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diff --git a/10513-h/10513-h.htm b/10513-h/10513-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8f5ba48 --- /dev/null +++ b/10513-h/10513-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,2339 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=US-ASCII"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of On the Seashore, by R. Cadwallader Smith</title> +<style type="text/css"> + * { font-family: Times;} + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + P { text-indent: 0em; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 12pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + HR { width: 33%; } + hr.full { width: 100%; } + a:link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + link {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:blue; + text-decoration:none} + a:hover {color:red} +</style> +</head> +<body> +<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, On the Seashore, by R. Cadwallader Smith</h1> + +<pre> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at <a href = "https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre> +<p>Title: On the Seashore</p> +<p>Author: R. Cadwallader Smith</p> +<p>Release Date: December 22, 2003 [eBook #10513]<br> +Most recently updated: July 28, 2012</p> +<p>Language: English</p> +<p>Character set encoding: US-ASCII</p> +<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE SEASHORE***</p> + +<br> +<center><h3>E-text prepared by Juliet Sutherland, Thomas Hutchinson,<br> + and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team</h3></center> + +<hr class="full"> +<br> +<br> +<h3>CASSELL'S "EYES AND NO EYES" SERIES +<br> +<br> +BOOK VII</h3> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>ON THE SEASHORE</h2> +<br> +<h3>By</h3> +<h3>R. CADWALLADER SMITH</h3> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<center>WITH EIGHT COLOUR PLATES AND MANY<br> +BLACK-AND-WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS</center> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> +<br> +<p><b>LESSON</b></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson1">I. FIVE-FINGERED JACK</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson2">II. A STROLL BY THE SEA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson3">III. BIRDS OF THE SHORE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson4">IV. CRABS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson5">V. SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson6">VI. PLANTS OF THE SHORE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson7">VII. FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson8">VIII. SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson9">IX. THE JELLY-FISH</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson10">X. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1)</a></p> +<p><a href="#Lesson11">XI. SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2)</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> +<br> +<p><b>COLOUR PLATES</b></p> +<br> +<p><a href="#Illus0079">GULLS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0080">THE REDSHANK</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0081">HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0082">THE COMMON LOBSTER AND HERMIT CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0083">CRUSTACEA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0084">WEST PAN SAND BUOY</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus0085">SHELLS</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<p><b>BLACK AND WHITE ILLUSTRATIONS</b></p> +<br> +<p><a href="#Illus006">COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus010">TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus027">THE CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus028">PURSE CRAB</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus031">HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus034a">HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus035">THE LOBSTER</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus036">THE SHRIMP</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus046">SEA LILY</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus047">SEA ANEMONE</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus054">SEA-WEED FROND</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus056">SEA MAT</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus060">MEDUSA</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus061">A MEDUSOID</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus066">PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP</a></p> +<p><a href="#Illus067">COWRIES</a></p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>CASSELL'S</h2> +<h3>"EYES AND NO EYES"</h3> +<h4>Seventh Book</h4> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<h2>ON THE SEASHORE.</h2> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson1"></a> +<h2>LESSON I.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>FIVE-FINGERED JACK.</b></p> +<p>What fun it is down by the sea at low tide! Scrambling among the +slippery rocks, we quickly fill a bucket with curious things. Some +are dead, others very much alive; but all have a story to tell +us--the story of the life they lead on the bed of the sea, or among +the sands and rocks of the shore.</p> +<p>Look, here is a Starfish! It is lying on the sand, left high and +dry by the waves, for now the tide is low. The Starfish looks limp +and lifeless, its five reddish-coloured "arms" are quite still.</p> +<p>We know it is an animal that lives in the sea, and dies when +washed ashore. But what does it do in the sea? How does it move +without legs or fins? How can it live without a head? Has it a +mouth? What does it eat, and how does it find its food?</p> +<p>Like so many other sea-animals, the Starfish is a puzzle. Some +of its little tricks puzzled clever people until quite lately. But +we know most of its secrets now.</p> +<p>Pass your finger down one of its arms, or rays. It feels rough, +being covered with knobs and prickles. Now turn the Starfish over, +and look carefully at its underside. In the centre, where the five +arms meet, is the animal's mouth. A harmless sort of mouth, you +think, too small to be of much use. Really, it is a terrible mouth, +the mouth of an ogre!</p> +<p>We notice a groove down the centre of each ray. But what are +those little moving things which bend this way and that, as if +feeling for something? Now that is exactly what they are doing. +They are the feet of the Starfish. Each tiny foot is really a +hollow tube, which can be pushed out or drawn in. At the tip of +each is a powerful sucker, which acts rather like those leather +suckers boys sometimes play with. Suppose the Starfish wishes to +take a walk along the bed of the sea. First, it pushes out its +tube-feet. Each sucker fixes itself to a stone or other object, and +then the animal can draw its body along. You will see presently +that the suckers can do other work too.</p> +<p>Our Starfish will die, however, unless we carry it to a pool. +Before doing so, we must look at the tip of each ray for a small +reddish spot. That is the Starfish's eye. Are those little eyes of +much use in helping the creature to find its dinner? I think not. +Most likely the Starfish <i>smells</i> its way.</p> +<p>If we put the animal on its back in a rock-pool we shall see the +tube-feet at work. Once in the water our Starfish revives, and +makes efforts to right itself. Can it turn over and crawl away?</p> +<p>The little tube-feet come out of their holes and begin to bend +about. Now those near the edge of one "arm" feel the ground. Each +tiny sucker at once takes hold, more and more of them touch the +ground as the ray is turned right side up, and at last the Starfish +turns over, and, slowly but surely, glides away.</p> +<p><a name="Illus006"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus006.png" width="60%" title= +"COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH." alt=""></center> +<h4>COMMON FIVE-FINGERED STARFISH.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Stones, shells, or rocks do not stop it. The rays slide up and +over them. If we had feet like those of the Starfish, a journey up +the wall of a house, over the roof, and down again, would be +nothing to us. Nature gives all creatures the kind of foot which +suits the life they lead. And it is hard to imagine feet more +useful to the Starfish than those wonderful sucker-feet!</p> +<p>Ask any fisherman what he thinks of the "harmless" Starfish, and +he will call it a pest and a nuisance. "It gets into the crab +traps," he says, "and eats all the bait. And when we are +line-fishing it sucks the bait off our hooks, and sometimes +swallows hook and all." Small wonder that Five-fingers, or +Five-fingered Jack, as it is called, has no friend among +fisher-folk.</p> +<p>On pulling up a useless Starfish instead of a real fish, the +fisherman tears the offender in half and throws the halves back +into the waves. By doing this he harms himself more than the +Starfish! Each half grows into a perfect Starfish with five rays +complete. We can say that each part of this animal has a separate +life, for each part can grow when torn away.</p> +<p>If you were asked to open an oyster you would need tools, would +you not? Even with an oyster-knife it is not always an easy job. +The oyster, tight in his shelly fortress, seems safe from the +attack of a weak Starfish. Yet the Starfish opens and eats oysters +as part of its everyday life.</p> +<p>Finding a nice fat oyster, it sets to work. The Starfish folds +its rays over its victim, with its mouth against the edge where the +shells meet. The tug-of-war begins. The Starfish's tube-feet try to +pull the shells apart; the oyster, with all its strength, tries to +keep them shut. It is stronger than its enemy, and yet the steady +pull of hundreds of suckers is more than it can stand, and the +shells, after a time, begin to gape a little.</p> +<p>Now a strange thing happens. The mouth of the Starfish opens +into a kind of bag which slips between the oyster shells. The +Starfish, as it were, turns itself inside-out! It then eats the +oyster and leaves the clean shell.</p> +<p>Mussels are smaller, so they are eaten in a different way. The +Starfish merely presses the mussel into its mouth, cleans out the +shells, and throws them away. Were we not right to call this +wonderful mouth the mouth of an ogre?</p> +<p>Oysters, as you know, are so valuable that we rear them in +special "beds." Along comes the hungry Starfish, with thousands of +its relations, finding the fat oysters very good eating. They do +great damage in our oyster-fisheries, and it is one long battle +between them and the keepers of the "beds."</p> +<p>Supporting the tough skin of Five-fingered Jack is a wonderful +skeleton. It is like a network of fine plates and rods made of +lime. Perhaps you have seen one in a museum.</p> +<p>Five-fingers has a great number of cousins, some of them common +enough along our shores. One of the strangest is the Brittle Star. +On first seeing one of these animals I tried to capture it by +holding its long, wriggling arms. At once the arms broke off. Then +I tried to scoop the creature out of its watery home. But it began +to break its "rays" off as if they were of no value whatever. To my +surprise, the broken "rays" broke again while wriggling on the +ground. This is a strange habit, is it not? Perhaps the Brittle +Star has found this dodge useful in escaping from enemies. Anyhow, +the loss of an arm or two matters little, for others grow in their +place.</p> +<p>Another cousin of the Starfish is the Sea-urchin, a round +prickly creature rather like the burr of the sweet-chestnut tree. +This mass of prickles is not a vegetable; he is very much alive. +Nature has given many plants and animals these prickles, like fixed +bayonets, for a defence against their enemies. You will at once +think of the gorse and the hedgehog, or urchin, as some people call +it. Our little Sea-urchin has prickles, like the hedgehog, but he +is really unlike any other living creature, except, perhaps, the +Starfish.</p> +<p>If you were to roll up a Starfish into a ball, and then stick +about three thousand spines on the ball thus made, you would have a +creature looking rather like a Sea-urchin.</p> +<p>Beneath the mass of spines there is a hard <i>test</i> or shell, +made of plates joined closely together; this is the skeleton of the +Sea-urchin. Sometimes you find this strange shell on the seashore, +rather dirty, and not always sweet-smelling. You might also find +Sea-urchins half-dead, washed into the rock-pools. The shells are +wonderful objects, so you should clean them in fresh water; they +are well worth the trouble of taking home.