is three miles in circumference[2]. This rocky isle
+was inhabited at this time by 120 souls, of whom 72 received the holy
+communion on Easter-day like good catholics. They get their livelihood and
+maintain their families entirely by fishing, as no corn of any kind grows
+in this very remote part of the world. From the 20th of November to the
+20th of February, the nights were twenty-one hours long; and on the
+contrary, from the 20th of May to the 20th of August the sun is either
+always seen, or at least the light which proceeds from it. Thus during
+June, July and August, they may be said to have one continued day of three
+months; while in the opposite months of winter they have one almost
+continued night. During the whole year they catch an incredible quantity of
+fish; which, however, are almost solely of two kinds. One of these they
+catch in prodigious quantities in the great bays, which they call
+_stockfish_[3]. The other, called Halibut, is a kind of flat fish of an
+astonishing size, for one of them was found to weigh near two hundred
+pounds. The stockfish are dried without being salted, in the sun and air;
+and, as they have little fat or moisture, they grow as dry as wood. When
+they are to be prepared for eating, they arc beaten very hard with the back
+part of a hatchet, by which they are divided into filaments like nerves;
+after which they are boiled, and dressed with butter and spices to give
+them a relish. The people of this country carry on a considerable trade
+with these dried stockfish into Germany. The halibuts, are cut into pieces
+on account of their great size, and are then salted; in which state they
+are very good eating. With these two kinds of fish the people of Rostoe
+load every year a ship of about 50 tons burthen, which they send to Bergen,
+a place in Norway, about a thousand miles from their island; and from
+whence a great number of ships of 300 or 330 tons burthen, carry all the
+produce of the fisheries of different parts of Norway into Germany,
+England, Scotland, and Prussia, where they are exchanged against the
+produce of these countries, particularly for every necessary article of
+food, drink and clothing, as their own country is so extremely barren and
+unfruitful, that they cannot raise these things for themselves.
+
+Thus, most of their traffic being carried on by means of barter, they have
+little money among them, nor is it very necessary. When these exchanges
+have been made at Bergen, the vessel returns to Rostoe, landing in one
+other place only, whence they carry wood sufficient for a whole year's
+fuel, and for other necessary purposes.
+
+The inhabitants of these rocks are a well-looking people, and of pure
+morals. Not being in the least afraid of robbery, they never lock up any
+thing, and their doors are always open. Their women also are not watched in
+the smallest degree; for the guests sleep in the same room with the
+husbands and their wives and daughters; who even stripped themselves quite
+naked in presence of the strangers before going to bed; and the beds
+allotted for the foreigners stood close to those in which their sons and
+daughters slept. Every other day the fathers and sons went out a fishing by
+day-break, and were absent for eight hours together, without being under
+the least anxiety for the honour and chastity of their wives and
+daughters[4]. In the beginning of May, the women usually begin to bathe;
+and custom and purity of morals has made it a law among them, that they
+should first strip themselves quite naked at home, and they then go to the
+bath at the distance of a bow-shot from the house. In their right hands
+they carry a bundle of herbs to wipe the moisture from their backs, and
+extend their left hands before them, as if to cover the parts of shame,
+though they do not seem to take much pains about the matter. In the bath
+they are seen promiscuously with the men[5]. They have no notion of
+fornication or adultery; neither do they marry from sensual motives, but
+merely to conform to the divine command. They also abstain from cursing and
+swearing. At the death of relations, they shew the greatest resignation to
+the will of God, and even give thanks in the churches for having spared
+their friends so long, and in now calling them to be partakers of the
+bounty of heaven. They shew so little extravagance of grief and lamentation
+on these occasions, that it appeared as if the deceased had only fallen
+into a sweet sleep. If the deceased was married, the widow prepares a
+sumptuous banquet for the neighbours on the day of burial; when she and her
+guests appear in their best attire, and she entreats her guests to eat
+heartily, and to drink to the memory of the deceased, and to his eternal
+repose and happiness. They went regularly to church, where they prayed very
+devoutly on their knees, and they kept the fast days with great strictness.
+
+Their houses are built of wood, in a round form, having a hole in the
+middle of the roof for the admission of light; and which hole they cover
+over in winter with a transparent fish skin, on account of the severity of
+the cold. Their clothes are made of coarse cloth, manufactured at London,
+and elsewhere. They wore furs but seldom; and in order to inure themselves
+to the coldness of their climate, they expose their new born infants, the
+fourth day after birth, naked under the sky-light, which they then open to
+allow the snow to fall upon them; for it snowed almost continually during
+the whole winter that Quirini and his people were there, from the 5th of
+February to the 14th of May. In consequence of this treatment, the boys are
+so inured to the cold, and become so hardy, that they do not mind it in the
+least.
+
+The isle of Rostoe is frequented by a great number of white sea-fowl called
+_Muris_ [6] in the language of the country. These birds are fond of living
+hear mankind, and are as tame and familiar as common pigeons. They make an
+incessant noise; and in summer, when it is almost one continued day for
+three months, they are only silent for about four hours in the twenty-four,
+and this silence serves to warn the inhabitants of the proper time of going
+to rest. In the early part of the spring, there arrived an amazing quantity
+of wild geese, which made their nests on the island, and even sometimes
+close to the walls of the houses. These birds are so very tame, that when
+the mistress of the house goes to take some eggs from the nest, the goose
+walks slowly away, and waits patiently till the woman has taken what she
+wants; and when the woman goes away, the goose immediately returns to her
+nest.
