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diff --git a/10409-0.txt b/10409-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..68b0ce6 --- /dev/null +++ b/10409-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9074 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10409 *** + +The Crisis of the +Naval War + + +By +ADMIRAL OF THE FLEET +VISCOUNT JELLICOE OF SCAPA +G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O. + + +_With 8 Plates and 6 Charts_ + + +1920 + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +1. ADMIRALTY ORGANIZATION: THE CHANGES IN 1917 + +2. SUBMARINE CAMPAIGN IN THE EARLY PART OF 1917 + +3. ANTI-SUBMARINE OPERATIONS + +4. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CONVOY SYSTEM + +5. THE CONVOY SYSTEM AT WORK + +6. THE ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATES: OUR NAVAL POLICY EXPLAINED + +7. PATROL CRAFT AND MINESWEEPING SERVICES + +8. THE DOVER PATROL AND THE HARWICH FORCES + +9. THE SEQUEL + +10. "PRODUCTION" AT THE ADMIRALTY DURING 1917 + +11. NAVAL WORK + +12. THE FUTURE + +INDEX + + + + +LIST OF PLATES + + +A Mine Exploding + +A German Submarine of the U-C Type + +A German Submarine of the later Cruiser Class + +A Smoke Screen for a Convoy + +The Dummy Deck-house of a Decoy Ship + +A Convoy Zigzagging + +A Convoy with an Airship + +Drifters at Sea + +A Paddle Minesweeper + +A German Mine on the Surface + +Two Depth Charges after Explosion + +The Tell-tale Oil Patch + +A Submarine Submerging + +Periscope of Submerged Submarine Travelling at Slow Speed + +A Submarine Submerged + + + + +LIST OF CHARTS + + +(CONTAINED IN THE POCKET AT THE END OF THE BOOK) + +A. Approach Areas and Typical Routes. + +B. Typical Approach Lines. + +C. Barred Zones Proclaimed by the Germans. + +D. Patrol Areas, British Isles. + +E. Patrol and Minesweeping Zones in the Mediterranean. + +F. Showing French and British Ports within Range of the +German Bases at Ostend and Zeebrugge. + + + + + To + + The Officers and Men + of our + Convoy, Escort, Patrol and Minesweeping Vessels + and their + Comrades of the Mercantile Marine + + by whose splendid gallantry, heroic self-sacrifice, and + unflinching endurance the submarine + danger was defeated + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +Owing to the peculiar nature and demands of naval warfare, but few +dispatches, corresponding to those describing the work and achievements +of our great armies, were issued during the progress of the war. In a +former volume I attempted to supply this defect in the historical +records, which will be available for future generations, so far as the +Grand Fleet was concerned, during my period as its Commander-in-Chief. +The present volume, which was commenced and nearly completed in 1918, +was to have been published at the same time. My departure on a Naval +mission early in 1919 prevented me, however, from putting the finishing +touches to the manuscript until my return this spring. + +I hesitated as to the publication of this portion of what is in effect +one complete narrative, but eventually decided not to depart from my +original purpose. There is some reason to believe that the account of +the work of the Grand Fleet gave the nation a fuller conception of the +services which the officers and men of that force rendered in +circumstances which were necessarily not easily appreciated by landsmen. + +This second volume, dealing with the defeat of the enemy's submarine +campaign, the gravest peril which ever threatened the population of this +country, as well as of the whole Empire, may not be unwelcome as a +statement of facts. They have been set down in order that the sequence +and significance of events may be understood, and that the nation may +appreciate the debt which it owes, in particular, to the seamen of the +Royal Navy and the Mercantile Marine, who kept the seas during the +unforgettable days of the intensive campaign. + +This book, therefore, gives the outline of the work accomplished by the +Navy in combating the unrestricted submarine warfare instituted by the +Central Powers in February, 1917. It would have been a labour of love to +tell at greater length and in more detail how the menace was gradually +overcome by the gallantry, endurance and strenuous work of those serving +afloat in ships flying the White or the Red Ensigns, but I had not the +necessary materials at my disposal for such an exhaustive record. + +The volume is consequently largely concerned with the successive steps +taken at the Admiralty to deal with a situation which was always +serious, and which at times assumed a very grave aspect. The ultimate +result of all Naval warfare must naturally rest with those who are +serving afloat, but it is only just to the Naval officers and others who +did such fine work at the Admiralty in preparing for the sea effort, +that their share in the Navy's final triumph should be known. The +writing of this book appeared also to be the only way in which I could +show my keen appreciation of the loyalty and devotion to duty of the +Naval Staff, of the many clever, ingenious and audacious schemes +developed and carried through for the destruction of submarines and the +safeguarding of ocean-borne trade, and of the skilful organization which +brought into being, and managed with such success, that great network of +convoys by which the sea communications of the Allies were kept open. +The volume shows how the officers who accompanied me to the Admiralty +from the Grand Fleet at the end of 1916, in association with those +already serving in Whitehall and others who joined in 1917, with the +necessary and valuable assistance of our comrades of the Mercantile +Marine, gradually produced the measures by which the Sea Service +conquered the gravest danger which has ever faced the Empire. + +There were at times inevitable set-backs as the enemy gained experience +of our methods, and new ones had then to be devised, and we were always +most seriously handicapped by the strain imposed upon the Fleet by our +numerous military and other commitments overseas, and by the difficulty +of obtaining supplies of material, owing to the pre-occupation of our +industries in meeting the needs of our Armies in equipment and +munitions; but, generally speaking, it may be said that in April, 1917, +the losses reached their maximum, and that from the following month and +onwards the battle was being slowly but gradually won. By the end of the +year it was becoming apparent that success was assured. + +The volume describes the changes carried out in the Admiralty Staff +organization; the position of affairs in regard to submarine warfare in +the early part of 1917; and the numerous anti-submarine measures which +were devised and brought into operation during the year. The +introduction and working of the convoy system is also dealt with. The +entry of the United States of America into the war marked the opening of +a new phase of the operations by sea, and it has been a pleasure to give +particulars of our cordial co-operation with the United States Navy. The +splendid work of the patrol craft and minesweepers is described all too +briefly, and I have had to be content to give only a brief summary of +the great services of the Dover and Harwich forces. + +Finally, an effort has been made to suggest the range and character of +the work of the Production Departments at the Admiralty. It is +impossible to tell this part of the story without conveying some +suggestion of criticism since the output never satisfied our +requirements. I have endeavoured also to indicate where it seemed to me +that changes in organization were not justified by results, so that in +future years we may benefit by the experience gained. But I would not +like it to be thought that I did not, and do not, realize the +difficulties which handicapped production, or that I did not appreciate +to the full the work done by all concerned. + +It is unfortunate that attempts to draw attention to the lessons taught +us by the war are regarded by many people either as complaints of lack +of devotion to the country's interests on the part of some, or as +criticisms of others who, in the years before the war or during the war, +were responsible for the administration of the Navy. In anticipation of +such an attitude, I wish to state emphatically that, where mention is +made of apparent shortcomings or of action which, judged by results, did +not seem, to meet a particular situation, this is done solely in order +that on any future occasion of a similar character--and may the day be +long postponed--the nation may profit by experience. + +Those who are inclined to indulge in criticism should ever bear in mind +that the Navy was faced with problems which were never foreseen, and +could not have been foreseen, by anyone in this country. Who, for +instance, would have ever had the temerity to predict that the Navy, +confronted by the second greatest Naval Power in the world, would be +called upon to maintain free communications across the Channel for many +months until the months became years, in face of the naval forces of the +enemy established on the Belgian coast, passing millions of men across +in safety, as well as vast quantities of stores and munitions? Who would +have prophesied that the Navy would have to safeguard the passage of +hundreds of thousands of troops from the Dominions to Europe, as well as +the movement of tens of thousands of labourers from China and elsewhere? +Or who, moreover, would have been believed had he stated that the Navy +would be required to keep open the sea communications of huge armies in +Macedonia, Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia and East Africa, against attack +by surface vessels, submarines and mines, whilst at the same time +protecting the merchant shipping of ourselves, our Allies, and neutral +Powers against similar perils, and assisting to ensure the safety of the +troops of the United States when they, in due course, were brought +across the Atlantic? Compare those varied tasks with the comparatively +modest duties which in pre-war days were generally assigned to the Navy, +and it will be seen how much there may be to learn of the lessons of +experience, and how sparing we should be of criticism. Wisdom distilled +from events which were unforeseeable should find expression not in +criticisms of those who did their duty to the best of their ability, but +in the taking of wise precautions for the future. + +Little mention is made in this volume of the work of the Grand Fleet +during the year 1917, but, although that Fleet had no opportunity of +showing its fighting power, it must never be forgotten that without the +Grand Fleet, under the distinguished officer who succeeded me as +Commander-in-Chief at the end of 1916, all effort would have been of no +avail, since every operation by sea, as well as by land, was carried out +under the sure protecting shield of that Fleet, which the enemy could +not face. + +I am conscious of many shortcomings in the book, but it may prove of +interest to those who desire to know something of the measures which +gradually wore down the German submarine effort, and, at any rate, it is +the only record likely to be available in the near future of the work of +fighting the submarines in 1917. + +June, 1920. + + + + +CHAPTER I + +ADMIRALTY ORGANIZATION; THE CHANGES IN 1917 + + +It is perhaps as well that the nation generally remained to a great +extent unconscious of the extreme gravity of the situation which +developed during the Great War, when the Germans were sinking an +increasing volume of merchant tonnage week by week. The people of this +country as a whole rose superior to many disheartening events and never +lost their sure belief in final victory, but full knowledge of the +supreme crisis in our history might have tended to undermine in some +quarters that confidence in victory which it was essential should be +maintained, and, in any event, the facts could not be disclosed without +benefiting the enemy. But the position at times was undoubtedly +extremely serious. + +At the opening of the war we possessed approximately half the merchant +tonnage of the world, but experience during the early part of the +struggle revealed that we had not a single ship too many for the great +and increasing oversea military liabilities which we were steadily +incurring, over and above the responsibility of bringing to these shores +the greater part of the food for a population of forty-five million +people, as well as nearly all the raw materials which were essential for +the manufacture of munitions. The whole of our war efforts, ashore as +well as afloat, depended first and last on an adequate volume of +merchant shipping. + +It is small wonder, therefore, that those who watched from day to day +the increasing toll which the enemy took of the country's sea-carrying +power, were sometimes filled with deep concern for the future. +Particularly was this the case during the early months of unrestricted +submarine warfare in 1917. For if the menace had not been mastered to a +considerable extent, and that speedily, not only would the victory of +the Allies have been imperilled, but this country would have been +brought face to face with conditions approaching starvation. In pre-war +days the possibility of these islands being blockaded was frequently +discussed; but during the dark days of the unrestricted submarine +campaign there was ample excuse for those with imagination to picture +the implication of events which were happening from week to week. The +memories of those days are already becoming somewhat dim, and as a +matter of history and a guide to the future, it is perhaps well that +some account should be given, however inadequate, of the dangers which +confronted the country and of the means which were adopted to avert the +worst consequences of the enemy's campaign without ceasing to exert the +increasing pressure of our sea power upon his fighting efficiency, and +without diminishing our military efforts overseas. + +The latter points were of great importance. It was always necessary to +keep the Grand Fleet at a strength that would ensure its instant +readiness to move in waters which might be infested by submarines in +large numbers should the Germans decide upon some operation by the High +Sea Fleet. The possibility of action between the fleets necessitated the +maintenance of very strong destroyer forces with the Grand Fleet. + +Similarly our oversea military expeditions, with the consequent large +number of merchant ships in use as transports or supply ships, required +a considerable force of destroyers and other small craft. These +commitments greatly reduced the means at our disposal for dealing with +the hostile submarines that were attempting to prevent the import of +food and raw materials into the country. + +Readers of books, and particularly books dealing with war, show a +natural avidity for what may be described as the human side of a contest +as well as for the dramatic events. But, whether it be prosecuted by sea +or by land, war is largely a matter of efficient and adequate +organization. It is a common saying that we muddle through our wars, but +we could not afford to muddle in face of the threat which the enemy's +unrestricted submarine campaign represented. It is impossible, +therefore, to approach the history of the successful efforts made by sea +to overcome this menace without describing in some detail the work of +organization which was carried out at the Admiralty in order to enable +the Fleet to fulfil its new mission. In effect those responsible for the +naval policy of the country conducted two wars simultaneously, the one +on the surface, and the other under the surface. The strategy, tactics +and weapons which were appropriate to the former, were to a large extent +useless in the contest against mines and submarines which the enemy +employed with the utmost persistency and no little ingenuity. Even in +the Russo-Japanese war, where the mine was little used, it exerted a +marked influence on the course of the war; the Germans based their hopes +of victory in the early days of the struggle entirely on a war of +attrition, waged against men-of-war, as well as merchant ships. The +submarine, which was thrown into the struggle in increasing numbers, +represented an entirely new development, for the submarine is a vessel +which can travel unseen beneath the water and, while still unseen, +except for a possible momentary glimpse of a few inches of periscope, +can launch a torpedo at long or short range and with deadly accuracy. In +these circumstances it became imperative to organize the Admiralty +administration to meet new needs, and to press into the service of the +central administration a large number of officers charged with the sole +duty of studying the new forms of warfare which the enemy had adopted +and of evolving with scientific assistance novel methods of defeating +his tactics. + +Whilst the enemy's campaign against merchant shipping always gave rise +to anxiety, there were certain periods of greatly increased activity. +During the summer months of 1916 the losses from submarine attack and +from submarine-laid mines were comparatively slight, and, in fact, less +than during the latter half of 1915, but in the autumn of 1916 they +assumed very serious proportions. This will be seen by reference to the +following table, which gives the monthly losses in British, neutral and +Allied mercantile gross tonnage from submarine and mine attack _alone_ +for the months of May to November inclusive: + +May ... 122,793 +June ... 111,719 +July ... 110,757 +August ... 160,077 +September ... 229,687 +October ... 352,902 +November ... 