</p> +<p>All over the shell you will see little rounded knobs. These show +where the spines were fixed on; each spine fits into a hole in the +shell, but so loosely that it is able to move about. The Sea-urchin +can walk by moving its spines, tilting its body along from one +place to another on the bed of the sea. It can do much more than +that. Like its cousin the Starfish, it has numerous tube-feet, so +you would not be surprised to see this prickly ball walk up the +face of a rock.</p> +<p>The tube-feet, or sucker-feet, are fixed to the shell in much +the same way as the spines. They can be bent this way or that. If +the Urchin is on a rock he clings tightly with these sucker-feet; +then, if he wishes to move away, you will see the long thin tubes +stretch out and bend about. They fix themselves to the rock, and +the animal is drawn along.</p> +<p><a name="Illus010"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus010.png" width="50%" title= +"TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN." alt=""></center> +<h4>TEST OR SHELL OF A SEA-URCHIN.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Besides these spines and suckers, the Sea-urchin owns another +set of tools. Scattered over it, among the spines, are many tiny +rods tipped with little teeth or pincers. You will not be able to +see them, except under a magnifying glass. Of what use are these +strange little pincers or rods? It is thought that the Urchin uses +them in several ways. They may help in capturing small prey, or +they may be used when the creature has to fight a larger enemy. +They are also certainly of use as cleansing tools. That is to say, +they can pick off tiny scraps of weed or dirt which settle on the +animal's body. Some Starfishes also own pincers of this sort, but +they are not so perfect as those of the funny little Urchin. We +must not forget that all these spines, tube-feet, and pincers are +worked by a set of muscles.</p> +<p>In the centre of the Urchin's shell is its mouth. The Starfish, +we found, had a terrible mouth, but that of the Urchin is worse +still. Not only is it of great size, but it is fitted with strong +jaws and five long, sharp teeth, You may see them poking out from +the mouth of the animal, and feel for yourself how hard they +are.</p> +<p>There is a great deal more to know about Five-fingers; and the +Sea-urchin still has his secrets which no one can explain. We have +but glanced at their story in this lesson; but you can see that the +Starfish, lying limp on the sands, is not so dull as it looks.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Where is the mouth of the Starfish placed?</p> +<p>2. Describe how the Starfish moves.</p> +<p>3. How does the Starfish feed on the oyster?</p> +<p>4. Why is the <i>Brittle</i> Star given that name?</p> +<p>5. How do the Starfish and Sea-urchin keep themselves clean?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson2"></a> +<h2>LESSON II.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>A STROLL BY THE SEA.</b></p> +<p>The sea and the land are always at war. When you are at the +seaside, with spade and bucket to make "castles" and "pies" of the +sand, you can see and hear the battle.</p> +<p>A wave comes rolling smoothly on towards the shore. It reaches +the land and can go no further, and then, with a roar and a crash +and splash of sparkling foam, it breaks. It spreads into a sheet of +foaming water, and, after rushing as far as it can up the beach, it +seethes back as the next wave takes up the battle.</p> +<p>What a grinding and tearing, as wave after wave is hurled at the +land! That is the battle-cry of the land and sea! Most of the +pebbles and the sand on the beach have been won from the land in +the great fight. We might call them the spoils of war. Once they +formed part of the solid land, the rock or cliff. Now they are +loose fragments spread for mile after mile round our coast.</p> +<p>Every wave takes them up and has fine fun with them. Pebbles and +sand are picked up, swirled along, and thrown at the shore. They +are sucked back as the wave is broken by the land. And then the +following wave takes them, grinds them and scrubs them together. +Thus they are jostled hither and thither, up and down the coast; +and, as a result of the long, long fight, rocks and cliffs become +pebbles, sand, or mud.</p> +<p>Now if you look at the pebbles on the shore you see that many of +them are smooth and round. Some are as round as the "marbles" you +play with. No wonder, for the mighty sea has scoured them with sand +and rolled them for miles.</p> +<p>As you know, the sea is not always at the same height. It falls +and rises. Twice in every day it <i>ebbs</i> and <i>flows</i>; we +call this movement of the sea the <i>tides</i>. At low tide we can +explore the very bed of the ocean. We can visit the homes of the +living, breathing animals, which, at high tide, are hidden far +under water. Between the high-water mark and low-water mark is our +hunting-place. There we shall find the play-ground and +feeding-ground of many a strange creature.</p> +<p>Here is a stretch of sand, with little channels of water; there +is a patch of shingle mixed with numbers of tiny shells. The ebbing +tide leaves shallow pools in every hollow of the beach, and these +pools are often full of life.</p> +<p>Shrimps dart away and disappear in the sand as if by magic. +Small fish and crabs hide from you as best they can. Helpless +jelly-fish and starfish sprawl on the wet sand. What are those thin +ropes of sand coiled up into little mounds? They remind us of +"worm-casts." They are thrown up by a sand-worm, called "lug-worm" +by the fisherman. He brings a spade and digs wherever he sees the +sandy ropes of the "lug," for this worm makes good fishing +bait.</p> +<p>Seagulls love to explore the shallow pools. You may see them +walking solemnly about, picking up stray morsels. If you see a +screaming group of them you can be sure that one has found an extra +large prize, and the others mean to share the feast.</p> +<p>Let us walk down the beach towards the sea. Soon we find +ourselves among rocks. Now these rocks are the bare bed of the +shore, stripped of all covering. There is no mud, sand, or shingle, +so here you see plainly the work done by the restless water. On +every side you notice rocks worn to all shapes and sizes. Some jut +out as sharp ledges. Others are flat tables, covered with a +table-cloth of sea-plants. These clothe the rocks, or hang over the +ledges like wet, shining green curtains. Nearly every rock has its +crust of barnacles and clumps of mussels. If we are not careful we +slip on the wet weeds, and get a ducking in the pools which lie +everywhere among the rocks.</p> +<p>Here is the best place of all for sharp eyes to find the animals +and plants we seek. Where the hard rock has been worn down into +hollows, the falling tide leaves a pool of still, clear water. +These rock-pools are the home of many a creature. So let us look +for them, until the rising tide sweeps over the rocks once more, +and drives us away.</p> +<p>Sea-anemones and seaweeds brighten the pool with their various +colours. Pretty shells gleam here and there; and on the face of the +rock there are more limpets, barnacles and mussels than we can +count.</p> +<p>Where are the other living animals which we came to find? You +will not see them unless you hunt for them in the right way. It is +a game of "hide-and-seek." They are the "hiders"; and, as their +lives often depend on their skill in hiding, you cannot wonder that +they know every trick in the game.</p> +<p>There may be crabs, fish, shrimps, and others in the pool. If +you look for a moment, and then walk to the next pool, your hunting +will not have much result. It is best to lie down and wait +patiently, gazing into the clear water of the pool. The little +inhabitants are hidden in the dark corners under the rock ledges, +or buried under stones and sand; or they may be hiding in those +thick clumps of mussels--a favourite lurking-place; or else tucked +away in the friendly shelter of the seaweed.</p> +<p>Knowing their dodges, you will soon become clever at finding +them. Some seaside dwellers, such as prawns, are almost transparent +in the water. Others, like baby crabs, are green or brown like the +weed in which they hide. Even the sharp eyes of the seagulls must +be deceived by this trick.</p> +<p>What a strange life they lead, these creatures of the shore! At +times they are deep under water, and they form part of the teeming +life of the ocean floor.</p> +<p>Then the tide falls and uncovers them. They are in the full +light of day again, the sun shines on them. Most of them cannot +escape to the sea, and so must face the enemies which prowl along +the shore looking for prey. So, from one tide to the next, the +rock-pool is like a prison containing prisoners of the strangest +sort.</p> +<p><a name="Illus0079"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0079.jpg"><img src="Illus0079.jpg" width="60%" title= +"GULLS. 1. COMMON GULLS. 2. LESSER BLACK GULL. 3. GLAUCOUS GULLS." +alt=""></a></center> +<table align="center" width="75%"> +<caption><b>GULLS</b></caption> +<tr align="center"> +<td>1. COMMON GULLS.</td> +<td>2. LESSER BLACK GULL.</td> +<td>3. GLAUCOUS GULLS.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How is the sand formed?</p> +<p>2. Give the names of some of the animals to be found in the +rock-pools.</p> +<p>3. Where do these animals hide?</p> +<p>4. Prawns and shore-crabs are not easily seen; why is this?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson3"></a> +<h2>LESSON III.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>BIRDS OF THE SHORE.</b></p> +<p>On some parts of our coast we find steep cliffs, with the sea +beating wildly at their feet. Elsewhere there is a sloping beach of +sand and shingle with, perhaps, dark rocks showing at low tide. We +explored such a beach as that in our last lesson. There are long, +long stretches of sand and thin grass in other places, or else mile +after mile of muddy, dreary, salt marshes.</p> +<p>Birds are to be found on every kind of coast. Some, like the +Seagull, wander far and wide. Others keep to the cliffs, and many +find all they need in the wide mud-flats. Such an army is there of +these shore birds, that we cannot even glance at them all in this +lesson. So we will take a few of them only--the Black-headed Gull, +the Cormorant, the Ringed Plover, the Oyster-catcher and the +Redshank.</p> +<p>Out of all the many kinds of Gulls, you know the Black-headed +one best. If you live in London you can see and hear him, for he +and his cousins have swarmed along the Thames of late years. They +find food there, and kind people enjoy feeding the screaming birds +as they wheel in graceful flight over the bridges and +Embankment.</p> +<p>The country boy, too, sees this Gull. He flies far inland, +following the plough, and he then rids the land of many a harmful +grub. Because of this habit, some people call him the Sea-crow. At +all seaside places you find him, and there he fights for his meals +with the Herring Gull, the Common Gull, the Kittiwake and +others.</p> +<p>Really we should call this gull the Brown-headed, not the +Black-headed, Gull; for the hood is more brown than black; and +again, if you look for this bird during your summer holidays, you +will see no dark hood on his head. You might, though, know him then +by the red legs and bill, and the white front-edging to his lovely +pearly-grey wings.</p> +<p>Look at him in January, however, and you see dark feathers +beginning to appear on his head. The fact is, this dark hood is the +bird's wedding dress. It comes only when the nesting season draws +near. Then he leaves the fields, parks, and rivers, to fly away to +the nesting-place.</p> +<p>These Gulls love to nest in colonies--that is, near one another. +Among rushes and reeds, and rough grass growing in deep wet mud, +they feel that their nests are safe. There they lay three eggs. The +chicks, almost as soon as they leave the eggs, can run about. If +there is no dry land near the nest, these youngsters tumble in the +water and swim without bothering about swimming lessons.</p> +<p>In summer they are ready to fly with their parents round the +coast, and to the muddy mouths of large rivers, where they feed. +Flocks of them are also seen out in the open sea, feeding on the +shoals of small fish. They also follow steamers, for the sake of +any scraps thrown overboard, and they crowd round the fishing boats +when they are being unloaded. You see, they are <i>scavengers</i>, +and so are to be found wherever there are waste scraps of food.</p> +<p>Perhaps you have noticed that Gulls float high in the sea, like +so many corks. They can leave the water easily, and take to flight; +but they <i>cannot</i> dive. The Gull's dinner-table is the whole +coast. His eyes are keen enough, as you will know if you have +watched him swoop down on a piece of bread in mid-air, and catch it +neatly in his beak.