+
+In the month of May, the inhabitants of Rostoe began to prepare for their
+voyage to Bergen, and were willing also to take the strangers along with
+them. Some days before their departure, the intelligence of their being at
+Rostoe reached the wife of the governor over all these islands; and, her
+husband being absent, she sent her chaplain to Quirini with a present of
+sixty stockfish, three large flat loaves of rye-bread and a cake: And at
+the same time desired him to be informed, that she was told the islanders
+had not used them well, and if he would say in what point they had been
+wronged, instant satisfaction should be afforded; it was also strongly
+recommended by that lady to the inhabitants, to give them good treatment,
+and to take them over to Bergen along with themselves. The strangers
+returned their sincere thanks to the lady for the interest she took in
+their welfare, and gave their full testimony, not only to the innocence of
+their hosts in regard to what had been alleged, but spoke of the kind
+reception they had experienced in the highest terms. As Quirini still had
+remaining a rosary of amber beads which he had brought from St Jago in
+Gallicia, he took the liberty of sending them to this lady, and requested
+her to use them in praying to God for their safe return into their own
+country.
+
+When the time of their departure was come, the people of Rostoe, by the
+advice of their priest, forced them to pay two crowns for each month of
+their residence or seven crowns each; and as they had not sufficient cash
+for this purpose, they gave, besides money, six silver cups, six forks, and
+six spoons, with some other articles of small value, which they had saved
+from the wreck, as girdles and rings. The greater part of these things fell
+into the hands of the rascally priest; who, that nothing might be left to
+them of this unfortunate voyage, did not scruple to exact these as his due
+for having acted as their interpreter. On the day of their departure, all
+the inhabitants of Rostoe made them presents of fish; and on taking leave,
+both the inhabitants and the strangers shed tears. The priest, however,
+accompanied them to Bergen, to pay a visit to his archbishop, and to give
+him a part of the booty.
+
+
+[1] Rost, or Rostoy.--Forst.
+
+[2] The small island of _Rust_ probably the one in question, is the
+    south-westernmost of the Loffoden isles of Norway, in lat. 67°. 80 N.
+    long. 11°. E. and is about 80 statute miles from the nearest land of
+    the continent of Norway to the east. The rest of the Loffoden islands
+    are of considerable size, and are divided from Norway by the
+    Westfiord, which grows considerably narrower as it advances to the
+    north-east.--E.
+
+[3] The Cod or Gadus Morrhua, is termed stock-fish when dried without
+    salt.--E.
+
+[4] This must have appeared a most wonderful reliance upon female chastity,
+    in the opinion of jealous Italians, unaccustomed to the pure morals of
+    the north.--E.
+
+[5] This custom of promiscuous bathing is very ancient, and existed among
+    the Romans, from whom it was learnt by the Greeks, but gave rise to
+    such shameful lewdness, that it was prohibited by Hadrian and
+    Antoninus. This law seems to have fallen into oblivion, as even the
+    Christians in after times fell into the practice, and gave occasion to
+    many decrees of councils and synods for its prohibition; yet with
+    little effect, as even priests and monks bathed promiscuously along
+    with the women. Justinian, in his 117th novel, among the lawful causes
+    of divorce, mentions a married woman bathing along with men, unless
+    with the permission of her husband. Russia probably adopted bathing
+    from Constantinople along with Christianity, and in that country
+    promiscuous bathing still continues; and they likewise use a bundle of
+    herbs or rods, as mentioned in the text, for rubbing their bodies.
+    --Forst.
+
+    Norway certainly did not learn the practice of bathing either from
+    Rome or Constantinople. Some learned men are never content unless they
+    can deduce the most ordinary practices from classical authority, as in
+    the above note by Mr Forster.--E.
+
+[6] The Norwegians call this species of sea fowl _Maase_; which is probably
+    the Larus Candidus; a new species, named in the voyage of Captain
+    Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave, _Larus eburneus_, from being
+    perfectly white. By John Muller, plate xii. it is named _Lams albus_;
+    and seems to be the same called _Raths kerr_, in Martens Spitzbergen,
+    and _Wald Maase_, in Leoms Lapland. The Greenlanders call it
+    _Vagavarsuk_. It is a very bold bird, and only inhabits the high
+    northern latitudes, in Finmark, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and
+    Spitzbergen. This _Maase_, or sea-gull, is probably the white _Muxis_
+    of the text.--Forst.
+
+
+
+SECTION III.
+
+_Voyage from Rostoe to Drontheim, and journey thence into Sweden_.
+
+At their departure from Rostoe, the season was so far advanced, being now
+the end of May, that during this voyage they saw the image of the sun for
+forty-eight hours above the horizon; but as they sailed farther to the
+south, they lost the sun for one hour, though it continued broad day the
+whole time. Their whole course lay between rocks, and they perceived here
+and there, near the projecting points of land, the marks of deep navigable
+waters, which intersected the coast. Many of these rocks were inhabited,
+and they were received very hospitably by the inhabitants, who freely gave
+them meat and drink, and would accept of no recompense. The sea-fowl,
+which, when awake, are always loud and noisy, they found had built their
+nests in all the rocks past which they now sailed, and the silence of these
+birds was a signal for them likewise to go to rest.
+
+In the course of their voyage, they met the bishop of Drontheim; who, with
+two gallies, and attended by 200 people, was making the tour of his
+diocese, which extends over all these countries and islands. They were
+presented to this prelate, who, being informed of their rank, country, and
+misfortunes, expressed great compassion for them; and gave them a letter of
+recommendation for his episcopal residence at Drontheim, where St Olave,
+one of the kings of Norway, was buried. This letter procured them a kind
+reception at this place. As the king of Norway happened at this time to be
+at war with the Germans, the host of Quirini, who was likewise master of
+the vessel, refused to sail any further; but landing them at a small
+inhabited island near Drontheim, recommended them to the care of the
+inhabitants, and immediately returned home. On the next day, which was
+Ascension day, they were conducted to Drontheim, and went into the church
+of St Olave, which was handsomely ornamented, and where they found the
+lord-lieutenant with a great number of the inhabitants. After hearing mass,
+they were conducted before the lord-lieutenant, who asked Quirini if he
+spoke Latin? and being informed by him that he did, invited him and all his
+attendants to his table, to which they were conducted by a canon. They were
+afterwards taken, by the same canon, to good and comfortable lodgings, and
+were amply provided with all kinds of necessaries.