327,245 + +Another disturbing feature was the knowledge that we were not sinking +enemy submarines at any appreciable rate, whilst we knew that the +Germans had under construction a very large number of these vessels, and +that they were thus rapidly adding to their fleet. It was a matter also +of common knowledge that our output of new merchant ships was +exceedingly small, and I, in common with others, had urged a policy of +greatly increased mercantile ship construction. These facts, combined +with the knowledge that our reserves of food and essential raw materials +for war purposes were very low, led me, when commanding the Grand Fleet, +to the inevitable conclusion that it was essential to concentrate all +our naval efforts so far as possible on the submarine menace, and to +adopt the most energetic measures for the protection of our sea +communications and the destruction of the enemy's submarines. Although +it was not easy to see the exact means by which this could be achieved, +it appeared necessary as a first step to form an organization having as +its sole duty the study of the question, comprising such officers as +would be most likely to deal effectively with the problem, supported by +the necessary authority to push forward their ideas. Another necessity +was the rapid production of such material as was found to be required +for anti-submarine measures. + +With these ideas in my mind I had written letters to the Admiralty on +the subject, and was summoned to a conference in London on November 1 by +Mr. Balfour, the First Lord. The whole question of the submarine warfare +was fully discussed with Mr. Balfour and Sir Henry Jackson (then First +Sea Lord) during the two days spent in London. I had at that time formed +and expressed the view that there was very little probability of the +High Sea Fleet putting to sea again to risk a Fleet action until the new +submarine campaign had been given a thorough trial. With the High Sea +Fleet "in being" we could not afford to deplete the Grand Fleet of +destroyers, which could under other conditions be employed in +anti-submarine work, and therefore the probable German strategy in these +circumstances was to keep the Fleet "in being." At the same time the +situation appeared so serious that I went so far as to suggest that one +Grand Fleet flotilla of destroyers might under certain conditions be +withdrawn for anti-submarine duties in southern waters. + +The misgivings which I entertained were, of course, shared by all those +in authority who were acquainted with the facts of the case, including +the Board of Admiralty. + +On November 24 Mr. Balfour telegraphed offering me the post of First Sea +Lord, and in the event of acceptance requesting me to meet him in +Edinburgh to discuss matters. After consultation with Sir Charles +Madden, my Chief of Staff, I replied that I was prepared to do what was +considered best for the Service. + +During the conference with Mr. Balfour in Edinburgh on November 27, +1916, and after I had agreed to go to the Admiralty, he informed me of +the consequent changes which he proposed to make in flag officers' +appointments in the Grand Fleet. Amongst the changes he included Admiral +Sir Cecil Burney, who would be relieved of his post as second in command +of the Grand Fleet and commander of the 1st Battle Squadron, as he had +practically completed his term of two years in command. I thereupon +asked that he might be offered the post of Second Sea Lord, and that +Commodore Lionel Halsey, who had been serving as Captain of the Fleet, +might be offered that of Fourth Sea Lord. In my view it was very +desirable that an officer with the great experience in command possessed +by Sir Cecil Burney should occupy the position of Second Sea Lord under +the conditions which existed, and that one who had served afloat during +the war in both an executive and administrative capacity should become +Fourth Sea Lord. I also informed Mr. Balfour of my desire to form an +Anti-Submarine Division of the War Staff at the Admiralty, and asked +that Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff, C.B., should be offered the post of +Director of the Division, with Captain F.C. Dreyer, C.B., my Flag +Captain in the _Iron Duke_, as his assistant. + +All these appointments were made. + +Although I arrived in London on November 29, I did not actually take +office as First Sea Lord until December 5, owing to an attack of +influenza. On that day I relieved Sir Henry Jackson, but only held +office under Mr. Balfour for two or three days, as the change of +Government took place just at this period, and Sir Edward Carson came to +the Admiralty in place of Mr. Balfour. + +This book is intended to record facts, and not to touch upon personal +matters, but I cannot forbear to mention the extreme cordiality of Sir +Edward Carson's relations with the Board in general and myself in +particular. His devotion to the naval service was obvious to all, and in +him the Navy possessed indeed a true and a powerful friend. + +The earliest conversations between the First Lord and myself had +relation to the submarine menace, and Sir Edward Carson threw himself +wholeheartedly into the work. This was before the days of the +unrestricted submarine campaign, and although ships were frequently +torpedoed, very large numbers were still being sunk by gun-fire. The +torpedo did not come into general use until March, 1917. + +One of the most pressing needs of this period of attack by gun-fire was +consequently a great increase in the number of guns for use in +defensively armed merchant vessels, and here Sir Edward Carson's +assistance was of great value. He fully realized the urgent necessities +of the case, and was constant in his efforts to procure the necessary +guns. The work carried out in this connection is given in detail in +Chapter III (p. 68). + +During Sir Edward's tenure of office the reorganization of the Naval +Staff was taken in hand. Changes from which great benefit resulted were +effected in the Staff organization. Sir Edward very quickly saw the +necessity for a considerable strengthening of the Staff. In addition to +the newly formed and rapidly expanding Anti-Submarine Division of the +Naval Staff, he realized that the Operations Division also needed +increased strength, and that it was essential to relieve the First Sea +Lord of the mass of administrative work falling upon his shoulders, +which had unfortunately been greatly magnified by the circumstances +already described. + +It is as well at this point to describe the conditions in regard to +Staff organization that existed at the Admiralty at the end of 1916, and +to show how those conditions had been arrived at. + +Prior to 1909 there was no real Staff, although the organization at the +Admiralty included an Intelligence Department and a Mobilization +Division. The Director of Naval Intelligence at that time acted in an +advisory capacity as Chief of the Staff. Indeed prior to 1904 there were +but few naval officers at the Admiralty at all beyond those in the +technical departments of the Director of Naval Ordnance and Torpedoes +and the members of the Board itself. The Sea Lords were even without +Naval Assistants and depended entirely on the help of a secretary +provided by the civilian staff at the Admiralty. + +In 1910 a new branch was formed termed the Mobilization and Movements +Department under a Director. This branch was a first step towards an +Operations Division. + +Under Mr. Churchill's regime at the Admiralty in 1911 a more regular +Staff organization was introduced and a Chief of the War Staff, acting +under the First Sea Lord, was appointed. The organization introduced +during his term of office is thus shown graphically: + + CHIEF OF STAFF + | + ------------------------------------------------------------ + | | | + Director of Director of Director of + Operations Division. Intelligence Division. Mobilization Division. + +In addition to other duties, the Mobilization Division was charged with +the responsibility for the supply of fuel to the Fleet, from the Staff +point of view. + +In the organization introduced in 1911 the duties of the Chief of the +Staff were defined as being of an advisory nature. He possessed no +executive powers. Consequently all orders affecting the movements of +ships required the approval of the First Sea Lord before issue, and the +consequence of this over-centralization was that additional work was +thrown on the First Sea Lord. The resultant inconvenience was not of +much account during peace, but became of importance in war, and as the +war progressed the Chief of the Staff gradually exercised executive +functions, orders which were not of the first importance being issued by +the Staff in accordance with the policy approved generally by the First +Sea Lord. The fault in the organization appeared to me to lie in +non-recognition of the fact that the First Sea Lord was in reality the +Chief of the Naval Staff, since he was charged with the responsibility +for the preparation and readiness of the Fleet for war and for all +movements. Another anomaly existing at the Admiralty, which was not +altered in the 1911 reorganization of the War Staff, was that the orders +to the Fleet were not drafted and issued by the War Staff, but by the +Military Branch of the Secretary's Department. + +The system was only workable because the very able civil servants of the +Military Branch were possessed of wide Admiralty experience and worked +in the closest co-operation with the naval officers. Their work was of +the most strenuous nature and was carried out with the greatest +devotion, but the system was manifestly wrong in principle. + +On the outbreak of war the necessity for placing the War Registry (a +part of the Military Branch) directly under the Chief of the Staff +became apparent, and this was done. + +In December, 1916, when I took up the post of First Sea Lord, the +Admiralty War Staff was still being worked on the general lines of the +organization introduced by Mr. Churchill in 1911, but it had, of course, +expanded to a very considerable extent to meet war conditions, and a +most important Trade Division, which dealt with all questions connected +with the Mercantile Marine, had been formed at the outbreak of war under +the charge of Captain Richard Webb. This Division, under that very able +officer, had carried out work of the greatest national importance with +marked success. + +The successive changes in the Staff organization carried out during the +year 1917 were as follows: + +In December, 1916, an Anti-Submarine Division of the Staff was formed. +This Division did not, for some reason, appear in the Navy List as part +of the Staff organization until some months had elapsed, although it +started work in December, 1916. The officers who composed the Division +were shown as borne on the books of H.M.S. _President_. + +The Division relieved the Operations Division of the control of all +vessels, including aircraft, which were engaged in anti-submarine +offensive and defensive work, and took over also the control of +mine-sweeping operations. The Division was also charged with the duty of +examining and perfecting all experimental devices for combating the +submarine menace and of producing fresh schemes for the destruction of +enemy submarines. This organization is open to the criticism that +matters concerning operations and material came under the same head, but +they were so closely allied at this stage that it was deemed advisable +to accept this departure from correct Staff organization. The personnel +of the Division came with me from the Grand Fleet, and at the outset +consisted of one flag officer--Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff, C.B.--two +captains, four commanders, three lieutenant-commanders, and two engineer +officers, in addition to the necessary clerical staff. The small staff +of four officers already at the Admiralty engaged in anti-submarine +experimental work, which had done much to develop this side of warfare, +was absorbed. The new Division worked directly under me, but in close +touch with the then Chief of the War Staff, Vice-Admiral Sir Henry +Oliver. + +In the early spring of 1917 the illogical nature of the War Staff +organization became apparent, in that it had no executive functions, and +as the result of discussions between Sir Edward Carson and myself the +decision was taken that the duties of the Naval Staff (the term decided +upon in place of that of War Staff) should be made executive, and that +the First Sea Lord should assume his correct title as Chief of the Naval +Staff, as he had, in fact, already assumed the position. + +At the same time the operational work of the Staff was grouped under two +heads, the first mainly concerned with operations against the enemy's +surface vessels, and the second with the protection of trade and +operations against the enemy's under-water warfare, whether the means he +employed were submarines or mines. + +The officer, Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Oliver, K.C.B., charged with the +supervision of the first-named work was styled Deputy Chief of the Naval +Staff (D.C.N.S.), and the officer connected with the second, +Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff, C.B., was given the title of Assistant Chief of +the Naval Staff (A.C.N.S.). + +The duties of Director of the Anti-Submarine Division of the Staff, +hitherto carried out by Admiral Duff, were at this time taken over by +Captain W.W. Fisher, C.B., who was brought down from the Grand Fleet for +the purpose. Captain Dreyer, who had been Admiral Duff's original +assistant, had in the meantime been appointed Director of Naval +Ordnance, and had been succeeded by Captain H. Walwyn, D.S.O. + +The Mine-Sweeping Division of the Staff was also formed, and the +importance of the question of signal communications was recognized by +forming a Signal Section of the Staff. + +The adoption of the title of Chief of the Naval Staff by the First Sea +Lord necessarily made the functions of the Staff executive instead of +advisory. + +The Staff organization at this period is shown graphically below. + +C.N.S. + | + +-- D.C.N.S. + | . | + | . +-- Operations Division. + | . | | + | . | +-- Home + | . | +-- Foreign + | . +-- Mobilization Division. + | . +-- Signal Section. + | . +-- Intelligence Division. + | . + +-- A.C.N.S. + | + +-- Trade Division. + +-- Convoys Section. + +-- Anti-Submarine Division. + +-- Mine-Sweeping Division. + +Stress was laid in a Staff memorandum issued by me on the fact that the +various divisions were on no account to work in watertight compartments, +but were to be in the closest touch with one another. The dotted line +connecting the D.C.N.S. and the A.C.N.S. in the graph was defined as +indicating that there should be the fullest co-operation between the +different portions of the Staff. + +In the summer of 1917 the growth of the convoy system necessitated +further expansion of the Naval Staff, and a Mercantile Movements +Division was added. The duties of this division were to organize and +regulate the movements of convoys of merchant ships. A staff of officers +had been by this time sent abroad to the ports from which convoys were +directed to sail, and the Mercantile Movements Division, acting in close +touch with the Ministry of Shipping, arranged the assembly and movements +of the convoys and their protection. + +The organization of the portion of the Staff under the A.C.N.S. at this +stage is shown below. + + A.C.N.S. + | + ------------------------------------------------ + | | | | + Director of Director of Director of Director of + Mercantile Trade Anti-Sub- Mine-Sweeping + Movements Division. marine Division. + Division. (Captain R.N.) Division. (Captain R.N.) + (Captain R.N.) | (Captain R.N.) | + | Staff. | Staff. + -------------- Staff. + | | +Convoy Movements +Section. Section. + +The portion of the organization under the A.C.N.S. comprised the +following numbers in December, 1917: + +Mercantile Movements Division, 36 Officers, with a clerical staff. + +Trade Division, 43 Officers, with a clerical staff of 10 civilians. + +Anti-Submarine Division, 26 Officers, with a clerical staff. + +Mine-Sweeping Division, 8 Officers, with a clerical staff. + +Of this number practically the whole of the Mercantile Movements and +Anti-Submarine Divisions were added during the year 1917, whilst large +additions were also made to the Trade Division, owing to the great +increase of work. + +During the first half of the year 1917 the Operations Division of the +Naval Staff received a much needed increase of strength by the +appointment of additional officers, charged, under the Director of the +Operations Division, with the detailed preparation of plans for +operations. Further additions to this branch of the Staff were made in +the latter half of the year. + +Matters were in this position with the reorganization of the Naval Staff +in hand and working towards a definite conclusion when, to the intense +regret of those who had been privileged to work with him, Sir Edward +Carson left the Admiralty to become a member of the War Cabinet. + +Before leaving the subject of work at the Admiralty during Sir Edward +Carson's administration, mention should be made of the progress made in +the difficult task of providing officers for the rapidly expanding +Fleet. The large programme of small craft started in the early part of +1917 involved the eventual provision of a great number of additional +officers. Admiral Sir Cecil Burney, the Second Sea Lord, took this +matter in hand with conspicuous success, and the measures which he +introduced tided us over a period of much difficulty and made provision +for many months ahead. Sir Cecil Burney, by reason of his intimate +knowledge of the personnel--the result of years of command afloat--was +able to settle also many problems relating to personnel which had been +the cause of dissatisfaction in the past. + +Sir Edward Carson, on leaving the Admiralty, was succeeded by Sir Eric +Geddes as First Lord. Sir Eric had been brought into the Admiralty in +May, 1917, in circumstances which I will describe later. (_Vide_ Chapter +X.) One of his first steps as First Lord which affected Admiralty +organization was the appointment of a Deputy First Sea Lord. This +appointment was frankly made more as a matter of expediency than because +any real need had been shown for the creation of such an office. It is +unnecessary here to enter into the circumstances which led to the +appointment to which I saw objections, owing to the difficulty of +fitting into the organization an officer bearing the title of Deputy +First Sea Lord. + +Vice-Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss--who had come to England for the purpose +of conferring with the Admiralty before taking up the post of British +Commander-in-Chief in the Mediterranean--was selected by the First Lord +as Deputy First Sea Lord. + +Shortly after assuming office as First Lord, Sir Eric Geddes expressed a +wish for a further consideration of the question of Admiralty +organization. To this end he appointed a joint War Office and Admiralty +Committee to compare the two organizations. + +Having received the report of the Committee, the First Lord and I both +formulated ideas for further reorganization. My proposals, so far as +they concerned the Naval Staff, were conceived on the general lines of +an extension of the organization already adopted since my arrival at the +Admiralty, but I also stated that the time had arrived when the whole +Admiralty organization should be divided more distinctly into two sides, +viz., the Operational side and the _Materiél_ or Administrative side, +and indicated that the arrangement existing in the time of the old Navy +Board might be largely followed, in order that questions of Operations +and _Materiél_ should be quite clearly separated. This, indeed, was the +principle of the Staff organization which I had adopted in the Grand +Fleet, and I was anxious to extend it to the Admiralty. + +This principle was accepted--although the term "Navy Board" was not +reinstituted--the Admiralty Board being divided into two Committees, one +for _Operations_ and one for _Materiél_, the whole Board meeting at +least once a week, as required, to discuss important questions affecting +both sides. Whilst it was necessary that the Maintenance Committee +should be kept acquainted with the requirements in the shape of material +needed for operations in which the Fleet was engaged--and to the Deputy +Chief of Naval Staff was assigned this particular liaison duty--I was +not in favour of _discussing_ questions affecting ordinary operations +with the whole Board, since, in addition to the delay thereby involved, +members of the Maintenance Committee could not keep in sufficiently +intimate touch with such matters, and opinions might be formed and +conclusions expressed on an incomplete knowledge of facts. Questions of +broad policy or of proposed major operations were, of course, in a +different category, and the above objections did not apply. + +The further alterations in Naval Staff organization were not adopted +without considerable discussion and some difference of opinion as to +detail, particularly on the subject of the organization of the +Operations Division of the Naval Staff, which I considered should +embrace the Plans Division as a sub-section in order to avoid +overlapping and delay. In my view it was undesirable for a body of +officers not working under the authority of those in close touch with +the daily operations of the Fleet to put forward plans for operations +which necessarily involved the use of the same vessels and material, as +such a procedure must inevitably lead to impracticable suggestions and +consequent waste of time; the system which I favoured was that in use in +the Army, where the Operations Section of the Staff dealt also with the +working out of plans. + +The Admiralty Staff organization necessarily differed somewhat from that +at the War Office, because during the war the Admiralty in a sense +combined, so far as Naval operations were concerned, the functions both +of the War Office and of General Headquarters in France. This was due +primarily to the fact that intelligence was necessarily centred at the +Admiralty, and, secondly, because the Admiralty acted in a sense as +Commander-in-Chief of all the forces working in the vicinity of the +British Isles. It was not possible for the Commander-in-Chief of the +Grand Fleet to assume this function, since he could not be provided with +the necessary knowledge without great delay being caused, and, further, +when he was at sea the other commands would be without a head. The +Admiralty therefore necessarily assumed the duty, whilst supplying each +command with all the information required for operations. The general +lines of the Staff organizations at the War Office and at General +Headquarters in France are here given for the sake of comparison with +the Naval Staff organization. + +1.