diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 1629227 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/10513-h.htm | 2339 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus006.png | bin | 0 -> 90845 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0079.jpg | bin | 0 -> 169715 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0080.jpg | bin | 0 -> 106015 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0081.jpg | bin | 0 -> 194259 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0082.jpg | bin | 0 -> 149411 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0083.jpg | bin | 0 -> 128896 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0084.jpg | bin | 0 -> 143558 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus0085.jpg | bin | 0 -> 71868 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus010.png | bin | 0 -> 41142 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus027.png | bin | 0 -> 14375 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus028.png | bin | 0 -> 11892 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus031.png | bin | 0 -> 6551 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus034a.png | bin | 0 -> 127998 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus034b.png | bin | 0 -> 79367 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus035.png | bin | 0 -> 13667 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus036.png | bin | 0 -> 6824 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus046.png | bin | 0 -> 6207 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus047.png | bin | 0 -> 7901 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus054.png | bin | 0 -> 16388 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus056.png | bin | 0 -> 7018 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus060.png | bin | 0 -> 6263 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus061.png | bin | 0 -> 155422 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus066.png | bin | 0 -> 2335 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513-h/Illus067.png | bin | 0 -> 22909 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513.txt | 2382 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/10513.zip | bin | 0 -> 42780 bytes |
28 files changed, 4721 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/10513-h.zip b/old/10513-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f11a094 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h.zip diff --git a/old/10513-h/10513-h.htm b/old/10513-h/10513-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f5ba48 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/10513-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2339 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of On the Seashore, by R. Cadwallader Smith</title> +<style type="text/css"> + * { font-family: Times;} + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + P { text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 12pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + HR { width: 33%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, On the Seashore, by R. Cadwallader Smith</h1> + +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: On the Seashore</p> +<p>Author: R. Cadwallader Smith</p> +<p>Release Date: December 22, 2003 [eBook #10513]<br> +Most recently updated: July 28, 2012</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: US-ASCII</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE SEASHORE***</p> + +<br> +<center><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Thomas Hutchinson,<br> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3></center> + +<hr class="full"> +<br> +<br> +<h3>CASSELL'S "EYES AND NO EYES" SERIES +<br> +<br> +BOOK VII</h3> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>ON THE SEASHORE</h2> +<br> +<h3>By</h3> +<h3>R. CADWALLADER SMITH</h3> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<center>WITH EIGHT COLOUR PLATES AND MANY<br> +BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS</center> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<br> +<p><b>LESSON</b></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson1">I. FIVE-FINGERED JACK</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson2">II. A STROLL BY THE SEA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson3">III. BIRDS OF THE SHORE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson4">IV. CRABS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson5">V. SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson6">VI. PLANTS OF THE SHORE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson7">VII. FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson8">VIII. SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson9">IX. THE JELLY-FISH</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson10">X. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1)</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson11">XI. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2)</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +<br> +<p><b>COLOUR PLATES</b></p> +<br> +<p><a href="#Illus0079">GULLS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0080">THE REDSHANK</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0081">HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0082">THE COMMON LOBSTER AND HERMIT CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0083">CRUSTACEA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0084">WEST PAN SAND BUOY</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0085">SHELLS</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<p><b>BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p> +<br> +<p><a href="#Illus006">COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus010">TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus027">THE CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus028">PURSE CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus031">HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus034a">HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus035">THE LOBSTER</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus036">THE SHRIMP</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus046">SEA LILY</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus047">SEA ANEMONE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus054">SEA-WEED FROND</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus056">SEA MAT</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus060">MEDUSA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus061">A MEDUSOID</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus066">PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus067">COWRIES</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>CASSELL'S</h2> +<h3>"EYES AND NO EYES"</h3> +<h4>Seventh Book</h4> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>ON THE SEASHORE.</h2> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson1"></a> +<h2>LESSON I.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>FIVE-FINGERED JACK.</b></p> +<p>What fun it is down by the sea at low tide! Scrambling among the +slippery rocks, we quickly fill a bucket with curious things. Some +are dead, others very much alive; but all have a story to tell +us--the story of the life they lead on the bed of the sea, or among +the sands and rocks of the shore.</p> +<p>Look, here is a Starfish! It is lying on the sand, left high and +dry by the waves, for now the tide is low. The Starfish looks limp +and lifeless, its five reddish-coloured "arms" are quite still.</p> +<p>We know it is an animal that lives in the sea, and dies when +washed ashore. But what does it do in the sea? How does it move +without legs or fins? How can it live without a head? Has it a +mouth? What does it eat, and how does it find its food?</p> +<p>Like so many other sea-animals, the Starfish is a puzzle. Some +of its little tricks puzzled clever people until quite lately. But +we know most of its secrets now.</p> +<p>Pass your finger down one of its arms, or rays. It feels rough, +being covered with knobs and prickles. Now turn the Starfish over, +and look carefully at its underside. In the centre, where the five +arms meet, is the animal's mouth. A harmless sort of mouth, you +think, too small to be of much use. Really, it is a terrible mouth, +the mouth of an ogre!</p> +<p>We notice a groove down the centre of each ray. But what are +those little moving things which bend this way and that, as if +feeling for something? Now that is exactly what they are doing. +They are the feet of the Starfish. Each tiny foot is really a +hollow tube, which can be pushed out or drawn in. At the tip of +each is a powerful sucker, which acts rather like those leather +suckers boys sometimes play with. Suppose the Starfish wishes to +take a walk along the bed of the sea. First, it pushes out its +tube-feet. Each sucker fixes itself to a stone or other object, and +then the animal can draw its body along. You will see presently +that the suckers can do other work too.</p> +<p>Our Starfish will die, however, unless we carry it to a pool. +Before doing so, we must look at the tip of each ray for a small +reddish spot. That is the Starfish's eye. Are those little eyes of +much use in helping the creature to find its dinner? I think not. +Most likely the Starfish <i>smells</i> its way.</p> +<p>If we put the animal on its back in a rock-pool we shall see the +tube-feet at work. Once in the water our Starfish revives, and +makes efforts to right itself. Can it turn over and crawl away?</p> +<p>The little tube-feet come out of their holes and begin to bend +about. Now those near the edge of one "arm" feel the ground. Each +tiny sucker at once takes hold, more and more of them touch the +ground as the ray is turned right side up, and at last the Starfish +turns over, and, slowly but surely, glides away.</p> +<p><a name="Illus006"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus006.png" width="60%" title= +"COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH." alt=""></center> +<h4>COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Stones, shells, or rocks do not stop it. The rays slide up and +over them. If we had feet like those of the Starfish, a journey up +the wall of a house, over the roof, and down again, would be +nothing to us. Nature gives all creatures the kind of foot which +suits the life they lead. And it is hard to imagine feet more +useful to the Starfish than those wonderful sucker-feet!</p> +<p>Ask any fisherman what he thinks of the "harmless" Starfish, and +he will call it a pest and a nuisance. "It gets into the crab +traps," he says, "and eats all the bait. And when we are +line-fishing it sucks the bait off our hooks, and sometimes +swallows hook and all." Small wonder that Five-fingers, or +Five-fingered Jack, as it is called, has no friend among +fisher-folk.</p> +<p>On pulling up a useless Starfish instead of a real fish, the +fisherman tears the offender in half and throws the halves back +into the waves. By doing this he harms himself more than the +Starfish! Each half grows into a perfect Starfish with five rays +complete. We can say that each part of this animal has a separate +life, for each part can grow when torn away.</p> +<p>If you were asked to open an oyster you would need tools, would +you not? Even with an oyster-knife it is not always an easy job. +The oyster, tight in his shelly fortress, seems safe from the +attack of a weak Starfish. Yet the Starfish opens and eats oysters +as part of its everyday life.</p> +<p>Finding a nice fat oyster, it sets to work. The Starfish folds +its rays over its victim, with its mouth against the edge where the +shells meet. The tug-of-war begins. The Starfish's tube-feet try to +pull the shells apart; the oyster, with all its strength, tries to +keep them shut. It is stronger than its enemy, and yet the steady +pull of hundreds of suckers is more than it can stand, and the +shells, after a time, begin to gape a little.</p> +<p>Now a strange thing happens. The mouth of the Starfish opens +into a kind of bag which slips between the oyster shells. The +Starfish, as it were, turns itself inside-out! It then eats the +oyster and leaves the clean shell.</p> +<p>Mussels are smaller, so they are eaten in a different way. The +Starfish merely presses the mussel into its mouth, cleans out the +shells, and throws them away. Were we not right to call this +wonderful mouth the mouth of an ogre?</p> +<p>Oysters, as you know, are so valuable that we rear them in +special "beds." Along comes the hungry Starfish, with thousands of +its relations, finding the fat oysters very good eating. They do +great damage in our oyster-fisheries, and it is one long battle +between them and the keepers of the "beds."</p> +<p>Supporting the tough skin of Five-fingered Jack is a wonderful +skeleton. It is like a network of fine plates and rods made of +lime. Perhaps you have seen one in a museum.</p> +<p>Five-fingers has a great number of cousins, some of them common +enough along our shores. One of the strangest is the Brittle Star. +On first seeing one of these animals I tried to capture it by +holding its long, wriggling arms. At once the arms broke off. Then +I tried to scoop the creature out of its watery home. But it began +to break its "rays" off as if they were of no value whatever. To my +surprise, the broken "rays" broke again while wriggling on the +ground. This is a strange habit, is it not? Perhaps the Brittle +Star has found this dodge useful in escaping from enemies. Anyhow, +the loss of an arm or two matters little, for others grow in their +place.</p> +<p>Another cousin of the Starfish is the Sea-urchin, a round +prickly creature rather like the burr of the sweet-chestnut tree. +This mass of prickles is not a vegetable; he is very much alive. +Nature has given many plants and animals these prickles, like fixed +bayonets, for a defence against their enemies. You will at once +think of the gorse and the hedgehog, or urchin, as some people call +it. Our little Sea-urchin has prickles, like the hedgehog, but he +is really unlike any other living creature, except, perhaps, the +Starfish.</p> +<p>If you were to roll up a Starfish into a ball, and then stick +about three thousand spines on the ball thus made, you would have a +creature looking rather like a Sea-urchin.</p> +<p>Beneath the mass of spines there is a hard <i>test</i> or shell, +made of plates joined closely together; this is the skeleton of the +Sea-urchin. Sometimes you find this strange shell on the seashore, +rather dirty, and not always sweet-smelling. You might also find +Sea-urchins half-dead, washed into the rock-pools. The shells are +wonderful objects, so you should clean them in fresh water; they +are well worth the trouble of taking home.</p> +<p>All over the shell you will see little rounded knobs. These show +where the spines were fixed on; each spine fits into a hole in the +shell, but so loosely that it is able to move about. The Sea-urchin +can walk by moving its spines, tilting its body along from one +place to another on the bed of the sea. It can do much more than +that. Like its cousin the Starfish, it has numerous tube-feet, so +you would not be surprised to see this prickly ball walk up the +face of a rock.</p> +<p>The tube-feet, or sucker-feet, are fixed to the shell in much +the same way as the spines. They can be bent this way or that. If +the Urchin is on a rock he clings tightly with these sucker-feet; +then, if he wishes to move away, you will see the long thin tubes +stretch out and bend about. They fix themselves to the rock, and +the animal is drawn along.</p> +<p><a name="Illus010"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus010.png" width="50%" title= +"TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN." alt=""></center> +<h4>TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Besides these spines and suckers, the Sea-urchin owns another +set of tools. Scattered over it, among the spines, are many tiny +rods tipped with little teeth or pincers. You will not be able to +see them, except under a magnifying glass. Of what use are these +strange little pincers or rods? It is thought that the Urchin uses +them in several ways. They may help in capturing small prey, or +they may be used when the creature has to fight a larger enemy. +They are also certainly of use as cleansing tools. That is to say, +they can pick off tiny scraps of weed or dirt which settle on the +animal's body. Some Starfishes also own pincers of this sort, but +they are not so perfect as those of the funny little Urchin. We +must not forget that all these spines, tube-feet, and pincers are +worked by a set of muscles.</p> +<p>In the centre of the Urchin's shell is its mouth. The Starfish, +we found, had a terrible mouth, but that of the Urchin is worse +still. Not only is it of great size, but it is fitted with strong +jaws and five long, sharp teeth, You may see them poking out from +the mouth of the animal, and feel for yourself how hard they +are.</p> +<p>There is a great deal more to know about Five-fingers; and the +Sea-urchin still has his secrets which no one can explain. We have +but glanced at their story in this lesson; but you can see that the +Starfish, lying limp on the sands, is not so dull as it looks.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Where is the mouth of the Starfish placed?</p> +<p>2. Describe how the Starfish moves.</p> +<p>3. How does the Starfish feed on the oyster?</p> +<p>4. Why is the <i>Brittle</i> Star given that name?</p> +<p>5. How do the Starfish and Sea-urchin keep themselves clean?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson2"></a> +<h2>LESSON II.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>A STROLL BY THE SEA.</b></p> +<p>The sea and the land are always at war. When you are at the +seaside, with spade and bucket to make "castles" and "pies" of the +sand, you can see and hear the battle.</p> +<p>A wave comes rolling smoothly on towards the shore. It reaches +the land and can go no further, and then, with a roar and a crash +and splash of sparkling foam, it breaks. It spreads into a sheet of +foaming water, and, after rushing as far as it can up the beach, it +seethes back as the next wave takes up the battle.</p> +<p>What a grinding and tearing, as wave after wave is hurled at the +land! That is the battle-cry of the land and sea! Most of the +pebbles and the sand on the beach have been won from the land in +the great fight. We might call them the spoils of war. Once they +formed part of the solid land, the rock or cliff. Now they are +loose fragments spread for mile after mile round our coast.</p> +<p>Every wave takes them up and has fine fun with them. Pebbles and +sand are picked up, swirled along, and thrown at the shore. They +are sucked back as the wave is broken by the land. And then the +following wave takes them, grinds them and scrubs them together. +Thus they are jostled hither and thither, up and down the coast; +and, as a result of the long, long fight, rocks and cliffs become +pebbles, sand, or mud.</p> +<p>Now if you look at the pebbles on the shore you see that many of +them are smooth and round. Some are as round as the "marbles" you +play with. No wonder, for the mighty sea has scoured them with sand +and rolled them for miles.</p> +<p>As you know, the sea is not always at the same height. It falls +and rises. Twice in every day it <i>ebbs</i> and <i>flows</i>; we +call this movement of the sea the <i>tides</i>. At low tide we can +explore the very bed of the ocean. We can visit the homes of the +living, breathing animals, which, at high tide, are hidden far +under water. Between the high-water mark and low-water mark is our +hunting-place. There we shall find the play-ground and +feeding-ground of many a strange creature.</p> +<p>Here is a stretch of sand, with little channels of water; there +is a patch of shingle mixed with numbers of tiny shells. The ebbing +tide leaves shallow pools in every hollow of the beach, and these +pools are often full of life.</p> +<p>Shrimps dart away and disappear in the sand as if by magic. +Small fish and crabs hide from you as best they can. Helpless +jelly-fish and starfish sprawl on the wet sand. What are those thin +ropes of sand coiled up into little mounds? They remind us of +"worm-casts." They are thrown up by a sand-worm, called "lug-worm" +by the fisherman. He brings a spade and digs wherever he sees the +sandy ropes of the "lug," for this worm makes good fishing +bait.</p> +<p>Seagulls love to explore the shallow pools. You may see them +walking solemnly about, picking up stray morsels. If you see a +screaming group of them you can be sure that one has found an extra +large prize, and the others mean to share the feast.</p> +<p>Let us walk down the beach towards the sea. Soon we find +ourselves among rocks. Now these rocks are the bare bed of the +shore, stripped of all covering. There is no mud, sand, or shingle, +so here you see plainly the work done by the restless water. On +every side you notice rocks worn to all shapes and sizes. Some jut +out as sharp ledges. Others are flat tables, covered with a +table-cloth of sea-plants. These clothe the rocks, or hang over the +ledges like wet, shining green curtains. Nearly every rock has its +crust of barnacles and clumps of mussels. If we are not careful we +slip on the wet weeds, and get a ducking in the pools which lie +everywhere among the rocks.</p> +<p>Here is the best place of all for sharp eyes to find the animals +and plants we seek. Where the hard rock has been worn down into +hollows, the falling tide leaves a pool of still, clear water. +These rock-pools are the home of many a creature. So let us look +for them, until the rising tide sweeps over the rocks once more, +and drives us away.</p> +<p>Sea-anemones and seaweeds brighten the pool with their various +colours. Pretty shells gleam here and there; and on the face of the +rock there are more limpets, barnacles and mussels than we can +count.</p> +<p>Where are the other living animals which we came to find? You +will not see them unless you hunt for them in the right way. It is +a game of "hide-and-seek." They are the "hiders"; and, as their +lives often depend on their skill in hiding, you cannot wonder that +they know every trick in the game.</p> +<p>There may be crabs, fish, shrimps, and others in the pool. If +you look for a moment, and then walk to the next pool, your hunting +will not have much result. It is best to lie down and wait +patiently, gazing into the clear water of the pool. The little +inhabitants are hidden in the dark corners under the rock ledges, +or buried under stones and sand; or they may be hiding in those +thick clumps of mussels--a favourite lurking-place; or else tucked +away in the friendly shelter of the seaweed.</p> +<p>Knowing their dodges, you will soon become clever at finding +them. Some seaside dwellers, such as prawns, are almost transparent +in the water. Others, like baby crabs, are green or brown like the +weed in which they hide. Even the sharp eyes of the seagulls must +be deceived by this trick.</p> +<p>What a strange life they lead, these creatures of the shore! At +times they are deep under water, and they form part of the teeming +life of the ocean floor.</p> +<p>Then the tide falls and uncovers them. They are in the full +light of day again, the sun shines on them. Most of them cannot +escape to the sea, and so must face the enemies which prowl along +the shore looking for prey. So, from one tide to the next, the +rock-pool is like a prison containing prisoners of the strangest +sort.</p> +<p><a name="Illus0079"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0079.jpg"><img src="Illus0079.jpg" width="60%" title= +"GULLS. 1. COMMON GULLS. 2. LESSER BLACK GULL. 3. GLAUCOUS GULLS." +alt=""></a></center> +<table align="center" width="75%"> +<caption><b>GULLS</b></caption> +<tr align="center"> +<td>1. COMMON GULLS.</td> +<td>2. LESSER BLACK GULL.</td> +<td>3. GLAUCOUS GULLS.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How is the sand formed?</p> +<p>2. Give the names of some of the animals to be found in the +rock-pools.</p> +<p>3. Where do these animals hide?</p> +<p>4. Prawns and shore-crabs are not easily seen; why is this?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson3"></a> +<h2>LESSON III.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>BIRDS OF THE SHORE.</b></p> +<p>On some parts of our coast we find steep cliffs, with the sea +beating wildly at their feet. Elsewhere there is a sloping beach of +sand and shingle with, perhaps, dark rocks showing at low tide. We +explored such a beach as that in our last lesson. There are long, +long stretches of sand and thin grass in other places, or else mile +after mile of muddy, dreary, salt marshes.</p> +<p>Birds are to be found on every kind of coast. Some, like the +Seagull, wander far and wide. Others keep to the cliffs, and many +find all they need in the wide mud-flats. Such an army is there of +these shore birds, that we cannot even glance at them all in this +lesson. So we will take a few of them only--the Black-headed Gull, +the Cormorant, the Ringed Plover, the Oyster-catcher and the +Redshank.</p> +<p>Out of all the many kinds of Gulls, you know the Black-headed +one best. If you live in London you can see and hear him, for he +and his cousins have swarmed along the Thames of late years. They +find food there, and kind people enjoy feeding the screaming birds +as they wheel in graceful flight over the bridges and +Embankment.</p> +<p>The country boy, too, sees this Gull. He flies far inland, +following the plough, and he then rids the land of many a harmful +grub. Because of this habit, some people call him the Sea-crow. At +all seaside places you find him, and there he fights for his meals +with the Herring Gull, the Common Gull, the Kittiwake and +others.