</p> +<p>The flight of this Gull is beautiful, graceful, and easy. +Sometimes he wheels up and up into the blue sky, almost without +moving a wing. He can also glide for a great while, balancing his +body against the wind, and turning his head from side to side on +the look-out for food. Those long, pointed wings of his make him +one of Nature's most perfect flying-machines. His wild, laughing +cry has given him the nickname of Laughing Gull.</p> +<p>In the fields and along the banks of our big rivers you may see +the Common Gull with numbers of his black-headed cousins. His beak +and legs and webbed feet are greenish yellow, and this is quite +enough to distinguish the two birds. Their habits are much the +same. Both skim over the sea, or the coast, looking for waste food. +They are not very "choice" in their meals; dead fish or live fish, +young crabs, worms, shell-fish or grubs they eat readily, as well +as any offal thrown from passing ships, or the refuse of the +fish-market.</p> +<p>One of these scavenging birds was seen to be carrying a long +object, like an eel, in its mouth. The bird was shot; and it was +then discovered that the "eel" was really a string of candles! The +greedy Gull had half-swallowed one, leaving the rest to hang down +from its bill. The Common Gull nests in "colonies," like the +Black-headed Gull. Its nest is made of seaweed, heather, and dried +grass, in which it lays its three greenish-brown eggs.</p> +<p>Another bird to be seen along all parts of our coast, summer and +winter alike, is the Cormorant, usually with a small party of his +friends. They fly swiftly, one behind the other, and a long line of +them reminds one of the pictures of "sea-serpents," especially as +they fly quite near the surface of the sea, each one with its long +neck outstretched. The Gull flies beautifully, as if he knew his +power, and loved to show how he can skim and dive through the air. +The Cormorant is not a flier, but a swimmer and diver; he cannot +"show off" in the air, and only uses his narrow wings to take him, +as quickly as may be, from one fishing-place to another.</p> +<p>Most of the Cormorant's time is spent in fishing, for he lives +entirely on fish, and catches immense numbers of them. He spends +many hours, too, in drying his wings. I once saw a number of these +birds with their wings "hung out to dry." Each one was perched on a +stump of wood, across the muddy mouth of a river, and each +sooty-looking bird had his wings wide open in the sun. This habit +seems to show that the Cormorant uses his wings, as well as his +feet, in his frequent journeys under water.</p> +<p>The powerful webbed feet of the Cormorant, set far back on the +body, the darting head, long neck, and long curved beak, tell you +plainly how he earns his meals. He is a clever fish-hunter, and the +fishermen, knowing the appetite of this keen rival of theirs, +detest him and destroy him. In some countries there is a price on +his head--that is, so much money is given for every Cormorant +killed.</p> +<p>Sometimes the Cormorant swims slowly along with his head under +water, on the watch for small fish. Seeing one below him, he dives +like a flash, and can remain under water for some time; he wastes +very little time, however, in swallowing his victim head first.</p> +<p>The great skill of this bird has been made use of, and tame +Cormorants are used in China to obtain fish for their masters. They +have been used in England, too, for the same purpose. A strap is +placed round the bird's neck to prevent him from swallowing the +catch. He is then set to work. After catching five or six fish he +is recalled by his master, and made to disgorge his prey, which, of +course, he has swallowed as far as the strap will permit.</p> +<p>The Cormorant is famous for his large appetite; he chases even +big fish, of a size to choke him, you would think. Like his +relative the Pelican, he owns a very elastic throat. I have seen a +Pelican put a half-grown duck in its pouch, without much trouble. +The Cormorant could not perform this feat, but his throat will +stretch so as to allow the passage of large fish. Small fish he +usually tosses up in the air, catches them neatly head first, and +swallows them whole.</p> +<p>Another bird of our coast is the Oyster-catcher, sometimes +called the "Sea-pie" or Mussel-picker. These names suit it well, +for it does not live on oysters, but on mussels, limpets and +whelks. Of course, these are easily "caught" at low tide; they are +not easily eaten, so the Sea-pie has to earn his dinner by hard +work. In fact, his beak is often notched by the sharp, hard edges +of the shells of these molluscs; and at times, he haunts the low +banks of mud and ooze near the sea, and there picks up worms and +other soft-bodied animals.</p> +<p>As his name Sea-pie shows, the Oyster-catcher is a +black-and-white bird, his under parts being white and upper parts +black. His legs and long, straight bill are red. Most birds of the +waterside seem to find that black-and-white feathers make a good +disguise. Though they would show up plainly on a green field, they +are well hidden among the stones along the edge of the water.</p> +<p>The Sea-pie makes no nest, only a hole in the sand or shingle, +lined with small stones or shells. The eggs are coloured and marked +so that they are hard to see among the stones which surround them. +The youngsters wear a fluffy suit of grey, marked with dark streaks +and dots; and it takes very sharp eyes indeed to pick them out from +the shingle where they crouch.</p> +<p>The Ringed Plover is another bird which loves the sandy, pebbly +margin of the sea. Have you ever watched him there? He is not much +larger than a plump lark, and he runs quickly along the beach, +stooping now and again to pick up the morsels of food which his +keen eye detects.</p> +<p>But, all the while, he is watching you with the other eye, for +he is a wary little bird, and not to be taken by surprise. +<i>If</i> you can get near him, you will notice his rather long +yellowish legs, greyish-brown back, and, more than all, the white +collar round his neck, and the black band showing on his white +chest. Again we see the black-and-white markings which are so +useful to the bird of the shore.</p> +<p>Everyone who knows the Ringed Plover loves to watch him. He is +one of the daintiest, most fairy-like birds. When he is picking up +worms and sand-hoppers on the wet sand he is easily observed. But +wait! He flies off and settles on the shingle not far away. You +walk nearer, to watch him. Alas! he is gone. You know just where he +settled, yet he is gone! He has often played that trick on me.</p> +<p>The secret lies in his grey, white-and-black markings. When our +ships were in danger from enemy submarines, our sailors painted +them with queer stripes and bars, to make it hard for the enemy to +see them. Nature has marked the Ringed Plover on the same plan. The +feathers are so coloured and the colours are so arranged that, once +among the grey, yellow, black, and white pebbles on the beach, the +little bird is invisible. It is as if the earth had swallowed him +up.</p> +<p>The eggs, too, are just as hard to find. There is no nest to +"give the game away"; and the eggs look just like the pebbles +amongst which they are laid. The young ones are protected from +their enemies in the same way, and they crouch, as still as death, +amid the stones which they so much resemble.</p> +<p>Now let us leave the beach and look for the Redshank on the +mud-flats. Many birds would starve there, but the Redshank is quite +happy, as Nature has fitted him for his life in such a place. His +long, red legs--from which he gets his name--are for wading in the +shallow, muddy creeks he loves. Those wide-spreading feet keep him +from sinking in the mud.</p> +<p>The long beak is for probing. As a rule the Redshank digs for +his dinner, though he also picks up any worms or other food on the +surface; but he is nearly always seen probing the mud.</p> +<p>Like all the shore birds, Redshanks are very wary. They have no +hedges or trees for hiding-places, and so must always be on the +watch. No sooner does the Redshank spy you than he is up and, with +a shrill whistle of alarm, flies quickly away.</p> +<p>The marshes are the home of many a bird like the Redshank. They +are all waders and diggers. They live much as he does, and so they +have the long beak and legs, and the spreading feet, to fit them +for that life.</p> +<p>We have now looked at a few sea birds, shore birds, and a marsh +bird. Many inland birds, too, are fond of the shore. The artful +Jackdaw builds in the cliffs, and his cousin, the Crow, searches +the shore for food. Even the gay Kingfisher has been seen diving in +the seaside pools.</p> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0080"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0080.jpg"><img src="Illus0080.jpg" width="60%" title="THE REDSHANK." +alt=""></a></center> +<h4>THE REDSHANK.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How do you know which is the Black-headed Gull in the summer +months?</p> +<p>2. Why is it difficult to see the Ringed Plover on the stones of +the shore?</p> +<p>3. Where would you look for the eggs of the Ringed Plover and of +the Black-headed Gull?</p> +<p>4. Why have marsh birds such long beaks?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson4"></a> +<h2>LESSON IV.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>CRABS.</b></p> +<p>Little Crabs are to be found everywhere along the sea-shore--not +the monsters of the fishmonger's shop, but small greenish-brownish +Crabs. They live in the weed of the rock-pools, and in the wet +sand. These are the Shore Crabs; the large Edible Crabs are a +different kind, and live mostly in deep water.</p> +<p>Shore Crabs are quarrelsome little creatures; the larger ones +are always ready to gobble up the smaller ones, or to snatch their +food and run away with it. If you put some dead mussels or fish in +a pool, you will be amused at their antics. How they scramble and +fight! Crabs do not believe in "table manners."</p> +<p><a name="Illus027"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus027.png" width="60%" title="THE CRAB." alt= +""></center> +<h4>THE CRAB.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>It is their taste for waste scraps of food that makes crabs of +use in the sea. They are most useful scavengers. They clear the sea +and beach of dead matter which would poison the air and water.</p> +<p>For many years nobody knew how Crabs grew up. It was thought +that a baby Crab was like its mother, just as a baby spider is a +tiny picture of its parent. But no, the young Crab is as much +<i>like</i> a Crab as a caterpillar is like a butterfly.</p> +<p>Let us begin at the beginning--the egg. Mother Crab carries her +eggs with her, under her tail, which itself is always kept tucked +up under her body. Out of each egg there comes the queerest little +creature! It is just large enough to be seen as it wriggles in the +water. Then its skin splits, and there appears a quaint thing with +long feathery legs, a big head, a spike on the back of its head, +and another spike like a nose.</p> +<p>Who would suspect this strange atom would turn into a Crab! +Well, nobody did. It was called a <i>zoea</i>; but you can call it +a Crab caterpillar or larva. The maggot is the larva of the fly, +and the zoea is the larva of the Crab. With crowds of its brothers +and sisters, the zoea kicks about on the surface of the sea. +Fishes, and even great whales, swallow these tiny things by the +million.</p> +<p>The Crab larva eats and grows. Again and again its skin splits, +and a rather different zoea appears. This happens about once a +week, until, hey presto! the spiked zoea is now rather like a Crab. +The spikes are gone, and now it has tiny claws, and two eyes at the +end of stalks. Yet it still owns a tail. At last this is tucked up +under its body, and lo! our little friend has changed into a very +small Crab. No longer able to swim about, it comes to get a living +in the shallow pools of the shore.</p> +<p>Luckily, this helpless baby knows how to hide. He is helped by +his colour, for it matches the green and brown of the weeds and +rocks. He knows how to dig himself into the sand, and work his +shell well down. Then only his funny eyes on stalks peer up at you. +At this time of his life he has to "make himself scarce," and +snatch his food when and where he can.</p> +<p><a name="Illus028"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus028.png" width="60%" title="PURSE CRAB." +alt=""></center> +<h4>PURSE CRAB.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>We do not eat these little Crabs, but other Crabs do, and so do +anemones, gulls, and other hungry creatures; and they themselves +hunt sand-hoppers, and eat anything they can find or steal. So they +grow bigger; and then, like the boy who grows quickly, the Crab +finds his shelly suit a size too small for him!