--_The British War Office._ + +The approximate organization is shown as concisely as possible in the +following diagram: + + CHIEF OF IMPERIAL GENERAL STAFF + + Director of Staff Duties. + Staff duties Organization and training. + War Organization of forces. + General questions of training. + Signals and communications. + + Director of Military Operations. + Operations on all fronts. + + Director of Military Intelligence. + Intelligence. + Espionage. + The Press. + +The other important departments of the War Office on the administration +side are those of the Adjutant-General and the Quartermaster-General, +the former dealing with all questions relating to the personnel of the +Army under the various headings of organization, mobilization, pay and +discipline, and the latter with all questions of supply and transport. + +A Deputy Chief of the Imperial General Staff was attached to the Chief +of the Imperial General Staff. His main duty was to act as a liaison +between the General Staff and the administrative departments of the War +Office. + +The whole organization of the British War Office is, of course, under +the direction and control of the Secretary of State for War. + +2.--_The Staff Organization at General Headquarters in France._ + + FIELD MARSHAL + COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF. + + Chief of the General Staff + G.S. (a) (Operations) Plans and Execution Intelligence. + G.S. (b) (Staff Duties) War Organizations and + Establishments Liason between G.S. (a) and + Administrative Services. + + Adjutant General (Personnel, Discipline, etc.) + + Quartermaster General (Transport and Supply, etc.) + + ATTACHED TO GENERAL HEADQUARTERS. + (BUT NOT STAFF OFFICERS.) + | + ---------------------------------------------------- + | | | + Artillery Adviser Engineer-in-Chief. Inspector of + (Advises Chief of Advises as in case of Training. + General Stall on Artillery. + Artillery matters + and operations). + | + Advises Administrative + Departments as + necessary. + +N.B.--The Inspector of Training works in consultation with the Chief of +the General Staff. + +It will be seen that whilst at the War Office the liaison between the +General Staff and the administrative side was maintained by a Deputy +Chief of the General Staff, in the organization in the field the same +function was performed by the Staff Officer known as G.S. (b). + +It will also be seen that neither at General Headquarters nor in the +case of an Army command does the Chief of the General Staff exercise +control over the administrative side. + +After some discussion the Admiralty organizations shown in the Tables A +and B on page 20 (below) were adopted, and I guarded as far as possible +against the objection to keeping the Plans Division separate from the +Operations Division by the issue of detailed orders as to the conduct of +the business of the Staff, in which directions were given that the +Director of the Plans Division should be in close touch with the +Director of the Operations Division before submitting any proposals to +the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff or myself. + +During the remainder of my service at the Admiralty the organization +remained as shown in Tables A and B on p. 20 below. It was not entirely +satisfactory, for reasons already mentioned and because I did not obtain +all the relief from administrative work which was so desirable. + + TABLE A + + First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff. + + Deputy Chief of Naval Staff. + Director of Intelligence Division. + Director of Signals Division. + Director of Operations Division. + Deputy-Director of Operations + Operations at home. + Assistant Director Operations Division and Staff. + Operations abroad. + Director of Plans Division. + Preparation of Plans for operations at home and abroad. + Consideration of and proposals for use of new + weapons and material. Building programmes to + carry out approved policy. + + Deputy First Sea Lord. + Director of Training and Staff Duties. + + Assistant Chief of Naval Staff. + Director of Trade Division. + Director of Mercantile Movements. + Director of Mine-sweeping. + Director of Anti-Submarine Division. + + TABLE B + + Board of Admiralty. + Operations Committee. + Naval Staff. + Maintenance Committee. + Shipbuilding and Armaments. + Stores. + Air. + Finance. + Personnel and Discipline, etc. + Works. + +Early in 1918, after my departure from the Admiralty, the following +announcement appeared in the Press: + + +The _Secretary of the Admiralty makes the following announcement_:-- + +The Letters Patent for the new Board of Admiralty having now been +issued, it may be desirable to summarize the changes in the personnel of +the Board and to indicate briefly the alterations in organization that +have been decided upon. + +Acting Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Oliver now brings to a close his long +period of valuable service on the Naval Staff and will take up a +sea-going command, being succeeded as D.C.N.S. by Rear-Admiral Sydney +Fremantle. Rear-Admiral George P.W. Hope has been selected for the +appointment of Deputy First Sea Lord, formerly held by Admiral Wemyss, +but with changed functions. Commodore Paine, Fifth Sea Lord and Chief of +Naval Air Service, leaves the Board of Admiralty in consequence of the +recent creation of the Air Council, of which he is now a member, and +formal effect is now given to the appointment of Mr. A.F. Pease as +Second Civil Lord, which was announced on Thursday last. + +In view of the formal recognition now accorded, as explained by the +First Lord in his statement in the House of Commons on the 1st November, +to the principle of the division of the work of the Board under the two +heads of Operations and Maintenance, the Members of the new Board (other +than the First Lord) may be grouped as follows:-- + + OPERATIONS. MAINTENANCE. + First Sea Lord Second Sea Lord. + and (Vice-Admiral Sir H.L. Heath.) + Chief of Naval Staff. + (Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss.) + + Deputy Chief of Naval Staff. Third Sea Lord. + (Rear-Admiral S.R. Fremantle.) (Rear-Admiral L. Halsey.) + Assistant Chief of Naval Staff. Fourth Sea Lord. + (Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff.) (Rear-Admiral H.H.D. + Tothill.) + + Deputy First Sea Lord. Civil Lord. + (Rear-Admiral G.P.W. Hope.) (Right Hon. E.G. Pretyman, + M.P.) + + Controller. + (Sir A.G. Anderson.) + + Second Civil Lord. + (Mr. A.F. Pease.) + + Financial Secretary. + (Right Hon. T.J. Macnamara, M.P.) + + Permanent Secretary. + (Sir O. Murray.) + +The principle of isolating the work of planning and directing naval war +operations from all other work, in order that it may receive the entire +attention of the Officers selected for its performance, is now being +carried a stage further and applied systematically to the organization +of the Operations side of the Board and that of the Naval Staff. + +In future the general distribution of duties between the Members of the +Board belonging to the Naval Staff will be as follows:-- + + FIRST SEA LORD AND CHIEF Naval policy and general direction + OF NAVAL STAFF of operations. + + DEPUTY CHIEF OF NAVAL War operations in Home + STAFF Waters. + + ASSISTANT CHIEF OF NAVAL Trade Protection and + STAFF anti-submarine operations. + + DEPUTY FIRST SEA LORD General policy questions and + operations outside Home + Waters. + +The detailed arrangements have been carefully worked out so as to +relieve the first three of these officers of the necessity of dealing +with any questions not directly connected with the main operations of +the war, and the great mass of important paper work and administrative +detail which is inseparably and necessarily connected with Staff work, +but which has hitherto tended to compete for attention with Operations +work generally will under the new organization be diverted to the Deputy +First Sea Lord. + +The grouping of the Directors of the Naval Staff Divisions will be +governed by the same principle. + +The only two Directors that will work immediately under the First Sea +Lord will be the Director of Intelligence Division (Rear-Admiral Sir +Reginald Hall) and the Director of Training and Staff Duties +(Rear-Admiral J. C. Ley), whose functions obviously affect all the other +Staff Divisions alike. + +Under the Deputy Chief of Naval Staff will be grouped three Directors +whose duties will relate entirely to the planning and direction of +operations in the main sphere of naval activity, viz.:-- + + Director of Operations Division Captain A.D.P. Pound. + (Home) + + Director of Plans Division Captain C.T.M. Fuller, + C.M.G., D.S.O. + + Director of Air Division Wing Captain F.R. Scarlett, + D.S.O. + +together with the Director of Signals Division, Acting-Captain R.L. +Nicholson, D.S.O., whose duties relate to the system of Fleet +communications. + +Under the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff will be grouped four Directors, +whose duties relate to Trade Protection and Anti-Submarine Operations, +viz:-- + + Director of Anti-Submarine Captain W.W. Fisher, C.B. + Division + Director of Mine-sweeping Captain L.G. Preston, C.B. + Division + Director of Mercantile Movements Captain F.A. Whitehead. + Division + Director of Trade Division Captain A.G. Hotham. + +Under the Deputy First Sea Lord there will be one _Director of +Operations Division (Foreign)_--Captain C.P.R. Coode, D.S.O. + +The chief change on the Maintenance side of the Board relates to the +distribution of duties amongst the Civil Members. The continuance of the +war has caused a steady increase in the number of cases in which +necessary developments of Admiralty policy due to the war, or experience +resulting from war conditions give rise to administrative problems of +great importance and complexity, of which a solution will have to be +forthcoming either immediately upon or very soon after the conclusion of +the war. The difficulty of concentrating attention on these problems of +the future in the midst of current administrative work of great urgency +may easily be appreciated, and the Civil Lord has consented to take +charge of this important matter, with suitable naval and other +assistance. He will, therefore, be relieved by the Second Civil Lord of +the administration of the programme of Naval Works, including the +questions of priority of labour and material requirements arising +therefrom and the superintendence of the Director of Works Department. + +It has further been decided that the exceptional labour and other +difficulties now attending upon the execution of the very large +programme of urgent naval works in progress have so greatly transformed +the functions of the Director of Works Department of the Admiralty that +it is desirable, whilst these abnormal conditions last, to place that +Department under the charge of an expert in the rapid execution of large +engineering works. + +The Army Council have consented, at the request of the First Lord of the +Admiralty, to lend for this purpose the services of Colonel Alexander +Gibb, K.B.E., C.B., R.E., Chief Engineer, Port Construction, British +Armies in France. Colonel Gibb (of the Firm of Easton, Gibb, Son and +Company, which built Rosyth Naval Base) will have the title of Civil +Engineer-in-Chief, and will be assisted by the Director of Works, who +retains his status as such, and the existing Staff of the Department, +which will be strengthened as necessary. + +Another important change has reference to the organization of the +Admiralty Board of Invention and Research, and has the object at once of +securing greater concentration of effort in connection with scientific +research and experiment, and ensuring that the distinguished scientists +who are giving their assistance to the Admiralty are more constantly in +and amongst the problems upon which they are advising. + +Mr. Charles H. Merz, M.Inst.C.E., the well-known Electrical Consulting +Engineer, who has been associated with the Board of Invention and +Research (B.I.R.) since its inception, has consented to serve as +Director of Experiments and Research (unpaid) at the Admiralty to direct +and supervise all the executive arrangements in connection with the +organization of scientific Research and Experiments. Mr. Merz will also +be a member of the Central Committee of the B.I.R. under the presidency +of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Fisher. The functions of the Central +Committee will, as hitherto, be to initiate, investigate, develop and +advise generally upon proposals in respect to the application of Science +and Engineering to Naval Warfare, but the distinguished scientific +experts at present giving their services will in future work more much +closely with the Technical Departments of the Admiralty immediately +concerned with the production and use of apparatus required for specific +purposes. + +The general arrangements in regard to the organization of scientific +research and experiment will in future come under the direct supervision +of the First Lord. + + +Possibly by reason of the manner in which the announcement was made, the +Press appeared to assume that the whole of this Admiralty organization +was new. Such was not the case. Apart from the changes in the personnel +of the Board itself and a slight rearrangement of their duties and those +due to the establishment of an Air Ministry (which had been arranged by +the Cabinet before December, 1917), there were but slight alterations in +the organization shown in Table A [above], as will be seen by comparing +it with Table C on p. 27 [below], which indicates graphically the +organization given in the Admiralty communique. + + TABLE C + + FIRST SEA LORD AND CHIEF OF NAVAL STAFF. + + Deputy Chief of Naval Staff. + Director of Signals Division. + Director of Operations Division (Home). + Director of Plans Division. + Director of Air Division. + + Deputy First Sea Lord. + Director of Operations Division (Foreign) and + Administrative detail work. + + Director of Intelligence Division. + Director of Training and Staff Duties. + + Assistant Chief of Naval Staff. + Director of Trade Division. + Director of Mercantile Movements. + Director of Mine-sweeping. + Director of Anti-Submarine Division. + +It will be seen that the alterations in Naval Staff organization were as +follows: + +(a) The new Deputy First Sea Lord--Rear-Admiral Hope--who since the +spring of 1917 had been Director of the Operations Division, was given +the responsibility for operations in foreign waters, with a Director of +Operations (foreign) under him, and was also definitely charged with the +administrative detail involving technical matters. The special gifts, +experience and aptitude of this particular officer for such work enabled +him, no doubt, to relieve the pressure on the First Sea Lord for +administrative detail very materially. + +(b) The Operations Division was separated into two parts (home and +foreign), with a Director for each, instead of there being a Deputy +Director for home and an Assistant Director for foreign work, both +working under the Director. This was a change in name only, as the same +officer continued the foreign work under the new arrangement. + +(c) The Director of the Intelligence Division and the Director of +Training and Staff Duties were shown as working immediately under the +First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff. + +(d) A Director of the Air Division was introduced as a result of the +Naval Air Service having been separated from the Admiralty and placed +under the Air Ministry. A larger Admiralty Staff organization for aerial +matters thus became necessary, since the Staff could no longer refer to +the Naval Air Service. + +There were no other changes in the Staff organization. As regards the +general Admiralty organization, there was no change except that caused +by the disappearance of the separate Naval Air Service, the addition of +a Second Civil Lord, and some reorganization of the Board of Invention +and Research which had been under discussion for some months previously. + +It is probable that in 1918 the Chief of the Naval Staff had more time +at his disposal than was the case in 1917, owing to the