+
+As Quirini wished for nothing more than to return to his own country, he
+desired therefore advice and assistance to enable him to travel either by
+the way of Germany or England. That they might avoid travelling too much by
+sea, which was not safe on account of the war, they were advised to apply
+to their countryman, _Giovanne Franco_, who had been knighted by the king
+of Denmark, and who resided at his castle of Stichimborg, or Stegeborg, in
+east Gothland, in the kingdom of Sweden, at the distance of fifty days
+journey from Drontheim. Eight days after their arrival in Drontheim, the
+lord-lieutenant gave them two horses and a guide to conduct them to
+Stegeborg; and as Quirini had presented him with his share of the
+stockfish, a silver seal, and a silver girdle, he received in return a hat,
+a pair of boots and spurs, a leathern cloak-bag, a small axe, with the
+image of St Olave, and the lieutenants coat of arms engraved on it, a
+packet of herrings, some bread, and four Rhenish guilders. Besides the two
+horses from the lieutenant, they received a third horse from the bishop;
+and, being now twelve in number, they set out together on their journey,
+with their guide and three horses. They travelled on for the space of
+fifty-three days, chiefly to the south or S.S.E., and frequently met with
+such miserable inns on the road, that they could not even procure bread at
+them. In some places they were reduced to such shifts, that the wretched
+inhabitants grinded the bark of trees, and made this substance into cakes
+with milk and butter, as a substitute for bread. Besides this they had
+milk, butter, and cheese given them, and whey for drink. Sometimes they met
+with better inns, where they could procure meat and beer. They met with a
+kind and hearty welcome, and most hospitable reception wherever they went.
+
+There are but few dwellings in Norway, and they often arrived at the places
+where they were to stop in the night, or time of repose, though broad
+daylight. On these occasions, their guide, knowing the customs of the
+country, opened the door of the house without ceremony, in which they found
+a table surrounded by benches covered with leathern cushions, stuffed with
+feathers, which served them for mattresses. As nothing was locked up, they
+took such victuals as they could find, and then went to rest. Sometimes the
+masters of the houses in which they stopt would come in and find them
+asleep, and be much amazed till the guide acquainted them with their story,
+on which their astonishment became mingled with compassion, and they would
+give the travellers every thing necessary without taking any remuneration;
+by which means these twelve persons, with the three horses, did not spend
+more than the four guilders they had received at Drontheim, during their
+journey of fifty-three days.
+
+On the road they met with horrid barren mountains and vallies, and with a
+great number of animals like roes[1], besides abundance of fowls, such as
+hasel-hens, and heath-cocks, which were as white as snow, and pheasants the
+size of a goose[2]. In St Olave's church at Drontheim, they saw the skin of
+a white bear, which was fourteen feet and a half long; and they observed
+other birds, such as gerfalcons, goss-hawks[3], and several other kinds of
+hawks, to be much whiter than in other places, on account of the coldness
+of the country.
+
+Four days before they reached Stegeborg, they came to a town called
+Wadstena, in which St Bridget was born, and where she had founded a
+nunnery, together with chaplains of the same order. At this place the
+northern kings and princes have built a most magnificent church covered
+with copper, in which they counted sixty-two altars. The nuns and chaplains
+received the strangers with great kindness; and, after resting two days,
+they set out to wait on the chevalier Giovanne Franco, who relieved them in
+a manner that did honour to his generosity, and did every thing in his
+power to comfort them in their distressed situation. A fortnight after
+their arrival at his residence, a plenary indulgence was given at the
+church of St Bridget, in Wadstena, to which people from Denmark, Norway,
+and Sweden, and even from Germany, Holland, and Scotland, came to partake;
+some of whom came from a distance of more than 600 miles. They went to the
+indulgence at Wadstena along with Giovanne Franco, in order to inquire if
+there were any ships bound for Germany or England, there being always a
+great concourse of people on such occasions. The chevalier was five days on
+the road, and had more than 100 horses in his train. At Wadstena they took
+leave of their beneficent countryman, who furnished them amply with money
+and clothes for their journey, and ordered his son Matthew, a very amiable
+young man, to accompany them eight days journey on their way to Lodese, on
+the river Gotha; and where he lodged them in his own house for some time,
+till the ship in which they were to embark was ready to sail The chevalier
+Franco lent them his own horses all the way from his castle of Stegeborg;
+and, as Quirini was ill of a fever, he mounted him on a horse which had a
+wonderfully easy pace.
+
+From Lodese, three of Quirini's crew went home in a vessel bound for
+Rostock, and eight of them accompanied him to England, where they came to
+their friends in London, by way of Ely and Cambridge. After residing two
+months at London, they took shipping thence for Germany; and, travelling
+thence by way of Basil, in Switzerland, they arrived, after a journey of
+twenty-four days, in safety and good health at Venice.
+
+
+[1] The Rein-deer, Cervus tarandus, Lin.--Forst.
+
+[2] Probably the Tetrao lagopus, Lin.--Forst.
+
+[3] Falco Gyrfalcus, and Falco astur.--Forst.
+
+
+
+
+CHAP. XIX.