</p> +<p>Really we should call this gull the Brown-headed, not the +Black-headed, Gull; for the hood is more brown than black; and +again, if you look for this bird during your summer holidays, you +will see no dark hood on his head. You might, though, know him then +by the red legs and bill, and the white front-edging to his lovely +pearly-grey wings.</p> +<p>Look at him in January, however, and you see dark feathers +beginning to appear on his head. The fact is, this dark hood is the +bird's wedding dress. It comes only when the nesting season draws +near. Then he leaves the fields, parks, and rivers, to fly away to +the nesting-place.</p> +<p>These Gulls love to nest in colonies--that is, near one another. +Among rushes and reeds, and rough grass growing in deep wet mud, +they feel that their nests are safe. There they lay three eggs. The +chicks, almost as soon as they leave the eggs, can run about. If +there is no dry land near the nest, these youngsters tumble in the +water and swim without bothering about swimming lessons.</p> +<p>In summer they are ready to fly with their parents round the +coast, and to the muddy mouths of large rivers, where they feed. +Flocks of them are also seen out in the open sea, feeding on the +shoals of small fish. They also follow steamers, for the sake of +any scraps thrown overboard, and they crowd round the fishing boats +when they are being unloaded. You see, they are <i>scavengers</i>, +and so are to be found wherever there are waste scraps of food.</p> +<p>Perhaps you have noticed that Gulls float high in the sea, like +so many corks. They can leave the water easily, and take to flight; +but they <i>cannot</i> dive. The Gull's dinner-table is the whole +coast. His eyes are keen enough, as you will know if you have +watched him swoop down on a piece of bread in mid-air, and catch it +neatly in his beak.</p> +<p>The flight of this Gull is beautiful, graceful, and easy. +Sometimes he wheels up and up into the blue sky, almost without +moving a wing. He can also glide for a great while, balancing his +body against the wind, and turning his head from side to side on +the look-out for food. Those long, pointed wings of his make him +one of Nature's most perfect flying-machines. His wild, laughing +cry has given him the nickname of Laughing Gull.</p> +<p>In the fields and along the banks of our big rivers you may see +the Common Gull with numbers of his black-headed cousins. His beak +and legs and webbed feet are greenish yellow, and this is quite +enough to distinguish the two birds. Their habits are much the +same. Both skim over the sea, or the coast, looking for waste food. +They are not very "choice" in their meals; dead fish or live fish, +young crabs, worms, shell-fish or grubs they eat readily, as well +as any offal thrown from passing ships, or the refuse of the +fish-market.</p> +<p>One of these scavenging birds was seen to be carrying a long +object, like an eel, in its mouth. The bird was shot; and it was +then discovered that the "eel" was really a string of candles! The +greedy Gull had half-swallowed one, leaving the rest to hang down +from its bill. The Common Gull nests in "colonies," like the +Black-headed Gull. Its nest is made of seaweed, heather, and dried +grass, in which it lays its three greenish-brown eggs.</p> +<p>Another bird to be seen along all parts of our coast, summer and +winter alike, is the Cormorant, usually with a small party of his +friends. They fly swiftly, one behind the other, and a long line of +them reminds one of the pictures of "sea-serpents," especially as +they fly quite near the surface of the sea, each one with its long +neck outstretched. The Gull flies beautifully, as if he knew his +power, and loved to show how he can skim and dive through the air. +The Cormorant is not a flier, but a swimmer and diver; he cannot +"show off" in the air, and only uses his narrow wings to take him, +as quickly as may be, from one fishing-place to another.</p> +<p>Most of the Cormorant's time is spent in fishing, for he lives +entirely on fish, and catches immense numbers of them. He spends +many hours, too, in drying his wings. I once saw a number of these +birds with their wings "hung out to dry." Each one was perched on a +stump of wood, across the muddy mouth of a river, and each +sooty-looking bird had his wings wide open in the sun. This habit +seems to show that the Cormorant uses his wings, as well as his +feet, in his frequent journeys under water.</p> +<p>The powerful webbed feet of the Cormorant, set far back on the +body, the darting head, long neck, and long curved beak, tell you +plainly how he earns his meals. He is a clever fish-hunter, and the +fishermen, knowing the appetite of this keen rival of theirs, +detest him and destroy him. In some countries there is a price on +his head--that is, so much money is given for every Cormorant +killed.</p> +<p>Sometimes the Cormorant swims slowly along with his head under +water, on the watch for small fish. Seeing one below him, he dives +like a flash, and can remain under water for some time; he wastes +very little time, however, in swallowing his victim head first.</p> +<p>The great skill of this bird has been made use of, and tame +Cormorants are used in China to obtain fish for their masters. They +have been used in England, too, for the same purpose. A strap is +placed round the bird's neck to prevent him from swallowing the +catch. He is then set to work. After catching five or six fish he +is recalled by his master, and made to disgorge his prey, which, of +course, he has swallowed as far as the strap will permit.</p> +<p>The Cormorant is famous for his large appetite; he chases even +big fish, of a size to choke him, you would think. Like his +relative the Pelican, he owns a very elastic throat. I have seen a +Pelican put a half-grown duck in its pouch, without much trouble. +The Cormorant could not perform this feat, but his throat will +stretch so as to allow the passage of large fish. Small fish he +usually tosses up in the air, catches them neatly head first, and +swallows them whole.</p> +<p>Another bird of our coast is the Oyster-catcher, sometimes +called the "Sea-pie" or Mussel-picker. These names suit it well, +for it does not live on oysters, but on mussels, limpets and +whelks. Of course, these are easily "caught" at low tide; they are +not easily eaten, so the Sea-pie has to earn his dinner by hard +work. In fact, his beak is often notched by the sharp, hard edges +of the shells of these molluscs; and at times, he haunts the low +banks of mud and ooze near the sea, and there picks up worms and +other soft-bodied animals.</p> +<p>As his name Sea-pie shows, the Oyster-catcher is a +black-and-white bird, his under parts being white and upper parts +black. His legs and long, straight bill are red. Most birds of the +waterside seem to find that black-and-white feathers make a good +disguise. Though they would show up plainly on a green field, they +are well hidden among the stones along the edge of the water.</p> +<p>The Sea-pie makes no nest, only a hole in the sand or shingle, +lined with small stones or shells. The eggs are coloured and marked +so that they are hard to see among the stones which surround them. +The youngsters wear a fluffy suit of grey, marked with dark streaks +and dots; and it takes very sharp eyes indeed to pick them out from +the shingle where they crouch.</p> +<p>The Ringed Plover is another bird which loves the sandy, pebbly +margin of the sea. Have you ever watched him there? He is not much +larger than a plump lark, and he runs quickly along the beach, +stooping now and again to pick up the morsels of food which his +keen eye detects.</p> +<p>But, all the while, he is watching you with the other eye, for +he is a wary little bird, and not to be taken by surprise. +<i>If</i> you can get near him, you will notice his rather long +yellowish legs, greyish-brown back, and, more than all, the white +collar round his neck, and the black band showing on his white +chest. Again we see the black-and-white markings which are so +useful to the bird of the shore.</p> +<p>Everyone who knows the Ringed Plover loves to watch him. He is +one of the daintiest, most fairy-like birds. When he is picking up +worms and sand-hoppers on the wet sand he is easily observed. But +wait! He flies off and settles on the shingle not far away. You +walk nearer, to watch him. Alas! he is gone. You know just where he +settled, yet he is gone! He has often played that trick on me.</p> +<p>The secret lies in his grey, white-and-black markings. When our +ships were in danger from enemy submarines, our sailors painted +them with queer stripes and bars, to make it hard for the enemy to +see them. Nature has marked the Ringed Plover on the same plan. The +feathers are so coloured and the colours are so arranged that, once +among the grey, yellow, black, and white pebbles on the beach, the +little bird is invisible. It is as if the earth had swallowed him +up.</p> +<p>The eggs, too, are just as hard to find. There is no nest to +"give the game away"; and the eggs look just like the pebbles +amongst which they are laid. The young ones are protected from +their enemies in the same way, and they crouch, as still as death, +amid the stones which they so much resemble.</p> +<p>Now let us leave the beach and look for the Redshank on the +mud-flats. Many birds would starve there, but the Redshank is quite +happy, as Nature has fitted him for his life in such a place. His +long, red legs--from which he gets his name--are for wading in the +shallow, muddy creeks he loves. Those wide-spreading feet keep him +from sinking in the mud.</p> +<p>The long beak is for probing. As a rule the Redshank digs for +his dinner, though he also picks up any worms or other food on the +surface; but he is nearly always seen probing the mud.</p> +<p>Like all the shore birds, Redshanks are very wary. They have no +hedges or trees for hiding-places, and so must always be on the +watch. No sooner does the Redshank spy you than he is up and, with +a shrill whistle of alarm, flies quickly away.</p> +<p>The marshes are the home of many a bird like the Redshank. They +are all waders and diggers. They live much as he does, and so they +have the long beak and legs, and the spreading feet, to fit them +for that life.</p> +<p>We have now looked at a few sea birds, shore birds, and a marsh +bird. Many inland birds, too, are fond of the shore. The artful +Jackdaw builds in the cliffs, and his cousin, the Crow, searches +the shore for food. Even the gay Kingfisher has been seen diving in +the seaside pools.</p> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0080"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0080.jpg"><img src="Illus0080.jpg" width="60%" title="THE REDSHANK." +alt=""></a></center> +<h4>THE REDSHANK.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How do you know which is the Black-headed Gull in the summer +months?</p> +<p>2. Why is it difficult to see the Ringed Plover on the stones of +the shore?</p> +<p>3. Where would you look for the eggs of the Ringed Plover and of +the Black-headed Gull?</p> +<p>4. Why have marsh birds such long beaks?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson4"></a> +<h2>LESSON IV.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>CRABS.</b></p> +<p>Little Crabs are to be found everywhere along the sea-shore--not +the monsters of the fishmonger's shop, but small greenish-brownish +Crabs. They live in the weed of the rock-pools, and in the wet +sand. These are the Shore Crabs; the large Edible Crabs are a +different kind, and live mostly in deep water.</p> +<p>Shore Crabs are quarrelsome little creatures; the larger ones +are always ready to gobble up the smaller ones, or to snatch their +food and run away with it. If you put some dead mussels or fish in +a pool, you will be amused at their antics. How they scramble and +fight! Crabs do not believe in "table manners."</p> +<p><a name="Illus027"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus027.png" width="60%" title="THE CRAB." alt= +""></center> +<h4>THE CRAB.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>It is their taste for waste scraps of food that makes crabs of +use in the sea. They are most useful scavengers. They clear the sea +and beach of dead matter which would poison the air and water.</p> +<p>For many years nobody knew how Crabs grew up. It was thought +that a baby Crab was like its mother, just as a baby spider is a +tiny picture of its parent. But no, the young Crab is as much +<i>like</i> a Crab as a caterpillar is like a butterfly.</p> +<p>Let us begin at the beginning--the egg. Mother Crab carries her +eggs with her, under her tail, which itself is always kept tucked +up under her body. Out of each egg there comes the queerest little +creature! It is just large enough to be seen as it wriggles in the +water. Then its skin splits, and there appears a quaint thing with +long feathery legs, a big head, a spike on the back of its head, +and another spike like a nose.</p> +<p>Who would suspect this strange atom would turn into a Crab! +Well, nobody did. It was called a <i>zoea</i>; but you can call it +a Crab caterpillar or larva. The maggot is the larva of the fly, +and the zoea is the larva of the Crab. With crowds of its brothers +and sisters, the zoea kicks about on the surface of the sea. +Fishes, and even great whales, swallow these tiny things by the +million.</p> +<p>The Crab larva eats and grows. Again and again its skin splits, +and a rather different zoea appears. This happens about once a +week, until, hey presto! the spiked zoea is now rather like a Crab. +The spikes are gone, and now it has tiny claws, and two eyes at the +end of stalks. Yet it still owns a tail. At last this is tucked up +under its body, and lo! our little friend has changed into a very +small Crab. No longer able to swim about, it comes to get a living +in the shallow pools of the shore.</p> +<p>Luckily, this helpless baby knows how to hide. He is helped by +his colour, for it matches the green and brown of the weeds and +rocks. He knows how to dig himself into the sand, and work his +shell well down. Then only his funny eyes on stalks peer up at you. +At this time of his life he has to "make himself scarce," and +snatch his food when and where he can.</p> +<p><a name="Illus028"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus028.png" width="60%" title="PURSE CRAB." +alt=""></center> +<h4>PURSE CRAB.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>We do not eat these little Crabs, but other Crabs do, and so do +anemones, gulls, and other hungry creatures; and they themselves +hunt sand-hoppers, and eat anything they can find or steal. So they +grow bigger; and then, like the boy who grows quickly, the Crab +finds his shelly suit a size too small for him!</p> +<p>Now look at his suit. It is a hard coat, a complete suit of +armour to protect his soft body. Our picture shows the Lobster, the +Crab's cousin. The Shrimp and Prawn and Lobster are relations of +the Crab; these <i>crustaceans</i>, as they are called, are all +cased up in a hard <i>crust</i>, which will not stretch the +slightest little bit. But the Crab's body <i>must</i> grow! What is +he to do?</p> +<p>At first he starves himself, and so his body shrinks inside its +old shell. He loosens himself as well as he can. Soon the shell +breaks across, and the Crab struggles to get free. At last he backs +out, and leaves his old suit for ever. It is a wonderful +performance, for he has withdrawn even from the legs, claws, +feelers, bristles, eye-stalks and eyes! The old shell is left quite +whole--a perfect Crab, but with no Crab inside it!</p> +<p>Now the Crab, in his new suit, hides away. He knows that he is a +soft, flabby creature at this time, and that other animals, even +Mrs. Crab, would be glad to meet him--and eat him. While his +covering is yet soft he grows quickly. When it is hard, he ventures +out again, ready to quarrel and fight.</p> +<p>This change of shell happens often to young Crabs. Older ones +change only once a year. All the different kinds of Crab begin life +as <i>larvae</i> or <i>zoeas</i>, and cast their shells as we have +seen.</p> +<p>Crabs can see and hear and smell; and they must also have a fine +sense of touch. I was once watching a big Crab eating his dinner +under a rocky ledge in a large glass tank. As he tore his food, +some of the bits, no larger than crumbs, fell and settled on the +rocks below. Then I saw that a smaller Crab, with long pincers, was +hiding under a rock. As the crumbs fell, he reached out his pincers +and picked them up, one by one. Each bit was gravely carried to his +mouth, and tucked in, and then he reached out for another. Though I +was very close to the Crab, I could hardly see the tiny scraps +which he was able to pick up so easily.</p> +<p>One of the strangest Crabs is the Hermit. You would think that +Nature had played a joke on him, for he has only half a suit of +armour. His tail part is soft. He would have a bad time in the sea, +but for a dodge he has learnt.</p> +<p>The baby Hermit takes the empty home of a periwinkle. As he +grows he needs a larger house, and so leaves the tight shell and +pops his tail into a bigger one, generally a whelk shell. If he +meets with another Hermit there is a battle, one trying to steal +the other's shell. Our coloured picture, page 35, shows some +Hermits at war. Fighting, house-hunting, and moving house seem to +be the Hermit's favourite pursuits. But, whatever he does, his +first care is to protect that soft tail of his. His right claw is +large and strong, so he uses it to close the door of his stolen +home.</p> +<p>Sometimes he has a lodger who lives on the roof. This lodger, as +you will notice in our coloured picture, is the sea anemone. The +Hermit and his lodger seem to be good friends, at least they seem +to like each other's company. There is no doubt that there are good +reasons for this. We shall have more to say about this strange pair +in our lesson on the sea anemones.</p> +<p><a name="Illus031"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus031.png" width="60%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Another funny Crab is the Spider Crab. Its back is covered with +reddish bristles, like so many hooks. These catch in the seaweed, +and soon the Spider Crab is decorated with bits of weed. But that +is not all. The artful Crab tears off other pieces of weed with its +pincers, and attaches them to the hooks. It is another dodge, of +course, to escape from enemies. The Lobster, whose picture you see, +has a life-story much like that of the Crab. He, also, grows too +big for his suit of armour, and casts it off in a wonderful manner, +but only after a great deal of trouble. In his new suit he is very +weak and soft--an easy prey to the first enemy to find him. He +cannot defend himself then; he can only lie helplessly on his side, +waiting for his coat to harden. He is so weak that his soft legs +cannot bear the weight of his body.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0081"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0081.jpg"><img src="Illus0081.jpg" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING." alt=""></a></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Needless to say, the Lobster always finds a secure retreat +before casting off his protecting coat of armour. A hole under a +rock suits him well at that time. Strange to say, he seems to +dislike his old clothes, and often crunches them to pieces or eats +them up, or even pushes them under the sand or stones! Then he +marches out like a proud warrior, knowing his strength, and the +power of his great claws.</p> +<p>Lobsters are fond of fighting, and must be very disagreeable +neighbours. They can swim along by using the little "swimmerets" +under their bodies. Or, by rapidly bending down their powerful +tails, Lobsters are able to shoot backwards through the water at a +great pace. In our next lesson we shall find that Prawns are also +able to paddle forwards or dart backwards in a similar way.</p> +<p>Lobsters, living and dead, are often on sale in the fishmonger's +shop. Like the Crabs and Prawns, they are usually caught in traps +or pots, baited with pieces of fish, and left among the rocks. The +traps are of various shapes, some being like bee-hives made of cane +or wicker; others are made of netting stretched over hoops, and +more like a bird-cage in shape.</p> +<p>The Lobster smells the bait in the trap, and hastens to get to +it by diving through the only entrance. Having enjoyed his meal he +tries to swim away; but there is no escape, and there he must wait +until the owner of the trap makes his usual "round" in the morning. +Of course, there is a rope to every trap, and a cork to mark its +position.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus034a"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus034a.png" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Then the Lobster finds himself taken carefully out of prison; +his claws are tied to prevent him from fighting, and he goes to +market with a lot of other Lobsters. There are many lobster +fisheries along the rocky parts of our coast.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus034b"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus034b.png" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>You will often see Lobsters with one very large claw, and one +small. They are able to throw off a limb or two whenever they are +frightened. Also they often lose a claw in the terrible fights of +which they seem so fond. If one joint of a claw becomes injured the +Lobster has no further use for it; he is wise, for his very life +depends on his armour. So he throws it away, not at the wounded +joint, but at the joint above.</p> +<p>After a time a slight swelling appears on the stump thus made; +this gradually grows into a new limb. It may be smaller than the +lost one, but it is perfect in detail. What a useful gift this must +be to an animal like the Lobster, whose whole life is one terrible +fight after another!</p> +<p>The baby Lobsters, like the baby Crabs, are quite unlike their +parents. They swim about at the surface of the sea, and already +they seize every chance of fighting and eating their small +neighbours.</p> +<p>When about one inch in length they leave this infants' school, +and join another at the bottom of the sea. Here they eat, fight, +grow and change their coats, just as the young Crabs do. They are +now like their parents. Sometimes they grow to be huge, and to +weigh as much as ten-and-a-half pounds.</p> +<p>The mother Lobster carries as many as thirty thousand eggs under +her body! Needless to say, a very, very few of this enormous family +survive the dangers of the sea. The rule there is--"Eat and be +eaten!".</p> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus035"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus035.png" width="60%" title="THE LOBSTER." +alt=""></center> +<h4>THE LOBSTER.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. What is a Crab larva like?</p> +<p>2. Give the names of four crustaceans.</p> +<p>3. Why does the Crab have to change its shell?</p> +<p>4. Why does it hide away at that time?</p> +<p>5. Of what use are Shore Crabs?</p> +<p>6. How are Lobsters caught?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson5"></a> +<h2>LESSON V.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES.</b></p> +<p>In nearly every shore-pool you may see Shrimps and Prawns +darting out of sight, and, for every one you see, there are many +more hidden away. These delicate, transparent, lively creatures are +not much like the boiled Shrimps and Prawns of the fish-shop.</p> +<p>They are the prey of so many fish, crabs, and birds, that they +have learnt to "make themselves scarce." Have you ever watched them +in a glass tank, or aquarium? If so, you will know that it is not +easy to see them. In the shore-pools it is harder still.</p> +<p>Some are swaying about in the still, clear water, moving their +long feelers from side to side. Others have burrowed into the sand. +In doing this, they raise a sandy cloud, which settles on them and +hides them. To catch some, you must use a "shrimp-net," for they +can dart across the pool like arrows.</p> +<p><a name="Illus036"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus036.png" width="60%" title="THE SHRIMP." +alt=""></center> +<h4>THE SHRIMP.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Some are Shrimps, and some are Prawns; how can we tell the +difference? When they are boiled the answer is easy. All the +Shrimps turn brown and the Prawns red. (The red "Shrimps" are near +relations of the Prawn.) To tell a live Shrimp from a Prawn, look +at the long pointed beak which juts out from the front of the head. +That of the Prawn is toothed, like a little saw. If the beak is +quite smooth its wearer is a Shrimp.</p> +<p>Until Prawns are grown up, they haunt the sandy shallows with +their cousins the Shrimps. But the larger Prawns live in deeper +water. They are generally caught in traps, as are their relatives, +the crab and lobster.