changes in +organization initiated in the later year having reached some finality +and to the fact that the numerous anti-submarine measures put in hand in +1917 had become effective in 1918. + +The future Admiralty Naval Staff organization, which was in my mind at +the end of 1917, was a development of that shown in Table A, p. 20, +subject to the following remarks: + +In the organization then adopted the personality and experience during +the war of many of the officers in high positions were of necessity +considered, and the organization to that extent adapted to +circumstances. This resulted in somewhat overloading the staff at the +head, and the principle on which the Board of Admiralty works, i.e., +that its members are colleagues one of another, and seniority in rank +does not, theoretically, give greater weight in council, was not +altogether followed. Thus the Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, the +Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff, and the Deputy First Sea Lord were, +by the nature of their duties, subordinate to the Chief of the Naval +Staff and yet were members of the Board. The well-known loyalty of naval +officers to one another tended to minimize any difficulties that might +have arisen from this anomaly, but the arrangement might conceivably +give rise to difficulty, and is best avoided if the Board system is to +remain. + +The situation would be clearer if two of the three officers concerned +were removed altogether from the Board, viz., the Deputy First Sea Lord +and the Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff, leaving only the Deputy +Chief of the Naval Staff as a member of the Board to act in the absence +of the Chief of the Naval Staff and to relieve him of the administrative +and technical work not immediately connected with operations. + +The work of the two officers thus removed should, under these +conditions, be undertaken by officers who should preferably be Flag +Officers, with experience in command at sea, having the titles of +Directors of Operations, whose emoluments should be commensurate with +their position and responsibilities. + +I did not consider it advisable to carry out this alteration during the +war, and it was also difficult under the hour to hour stress of war to +rearrange all the duties of the Naval Staff in the manner most +convenient to the conduct of Staff business, although its desirability +was recognized during 1917. + +It may be as well to close this chapter by a few remarks on Staff work +generally in the Navy. In the first place it is necessary in the Navy to +give much weight to the opinions of specialist officers, and for this +reason it is desirable that they should be included in the Staff +organization, and not "attached" to it as was the case with our Army in +pre-war days. The reason for this is that in the Army there is, except +in regard to artillery, little "specialization." The training received +by an officer of any of the fighting branches of the Army at the Staff +College may fit him to assist in the planning and execution of +operations, provided due regard is paid to questions of supply, +transport, housing, etc. + +This is not so in a navy. A ship and all that she contains is the +weapon, and very intimate knowledge of the different factors that go to +make a ship an efficient weapon is necessary if the ship is to be used +effectively and if operations in which the ship takes so prominent a +part are to be successfully planned and executed, or if a sound opinion +is to be expressed on the training necessary to produce and maintain her +as an efficient weapon. + +The particular points in which this specially intimate knowledge is +required are: + +(a) The science of navigation and of handling ships of all types and +classes. + +(b) Gunnery. + +(c) Torpedoes and mines. + +It is the case at present (and the conditions are not likely to alter) +that each one of these subjects is a matter for specialist training. +Every executive officer has a general knowledge of each subject, but it +is not possible for any one officer to possess the knowledge of all +three which is gained by the specialist, and if attempts are made to +plan operations without the assistance of the specialists grave errors +may be made, and, indeed, such errors were made during the late war, +perhaps from this cause. + +In my view, therefore, it is desirable that specialist officers should +be included in a Naval Staff organization and not be merely "attached" +to it. It may be said that a Staff can take the advice of specialist +officers who are _attached_ to it for that purpose. But there is a +danger that the specialist advice may never reach the heads of the +Staff. Human nature being what it is, the safest procedure is to place +the specialist officer where his voice must be heard, i.e. to give him a +position on the Staff, for one must legislate for the _average_ +individual and for normal conditions of work. + +The Chief of a Staff _might_ have specialist knowledge himself, or he +_might_ assure himself that due weight had been given to the opinions of +specialists attached to a Staff; but, on the other hand, it is possible +that he might not have that knowledge and that he might ignore the +opinions of the specialists. The procedure suggested is at least as +necessary when considering the question of training as it is in the case +of operations. + +In passing from this point I may say that I have heard the opinion +expressed by military Staff officers that the war has shown that +artillery is so all important that it would be desirable to place the +Major-General of the Royal Artillery, now _attached_ to General +Headquarters, on the Staff for operational matters. + +Finally, great care should be exercised to prevent the Staff becoming +larger than is necessary, and there is some danger that the ignorant may +gauge the value of the Staff by its size. + +Von Schellendorff says on this subject: + +"The principle strictly followed throughout the German Service of +reducing all Staffs to the smallest possible dimensions is moreover +vindicated by restricting every Staff to what is absolutely necessary, +and by not attaching to every Army, Army Corps and Divisional Staff +representatives of all the various branches and departments according to +any fixed rule. + +"There cannot be the slightest doubt that the addition of every +individual not absolutely required on a Staff is in itself an evil. In +the first place, it unnecessarily weakens the strength of the regiment +from which an officer is taken. Again it increases the difficulty of +providing the Staff with quarters, which affects the troops that may +happen to be quartered in the same place; and these are quite ready +enough, as it is, occasionally to look with a certain amount of +dislike--though in most cases it is entirely uncalled for--on the +personnel of the higher Staffs. Finally, it should be remembered--and +this is the most weighty argument against the proceeding--that _idleness +is at the root of all mischief_. When there are too many officers on a +Staff they cannot always find the work and occupation essential for +their mental and physical welfare, and their superfluous energies soon +make themselves felt in all sorts of objectionable ways. Experience +shows that whenever a Staff is unnecessarily numerous the ambitious +before long take to intrigue, the litigious soon produce general +friction, and the vain are never satisfied. These failings, so common to +human nature, even if all present, are to a great extent counteracted if +those concerned have plenty of hard and constant work. Besides, the +numbers of a Staff being few, there is all the greater choice in the +selection of the men who are to fill posts on it. In forming a Staff for +war the qualifications required include not only great professional +knowledge and acquaintance with service routine, but above all things +character, self-denial, energy, tact and discretion." + + + + +CHAPTER II + +THE SUBMARINE CAMPAIGN IN THE EARLY PART OF 1917 + + +The struggle against the depredations of the enemy submarines during the +year 1917 was two-fold; _offensive_ in the direction of anti-submarine +measures (this was partly the business of the Anti-Submarine Division of +the Naval Staff and partly that of the Operations Division); _defensive_ +in the direction of protective measures for trade, whether carried in +our own ships or in ships belonging to our Allies or to neutrals, this +being the business of the Trade and Mercantile Movements Divisions. + +Prior to the formation of the Mercantile Movements Division the whole +direction of trade was in the hands of the Trade Division of the Staff. + +The difficulty with which we were constantly faced in the early part of +1917, when the effective means of fighting the submarine were very +largely confined to the employment of surface vessels, was that of +providing a sufficient number of such vessels for _offensive_ operations +without incurring too heavy risks for our trade by the withdrawal of +vessels engaged in what might be termed _defensive_ work. There was +always great doubt whether any particular offensive operation undertaken +by small craft would produce any result, particularly as the numbers +necessary for success were not available, whilst there was the practical +_certainty_ that withdrawal of defensive vessels would increase our +losses; the situation was so serious in the spring of 1917 that we could +not carry out experiments involving grave risk of considerably increased +losses. + +On the other hand, the sinking of one enemy submarine meant the possible +saving of a considerable number of merchant ships. It was difficult to +draw the line between the two classes of operations. + +The desire of the Anti-Submarine Division to obtain destroyers for +offensive use in hunting flotillas in the North Sea and English Channel +led to continual requests being made to me to provide vessels for the +purpose. I was, of course, anxious to institute offensive operations, +but in the early days of 1917 we could not rely much on depth-charge +attack, owing to our small stock of these charges, and my experience in +the Grand Fleet had convinced me that for success in the alternative of +hunting submarines for a period which would exhaust their batteries and +so force them to come to the surface, a large number of destroyers was +required, unless the destroyers were provided with some apparatus which +would, by sound or otherwise, locate the submarine. This will be +realized when the fact is recalled that a German submarine could remain +submerged at slow speed for a period which would enable her to travel a +distance of some 80 miles. As this distance could be covered in any +direction in open waters such as the North Sea, it is obvious that only +a very numerous force of destroyers steaming at high speed could cover +the great area in which the submarine might come to the surface. She +would, naturally, select the dark hours for emergence, as being the +period of very limited range of vision for those searching for her. In +confined waters such as those in the eastern portion of the English +Channel the problem became simpler. Requests for destroyers constantly +came from every quarter, such as the Commanders-in-Chief at Portsmouth +and Devonport, the Senior Naval Officer at Gibraltar, the Vice-Admiral, +Dover, the Rear-Admiral Commanding East Coast, and the Admiral at +Queenstown. The vessels they wanted did not, however, exist. + +Eventually, with great difficulty, a force of six destroyers was +collected from various sources in the spring of 1917, and used in the +Channel solely for hunting submarines; this number was really quite +inadequate, and it was not long before they had to be taken for convoy +work. + +Evidence of the difficulty of successfully hunting submarines was often +furnished by the experiences of our own vessels of this type, sometimes +when hunted by the enemy, sometimes when hunted in error by our own +craft. Many of our submarines went through some decidedly unpleasant +experiences at the hands of our own surface vessels and occasionally at +the hands of vessels belonging to our Allies. On several such occasions +the submarine was frequently reported as having been sunk, whereas she +had escaped. + +As an example of a submarine that succeeded not only in evading +destruction, but in getting at least even with the enemy, the case of +one of our vessels of the "E" class, on patrol in the Heligoland Bight, +may be cited. This submarine ran into a heavy anti-submarine net, and +was dragged, nose first, to the bottom. After half an hour's effort, +during which bombs were exploding in her vicinity, the submarine was +brought to the surface by her own crew by the discharge of a great deal +of water from her forward ballast tanks. It was found, however, that the +net was still foul of her, and that a Zeppelin was overhead, evidently +attracted by the disturbance in the water due to the discharge of air +and water from the submarine. She went to the bottom again, and after +half an hour succeeded in getting clear of the net. Meanwhile the +Zeppelin had collected a force of trawlers and destroyers, and the +submarine was hunted for fourteen hours by this force, assisted by the +airship. During this period she succeeded in sinking one of the German +destroyers, and was eventually left unmolested. + +For a correct appreciation of submarine warfare it is necessary to have +a clear idea of the characteristics and qualities of the submarine +herself, of the numbers possessed by the enemy, and of the rate at which +they were being produced. It is also necessary, in order to understand +the difficulty of introducing the counter measures adopted by the Royal +Navy, to know the length of time required to produce the vessels and the +weapons which were employed or which it was intended to employ in the +anti-submarine war. + +The German submarines may be divided into four classes, viz.: Submarine +cruisers, U-boats, U.B.-boats, U.C.-boats. There were several variations +of each class. + +The earlier _submarine cruisers_ of the "Deutschland" class were +double-hulled vessels, with a surface displacement of 1,850 tons, and +were about 215 feet long; they had a surface speed of about 12 knots and +a submerged speed of about 6 knots. They carried two 5.9-inch guns, two +22 pounders, two torpedo tubes, and 12 torpedoes. They could keep the +sea for quite four months without being dependent on a supply ship or +base. + +The later _submarine cruisers_ were double-hulled, 275-320 feet long, +had a surface speed of 16-18 knots, and a submerged speed of about 7 to +8 knots. They carried either one or two 5.9-inch guns, six torpedo +tubes, and about 10 torpedoes. They had a very large radius of action, +viz., from 12,000 to 20,000 miles, at a speed of 6 knots. A large number +(some 30 to 40) of these boats were under construction at the time of +the Armistice, but very few had been completed. + +There were two or three types of _U-boats_. The earlier vessels were 210 +to 220 feet long, double-hulled, with a surface displacement of about +750 tons, a surface speed of 15 to 16 knots, and a submerged speed of +about 8 knots. They carried one or two 4.1-inch guns, four to six +torpedo tubes, and about 10 torpedoes. + +Later vessels of the class were 230 to 240 feet long, and of 800 to 820 +tons surface displacement, and carried six torpedo tubes and 16 +torpedoes. Some of them, fitted as minelayers, carried 36 mines, and two +torpedo tubes, but only two torpedoes. A later and much larger class of +minelayers carried a 5.9-inch gun, four torpedo tubes, 42 mines, and a +larger number of torpedoes. The earlier _U-boats_ could keep the sea for +about five weeks without returning to a base or a supply ship; the later +_U-boats_ had much greater sea endurance. + +The smaller _U.B.-boats_ were single-hulled, and about 100 feet long, +had a surface speed of 7 to 9 knots and a submerged speed of about 5 +knots, and carried one 22-pounder gun, two torpedo tubes and four +torpedoes. These boats could keep the sea for about two weeks without +returning to a base or supply ship. A later class were double-hulled, +180 feet long, with greater endurance (8,000 miles at 6 knots), a +surface speed of 13 knots and a submerged speed of 8 knots; they carried +one 4.1-inch gun, five tubes and 10 torpedoes. + +The earliest _U.C.-boats_ were 111 feet long, with a surface +displacement of 175 tons, a surface speed of 6-½ knots, and a submerged +speed of 5 knots. They carried 12 mines, but no torpedo tubes, and as +they had a fuel endurance of only 800 miles at 5-½ knots, they could +operate only in southern waters. + +The later _U.C.