+
+_Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, Ambassador from Venice to Tanna, now called
+Asof, in 1436_[1].
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, was sent, in the year 1436, by the republic
+of Venice, as ambassador to Tanna, now called Asof, which at that time was
+in the hands of the Genoese. This relation was printed in a small and
+scarce collection at the Aldus press in Venice, by Antonio Minutio in 1543,
+and was afterwards inserted in the collection of Giovanne Baptista Ramusio.
+The following is an abstract of that journey. He went afterwards into
+Persia in 1471, as ambassador to Ussum Hassan, or Assambei, a Turkomanian
+prince of the white weather tribe, and was sixteen years among the Tartars;
+and on his return to his native country wrote an account of both these
+expeditions. He died at Venice at a very advanced age, in 1494.
+
+These travels are not given in any regular order, nor is any itinerary
+mentioned. It would appear that he resided for some time at Tanna, now
+Asof, making several journeys into the Crimea, and among the nations which
+inhabit between the Don and the Wolga, the Black Sea and the Caspian; and
+that he returned home by way of Moscow, Novogorod, Warsaw, and Francfort on
+the Oder, and through Germany into Italy.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Josaphat Barbaro began his journey to Tanna in 1436, and explored that
+country with great assiduity, and a spirit of inquiry that does him much
+honour, partly by land and partly by water, for sixteen years. The plain of
+Tartary is bounded on the east by the great river Ledil, Edil, or Wolga; on
+the west by Poland; on the north by Russia; on the south by the Great or
+Black Sea, Alania, Kumania or Comania, and Gazaria, all of which border on
+the sea of Tebache[2]. Alania has its name from the people called Alani,
+who call themselves _As_ in their own language. These people were
+Christians, and their country had been ravaged and laid waste by the
+Tartars or Mongals. The province of Alania contains many mountains, rivers,
+and plains, and in the latter there are many hills made by the hand of man,
+serving for sepulchral monuments, on the top of each of which there is a
+flat stone with a hole in it, in which a stone cross is fixed. About 110
+years before the journey of Barbaro, or in 1326, the religion of Mahomet
+was adopted by the Tartars or Mongals; though, indeed, before that period
+there were some Mahometans in the country, but every one was permitted to
+follow what religion he chose. In consequence of this, some worshipped
+wooden images, which they carried about with them on their carts or
+moveable huts: But the compulsatory establishment of the Mahometan religion
+takes its date from the time of Hedighi, Edigi, or Jedighei, who was a
+general under the Tartarian emperor Sidahameth khan. This Hedighi was the
+father of Naurus, in whose days Ulu-Mohameth, or Mahomet the great, was
+khan of the Tartars.
+
+A misunderstanding happened between the Naurus and the khan Ulu-Mohameth,
+in consequence of which Naurus retired to the river Ledil or Wolga,
+attended by the Tartar tribes who adhered to him personally, and joined
+himself to Khezi-Mohamet, or _little_ Mahomed, who was a relation to the
+khan or emperor. Naurus and Khezi resolved to make war against Ulu, and
+accordingly marched with their combined forces by way of Giterchan or
+Astrakan, and through the plains of Tumen, or the great step or desert,
+which extends from the Wolga to the Don, and quite down the mountains of
+Caucasus. On this march westwards they kept southwards close to Circassia,
+and turned off towards the Don and the sea of Asof, both of which were
+frozen over. In order to find food for their cattle and horses, they
+marched in separate parties, at so great a distance from each other, that
+some crossed the river Don at a place called Palastra, while others crossed
+it where it was covered with ice, near Bosagaz, which two places are 120
+miles separate from each other; yet so well were their movements combined,
+that they came upon Ulu-Mohameth quite unexpectedly, and he was constrained
+to fly with his wife and children, leaving every thing in confusion behind
+him, as Khezi Mohameth became emperor or khan in his stead, and again
+crossed the Don in the month of June.
+
+Proceeding westwards to the left from Tanna or Asof, along the coast of the
+sea of Zabachi, or the Palus Maeotis, and then for some distance along the
+Great or Black Sea, quite to the province of Mingrelia, one arrives, after
+three days journey, at the province of _Chremuch_, Kremuk, or Kromuk, the
+sovereign of which is called _Bisserdi_[3], and his son is named
+_Chertibei_[4], which signifies the true or real lord. Bisserdi possesses a
+beautiful country, adorned with fertile fields, considerable rivers, and
+many fine woods, and can raise about a thousand horse. The higher order of
+the people in this country chiefly subsist by plundering the caravans. They
+have excellent horses; the people are valiant, inured to war, and very
+artful; but have nothing singular in their manners and appearance. Their
+country abounds in corn, cattle, and honey; but produces no wine. Beyond
+this country there are other provinces, which have a different language,
+and are not far from each other[5]. These in their order, considering
+Kremuk as the first, are, 2. _Elipehe_ (Chippiche, or Kippike); 3.
+_Tartarkosia_ (otherwise Tatakosia, Titarcossa, Tatartofia, or
+Tatartussia); 4. _Sobai_; 5. _Chernethei_ (otherwise Cheuerthei,
+Khewerthei, Kharbatei, Kherbarthei, or Khabarda); 6. _As_, or the Alani. All
+these provinces extend for twelve days journey, quite to Mingrelia; which
+latter province borders on the _Kaitacchi_ or Chaitaki, who live about the
+Caspian mountains; and partly also near _Georgiana_, and on the shores of
+the Black Sea, and on the range of mountains which extends into Circassia.