</p> +<p>Now look closely at a Prawn, and try to find how it swims. Turn +it upside down. It has ten legs; and, under each of the horny rings +of its body, you can see a pair of little paddles. They are fringed +with hairs. When the Prawn or Shrimp is not in a hurry, he swims +slowly but surely with the little paddles, or "swimmerets." If any +danger threatens, he uses his tail, in this way:--It is made of +five fringed plates, which, as you can see, spread out or close up, +like a fan. As he doubles up his body, the plates spread themselves +out. They strike the water with great force, and so send the Prawn +or Shrimp quickly <i>backwards</i>. As the body becomes straight +again, the fan closes, ready for another stroke. To move quickly, +the Shrimp or Prawn merely bends his body, then straightens it. The +tail thus becomes a strong oar, driving him backwards with rapid +jerks.</p> +<p>Look now at the Prawn's long, hair-like feelers. There are two +pairs. On one pair are the ears, a special kind of ear for hearing +in water.</p> +<p>You will notice that the Shrimp's eyes are on the end of short +stalks. Each big eye is really a cluster of little eyes, rather +like the "compound eyes" of insects. If you lift up the horny +shield behind the head, you see a row of what look like curly +feathers. These are the breathing gills.</p> +<p>Shrimps carry their eggs about with them; no doubt you have +often found masses of eggs under the Shrimp's body. Each egg is +fastened by a kind of "glue," or else the rapid jerking of the +mother Shrimp would soon loosen the eggs and set them free.</p> +<p>The hard, shelly covering of the Shrimp and Prawn is like the +armour of the crab--it will not stretch in the least. The body is +easily bent, owing to the soft hinges between the hard rings. But +the coat itself will not stretch. Then how do these little +creatures grow? We see small Shrimps and large ones, so grow they +must, in some way.</p> +<p>They are of the same family--the <i>crustacea</i>--as the crab; +and they grow in much the same way. The hard covering gets too +tight for the body inside it. Then it splits across the back. After +much wriggling, the Shrimp appears in a new soft skin. While the +skin is still soft the Shrimp grows very quickly. Crustaceans have +a funny way of growing, have they not? Instead of growing evenly, +little by little, they grow by "fits and starts," a great deal in a +few hours and then not at all.</p> +<p>Besides being good food for us, and for the fish, Shrimps and +Prawns have another use. They are scavengers. They pick to pieces +and eat the vegetable and animal stuff which floats in the sea. +Before it can decay and become poisonous, these useful creatures +use it up as food. Great numbers of Shrimps and Prawns are caught +for our markets. Some are caught by men who push a small net over +the sands near shore, but most are caught by the +<i>shrimp-trawl</i>, a large net cast from a small sailing +vessel.</p> +<p>The rocks, and the wooden piles of the pier, are often covered +with the hard shells known as Barnacles, or Acorn Shells. If you +slip on them with bare feet their sharp edges cut you. Each Acorn +Shell is a little house. Have you ever caught a glimpse of the +animal living inside?</p> +<p>If you will look very carefully, you will see that the Acorn +Shell is made of three-sided pieces, closely joined. There is a +little door at the top, kept tightly closed until the tide comes up +and covers the rocks. Then watch, and you will see a bunch of tiny +feathers appear through a slit in the door. This means that the +animal is hungry, and has put its twelve legs out of doors to catch +a dinner!</p> +<p>This is strange, but true! The Barnacle is always upside down in +its home, and its twelve feathery legs are thrust out of the door +at the top. They make a fine net, in which minute animals are +caught and brought into the mouth below. This funny creature +actually kicks its food into its mouth! If you own a magnifying +glass, you can see this for yourself at the seaside.</p> +<p>You will not be able to see the mouth, however, which is inside +the shell. It is fitted with moving parts, and feelers, like the +mouth of a crab. Also, the Barnacle has a good set of teeth to +grind its food. It has no real eyes, having no use for them. Of +what use are eyes to an animal standing on its head in a small dark +shell! Now and then it casts its coat (like the Crab and Shrimp). +The old coat is rolled up and thrown away outside the door.</p> +<p>Now comes the strangest thing of all. As a baby, the Barnacle is +a free swimming creature. It has three pairs of legs, a tail, a +useful mouth, and one eye. After kicking about in the sea for some +time, and changing its skin, it changes its shape entirely. It now +looks more like a tiny mussel. It has two little "shells," two +eyes, legs, and feelers. Now its swimming days are nearly over, and +it must settle down. It gives up eating, and roves about looking +and feeling for a place to settle on.</p> +<p>Finding a suitable spot, the little animal stands on its head. +Then a kind of glue is formed, which fixes it for life to that +place, head down. The two shells and the two eyes are now thrown +off. The Barnacle quickly builds up a shelly house, and, after a +life of adventure and change, becomes a fixed Barnacle for the rest +of its days.</p> +<p>For many years people knew little of this strange animal. All +its wonderful changes, and the way its body is made, tell us +plainly that the Barnacle is actually first cousin to the Crab, +Lobster, Shrimp and Prawn! It belongs to the class known as the +<i>Crustacea</i>; but, for some reason or other, it has chosen to +live its grown-up life fixed to a rock.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Shrimp swim?</p> +<p>2. Of what use are Shrimps and Prawns in the sea?</p> +<p>3. How can you tell a live Shrimp from a live Prawn?</p> +<p>4. How does the Barnacle obtain its food?</p> +<p>5. Give the names of five crustaceans.</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson6"></a> +<h2>LESSON VI.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>PLANTS OF THE SHORE.</b></p> +<p>To pick a bunch of gay flowers you would look in the fields and +hedge-rows, and not by the sea. Flowers, as you know, love moist +soil, and not dry sand; and, like us, they prefer one food to +another. Sand they do not like, and salt is a poison to them. Both +of these are enemies to plant life.</p> +<p>Also, flowers choose sheltered spots. They do not like rough +winds, and the glare of the sun shrivels them up. Yet there are +plants with pretty flowers to be found by the sea, and many others +with small, dull flowers. These seaside plants have to fight for +their lives. The dry, shifting sand, and the salt spray, are enough +to kill them, you would think. They have no shelter from the strong +sea wind, nor from the fierce glare of the summer sun. The puzzle +is, how do they live among so many enemies? For you know that the +flowers of the field would at once die if you planted them in salt +and sand. They would starve to death.</p> +<p>Even the strongest seaside plants shun that part of the beach +washed by the waves. They leave that to the seaweeds.</p> +<p>Let us look first at some plants which have their home on the +sand-hills. Here is a fine one, like a thistle, with stiff prickly +leaves, and a stiff blue stem. In August it has blue-grey flowers. +This plant is called Sea Holly, its leaves being like those of the +holly. It has an unpleasant smell, yet its roots are used for +making some kinds of sweets.</p> +<p>Now try to pull up a plant of Sea Holly. You find it no easy +task. Then dig away the sand, and you see that its large roots have +gone deep and far. All these plants of sandy places grow like that. +Sand has no food or drink to give to plants. So they send their +roots out, like plants in a desert, until they find what they want. +Besides food and drink, they need a firm anchor in the loose sand. +The Sea Holly, with its roots deep down and far-spreading, can hold +its own, though the gale tears at it and throws its sandy bed here +and there.</p> +<p>We pass many small creeping plants as we walk in the dry sand. +There is a pretty Sea Convolvulus, with its stems deeply buried. It +is a cousin of the common Bindweed. Then we see many plants of +Thyme, and a few ragged bushes of Gorse. We notice that several +little plants grow near the Gorse, as if they had crept there for +shelter. The sea breeze has blown the sand into heaps, and even on +these dry, thirsty hillocks we see many tufts of grass.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0082"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0082.jpg"><img src="Illus0082.jpg" width="100%" title= +"1. THE COMMON LOBSTER. 2. HERMIT CRAB." alt=""></a></center> +<table width="100%"> +<tr align="center"> +<td>1. THE COMMON LOBSTER.</td> +<td>2. HERMIT CRAB.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<p>These Couch Grasses and Dune Grasses, as they are often called, +are coarse and hard. Cattle pass them by in disgust. Yet they are +the most useful plants on the shore. They can live and spread where +other plants die. They have very long underground stems, which go +through and through the dry, loose sand. The wind does its best to +bury them in sand, but they send up hard, sharp buds, and go on +living, and spreading.</p> +<p>Bit by bit, the sand is held together by the matted stems of +these grasses. It becomes firm, instead of loose; the wind can no +longer blow it about. Then other plants can grow in that place. You +know how men go out to the wild parts of the earth and, by hard +work, make those places ready for others to settle there. Well, the +sand-grass works like that. It prepares the way for useful plants +to grow in places where they could not grow before.</p> +<p>Quite near to the sea we shall find a very strange little plant. +It has no leaves, only fleshy, jointed stems. It is known as the +Glass-wort, being full of a substance useful in making glass. It +belongs to a family which seems to delight in deserts and salty +soil! They have all sorts of dodges to help them live in such +places. For instance, their leaves are fleshy. Squeeze them, and +they are like wet, juicy fruit.</p> +<p>The Sea Beet is also a member of this family. The Red Beet, as +well as the Mangel-wurzel, we owe to this humble seaside plant. +Most of our sugar comes from the Sugar-beet.</p> +<p>Another useful plant is the Sea Cabbage, which grows on some +parts of our sea coast. It is rather a ragged, tough kind of +Cabbage, and perhaps you would not choose it for your dinner-table. +We have more tempting sorts in our gardens--Brussels Sprouts, +Broccoli, Cauliflower, but long, long ago the wild seaside cabbage +was the only one growing. Men found it to be eatable, and began to +plant it near their huts or caves. From that small beginning all +our garden cabbages have come.</p> +<p>Walking a little farther from the sea, we leave the sand and +come to stones, rocks and cliffs. We pass a pretty plant, the Sea +Lavender, and another, the Sea Stock. They love best the sandy, +muddy parts of the shore. Their lilac flowers look bright and +pretty. Coming to the rocky places, we find tufts of the flower +known as Sea Pink or Thrift. Its leaves are like grass, and its +flowers form a round pink bundle at the top of a bare stalk.</p> +<p>There are many tufts of Thrift growing among the rocks; and each +tuft has a number of pink flowers. In some places you could step +from one tuft to another for several miles. Bare and ugly stretches +of coast are made into a gay garden by this lovely flower.</p> +<p>Here and there on the rocks is a plant with large yellow +blossoms--the Yellow Horned Poppy. It is a handsome plant, and you +are surprised to see such fine flowers among dry shingle, sand, or +rock; but the Horned Poppy is well able to stand the salt spray and +storms of its favourite home. When the petals have dropped, a green +seed-pod is left. It is very long--nearly twice as long as this +page and looks much more like a stem than a seed-pod.</p> +<p>Sometimes this seaside poppy is seen growing high up the face of +the cliff, where only the jackdaw and sea-birds can find a footing; +and many another plant may be seen there too. The cliffs are full +of cracks, some tiny and some wide. In these places there is always +a certain amount of dirt and grit. You could hardly call it "soil," +and most plants would starve if you planted them in such a +place.</p> +<p><a name="Illus046"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus046.png" width="50%" title="SEA LILY." alt= +""></center> +<h4>SEA LILY.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>These plants of the rock and cliff are not so proud. They have +very long and very thin roots, admirably suited to pierce the grit, +and explore the cracks in the rock, to find the moisture they need. +Besides this, they have fleshy leaves which help them to keep +alive. The Stone-crop and the Penny-wort are well-known plants of +this kind. They grow where you would least expect to find a living +plant. Neither heat nor thirst seems to kill them. Mother Nature +has found many a wonderful way of helping her children to live.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Why do plants which grow in sand have such long roots?</p> +<p>2. In what way are the grasses growing on the sand so +useful?</p> +<p>3. Give the names of four flowering plants of the shore.</p> +<p>4. Where would you look for the Stone-crop and Penny-wort?</p> +<p>5. Why do these two plants have such thin roots?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson7"></a> +<h2>LESSON VII.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS.</b></p> +<p>The prettiest of the creatures of the shore is the Sea Anemone. +No one can see it without being reminded of a flower, an Aster or +Daisy, with a thick stalk and many coloured petals; but, knowing +how it is made, and how it lives, we place it in the Animal +Kingdom, though among the lowliest members of that Kingdom. It is a +cousin of that strange creature, the Jelly-fish, which we shall +look at in another lesson.</p> +<p><a name="Illus047"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus047.png" width="50%" title="SEA ANEMONE." +alt=""></center> +<h4>SEA ANEMONE.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>When the tide falls, you can walk among the rocks and pools by +the sea, and find Anemones in plenty. They are fixed to the rocks. +Some are under the ledges, out of sight, others are low down, half +buried in the wet sand; and others are on the sides of the rocks, +looking like blobs of green, brown, or red jelly. Feel one of them. +It is slimy, and rather firm, not so soft and yielding as the +Jelly-fish. You cannot easily pull it from the rocks without +harming it; but you will find other Anemones on stones and shells; +and these you can put in a jar of sea-water, with some weed, and +carry home to examine later on.</p> +<p>When covered with sea-water the ugly blobs of jelly open out +like beautiful flowers. In some places along our coast the floor of +the sea is like a flower garden, gay with thousands of coloured +Anemones.</p> +<p>Those little "petals" are really <i>tentacles</i>, used for +catching and holding food. We will use a shorter word and call them +feelers. They are set in circles round the top of the Anemone, and +there are many of them. The Daisy Anemone, for instance, has over +seven hundred feelers. Each feeler can be moved from side to side, +and can also be tucked away, out of sight and out of danger; but, +when hungry, the animal spreads them widely, for, as we shall see, +they are the net in which it catches its dinner.</p> +<p>The whole body of the Anemone is like two bags, one hanging +inside the other. The space between the two bags is filled with +water. The feelers are hollow tubes which open out of this space; +so they, too, are filled with water.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0083"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0083.jpg"><img src="Illus0083.jpg" width="100%" title= +"CRUSTACEA. 1. THE LARVA OF A LEAF-BODIED CRUSTACEAN CALLED PHYLLOSOMA. 2. A PRAWN-LIKE CREATURE, SHOWING THE FRONT LIMBS THAT ARE USED FOR GRASPING PREY. 3. A CRAB. 4. THIS IS A SHRIMP-LIKE CREATURE CALLED CUMA SCORPIOIDES." + alt=""></a></center> +<table width="100%"> +<caption><b>CRUSTACEA.</b></caption> +<tr> +<td>1. THE LARVA OF A LEAF-BODIED CRUSTACEAN CALLED +PHYLLOSOMA.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2. A PRAWN-LIKE CREATURE, SHOWING THE FRONT LIMBS THAT ARE USED +FOR GRASPING PREY.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3. A CRAB.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>4. THIS IS A SHRIMP-LIKE CREATURE CALLED CUMA SCORPIOIDES.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<p>The Anemone can press the water into them, and so force them to +open out. In rather the same way you can expand the fingers of a +glove by forcing your breath into them. The Anemone, you see, can +open or close just as it pleases.</p> +<p>What does it eat, and how does it find food? Perhaps you have +watched an open Anemone in a pool, or in a glass tank, and seen it +at its meals. A small creature swims near, and touches one of the +feelers. Instead of darting away, it appears to be held still; and +then other feelers bend towards it and hold the victim. Then they +are all drawn to the centre of the Anemone, carrying their prey +with them; and the feelers, prey and all, are tucked out of +sight.</p> +<p>That is the way the Anemone obtains its food. As soon as the +feelers get hold of a small animal they carry it to the opening of +a tube in the centre. This is the mouth, leading to the stomach. +Very often the feelers, with their victim, are tucked away into the +stomach, and the feelers do not appear again for some time. Is not +this a strange way of eating!</p> +<p>Much stranger still is the way in which the food is held, and +made so helpless that it cannot escape. On the skin of the Anemone +there are many thousands of very tiny pockets, or cells. Each cell +contains a fine thread with a poisoned barb at the tip, The thread +is packed away in the cell, coiled up like the spring of a watch. +As soon as anything presses against the cells they shoot out their +threads. Thus the tips of many poisoned threads enter the skin of +any soft animal which is unlucky enough to touch an Anemone.</p> +<p>If your own skin is tender, these little stinging hairs will +irritate it, but not enough to hurt you. It is different, however, +with the small creatures of the sea. They are made quite helpless +when caught by hundreds of these strange threads. We shall find +similar poison-threads in the Jelly-fish; and these, in some cases, +can cause us serious illness. You cannot see them without the aid +of a microscope.</p> +<p>All those parts of its food which the Anemone cannot digest, it +throws out again. If you feed an Anemone on raw meat, it tucks the +pieces into its mouth, and, some days after, throws out the hard +part of the meat, having taken all the "goodness" from it.</p> +<p>No doubt the Anemones themselves are eaten by other animals in +the sea, but many kinds of fish will not touch them. You may +remember that we noticed an Anemone which lived on the stolen home +of the Hermit Crab. The crab lives in the whelk shell, and the +Anemone lives on the roof, as it were. In nearly every ocean, all +over the world, these two partners are found, using the same shell. +It is thought that the Anemone lives there for two good reasons. +First, the Hermit moves from place to place; you can see that this +would give the Anemone a better chance of obtaining food. Also, +bits of food float to the Anemone when the crab is picking his +dinner to pieces.</p> +<p>The crab seems to like having his strange partner with him. No +doubt the Anemone is of some use to him, or he would at once pull +it off. It is thought that the Anemone protects him from his +enemies, the fish. Some of them would swallow the whelk shell, crab +and all, but they would not eat one on which an Anemone was fixed. +We are not <i>sure</i> that these reasons are the right ones. All +we know for certain is, that a crab and an Anemone have, for some +good reasons, gone into partnership.</p> +<p>Anemones have large families. Sometimes they have numbers of +eggs; at other times their little ones come straight into the world +as very tiny Anemones. A boy who kept a large Anemone in a tank of +sea water, was astonished to find that in a short time, he had not +one, but hundreds, of the creatures. The tiny Anemones were fixed +to the glass and rock, all fishing for food with their little +outspread tentacles. Sometimes the Anemone will calmly divide +itself into two, each half becoming a perfect Anemone!</p> +<p>Anemones are of many shapes, sizes, and colours. The loveliest +of our British ones is the Plumose Anemone. It is like a carnation, +and may grow to be six inches high--that is, nearly as long as this +page. It is known by its shape, not by its colour. It may be any of +these colours--brown, deep green, pale orange, flesh colour, cream, +bright red, brick colour, lemon, or pure white.</p> +<p>There are many other creatures in the sea which resemble plants +and are often mistaken for them. The Sea Lily (p.49) is one of the +flower-like animals; it is a relative of the Starfish, living in +deep water. The Sea Mat (p.59) is often found on the shore. It +seems like a horny kind of weed, but is really a colony of tiny +animals, each one having its own little cell to live in.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Anemone expand its "feelers"?</p> +<p>2. In what way does the Anemone catch the small animals on which +it feeds?</p> +<p>3. Where is the mouth of the Anemone?</p> +<p>4. In what way might the Anemone be of use to its partner, the +hermit crab?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson8"></a> +<h2>LESSON VIII.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS</b></p> +<p>We think of weeds as useless plants which insist on growing just +where they are not wanted. So it is a pity that <i>Sea-weeds</i> +are so named, for the part they play in the sea is a useful one; +and they are often beautiful, though they do not bear flowers like +so many plants of the land. You see draggled heaps of them, lying +on the shore where the waves have thrown them. They are best seen +in their proper home, buoyed up by the water, and spreading out +their broad coloured fronds, or long waving threads. There are, in +many places, meadows of Sea-grass, and forests of Sea-weed! Mother +Earth still has her carpet of green, even when covered by the salt +water. The plants are very unlike those of the land, but, as you +will see, they are of great use. We will suppose you put on a +diving dress. Then you can walk out, under the water, and explore +the forests of the sea.</p> +<p>Down by the line of low tide, before you have waded up to your +knees, you find plants clinging to the rocks. They cover them with +a slippery coat of green; when you turn these Sea-weeds over you +find periwinkles and other animals feeding or hiding. Sea-weed +makes good "cover" for the creatures of the rock-pools, who have +many enemies to fear.</p> +<p>You notice that most of these shore weeds are green, sometimes +as green as young grass. Pull up a bunch of the weed, and you find +that it clings to the rocks and stones, but has no real roots. +Seaweeds belong to a humble family in the world of plants, having +no real roots, no flowers, and no real seeds. They can attach +themselves to the stones or rocks. Along comes a great wave, and +perhaps they are torn up; but this does not harm them, for they +still live as they wash to and fro in the water, until they cling +to another rock. Or they are thrown on the shore to die, or else to +be washed back to sea by the next tide.</p> +<p><a name="Illus054"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus054.png" width="50%" title="SEA-WEED FROND." +alt=""></center> +<h4>SEA-WEED FROND.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>The Sea Lettuce or Green Laver is a common seaweed near the +shore. Its broad, crinkled and bright green leaves are rather like +those of a lettuce. Sometimes it is boiled to a jelly and used for +food. Many other sea-weeds are good to eat, and on some coasts +there is a regular sea-weed harvest.</p> +<p>Now wade into rather deeper water, and you find a great mass of +the Bladder Wrack. Most schoolboys know it, for the little bladders +of air in the leaves explode with a pop if you squeeze them. The +Bladder Wrack, and others of the same kind, are torn up by the +fierce waves in a storm, and tossed on the beach in heaps. They are +gathered by the farmer who knows how to value a cheap manure for +his fields. Some kinds are also of use in packing lobsters so that +they come to market nice and fresh.</p> +<p>When you have walked--in your diving dress--to deep water, you +find yourself among a tangle of olive-green weeds. They are below +the line of low tide. All round you is a forest of dark-green +ribbons with wavy edges. The ribbons are tough and very long, and +cling tightly to the rocks. These ribbon-weeds, and others of the +same kind, are known as Tangles. Round some parts of our coast they +make wide, thick beds in the sea. Though the ribbons may be six +feet long, they are not so wide as the palm of your hand.</p> +<p>Another sea plant, which grows in tufts in rather deep water, is +called Irish Moss; it is green, brown or purple in colour. I do not +know why it should be called Irish Moss, for it is not a moss, and +it grows all round the English, as well as the Irish, sea-coast. +But sea-weeds have strange names; indeed, many of them have no +everyday names at all. Irish Moss is used for food, after being +boiled to a jelly. It can also be made into a gum or glue, and has +often been so used.