-boats_ were 170 to 180 feet long, double-hulled, had a +surface speed of 11 to 12 knots and a submerged speed of about 7 knots, +carried 18 mines, three torpedo tubes, five torpedoes, and one +22-pounder gun, and their fuel endurance was 8,000 to 10,000 miles at a +speed of 7 to 8 knots. + +At the end of February, 1917, it was estimated that the enemy had a +total of about 130 submarines of all types available for use in home +waters, and about 20 in the Mediterranean. Of this total an average of +between one-half and one-third was usually at sea. During the year about +eight submarines, on the average, were added monthly to this total. Of +this number some 50 per cent, were vessels of the mine-laying type. + +All the German submarines were capable of prolonged endurance submerged. +The U-boats could travel under water at the slowest speed for some 48 +hours, at about 4 knots for 20 hours, at 5 knots for about 12 hours, and +at 8 knots for about 2 hours. + +They were tested to depths of at least 180 feet, but many submerged to +depths exceeding 250 feet without injury. They did not usually lie on +the bottom at depths greatly exceeding 20 fathoms (120 feet). + +All German submarines, except possibly the _cruiser class_, could dive +from diving trim in from 30 seconds to one minute. The _U.B. class_ had +particularly rapid diving qualities, and were very popular boats with +the German submarine officers. Perhaps the most noticeable features of +the German submarines as a whole were their excellent engines and their +great strength of construction. + +Prior to the month of February, 1917, it was the usual practice of the +enemy submarine in the warfare against merchant ships to give some +warning before delivering her attack. This was by no means a universal +rule, particularly in the case of British merchant vessels, as is +evidenced by the attacks on the _Lusitania, Arabic_, and scores of other +ships. + +In the years 1915 and 1916, however, only 21 and 29 per cent. +respectively of the British merchant ships sunk by enemy submarines were +destroyed without warning, whilst during the first four months of the +unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 the figure rose to 64 per cent., +and went higher and higher as the months progressed. + +Prior to February, 1917, the more general method of attack on ships was +to "bring them to" by means of gun-fire; they were then sunk by +gun-fire, torpedo, or bomb. This practice necessitated the submarine +being on the surface, and so gave a merchant ship defensively armed a +chance of replying to the gun-fire and of escaping, and it also gave +armed decoy ships a good opportunity of successful action if the +submarine could be induced to close to very short range. + +The form of attack on commerce known as "unrestricted submarine warfare" +was commenced by Germany with the object of forcing Great Britain to +make peace by cutting off her supplies of food and raw material. It has +been acknowledged by Germans in high positions that the German Admiralty +considered that this form of warfare would achieve its object in a +comparatively short time, in fact in a matter of some five or six +months. + +Experienced British naval officers, aware of the extent of the German +submarine building programme, and above all aware of the shadowy nature +of our existing means of defence against such a form of warfare, had +every reason to hold the view that the danger was great and that the +Allies were faced with a situation, fraught with the very gravest +possibilities. + +The principal doubt was as to the ability of the enemy to train +submarine crews with sufficient rapidity to keep pace with his building +programme. + +However, it was ascertained that the Germans had evidently devoted a +very great number of their submarines to training work during the period +September, 1915, to March, 1916, possibly in anticipation of the +unrestricted warfare, since none of their larger boats was operating in +our waters between these months; this fact had a considerable bearing on +the problem. + +As events turned out it would appear either that the training given was +insufficient or that the German submarine officer was lacking in +enterprise. + +There is no doubt whatever that had the German craft engaged in the +unrestricted submarine warfare been manned by British officers and men, +adopting German methods, there would have been but few Allied or neutral +merchant ships left afloat by the end of 1917. + +So long as the majority of the German submarine attacks upon shipping +were made by gun-fire, the method of defence was comparatively simple, +in that it merely involved the supply to merchant ships of guns of +sufficient power to prevent the submarine engaging at ranges at which +the fire could not be returned. Whilst the _method_ of defence was +apparent, the problem of _supplying_ suitable guns in sufficient numbers +was a very different matter. It involved arming all our merchant ships +with guns of 4-inch calibre and above. In January, 1917, only some 1,400 +British ships had been so armed since the outbreak of war. + +It will be seen, therefore, that so long as ships sailed singly, very +extensive supplies of guns were required to meet gun attack, and as +there was most pressing need for the supply of guns for the Army in +France, as well as for the anti-aircraft defence of London, the prospect +of arming merchant ships adequately was not promising. + +When the enemy commenced unrestricted submarine warfare attack by +gun-fire was gradually replaced by attack by torpedo, and the problem at +once became infinitely more complicated. + +Gun-fire was no longer a protection, since the submarine was rarely +seen. The first intimation of her presence would be given by the track +of a torpedo coming towards the ship, and no defence was then possible +beyond an endeavour to manoeuvre the ship clear of the torpedo. Since, +however, a torpedo is always some distance ahead of the bubbles which +mark its track (the speed of the torpedo exceeding 30 knots an hour), +the track is not, as a rule, seen until the torpedo is fairly close to +the ship unless the sea is absolutely calm. The chance of a ship of low +speed avoiding a hit by a timely alteration of course after the torpedo +has been fired is but slight. Further, the only difficulty experienced +by a submarine in hitting a moving vessel by torpedo-fire, once she has +arrived in a position suitable for attack, lies in estimating correctly +the course and speed of the target. In the case of an ordinary cargo +ship there is little difficulty in guessing her speed, since it is +certain to be between 8 and 12 knots, and her course can be judged with +fair accuracy by the angle of her masts and funnel, or by the angle +presented by her bridge. + +It will be seen, then, how easy was the problem before the German +submarine officers, and how very difficult was that set to our Navy and +our gallant Mercantile Marine. + +It will not be out of place here to describe the methods which were in +force at the end of 1916 and during the first part of 1917 for affording +protection to merchant shipping approaching our coasts from the +direction of the Atlantic Ocean. + +The general idea dating from the early months of the war was to disperse +trade on passage over wide tracts of ocean, in order to prevent the +successful attacks which could be so easily carried out if shipping +traversed one particular route. To carry out such a system it was +necessary to give each vessel a definite route which she should follow +from her port of departure to her port of arrival; unless this course +was adopted, successive ships would certainly be found to be following +identical, or practically identical, routes, thereby greatly increasing +the chance of attack. In the early years of the war masters of ships +were given approximate tracks, but when the unrestricted submarine +campaign came into being it became necessary to give exact routes. + +The necessary orders were issued by officers stationed at various ports +at home and abroad who were designated Shipping Intelligence or +Reporting Officers. It was, of course, essential to preserve the secrecy +of the general principles governing the issue of route orders and of the +route orders themselves. For this reason each master was only informed +of the orders affecting his own ship, and was directed that such orders +should on no account fall into the hands of the enemy. + +The route orders were compiled on certain principles, of which a few may +be mentioned: + +(a) Certain definite positions of latitude and longitude were given +through which the ship was required to pass, and the orders were +discussed with the master of each vessel in order to ensure that they +were fully understood. + +(b) Directions were given that certain localities in which submarines +were known to operate, such as the approaches to the coast of the United +Kingdom, were, if possible, to be crossed at night. It was pointed out +that when the speed of the ship did not admit of traversing the whole +danger area at night, the portion involving the greatest danger (which +was the inshore position) should, as a rule, be crossed during dark +hours. + +(c) Similarly the orders stated that ships should, as a rule, leave port +so as to approach the dangerous area at dusk, and that they should make +the coast at about daylight, and should avoid, as far as possible, the +practice of making the land at points in general use in peace time. + +(d) Orders were definite that ships were to zigzag both by day and at +night in certain areas, and if kept waiting outside a port. + +(e) Masters were cautioned to hug the coast, as far as navigational +facilities admitted, when making coastal passages. + +The orders (b), (c) and (d) were those in practice in the Grand Fleet +when circumstances permitted during my term in that command. + +A typical route order from New York to Liverpool might be as follows: + +"After passing Sandy Hook, hug the coast until dark, then make a good +offing before daylight and steer to pass through the following +positions, viz: + +Lat. 38° N. Long. 68° W. +Lat. 41° N. Long. 48° W. +Lat. 46° N. Long. 28° W. +Lat. 51° 30' N. Long. 14° W. + +"Thence make the coast near the Skelligs approximately at daylight, hug +the Irish coast to the Tuskar, up the Irish coast (inside the banks if +possible), and across the Irish Channel during dark hours. Thence hug +the coast to your port; zigzag by day and night after passing, Long. 20° +W." + +Sometimes ships were directed to cross to the English coast from the +south of Ireland, and to hug the English coast on their way north. + +The traffic to the United Kingdom was so arranged in the early part of +1917 as to approach the coast in four different areas, which were known +as Approach A, B, C, and D. + +Approach A was used for traffic bound towards the western approach to +the English Channel. + +Approach B for traffic making for the south of Ireland. + +Approach C for traffic making for the north of Ireland. + +Approach D for traffic making for the east coast of England via the +north of Scotland. + +The approach areas in force during one particular period are shown on +Chart A (in pocket at the end of the book). They were changed +occasionally when suspicion was aroused that their limits were known to +the enemy, or as submarine attack in an area became intense. + +[Transcriber's note: Chart A is a navigational map of the waters +southwest of England, with approach routes marked.] + +The approach areas were patrolled at the time, so far as numbers +admitted, by patrol craft (trawlers, torpedo-boat destroyers, and +sloops), and ships with specially valuable cargoes were given directions +to proceed to a certain rendezvous on the outskirts of the area, there +to be met by a destroyer or sloop, if one was available for the purpose. +The areas were necessarily of considerable length, by reason of the +distance from the coast at which submarines operated, and of +considerable width, owing to the necessity for a fairly wide dispersion +of traffic throughout the area. Consequently, with the comparatively +small number of patrol craft available, the protection afforded was but +slight, and losses were correspondingly heavy. In the early spring of +1917, Captain H.W. Grant, of the Operations Division at the Admiralty, +whose work in the Division was of great value, proposed a change in +method by which the traffic should be brought along certain definite +"lines" in each approach area. Typical lines are shown in Chart B. + +[Transcriber's note: Chart B is a navigational map of the waters +southwest of Ireland, with approach routes marked.] + +The idea was that the traffic in, say, Approach Route B, should, +commencing on a certain date, be ordered by the Routeing Officer to pass +along the line Alpha. Traffic would continue along the line for a +certain period, which was fixed at five days, when it would be +automatically diverted to another line, say Gamma, but the traffic along +Gamma would not commence until a period of 24 hours had elapsed since +discontinuance of the use of the line Alpha. This was necessary in order +to give time for the patrol craft to change from one line to the other. +During this period of 24 hours the arrangement for routeing at the ports +of departure ensured that no traffic would reach the outer end of any of +the approach lines, and consequently that traffic would cease on line +Alpha 24 hours before it commenced on line Gamma. After a further period +of five days the line would again change automatically. + +It was necessary that Shipping Intelligence Officers should have in +their possession the orders for directing traffic on to the various +lines for some considerable time ahead, and the masters of ships which +were likely to be for some time at sea were informed of the dates +between which the various lines were to be used, up to a date sufficient +to cover the end of their voyage. There was, therefore, some danger of +this information reaching the enemy if a vessel were captured by a +submarine and the master failed to destroy his instructions in time. +There was also some danger in giving the information to neutrals. + +However, the system, which was adopted, did result in a reduction of +losses during the comparatively short time that it was in use, and the +knowledge that patrol craft on the line would be much closer together +than they would be in an approach area certainly gave confidence to the +personnel of the merchant ships, and those who had been forced to +abandon their ship by taking to the boats were afforded a better chance +of being picked up. + +Various arrangements were in existence for effecting rapidly a diversion +of shipping from one route to another in the event of submarines being +located in any particular position, and a continual change of the +signals for this purpose was necessary to guard against the possibility +of the code being compromised by having fallen into enemy hands, an +event which, unfortunately, was not infrequent. + +Elaborate orders were necessary to regulate coastal traffic, and fresh +directions were continually being issued as danger, especially danger +from mines, was located. Generally speaking, the traffic in home waters +was directed to hug the coast as closely as safe navigation permitted. +Two reasons existed for this, (a) in water of a depth of less than about +eight fathoms German submarines did not care to operate, and (b) under +the procedure indicated danger from submarine attack was only likely on +the side remote from the coast. + +Here is an example of the instructions for passing up Channel: + +_From Falmouth to Portland Bill._--Hug the coast, following round the +bays, except when passing Torbay. (Directions followed as to the +procedure here.) + +_From Portland Bill to St. Catherines._--Pass close south of the +Shambles and steer for Anvil Point, thence hug the coast, following +round the bays. + +And so on. + +As it was not safe navigationally to follow round the bays during +darkness, the instructions directed that ships were to leave the +daylight route at dusk and to join the dark period route, showing dimmed +bow lights whilst doing so. + +Two "dark period routes" were laid down, one for vessels bound up +Channel, and another for vessels bound down Channel, and these routes +were some five miles apart in order to minimize the danger of collision, +ships being directed not to use their navigation lights except for +certain portions of the route, during which they crossed the route of +transports and store ships bound between certain southern British ports +(Portsmouth, Southampton and Devonport) and French ports. + +Routes were similarly laid down for ships to follow when navigating to +or from the Bristol Channel, and for ships navigating the Irish Sea. + +Any system of convoy was at this time out of the question, as neither +the cruisers to marshal the convoy to the submarine area, nor the +destroyers to screen it when there, were available. + +There was one very important factor in the situation, viz., the +comparative rate at which the Germans could produce submarines and at +which we could build vessels suitable for anti-submarine warfare and for +defence of commerce. The varying estimates gave cause for grave anxiety. +Our average output of _destroyers_ was four to five per month. Indeed, +this is putting the figure high; and, of course, we suffered losses. The +French and Italians were not producing any vessels of this type, whilst +the Japanese were, in the early part of 1917, not able to spare any for +work in European waters, although later in the year they lent twelve +destroyers, which gave valuable assistance in the Mediterranean. The +United States of America were not then in the war. Consequently measures +for the defence of the Allied trade against the new menace depended on +our own production. + +Our _submarines_ were being produced at an average rate of about two per +month only, and--apart from motor launches, which were only of use in +the finest weather and near the coast--the only other vessels suitable +for anti-submarine work that were building at the time, besides some +sloops and P-boats, were trawlers, which, whilst useful for protection +patrol, were too slow for most of the escort work or for offensive +duties. The Germans' estimate of their own submarine production was +about twelve per month, although this figure was never realized, the +average being nearer eight. But each submarine was capable of sinking +many merchant ships, thus necessitating the employment of a very large +number of our destroyers; and therein lay the gravity of the situation, +as we realized at the Admiralty early in 1917 that no effort of ours +could increase the output of destroyers for at least fifteen months, the +shortest time then taken to build a destroyer in this country. + +And here it is interesting to compare the time occupied in the +production of small craft in Great Britain and in Germany during the +war. + +In pre-war days we rarely built a destroyer in less than twenty-four +months, although shortly before the war efforts were made to reduce the +time to something like eighteen to twenty months. Submarines occupied +two years in construction. + +In starting the great building programme of destroyers and submarines at +the end of 1914, Lord Fisher increased very largely the number of firms +engaged in constructing vessels of both types. Hopes were held out of +the construction both of destroyers and of submarines in about twelve +months; but labour and other difficulties intervened, and although some +firms did complete craft of both classes during 1915 in less than twelve +months, by 1916 and 1917 destroyers _averaged_ about eighteen months and +submarines even longer for completion. + +The Germans had always built their small craft rapidly, although their +heavy ships were longer in construction than our own. Their destroyers +were completed in a little over twelve months from the official date of +order in pre-war days. During the early years of the war it would seem +that they maintained this figure, and they succeeded in building their +smaller submarines of the U.B. and U.C. types in some six to eight +months, as U.B. and U.C. boats began to be delivered as early as April, +1915, and it is certain that they were not ordered before August, 1914. + +The time taken by the Germans to build submarines of the U type was +estimated by us at twelve months, and that of submarine cruisers at +eighteen months. German submarine officers gave the time as eight to ten +months for a U-boat and eighteen months for a submarine cruiser. + +(It is to be observed that Captain Persius in a recent article gives a +much longer period for the construction of the German submarines. It is +not stated whether he had access to official figures, and his statement +is not in agreement with the figures given by German submarine +officers.) + +It is of interest to note here the rate of ship production attained by +some firms in the United States of America during the war. + +As I mention later (_Vide_ Chapter vi, p. 157), the Bethlehem Steel +Company, under Mr. Schwab's guidance, produced ten submarines for us in +five