+On one side likewise Mingrelia is encompassed by the river Phasis, which
+falls into the Black Sea. The sovereign of this country is called
+_Bendian_, or Dadian, and is in possession of two fortified towns near the
+sea, one of which is called _Vathi_, or Badias, and the name of the other
+is Savastopol[6]. Besides these he has several other castles and fortified
+rocks. The whole country is stony and barren, and millet is the only kind
+of grain that it produces. They get their salt from Kaffa. They manufacture
+some dark coarse stuffs, and are a gross and barbarous people. In this
+country _Tetarti_ signifies _white_, and the word is likewise used to
+denote silver coin: thus likewise the Greeks call silver money Aspro[7],
+the Turks Akeia, and the Kathayans _Teugh_, all of which words signify
+_white_; and hence, both in Venice and in Spain, certain silver coins are
+all called _bianchi_, which has the same signification.
+
+We must now give some account of Georgiana, Georgia, or Gurgistan, which
+lies opposite to the last mentioned places, and borders on Mingrelia. The
+king of Georgia is called Pancratius, and is sovereign of a delightful
+country, which produces bread, corn, wine, cattle, and all other fruits of
+the earth in great abundance; and they train up their vines around trees as
+in Trebisond. The people are very handsome and well made, but they have the
+most horrid manners, and the worst customs of any people I ever met with.
+Their heads are shaved, except a few hairs all around, like our rich
+abbots; and they wear whiskers, six inches long. On their heads they wear a
+cap of various colours, with a feather on the top. Their bodies are covered
+by a strait-bodied jacket, having tolerably long skirts, which are cloven
+behind, quite up to their loins, as otherwise they could not conveniently
+sit on horseback; but I do not blame them for this fashion, as the French
+wear the same kind of dress. On their feet and ankles they wear boots, but
+the soles are so strangely made, that when a man walks, his heels and toes
+only touch the ground, while the middle of the foot is raised up so high,
+that one may thrust the fist through below; and thence they walk with great
+difficulty. I should blame them for this, if I had not known that the same
+fashion prevails in Persia. At their meals, they have the following custom,
+which I saw in the house of one of their great men. They use a quadrangular
+table, about half an ell across, having a projecting rim, on the middle of
+which they heap up a quantity of boiled millet, which is without salt or
+fat, or any other seasoning, and this they eat to their meat by way of
+bread. On another similar table, but having live coals underneath, there
+was some wild boars flesh, but so little roasted that the blood ran out
+when it was cut, and of this they are very fond. For my part, I thought it
+quite disgusting, and was forced to content myself with a little millet, as
+we had no other provisions. There was wine, however, in abundance, which
+was handed round the company with great hospitality.
+
+In this country there are a great number of woods and mountains. One of its
+districts is named Tiflis, in which is a town of the same name, situate on
+the Kur or Kyrus, which runs into the Caspian. Gori is likewise a fortified
+place in the same country, and lies nearer to the Black Sea.
+
+Going from Tanna or Asof, by the river Don, and along the sea of Tabache or
+Asof, quite to Kaffa, and keeping that sea close on the left hand, we come
+to an isthmus or narrow neck of land, which connects the peninsula of the
+Crimea; with the mainland, and which is named Zuchala[8]. This is similar
+to that called Essimilia, formerly the Isthmus of Corinth, which connects
+the Morea or Peloponnesus with the continent of Greece. Near this isthmus
+of Zuchala, there are large salt water lakes, from which the salt
+crystallizes in summer, and is taken out in large quantities for the supply
+of the surrounding nations.
+
+Within the peninsula, and on the sea of Tabache or Asof, the first province
+we come to is _Kumania_, deriving its name from the people called
+Kumanians. The chief province is called _Gazzaria_ or Chazaria, in which
+Caffa is situate; and the measure of length used by merchants in all these
+countries is called the Gazzarian ell, which is even used at Tanna[9].
+
+The low country of the island of Kaffa[10] is occupied by the Tartars, who
+are governed by a prince named _Ulubi_[11], the son of _Azicharei_. They
+are able, in case of need, to bring 3000 or 4000 horse into the field.
+These people possess two walled towns, which are by no means strong. One of
+these, _Sorgathi_[12], is by them likewise called _Incremia_ or _Chirmia_,
+which signifies a fortification. The other is _Cherchiarde_ or
+_Kerkiarde_[13], which signifies forty places in their language[14]. On the
+island, which the Italians call the Cimmerian Bosphorus, close to the mouth
+of the sea of Asof, is _Cherz_, Kersch, or Kars[15]. Then come Kaffa[16],
+Saldaia[17], Grassui[18], Cymbalo[19], _Sarsona_ or Cherson[20], and
+Kalamita[21]. Farther on from Kaffa lies _Gothia_, and still farther
+Alania, which is without the island towards Moncastro[22].
+
+The Goths of these places speak a dialect of the German language, as I
+learned from a German servant who accompanied me on my travels; for he
+conversed with them, and they understood each other tolerably well, just as
+a native of Friuli in the Popes dominions might understand a
+Florentine[23]. From the vicinity, or intermixture of the Goths and
+Alanians, originates the denomination of _Gotitalani_. The Alanians were
+the first inhabitants of this county: The Goths came at an after period and
+made a conquest of part of the country inhabited by the Alanians; and, as
+the two nations mingled together, this mixed name became likewise into use.
+All these people profess the Greek religion, which is likewise followed by
+the Tscherkassians, or Circassians.