</p> +<p>Now, if you were to walk still farther on the bed of the sea, +into deeper water, you would find the prettiest of all the sea +plants. These are the pink and red sea-weeds. You also find them on +the beach, but only after they have been torn from their home in +the deep water. They grow on the rocks, in pretty coloured +tufts.</p> +<p>If you dive still farther, into the dark depths of the sea, you +find beds of ooze and slime, and rocks and weird fishes, but no +plants. Why is this? Like the land-plants, these sea-plants must +have <i>light</i>. They cannot grow in the blackness of very deep +water. Can you guess why some sea-weeds are green and others red? +Those growing in the shallow water of the shore are green, like +land-plants, because the sunlight reaches them. Only part of the +light can pass through deep water; and so, in these shady places, +the sea-weed is reddish in colour.</p> +<p><a name="Illus056"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus056.png" width="50%" title="SEA MAT." alt= +""></center> +<h4>SEA MAT.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>We see, then, that (1) green sea-weed grows by the shore; (2) +brownish-green sea-weed likes deeper water; (3) red sea-weed grows +in deep water; and (4) in very deep water there is no weed at +all.</p> +<p>We must not forget the grass of the sea. It grows in narrow +blades, often a yard in length, and as wide as your thumb. It is +not a sea-weed, but a real flowering plant, which, for some reason +or other, loves to grow under water. It creeps in the sand and mud, +with green leaves growing up as thick as corn in a cornfield.</p> +<p>All these waving green leaves make large meadows in the sea; and +sea-snails, fishes, and crabs hide in it, just as all manner of +living things hide in the grass of our meadows. The proper name of +this strange plant is Sea Wrack. When dried, it is useful for +packing up china, and covering flasks of oil.</p> +<p>Now we come to the real use of sea plants. They are food for all +the hosts of small animals of the sea. These eat it as it grows; or +else, like the mussel and oyster, swallow the tiny scraps of it +which float everywhere like so much dust.</p> +<p>The shell-fish, and other animals which feed on sea plants, are +themselves eaten by other sea creatures, and these in their turn +are eaten by crabs, lobsters and fish, which are eaten by us. It +reminds you of a chain. The first link in the chain is the sea +plant, the last links are the fish and ourselves. So, you see, the +weeds and grass of the ocean are of very great value indeed.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Give the names of three common Sea-weeds.</p> +<p>2. What is the colour of the weed found in deep water?</p> +<p>3. Why cannot Sea-weed grow in very deep water?</p> +<p>4. In what way are sea plants most useful?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson9"></a> +<h2>LESSON IX.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>THE JELLY-FISH.</b></p> +<p>Or all the queer children of Nature which live in the sea, the +Jelly-fish is one of the queerest. You often find it on the shore, +especially after a severe storm. There it lies, a mass of helpless +jelly, which slips and breaks through your fingers if you try to +lift it.</p> +<p>It cannot move back to its watery home, and in a short time the +sun's warmth will have dried it up, leaving but a mark on the sand, +and a few scraps of animal matter; for these strange creatures are +little else but water. A Jelly-fish, which weighed two pounds when +alive, would leave less than the tenth part of one ounce when +dried!</p> +<p>There is a story of a farmer who, on seeing thousands and +thousands of Jelly-fish along the shore, thought he would make use +of them. He decided that they would serve as manure for his fields, +and so save him much money. He went home, and sent men with wagons +to be loaded with the Jelly-fish. This was done, and the Jelly-fish +were spread over the soil. On looking at his fields the next +morning, the farmer was astonished to find that every scrap of his +new manure had vanished as if by magic!</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0084"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0084.jpg"><img src="Illus0084.jpg" width="100%" title= +"WEST PAN SAND BUOY. ONE OF THE MANY BUOYS AT THE MOUTH OF THE THAMES." + alt=""></a></center> +<h4>WEST PAN SAND BUOY. ONE OF THE MANY BUOYS AT THE MOUTH OF THE +THAMES.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>In the sea the Jelly-fish looks like an umbrella of bluish-white +jelly, from which hang tassels and threads. Look over the side of a +boat, or from the pier, and you often see them drifting by, +hundreds of them, like so many ghosts.</p> +<p>Each one is moving along, with its edges partly opening and +shutting. It is plain that this waving motion causes the creatures +to move through the water. Also, they can rise to the surface, or +fall to the depths, and do not collide with one another. So the +Jelly-fish is not at all helpless.</p> +<p>At night Jelly-fishes sometimes look very beautiful. Each one +shines in the water, with a soft yet strong light, like fairy lamps +afloat in the sea.</p> +<p>They are of all sizes. Some you could put in a small wineglass, +others measure nearly two feet across. Evidently the Jelly-fish +grows, and, in order to live and grow, it must eat; but what does +it eat, and how does it obtain its food?</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus060"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus060.png" width="50%" title="MEDUSA." alt= +""></center> +<h4>MEDUSA.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Before noticing the wonderful way in which this animal finds its +dinner, let us look at its body. In any large Jelly-fish you can +see marks which run from the centre of the body, and another mark +round the edge of the "umbrella." These are really tubes. They all +join with a hollow space inside the body, which is the creature's +stomach. The mouth-tube opens under the body, as can be seen by +turning the Jelly-fish on its back, and moving the lobes of jelly +aside. All the food goes up this tube-mouth, and so into the +stomach of the animal. The whole creature is little more than so +many cells of sea-water, the walls of the cells being a very thin, +transparent kind of skin.</p> +<p>Perhaps the strangest thing about it is the way in which it +catches prey. Jelly-fish feed on all kinds of tiny sea animals, +such as baby fish, and the young of crabs, shrimps, and prawns. +These small creatures form part of the usual dinner of many a +hungry dweller in the sea, and the Jelly-fish takes a share of +them.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus061"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus061.png" width="50%" title="A MEDUSOID." +alt=""></center> +<h4>A MEDUSOID.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>From the edge of the "umbrella" there hangs a fringe of long, +delicate hairs, rather like spiders' threads. These are fishing +lines, yet much more deadly. They trail through the water, +stretching far from the main part of the Jelly-fish; and any small +creature unlucky enough to touch them is doomed.</p> +<p>Down each one of these threads there are minute cells, hundreds +and hundreds to every thread; and in each cell there is a dart, +coiled up like the spring of a watch. The tip of the dart is barbed +like a fishhook. Now the cells are so made that they fly open when +touched. The dart then leaps out and buries itself in the skin of +the animal which touched the thread. Not only that, but the darts +are poisoned, and soon kill the small creatures which they +pierce.</p> +<p>You see now how this innocent-looking Jelly-fish gets its food. +As it swims along, the threads touch the tiny living things in the +sea, the darts pierce them and poison them. Of course these +stinging darts are very, very small, much too small for our eyes to +see.</p> +<p>Sometimes there are numbers of large brownish Jelly-fish in the +sea, or washed up on the shore. If you are paddling or swimming, +keep well away from them. Their poison darts are able to pierce +through thin skin, and may cause you illness and great pain. +Remember that the threads are very long; after you have passed the +main body of the animal, you may still be in danger from the +trailing threads.</p> +<p>We noticed these same poison darts when we were dealing with the +flower-like animals, the Anemones. Only, in that case, they were so +fine, so small, that they had no power to harm us, even though they +entered our skin. You may remember that we called the Anemone a +cousin of the Jelly-fish, for they both belong to the same lowly +division of the Animal Kingdom.</p> +<p>Animals have queer ways of getting a living. Who would expect to +find millions of poisoned darts in a Jelly-fish? Who would guess +that these weapons are coiled up, ready to spring out at their +prey? Men have made many weapons for killing, from the +bow-and-arrow to the torpedo, but none of them is more wonderful +than the weapon of the Jelly-fish.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Where is the mouth of the Jelly-fish placed?</p> +<p>2. How does the Jelly-fish move through the water?</p> +<p>3. What is the food of the Jelly-fish?</p> +<p>4. How does it obtain its food?</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0085"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0085.jpg"><img src="Illus0085.jpg" width="60%" title= +"SHELLS. 1. A FRESHWATER TURRET SHELL. 2. EDIBLE MUSSEL. 3. CONE SHELL. 4. SWORD-BLADE RAZOR-SHELL. 5. EAR SHELL, OR ORMER. 6. A TOP SHELL. 7. SCALLOP. 8. SWAN MUSSEL." + alt=""></a> +<table width="60%" align="center"> +<caption><b>SHELLS</b></caption> +<tr> +<td>1. A FRESHWATER TURRET SHELL.</td> +<td>5. EAR SHELL, OR ORMER.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2. EDIBLE MUSSEL.</td> +<td>6. A TOP SHELL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3. CONE SHELL.</td> +<td>7. SCALLOP.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>4. SWORD-BLADE RAZOR-SHELL.</td> +<td>8. SWAN MUSSEL.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</center> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson10"></a> +<h2>LESSON X.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1).</b></p> +<p>THE PERIWINKLE, WHELK AND LIMPET.</p> +<p>Most of the shells which you find scattered over the shore are +empty. The little animals which built them are gone; and their +empty houses, of wonderful shapes and colours, are all that you +find. Let us look at the builders of these pretty homes.</p> +<p>The shell-builders have soft, juicy bodies, and they are put in +one big division of the animal kingdom--the <i>mollusca</i>, which +only means <i>soft-bodied</i>. Some of these molluscs do not build +shells. But most of them build a shelly house for themselves; they +do this to defend their soft bodies from the attacks of a host of +enemies. Some build two shells--the Oyster and Mussel do, as you +know. These are called <i>bi-valves</i>; that is, two valves or +shells; and others, like the Garden Snail, the Limpet, and +Periwinkle, have one shell only, and so are called +<i>uni-valves</i>.</p> +<p>The crab, and other <i>crustaceans</i>, also have a hard +covering to their soft bodies; but it is not at all like the shell +of a Snail, or other <i>mollusc</i>. The Snail's shell is like the +little boy's suit which is altered and made bigger as the boy +grows. The crab's covering is a suit which cannot be altered. It +must be thrown away, and replaced by a larger one.</p> +<p>The body of the shell-builder is wrapped in a soft covering, a +kind of outer coat, which is called the <i>mantle</i>. Now this +mantle is one of Nature's cleverest inventions. It is able to take +the substance called <i>lime</i> from the food of the animal, and +to use it as building stuff.</p> +<p><a name="Illus066"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus066.png" width="40%" title= +"PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP." alt=""></center> +<h4>PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>The shell is built to fit the soft body. When a Periwinkle is +hatched from the egg, it is as big as a pin's head. It eats and +grows, and the shell must therefore be made larger. So the mantle +is stretched out, and it puts a film of lime to the edge of the +shell. Bit by bit the shell is thus added to by the wonderful +mantle. Look at a snail's shell, and notice the lines which show +how many times the little house has been made larger.</p> +<p>Each kind of shell-builder has its own style of building. If you +go to a museum and examine the shells gathered from all over the +world, you are surprised at their wonderful shapes, markings and +colours. Another surprising thing is their size. Some are enormous, +so large that they make good washing-basins. Others are so small +that you can hardly see them. Each one was made by the folds of the +mantle of the animal that lived in it.</p> +<p>In our coloured pictures you see many different kinds of shells, +some of them built by uni-valve molluscs and some by bi-valve +molluscs.</p> +<p>Wherever there are weeds along the shore you can find whole +armies of the Periwinkle--the "Winkle" we all know so well. It +browses there, among the weeds, just as its cousin, the land Snail, +browses on your cabbages. You must have seen the little door with +which the Periwinkle closes the entrance to his house. The land +Snail does not own a door, but he makes one when he goes to sleep +for the winter.</p> +<p>The Periwinkle crawls on a broad, slimy foot, which is put out +from the shell. It is stretched on this side or that, and so draws +him and his home in any direction. There are two sensitive feelers +in front of his head; and behind these are two short stalks, on +each of which is a tiny eye. If alarmed, the Periwinkle can shorten +his body, and pull it back into its shell, closing the entrance +with the horny door.</p> +<p>But the strangest part of him is the tongue. It is not for +tasting, but for rasping. It is like a long, narrow ribbon, on +which are hundreds of tiny points, all sloping backwards. They are +arranged three in a row. The Periwinkle rasps the seaweed with his +tongue, and so scrapes off his dinner. Of course the teeth wear +away.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus067"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus067.png" width="50%" title="COWRIES." alt= +""></center> +<h4>COWRIES.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>But only part of the toothed ribbon is used at a time, so there +are plenty of teeth behind the worn ones, ready to take their +place.</p> +<p>The shell, as we have seen, is made of <i>limestone</i>. But the +teeth are made <i>of flint</i>. This is a hard substance, so hard +that it is used for striking sparks.</p> +<p>Now we will look at a shell-builder, the Whelk, who uses his +flinty tongue in quite another fashion. The Whelk does not care for +a vegetable dinner. He prefers to eat other molluscs--he is +carnivorous, a flesh-eater; but these other molluscs do not wait to +be eaten. As the enemy draws near they retire into their shells, +and shut themselves up as tight as they can. The Whelk, however, is +a clever burglar; he knows how to make a way into the hardest of +shelly houses.</p> +<p>His front part--we might call it a nose--will stretch out to a +fine point; and it contains a rasping tongue even harder than that +of the Periwinkle. He sets to work. Moving the rasp up and down, he +drills a neat round hole in the shell of the animal he is +attacking. No shell is safe from him; and no tool could make a +neater hole.</p> +<p>When you next gather shells on the beach, look at them closely; +in some you will see where Mr. Whelk, the burglar, has been at +work. He needs but a small entrance to enable him to suck out his +helpless prey at his ease. Is it not strange that this creature, +with a body as soft as your tongue, should earn its living by +breaking into houses made of hard shell!</p> +<p>There are other molluscs which find their meals in this strange +manner, and many others which, like the Periwinkle, feed more +easily on seaweed. One of these, the Limpet, you can always be sure +of finding at low tide; indeed, there are so many Limpets on the +rocks that it would be hard <i>not</i> to see them. You will know, +if you have tried to force a Limpet from its hold on the rock, how +very tightly it clings. It is as if the shell were glued or +cemented by its edges.</p> +<p>Yet there is no glue or cement used, but only a simple dodge. +The Limpet has a broad "foot," which almost fills up the opening of +its shell. Like the foot of the Snail, it is used when the animal +wishes to take a walk; but it serves another purpose too. It can be +used as a sucker; and it is this which enables the Limpet to cling +so firmly to its rock.</p> +<p>When the tide is out, the Limpet clings to the rock, its soft +body tucked safely away in the shell. Its feeding time comes when +the water covers the rocks once more. Then the Limpet's shell may +be seen to tilt up, and a foot, and a head with feelers and eyes, +come out. The Limpet crawls to the seaweed and begins to browse, +using a rasp like that of the Periwinkle. It then crawls back to +its own place on the rock. In time this resting-place becomes +hollowed out, and the Limpet's shell fits into the groove thus +made.</p> +<p>Limpets are useful as bait for fish. The Whelk and Periwinkle +are gathered in immense numbers, and are used by us for food. +Perhaps you have seen the egg-bundle of the Whelk. It contains many +eggs when first laid in the sea. Each egg is as big as a pin's +head. They swell in the water, until the yellowish bundle is three +times as large as the Whelk that laid it. You often see the empty +bundle blown by the wind along the shore.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Give the names of two bi-valve molluscs.</p> +<p>2. What is the Periwinkle's shell made of?</p> +<p>3. Describe how the Periwinkle eats seaweed.</p> +<p>4. How does the Whelk obtain its food?</p> +<p>5. Give the names of three one-shelled molluscs.</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson11"></a> +<h2>LESSON XI.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2)</b></p> +<p>THE MUSSEL AND OYSTER.</p> +<p>As everyone knows, the Mussel and the Oyster live between two +hinged shells. In the last lesson we called them <i>bi-valve +molluscs</i>, which is only another way of saying "soft-bodied +animals with two shells." Have you ever opened an Oyster? It is a +tug-of-war, your skill and strength against the muscles of the +animal inside the tight shells.</p> +<p>Like the Periwinkle and other shell-builders, these creatures +owe their strong houses to a wonderful <i>mantle</i>; but in this +case the mantle is in two pieces instead of one. You can imagine +the Periwinkle's mantle as a tube enclosing the animal's body. The +mantle of the Mussel or the Oyster is in two pieces; and each half +forms its own shell.</p> +<p>The Snail, and other one-shelled molluscs, poke their heads out +of the shell when feeding or moving. Oysters and their two-shelled +cousins cannot do this, for the simple reason that they have no +heads!</p> +<p>In some places you see that the rocks at low tide are covered +with Mussels. In dense black masses they cling to the rocks; and, +though heavy waves bang them like so many hammers, they stick +tight. Little Mussels and big ones, they form a mass so thick that +baby crabs and other creatures use them as a hiding-place. On the +piers and groynes, and the woodwork of the harbour, you can see +other clusters of Mussels; they are placed where the high tide +covers them.</p> +<p>Have you noticed how the Mussel anchors himself? He uses a bunch +of threads, like so many cables or tiny ropes. It is interesting to +know how these threads are made.</p> +<p>The Mussel is, as a rule, a stay-at-home, but he can move from +place to place if he likes. He has a long, slender foot which can +be pushed out of the shells. Now the threads are fixed by the foot, +just where the Mussel wishes to anchor himself. They are made from +a liquid which forms in the body of the creature. This liquid +hardens in the water so that it can be pulled out into long, fine +threads.</p> +<p>Our ordinary Mussels do not make very long threads, but those of +some kinds are so long that they can be woven into silky purses or +stockings. The Mussel which makes such long anchor-threads might be +called "the silkworm of the sea."</p> +<p>If the Mussel is such a stay-at-home, how does he find his food? +The answer is, that the food comes to him, brought by the +ever-moving water. There are countless specks floating in the sea, +mostly specks of vegetable stuff. These settle on the floor of the +sea, just as dust settles on our house-floors; and the waves wash +this "sea-dust" hither and thither. The Mussel or Oyster, with +shells gaping wide open, is bound to get some of this food with the +water which enters the shells.</p> +<p>The Oyster has no "foot," and is fixed in one place nearly all +its life. It is an interesting animal; and one of such value as +food, that hundreds of thousands of Oysters are reared in special +"beds," and sent to the market at the proper season. Our British +Oysters were famous even in the time of the Romans; they were +carefully packed and sent to Rome, and, at the Roman feasts, +surprising quantities of them were eaten.</p> +<p>Many sea-animals have wonderfully large families, but the +Oyster, with its millions and millions of eggs, beats most of them. +Strangely enough, its eggs are not sent into the sea at once, but +are kept between the Oyster's shells until they hatch. Needless to +say, these babies are very small indeed, else their nursery could +not contain them all Though so small that thousands of them +together look more like a pinch of dust than anything else, yet +each one has two thin shells; so that, if you eat the parent +Oyster, they grate on your teeth like sand. Oysters, at this time, +are "out of season"--that is, unfit for food.</p> +<p>At the right moment, the Oyster gets rid of its numerous family. +It opens its shells, then shuts them rapidly; and, each time this +happens, a cloud of young Oysters is puffed out like smoke. Now +these mites must fend for themselves in a sea full of foes.</p> +<p>They have no defence, and countless numbers of them are gobbled +up by crabs, anemones, and others. If this did not happen, the sea +would soon be paved with Oysters.</p> +<p>For a time, the baby Oysters--which are known as "spat"--are +able to swim here and there. In rough weather they are driven far +into the deeps of the ocean, and lost. The rest of them, before +they have been free for two days, settle on the bed of the +sea--sometimes on their own parents; and there they remain for +life. Only a very few out of each million become "grown-ups"--the +rest are eaten by enemies, or smothered in mud or sand. In a year +or so they are as big as half-a-crown. In five years they are fine, +fat grown-up Oysters--that is to say, if they have not been dredged +up from their bed and sent to market.</p> +<p>Their shells open and shut like a trap. You may have seen a +picture of an inquisitive mouse trapped by an Oyster. Thinking to +have a nice taste of Oyster, the mouse had poked its head into the +open shells, but they were snapped together, and the mouse was +firmly held in the trap.</p> +<p>Between the hinge of the two shells there is a pad, which acts +like an elastic spring, and forces the shells open. The Oyster can +close them by means of a strong muscle. They are its only defence, +so it closes them at the least hint of danger.</p> +<p>Even these thick walls are sometimes of no avail, as we saw in +our talk on "Five-fingered Jack." We saw how the starfish forces +the shells open with the help of its strong tube-feet. The whelk +and his cousins know how to bore a hole in the shell, and suck out +the helpless Oyster. Then there are certain sponges, with the +strange habit of making holes in shells, and living in and on them. +Sometimes the Oysters are stifled in their "beds" by other Oysters +settling and growing over them. Thick masses of Mussels may cling +to them and suffocate them. And grains of sand sometimes get in the +hinges of their shells, so that they cannot close up the house when +they wish.</p> +<p>Like the other animals which are useful as food, Oysters have +been carefully studied and cultivated by man for many, many years. +The story of the Oyster-beds is a long and interesting one.</p> +<p>Oysters feed in rather a strange way. You may have looked inside +the shells and seen two delicate dark-edged fringes, known as the +"beard." This fringe is the Oyster's gills or breathing +arrangement. Trace the "beard" as far as the hinge of the shells, +and you see the mouth with its white lips. If you could watch the +creature having its dinner, you would see a constant stream of +water flowing over the gills and towards the mouth.</p> +<p>What makes the water move in that way? The gills are covered +with very tiny lashes, like little hairs. There are so many of them +that, as they keep moving, they force the water along, over the +gills and towards the mouth. In this way the Oyster breathes the +air which is in the water; but not only that. As we have already +noticed, there is a kind of "vegetable dust" in the sea. This is +driven to the Oyster's mouth and swallowed. The Oyster, fixed in +its "bed," unable to hunt for food, thus makes its dinner come to +it. What a strange use for a "beard"! It not only serves as lungs, +but also helps the animal to catch its "daily bread"!