months from the date of the order. Mr. Schwab himself informed me +that towards the end of the war he was turning out large destroyers in +six weeks. The Ford Company, as is well known, produced submarine +chasers of the "Eagle" type in even a shorter period, but these vessels +were of special design and construction. + +I have dealt so far with the question of anti-submarine measures +involving only the use of destroyers and other small surface craft. +There were, of course, other methods both in use and under consideration +early in 1917 when we took stock of the situation. + +For some time we had been using _Decoy vessels_, and with some success; +it was possible to increase the number of these ships at the cost of +taking merchant ships off the trade routes or by building. A very +considerable increase was arranged. + +The use of our own _submarines_ offensively against enemy submarines had +also been tried, and had met with occasional success, but our numbers +were very limited (the total in December, 1916, fit for oversea or +anti-submarine work was about forty). They were much needed for +reconnaissance and offensive work against surface men-of-war in enemy +waters, and only a few were at the time available for anti-submarine +operations, and then only at the cost of other important services. + +The _hydrophone_ had been in the experimental stage and under trial for +a considerable period, but it had not so far developed into an effective +instrument for locating submarines, and although trials of the different +patterns which had been devised were pushed forward with energy, many +months elapsed before it became a practicable proposition. + +One of the best offensive measures against the enemy submarines, it was +realized, was the _mine_, if laid in sufficiently large numbers. +Unfortunately, in January, 1917, we did not possess a mine that was +satisfactory against submarines. + +Our deficiency in this respect was clearly shown in the course of some +trials which I ordered, when one of our own submarines was run against a +number of our mines, with the result that only about 33 per cent. of the +mines (fitted, of course, only with small charges) exploded. The Germans +were well aware that our mines were not very effective against +submarines. + +We possessed at the time mines of two patterns, and whilst proving +unsatisfactory against submarines, they were also found to be somewhat +unreliable when laid in minefields designed to catch surface vessels, +owing to a defect in the mooring apparatus. This defect was remedied, +but valuable time was lost whilst the necessary alterations were being +carried out, and although we possessed in April, 1917, a stock of some +20,000 mines, only 1,500 of them were then fit for laying. The position, +therefore, was that our mines were not a satisfactory anti-submarine +weapon. + +A _new pattern mine_, which had been designed on the model of the German +mine during Sir Henry Jackson's term of office as First Sea Lord in +1916, was experimented with at the commencement of 1917, and as soon as +drawings could be prepared orders for upwards of 100,000 were placed in +anticipation of its success. There were some initial difficulties before +all the details were satisfactory, and, in spite of the greatest +pressure on manufacturers, it was not until November, 1917, that mines +of this pattern were being delivered in large numbers. The earliest +minefields laid in the Heligoland Bight in September and October, 1917, +with mines of the new pattern met with immediate success against enemy +submarines, as did the minefields composed of the same type of mine, the +laying of which commenced in November, 1917, in the Straits of Dover. + +When it became possible to adopt the system of bringing merchant ships +in convoys through the submarine zone under the escort of a screen of +destroyers, this system became in itself, to a certain extent, an +offensive operation, since it necessarily forced the enemy submarines +desirous of obtaining results into positions in which they themselves +were open to violent attack by depth charges dropped by destroyers. + +During the greater part of the year 1917, however, it was only possible +to supply destroyers with a small number of _depth charges_, which was +their principal anti-submarine weapon; as it became feasible to increase +largely the supply of these charges to destroyers, so the violence of +the attack on the submarines increased, and their losses became heavier. + +The position then, as it existed in the early days of the year 1917, is +described in the foregoing remarks. + +The _result_ measured in loss of shipping (British, Allied, and neutral) +from submarine and mine attack in the first half of the year was as +follows in gross tonnage: + +January - 324,016 +February - 500,573 +March - 555,991 +April - 870,359 +May - 589,754 +June - 675,154 + +Because of the time required for production, it was a sheer +impossibility to _put into effect_ any fresh devices that might be +adopted for dealing with submarine warfare for many months, and all that +could be done was to try new methods of approach to the coast and, as +the number of small craft suitable for escort duty increased, to extend +gradually the convoy system already in force to a certain extent for the +French coal trade and the Scandinavian trade. + +In the chapters which follow the further steps which were taken to deal +with the problem, and the degree of success which attended them, will be +described. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +ANTI-SUBMARINE OPERATIONS + + +The previous chapters have dealt with the changes in organization +carried out at the Admiralty during the year 1917 largely with the +object of being able to deal more effectively with the submarine warfare +against merchant ships. Mention has also been made of the submarine +problem with which the Navy had to deal; particulars of the +anti-submarine and other work carried out will now be examined. + +A very large proportion of the successful anti-submarine devices brought +into use during 1917, and continued throughout the year 1918, were the +outcome of the work of the Anti-Submarine Division of the Naval Staff, +and it is but just that the high value of this work should be recognized +when the history of the war comes to be written by future historians. As +has been stated in Chapter I, Rear-Admiral A.C. Duff, C.B., was the +original head of the division, with Captain F.C. Dreyer, C.B., Commander +Yeats Brown, and Commander Reginald Henderson as his immediate +assistants. Captain H.T. Walwyn took the place of Captain Dreyer on +March 1, 1917, when the latter officer became Director of Naval +Ordnance. When Admiral Duff was appointed Assistant Chief of the Naval +Staff, with a seat on the Board, in May, 1917, Captain W.W. Fisher, +C.B., became head of the division, which still remained one of the +divisions of the Staff working immediately under the A.C.N.S. It is to +these officers, with their most zealous, clever and efficient staff, +that the institution of many of the successful anti-submarine measures +is largely due. They were indefatigable in their search for new methods +and in working out and perfecting fresh schemes, and they kept their +minds open to _new ideas_. They received much valuable assistance from +the great civilian scientists who gave such ready help during the war, +the function of the naval officers working with the scientists being to +see that the effort was being directed along practical lines. They were +also greatly indebted to Captain Ryan, R.N., for the exceedingly +valuable work carried out by him at the experimental establishment at +Hawkcraig. Many brilliant ideas were due to Captain Ryan's clever brain. + +I doubt whether the debt due to Admiral Duff and Captain Fisher and +their staff for their great work can ever be thoroughly appreciated, but +it is certainly my duty to mention it here since I am better able to +speak of it than any other person. In saying this I do not wish to +detract in the least from the value of the part performed by those to +whose lot it fell to put the actual schemes into operation. Without +them, of course, nothing could have been accomplished. + +When the Anti-Submarine Division started in December, 1916, the earlier +devices to which attention was devoted were: + +(1) The design and manufacture of howitzers firing shell fitted to +explode some 40 to 60 feet under water with which to attack submarines +when submerged. + +(2) The introduction of a more suitable projectile for use against +submarines than that supplied at the time to the guns of destroyers and +patrol craft. + +(3) The improvement of and great increase in the supply of smoke +apparatus for the screening of merchant ships from submarines attacking +by gunfire. + +(4) A great increase in the number of depth charges supplied to +destroyers and other small craft. + +(5) The development of the hydrophone for anti-submarine work, both from +ships and from shore stations. + +(6) The introduction of the "Otter" for the protection of merchant ships +against mines. + +(7) A very great improvement in the rapidity of arming merchant ships +defensively. + +(8) The extended and organized use of air craft for anti-submarine work. + +(9) A great development of the special service or decoy ship. + +(10) The introduction of a form of net protection for merchant ships +against torpedo fire. + +Other devices followed, many of which were the outcome of work in other +Admiralty Departments, particularly the Departments of the Director of +Naval Ordnance and the Director of Torpedoes and Mines, working in +conjunction with the Anti-Submarine or the Operations Division of the +Naval Staff. Some of the new features were the development of +depth-charge throwers, the manufacture and use of fast coastal +motor-boats for anti-submarine work, the production of mines of an +improved type for use especially against submarines, very considerable +developments in the use of minefields, especially deep minefields, +including persistent mining in the Heligoland Bight and the laying of a +complete minefield at varying depths in the Straits of Dover; also, +after the United States entered the war, the laying of a very extensive +minefield right across the northern part of the North Sea. The provision +of "flares" for illuminating minefields at night, and a system of +submarine detection by the use of electrical apparatus were also matters +which were taken up and pressed forward during 1917. During the year the +system of dazzle painting for merchant ships was brought into general +use. + +On the operational side of the Naval Staff the work of dealing with +enemy submarines before they passed out of the North Sea was taken in +hand by organized hunting operations by destroyers and other patrol +craft, and by the more extended use offensively of our own submarines, +as vessels became available. + +Considerable developments were effected in the matter of the control of +mercantile traffic, and much was done to train the personnel of the +mercantile marine in matters relating to submarine warfare. + +Taking these subjects in detail, it will be of interest to examine the +progress made during the year. + + +HOWITZERS + +The _howitzer_ as a weapon for use against the submarine when submerged +was almost non-existent at the beginning of 1917, only thirty +bomb-throwers, on the lines of trench-mortars, being on order. By April +of that year designs for seven different kinds of bomb-throwers and +howitzers had been prepared and approved, and orders placed for 1,006 +weapons, of which number the first 41 were due for delivery in May. By +the end of May the number of bomb-throwers and howitzers on order had +been increased to 2,056, of eight different patterns. Over 1,000 of +these weapons fired a bomb or shell carrying a burster exceeding 90 lbs. +in weight, and with a range varying between 1,200 and 2,600 yards. Later +in the war, as we gained experience of the value of this form of attack, +heavier bombs were introduced for use in the existing bomb-throwers and +howitzers. The howitzer as an anti-submarine weapon was handicapped by +the comparatively small weight of the bursting charge of its shell. This +applied more particularly to the earlier patterns, and to inflict fatal +injury it was necessary to burst the shell in close proximity to the +submerged submarine. This weapon, although not very popular at first, +soon, however, proved its value, when employed both from patrol craft +and from merchant ships. + +One curious instance occurred on March 28, 1918, of a merchant ship +being saved by a 7.5-inch howitzer. A torpedo was seen approaching at a +distance of some 600 yards, and it appeared certain to hit the ship. A +projectile fired from the howitzer exploded under water close to the +torpedo, deflected it from its course, and caused it to come to the +surface some 60 yards from the ship; a second projectile caused it to +stop, and apparently damaged the torpedo, which when picked up by an +escorting vessel was found to be minus its head. + +Delivery of howitzers commenced in June, 1917, and continued as follows: + + Total completed, + No. of Howitzers including those + Date. actually issued. under proof. + + July 24, 1917 35 48 + October 1, 1917 92 167 + December 10, 1917 377 422 + +The slow rate of delivery, in spite of constant pressure, which is shown +by these figures gives some idea of the time required to bring new +devices into existence. + + +PROJECTILE FOR USE AGAINST SUBMARINES + +In January, 1917, the Director of Naval Ordnance was requested by the +Anti-Submarine Division of the Naval Staff to carry out trials against a +target representing the hull of a German submarine, so far as the +details were known to us, to ascertain _the most suitable type of +projectile_ amongst those then in existence for the attack of submarines +by guns of 4.7-inch calibre and below. + +The results were published to the Fleet in March, 1917. They afforded +some useful knowledge and demonstrated the ineffectiveness of some of +the shells and fuses commonly in use against submarines from 12-pounder +guns, the weapon with which so many of our patrol craft were armed. The +target at which the shell was fired did not, however, fully represent a +German submarine under the conditions of service. The trials were +therefore continued, and as a result, in June, 1917, a further order was +issued to the Fleet, giving directions as to the type of projectile to +be used against submarines from all natures of guns, pending the +introduction of delay action fuses for the smaller guns; this was the +temporary solution of the difficulty until a new type of shell evolved +from the experience gained at the trials could be produced and issued. +The trials, which were exhaustive, were pressed forward vigorously and +continuously throughout the year 1917, and meanwhile more accurate +information as to the exact form of the hull and the thickness of the +plating of German submarines became available. Early in 1918 the first +supplies of the new fuses were ready for issue. + + +SMOKE APPARATUS + +The earlier _smoke apparatus_ for supply to merchant ships was designed +towards the end of 1916. + +One description of smoke apparatus consisted of an arrangement for +burning phosphorus at the stern of a ship; in other cases firework +composition and other chemicals were used. A dense smoke cloud was thus +formed, and, with the wind in a suitable direction, a vessel could hide +her movements from an enemy submarine or other vessel, and thus screen +herself from accurate shell fire. + +In another form the apparatus was thrown overboard and formed a smoke +cloud on the water. + +The rate of supply of sets of the smoke apparatus to ships is shown by +the following figures: + +April 1, 1917 - 1,372 sets +July 3, 1917 - 2,563 sets +October 5, 1917 - 3,445 sets +November 26, 1917 - 3,976 sets + + +DEPTH CHARGES + +_Depth charges_, as supplied to ships in 1917, were of two patterns: +one, Type D, contained a charge of 300 lb. of T.N.T., and the other, +Type D*, carried 120 lb. of T.N.T. At the commencement of 1917 the +allowance to ships was two of Type D and two of Type D*, and the supply +was insufficient at that time to keep up the stock required to maintain +on board four per destroyer, the number for which they were fitted, or +to supply all trawlers and other patrol craft with their allowance. The +great value of the depth charge as a weapon against submarines, and the +large number that were required for successful attack, became apparent +early in 1917, and the allowance was increased. Difficulty was +experienced throughout the year in maintaining adequate stocks owing to +the shortage of labour and the many demands on our industries made by +the war, but the improvement is shown by the fact that while the average +output _per week_ of depth charges was only 140 in July, it had become +over 500 by October, and that by the end of December it was raised to +over 800, and was still increasing very rapidly. As a consequence, early +in 1918 it was found possible to increase the supply very largely, as +many as 30 to 40 per destroyer being carried. + +Improvements in the details of depth charges were effected during 1917. +One such improvement was the introduction of a pistol capable of firing +at much greater depths than had been in use before. The result was that +all vessels, whether fast or slow, could safely use the 300-lb. depth +charge if set to a sufficient depth. This led to the abolition of the +Type D* charges and the universal supply of Type D. + +In spite of the difficulties of dropping depth charges so close to +submarines as to damage them sufficiently to cause them to come to the +surface, very good results were obtained from their use when destroyers +carried enough to form, so to speak, a ring round the assumed position +at which the submarine had dived. In order to encourage scientific +attack on submarines, a system of depth charge "Battle Practice" was +introduced towards the end of 1917. + +It is as well to correct a common misapprehension as to the value of +depth charges in destroying submarines. + +Many people held very exaggerated ideas on this subject, even to the +extent of supposing that a depth charge would destroy a submarine if +dropped within several hundred yards of her. This is, unfortunately, +very far indeed from being the case; it is, on the contrary, necessary +to explode the charge near the submarine in order to effect destruction. +Taking the depth charge with 300 lb. weight of explosive, ordinarily +supplied to destroyers in 1917, it was necessary to explode it within +fourteen feet of a submarine to ensure destruction; at distances up to +about twenty-eight feet from the hull the depth charge might be expected +to disable a submarine to the extent of forcing her to the surface, when +she could be sunk by gun-fire or rammed, and at distances up to sixty +feet the moral effect