+
+Having already made mention of Tumen and Githerean, I shall now relate some
+remarkable particulars concerning them. Going from Tumen eastwards, or
+rather to the north-east, in seven days journey we arrive at the river
+_Ledil_[24], on the banks of which stands _Githercan_[25], a small
+insignificant town, laid waste, and in ruins. It was formerly a very
+considerable and celebrated place; as before the devastation of it by
+Tamerlane, the spices and silks which go to Syria[26] were carried by
+Githercan, and thence to Tanna, from whence they were brought, by six or
+seven large gallies to Venice; for at that time no other nation besides
+Venice traded to Syria. The Ledil or Wolga is a large and very broad river,
+which discharges itself into the Sea of Baku, or the Caspian, twenty-five
+Italian miles below Astracan; and both this river and the Caspian, which is
+tolerably salt, contain innumerable quantities of fish called tunnies and
+sturgeons. One may sail up this river to within three days journey of
+Moscow in Russia; and the inhabitants of that place go every year with
+their vessels to Astracan, to procure salt. The passage downwards is easy,
+as the river Mosco runs into the Oka, and that again into the Wolga. In
+this river there are many islands, and many forests along its banks. Some
+of these islands are thirty miles in circumference; and in the forests
+there are trees of such vast size, that one of them may be hollowed into a
+boat, that will require eight or ten horses, and twice as many men, to draw
+it against the stream. Crossing the river Wolga, and going fifteen days
+journey to the north-west, along the river, we meet with innumerable hordes
+of Tartars. But in travelling northwards, towards Russia, we come to a
+small town called Risan[27], which belongs to a relation of the grand duke
+of Russia. The inhabitants of this place are all Christians, and follow the
+usages of the Greek church. This country abounds in corn, cattle, honey,
+and other good things; and they import a species of beer called
+_Bossa_[28]; and the country abounds in woods and villages without number.
+Somewhat farther, and about half way between Riazan and Moscow, is a town
+called Colonna. The fortifications, both of Riazan and Colonna, are built
+of timber, as are also the houses; as nothing is to be seen in these parts
+constructed of brick or stone. Three days journey from Colonna, to the
+north-west, we come to the city and province of Moscow, or Mosqua, where
+the great Duke Jvan or John resides; and through this province there runs a
+river of the same name, having several bridges over it; and from which the
+city and province have probably acquired their names. The castle of Moscow
+is situated upon a hill, and is encompassed round with woods[29].
+
+The fertility of this country, in respect to corn and cattle, may be
+understood from this circumstance, that flesh is not sold by weight, but
+they give it out in large pieces, as much as would weigh four pounds[30].
+Seventy hens may be bought for a ducat, worth four or five shillings; and a
+goose may be had for less than threepence. In this country, the cold of
+winter is very severe, and the rivers are long frozen over: Taking
+advantage of this circumstance, they carry oxen and other beasts to market
+in winter, ready slaughtered, skinned, and embowelled; which they set up on
+their feet in the market places, frozen as hard as a stone, and in such
+numbers, that one may buy 200 or more of them at a time. Cutting them in
+pieces, as in our markets, is quite impossible, as they are as hard as
+marble, and are delivered out whole. The only fruits to be met with are
+apples, nuts, and small walnuts. When the Russians have a mind to travel,
+especially if the distance is very great, they prefer the winter season,
+when the whole country is covered over with frozen snow, and all the rivers
+are passable on the ice. They then travel with great convenience and
+expedition, being only subjected to the severity of the cold. At this
+season, they use sledges, which are to them as waggons are to us; and in
+them they take every thing along with them, with the utmost ease, that they
+have a mind to. In the summer, the roads are extremely miry, and full of
+inequalities, proceeding from the country being extremely woody; and they
+do not therefore take long journeys at that season, more especially as it
+is very thinly inhabited. They have no grapes, but make a species of wine
+from honey, and a kind of beer from millet, into which they put hop
+blossoms, of which the odour is so strong, as to occasion sneezing, and
+which intoxicates like wine. I must not omit to mention in this place,
+that, about twenty-five years ago, the great duke, on finding that his
+subjects were much addicted to drinking, which made them neglect their
+affairs, gave orders that no more beer or mead should be made; by which
+means, he obliged them, to live sober and regular lives. Besides this, he
+did many other things for the advantage of his dominions.
+
+Before the reign of this prince, the Russians paid tribute to the Tartars;
+but they have now conquered a country called Kasan, which is 500 miles to
+the east of Moscow, and the chief city of which lies on the left bank of
+the Wolga, in descending towards the sea of _Bochri_, or the Caspian[31].
+This country of Kasan enjoys considerable trade, especially in furs, of
+which large quantities are carried from thence by way of Moscow to Poland,
+Prussia, and Flanders. These furs come from a great distance to the
+north-east, out of the empire of Zagathai[32], and from Moxia[33]; both of
+which northern districts are inhabited by Tartars, part of whom are
+idolaters, particularly the Moxians, who continue so to this day.
+
+Having received some account of these Moxians, I shall relate, what I know
+concerning their religious customs. At a certain season they lead a horse
+into the middle of their assembly, and fasten it strongly by the head and
+feet to five stakes, driven into the ground for that purpose. After this, a
+particular person goes to some distance, with his bow and arrows, and
+shoots at the heart of the animal till he has killed him. The horse is then
+flayed, and the flesh eaten after the performance of certain ceremonies.
+They then stuff the horses skin with straw, and sew it up, so as to appear
+entire, fixing pieces of wood under the skin of the legs, that the stuffed
+animal may stand up as it did when alive. They next construct a scaffold,
+amid the branches of a large tree, upon which they fix the stuffed horse
+skin, and worship it as a god; offering up to it the furs of sables,
+ermines, grey squirrels, and foxes, which they hang among the boughs of the
+sacred tree, just as we offer up wax-lights to the images of the saints.
+The food of this people consists mostly of flesh, and that chiefly of
+venison, got by hunting; but they likewise catch abundance of fish in the
+rivers of their country. Many of the Tartars are idolaters, and carry the
+idols which they worship about with them, on carts, in their moveable huts;
+and some of them have the strange custom of worshipping each day, the
+animal they meet first in a morning, after going out of their houses.