</p> +<p>Another mollusc used as food is the Cockle, and its shell is one +of the commonest found along the shore, especially near sandy +places. It lives in sand, and can bury itself so quickly that you +would have to use your spade with all your might in order to keep +pace with this little shell-fish. Where Cockles have buried +themselves you will see spurts of water and sand, showing where +they are busy down below in the wet sand.</p> +<p>Besides being so skilful at digging, the Cockle is a first-rate +jumper. If left on the beach, it jumps over the sand, towards the +sea, in the funniest way. It is strange to see a quiet-looking +shell suddenly take to hopping and jumping like an acrobat.</p> +<p>To perform this astonishing feat the Cockle makes use of its +foot, which is worked by very strong muscles. It is large and +pointed, and bent: if the Cockle wishes to move quickly, it +stretches out its foot from between the shells, as far as it will +go. Then, by using all its power, it leaps backwards or forwards in +a surprising manner.</p> +<p>There are many other interesting molluscs, besides those we have +looked at. The Piddock, or Pholas, is a smallish, rather delicate +one, with a soft foot. But this foot is a most wonderful boring +tool, fitted with a hard file. Hard rocks and wood are perforated +by these little molluscs. Indeed, they are a positive danger, for +they pierce the wooden piles of piers, and weaken them. They cannot +pierce through iron, however, and so iron plates or nails are used +to protect the piles from their onslaughts. You will often see +stones and rocks riddled by the Piddock as if they were as soft as +cheese. Chalk, sandstone, or oak, it is all the same to the +Piddock, which rasps them away with its file. When the points of +this strange instrument are worn out with all this hard wear, a new +set takes their place.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Mussel anchor itself?</p> +<p>2. Describe how the shells of the Oyster are opened and +closed.</p> +<p>3. What is the food of the Mussel?</p> +<p>4. Of what use is the "beard" of the Oyster?</p> +<p>5. Why is the Oyster called a bi-valve?</p> +<p>6. Why is the Oyster sometimes unfit for use as food?</p> +<br> +<hr class="full"> +<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE SEASHORE***</p> +<p>******* This file should be named 10513-h.txt or 10513-h.zip *******</p> +<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br> +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/5/1/10513">https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/5/1/10513</a></p> +<p>Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed.</p> + +<p>Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution.</p> + + + +<pre> +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +<a href="https://gutenberg.org/license">https://gutenberg.org/license)</a>. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS," WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">https://www.gutenberg.org</a> + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +<a href="http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext06">http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext06</a> + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +<a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL">https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL</a> + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** +</pre> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus006.png b/old/10513-h/Illus006.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ac394c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus006.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0079.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0079.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9ba4b17 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0079.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0080.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0080.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..e5933d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0080.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0081.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0081.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..495fc9c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0081.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0082.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0082.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..008ca18 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0082.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0083.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0083.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9c4e044 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0083.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0084.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0084.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d1d38a1 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0084.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus0085.jpg b/old/10513-h/Illus0085.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fbd3c36 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus0085.jpg diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus010.png b/old/10513-h/Illus010.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec339fa --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus010.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus027.png b/old/10513-h/Illus027.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..65c0c16 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus027.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus028.png b/old/10513-h/Illus028.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80a174b --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus028.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus031.png b/old/10513-h/Illus031.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b28444 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus031.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus034a.png b/old/10513-h/Illus034a.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9118759 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus034a.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus034b.png b/old/10513-h/Illus034b.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8083ea0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus034b.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus035.png b/old/10513-h/Illus035.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..57b95f3 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus035.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus036.png b/old/10513-h/Illus036.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4d4a19e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus036.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus046.png b/old/10513-h/Illus046.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..84b8498 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus046.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus047.png b/old/10513-h/Illus047.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b0ff40 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus047.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus054.png b/old/10513-h/Illus054.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2dd4a30 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus054.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus056.png b/old/10513-h/Illus056.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..251c81f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus056.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus060.png b/old/10513-h/Illus060.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..94af390 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus060.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus061.png b/old/10513-h/Illus061.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3bf50c0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus061.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus066.png b/old/10513-h/Illus066.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..27e5773 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus066.png diff --git a/old/10513-h/Illus067.png b/old/10513-h/Illus067.png Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3a761ab --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513-h/Illus067.png diff --git a/old/10513.txt b/old/10513.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7914637 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2382 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, On the Seashore, by R. Cadwallader Smith + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + + + + +Title: On the Seashore + +Author: R. Cadwallader Smith + +Release Date: December 22, 2003 [eBook #10513] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE SEASHORE*** + + +E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Thomas Hutchinson, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original lovely illustrations. + See 10513-h.htm or 10513-h.zip: + (http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/1/0/5/1/10513/10513-h/10513-h.htm) + or + (http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/1/0/5/1/10513/10513-h.zip) + + + + +Cassell's "Eyes and No Eyes" Series, Seventh Book + +ON THE SEASHORE + +By R. CADWALLADER SMITH + + + + + + +With Eight Colour Plates And Many +Black-And-White Illustrations + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +LESSON + + I. FIVE-FINGERED JACK + + II. A STROLL BY THE SEA + + III. BIRDS OF THE SHORE + + IV. CRABS + + V. SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES + + VI. PLANTS OF THE SHORE + + VII. FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS + +VIII. SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS + + IX. THE JELLY-FISH + + X. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1) + + XI. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2) + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS + + +COLOUR PLATES + + +TREASURES OF THE SEASHORE [Missing] + +GULLS + +THE REDSHANK + +HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING + +THE COMMON LOBSTER AND HERMIT CRAB + +CRUSTACEA + +WEST PAN SAND BUOY + +SHELLS + + + +BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS + + +COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH + +TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN + +THE CRAB + +PURSE CRAB + +HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL + +HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS + +THE LOBSTER + +THE SHRIMP + +SEA LILY + +SEA ANEMONE + +SEA-WEED FROND + +SEA MAT + +MEDUSA + +A MEDUSOID + +PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP + +COWRIES + + + + + + + +LESSON I. + + +FIVE-FINGERED JACK. + +What fun it is down by the sea at low tide! Scrambling among the +slippery rocks, we quickly fill a bucket with curious things. Some are +dead, others very much alive; but all have a story to tell us--the story +of the life they lead on the bed of the sea, or among the sands and +rocks of the shore. + +Look, here is a Starfish! It is lying on the sand, left high and dry by +the waves, for now the tide is low. The Starfish looks limp and +lifeless, its five reddish-coloured "arms" are quite still. + +We know it is an animal that lives in the sea, and dies when washed +ashore. But what does it do in the sea? How does it move without legs or +fins? How can it live without a head? Has it a mouth? What does it eat, +and how does it find its food? + +Like so many other sea-animals, the Starfish is a puzzle. Some of its +little tricks puzzled clever people until quite lately. But we know most +of its secrets now. + +Pass your finger down one of its arms, or rays. It feels rough, being +covered with knobs and prickles. Now turn the Starfish over, and look +carefully at its underside. In the centre, where the five arms meet, is +the animal's mouth. A harmless sort of mouth, you think, too small to be +of much use. Really, it is a terrible mouth, the mouth of an ogre! + +We notice a groove down the centre of each ray. But what are those +little moving things which bend this way and that, as if feeling for +something? Now that is exactly what they are doing. They are the feet of +the Starfish. Each tiny foot is really a hollow tube, which can be +pushed out or drawn in. At the tip of each is a powerful sucker, which +acts rather like those leather suckers boys sometimes play with. Suppose +the Starfish wishes to take a walk along the bed of the sea. First, it +pushes out its tube-feet. Each sucker fixes itself to a stone or other +object, and then the animal can draw its body along. You will see +presently that the suckers can do other work too. + +Our Starfish will die, however, unless we carry it to a pool. Before +doing so, we must look at the tip of each ray for a small reddish spot. +That is the Starfish's eye. Are those little eyes of much use in helping +the creature to find its dinner? I think not. Most likely the Starfish +_smells_ its way. + +If we put the animal on its back in a rock-pool we shall see the +tube-feet at work. Once in the water our Starfish revives, and makes +efforts to right itself. Can it turn over and crawl away? + +The little tube-feet come out of their holes and begin to bend about. +Now those near the edge of one "arm" feel the ground. Each tiny sucker +at once takes hold, more and more of them touch the ground as the ray is +turned right side up, and at last the Starfish turns over, and, slowly +but surely, glides away. + +[Illustration: COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH.] + +Stones, shells, or rocks do not stop it. The rays slide up and over +them. If we had feet like those of the Starfish, a journey up the wall +of a house, over the roof, and down again, would be nothing to us. +Nature gives all creatures the kind of foot which suits the life they +lead. And it is hard to imagine feet more useful to the Starfish than +those wonderful sucker-feet! + +Ask any fisherman what he thinks of the "harmless" Starfish, and he will +call it a pest and a nuisance. "It gets into the crab traps," he says, +"and eats all the bait. And when we are line-fishing it sucks the bait +off our hooks, and sometimes swallows hook and all." Small wonder that +Five-fingers, or Five-fingered Jack, as it is called, has no friend +among fisher-folk. + +On pulling up a useless Starfish instead of a real fish, the fisherman +tears the offender in half and throws the halves back into the waves. By +doing this he harms himself more than the Starfish! Each half grows into +a perfect Starfish with five rays complete. We can say that each part of +this animal has a separate life, for each part can grow when torn away. + +If you were asked to open an oyster you would need tools, would you not? +Even with an oyster-knife it is not always an easy job. The oyster, +tight in his shelly fortress, seems safe from the attack of a weak +Starfish. Yet the Starfish opens and eats oysters as part of its +everyday life. + +Finding a nice fat oyster, it sets to work. The Starfish folds its rays +over its victim, with its mouth against the edge where the shells meet. +The tug-of-war begins. The Starfish's tube-feet try to pull the shells +apart; the oyster, with all its strength, tries to keep them shut. It is +stronger than its enemy, and yet the steady pull of hundreds of suckers +is more than it can stand, and the shells, after a time, begin to gape a +little. + +Now a strange thing happens. The mouth of the Starfish opens into a kind +of bag which slips between the oyster shells. The Starfish, as it were, +turns itself inside-out! It then eats the oyster and leaves the clean +shell. + +Mussels are smaller, so they are eaten in a different way. The Starfish +merely presses the mussel into its mouth, cleans out the shells, and +throws them away. Were we not right to call this wonderful mouth the +mouth of an ogre? + +Oysters, as you know, are so valuable that we rear them in special +"beds." Along comes the hungry Starfish, with thousands of its +relations, finding the fat oysters very good eating. They do great +damage in our oyster-fisheries, and it is one long battle between them +and the keepers of the "beds." + +Supporting the tough skin of Five-fingered Jack is a wonderful skeleton. +It is like a network of fine plates and rods made of lime. Perhaps you +have seen one in a museum. + +Five-fingers has a great number of cousins, some of them common enough +along our shores. One of the strangest is the Brittle Star. On first +seeing one of these animals I tried to capture it by holding its long, +wriggling arms. At once the arms broke off. Then I tried to scoop the +creature out of its watery home. But it began to break its "rays" off as +if they were of no value whatever. To my surprise, the broken "rays" +broke again while wriggling on the ground. This is a strange habit, is +it not? Perhaps the Brittle Star has found this dodge useful in escaping +from enemies. Anyhow, the loss of an arm or two matters little, for +others grow in their place. + +Another cousin of the Starfish is the Sea-urchin, a round prickly +creature rather like the burr of the sweet-chestnut tree. This mass of +prickles is not a vegetable; he is very much alive. Nature has given +many plants and animals these prickles, like fixed bayonets, for a +defence against their enemies. You will at once think of the gorse and +the hedgehog, or urchin, as some people call it. Our little Sea-urchin +has prickles, like the hedgehog, but he is really unlike any other +living creature, except, perhaps, the Starfish. + +If you were to roll up a Starfish into a ball, and then stick about +three thousand spines on the ball thus made, you would have a creature +looking rather like a Sea-urchin. + +Beneath the mass of spines there is a hard _test_ or shell, made of +plates joined closely together; this is the skeleton of the Sea-urchin. +Sometimes you find this strange shell on the seashore, rather dirty, and +not always sweet-smelling. You might also find Sea-urchins half-dead, +washed into the rock-pools. The shells are wonderful objects, so you +should clean them in fresh water; they are well worth the trouble of +taking home. + +All over the shell you will see little rounded knobs. These show where +the spines were fixed on; each spine fits into a hole in the shell, but +so loosely that it is able to move about. The Sea-urchin can walk by +moving its spines, tilting its body along from one place to another on +the bed of the sea. It can do much more than that. Like its cousin the +Starfish, it has numerous tube-feet, so you would not be surprised to +see this prickly ball walk up the face of a rock. + +The tube-feet, or sucker-feet, are fixed to the shell in much the same +way as the spines. They can be bent this way or that. If the Urchin is +on a rock he clings tightly with these sucker-feet; then, if he wishes +to move away, you will see the long thin tubes stretch out and bend +about. They fix themselves to the rock, and the animal is drawn along. + +[Illustration: TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN.] + +Besides these spines and suckers, the Sea-urchin owns another set of +tools. Scattered over it, among the spines, are many tiny rods tipped +with little teeth or pincers. You will not be able to see them, except +under a magnifying glass. Of what use are these strange little pincers +or rods? It is thought that the Urchin uses them in several ways. They +may help in capturing small prey, or they may be used when the creature +has to fight a larger enemy. They are also certainly of use as cleansing +tools. That is to say, they can pick off tiny scraps of weed or dirt +which settle on the animal's body. Some Starfishes also own pincers of +this sort, but they are not so perfect as those of the funny little +Urchin. We must not forget that all these spines, tube-feet, and pincers +are worked by a set of muscles. + +In the centre of the Urchin's shell is its mouth. The Starfish, we +found, had a terrible mouth, but that of the Urchin is worse still. Not +only is it of great size, but it is fitted with strong jaws and five +long, sharp teeth, You may see them poking out from the mouth of the +animal, and feel for yourself how hard they are. + +There is a great deal more to know about Five-fingers; and the +Sea-urchin still has his secrets which no one can explain. We have but +glanced at their story in this lesson; but you can see that the +Starfish, lying limp on the sands, is not so dull as it looks. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Where is the mouth of the Starfish placed? + +2. Describe how the Starfish moves. + +3. How does the Starfish feed on the oyster? + +4. Why is the _Brittle_ Star given that name? + +5. How do the Starfish and Sea-urchin keep themselves clean? + + + + +LESSON II. + + +A STROLL BY THE SEA. + +The sea and the land are always at war. When you are at the seaside, +with spade and bucket to make "castles" and "pies" of the sand, you can +see and hear the battle. + +A wave comes rolling smoothly on towards the shore. It reaches the land +and can go no further, and then, with a roar and a crash and splash of +sparkling foam, it breaks. It spreads into a sheet of foaming water, +and, after rushing as far as it can up the beach, it seethes back as the +next wave takes up the battle. + +What a grinding and tearing, as wave after wave is hurled at the land! +That is the battle-cry of the land and sea! Most of the pebbles and the +sand on the beach have been won from the land in the great fight. We +might call them the spoils of war. Once they formed part of the solid +land, the rock or cliff. Now they are loose fragments spread for mile +after mile round our coast. + +Every wave takes them up and has fine fun with them. Pebbles and sand +are picked up, swirled along, and thrown at the shore. They are sucked +back as the wave is broken by the land. And then the following wave +takes them, grinds them and scrubs them together. Thus they are jostled +hither and thither, up and down the coast; and, as a result of the long, +long fight, rocks and cliffs become pebbles, sand, or mud. + +Now if you look at the pebbles on the shore you see that many of them +are smooth and round. Some are as round as the "marbles" you play with. +No wonder, for the mighty sea has scoured them with sand and rolled them +for miles. + +As you know, the sea is not always at the same height. It falls and +rises. Twice in every day it _ebbs_ and _flows_; we call this movement +of the sea the _tides_. At low tide we can explore the very bed of the +ocean. We can visit the homes of the living, breathing animals, which, +at high tide, are hidden far under water. Between the high-water mark +and low-water mark is our hunting-place. There we shall find the +play-ground and feeding-ground of many a strange creature. + +Here is a stretch of sand, with little channels of water; there is a +patch of shingle mixed with numbers of tiny shells. The ebbing tide +leaves shallow pools in every hollow of the beach, and these pools are +often full of life. + +Shrimps dart away and disappear in the sand as if by magic. Small fish +and crabs hide from you as best they can. Helpless jelly-fish and +starfish sprawl on the wet sand. What are those thin ropes of sand +coiled up into little mounds? They remind us of "worm-casts." They are +thrown up by a sand-worm, called "lug-worm" by the fisherman. He brings +a spade and digs wherever he sees the sandy ropes of the "lug," for this +worm makes good fishing bait. + +Seagulls love to explore the shallow pools. You may see them walking +solemnly about, picking up stray morsels. If you see a screaming group +of them you can be sure that one has found an extra large prize, and the +others mean to share the feast. + +Let us walk down the beach towards the sea. Soon we find ourselves among +rocks. Now these rocks are the bare bed of the shore, stripped of all +covering. There is no mud, sand, or shingle, so here you see plainly the +work done by the restless water. On every side you notice rocks worn to +all shapes and sizes. Some jut out as sharp ledges. Others are flat +tables, covered with a table-cloth of sea-plants. These clothe the +rocks, or hang over the ledges like wet, shining green curtains. Nearly +every rock has its crust of barnacles and clumps of mussels. If we are +not careful we slip on the wet weeds, and get a ducking in the pools +which lie everywhere among the rocks. + +Here is the best place of all for sharp eyes to find the animals and +plants we seek. Where the hard rock has been worn down into hollows, the +falling tide leaves a pool of still, clear water. These rock-pools are +the home of many a creature. So let us look for them, until the rising +tide sweeps over the rocks once more, and drives us away. + +Sea-anemones and seaweeds brighten the pool with their various colours. +Pretty shells gleam here and there; and on the face of the rock there +are more limpets, barnacles and mussels than we can count. + +Where are the other living animals which we came to find? You will not +see them unless you hunt for them in the right way. It is a game of +"hide-and-seek." They are the "hiders"; and, as their lives often depend +on their skill in hiding, you cannot wonder that they know every trick +in the game. + +There may be crabs, fish, shrimps, and others in the pool. If you look +for a moment, and then walk to the next pool, your hunting will not have +much result. It is best to lie down and wait patiently, gazing into the +clear water of the pool. The little inhabitants are hidden in the dark +corners under the rock ledges, or buried under stones and sand; or they +may be hiding in those thick clumps of mussels--a favourite +lurking-place; or else tucked away in the friendly shelter of the +seaweed. + +Knowing their dodges, you will soon become clever at finding them. Some +seaside dwellers, such as prawns, are almost transparent in the water. +Others, like baby crabs, are green or brown like the weed in which they +hide. Even the sharp eyes of the seagulls must be deceived by this +trick. + +What a strange life they lead, these creatures of the shore! At times +they are deep under water, and they form part of the teeming life of the +ocean floor. + +Then the tide falls and uncovers them. They are in the full light of day +again, the sun shines on them. Most of them cannot escape to the sea, +and so must face the enemies which prowl along the shore looking for +prey. So, from one tide to the next, the rock-pool is like a prison +containing prisoners of the strangest sort. + +[Illustration: GULLS. 