on the crew would be considerable and _might_ +force the submarine to the surface. + +A consideration of these figures will show that it was necessary for a +vessel attacking a submarine with depth charges to drop them in very +close proximity, and the first obvious difficulty was to ascertain the +position of a submarine that had dived and was out of sight. + +Unless, therefore, the attacking vessel was fairly close to the +submarine at the moment of the latter diving there was but little chance +of the attack being successful. + + +HYDROPHONES + +The _Hydrophone_, for use in locating submerged submarines, although +first evolved in 1915, was in its infancy, so far as supply to ships was +concerned, at the commencement of 1917. Experiments were being carried +out by the Board of Invention and Research at Harwich, and by Captain +Ryan, R.N., at Hawkcraig, and although very useful results had been +obtained and a considerable number of shore stations as well as some +patrol vessels had been fitted with hydrophones, which had a listening +range of one or two miles, all the devices for use afloat suffered from +the disadvantage that it was not possible to use them whilst the ship +carrying them was moving, since the noise of the vessel's own machinery +and of the water passing along the side prevented the noise made by +other vessels being located. What was required was a listening +instrument that could be used by a ship moving at least at slow speed, +otherwise the ship carrying the hydrophone was herself, when stopped, an +easy target for the submarine's torpedo. It was also essential, before +an attack could be delivered, to be able to locate the _direction_ of +the enemy submarine, and prior to 1917 all that these instruments showed +was the presence of a submarine somewhere in the vicinity. + +Much research and experimental work was carried out during the year 1917 +under the encouragement and supervision of the Anti-Submarine Division +of the Naval Staff. Two hydrophones were invented in the early part of +1917, one by Captain Ryan, R.N., and one by the Board of Invention and +Research, which could be used from ships at very slow speed and which +gave some indication of the _direction_ of the sound; finally, in the +summer of 1917, the ability and patience of one inventor, Mr. Nash, were +rewarded, and an instrument was devised termed the "fish" hydrophone +which to a considerable extent fulfilled the required conditions. Mr. +Nash, whose invention had been considered but not adopted by the Board +of Invention and Research before he brought it to the Anti-Submarine +Division of the Naval Staff, laboured under many difficulties with the +greatest energy and perseverance; various modifications in the design +were effected until, in October, 1917, the instrument was pronounced +satisfactory and supplies were put in hand. + +The next step was to fit the "fish" hydrophone in certain auxiliary +patrol vessels as well as some destroyers, "P" boats and motor launches, +to enter and train men to work it, and finally to organize these vessels +into "submarine hunting flotillas," drill them, and then set them to +their task. + +This work, which occupied some time, was carried out at Portland, where +a regular establishment was set up for developing the "fish" hydrophone +and for organizing and training the "hunting flotillas" in its use. A +considerable amount of training in the use of the hydrophone was +required before men became efficient, and only those with a very keen +sense of hearing were suited to the work. The chances of the success of +the hunting flotillas had been promising in the early experiments, and +the fitting out of patrol craft and organizing and drilling them, +proceeded as rapidly as the vessels could be obtained, but largely owing +to the slow production of trawlers it was not until November that the +first hunting flotilla fitted with the "fish" hydrophone was actually at +work. The progress made after this date is illustrated by the fact that +in December, 1917, a division of drifters, with a "P" boat, fitted with +this "fish" hydrophone hunted an enemy submarine for seven hours during +darkness, covering a distance of fifty miles, kept touch with her by +sound throughout this period, and finished by dropping depth charges in +apparently the correct position, since a strong smell of oil fuel +resulted and nothing further could be heard of the submarine, although +the drifters listened for several hours. On another occasion in the same +month a division of drifters hunted a submarine for five hours. The +number of hydrophones was increased as rapidly as possible until by the +end of the year the system was in full operation within a limited area, +and only required expansion to work, as was intended, on a large scale +in the North Sea and the English Channel. + +Meanwhile during 1917 _directional_ hydrophones, which had been +successfully produced both by Captain Ryan and by the Board of Invention +and Research, had been fitted to patrol craft in large numbers, and +"hunting flotillas" were operating in many areas. A good example of the +working of one of these flotillas occurred off Dartmouth in the summer +of 1918, when a division of motor launches fitted with the Mark II +hydrophone, under the general guidance of a destroyer, carried out a +successful attack on a German submarine. Early in the afternoon one of +the motor launches dropped a depth charge on an oil patch, and shortly +afterwards one of the hydrophones picked up the sound of an internal +combustion engine; a line of depth charges was run on the bearing +indicated by the hydrophone. The motor launches and the destroyer +remained listening, until at about 6.0 P.M. a submarine came to the +surface not far from Motor Launch No. 135, which fired two rounds at the +submarine before the latter submerged. Other motor launches closed in, +and depth charges were dropped by them in close proximity to the wash of +the submarine. Oil came to the surface, and more depth charges were +dropped in large numbers on the spot for the ensuing forty-eight hours. +Eventually objects came to the surface clearly indicating the presence +of a submarine. Further charges were dropped, and an obstruction on the +bottom was located by means of a sweep. This engagement held peculiar +interest for me, since during my visit to Canada in the winter of 1919 +the honour fell to me of presenting to a Canadian--Lieutenant G.L. +Cassady, R.N.V.R.--at Vancouver the Distinguished Service Cross awarded +him by His Majesty for his work in Motor Launch No. 135 on this +occasion. + +_Motor Launches_ were organized into submarine hunting flotillas during +the year 1917. These vessels were equipped with the directional +hydrophone as soon as its utility was established, and were supplied +with depth charges. In the summer of 1917 four such hunting flotillas +were busy in the Channel; the work of one of these I have described +already, and they certainly contributed towards making the Channel an +uneasy place for submarine operations. + +These results were, of course, greatly improved on in 1918, as the +numbers of ships fitted with the "fish" and other hydrophones increased +and further experience was gained. + +The progress in supply of hydrophones is shown by the following table: + + Supply of Directional +Date General Service Mark I and Shark Fin Fish +1917. Portable Type. Mark II. Type. Type. + +Jul 31 2,750 500 - - +Aug 31 2,750 700 - - +Sep 30 2,750 850 - - +Oct 31 3,500 1,000 - - +Dec 31 3,680 1,950 870 37 + + +HYDROPHONE STATIONS AND TRAINING SCHOOLS + +At the beginning of 1917 four _shore hydrophone stations_ were in use. +During the year eight additional stations were completed and several +more were nearing completion. The first step necessary was a +considerable increase in the instructional facilities for training +listeners both for the increased number of shore stations and for the +large number of vessels that were fitted for hydrophone work during the +year. + +The greater part of this training took place at the establishment at +Hawkcraig, near Rosyth, at which Captain Ryan, R.N., carried out so much +exceedingly valuable work during the war. I am not able to give exact +figures of the number of officers and men who were instructed in +hydrophone work either at Hawkcraig or at other stations by instructors +sent from Hawkcraig, but the total was certainly upwards of 1,000 +officers and 2,000 men. In addition to this extensive instructional work +the development of the whole system of detecting the presence of +submarines by sound is very largely due to the work originally carried +out at Hawkcraig by Captain Ryan. + +The first hydrophone station which was established in the spring of 1915 +was from Oxcars Lighthouse in the Firth of Forth; it was later in the +year transferred to Inchcolm. Experimental work under Captain Ryan +continued at Hawkcraig during 1915, and in 1916 a section of the Board +of Invention and Research went to Hawkcraig to work in conjunction with +him. This station produced the Mark II directional hydrophone of which +large numbers were ordered in 1917 for use in patrol craft. It was a +great improvement on any hydrophone instrument previously in use. +Hawkcraig also produced the directional plates fitted to our submarines, +as well as many other inventions used in detecting the presence of +submarines. + +In addition to the work at Hawkcraig an experimental station under the +Board of Invention and Research was established near Harwich in January, +1917. The Mark I directional hydrophone was designed at this +establishment in 1917, and other exceedingly valuable work was carried +out there connected with the detection of submarines. + +At Malta an experimental station, with a hydrophone training school, was +started in the autumn of 1917, and good work was done both there and at +a hydrophone station established to the southward of Otranto at about +the same time, as well as at a hydrophone training school started at +Gallipoli at the end of the year. + + +"OTTERS" AND PARAVANES + +_The "Otter" system_ of defence of merchant ships against mines was +devised by Lieutenant Dennis Burney, D.S.O., R.N. (a son of Admiral Sir +Cecil Burney), and was on similar lines to his valuable invention for +the protection of warships. The latter system had been introduced into +the Grand Fleet in 1916, although for a long period considerable +opposition existed against its general adoption, partly on account of +the difficulties experienced in its early days of development, and +partly owing to the extensive outlay involved in fitting all ships. +However, this opposition was eventually overcome, and before the end of +the war the system had very amply justified itself by saving a large +number of warships from destruction by mines. It was computed that there +were at least fifty cases during the war in which paravanes fitted to +warships had cut the moorings of mines, thus possibly saving the ships. +It must also be borne in mind that the cutting of the moorings of a mine +and the bringing of it to the surface may disclose the presence of an +hitherto unknown minefield, and thus save other ships. + +Similarly, the "Otter" defence in its early stages was not introduced +without opposition, but again all difficulties were overcome, and the +rate of progress in its use is shown in the following statement giving +the number of British merchant ships fitted with it at different periods +of 1917: + +By July 1, 95 ships had been fitted. +By September 1, 294 ships had been fitted. +By December 1, 900 ships had been fitted. + +The system was also extended to foreign merchant ships, and supplies of +"Otters" were sent abroad for this purpose. + +A considerable number of merchant ships were known to have been saved +from destruction by mine by the use of this system. + + +DEFENSIVE ARMING OF MERCHANT SHIPS + +The _defensive arming_ of merchant ships was a matter which was pressed +forward with great energy and rapidity during the year 1917. The matter +was taken up with the Cabinet immediately on the formation of the Board +of Admiralty presided over by Sir Edward Carson, and arrangements made +for obtaining a considerable number of guns from the War Office, from +Japan, and from France, besides surrendering some guns from the +secondary and anti-torpedo boat armament of our own men-of-war, +principally those of the older type, pending the manufacture of large +numbers of guns for the purpose. Orders for some 4,200 guns were placed +by Captain Dreyer, the Director of Naval Ordnance, with our own gun +makers in March, April and May, 1917, in addition to nearly 3,000 guns +already on order for this purpose; 400 90-m.m. guns were obtained from +France, the mountings being made in England. Special arrangements were +also made by Captain Dreyer for the rapid manufacture of all guns, +including the provision of the material and of extra manufacturing +plant. + +These orders for 4,200 guns and the orders for 2,026 howitzers placed at +the same time brought the total number of guns and howitzers under +manufacture in England for naval and merchant service purposes in May, +1917, up to the high figure of 10,761. + +At the end of the year 1916 the total number of merchant ships that had +been armed since the commencement of the war (excluding those which were +working under the White Ensign and which had received _offensive_ +armaments) was 1,420. Of this number, 83 had been lost. + +During the first six months of 1917 armaments were provided for an +additional 1,581 ships, and during the last six months of that year a +further total of 1,406 ships were provided with guns, an aggregate +number of 2,987 ships being thus furnished with armaments during the +year. This total was exclusive of howitzers. + +The progress of the work is shown by the following figures: + + Number or guns that had been + Date. provided for British Merchant + Ships excluding Howitzers. + + January 1, 1917 1,420 + April 1, 1917 2,181 + July 1, 1917 3,001 + October 1, 1917 3,763 + January 1, 1918 4,407 + +The figures given include the guns mounted in ships that were lost +through enemy action or from marine risks. + +It should be stated that the large majority of the guns manufactured +during 1917 were 12-pounders or larger guns, as experience had shown +that smaller weapons were usually outranged by those carried in +submarines, and the projectiles of even the 12-pounder were smaller than +was desirable. Of the 2,987 new guns mounted in merchant ships during +the year 1917 only 190 were smaller than 12-pounders. + + +AIRCRAFT FOR ANTI-SUBMARINE WORK + +_Anti-submarine work by aircraft_ was already in operation round our +coasts by the beginning of 1917, and during the year the increase in +numbers and improvement in types of machines rendered possible +considerable expansion of the work. Closer co-operation between surface +vessels and aircraft was also secured, and as the convoy system was +extended aircraft were used both for escort and observation work, as +well as for attack on submarines. For actual escort work airships were +superior to heavier-than-air machines owing to their greater radius of +action, whilst for offensive work against a submarine that had been +sighted the high speed of the seaplane or aeroplane was of great value. + +In 1916 and the early part of 1917 we were but ill provided with +aircraft suitable for anti-submarine operations at any considerable +distance from the coast, and such aircraft as we possessed did not carry +sufficiently powerful bombs to be very effective in attacking +submarines, although they were of use in forcing these vessels to +submerge and occasionally in bringing our surface craft to the spot to +press home the attack. + +The Royal Naval Air Service, under Commodore Godfrey Paine, devoted much +energy to the provision of suitable aircraft, and the anti-submarine +side of the Naval Staff co-operated in the matter of their organization; +with the advent of the large "America" type of seaplane and the +Handley-Page type of aeroplane, both of which carried heavy bombs, +successful attacks on enemy submarines became more frequent. They were +assisted by the airships, particularly those of the larger type. + +Improvements which were effected in signalling arrangements between +ships and aircraft were instrumental in adding greatly to their +efficiency, and by the early summer of 1917 aircraft had commenced to +play an important part in the war against submarines and in the +protection of trade. + +Thereafter progress became rapid, as the following figures show: + +In June, 1917, aeroplanes and seaplanes patrolling for anti-submarine +operations covered 75,000 miles, sighted 17 submarines, and were able to +attack 7 of them. + +In September, 1917, the distance covered by anti-submarine patrols of +aeroplanes and seaplanes was 91,000 miles, 25 submarines were sighted, +of which 18 were attacked. + +In the four weeks ending December 8, 1917, in spite of the much shorter +days and the far less favourable flying weather experienced, the mileage +covered was again 91,000 miles; 17 submarines were sighted, of which 11 +were attacked during this period. + +As regards airships the figures again show the increased anti-submarine +work carried out: + +In June, 1917, airships engaged in anti-submarine patrol covered 53,000 +miles, sighted and attacked 1 submarine. + +In September, 1917, they covered 83,000 miles, and sighted 8 submarines, +of which 5 were attacked. + +In the four weeks ending December 8, 1917, they covered 50,000 miles, +sighted 6 submarines, and attacked 5 of them. + +The airships were more affected by short days, and particularly by bad +weather, than the heavier than air craft, and the fact that they covered +practically the same mileage in the winter days of December as in the +summer days of June shows clearly the development that took place in the +interval. + +During the whole of 1917 it was estimated that our heavier than air +craft sighted 135 submarines and attacked 85 of them, and our lighter +than air craft sighted 26 and attacked 15. The figures given in Chapter +IX of the number of submarines sunk during the war by aircraft (viz. 7 +as a minimum), when compared with the number of attacks during 1917 +alone suggest the difficulties of successful attack. + +In September, 1917, as extensive a programme as was consistent with +manufacturing capabilities, in view of the enormous demands of the Army, +was drawn up by the Naval Staff for the development of aircraft for +anti-submarine operations during 1918. + +The main developments were in machines of the large "America" type and +heavy bombing machines for attacking enemy bases, as well as other +anti-submarine machines and aircraft for use with the Grand Fleet. + +Included in the anti-submarine operations of aircraft during 1917 were +the bombing attacks on Bruges, since the German submarines and the +shelters in which they took refuge were part of the objective. + +These attacks were carried out from the aerodrome established by the +Royal Naval Air Service at Dunkirk. During 1917 the Naval Air Forces of +the Dover Command, which included the squadrons at Dunkirk, were under +the command of Captain C.L. Lambe, R.N., and the operations of this +force were of a very strenuous character and of the utmost value. + +Bombing operations prior to the year of 1917 had been carried out by +various types of machines, but the introduction of the Handley-Page +aeroplanes in the spring of 1917 enabled a much greater weight of +bombs--viz. some 1,500 lbs.