+
+The grand duke of Russia has likewise conquered Nowgorod, or Novogorod[34].
+This is an extensive province, about eight days journey to the north-west
+of Moscow, which was formerly a republic. The inhabitants were without
+sense or reason, and had a great many heretics among them; but at present,
+the catholic faith makes its way among them by degrees, though some are
+still misbelievers. In the meantimes, however, they lead more rational
+lives, and justice is properly administered.
+
+Poland is twenty-two days journey from Moscow; and the first place we come
+to in Poland is a fortified town, called Trocki, or Trozk[35], to which we
+arrive through woods, and over hills, travelling a long way in an
+uninhabited desert. There are, it is true, certain places by the way, in
+which travellers may rest a while, and make a fire, if ordered before hand;
+and sometimes, though very rarely, one finds a small hamlet or two, a
+little way out of the road. Going beyond Trozk, one meets with more hills
+and forests, in which there are some habitations; and nine days journey
+beyond Trozk, we come to a fortified town called _Loniri_ or Lonin[36].
+After this, we quit that part of Poland called Lithuania, and come to a
+district named _Varsonich_[37], which belongs to certain lords, who are
+subject to _Kazimir_, or Cassimir, King of Poland. This part of the country
+is fertile, and contains a great many walled towns and villages, but none
+of any great importance. From Warsaw, it is seven days journey to the
+frontiers of Poland, through a good and beautiful country; where one meets
+with _Mersaga_[38], a tolerably good town, where Poland ends. Respecting
+the towns and provinces of Poland, I shall say nothing farther, for want of
+proper information; except that the king and his sons, and whole household,
+are very good Christians, and that the eldest of his sons is king of
+Bohemia.
+
+Travelling four days more beyond Poland, we came to Francfort, a city which
+belongs to the Margrave of Bandenburgh. But having reached Germany, I shall
+say nothing of it, as we are now in a manner at home, and in a country with
+which most people are well acquainted.
+
+
+[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North p. 165.
+
+[2] Called likewise the sea of Zabachi, Ischaback-Denghissi, the Palus
+    Maeotis, and Sea of Asof.--Forst.
+
+[3] This is explained to signify Deodati, or Given by God.--Forst.
+
+[4] The _Ch_ is used in Italian orthography before _e_ and _i_ to indicate
+    the letter _k_. Hence Cheremuch is Kererouk, and Chertibei, Kertibei,
+    or Kertibey. In the perpetually varying nomenclature, from vitious
+    orthography, and changes of dominion, it is often difficult to
+    ascertain the nations or districts indicated. This is peculiarly the
+    case in the present instance, and the sequel, which enumerates a
+    number of the Caucasian petty tribes, lying between, the sea of Asof
+    and the Caspian, now mostly subject to the Russian empire, whose
+    momentary names and stations we dare not pretend to guess at.--E.
+
+[5] This odd expression, that these provinces are not far from each other,
+    certainly means that they are not large.--E.
+
+[6] Otherwise called Sebastopolis, also Isguriah or Dioskurios.--Forst.
+
+[7] Hence _Asper_, the ordinary denomination of silver coin in moderns
+    Turkey is evidently borrowed from the Greek.--E.
+
+[8] Now Precop.--E.
+
+[9] Kumania and Gazzaria, here said to be provinces of the Crimea, or
+    island of Kaffa, must have been small districts of that peninsula,
+    inhabited by tribes of the Kumanians and Gazzarians of the country
+    between the sea of Asof and the mouths of the Wolga, now frequently
+    called the Cuban Tartary. The whole of that country, together with the
+    country between the Wolga and Ural rivers, often bore the name of
+    Kumania. But the destructive conquests of the Mongals, has in all ages
+    broken down the nations of those parts into fragments, and has induced
+    such rapid and frequent changes as to baffle all attempts at any fixed
+    topography, except of lakes, rivers, and mountains.--E.
+
+[10] The ancient Taurica Chersonesus; the Crimea of our days, now again
+    called Taurida by the Russians.--E.
+
+[11] Probably Ulu-beg, or the great prince.--E.
+
+[12] Soragathi or Solgathi, is named by Abulfeda Soldet or Kirm; and is at
+    present called Eskikyrym, or the Old Citadel.--Forst. From the name of
+    this place, Chirmia, Kirmia, Kirm, or Crim, the name of the peninsula
+    and its inhabitants, Chrimea, and Crim-Tartars, are evidently
+    derived.--E.
+
+[13] Kerkiardi is the Kerkri of Abulfeda, and signifies in Turkish forty
+    men. Some call the place Kyrk, and the Poles name it Kirkjel. It is
+    situated on an inaccessible mountain, and was one of the castles
+    belonging to the Goths who dwelt in those mountains, absurdly called
+    Jews by some authors; of whom some traces remained not long ago, as
+    their language contained many words resembling German.--Forst.
+
+[14] I should suspect that this term, here applied to one place only, had
+    been originally the general appellation of the _forty_ castles
+    belonging to the Goths, who long defended themselves in the Tauric
+    Chersonese. The ridiculous conversion of these Goths into Jews, may be
+    accounted for, by supposing that some ignorant transcriber had changed
+    Teutschi into Judei, either in copying or writing from the ear.--E.
+
+[15] The Pantikapaeum of the ancient Bosphorian kings. The Ol-Kars of
+    Abulfeda.--Forst.
+
+[16] This is nearly on the same spot with the Theodosia of the Greeks and
+    Romans.--Forst.