</p> +<p>Now look at his suit. It is a hard coat, a complete suit of +armour to protect his soft body. Our picture shows the Lobster, the +Crab's cousin. The Shrimp and Prawn and Lobster are relations of +the Crab; these <i>crustaceans</i>, as they are called, are all +cased up in a hard <i>crust</i>, which will not stretch the +slightest little bit. But the Crab's body <i>must</i> grow! What is +he to do?</p> +<p>At first he starves himself, and so his body shrinks inside its +old shell. He loosens himself as well as he can. Soon the shell +breaks across, and the Crab struggles to get free. At last he backs +out, and leaves his old suit for ever. It is a wonderful +performance, for he has withdrawn even from the legs, claws, +feelers, bristles, eye-stalks and eyes! The old shell is left quite +whole--a perfect Crab, but with no Crab inside it!</p> +<p>Now the Crab, in his new suit, hides away. He knows that he is a +soft, flabby creature at this time, and that other animals, even +Mrs. Crab, would be glad to meet him--and eat him. While his +covering is yet soft he grows quickly. When it is hard, he ventures +out again, ready to quarrel and fight.</p> +<p>This change of shell happens often to young Crabs. Older ones +change only once a year. All the different kinds of Crab begin life +as <i>larvae</i> or <i>zoeas</i>, and cast their shells as we have +seen.</p> +<p>Crabs can see and hear and smell; and they must also have a fine +sense of touch. I was once watching a big Crab eating his dinner +under a rocky ledge in a large glass tank. As he tore his food, +some of the bits, no larger than crumbs, fell and settled on the +rocks below. Then I saw that a smaller Crab, with long pincers, was +hiding under a rock. As the crumbs fell, he reached out his pincers +and picked them up, one by one. Each bit was gravely carried to his +mouth, and tucked in, and then he reached out for another. Though I +was very close to the Crab, I could hardly see the tiny scraps +which he was able to pick up so easily.</p> +<p>One of the strangest Crabs is the Hermit. You would think that +Nature had played a joke on him, for he has only half a suit of +armour. His tail part is soft. He would have a bad time in the sea, +but for a dodge he has learnt.</p> +<p>The baby Hermit takes the empty home of a periwinkle. As he +grows he needs a larger house, and so leaves the tight shell and +pops his tail into a bigger one, generally a whelk shell. If he +meets with another Hermit there is a battle, one trying to steal +the other's shell. Our coloured picture, page 35, shows some +Hermits at war. Fighting, house-hunting, and moving house seem to +be the Hermit's favourite pursuits. But, whatever he does, his +first care is to protect that soft tail of his. His right claw is +large and strong, so he uses it to close the door of his stolen +home.</p> +<p>Sometimes he has a lodger who lives on the roof. This lodger, as +you will notice in our coloured picture, is the sea anemone. The +Hermit and his lodger seem to be good friends, at least they seem +to like each other's company. There is no doubt that there are good +reasons for this. We shall have more to say about this strange pair +in our lesson on the sea anemones.</p> +<p><a name="Illus031"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus031.png" width="60%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB IN WHELK'S SHELL.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Another funny Crab is the Spider Crab. Its back is covered with +reddish bristles, like so many hooks. These catch in the seaweed, +and soon the Spider Crab is decorated with bits of weed. But that +is not all. The artful Crab tears off other pieces of weed with its +pincers, and attaches them to the hooks. It is another dodge, of +course, to escape from enemies. The Lobster, whose picture you see, +has a life-story much like that of the Crab. He, also, grows too +big for his suit of armour, and casts it off in a wonderful manner, +but only after a great deal of trouble. In his new suit he is very +weak and soft--an easy prey to the first enemy to find him. He +cannot defend himself then; he can only lie helplessly on his side, +waiting for his coat to harden. He is so weak that his soft legs +cannot bear the weight of his body.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0081"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0081.jpg"><img src="Illus0081.jpg" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING." alt=""></a></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRABS FIGHTING.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Needless to say, the Lobster always finds a secure retreat +before casting off his protecting coat of armour. A hole under a +rock suits him well at that time. Strange to say, he seems to +dislike his old clothes, and often crunches them to pieces or eats +them up, or even pushes them under the sand or stones! Then he +marches out like a proud warrior, knowing his strength, and the +power of his great claws.</p> +<p>Lobsters are fond of fighting, and must be very disagreeable +neighbours. They can swim along by using the little "swimmerets" +under their bodies. Or, by rapidly bending down their powerful +tails, Lobsters are able to shoot backwards through the water at a +great pace. In our next lesson we shall find that Prawns are also +able to paddle forwards or dart backwards in a similar way.</p> +<p>Lobsters, living and dead, are often on sale in the fishmonger's +shop. Like the Crabs and Prawns, they are usually caught in traps +or pots, baited with pieces of fish, and left among the rocks. The +traps are of various shapes, some being like bee-hives made of cane +or wicker; others are made of netting stretched over hoops, and +more like a bird-cage in shape.</p> +<p>The Lobster smells the bait in the trap, and hastens to get to +it by diving through the only entrance. Having enjoyed his meal he +tries to swim away; but there is no escape, and there he must wait +until the owner of the trap makes his usual "round" in the morning. +Of course, there is a rope to every trap, and a cork to mark its +position.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus034a"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus034a.png" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Then the Lobster finds himself taken carefully out of prison; +his claws are tied to prevent him from fighting, and he goes to +market with a lot of other Lobsters. There are many lobster +fisheries along the rocky parts of our coast.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus034b"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus034b.png" width="50%" title= +"HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS." alt=""></center> +<h4>HERMIT CRAB WITH SEA FLOWERS.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>You will often see Lobsters with one very large claw, and one +small. They are able to throw off a limb or two whenever they are +frightened. Also they often lose a claw in the terrible fights of +which they seem so fond. If one joint of a claw becomes injured the +Lobster has no further use for it; he is wise, for his very life +depends on his armour. So he throws it away, not at the wounded +joint, but at the joint above.</p> +<p>After a time a slight swelling appears on the stump thus made; +this gradually grows into a new limb. It may be smaller than the +lost one, but it is perfect in detail. What a useful gift this must +be to an animal like the Lobster, whose whole life is one terrible +fight after another!</p> +<p>The baby Lobsters, like the baby Crabs, are quite unlike their +parents. They swim about at the surface of the sea, and already +they seize every chance of fighting and eating their small +neighbours.</p> +<p>When about one inch in length they leave this infants' school, +and join another at the bottom of the sea. Here they eat, fight, +grow and change their coats, just as the young Crabs do. They are +now like their parents. Sometimes they grow to be huge, and to +weigh as much as ten-and-a-half pounds.</p> +<p>The mother Lobster carries as many as thirty thousand eggs under +her body! Needless to say, a very, very few of this enormous family +survive the dangers of the sea. The rule there is--"Eat and be +eaten!".</p> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus035"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus035.png" width="60%" title="THE LOBSTER." +alt=""></center> +<h4>THE LOBSTER.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. What is a Crab larva like?</p> +<p>2. Give the names of four crustaceans.</p> +<p>3. Why does the Crab have to change its shell?</p> +<p>4. Why does it hide away at that time?</p> +<p>5. Of what use are Shore Crabs?</p> +<p>6. How are Lobsters caught?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson5"></a> +<h2>LESSON V.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHRIMPS, PRAWNS AND BARNACLES.</b></p> +<p>In nearly every shore-pool you may see Shrimps and Prawns +darting out of sight, and, for every one you see, there are many +more hidden away. These delicate, transparent, lively creatures are +not much like the boiled Shrimps and Prawns of the fish-shop.</p> +<p>They are the prey of so many fish, crabs, and birds, that they +have learnt to "make themselves scarce." Have you ever watched them +in a glass tank, or aquarium? If so, you will know that it is not +easy to see them. In the shore-pools it is harder still.</p> +<p>Some are swaying about in the still, clear water, moving their +long feelers from side to side. Others have burrowed into the sand. +In doing this, they raise a sandy cloud, which settles on them and +hides them. To catch some, you must use a "shrimp-net," for they +can dart across the pool like arrows.</p> +<p><a name="Illus036"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus036.png" width="60%" title="THE SHRIMP." +alt=""></center> +<h4>THE SHRIMP.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Some are Shrimps, and some are Prawns; how can we tell the +difference? When they are boiled the answer is easy. All the +Shrimps turn brown and the Prawns red. (The red "Shrimps" are near +relations of the Prawn.) To tell a live Shrimp from a Prawn, look +at the long pointed beak which juts out from the front of the head. +That of the Prawn is toothed, like a little saw. If the beak is +quite smooth its wearer is a Shrimp.</p> +<p>Until Prawns are grown up, they haunt the sandy shallows with +their cousins the Shrimps. But the larger Prawns live in deeper +water. They are generally caught in traps, as are their relatives, +the crab and lobster.</p> +<p>Now look closely at a Prawn, and try to find how it swims. Turn +it upside down. It has ten legs; and, under each of the horny rings +of its body, you can see a pair of little paddles. They are fringed +with hairs. When the Prawn or Shrimp is not in a hurry, he swims +slowly but surely with the little paddles, or "swimmerets." If any +danger threatens, he uses his tail, in this way:--It is made of +five fringed plates, which, as you can see, spread out or close up, +like a fan. As he doubles up his body, the plates spread themselves +out. They strike the water with great force, and so send the Prawn +or Shrimp quickly <i>backwards</i>. As the body becomes straight +again, the fan closes, ready for another stroke. To move quickly, +the Shrimp or Prawn merely bends his body, then straightens it. The +tail thus becomes a strong oar, driving him backwards with rapid +jerks.</p> +<p>Look now at the Prawn's long, hair-like feelers. There are two +pairs. On one pair are the ears, a special kind of ear for hearing +in water.</p> +<p>You will notice that the Shrimp's eyes are on the end of short +stalks. Each big eye is really a cluster of little eyes, rather +like the "compound eyes" of insects. If you lift up the horny +shield behind the head, you see a row of what look like curly +feathers. These are the breathing gills.</p> +<p>Shrimps carry their eggs about with them; no doubt you have +often found masses of eggs under the Shrimp's body. Each egg is +fastened by a kind of "glue," or else the rapid jerking of the +mother Shrimp would soon loosen the eggs and set them free.</p> +<p>The hard, shelly covering of the Shrimp and Prawn is like the +armour of the crab--it will not stretch in the least. The body is +easily bent, owing to the soft hinges between the hard rings. But +the coat itself will not stretch. Then how do these little +creatures grow? We see small Shrimps and large ones, so grow they +must, in some way.</p> +<p>They are of the same family--the <i>crustacea</i>--as the crab; +and they grow in much the same way. The hard covering gets too +tight for the body inside it. Then it splits across the back. After +much wriggling, the Shrimp appears in a new soft skin. While the +skin is still soft the Shrimp grows very quickly. Crustaceans have +a funny way of growing, have they not? Instead of growing evenly, +little by little, they grow by "fits and starts," a great deal in a +few hours and then not at all.