1. COMMON GULLS. 2. LESSER BLACK GULL. 3. GLAUCOUS +GULLS.] + + +EXERCISES + +1. How is the sand formed? + +2. Give the names of some of the animals to be found in the rock-pools. + +3. Where do these animals hide? + +4. Prawns and shore-crabs are not easily seen; why is this? + + + + +LESSON III. + + +BIRDS OF THE SHORE. + +On some parts of our coast we find steep cliffs, with the sea beating +wildly at their feet. Elsewhere there is a sloping beach of sand and +shingle with, perhaps, dark rocks showing at low tide. We explored such +a beach as that in our last lesson. There are long, long stretches of +sand and thin grass in other places, or else mile after mile of muddy, +dreary, salt marshes. + +Birds are to be found on every kind of coast. Some, like the Seagull, +wander far and wide. Others keep to the cliffs, and many find all they +need in the wide mud-flats. Such an army is there of these shore birds, +that we cannot even glance at them all in this lesson. So we will take a +few of them only--the Black-headed Gull, the Cormorant, the Ringed +Plover, the Oyster-catcher and the Redshank. + +Out of all the many kinds of Gulls, you know the Black-headed one best. +If you live in London you can see and hear him, for he and his cousins +have swarmed along the Thames of late years. They find food there, and +kind people enjoy feeding the screaming birds as they wheel in graceful +flight over the bridges and Embankment. + +The country boy, too, sees this Gull. He flies far inland, following the +plough, and he then rids the land of many a harmful grub. Because of +this habit, some people call him the Sea-crow. At all seaside places you +find him, and there he fights for his meals with the Herring Gull, the +Common Gull, the Kittiwake and others. + +Really we should call this gull the Brown-headed, not the Black-headed, +Gull; for the hood is more brown than black; and again, if you look for +this bird during your summer holidays, you will see no dark hood on his +head. You might, though, know him then by the red legs and bill, and the +white front-edging to his lovely pearly-grey wings. + +Look at him in January, however, and you see dark feathers beginning to +appear on his head. The fact is, this dark hood is the bird's wedding +dress. It comes only when the nesting season draws near. Then he leaves +the fields, parks, and rivers, to fly away to the nesting-place. + +These Gulls love to nest in colonies--that is, near one another. Among +rushes and reeds, and rough grass growing in deep wet mud, they feel +that their nests are safe. There they lay three eggs. The chicks, almost +as soon as they leave the eggs, can run about. If there is no dry land +near the nest, these youngsters tumble in the water and swim without +bothering about swimming lessons. + +In summer they are ready to fly with their parents round the coast, and +to the muddy mouths of large rivers, where they feed. Flocks of them are +also seen out in the open sea, feeding on the shoals of small fish. They +also follow steamers, for the sake of any scraps thrown overboard, and +they crowd round the fishing boats when they are being unloaded. You +see, they are _scavengers_, and so are to be found wherever there are +waste scraps of food. + +Perhaps you have noticed that Gulls float high in the sea, like so many +corks. They can leave the water easily, and take to flight; but they +_cannot_ dive. The Gull's dinner-table is the whole coast. His eyes are +keen enough, as you will know if you have watched him swoop down on a +piece of bread in mid-air, and catch it neatly in his beak. + +The flight of this Gull is beautiful, graceful, and easy. Sometimes he +wheels up and up into the blue sky, almost without moving a wing. He can +also glide for a great while, balancing his body against the wind, and +turning his head from side to side on the look-out for food. Those long, +pointed wings of his make him one of Nature's most perfect +flying-machines. His wild, laughing cry has given him the nickname of +Laughing Gull. + +In the fields and along the banks of our big rivers you may see the +Common Gull with numbers of his black-headed cousins. His beak and legs +and webbed feet are greenish yellow, and this is quite enough to +distinguish the two birds. Their habits are much the same. Both skim +over the sea, or the coast, looking for waste food. They are not very +"choice" in their meals; dead fish or live fish, young crabs, worms, +shell-fish or grubs they eat readily, as well as any offal thrown from +passing ships, or the refuse of the fish-market. + +One of these scavenging birds was seen to be carrying a long object, +like an eel, in its mouth. The bird was shot; and it was then discovered +that the "eel" was really a string of candles! The greedy Gull had +half-swallowed one, leaving the rest to hang down from its bill. The +Common Gull nests in "colonies," like the Black-headed Gull. Its nest is +made of seaweed, heather, and dried grass, in which it lays its three +greenish-brown eggs. + +Another bird to be seen along all parts of our coast, summer and winter +alike, is the Cormorant, usually with a small party of his friends. They +fly swiftly, one behind the other, and a long line of them reminds one +of the pictures of "sea-serpents," especially as they fly quite near the +surface of the sea, each one with its long neck outstretched. The Gull +flies beautifully, as if he knew his power, and loved to show how he can +skim and dive through the air. The Cormorant is not a flier, but a +swimmer and diver; he cannot "show off" in the air, and only uses his +narrow wings to take him, as quickly as may be, from one fishing-place +to another. + +Most of the Cormorant's time is spent in fishing, for he lives entirely +on fish, and catches immense numbers of them. He spends many hours, too, +in drying his wings. I once saw a number of these birds with their wings +"hung out to dry." Each one was perched on a stump of wood, across the +muddy mouth of a river, and each sooty-looking bird had his wings wide +open in the sun. This habit seems to show that the Cormorant uses his +wings, as well as his feet, in his frequent journeys under water. + +The powerful webbed feet of the Cormorant, set far back on the body, the +darting head, long neck, and long curved beak, tell you plainly how he +earns his meals. He is a clever fish-hunter, and the fishermen, knowing +the appetite of this keen rival of theirs, detest him and destroy him. +In some countries there is a price on his head--that is, so much money +is given for every Cormorant killed. + +Sometimes the Cormorant swims slowly along with his head under water, on +the watch for small fish. Seeing one below him, he dives like a flash, +and can remain under water for some time; he wastes very little time, +however, in swallowing his victim head first. + +The great skill of this bird has been made use of, and tame Cormorants +are used in China to obtain fish for their masters. They have been used +in England, too, for the same purpose. A strap is placed round the +bird's neck to prevent him from swallowing the catch. He is then set to +work. After catching five or six fish he is recalled by his master, and +made to disgorge his prey, which, of course, he has swallowed as far as +the strap will permit. + +The Cormorant is famous for his large appetite; he chases even big fish, +of a size to choke him, you would think. Like his relative the Pelican, +he owns a very elastic throat. I have seen a Pelican put a half-grown +duck in its pouch, without much trouble. The Cormorant could not perform +this feat, but his throat will stretch so as to allow the passage of +large fish. Small fish he usually tosses up in the air, catches them +neatly head first, and swallows them whole. + +Another bird of our coast is the Oyster-catcher, sometimes called the +"Sea-pie" or Mussel-picker. These names suit it well, for it does not +live on oysters, but on mussels, limpets and whelks. Of course, these +are easily "caught" at low tide; they are not easily eaten, so the +Sea-pie has to earn his dinner by hard work. In fact, his beak is often +notched by the sharp, hard edges of the shells of these molluscs; and at +times, he haunts the low banks of mud and ooze near the sea, and there +picks up worms and other soft-bodied animals. + +As his name Sea-pie shows, the Oyster-catcher is a black-and-white bird, +his under parts being white and upper parts black. His legs and long, +straight bill are red. Most birds of the waterside seem to find that +black-and-white feathers make a good disguise. Though they would show up +plainly on a green field, they are well hidden among the stones along +the edge of the water. + +The Sea-pie makes no nest, only a hole in the sand or shingle, lined +with small stones or shells. The eggs are coloured and marked so that +they are hard to see among the stones which surround them. The +youngsters wear a fluffy suit of grey, marked with dark streaks and +dots; and it takes very sharp eyes indeed to pick them out from the +shingle where they crouch. + +The Ringed Plover is another bird which loves the sandy, pebbly margin +of the sea. Have you ever watched him there? He is not much larger than +a plump lark, and he runs quickly along the beach, stooping now and +again to pick up the morsels of food which his keen eye detects. + +But, all the while, he is watching you with the other eye, for he is a +wary little bird, and not to be taken by surprise. _If_ you can get near +him, you will notice his rather long yellowish legs, greyish-brown back, +and, more than all, the white collar round his neck, and the black band +showing on his white chest. Again we see the black-and-white markings +which are so useful to the bird of the shore. + +Everyone who knows the Ringed Plover loves to watch him. He is one of +the daintiest, most fairy-like birds. When he is picking up worms and +sand-hoppers on the wet sand he is easily observed. But wait! He flies +off and settles on the shingle not far away. You walk nearer, to watch +him. Alas! he is gone. You know just where he settled, yet he is gone! +He has often played that trick on me. + +The secret lies in his grey, white-and-black markings. When our ships +were in danger from enemy submarines, our sailors painted them with +queer stripes and bars, to make it hard for the enemy to see them. +Nature has marked the Ringed Plover on the same plan. The feathers are +so coloured and the colours are so arranged that, once among the grey, +yellow, black, and white pebbles on the beach, the little bird is +invisible. It is as if the earth had swallowed him up. + +The eggs, too, are just as hard to find. There is no nest to "give the +game away"; and the eggs look just like the pebbles amongst which they +are laid. The young ones are protected from their enemies in the same +way, and they crouch, as still as death, amid the stones which they so +much resemble. + +Now let us leave the beach and look for the Redshank on the mud-flats. +Many birds would starve there, but the Redshank is quite happy, as +Nature has fitted him for his life in such a place. His long, red +legs--from which he gets his name--are for wading in the shallow, muddy +creeks he loves. Those wide-spreading feet keep him from sinking in the +mud. + +The long beak is for probing. As a rule the Redshank digs for his +dinner, though he also picks up any worms or other food on the surface; +but he is nearly always seen probing the mud. + +Like all the shore birds, Redshanks are very wary. They have no hedges +or trees for hiding-places, and so must always be on the watch. No +sooner does the Redshank spy you than he is up and, with a shrill +whistle of alarm, flies quickly away. + +The marshes are the home of many a bird like the Redshank. They are all +waders and diggers. They live much as he does, and so they have the long +beak and legs, and the spreading feet, to fit them for that life. + +We have now looked at a few sea birds, shore birds, and a marsh bird. +Many inland birds, too, are fond of the shore. The artful Jackdaw builds +in the cliffs, and his cousin, the Crow, searches the shore for food. +Even the gay Kingfisher has been seen diving in the seaside pools. + + +EXERCISES + +1. How do you know which is the Black-headed Gull in the summer months? + +2. Why is it difficult to see the Ringed Plover on the stones of the +shore? + +3. Where would you look for the eggs of the Ringed Plover and of the +Black-headed Gull? + +4. Why have marsh birds such long beaks? + + + + +LESSON IV. + + +CRABS. + +Little Crabs are to be found everywhere along the sea-shore--not the +monsters of the fishmonger's shop, but small greenish-brownish Crabs. +They live in the weed of the rock-pools, and in the wet sand. These are +the Shore Crabs; the large Edible Crabs are a different kind, and live +mostly in deep water. + +Shore Crabs are quarrelsome little creatures; the larger ones are always +ready to gobble up the smaller ones, or to snatch their food and run +away with it. If you put some dead mussels or fish in a pool, you will +be amused at their antics. How they scramble and fight! Crabs do not +believe in "table manners." + +[Illustration: THE REDSHANK.] + +[Illustration: THE CRAB.] + +It is their taste for waste scraps of food that makes crabs of use in +the sea. They are most useful scavengers. They clear the sea and beach +of dead matter which would poison the air and water. + +For many years nobody knew how Crabs grew up. It was thought that a baby +Crab was like its mother, just as a baby spider is a tiny picture of its +parent. But no, the young Crab is as much _like_ a Crab as a caterpillar +is like a butterfly. + +Let us begin at the beginning--the egg. Mother Crab carries her eggs +with her, under her tail, which itself is always kept tucked up under +her body. Out of each egg there comes the queerest little creature! It +is just large enough to be seen as it wriggles in the water. Then its +skin splits, and there appears a quaint thing with long feathery legs, a +big head, a spike on the back of its head, and another spike like a +nose. + +Who would suspect this strange atom would turn into a Crab! Well, nobody +did. It was called a _zoea_; but you can call it a Crab caterpillar or +larva. The maggot is the larva of the fly, and the zoea is the larva of +the Crab. With crowds of its brothers and sisters, the zoea kicks about +on the surface of the sea. Fishes, and even great whales, swallow these +tiny things by the million. + +The Crab larva eats and grows. Again and again its skin splits, and a +rather different zoea appears. This happens about once a week, until, +hey presto! the spiked zoea is now rather like a Crab. The spikes are +gone, and now it has tiny claws, and two eyes at the end of stalks. Yet +it still owns a tail. At last this is tucked up under its body, and lo! +our little friend has changed into a very small Crab. No longer able to +swim about, it comes to get a living in the shallow pools of the shore. + +Luckily, this helpless baby knows how to hide. He is helped by his +colour, for it matches the green and brown of the weeds and rocks. He +knows how to dig himself into the sand, and work his shell well down. +Then only his funny eyes on stalks peer up at you. At this time of his +life he has to "make himself scarce," and snatch his food when and where +he can. + +[Illustration: PURSE CRAB.] + +We do not eat these little Crabs, but other Crabs do, and so do +anemones, gulls, and other hungry creatures; and they themselves hunt +sand-hoppers, and eat anything they can find or steal. So they grow +bigger; and then, like the boy who grows quickly, the Crab finds his +shelly suit a size too small for him! + +Now look at his suit. It is a hard coat, a complete suit of armour to +protect his soft body. Our picture shows the Lobster, the Crab's cousin. +The Shrimp and Prawn and Lobster are relations of the Crab; these +_crustaceans_, as they are called, are all cased up in a hard _crust_, +which will not stretch the slightest little bit. But the Crab's body +_must_ grow! What is he to do? + +At first he starves himself, and so his body shrinks inside its old +shell. He loosens himself as well as he can. Soon the shell breaks +across, and the Crab struggles to get free. At last he backs out, and +leaves his old suit for ever. It is a wonderful performance, for he has +withdrawn even from the legs, claws, feelers, bristles, eye-stalks and +eyes! The old shell is left quite whole--a perfect Crab, but with no +Crab inside it! + +Now the Crab, in his new suit, hides away. He knows that he is a soft, +flabby creature at this time, and that other animals, even Mrs. Crab, +would be glad to meet him--and eat him. While his covering is yet soft +he grows quickly. When it is hard, he ventures out again, ready to +quarrel and fight. + +This change of shell happens often to young Crabs. Older ones change +only once a year. All the different kinds of Crab begin life as _larvae_ +or _zoeas_, and cast their shells as we have seen. + +Crabs can see and hear and smell; and they must also have a fine sense +of touch. I was once watching a big Crab eating his dinner under a rocky +ledge in a large glass tank. As he tore his food, some of the bits, no +larger than crumbs, fell and settled on the rocks below. Then I saw that +a smaller Crab, with long pincers, was hiding under a rock. As the +crumbs fell, he reached out his pincers and picked them up, one by one. +Each bit was gravely carried to his mouth, and tucked in, and then he +reached out for another. Though I was very close to the Crab, I could +hardly see the tiny scraps which he was able to pick up so easily. + +One of the strangest Crabs is the Hermit. You would think that Nature +had played a joke on him, for he has only half a suit of armour. His +tail part is soft. He would have a bad time in the sea, but for a dodge +he has learnt. + +The baby Hermit takes the empty home of a periwinkle. As he grows he +needs a larger house, and so leaves the tight shell and pops his tail +into a bigger one, generally a whelk shell. If he meets with another +Hermit there is a battle, one trying to steal the other's shell. Our +coloured picture, page 35, shows some Hermits at war. Fighting, +house-hunting, and moving house seem to be the Hermit's favourite +pursuits. But, whatever he does, his first care is to protect that soft +tail of his. His right claw is large and strong, so he uses it to close +the door of his stolen home. + +Sometimes he has a lodger who lives on the roof. This lodger, as you +will notice in our coloured picture, is the sea anemone. The Hermit and +his lodger seem to be good friends, at least they seem to like each +other's company. There is no doubt that there are good reasons for this. +We shall have more to say about this strange pair in our lesson on the +sea anemones. + +[Illustration: HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL.] + +Another funny Crab is the Spider Crab. Its back is covered with reddish +bristles, like so many hooks. These catch in the seaweed, and soon the +Spider Crab is decorated with bits of weed. But that is not all. The +artful Crab tears off other pieces of weed with its pincers, and +attaches them to the hooks. It is another dodge, of course, to escape +from enemies. The Lobster, whose picture you see, has a life-story much +like that of the Crab. He, also, grows too big for his suit of armour, +and casts it off in a wonderful manner, but only after a great deal of +trouble. In his new suit he is very weak and soft--an easy prey to the +first enemy to find him. He cannot defend himself then; he can only lie +helplessly on his side, waiting for his coat to harden. He is so weak +that his soft legs cannot bear the weight of his body. + +[Illustration: HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING.] + +Needless to say, the Lobster always finds a secure retreat before +casting off his protecting coat of armour. A hole under a rock suits him +well at that time. Strange to say, he seems to dislike his old clothes, +and often crunches them to pieces or eats them up, or even pushes them +under the sand or stones! Then he marches out like a proud warrior, +knowing his strength, and the power of his great claws. + +Lobsters are fond of fighting, and must be very disagreeable neighbours. +They can swim along by using the little "swimmerets" under their bodies. +Or, by rapidly bending down their powerful tails, Lobsters are able to +shoot backwards through the water at a great pace. In our next lesson we +shall find that Prawns are also able to paddle forwards or dart +backwards in a similar way. + +Lobsters, living and dead, are often on sale in the fishmonger's shop. +Like the Crabs and Prawns, they are usually caught in traps or pots, +baited with pieces of fish, and left among the rocks. The traps are of +various shapes, some being like bee-hives made of cane or wicker; others +are made of netting stretched over hoops, and more like a bird-cage in +shape. + +The Lobster smells the bait in the trap, and hastens to get to it by +diving through the only entrance. Having enjoyed his meal he tries to +swim away; but there is no escape, and there he must wait until the +owner of the trap makes his usual "round" in the morning. Of course, +there is a rope to every trap, and a cork to mark its position. + +[Illustration: HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.] + +Then the Lobster finds himself taken carefully out of prison; his claws +are tied to prevent him from fighting, and he goes to market with a lot +of other Lobsters. There are many lobster fisheries along the rocky +parts of our coast. + +[Illustration: HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.] + +You will often see Lobsters with one very large claw, and one small. +They are able to throw off a limb or two whenever they are frightened. +Also they often lose a claw in the terrible fights of which they seem so +fond. If one joint of a claw becomes injured the Lobster has no further +use for it; he is wise, for his very life depends on his armour. So he +throws it away, not at the wounded joint, but at the joint above. + +After a time a slight swelling appears on the stump thus made; this +gradually grows into a new limb. It may be smaller than the lost one, +but it is perfect in detail. What a useful gift this must be to an +animal like the Lobster, whose whole life is one terrible fight after +another! + +The baby Lobsters, like the baby Crabs, are quite unlike their parents. +They swim about at the surface of the sea, and already they seize every +chance of fighting and eating their small neighbours. + +When about one inch in length they leave this infants' school, and join +another at the bottom of the sea. Here they eat, fight, grow and change +their coats, just as the young Crabs do. They are now like their +parents. Sometimes they grow to be huge, and to weigh as much as +ten-and-a-half pounds. + +The mother Lobster carries as many as thirty thousand eggs under her +body! Needless to say, a very, very few of this enormous family survive +the dangers of the sea. The rule there is--"Eat and be eaten!". + + +EXERCISES + +1. What is a Crab larva like? + +2. Give the names of four crustaceans. + +3. Why does the Crab have to change its shell? + +4. Why does it hide away at that time? + +5. Of what use are Shore Crabs? + +6. How are Lobsters caught? + +[Illustration: THE LOBSTER.] + + + + +LESSON V. + + +SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES. + +In nearly every shore-pool you may see Shrimps and Prawns darting out of +sight, and, for every one you see, there are many more hidden away. +These delicate, transparent, lively creatures are not much like the +boiled Shrimps and Prawns of the fish-shop. + +They are the prey of so many fish, crabs, and birds, that they have +learnt to "make themselves scarce." Have you ever watched them in a +glass tank, or aquarium? If so, you will know that it is not easy to see +them. In the shore-pools it is harder still. + +Some are swaying about in the still, clear water, moving their long +feelers from side to side. Others have burrowed into the sand. In doing +this, they raise a sandy cloud, which settles on them and hides them. To +catch some, you must use a "shrimp-net," for they can dart across the +pool like arrows. + +[Illustration: THE SHRIMP.] + +Some are Shrimps, and some are Prawns; how can we tell the difference? +When they are boiled the answer is easy. All the Shrimps turn brown and +the Prawns red. (The red "Shrimps" are near relations of the Prawn.) To +tell a live Shrimp from a Prawn, look at the long pointed beak which +juts out from the front of the head. That of the Prawn is toothed, like +a little saw. If the beak is quite smooth its wearer is a Shrimp. + +Until Prawns are grown up, they