+
+[17] Otherwise Soldadia, Soldadia, or more properly Sugdaja, now Sudak or
+    Suday, by which name it is mentioned in Abulfeda.--Forst.
+
+[18] Grasui, or Grusui, now unknown, perhaps stood at a place now called
+    Krusi-musen, which seems to preserve some traces of the name.--Forst
+
+[19] Called likewise Cimbolo, the [Greek: Symbolan Hormoos] or [Greek:
+    lymaen], the Buluk-lawa of the moderns, or Limen.--Forst.
+
+[20] Otherwise Sherson and Schurschi; which was formerly called Cherson
+    Trachea, and was built 600 years before the Christian era, by the
+    inhabitants of Heraclea in Pontus. It was also called Chersonesus, or
+    the Peninsula; but that term properly signified the whole of the
+    peninsula between this harbour and Symbolon or Limen, which was
+    entirely occupied by the Greeks. The Russians took this place in the
+    reign of Wolodimer the great, and it is called Korsen in their annals.
+    By the Turks, it is named Karaje-burn. It must be carefully
+    distinguished from another Cherson on the Dnieper, at no great
+    distance, but not in the peninsula.--Forst.
+
+[21] This seems a corruption of Klimata; as all the towns named by Barbaro
+    formerly belonged to [Greek: chastxa ton chlimata]  of the Greeks, and
+    all belonged till lately to the Turks.--Forst.
+
+[22] This is a place at the mouth of the Dniester called Ak-Kierman by the
+    Turks; Tshelatalba by the Walachians; Belgorod by the Russians; Aspro
+    Kastra by the Greeks; and Moncastro by the Genoese. It was the Alba
+    Julia, of the Romans.--Forst.
+
+[23] This circumstance was before noticed by Rubruquis, and is likewise
+    mentioned by Busbeck. Father Mohndorf met with many slaves in the
+    gallies at Constantinople, who were descended from the Goths, and
+    spoke a dialect of German. Now that the Crimea belongs to Russia, it
+    is to be wished that the remaining traces of the Gothic language may
+    be inquired after; as this language might serve to explain and
+    illustrate the remains we still possess of Ulfila's translation of the
+    gospels into Gothic; while the names and customs of this people,
+    together with many of their phrases and turns of expression, might
+    throw light on the manners and customs of the ancient Germans. It is
+    even possible, that some families among them, of the higher rank, may
+    still possess some books in their ancient language, which would be a
+    very important discovery.--Forst.
+
+[24] Otherwise called Erdir, Erdil, Atel, Athol, Etilia, and now the Volga
+    or Wolga.--Forst.
+
+[25] Likewise named Citracan and Astrakhan, Astracan.--Forst.
+
+[26] There is an obvious blunder here, for this account of the trade must
+    be understood as follows: "That the trade in silks and spices from the
+    East, which now come by way of Syria, came over land by way of
+    Astracan to Tanna, whence it was transported by sea to Venice." The
+    concluding sentence, "That no other nation but the Venetians then
+    traded with Syria," is quite inexplicable; as the Syrian trade could
+    not possibly come to Venice by way of Astracan and Tanna. The various
+    routes of trade from India or the East to Western Europe, before the
+    Portuguese discovered the way by sea, have been well illustrated by Dr
+    Robertson; and will be explained in the course of this work.--E.
+
+[27] Riazan on the Oka, the capital of a province or the same name.--E.
+
+[28] Even at present, they make an inebriating liquor in Russia, from
+    millet, called busa, which is very heady, and is probably what is
+    named bossa in the text--Forst.
+
+[29] I strongly suspect that this passage is wrong translated, and that it
+    ought to have been, that the castle as encompassed with wooden walls,
+    as it is well known that the city of Moscow environs the castle or
+    Kremlin.--E.
+
+[30] This expression has no meaning. Barbaro probably wrote that four
+    pounds could be had at Moscow for the same money that would buy one in
+    Venice.--E.
+
+[31] The Caspian, besides the names of Bochri and Bakhu, is likewise called
+    the sea of Khozar, and the sea of Tabristan.--E.
+
+[32] Zagathai was one of the sons of the great conqueror Zingis Khan, and
+    received that part of the empire for his share, which comprehended
+    Turkistan, Mawaralnahar, and Kuaresm; which extensive country took
+    from him the name of Zagathai.--Forst.
+
+    The furs mentioned in the text could not be brought from this country,
+    which besides, is to the _south-east_ of Kasan. To the north-east lies
+    Siberia, the true country of fine furs; and which Barbara, by mistake,
+    must have named Zagathai: though perhaps it might at one time form
+    part of that extensive empire.--E
+
+[33] Moxia is the country of the Morduanians, one tribe of whom call
+    themselves Mokscha, or Moxa.--Forst.
+
+[34] This word signifies the New Castle; of this name there are two cities
+    and provinces in European Russia, Novogorod proper, and Nisney
+    Novogorod: The former is the one here meant.--E.
+
+[35] This is near Wilna in Lithuania.--Forst.
+
+[36] I imagine that Slonym is here meant; formerly a place of note, and
+    which used to be the appanege of one of the Lithuanian princes.
+    --Forst.
+
+[37] Varsonich is an evident corruption for Varsovich, or Warsaw, the
+    capital of Masurea or Masovia.--Forst.
+
+[38] It is not easy to determine the situation of _Mersaga_; but, as on the
+    borders of Poland, towards Brandenburgh, and in the direction of
+    Francfort on the Oder, it is probable that Meseriz, or Miedzyrzyez, is
+    here meant.--Forst.
+
+
+END OF VOLUME FIRST.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A General History and Collection of
+Voyages and Travels, Vol. 1, by Robert Kerr
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10600 ***