</p> +<p>Besides being good food for us, and for the fish, Shrimps and +Prawns have another use. They are scavengers. They pick to pieces +and eat the vegetable and animal stuff which floats in the sea. +Before it can decay and become poisonous, these useful creatures +use it up as food. Great numbers of Shrimps and Prawns are caught +for our markets. Some are caught by men who push a small net over +the sands near shore, but most are caught by the +<i>shrimp-trawl</i>, a large net cast from a small sailing +vessel.</p> +<p>The rocks, and the wooden piles of the pier, are often covered +with the hard shells known as Barnacles, or Acorn Shells. If you +slip on them with bare feet their sharp edges cut you. Each Acorn +Shell is a little house. Have you ever caught a glimpse of the +animal living inside?</p> +<p>If you will look very carefully, you will see that the Acorn +Shell is made of three-sided pieces, closely joined. There is a +little door at the top, kept tightly closed until the tide comes up +and covers the rocks. Then watch, and you will see a bunch of tiny +feathers appear through a slit in the door. This means that the +animal is hungry, and has put its twelve legs out of doors to catch +a dinner!</p> +<p>This is strange, but true! The Barnacle is always upside down in +its home, and its twelve feathery legs are thrust out of the door +at the top. They make a fine net, in which minute animals are +caught and brought into the mouth below. This funny creature +actually kicks its food into its mouth! If you own a magnifying +glass, you can see this for yourself at the seaside.</p> +<p>You will not be able to see the mouth, however, which is inside +the shell. It is fitted with moving parts, and feelers, like the +mouth of a crab. Also, the Barnacle has a good set of teeth to +grind its food. It has no real eyes, having no use for them. Of +what use are eyes to an animal standing on its head in a small dark +shell! Now and then it casts its coat (like the Crab and Shrimp). +The old coat is rolled up and thrown away outside the door.</p> +<p>Now comes the strangest thing of all. As a baby, the Barnacle is +a free swimming creature. It has three pairs of legs, a tail, a +useful mouth, and one eye. After kicking about in the sea for some +time, and changing its skin, it changes its shape entirely. It now +looks more like a tiny mussel. It has two little "shells," two +eyes, legs, and feelers. Now its swimming days are nearly over, and +it must settle down. It gives up eating, and roves about looking +and feeling for a place to settle on.</p> +<p>Finding a suitable spot, the little animal stands on its head. +Then a kind of glue is formed, which fixes it for life to that +place, head down. The two shells and the two eyes are now thrown +off. The Barnacle quickly builds up a shelly house, and, after a +life of adventure and change, becomes a fixed Barnacle for the rest +of its days.</p> +<p>For many years people knew little of this strange animal. All +its wonderful changes, and the way its body is made, tell us +plainly that the Barnacle is actually first cousin to the Crab, +Lobster, Shrimp and Prawn! It belongs to the class known as the +<i>Crustacea</i>; but, for some reason or other, it has chosen to +live its grown-up life fixed to a rock.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Shrimp swim?</p> +<p>2. Of what use are Shrimps and Prawns in the sea?</p> +<p>3. How can you tell a live Shrimp from a live Prawn?</p> +<p>4. How does the Barnacle obtain its food?</p> +<p>5. Give the names of five crustaceans.</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson6"></a> +<h2>LESSON VI.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>PLANTS OF THE SHORE.</b></p> +<p>To pick a bunch of gay flowers you would look in the fields and +hedge-rows, and not by the sea. Flowers, as you know, love moist +soil, and not dry sand; and, like us, they prefer one food to +another. Sand they do not like, and salt is a poison to them. Both +of these are enemies to plant life.</p> +<p>Also, flowers choose sheltered spots. They do not like rough +winds, and the glare of the sun shrivels them up. Yet there are +plants with pretty flowers to be found by the sea, and many others +with small, dull flowers. These seaside plants have to fight for +their lives. The dry, shifting sand, and the salt spray, are enough +to kill them, you would think. They have no shelter from the strong +sea wind, nor from the fierce glare of the summer sun. The puzzle +is, how do they live among so many enemies? For you know that the +flowers of the field would at once die if you planted them in salt +and sand. They would starve to death.</p> +<p>Even the strongest seaside plants shun that part of the beach +washed by the waves. They leave that to the seaweeds.</p> +<p>Let us look first at some plants which have their home on the +sand-hills. Here is a fine one, like a thistle, with stiff prickly +leaves, and a stiff blue stem. In August it has blue-grey flowers. +This plant is called Sea Holly, its leaves being like those of the +holly. It has an unpleasant smell, yet its roots are used for +making some kinds of sweets.</p> +<p>Now try to pull up a plant of Sea Holly. You find it no easy +task. Then dig away the sand, and you see that its large roots have +gone deep and far. All these plants of sandy places grow like that. +Sand has no food or drink to give to plants. So they send their +roots out, like plants in a desert, until they find what they want. +Besides food and drink, they need a firm anchor in the loose sand. +The Sea Holly, with its roots deep down and far-spreading, can hold +its own, though the gale tears at it and throws its sandy bed here +and there.</p> +<p>We pass many small creeping plants as we walk in the dry sand. +There is a pretty Sea Convolvulus, with its stems deeply buried. It +is a cousin of the common Bindweed. Then we see many plants of +Thyme, and a few ragged bushes of Gorse. We notice that several +little plants grow near the Gorse, as if they had crept there for +shelter. The sea breeze has blown the sand into heaps, and even on +these dry, thirsty hillocks we see many tufts of grass.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0082"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0082.jpg"><img src="Illus0082.jpg" width="100%" title= +"1. THE COMMON LOBSTER. 2. HERMIT CRAB." alt=""></a></center> +<table width="100%"> +<tr align="center"> +<td>1. THE COMMON LOBSTER.</td> +<td>2. HERMIT CRAB.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<p>These Couch Grasses and Dune Grasses, as they are often called, +are coarse and hard. Cattle pass them by in disgust. Yet they are +the most useful plants on the shore. They can live and spread where +other plants die. They have very long underground stems, which go +through and through the dry, loose sand. The wind does its best to +bury them in sand, but they send up hard, sharp buds, and go on +living, and spreading.</p> +<p>Bit by bit, the sand is held together by the matted stems of +these grasses. It becomes firm, instead of loose; the wind can no +longer blow it about. Then other plants can grow in that place. You +know how men go out to the wild parts of the earth and, by hard +work, make those places ready for others to settle there. Well, the +sand-grass works like that. It prepares the way for useful plants +to grow in places where they could not grow before.</p> +<p>Quite near to the sea we shall find a very strange little plant. +It has no leaves, only fleshy, jointed stems. It is known as the +Glass-wort, being full of a substance useful in making glass. It +belongs to a family which seems to delight in deserts and salty +soil! They have all sorts of dodges to help them live in such +places. For instance, their leaves are fleshy. Squeeze them, and +they are like wet, juicy fruit.</p> +<p>The Sea Beet is also a member of this family. The Red Beet, as +well as the Mangel-wurzel, we owe to this humble seaside plant. +Most of our sugar comes from the Sugar-beet.</p> +<p>Another useful plant is the Sea Cabbage, which grows on some +parts of our sea coast. It is rather a ragged, tough kind of +Cabbage, and perhaps you would not choose it for your dinner-table. +We have more tempting sorts in our gardens--Brussels Sprouts, +Broccoli, Cauliflower, but long, long ago the wild seaside cabbage +was the only one growing. Men found it to be eatable, and began to +plant it near their huts or caves. From that small beginning all +our garden cabbages have come.</p> +<p>Walking a little farther from the sea, we leave the sand and +come to stones, rocks and cliffs. We pass a pretty plant, the Sea +Lavender, and another, the Sea Stock. They love best the sandy, +muddy parts of the shore. Their lilac flowers look bright and +pretty. Coming to the rocky places, we find tufts of the flower +known as Sea Pink or Thrift. Its leaves are like grass, and its +flowers form a round pink bundle at the top of a bare stalk.</p> +<p>There are many tufts of Thrift growing among the rocks; and each +tuft has a number of pink flowers. In some places you could step +from one tuft to another for several miles. Bare and ugly stretches +of coast are made into a gay garden by this lovely flower.</p> +<p>Here and there on the rocks is a plant with large yellow +blossoms--the Yellow Horned Poppy. It is a handsome plant, and you +are surprised to see such fine flowers among dry shingle, sand, or +rock; but the Horned Poppy is well able to stand the salt spray and +storms of its favourite home. When the petals have dropped, a green +seed-pod is left. It is very long--nearly twice as long as this +page and looks much more like a stem than a seed-pod.</p> +<p>Sometimes this seaside poppy is seen growing high up the face of +the cliff, where only the jackdaw and sea-birds can find a footing; +and many another plant may be seen there too. The cliffs are full +of cracks, some tiny and some wide. In these places there is always +a certain amount of dirt and grit. You could hardly call it "soil," +and most plants would starve if you planted them in such a +place.</p> +<p><a name="Illus046"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus046.png" width="50%" title="SEA LILY." alt= +""></center> +<h4>SEA LILY.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>These plants of the rock and cliff are not so proud. They have +very long and very thin roots, admirably suited to pierce the grit, +and explore the cracks in the rock, to find the moisture they need. +Besides this, they have fleshy leaves which help them to keep +alive. The Stone-crop and the Penny-wort are well-known plants of +this kind. They grow where you would least expect to find a living +plant. Neither heat nor thirst seems to kill them. Mother Nature +has found many a wonderful way of helping her children to live.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Why do plants which grow in sand have such long roots?</p> +<p>2. In what way are the grasses growing on the sand so +useful?</p> +<p>3. Give the names of four flowering plants of the shore.</p> +<p>4. Where would you look for the Stone-crop and Penny-wort?</p> +<p>5. Why do these two plants have such thin roots?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson7"></a> +<h2>LESSON VII.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>FLOWER-LIKE ANIMALS.</b></p> +<p>The prettiest of the creatures of the shore is the Sea Anemone. +No one can see it without being reminded of a flower, an Aster or +Daisy, with a thick stalk and many coloured petals; but, knowing +how it is made, and how it lives, we place it in the Animal +Kingdom, though among the lowliest members of that Kingdom. It is a +cousin of that strange creature, the Jelly-fish, which we shall +look at in another lesson.</p> +<p><a name="Illus047"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus047.png" width="50%" title="SEA ANEMONE." +alt=""></center> +<h4>SEA ANEMONE.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>When the tide falls, you can walk among the rocks and pools by +the sea, and find Anemones in plenty. They are fixed to the rocks. +Some are under the ledges, out of sight, others are low down, half +buried in the wet sand; and others are on the sides of the rocks, +looking like blobs of green, brown, or red jelly. Feel one of them. +It is slimy, and rather firm, not so soft and yielding as the +Jelly-fish. You cannot easily pull it from the rocks without +harming it; but you will find other Anemones on stones and shells; +and these you can put in a jar of sea-water, with some weed, and +carry home to examine later on.</p> +<p>When covered with sea-water the ugly blobs of jelly open out +like beautiful flowers. In some places along our coast the floor of +the sea is like a flower garden, gay with thousands of coloured +Anemones.