haunt the sandy shallows with their +cousins the Shrimps. But the larger Prawns live in deeper water. They +are generally caught in traps, as are their relatives, the crab and +lobster. + +Now look closely at a Prawn, and try to find how it swims. Turn it +upside down. It has ten legs; and, under each of the horny rings of its +body, you can see a pair of little paddles. They are fringed with hairs. +When the Prawn or Shrimp is not in a hurry, he swims slowly but surely +with the little paddles, or "swimmerets." If any danger threatens, he +uses his tail, in this way:--It is made of five fringed plates, which, +as you can see, spread out or close up, like a fan. As he doubles up his +body, the plates spread themselves out. They strike the water with great +force, and so send the Prawn or Shrimp quickly _backwards_. As the body +becomes straight again, the fan closes, ready for another stroke. To +move quickly, the Shrimp or Prawn merely bends his body, then +straightens it. The tail thus becomes a strong oar, driving him +backwards with rapid jerks. + +Look now at the Prawn's long, hair-like feelers. There are two pairs. On +one pair are the ears, a special kind of ear for hearing in water. + +You will notice that the Shrimp's eyes are on the end of short stalks. +Each big eye is really a cluster of little eyes, rather like the +"compound eyes" of insects. If you lift up the horny shield behind the +head, you see a row of what look like curly feathers. These are the +breathing gills. + +Shrimps carry their eggs about with them; no doubt you have often found +masses of eggs under the Shrimp's body. Each egg is fastened by a kind +of "glue," or else the rapid jerking of the mother Shrimp would soon +loosen the eggs and set them free. + +The hard, shelly covering of the Shrimp and Prawn is like the armour of +the crab--it will not stretch in the least. The body is easily bent, +owing to the soft hinges between the hard rings. But the coat itself +will not stretch. Then how do these little creatures grow? We see small +Shrimps and large ones, so grow they must, in some way. + +They are of the same family--the _crustacea_--as the crab; and they grow +in much the same way. The hard covering gets too tight for the body +inside it. Then it splits across the back. After much wriggling, the +Shrimp appears in a new soft skin. While the skin is still soft the +Shrimp grows very quickly. Crustaceans have a funny way of growing, have +they not? Instead of growing evenly, little by little, they grow by +"fits and starts," a great deal in a few hours and then not at all. + +Besides being good food for us, and for the fish, Shrimps and Prawns +have another use. They are scavengers. They pick to pieces and eat the +vegetable and animal stuff which floats in the sea. Before it can decay +and become poisonous, these useful creatures use it up as food. Great +numbers of Shrimps and Prawns are caught for our markets. Some are +caught by men who push a small net over the sands near shore, but most +are caught by the _shrimp-trawl_, a large net cast from a small sailing +vessel. + +The rocks, and the wooden piles of the pier, are often covered with the +hard shells known as Barnacles, or Acorn Shells. If you slip on them +with bare feet their sharp edges cut you. Each Acorn Shell is a little +house. Have you ever caught a glimpse of the animal living inside? + +If you will look very carefully, you will see that the Acorn Shell is +made of three-sided pieces, closely joined. There is a little door at +the top, kept tightly closed until the tide comes up and covers the +rocks. Then watch, and you will see a bunch of tiny feathers appear +through a slit in the door. This means that the animal is hungry, and +has put its twelve legs out of doors to catch a dinner! + +This is strange, but true! The Barnacle is always upside down in its +home, and its twelve feathery legs are thrust out of the door at the +top. They make a fine net, in which minute animals are caught and +brought into the mouth below. This funny creature actually kicks its +food into its mouth! If you own a magnifying glass, you can see this for +yourself at the seaside. + +You will not be able to see the mouth, however, which is inside the +shell. It is fitted with moving parts, and feelers, like the mouth of a +crab. Also, the Barnacle has a good set of teeth to grind its food. It +has no real eyes, having no use for them. Of what use are eyes to an +animal standing on its head in a small dark shell! Now and then it casts +its coat (like the Crab and Shrimp). The old coat is rolled up and +thrown away outside the door. + +Now comes the strangest thing of all. As a baby, the Barnacle is a free +swimming creature. It has three pairs of legs, a tail, a useful mouth, +and one eye. After kicking about in the sea for some time, and changing +its skin, it changes its shape entirely. It now looks more like a tiny +mussel. It has two little "shells," two eyes, legs, and feelers. Now its +swimming days are nearly over, and it must settle down. It gives up +eating, and roves about looking and feeling for a place to settle on. + +Finding a suitable spot, the little animal stands on its head. Then a +kind of glue is formed, which fixes it for life to that place, head +down. The two shells and the two eyes are now thrown off. The Barnacle +quickly builds up a shelly house, and, after a life of adventure and +change, becomes a fixed Barnacle for the rest of its days. + +For many years people knew little of this strange animal. All its +wonderful changes, and the way its body is made, tell us plainly that +the Barnacle is actually first cousin to the Crab, Lobster, Shrimp and +Prawn! It belongs to the class known as the _Crustacea_; but, for some +reason or other, it has chosen to live its grown-up life fixed to a +rock. + + +EXERCISES + +1. How does the Shrimp swim? + +2. Of what use are Shrimps and Prawns in the sea? + +3. How can you tell a live Shrimp from a live Prawn? + +4. How does the Barnacle obtain its food? + +5. Give the names of five crustaceans. + + + + +LESSON VI. + + +PLANTS OF THE SHORE. + +To pick a bunch of gay flowers you would look in the fields and +hedge-rows, and not by the sea. Flowers, as you know, love moist soil, +and not dry sand; and, like us, they prefer one food to another. Sand +they do not like, and salt is a poison to them. Both of these are +enemies to plant life. + +Also, flowers choose sheltered spots. They do not like rough winds, and +the glare of the sun shrivels them up. Yet there are plants with pretty +flowers to be found by the sea, and many others with small, dull +flowers. These seaside plants have to fight for their lives. The dry, +shifting sand, and the salt spray, are enough to kill them, you would +think. They have no shelter from the strong sea wind, nor from the +fierce glare of the summer sun. The puzzle is, how do they live among so +many enemies? For you know that the flowers of the field would at once +die if you planted them in salt and sand. They would starve to death. + +Even the strongest seaside plants shun that part of the beach washed by +the waves. They leave that to the seaweeds. + +Let us look first at some plants which have their home on the +sand-hills. Here is a fine one, like a thistle, with stiff prickly +leaves, and a stiff blue stem. In August it has blue-grey flowers. This +plant is called Sea Holly, its leaves being like those of the holly. It +has an unpleasant smell, yet its roots are used for making some kinds of +sweets. + +Now try to pull up a plant of Sea Holly. You find it no easy task. Then +dig away the sand, and you see that its large roots have gone deep and +far. All these plants of sandy places grow like that. Sand has no food +or drink to give to plants. So they send their roots out, like plants in +a desert, until they find what they want. Besides food and drink, they +need a firm anchor in the loose sand. The Sea Holly, with its roots deep +down and far-spreading, can hold its own, though the gale tears at it +and throws its sandy bed here and there. + +We pass many small creeping plants as we walk in the dry sand. There is +a pretty Sea Convolvulus, with its stems deeply buried. It is a cousin +of the common Bindweed. Then we see many plants of Thyme, and a few +ragged bushes of Gorse. We notice that several little plants grow near +the Gorse, as if they had crept there for shelter. The sea breeze has +blown the sand into heaps, and even on these dry, thirsty hillocks we +see many tufts of grass. + +[Illustration: 1. THE COMMON LOBSTER. 2. HERMIT CRAB.] + +These Couch Grasses and Dune Grasses, as they are often called, are +coarse and hard. Cattle pass them by in disgust. Yet they are the most +useful plants on the shore. They can live and spread where other plants +die. They have very long underground stems, which go through and through +the dry, loose sand. The wind does its best to bury them in sand, but +they send up hard, sharp buds, and go on living, and spreading. + +Bit by bit, the sand is held together by the matted stems of these +grasses. It becomes firm, instead of loose; the wind can no longer blow +it about. Then other plants can grow in that place. You know how men go +out to the wild parts of the earth and, by hard work, make those places +ready for others to settle there. Well, the sand-grass works like that. +It prepares the way for useful plants to grow in places where they could +not grow before. + +Quite near to the sea we shall find a very strange little plant. It has +no leaves, only fleshy, jointed stems. It is known as the Glass-wort, +being full of a substance useful in making glass. It belongs to a family +which seems to delight in deserts and salty soil! They have all sorts of +dodges to help them live in such places. For instance, their leaves are +fleshy. Squeeze them, and they are like wet, juicy fruit. + +The Sea Beet is also a member of this family. The Red Beet, as well as +the Mangel-wurzel, we owe to this humble seaside plant. Most of our +sugar comes from the Sugar-beet. + +Another useful plant is the Sea Cabbage, which grows on some parts of +our sea coast. It is rather a ragged, tough kind of Cabbage, and perhaps +you would not choose it for your dinner-table. We have more tempting +sorts in our gardens--Brussels Sprouts, Broccoli, Cauliflower, but long, +long ago the wild seaside cabbage was the only one growing. Men found it +to be eatable, and began to plant it near their huts or caves. From that +small beginning all our garden cabbages have come. + +Walking a little farther from the sea, we leave the sand and come to +stones, rocks and cliffs. We pass a pretty plant, the Sea Lavender, and +another, the Sea Stock. They love best the sandy, muddy parts of the +shore. Their lilac flowers look bright and pretty. Coming to the rocky +places, we find tufts of the flower known as Sea Pink or Thrift. Its +leaves are like grass, and its flowers form a round pink bundle at the +top of a bare stalk. + +There are many tufts of Thrift growing among the rocks; and each tuft +has a number of pink flowers. In some places you could step from one +tuft to another for several miles. Bare and ugly stretches of coast are +made into a gay garden by this lovely flower. + +Here and there on the rocks is a plant with large yellow blossoms--the +Yellow Horned Poppy. It is a handsome plant, and you are surprised to +see such fine flowers among dry shingle, sand, or rock; but the Horned +Poppy is well able to stand the salt spray and storms of its favourite +home. When the petals have dropped, a green seed-pod is left. It is very +long--nearly twice as long as this page and looks much more like a stem +than a seed-pod. + +Sometimes this seaside poppy is seen growing high up the face of the +cliff, where only the jackdaw and sea-birds can find a footing; and many +another plant may be seen there too. The cliffs are full of cracks, some +tiny and some wide. In these places there is always a certain amount of +dirt and grit. You could hardly call it "soil," and most plants would +starve if you planted them in such a place. + +[Illustration: SEA LILY.] + +These plants of the rock and cliff are not so proud. They have very long +and very thin roots, admirably suited to pierce the grit, and explore +the cracks in the rock, to find the moisture they need. Besides this, +they have fleshy leaves which help them to keep alive. The Stone-crop +and the Penny-wort are well-known plants of this kind. They grow where +you would least expect to find a living plant. Neither heat nor thirst +seems to kill them. Mother Nature has found many a wonderful way of +helping her children to live. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Why do plants which grow in sand have such long roots? + +2. In what way are the grasses growing on the sand so useful? + +3. Give the names of four flowering plants of the shore. + +4. Where would you look for the Stone-crop and Penny-wort? + +5. Why do these two plants have such thin roots? + + + + +LESSON VII. + + +FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS. + +The prettiest of the creatures of the shore is the Sea Anemone. No one +can see it without being reminded of a flower, an Aster or Daisy, with a +thick stalk and many coloured petals; but, knowing how it is made, and +how it lives, we place it in the Animal Kingdom, though among the +lowliest members of that Kingdom. It is a cousin of that strange +creature, the Jelly-fish, which we shall look at in another lesson. + +[Illustration: SEA ANEMONE.] + +When the tide falls, you can walk among the rocks and pools by the sea, +and find Anemones in plenty. They are fixed to the rocks. Some are under +the ledges, out of sight, others are low down, half buried in the wet +sand; and others are on the sides of the rocks, looking like blobs of +green, brown, or red jelly. Feel one of them. It is slimy, and rather +firm, not so soft and yielding as the Jelly-fish. You cannot easily pull +it from the rocks without harming it; but you will find other Anemones +on stones and shells; and these you can put in a jar of sea-water, with +some weed, and carry home to examine later on. + +When covered with sea-water the ugly blobs of jelly open out like +beautiful flowers. In some places along our coast the floor of the sea +is like a flower garden, gay with thousands of coloured Anemones. + +Those little "petals" are really _tentacles_, used for catching and +holding food. We will use a shorter word and call them feelers. They are +set in circles round the top of the Anemone, and there are many of them. +The Daisy Anemone, for instance, has over seven hundred feelers. Each +feeler can be moved from side to side, and can also be tucked away, out +of sight and out of danger; but, when hungry, the animal spreads them +widely, for, as we shall see, they are the net in which it catches its +dinner. + +The whole body of the Anemone is like two bags, one hanging inside the +other. The space between the two bags is filled with water. The feelers +are hollow tubes which open out of this space; so they, too, are filled +with water. + +[Illustration: CRUSTACEA. + +1. THE LARVA OF A LEAF-BODIED CRUSTACEAN CALLED PHYLLOSOMA. + +2. A PRAWN-LIKE CREATURE, SHOWING THE FRONT LIMBS THAT ARE USED FOR +GRASPING PREY. + +3. A CRAB. + +4. THIS IS A SHRIMP-LIKE CREATURE CALLED CUMA SCORPIOIDES.] + +The Anemone can press the water into them, and so force them to open +out. In rather the same way you can expand the fingers of a glove by +forcing your breath into them. The Anemone, you see, can open or close +just as it pleases. + +What does it eat, and how does it find food? Perhaps you have watched an +open Anemone in a pool, or in a glass tank, and seen it at its meals. A +small creature swims near, and touches one of the feelers. Instead of +darting away, it appears to be held still; and then other feelers bend +towards it and hold the victim. Then they are all drawn to the centre of +the Anemone, carrying their prey with them; and the feelers, prey and +all, are tucked out of sight. + +That is the way the Anemone obtains its food. As soon as the feelers get +hold of a small animal they carry it to the opening of a tube in the +centre. This is the mouth, leading to the stomach. Very often the +feelers, with their victim, are tucked away into the stomach, and the +feelers do not appear again for some time. Is not this a strange way of +eating! + +Much stranger still is the way in which the food is held, and made so +helpless that it cannot escape. On the skin of the Anemone there are +many thousands of very tiny pockets, or cells. Each cell contains a fine +thread with a poisoned barb at the tip, The thread is packed away in the +cell, coiled up like the spring of a watch. As soon as anything presses +against the cells they shoot out their threads. Thus the tips of many +poisoned threads enter the skin of any soft animal which is unlucky +enough to touch an Anemone. + +If your own skin is tender, these little stinging hairs will irritate +it, but not enough to hurt you. It is different, however, with the small +creatures of the sea. They are made quite helpless when caught by +hundreds of these strange threads. We shall find similar poison-threads +in the Jelly-fish; and these, in some cases, can cause us serious +illness. You cannot see them without the aid of a microscope. + +All those parts of its food which the Anemone cannot digest, it throws +out again. If you feed an Anemone on raw meat, it tucks the pieces into +its mouth, and, some days after, throws out the hard part of the meat, +having taken all the "goodness" from it. + +No doubt the Anemones themselves are eaten by other animals in the sea, +but many kinds of fish will not touch them. You may remember that we +noticed an Anemone which lived on the stolen home of the Hermit Crab. +The crab lives in the whelk shell, and the Anemone lives on the roof, as +it were. In nearly every ocean, all over the world, these two partners +are found, using the same shell. It is thought that the Anemone lives +there for two good reasons. First, the Hermit moves from place to place; +you can see that this would give the Anemone a better chance of +obtaining food. Also, bits of food float to the Anemone when the crab is +picking his dinner to pieces. + +The crab seems to like having his strange partner with him. No doubt the +Anemone is of some use to him, or he would at once pull it off. It is +thought that the Anemone protects him from his enemies, the fish. Some +of them would swallow the whelk shell, crab and all, but they would not +eat one on which an Anemone was fixed. We are not _sure_ that these +reasons are the right ones. All we know for certain is, that a crab and +an Anemone have, for some good reasons, gone into partnership. + +Anemones have large families. Sometimes they have numbers of eggs; at +other times their little ones come straight into the world as very tiny +Anemones. A boy who kept a large Anemone in a tank of sea water, was +astonished to find that in a short time, he had not one, but hundreds, +of the creatures. The tiny Anemones were fixed to the glass and rock, +all fishing for food with their little outspread tentacles. Sometimes +the Anemone will calmly divide itself into two, each half becoming a +perfect Anemone! + +Anemones are of many shapes, sizes, and colours. The loveliest of our +British ones is the Plumose Anemone. It is like a carnation, and may +grow to be six inches high--that is, nearly as long as this page. It is +known by its shape, not by its colour. It may be any of these +colours--brown, deep green, pale orange, flesh colour, cream, bright +red, brick colour, lemon, or pure white. + +There are many other creatures in the sea which resemble plants and are +often mistaken for them. The Sea Lily (p.49) is one of the flower-like +animals; it is a relative of the Starfish, living in deep water. The Sea +Mat (p.59) is often found on the shore. It seems like a horny kind of +weed, but is really a colony of tiny animals, each one having its own +little cell to live in. + + +EXERCISES + +1. How does the Anemone expand its "feelers"? + +2. In what way does the Anemone catch the small animals on which it +feeds? + +3. Where is the mouth of the Anemone? + +4. In what way might the Anemone be of use to its partner, the hermit +crab? + + + + +LESSON VIII. + + +SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS + +We think of weeds as useless plants which insist on growing just where +they are not wanted. So it is a pity that _Sea-weeds_ are so named, for +the part they play in the sea is a useful one; and they are often +beautiful, though they do not bear flowers like so many plants of the +land. You see draggled heaps of them, lying on the shore where the waves +have thrown them. They are best seen in their proper home, buoyed up by +the water, and spreading out their broad coloured fronds, or long waving +threads. There are, in many places, meadows of Sea-grass, and forests of +Sea-weed! Mother Earth still has her carpet of green, even when covered +by the salt water. The plants are very unlike those of the land, but, as +you will see, they are of great use. We will suppose you put on a diving +dress. Then you can walk out, under the water, and explore the forests +of the sea. + +Down by the line of low tide, before you have waded up to your knees, +you find plants clinging to the rocks. They cover them with a slippery +coat of green; when you turn these Sea-weeds over you find periwinkles +and other animals feeding or hiding. Sea-weed makes good "cover" for the +creatures of the rock-pools, who have many enemies to fear. + +You notice that most of these shore weeds are green, sometimes as green +as young grass. Pull up a bunch of the weed, and you find that it clings +to the rocks and stones, but has no real roots. Seaweeds belong to a +humble family in the world of plants, having no real roots, no flowers, +and no real seeds. They can attach themselves to the stones or rocks. +Along comes a great wave, and perhaps they are torn up; but this does +not harm them, for they still live as they wash to and fro in the water, +until they cling to another rock. Or they are thrown on the shore to +die, or else to be washed back to sea by the next tide. + +[Illustration: SEA-WEED FROND.] + +The Sea Lettuce or Green Laver is a common seaweed near the shore. Its +broad, crinkled and bright green leaves are rather like those of a +lettuce. Sometimes it is boiled to a jelly and used for food. Many other +sea-weeds are good to eat, and on some coasts there is a regular +sea-weed harvest. + +Now wade into rather deeper water, and you find a great mass of the +Bladder Wrack. Most schoolboys know it, for the little bladders of air +in the leaves explode with a pop if you squeeze them. The Bladder Wrack, +and others of the same kind, are torn up by the fierce waves in a storm, +and tossed on the beach in heaps. They are gathered by the farmer who +knows how to value a cheap manure for his fields. Some kinds are also of +use in packing lobsters so that they come to market nice and fresh. + +When you have walked--in your diving dress--to deep water, you find +yourself among a tangle of olive-green weeds. They are below the line of +low tide. All round you is a forest of dark-green ribbons with wavy +edges. The ribbons are tough and very long, and cling tightly to the +rocks. These ribbon-weeds, and others of the same kind, are known as +Tangles. Round some parts of our coast they make wide, thick beds in the +sea. Though the ribbons may be six feet long, they are not so wide as +the palm of your hand. + +Another sea plant, which grows in tufts in rather deep water, is called +Irish Moss; it is green, brown or purple in colour. I do not know why it +should be called Irish Moss, for it is not a moss, and it grows all +round the English, as well as the Irish, sea-coast. But sea-weeds have +strange names; indeed, many of them have no everyday names at all. Irish +Moss is used for food, after being boiled to a jelly. It can also be +made into a gum or glue, and has often been so used. + +Now, if you were to walk still farther on the bed of the sea, into +deeper water, you would find the prettiest of all the sea plants. These +are the pink and red sea-weeds. You also find them on the beach, but +only after they have been torn from their home in the deep water. They +grow on the rocks, in pretty coloured tufts. + +If you dive still farther, into the dark depths of the sea, you find +beds of ooze and slime, and rocks and weird fishes, but no plants. Why +is this? Like the land-plants, these sea-plants must have _light_. They +cannot grow in the blackness of very deep water. Can you guess why some +sea-weeds are green and others red? Those growing in the shallow water +of the shore are green, like land-plants, because the sunlight reaches +them. Only part of the light can pass through deep water; and so, in +these shady places, the sea-weed is reddish in colour. + +[Illustration: SEA MAT.] + +We see, then, that (1) green sea-weed grows by the shore; (2) +brownish-green sea-weed likes deeper water; (3) red sea-weed grows in +deep water; and (4) in very deep water there is no weed at all. + +We must not forget the grass of the sea. It grows in narrow blades, +often a yard in length, and as wide as your thumb. It is not a sea-weed, +but a real flowering plant, which, for some reason or other, loves to +grow under water. It creeps in the sand and mud, with green leaves +growing up as thick as corn in a cornfield. + +All these waving green leaves make large meadows in the sea; and +sea-snails, fishes, and crabs hide in it, just as all manner of living +things hide in the grass of our meadows. The proper name of this strange +plant is Sea Wrack. When dried, it is useful for packing up china, and +covering flasks of oil. + +Now we come to the real use of sea plants. They are food for all the +hosts of small animals of the sea. These eat it as it grows; or else, +like the mussel and oyster, swallow the tiny scraps of it which float +everywhere like so much dust. + +The shell-fish, and other animals which feed on sea plants, are +themselves eaten by other sea creatures, and these in their turn are +eaten by crabs, lobsters and fish, which are eaten by us. It reminds you +of a chain. The first link in the chain is the sea plant, the last links +are the fish and ourselves. So, you see, the weeds and grass of the +ocean are of very great value indeed. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Give the names of three common Sea-weeds. + +2. What is the colour of the weed found in deep water? + +3. Why cannot Sea-weed grow in very deep water? + +4. In what way are sea plants most useful? + + + + +LESSON IX. + + +THE JELLY-FISH. + +Or all the queer children of Nature which live in the sea, the +Jelly-fish is one of the queerest. You often find it on the shore, +especially after a severe storm. There it lies, a mass of helpless +jelly, which slips and breaks through your fingers if you try to lift +it. + +It cannot move back to its watery home, and in a short time the sun's +warmth will have dried it up, leaving but a mark on the sand, and a few +scraps of animal matter; for these strange creatures are little else but +water. A Jelly-fish, which weighed two pounds when alive, would leave +less than the tenth part of one ounce when dried! + +There is a story of a farmer who, on seeing thousands and thousands of +Jelly-fish along the shore, thought he would make use of them. He +decided that they would serve as manure for his fields, and so save him +much money. He went home, and sent men with wagons to be loaded with the +Jelly-fish. This was done, and the Jelly-fish were spread over the soil. +On looking at his fields the next morning, the farmer was astonished to +find that every scrap of his new manure had vanished as if by magic! + +[Illustration: WEST PAN SAND BUOY. ONE OF THE MANY BUOYS AT THE MOUTH OF +THE THAMES.] + +In the sea the Jelly-fish looks like an umbrella of bluish-white jelly, +from which hang tassels and threads. Look over the side of a boat, or +from the pier, and you often see them drifting by, hundreds of them, +like so many ghosts. + +Each one is moving along, with its edges partly opening and shutting. It +is plain that this waving motion causes the creatures to move through +the water. Also, they can rise to the surface, or fall to the depths, +and do not collide with one another. So the Jelly-fish is not at all +helpless. + +At night Jelly-fishes sometimes look very beautiful. Each one shines in +the water, with a soft yet strong light, like fairy lamps afloat in the +sea. + +They are of all sizes. Some you could put in a small wineglass, others +measure nearly two feet across. Evidently the Jelly-fish grows, and, in +order to live and grow, it must eat; but what does it eat, and how does +it obtain its food? + +[Illustration: MEDUSA.] + +Before noticing the wonderful way in which this animal finds its dinner, +let us look at its body. In any large Jelly-fish you can see marks which +run from the centre of the body, and another mark round the edge of the +"umbrella." These are really tubes. They all join with a hollow space +inside the body, which is the creature's stomach. The mouth-tube opens +under the body, as can be seen by turning the Jelly-fish on its back, +and moving the lobes of jelly aside. All the food goes up this +tube-mouth, and so into the stomach of the animal. The whole creature is +little more than so many cells of sea-water, the walls of the cells +being a very thin, transparent kind of skin. + +Perhaps the strangest thing about it is the way in which it catches +prey. Jelly-fish feed on all kinds of tiny sea animals, such as baby +fish, and the young of crabs, shrimps, and prawns. These small creatures +form part of the usual dinner of many a hungry dweller in the sea, and +the Jelly-fish takes a share of them. + +[Illustration: A MEDUSOID.] + +From the edge of the "umbrella" there hangs a fringe of long, delicate +hairs, rather like spiders' threads. These are fishing lines, yet much +more deadly. They trail through the water, stretching far from the main +part of the Jelly-fish; and any small creature unlucky enough to touch +them is doomed. + +Down each one of these threads there are minute cells, hundreds and +hundreds to every thread; and in each cell there is a dart, coiled up +like the spring of a watch. The tip of the dart is barbed like a +fishhook. Now the cells are so made that they fly open when touched. The +dart then leaps out and buries itself in the skin of the animal which +touched the thread. Not only that, but the darts are poisoned, and soon +kill the small creatures which they pierce. + +You see now how this innocent-looking Jelly-fish gets its food. As it +swims along, the threads touch the tiny living things in the sea, the +darts pierce them and poison them. Of course these stinging darts are +very, very small, much too small for our eyes to see. + +Sometimes there are numbers of large brownish Jelly-fish in the sea, or +washed up on the shore. If you are paddling or swimming, keep well away +from them. Their poison darts are able to pierce through thin skin, and +may cause you illness and great pain. Remember that the threads are very +long; after you have passed the main body of the animal, you may still +be in danger from the trailing threads. + +We noticed these same poison darts when we were dealing with the +flower-like animals, the Anemones. Only, in that case, they were so +fine, so small, that they had no power to harm us, even though they +entered our skin. You may remember that we called the Anemone a cousin +of the Jelly-fish, for they both belong to the same lowly division of +the Animal Kingdom. + +Animals have queer ways of getting a living. Who would expect to find +millions of poisoned darts in a Jelly-fish? Who would guess that these +weapons are coiled up, ready to spring out at their prey? Men have made +many weapons for killing, from the bow-and-arrow to the torpedo, but +none of them is more wonderful than the weapon of the Jelly-fish. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Where is the mouth of the Jelly-fish placed? + +2. How does the Jelly-fish move through the water? + +3. What is the food of the Jelly-fish? + +4. How does it obtain its food? + +[Illustration: SHELLS. + +1. A FRESHWATER TURRET SHELL. + +2. EDIBLE MUSSEL. + +3. CONE SHELL. + +4. SWORD-BLADE RAZOR-SHELL. + +5. EAR SHELL, OR ORMER. + +6. A TOP SHELL. + +7. SCALLOP. + +8. SWAN MUSSEL.] + + + + +LESSON X. + + +SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1). + +THE PERIWINKLE, WHELK AND LIMPET. + +Most of the shells which you find scattered over the shore are empty. +The little animals which built them are gone; and their empty houses, of +wonderful shapes and colours, are all that you find. Let us look at the +builders of these pretty homes. + +The shell-builders have soft, juicy bodies, and they are put in one big +division of the animal kingdom--the _mollusca_, which only means +_soft-bodied_. Some of these molluscs do not build shells. But most of +them build a shelly house for themselves; they do this to defend their +soft bodies from the attacks of a host of enemies. Some build two +shells--the Oyster and Mussel do, as you know. These are called +_bi-valves_; that is, two valves or shells; and others, like the Garden +Snail, the Limpet, and Periwinkle, have one shell only, and so are +called _uni-valves_. + +The crab, and other _crustaceans_, also have a hard covering to their +soft bodies; but it is not at all like the shell of a Snail, or other +_mollusc_. The Snail's shell is like the little boy's suit which is +altered and made bigger as the boy grows. The crab's covering is a suit +which cannot be altered. It must be thrown away, and replaced by a +larger one. + +The body of the shell-builder is wrapped in a soft covering, a kind of +outer coat, which is called the _mantle_. Now this mantle is one of +Nature's cleverest inventions. It is able to take the substance called +_lime_ from the food of the animal, and to use it as building stuff. + +[Illustration: PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP.] + +The shell is built to fit the soft body. When a Periwinkle is hatched +from the egg, it is as big as a pin's head. It eats and grows, and the +shell must therefore be made larger. So the mantle is stretched out, and +it puts a film of lime to the edge of the shell. Bit by bit the shell is +thus added to by the wonderful mantle. Look at a snail's shell, and +notice the lines which show how many times the little house has been +made larger. + +Each kind of shell-builder has its own style of building. If you go to a +museum and examine the shells gathered from all over the world, you are +surprised at their wonderful shapes, markings and colours. Another +surprising thing is their size. Some are enormous, so large that they +make good washing-basins. Others are so small that you can hardly see +them. Each one was made by the folds of the mantle of the animal that +lived in it. + +In our coloured pictures you see many different kinds of shells, some of +them built by uni-valve molluscs and some by bi-valve molluscs. + +Wherever there are weeds along the shore you can find whole armies of +the Periwinkle--the "Winkle" we all know so well. It browses there, +among the weeds, just as its cousin, the land Snail, browses on your +cabbages. You must have seen the little door with which the Periwinkle +closes the entrance to his house. The land Snail does not own a door, +but he makes one when he goes to sleep for the winter. + +The Periwinkle crawls on a broad, slimy foot, which is put out from the +shell. It is stretched on this side or that, and so draws him and his +home in any direction. There are two sensitive feelers in front of his +head; and behind these are two short stalks, on each of which is a tiny +eye. If alarmed, the Periwinkle can shorten his body, and pull it back +into its shell, closing the entrance with the horny door. + +But the strangest part of him is the tongue. It is not for tasting, but +for rasping. It is like a long, narrow ribbon, on which are hundreds of +tiny points, all sloping backwards. They are arranged three in a row. +The Periwinkle rasps the seaweed with his tongue, and so scrapes off his +dinner. Of course the teeth wear away. + +[Illustration: COWRIES.] + +But only part of the toothed ribbon is used at a time, so there are +plenty of teeth behind the worn ones, ready to take their place. + +The shell, as we have seen, is made of _limestone_. But the teeth are +made _of flint_. This is a hard substance, so hard that it is used for +striking sparks. + +Now we will look at a shell-builder, the Whelk, who uses his flinty +tongue in quite another fashion. The Whelk does not care for a vegetable +dinner. He prefers to eat other molluscs--he is carnivorous, a +flesh-eater; but these other molluscs do not wait to be eaten. As the +enemy draws near they retire into their shells, and shut themselves up +as tight as they can. The Whelk, however, is a clever burglar; he knows +how to make a way into the hardest of shelly houses. + +His front part--we might call it a nose--will stretch out to a fine +point; and it contains a rasping tongue even harder than that of the +Periwinkle. He sets to work. Moving the rasp up and down, he drills a +neat round hole in the shell of the animal he is attacking. No shell is +safe from him; and no tool could make a neater hole. + +When you next gather shells on the beach, look at them closely; in some +you will see where Mr. Whelk, the burglar, has been at work. He needs +but a small entrance to enable him to suck out his helpless prey at his +ease. Is it not strange that this creature, with a body as soft as your +tongue, should earn its living by breaking into houses made of hard +shell! + +There are other molluscs which find their meals in this strange manner, +and many others which, like the Periwinkle, feed more easily on seaweed. +One of these, the Limpet, you can always be sure of finding at low tide; +indeed, there are so many Limpets on the rocks that it would be hard +_not_ to see them. You will know, if you have tried to force a Limpet +from its hold on the rock, how very tightly it clings. It is as if the +shell were glued or cemented by its edges. + +Yet there is no glue or cement used, but only a simple dodge. The Limpet +has a broad "foot," which almost fills up the opening of its shell. Like +the foot of the Snail, it is used when the animal wishes to take a walk; +but it serves another purpose too. It can be used as a sucker; and it is +this which enables the Limpet to cling so firmly to its rock. + +When the tide is out, the Limpet clings to the rock, its soft body +tucked safely away in the shell. Its feeding time comes when the water +covers the rocks once more. Then the Limpet's shell may be seen to tilt +up, and a foot, and a head with feelers and eyes, come out. The Limpet +crawls to the seaweed and begins to browse, using a rasp like that of +the Periwinkle. It then crawls back to its own place on the rock. In +time this resting-place becomes hollowed out, and the Limpet's shell +fits into the groove thus made. + +Limpets are useful as bait for fish. The Whelk and Periwinkle are +gathered in immense numbers, and are used by us for food. Perhaps you +have seen the egg-bundle of the Whelk. It contains many eggs when first +laid in the sea. Each egg is as big as a pin's head. They swell in the +water, until the yellowish bundle is three times as large as the Whelk +that laid it. You often see the empty bundle blown by the wind along the +shore. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Give the names of two bi-valve molluscs. + +2. What is the Periwinkle's shell made of? + +3. Describe how the Periwinkle eats seaweed. + +4. How does the Whelk obtain its food? + +5. Give the names of three one-shelled molluscs. + + + + +LESSON XI. + + +SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2) + +THE MUSSEL AND OYSTER. + +As everyone knows, the Mussel and the Oyster live between two hinged +shells. In the last lesson we called them _bi-valve molluscs_, which is +only another way of saying "soft-bodied animals with two shells." Have +you ever opened an Oyster? It is a tug-of-war, your skill and strength +against the muscles of the animal inside the tight shells. + +Like the Periwinkle and other shell-builders, these creatures owe their +strong houses to a wonderful _mantle_; but in this case the mantle is in +two pieces instead of one. You can imagine the Periwinkle's mantle as a +tube enclosing the animal's body. The mantle of the Mussel or the Oyster +is in two pieces; and each half forms its own shell. + +The Snail, and other one-shelled molluscs, poke their heads out of the +shell when feeding or moving. Oysters and their two-shelled cousins +cannot do this, for the simple reason that they have no heads! + +In some places you see that the rocks at low tide are covered with +Mussels. In dense black masses they cling to the rocks; and, though +heavy waves bang them like so many hammers, they stick tight. Little +Mussels and big ones, they form a mass so thick that baby crabs and +other creatures use them as a hiding-place. On the piers and groynes, +and the woodwork of the harbour, you can see other clusters of Mussels; +they are placed where the high tide covers them. + +Have you noticed how the Mussel anchors himself? He uses a bunch of +threads, like so many cables or tiny ropes. It is interesting to know +how these threads are made. + +The Mussel is, as a rule, a stay-at-home, but he can move from place to +place if he likes. He has a long, slender foot which can be pushed out +of the shells. Now the threads are fixed by the foot, just where the +Mussel wishes to anchor himself. They are made from a liquid which forms +in the body of the creature. This liquid hardens in the water so that it +can be pulled out into long, fine threads. + +Our ordinary Mussels do not make very long threads, but those of some +kinds are so long that they can be woven into silky purses or stockings. +The Mussel which makes such long anchor-threads might be called "the +silkworm of the sea." + +If the Mussel is such a stay-at-home, how does he find his food? The +answer is, that the food comes to him, brought by the ever-moving water. +There are countless specks floating in the sea, mostly specks of +vegetable stuff. These settle on the floor of the sea, just as dust +settles on our house-floors; and the waves wash this "sea-dust" hither +and thither. The Mussel or Oyster, with shells gaping wide open, is +bound to get some of this food with the water which enters the shells. + +The Oyster has no "foot," and is fixed in one place nearly all its life. +It is an interesting animal; and one of such value as food, that +hundreds of thousands of Oysters are reared in special "beds," and sent +to the market at the proper season. Our British Oysters were famous even +in the time of the Romans; they were carefully packed and sent to Rome, +and, at the Roman feasts, surprising quantities of them were eaten. + +Many sea-animals have wonderfully large families, but the Oyster, with +its millions and millions of eggs, beats most of them. Strangely enough, +its eggs are not sent into the sea at once, but are kept between the +Oyster's shells until they hatch. Needless to say, these babies are very +small indeed, else their nursery could not contain them all Though so +small that thousands of them together look more like a pinch of dust +than anything else, yet each one has two thin shells; so that, if you +eat the parent Oyster, they grate on your teeth like sand. Oysters, at +this time, are "out of season"--that is, unfit for food. + +At the right moment, the Oyster gets rid of its numerous family. It +opens its shells, then shuts them rapidly; and, each time this happens, +a cloud of young Oysters is puffed out like smoke. Now these mites must +fend for themselves in a sea full of foes. + +They have no defence, and countless numbers of them are gobbled up by +crabs, anemones, and others. If this did not happen, the sea would soon +be paved with Oysters. + +For a time, the baby Oysters--which are known as "spat"--are able to +swim here and there. In rough weather they are driven far into the deeps +of the ocean, and lost. The rest of them, before they have been free for +two days, settle on the bed of the sea--sometimes on their own parents; +and there they remain for life. Only a very few out of each million +become "grown-ups"--the rest are eaten by enemies, or smothered in mud +or sand. In a year or so they are as big as half-a-crown. In five years +they are fine, fat grown-up Oysters--that is to say, if they have not +been dredged up from their bed and sent to market. + +Their shells open and shut like a trap. You may have seen a picture of +an inquisitive mouse trapped by an Oyster. Thinking to have a nice taste +of Oyster, the mouse had poked its head into the open shells, but they +were snapped together, and the mouse was firmly held in the trap. + +Between the hinge of the two shells there is a pad, which acts like an +elastic spring, and forces the shells open. The Oyster can close them by +means of a strong muscle. They are its only defence, so it closes them +at the least hint of danger. + +Even these thick walls are sometimes of no avail, as we saw in our talk +on "Five-fingered Jack." We saw how the starfish forces the shells open +with the help of its strong tube-feet. The whelk and his cousins know +how to bore a hole in the shell, and suck out the helpless Oyster. Then +there are certain sponges, with the strange habit of making holes in +shells, and living in and on them. Sometimes the Oysters are stifled in +their "beds" by other Oysters settling and growing over them. Thick +masses of Mussels may cling to them and suffocate them. And grains of +sand sometimes get in the hinges of their shells, so that they cannot +close up the house when they wish. + +Like the other animals which are useful as food, Oysters have been +carefully studied and cultivated by man for many, many years. The story +of the Oyster-beds is a long and interesting one. + +Oysters feed in rather a strange way. You may have looked inside the +shells and seen two delicate dark-edged fringes, known as the "beard." +This fringe is the Oyster's gills or breathing arrangement. Trace the +"beard" as far as the hinge of the shells, and you see the mouth with +its white lips. If you could watch the creature having its dinner, you +would see a constant stream of water flowing over the gills and towards +the mouth. + +What makes the water move in that way? The gills are covered with very +tiny lashes, like little hairs. There are so many of them that, as they +keep moving, they force the water along, over the gills and towards the +mouth. In this way the Oyster breathes the air which is in the water; +but not only that. As we have already noticed, there is a kind of +"vegetable dust" in the sea. This is driven to the Oyster's mouth and +swallowed. The Oyster, fixed in its "bed," unable to hunt for food, thus +makes its dinner come to it. What a strange use for a "beard"! It not +only serves as lungs, but also helps the animal to catch its "daily +bread"! + +Another mollusc used as food is the Cockle, and its shell is one of the +commonest found along the shore, especially near sandy places. It lives +in sand, and can bury itself so quickly that you would have to use your +spade with all your might in order to keep pace with this little +shell-fish. Where Cockles have buried themselves you will see spurts of +water and sand, showing where they are busy down below in the wet sand. + +Besides being so skilful at digging, the Cockle is a first-rate jumper. +If left on the beach, it jumps over the sand, towards the sea, in the +funniest way. It is strange to see a quiet-looking shell suddenly take +to hopping and jumping like an acrobat. + +To perform this astonishing feat the Cockle makes use of its foot, which +is worked by very strong muscles. It is large and pointed, and bent: if +the Cockle wishes to move quickly, it stretches out its foot from +between the shells, as far as it will go. Then, by using all its power, +it leaps backwards or forwards in a surprising manner. + +There are many other interesting molluscs, besides those we have looked +at. The Piddock, or Pholas, is a smallish, rather delicate one, with a +soft foot. But this foot is a most wonderful boring tool, fitted with a +hard file. Hard rocks and wood are perforated by these little molluscs. +Indeed, they are a positive danger, for they pierce the wooden piles of +piers, and weaken them. They cannot pierce through iron, however, and so +iron plates or nails are used to protect the piles from their +onslaughts. You will often see stones and rocks riddled by the Piddock +as if they were as soft as cheese. Chalk, sandstone, or oak, it is all +the same to the Piddock, which rasps them away with its file. When the +points of this strange instrument are worn out with all this hard wear, +a new set takes their place. + + +EXERCISES + +1. How does the Mussel anchor itself? + +2. Describe how the shells of the Oyster are opened and closed. + +3. What is the food of the Mussel? + +4. Of what use is the "beard" of the Oyster? + +5. Why is the Oyster called a bi-valve? + +6. Why is the Oyster sometimes unfit for use as food? + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE SEASHORE*** + + +******* This file should be named 10513.txt or 10513.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/5/1/10513 + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS," WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Each eBook is in a subdirectory of the same number as the eBook's +eBook number, often in several formats including plain vanilla ASCII, +compressed (zipped), HTML and others. + +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks replace the old file and take over +the old filename and etext number. The replaced older file is renamed. +VERSIONS based on separate sources are treated as new eBooks receiving +new filenames and etext numbers. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + +https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + +EBooks posted prior to November 2003, with eBook numbers BELOW #10000, +are filed in directories based on their release date. If you want to +download any of these eBooks directly, rather than using the regular +search system you may utilize the following addresses and just +download by the etext year. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext06 + + (Or /etext 05, 04, 03, 02, 01, 00, 99, + 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90) + +EBooks posted since November 2003, with etext numbers OVER #10000, are +filed in a different way. The year of a release date is no longer part +of the directory path. The path is based on the etext number (which is +identical to the filename). The path to the file is made up of single +digits corresponding to all but the last digit in the filename. For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: +https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: +https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + +*** END: FULL LICENSE *** diff --git a/old/10513.zip b/old/10513.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5a0370a --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10513.zip |