</p> +<p>Those little "petals" are really <i>tentacles</i>, used for +catching and holding food. We will use a shorter word and call them +feelers. They are set in circles round the top of the Anemone, and +there are many of them. The Daisy Anemone, for instance, has over +seven hundred feelers. Each feeler can be moved from side to side, +and can also be tucked away, out of sight and out of danger; but, +when hungry, the animal spreads them widely, for, as we shall see, +they are the net in which it catches its dinner.</p> +<p>The whole body of the Anemone is like two bags, one hanging +inside the other. The space between the two bags is filled with +water. The feelers are hollow tubes which open out of this space; +so they, too, are filled with water.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0083"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0083.jpg"><img src="Illus0083.jpg" width="100%" title= +"CRUSTACEA. 1. THE LARVA OF A LEAF-BODIED CRUSTACEAN CALLED PHYLLOSOMA. 2. A PRAWN-LIKE CREATURE, SHOWING THE FRONT LIMBS THAT ARE USED FOR GRASPING PREY. 3. A CRAB. 4. THIS IS A SHRIMP-LIKE CREATURE CALLED CUMA SCORPIOIDES." + alt=""></a></center> +<table width="100%"> +<caption><b>CRUSTACEA.</b></caption> +<tr> +<td>1. THE LARVA OF A LEAF-BODIED CRUSTACEAN CALLED +PHYLLOSOMA.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2. A PRAWN-LIKE CREATURE, SHOWING THE FRONT LIMBS THAT ARE USED +FOR GRASPING PREY.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3. A CRAB.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>4. THIS IS A SHRIMP-LIKE CREATURE CALLED CUMA SCORPIOIDES.</td> +</tr> +</table> +<br> +<br> +<p>The Anemone can press the water into them, and so force them to +open out. In rather the same way you can expand the fingers of a +glove by forcing your breath into them. The Anemone, you see, can +open or close just as it pleases.</p> +<p>What does it eat, and how does it find food? Perhaps you have +watched an open Anemone in a pool, or in a glass tank, and seen it +at its meals. A small creature swims near, and touches one of the +feelers. Instead of darting away, it appears to be held still; and +then other feelers bend towards it and hold the victim. Then they +are all drawn to the centre of the Anemone, carrying their prey +with them; and the feelers, prey and all, are tucked out of +sight.</p> +<p>That is the way the Anemone obtains its food. As soon as the +feelers get hold of a small animal they carry it to the opening of +a tube in the centre. This is the mouth, leading to the stomach. +Very often the feelers, with their victim, are tucked away into the +stomach, and the feelers do not appear again for some time. Is not +this a strange way of eating!</p> +<p>Much stranger still is the way in which the food is held, and +made so helpless that it cannot escape. On the skin of the Anemone +there are many thousands of very tiny pockets, or cells. Each cell +contains a fine thread with a poisoned barb at the tip, The thread +is packed away in the cell, coiled up like the spring of a watch. +As soon as anything presses against the cells they shoot out their +threads. Thus the tips of many poisoned threads enter the skin of +any soft animal which is unlucky enough to touch an Anemone.</p> +<p>If your own skin is tender, these little stinging hairs will +irritate it, but not enough to hurt you. It is different, however, +with the small creatures of the sea. They are made quite helpless +when caught by hundreds of these strange threads. We shall find +similar poison-threads in the Jelly-fish; and these, in some cases, +can cause us serious illness. You cannot see them without the aid +of a microscope.</p> +<p>All those parts of its food which the Anemone cannot digest, it +throws out again. If you feed an Anemone on raw meat, it tucks the +pieces into its mouth, and, some days after, throws out the hard +part of the meat, having taken all the "goodness" from it.</p> +<p>No doubt the Anemones themselves are eaten by other animals in +the sea, but many kinds of fish will not touch them. You may +remember that we noticed an Anemone which lived on the stolen home +of the Hermit Crab. The crab lives in the whelk shell, and the +Anemone lives on the roof, as it were. In nearly every ocean, all +over the world, these two partners are found, using the same shell. +It is thought that the Anemone lives there for two good reasons. +First, the Hermit moves from place to place; you can see that this +would give the Anemone a better chance of obtaining food. Also, +bits of food float to the Anemone when the crab is picking his +dinner to pieces.</p> +<p>The crab seems to like having his strange partner with him. No +doubt the Anemone is of some use to him, or he would at once pull +it off. It is thought that the Anemone protects him from his +enemies, the fish. Some of them would swallow the whelk shell, crab +and all, but they would not eat one on which an Anemone was fixed. +We are not <i>sure</i> that these reasons are the right ones. All +we know for certain is, that a crab and an Anemone have, for some +good reasons, gone into partnership.</p> +<p>Anemones have large families. Sometimes they have numbers of +eggs; at other times their little ones come straight into the world +as very tiny Anemones. A boy who kept a large Anemone in a tank of +sea water, was astonished to find that in a short time, he had not +one, but hundreds, of the creatures. The tiny Anemones were fixed +to the glass and rock, all fishing for food with their little +outspread tentacles. Sometimes the Anemone will calmly divide +itself into two, each half becoming a perfect Anemone!</p> +<p>Anemones are of many shapes, sizes, and colours. The loveliest +of our British ones is the Plumose Anemone. It is like a carnation, +and may grow to be six inches high--that is, nearly as long as this +page. It is known by its shape, not by its colour. It may be any of +these colours--brown, deep green, pale orange, flesh colour, cream, +bright red, brick colour, lemon, or pure white.</p> +<p>There are many other creatures in the sea which resemble plants +and are often mistaken for them. The Sea Lily (p.49) is one of the +flower-like animals; it is a relative of the Starfish, living in +deep water. The Sea Mat (p.59) is often found on the shore. It +seems like a horny kind of weed, but is really a colony of tiny +animals, each one having its own little cell to live in.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Anemone expand its "feelers"?</p> +<p>2. In what way does the Anemone catch the small animals on which +it feeds?</p> +<p>3. Where is the mouth of the Anemone?</p> +<p>4. In what way might the Anemone be of use to its partner, the +hermit crab?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson8"></a> +<h2>LESSON VIII.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SEA-WEEDS AND SEA-GRASS</b></p> +<p>We think of weeds as useless plants which insist on growing just +where they are not wanted. So it is a pity that <i>Sea-weeds</i> +are so named, for the part they play in the sea is a useful one; +and they are often beautiful, though they do not bear flowers like +so many plants of the land. You see draggled heaps of them, lying +on the shore where the waves have thrown them. They are best seen +in their proper home, buoyed up by the water, and spreading out +their broad coloured fronds, or long waving threads. There are, in +many places, meadows of Sea-grass, and forests of Sea-weed! Mother +Earth still has her carpet of green, even when covered by the salt +water. The plants are very unlike those of the land, but, as you +will see, they are of great use. We will suppose you put on a +diving dress. Then you can walk out, under the water, and explore +the forests of the sea.</p> +<p>Down by the line of low tide, before you have waded up to your +knees, you find plants clinging to the rocks. They cover them with +a slippery coat of green; when you turn these Sea-weeds over you +find periwinkles and other animals feeding or hiding. Sea-weed +makes good "cover" for the creatures of the rock-pools, who have +many enemies to fear.</p> +<p>You notice that most of these shore weeds are green, sometimes +as green as young grass. Pull up a bunch of the weed, and you find +that it clings to the rocks and stones, but has no real roots. +Seaweeds belong to a humble family in the world of plants, having +no real roots, no flowers, and no real seeds. They can attach +themselves to the stones or rocks. Along comes a great wave, and +perhaps they are torn up; but this does not harm them, for they +still live as they wash to and fro in the water, until they cling +to another rock. Or they are thrown on the shore to die, or else to +be washed back to sea by the next tide.</p> +<p><a name="Illus054"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus054.png" width="50%" title="SEA-WEED FROND." +alt=""></center> +<h4>SEA-WEED FROND.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>The Sea Lettuce or Green Laver is a common seaweed near the +shore. Its broad, crinkled and bright green leaves are rather like +those of a lettuce. Sometimes it is boiled to a jelly and used for +food. Many other sea-weeds are good to eat, and on some coasts +there is a regular sea-weed harvest.</p> +<p>Now wade into rather deeper water, and you find a great mass of +the Bladder Wrack. Most schoolboys know it, for the little bladders +of air in the leaves explode with a pop if you squeeze them. The +Bladder Wrack, and others of the same kind, are torn up by the +fierce waves in a storm, and tossed on the beach in heaps. They are +gathered by the farmer who knows how to value a cheap manure for +his fields. Some kinds are also of use in packing lobsters so that +they come to market nice and fresh.</p> +<p>When you have walked--in your diving dress--to deep water, you +find yourself among a tangle of olive-green weeds. They are below +the line of low tide. All round you is a forest of dark-green +ribbons with wavy edges. The ribbons are tough and very long, and +cling tightly to the rocks. These ribbon-weeds, and others of the +same kind, are known as Tangles. Round some parts of our coast they +make wide, thick beds in the sea. Though the ribbons may be six +feet long, they are not so wide as the palm of your hand.</p> +<p>Another sea plant, which grows in tufts in rather deep water, is +called Irish Moss; it is green, brown or purple in colour. I do not +know why it should be called Irish Moss, for it is not a moss, and +it grows all round the English, as well as the Irish, sea-coast. +But sea-weeds have strange names; indeed, many of them have no +everyday names at all. Irish Moss is used for food, after being +boiled to a jelly. It can also be made into a gum or glue, and has +often been so used.</p> +<p>Now, if you were to walk still farther on the bed of the sea, +into deeper water, you would find the prettiest of all the sea +plants. These are the pink and red sea-weeds. You also find them on +the beach, but only after they have been torn from their home in +the deep water. They grow on the rocks, in pretty coloured +tufts.</p> +<p>If you dive still farther, into the dark depths of the sea, you +find beds of ooze and slime, and rocks and weird fishes, but no +plants. Why is this? Like the land-plants, these sea-plants must +have <i>light</i>. They cannot grow in the blackness of very deep +water. Can you guess why some sea-weeds are green and others red? +Those growing in the shallow water of the shore are green, like +land-plants, because the sunlight reaches them. Only part of the +light can pass through deep water; and so, in these shady places, +the sea-weed is reddish in colour.</p> +<p><a name="Illus056"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus056.png" width="50%" title="SEA MAT." alt= +""></center> +<h4>SEA MAT.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>We see, then, that (1) green sea-weed grows by the shore; (2) +brownish-green sea-weed likes deeper water; (3) red sea-weed grows +in deep water; and (4) in very deep water there is no weed at +all.</p> +<p>We must not forget the grass of the sea. It grows in narrow +blades, often a yard in length, and as wide as your thumb. It is +not a sea-weed, but a real flowering plant, which, for some reason +or other, loves to grow under water. It creeps in the sand and mud, +with green leaves growing up as thick as corn in a cornfield.</p> +<p>All these waving green leaves make large meadows in the sea; and +sea-snails, fishes, and crabs hide in it, just as all manner of +living things hide in the grass of our meadows. The proper name of +this strange plant is Sea Wrack. When dried, it is useful for +packing up china, and covering flasks of oil.</p> +<p>Now we come to the real use of sea plants. They are food for all +the hosts of small animals of the sea. These eat it as it grows; or +else, like the mussel and oyster, swallow the tiny scraps of it +which float everywhere like so much dust.</p> +<p>The shell-fish, and other animals which feed on sea plants, are +themselves eaten by other sea creatures, and these in their turn +are eaten by crabs, lobsters and fish, which are eaten by us. It +reminds you of a chain. The first link in the chain is the sea +plant, the last links are the fish and ourselves. So, you see, the +weeds and grass of the ocean are of very great value indeed.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Give the names of three common Sea-weeds.</p> +<p>2. What is the colour of the weed found in deep water?</p> +<p>3. Why cannot Sea-weed grow in very deep water?</p> +<p>4. In what way are sea plants most useful?</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson9"></a> +<h2>LESSON IX.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>THE JELLY-FISH.</b></p> +<p>Or all the queer children of Nature which live in the sea, the +Jelly-fish is one of the queerest. You often find it on the shore, +especially after a severe storm. There it lies, a mass of helpless +jelly, which slips and breaks through your fingers if you try to +lift it.</p> +<p>It cannot move back to its watery home, and in a short time the +sun's warmth will have dried it up, leaving but a mark on the sand, +and a few scraps of animal matter; for these strange creatures are +little else but water. A Jelly-fish, which weighed two pounds when +alive, would leave less than the tenth part of one ounce when +dried!</p> +<p>There is a story of a farmer who, on seeing thousands and +thousands of Jelly-fish along the shore, thought he would make use +of them. He decided that they would serve as manure for his fields, +and so save him much money. He went home, and sent men with wagons +to be loaded with the Jelly-fish. This was done, and the Jelly-fish +were spread over the soil. On looking at his fields the next +morning, the farmer was astonished to find that every scrap of his +new manure had vanished as if by magic!</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0084"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0084.jpg"><img src="Illus0084.jpg" width="100%" title= +"WEST PAN SAND BUOY. ONE OF THE MANY BUOYS AT THE MOUTH OF THE THAMES." + alt=""></a></center> +<h4>WEST PAN SAND BUOY. ONE OF THE MANY BUOYS AT THE MOUTH OF THE +THAMES.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>In the sea the Jelly-fish looks like an umbrella of bluish-white +jelly, from which hang tassels and threads. Look over the side of a +boat, or from the pier, and you often see them drifting by, +hundreds of them, like so many ghosts.</p> +<p>Each one is moving along, with its edges partly opening and +shutting. It is plain that this waving motion causes the creatures +to move through the water. Also, they can rise to the surface, or +fall to the depths, and do not collide with one another. So the +Jelly-fish is not at all helpless.</p> +<p>At night Jelly-fishes sometimes look very beautiful. Each one +shines in the water, with a soft yet strong light, like fairy lamps +afloat in the sea.</p> +<p>They are of all sizes. Some you could put in a small wineglass, +others measure nearly two feet across. Evidently the Jelly-fish +grows, and, in order to live and grow, it must eat; but what does +it eat, and how does it obtain its food?</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus060"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus060.png" width="50%" title="MEDUSA." alt= +""></center> +<h4>MEDUSA.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>Before noticing the wonderful way in which this animal finds its +dinner, let us look at its body. In any large Jelly-fish you can +see marks which run from the centre of the body, and another mark +round the edge of the "umbrella." These are really tubes. They all +join with a hollow space inside the body, which is the creature's +stomach. The mouth-tube opens under the body, as can be seen by +turning the Jelly-fish on its back, and moving the lobes of jelly +aside. All the food goes up this tube-mouth, and so into the +stomach of the animal. The whole creature is little more than so +many cells of sea-water, the walls of the cells being a very thin, +transparent kind of skin.</p> +<p>Perhaps the strangest thing about it is the way in which it +catches prey. Jelly-fish feed on all kinds of tiny sea animals, +such as baby fish, and the young of crabs, shrimps, and prawns. +These small creatures form part of the usual dinner of many a +hungry dweller in the sea, and the Jelly-fish takes a share of +them.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus061"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus061.png" width="50%" title="A MEDUSOID." +alt=""></center> +<h4>A MEDUSOID.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>From the edge of the "umbrella" there hangs a fringe of long, +delicate hairs, rather like spiders' threads. These are fishing +lines, yet much more deadly. They trail through the water, +stretching far from the main part of the Jelly-fish; and any small +creature unlucky enough to touch them is doomed.</p> +<p>Down each one of these threads there are minute cells, hundreds +and hundreds to every thread; and in each cell there is a dart, +coiled up like the spring of a watch. The tip of the dart is barbed +like a fishhook. Now the cells are so made that they fly open when +touched. The dart then leaps out and buries itself in the skin of +the animal which touched the thread. Not only that, but the darts +are poisoned, and soon kill the small creatures which they +pierce.</p> +<p>You see now how this innocent-looking Jelly-fish gets its food. +As it swims along, the threads touch the tiny living things in the +sea, the darts pierce them and poison them. Of course these +stinging darts are very, very small, much too small for our eyes to +see.</p> +<p>Sometimes there are numbers of large brownish Jelly-fish in the +sea, or washed up on the shore. If you are paddling or swimming, +keep well away from them. Their poison darts are able to pierce +through thin skin, and may cause you illness and great pain. +Remember that the threads are very long; after you have passed the +main body of the animal, you may still be in danger from the +trailing threads.</p> +<p>We noticed these same poison darts when we were dealing with the +flower-like animals, the Anemones. Only, in that case, they were so +fine, so small, that they had no power to harm us, even though they +entered our skin. You may remember that we called the Anemone a +cousin of the Jelly-fish, for they both belong to the same lowly +division of the Animal Kingdom.</p> +<p>Animals have queer ways of getting a living. Who would expect to +find millions of poisoned darts in a Jelly-fish? Who would guess +that these weapons are coiled up, ready to spring out at their +prey? Men have made many weapons for killing, from the +bow-and-arrow to the torpedo, but none of them is more wonderful +than the weapon of the Jelly-fish.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Where is the mouth of the Jelly-fish placed?</p> +<p>2. How does the Jelly-fish move through the water?</p> +<p>3. What is the food of the Jelly-fish?</p> +<p>4. How does it obtain its food?</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus0085"></a></p> +<center><a href="Illus0085.jpg"><img src="Illus0085.jpg" width="60%" title= +"SHELLS. 1. A FRESHWATER TURRET SHELL. 2. EDIBLE MUSSEL. 3. CONE SHELL. 4. SWORD-BLADE RAZOR-SHELL. 5. EAR SHELL, OR ORMER. 6. A TOP SHELL. 7. SCALLOP. 8. SWAN MUSSEL." + alt=""></a> +<table width="60%" align="center"> +<caption><b>SHELLS</b></caption> +<tr> +<td>1. A FRESHWATER TURRET SHELL.</td> +<td>5. EAR SHELL, OR ORMER.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>2. EDIBLE MUSSEL.</td> +<td>6. A TOP SHELL.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>3. CONE SHELL.</td> +<td>7. SCALLOP.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td>4. SWORD-BLADE RAZOR-SHELL.</td> +<td>8. SWAN MUSSEL.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</center> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson10"></a> +<h2>LESSON X.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (1).</b></p> +<p>THE PERIWINKLE, WHELK AND LIMPET.</p> +<p>Most of the shells which you find scattered over the shore are +empty. The little animals which built them are gone; and their +empty houses, of wonderful shapes and colours, are all that you +find. Let us look at the builders of these pretty homes.</p> +<p>The shell-builders have soft, juicy bodies, and they are put in +one big division of the animal kingdom--the <i>mollusca</i>, which +only means <i>soft-bodied</i>. Some of these molluscs do not build +shells. But most of them build a shelly house for themselves; they +do this to defend their soft bodies from the attacks of a host of +enemies. Some build two shells--the Oyster and Mussel do, as you +know. These are called <i>bi-valves</i>; that is, two valves or +shells; and others, like the Garden Snail, the Limpet, and +Periwinkle, have one shell only, and so are called +<i>uni-valves</i>.</p> +<p>The crab, and other <i>crustaceans</i>, also have a hard +covering to their soft bodies; but it is not at all like the shell +of a Snail, or other <i>mollusc</i>. The Snail's shell is like the +little boy's suit which is altered and made bigger as the boy +grows. The crab's covering is a suit which cannot be altered. It +must be thrown away, and replaced by a larger one.</p> +<p>The body of the shell-builder is wrapped in a soft covering, a +kind of outer coat, which is called the <i>mantle</i>. Now this +mantle is one of Nature's cleverest inventions. It is able to take +the substance called <i>lime</i> from the food of the animal, and +to use it as building stuff.</p> +<p><a name="Illus066"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus066.png" width="40%" title= +"PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP." alt=""></center> +<h4>PRECIOUS WENTLETRAP.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>The shell is built to fit the soft body. When a Periwinkle is +hatched from the egg, it is as big as a pin's head. It eats and +grows, and the shell must therefore be made larger. So the mantle +is stretched out, and it puts a film of lime to the edge of the +shell. Bit by bit the shell is thus added to by the wonderful +mantle. Look at a snail's shell, and notice the lines which show +how many times the little house has been made larger.</p> +<p>Each kind of shell-builder has its own style of building. If you +go to a museum and examine the shells gathered from all over the +world, you are surprised at their wonderful shapes, markings and +colours. Another surprising thing is their size. Some are enormous, +so large that they make good washing-basins. Others are so small +that you can hardly see them. Each one was made by the folds of the +mantle of the animal that lived in it.</p> +<p>In our coloured pictures you see many different kinds of shells, +some of them built by uni-valve molluscs and some by bi-valve +molluscs.</p> +<p>Wherever there are weeds along the shore you can find whole +armies of the Periwinkle--the "Winkle" we all know so well. It +browses there, among the weeds, just as its cousin, the land Snail, +browses on your cabbages. You must have seen the little door with +which the Periwinkle closes the entrance to his house. The land +Snail does not own a door, but he makes one when he goes to sleep +for the winter.</p> +<p>The Periwinkle crawls on a broad, slimy foot, which is put out +from the shell. It is stretched on this side or that, and so draws +him and his home in any direction. There are two sensitive feelers +in front of his head; and behind these are two short stalks, on +each of which is a tiny eye. If alarmed, the Periwinkle can shorten +his body, and pull it back into its shell, closing the entrance +with the horny door.</p> +<p>But the strangest part of him is the tongue. It is not for +tasting, but for rasping. It is like a long, narrow ribbon, on +which are hundreds of tiny points, all sloping backwards. They are +arranged three in a row. The Periwinkle rasps the seaweed with his +tongue, and so scrapes off his dinner. Of course the teeth wear +away.</p> +<br> +<br> +<p><a name="Illus067"></a></p> +<center><img src="Illus067.png" width="50%" title="COWRIES." alt= +""></center> +<h4>COWRIES.</h4> +<br> +<br> +<p>But only part of the toothed ribbon is used at a time, so there +are plenty of teeth behind the worn ones, ready to take their +place.</p> +<p>The shell, as we have seen, is made of <i>limestone</i>. But the +teeth are made <i>of flint</i>. This is a hard substance, so hard +that it is used for striking sparks.</p> +<p>Now we will look at a shell-builder, the Whelk, who uses his +flinty tongue in quite another fashion. The Whelk does not care for +a vegetable dinner. He prefers to eat other molluscs--he is +carnivorous, a flesh-eater; but these other molluscs do not wait to +be eaten. As the enemy draws near they retire into their shells, +and shut themselves up as tight as they can. The Whelk, however, is +a clever burglar; he knows how to make a way into the hardest of +shelly houses.</p> +<p>His front part--we might call it a nose--will stretch out to a +fine point; and it contains a rasping tongue even harder than that +of the Periwinkle. He sets to work. Moving the rasp up and down, he +drills a neat round hole in the shell of the animal he is +attacking. No shell is safe from him; and no tool could make a +neater hole.</p> +<p>When you next gather shells on the beach, look at them closely; +in some you will see where Mr. Whelk, the burglar, has been at +work. He needs but a small entrance to enable him to suck out his +helpless prey at his ease. Is it not strange that this creature, +with a body as soft as your tongue, should earn its living by +breaking into houses made of hard shell!</p> +<p>There are other molluscs which find their meals in this strange +manner, and many others which, like the Periwinkle, feed more +easily on seaweed. One of these, the Limpet, you can always be sure +of finding at low tide; indeed, there are so many Limpets on the +rocks that it would be hard <i>not</i> to see them. You will know, +if you have tried to force a Limpet from its hold on the rock, how +very tightly it clings. It is as if the shell were glued or +cemented by its edges.</p> +<p>Yet there is no glue or cement used, but only a simple dodge. +The Limpet has a broad "foot," which almost fills up the opening of +its shell. Like the foot of the Snail, it is used when the animal +wishes to take a walk; but it serves another purpose too. It can be +used as a sucker; and it is this which enables the Limpet to cling +so firmly to its rock.</p> +<p>When the tide is out, the Limpet clings to the rock, its soft +body tucked safely away in the shell. Its feeding time comes when +the water covers the rocks once more. Then the Limpet's shell may +be seen to tilt up, and a foot, and a head with feelers and eyes, +come out. The Limpet crawls to the seaweed and begins to browse, +using a rasp like that of the Periwinkle. It then crawls back to +its own place on the rock. In time this resting-place becomes +hollowed out, and the Limpet's shell fits into the groove thus +made.</p> +<p>Limpets are useful as bait for fish. The Whelk and Periwinkle +are gathered in immense numbers, and are used by us for food. +Perhaps you have seen the egg-bundle of the Whelk. It contains many +eggs when first laid in the sea. Each egg is as big as a pin's +head. They swell in the water, until the yellowish bundle is three +times as large as the Whelk that laid it. You often see the empty +bundle blown by the wind along the shore.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. Give the names of two bi-valve molluscs.</p> +<p>2. What is the Periwinkle's shell made of?</p> +<p>3. Describe how the Periwinkle eats seaweed.</p> +<p>4. How does the Whelk obtain its food?</p> +<p>5. Give the names of three one-shelled molluscs.</p> +<br> +<br> +<hr> +<br> +<br> +<a name="Lesson11"></a> +<h2>LESSON XI.</h2> +<br> +<p><b>SHELLS AND THEIR BUILDERS (2)</b></p> +<p>THE MUSSEL AND OYSTER.</p> +<p>As everyone knows, the Mussel and the Oyster live between two +hinged shells. In the last lesson we called them <i>bi-valve +molluscs</i>, which is only another way of saying "soft-bodied +animals with two shells." Have you ever opened an Oyster? It is a +tug-of-war, your skill and strength against the muscles of the +animal inside the tight shells.</p> +<p>Like the Periwinkle and other shell-builders, these creatures +owe their strong houses to a wonderful <i>mantle</i>; but in this +case the mantle is in two pieces instead of one. You can imagine +the Periwinkle's mantle as a tube enclosing the animal's body. The +mantle of the Mussel or the Oyster is in two pieces; and each half +forms its own shell.</p> +<p>The Snail, and other one-shelled molluscs, poke their heads out +of the shell when feeding or moving. Oysters and their two-shelled +cousins cannot do this, for the simple reason that they have no +heads!</p> +<p>In some places you see that the rocks at low tide are covered +with Mussels. In dense black masses they cling to the rocks; and, +though heavy waves bang them like so many hammers, they stick +tight. Little Mussels and big ones, they form a mass so thick that +baby crabs and other creatures use them as a hiding-place. On the +piers and groynes, and the woodwork of the harbour, you can see +other clusters of Mussels; they are placed where the high tide +covers them.</p> +<p>Have you noticed how the Mussel anchors himself? He uses a bunch +of threads, like so many cables or tiny ropes. It is interesting to +know how these threads are made.</p> +<p>The Mussel is, as a rule, a stay-at-home, but he can move from +place to place if he likes. He has a long, slender foot which can +be pushed out of the shells. Now the threads are fixed by the foot, +just where the Mussel wishes to anchor himself. They are made from +a liquid which forms in the body of the creature. This liquid +hardens in the water so that it can be pulled out into long, fine +threads.</p> +<p>Our ordinary Mussels do not make very long threads, but those of +some kinds are so long that they can be woven into silky purses or +stockings. The Mussel which makes such long anchor-threads might be +called "the silkworm of the sea."</p> +<p>If the Mussel is such a stay-at-home, how does he find his food? +The answer is, that the food comes to him, brought by the +ever-moving water. There are countless specks floating in the sea, +mostly specks of vegetable stuff. These settle on the floor of the +sea, just as dust settles on our house-floors; and the waves wash +this "sea-dust" hither and thither. The Mussel or Oyster, with +shells gaping wide open, is bound to get some of this food with the +water which enters the shells.</p> +<p>The Oyster has no "foot," and is fixed in one place nearly all +its life. It is an interesting animal; and one of such value as +food, that hundreds of thousands of Oysters are reared in special +"beds," and sent to the market at the proper season. Our British +Oysters were famous even in the time of the Romans; they were +carefully packed and sent to Rome, and, at the Roman feasts, +surprising quantities of them were eaten.</p> +<p>Many sea-animals have wonderfully large families, but the +Oyster, with its millions and millions of eggs, beats most of them. +Strangely enough, its eggs are not sent into the sea at once, but +are kept between the Oyster's shells until they hatch. Needless to +say, these babies are very small indeed, else their nursery could +not contain them all Though so small that thousands of them +together look more like a pinch of dust than anything else, yet +each one has two thin shells; so that, if you eat the parent +Oyster, they grate on your teeth like sand. Oysters, at this time, +are "out of season"--that is, unfit for food.</p> +<p>At the right moment, the Oyster gets rid of its numerous family. +It opens its shells, then shuts them rapidly; and, each time this +happens, a cloud of young Oysters is puffed out like smoke. Now +these mites must fend for themselves in a sea full of foes.</p> +<p>They have no defence, and countless numbers of them are gobbled +up by crabs, anemones, and others. If this did not happen, the sea +would soon be paved with Oysters.</p> +<p>For a time, the baby Oysters--which are known as "spat"--are +able to swim here and there. In rough weather they are driven far +into the deeps of the ocean, and lost. The rest of them, before +they have been free for two days, settle on the bed of the +sea--sometimes on their own parents; and there they remain for +life. Only a very few out of each million become "grown-ups"--the +rest are eaten by enemies, or smothered in mud or sand. In a year +or so they are as big as half-a-crown. In five years they are fine, +fat grown-up Oysters--that is to say, if they have not been dredged +up from their bed and sent to market.</p> +<p>Their shells open and shut like a trap. You may have seen a +picture of an inquisitive mouse trapped by an Oyster. Thinking to +have a nice taste of Oyster, the mouse had poked its head into the +open shells, but they were snapped together, and the mouse was +firmly held in the trap.</p> +<p>Between the hinge of the two shells there is a pad, which acts +like an elastic spring, and forces the shells open. The Oyster can +close them by means of a strong muscle. They are its only defence, +so it closes them at the least hint of danger.</p> +<p>Even these thick walls are sometimes of no avail, as we saw in +our talk on "Five-fingered Jack." We saw how the starfish forces +the shells open with the help of its strong tube-feet. The whelk +and his cousins know how to bore a hole in the shell, and suck out +the helpless Oyster. Then there are certain sponges, with the +strange habit of making holes in shells, and living in and on them. +Sometimes the Oysters are stifled in their "beds" by other Oysters +settling and growing over them. Thick masses of Mussels may cling +to them and suffocate them. And grains of sand sometimes get in the +hinges of their shells, so that they cannot close up the house when +they wish.</p> +<p>Like the other animals which are useful as food, Oysters have +been carefully studied and cultivated by man for many, many years. +The story of the Oyster-beds is a long and interesting one.</p> +<p>Oysters feed in rather a strange way. You may have looked inside +the shells and seen two delicate dark-edged fringes, known as the +"beard." This fringe is the Oyster's gills or breathing +arrangement. Trace the "beard" as far as the hinge of the shells, +and you see the mouth with its white lips. If you could watch the +creature having its dinner, you would see a constant stream of +water flowing over the gills and towards the mouth.</p> +<p>What makes the water move in that way? The gills are covered +with very tiny lashes, like little hairs. There are so many of them +that, as they keep moving, they force the water along, over the +gills and towards the mouth. In this way the Oyster breathes the +air which is in the water; but not only that. As we have already +noticed, there is a kind of "vegetable dust" in the sea. This is +driven to the Oyster's mouth and swallowed. The Oyster, fixed in +its "bed," unable to hunt for food, thus makes its dinner come to +it. What a strange use for a "beard"! It not only serves as lungs, +but also helps the animal to catch its "daily bread"!</p> +<p>Another mollusc used as food is the Cockle, and its shell is one +of the commonest found along the shore, especially near sandy +places. It lives in sand, and can bury itself so quickly that you +would have to use your spade with all your might in order to keep +pace with this little shell-fish. Where Cockles have buried +themselves you will see spurts of water and sand, showing where +they are busy down below in the wet sand.</p> +<p>Besides being so skilful at digging, the Cockle is a first-rate +jumper. If left on the beach, it jumps over the sand, towards the +sea, in the funniest way. It is strange to see a quiet-looking +shell suddenly take to hopping and jumping like an acrobat.</p> +<p>To perform this astonishing feat the Cockle makes use of its +foot, which is worked by very strong muscles. It is large and +pointed, and bent: if the Cockle wishes to move quickly, it +stretches out its foot from between the shells, as far as it will +go. Then, by using all its power, it leaps backwards or forwards in +a surprising manner.</p> +<p>There are many other interesting molluscs, besides those we have +looked at. The Piddock, or Pholas, is a smallish, rather delicate +one, with a soft foot. But this foot is a most wonderful boring +tool, fitted with a hard file. Hard rocks and wood are perforated +by these little molluscs. Indeed, they are a positive danger, for +they pierce the wooden piles of piers, and weaken them. They cannot +pierce through iron, however, and so iron plates or nails are used +to protect the piles from their onslaughts. You will often see +stones and rocks riddled by the Piddock as if they were as soft as +cheese. Chalk, sandstone, or oak, it is all the same to the +Piddock, which rasps them away with its file. When the points of +this strange instrument are worn out with all this hard wear, a new +set takes their place.</p> +<br> +<p>EXERCISES</p> +<p>1. How does the Mussel anchor itself?</p> +<p>2. Describe how the shells of the Oyster are opened and +closed.</p> +<p>3. What is the food of the Mussel?</p> +<p>4. Of what use is the "beard" of the Oyster?</p> +<p>5. Why is the Oyster called a bi-valve?</p> +<p>6. 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