--to be carried than had hitherto been +possible. These machines were generally used for night bombing, and the +weight of bombs dropped on the enemy bases in Belgium rose with great +rapidity as machines of the Handley-Page type were delivered, as did the +number of nights on which attacks were made. It was no uncommon +occurrence during the autumn of 1917 for six to eight tons of bombs to +be dropped in one night. I have not the figures for 1918, but feel no +doubt that with the great increase in aircraft that became possible +during that year this performance was constantly exceeded. + + +SPECIAL SERVICE OR DECOY SHIPS + +The story of the work of these vessels constitutes a record of +gallantry, endurance and discipline which has never been surpassed +afloat or ashore. The earliest vessels were fitted out during the year +1915 at Scapa, Rosyth, Queenstown and other ports, and from the very +first it was apparent that they would win for themselves a place in +history. The earliest success against an enemy submarine by one of these +vessels was achieved by the _Prince Charles_, fitted out at Scapa, and +commanded by Lieutenant Mark-Wardlaw, an officer on the Staff of Admiral +Sir Stanley Colville, then Admiral Commanding the Orkneys and Shetlands. +In the early months of 1917 it was decided to augment greatly the force +of these special service vessels, and steps were taken to organize a +separate Admiralty Department for the work. Special experience was +needed, both for the selection of suitable ships and for fitting them +out, and care was taken to select officers who had been personally +connected with the work during the war; the advice of successful +commanders of decoy ships was also utilized. At the head was Captain +Alexander Farrington, under whose directions several ships had been +fitted out at Scapa with great ingenuity and success. Every class of +ship was brought into the service: steam cargo vessels, trawlers, +drifters, sailing ships, ketches, and sloops specially designed to have +the appearance of cargo ships. These latter vessels were known as +"convoy sloops" to distinguish them from the ordinary sloop. Their +design, which was very clever, had been prepared in 1916 by Sir Eustace +T. D'Eyncourt, the Director of Naval Construction. The enemy submarine +commanders, however, became so wary owing to the successes of decoy +ships that they would not come to the surface until they had inspected +ships very closely in the submerged condition, and the fine lines of the +convoy sloops gave them away under close inspection. + +In the early spring of 1917 the Director of Naval Construction was asked +whether the "P" class of patrol boats then under construction could be +altered to work as decoy vessels, as owing to their light draught they +would be almost immune from torpedo attack. + +A very good design was produced, and some of the later patrol boats were +converted and called "P Q's." These vessels had the appearance of small +merchant ships at a cursory glance. They would not, however, stand close +examination owing, again, to their fine lines, but being better sea +boats than the "P's," by reason of their greater freeboard, the design +was continued, and they met with considerable success against submarines +(especially in the Irish Sea) by ramming and depth charge tactics, the +submarines when submerged probably not realizing when observing the "P +Q.'s" through a periscope the speed of which they were capable. + +During 1917, when the unrestricted submarine warfare was in progress, +many of the decoy vessels were fitted with torpedo tubes, either above +water or submerged, since, as the submarine commanders became more wary, +they showed great dislike to coming to the surface sufficiently close to +merchant ships to admit of the gun armament being used with certainty of +success. A torpedo, on the other hand, could, of course, be used +effectively against a submarine whilst still submerged. The use also +became general of casks or cargoes of wood to give additional flotation +to decoy ships after being torpedoed, so as to prolong their life in +case the submarine should close near enough to allow of effective +gunfire. + +Another ruse adopted was that of changing the disguise of a decoy ship +during the night, so that she could not be identified by a submarine +which had previously made an attack upon her. In all cases of disguise +or of changing disguise it was essential that the decoy ship should +assume the identity of some class of vessel likely to be met with in the +particular area in which she was working, and obviously the courses +steered were chosen with that object in view. + +Again, since for success it was essential to induce the submarine to +come within close range so that the decoy ship's gunfire should be +immediately effective, it was necessary that her disguise should stand +the closest possible examination through the periscope of a submarine. +German submarine commanders, after a short experience of decoy ships, +were most careful not to bring their vessels to the surface in proximity +to craft that were apparently merchant ships until they had subjected +them to the sharpest scrutiny at short range through the periscope, and +the usual practice of an experienced submarine commander was to steer +round the ship, keeping submerged all the time. + +Not only was it essential that there should be no sign of an armament in +the decoy ship, or a man-of-war-like appearance in any respect, but when +the "panic" signal was made to lead the submarine commander to think +that his attack had succeeded, precautions had to be taken against the +presence of more than the ordinary number of men in the boats lowered +and sent away with the supposed whole ship's company; also the sight of +any men left on board would at once betray the real character of the +decoy ship and result in the disappearance of the submarine and the +probable sinking of the disguised craft by torpedo fire. + +During the late summer of 1917 it became evident that the submarine +commanders had become so suspicious of decoy craft that the chances of +success by the larger cargo vessels were not sufficient to justify any +further addition to existing numbers in view of the increasing shortage +of shipping; a considerable fleet of steamers building for this purpose +was therefore diverted to trade purposes. The number of smaller vessels, +particularly sailing craft, was, however, increased especially in +Mediterranean waters where they had not been previously operating on an +extensive scale. + +It is impossible to close these remarks on this class of vessel without +testifying once more to the splendid gallantry, self-sacrifice, skilful +resource and magnificent discipline shown by those on board. This is +illustrated by descriptions of a few typical actions fought during 1917. + +The first which I relate took place on February 17, 1917, when a decoy +vessel, a steamship armed with five 12-pounder guns, commanded by that +most gallant officer, Captain Gordon Campbell, R.N., was torpedoed by a +submarine in a position Lat. 51.34 N., Long. 11.23 W. + +Captain Campbell saw the torpedo coming and manoeuvred to try and avoid +being hit in the engine-room, but as he purposely always selected a very +slow ship for decoy work his attempt was only partially successful and +the engine-room began to fill. No signal for assistance was made, +however, as Captain Campbell feared that such a signal might bring +another vessel on the scene and this would naturally scare the submarine +away. The usual procedure of abandoning the ship in the boats with every +appearance of haste was carried out, only sufficient hands remaining +hidden on board to work the guns. The periscope of the submarine was +next sighted on the quarter within 200 or 300 yards, and she came slowly +past the ship still submerged and evidently examining the vessel closely +through the periscope. She passed within a few yards of the ship, then +crossed the bow and came to the surface about 200 yards off and passed +down the port side again close to. Captain Campbell waited until every +gun would bear before giving the signal for "action." The decoy ship's +true character was then revealed; concealed gunports were thrown open; +colours were hoisted, and a hot fire opened from all guns. The submarine +was hit at once and continued to be hit so rapidly that it was evidently +impossible for her to submerge. She sank in a very short time. One +officer and one man were picked up. A signal was then made for +assistance and help arrived within a couple of hours. The decoy ship was +rapidly filling, but efforts were made to tow her into port, and with +the greatest difficulty, and entirely owing to the splendid manner in +which all hands stuck to the work, she was brought into Berehaven with +her stern under water thirty-six hours later and beached. The great +restraint shown by Captain Campbell, in withholding fire as the +submarine passed her in a submerged condition, and the truly wonderful +discipline and steadiness and ingenuity which baffled so close an +examination of the ship were the outstanding features of this great +exploit. + +On April 22, 1917, a decoy ship known as "Q22," a small sailing vessel +with auxiliary power, armed with two 12-pounder guns, and commanded by +Lieutenant Irvine, R.N.R., while in a position about fifty miles south +of Kinsale Head, sighted a submarine on the surface which opened fire +immediately at a range of about 4,000 yards. The fire was accurate and +the decoy ship was hit frequently, two men being killed and four wounded +in a few minutes and the vessel considerably damaged. As further +concealment appeared useless the guns were then unmasked and the fire +returned with apparently good results, several hits being claimed. The +enemy's fire then fell off in accuracy and she increased the range, and +after about one and a half hours' fighting the light became too bad to +continue the action. It was thought that the submarine was sunk, but +there was no positive evidence of sinking. + +On April 30, 1917, a decoy ship--H.M.S. _Prize_--a small schooner with +auxiliary power, armed with two 12-pounder guns and commanded by +Lieutenant W.E. Sanders, R.N.R., a New Zealand officer, sighted, when in +position Lat. 49.44 N., Long. 11.42 W., a submarine about two miles away +on the port beam at 8.30 P.M. At 8.45 P.M. the submarine opened fire on +the _Prize_ and the "abandon ship" party left in a small boat. The +submarine gradually approached, continuing to pour in a heavy fire and +making two hits on the _Prize_ which put the motor out of action, +wrecked the wireless office, and caused much internal damage besides +letting a great deal of water into the ship. + +The crew of the _Prize_ remained quietly hidden at their concealed guns +throughout this punishment, which continued for forty minutes as the +submarine closed, coming up from right astern, a position no doubt which +she considered one of safety. When close to she sheered off and passed +to the port beam at a distance of about one hundred yards. At this +moment Lieutenant Sanders gave the order for "action." The guns were +exposed and a devastating fire opened at point blank range, but not +before the submarine had fired both her guns, obtaining two more hits, +and wounding several of the crew of the _Prize_. The first shell fired +from the _Prize_ hit the foremost gun of the submarine and blew it +overboard, and a later shot knocked away the conning tower. The +submarine went ahead and the _Prize_ tried to follow, but the damage to +her motor prevented much movement. The firing continued as the submarine +moved away, and after an interval she appeared to be on fire and to +sink. This occurred shortly after 9.0 P.M., when it was nearly dark. The +_Prize_ sent her boats to pick up survivors, three being taken out of +the water, including the commander and one other officer. The prisoners +on coming on board expressed their willingness to assist in taking the +_Prize_ into port. It did not at this time seem likely that she would +long remain afloat, but by great exertion and good seamanship the leaks +were got under to a sufficient extent to allow of the ship being kept +afloat by pumping. The prisoners gave considerable help, especially when +the ship caught fire whilst starting the motor again. On May 2 she met a +motor launch off the coast of Ireland and was towed into port. In spite +of the undoubted great damage to the submarine, damage confirmed by the +survivors, who were apparently blown overboard with the conning tower, +and who had no thought other than that she had been sunk, later +intelligence showed that she succeeded in reaching Germany in a very +disabled condition. This incident accentuated still further the +recurrent difficulty of making definite statements as to the fate of +enemy submarines, for the evidence in this case seemed absolutely +conclusive. The commander of the submarine was so impressed with the +conduct of the crew of the _Prize_ that when examined subsequently in +London he stated that he did not consider it any disgrace to have been +beaten by her, as he could not have believed it possible for any ship's +company belonging to any nation in the world to have been imbued with +such discipline as to stand the shelling to which he subjected the +_Prize_ without any sign being made which would give away her true +character. + +Lieut.-Commander Sanders was awarded the Victoria Cross for his action +and many decorations were given to the officers and ship's company for +their conduct in the action. It was sad that so fine a commander and so +splendid a ship's company should have been lost a little later in action +with another submarine which she engaged unsuccessfully during daylight, +and which followed her in a submerged condition until nightfall and then +torpedoed her, all hands being lost. + +It was my privilege during my visit to New Zealand in 1919 to unveil a +memorial to the gallant Sanders which was placed in his old school at +Takapuna, near Auckland. + +On June 7, 1917, a decoy ship, the S.S. _Pargust_, armed with one 4-inch +gun, four 12-pounder guns and two torpedo tubes, commanded by Captain +Gordon Campbell, R.N., who had meanwhile been awarded the Victoria +Cross, was in a position Lat. 51.50 N., Long. 11.50 W., when a torpedo +hit the ship abreast the engine-room and in detonating made a hole +through which water poured, filling both engine-room and boiler-room. +The explosion of the torpedo also blew one of the boats to pieces. The +usual procedure of abandoning ship was carried out, and shortly after +the boats had left, the periscope of a submarine was sighted steering +for the port side. The submarine passed close under the stern, steered +to the starboard side, then recrossed the stern to the port side, and +when she was some fifty yards off on the port beam her conning tower +appeared on the surface and she steered to pass round the stern again +and towards one of the ship's boats on the starboard beam. She then came +completely to the surface within one hundred yards, and Captain Campbell +disclosed his true character, opened fire with all guns, hitting the +submarine at once and continuing to hit her until she sank. One officer +and one man were saved. The decoy ship lost one man killed, and one +officer was wounded by the explosion of the torpedo. + +As in the case of the action on February 17 the distinguishing feature +of this exploit was the great restraint shown by Captain Campbell in +withholding his fire although his ship was so seriously damaged. The +gallantry and fine discipline of the ship's company, their good shooting +and splendid drill, contributed largely to the success. The decoy ship, +although seriously damaged, reached harbour. + +On July 10, 1917, a decoy ship, H.M.S. _Glen_, a small schooner with +auxiliary power and armed with one 12-pounder and one 6-pounder gun, +commanded by Sub-Lieutenant K. Morris, R.N.R., was in a position about +forty miles south-west of Weymouth when a submarine was sighted on the +surface some three miles away. She closed to within two miles and opened +fire on the _Glen_. The usual practice of abandoning ship was followed, +the submarine closing during this operation to within half a mile and +remaining at that distance examining the _Glen_ for some time. After +about half an hour she went ahead and submerged, and then passed round +the ship at about 200 yards distance, examining her through the +periscope, finally coming to the surface about 50 yards off on the port +quarter. Almost immediately she again started to submerge, and fire was +at once opened. The submarine was hit three or four times before she +turned over on her side and disappeared. There was every reason to +believe that she had sunk, although no one was on deck when she +disappeared. No survivors were rescued. + +The feature of this action was again the restraint shown by the +commanding officer of the _Glen_ and the excellent discipline of the +crew. + +On August 8, 1917, the decoy ship H.M.S. _Dunraven_, in Lat. 48.0 N., +Long. 7.37 W., armed with one 4-inch and four 12-pounder guns and two +torpedo tubes, commanded by Captain Gordon Campbell, V.C., R.N., sighted +a submarine on the surface some distance off. The submarine steered +towards the ship and submerged, and soon afterwards came to the surface +some two miles off and opened fire. The _Dunraven_, in her character of +a merchant ship, replied with an after gun, firing intentionally short, +made a smoke screen, and reduced speed slightly to allow the submarine +to close. + +When the shells from the submarine began to fall close to the ship the +order to abandon her was given, and, as usual with the splendidly +trained ship's company working under Captain Campbell, the operation was +carried out with every appearance of disorder, one of the boats being +purposely left hanging vertical with only one end lowered. Meanwhile the +submarine closed. Several shells from her gun hit the after part of the +_Dunraven_, causing a depth charge to explode and setting her on fire +aft, blowing the officer in charge of the after gun out of his control +station, and wounding severely the seaman stationed at the depth +charges. The situation now was that the submarine was passing from the +port to the starboard quarter, and at any moment the 4-inch magazine and +the remaining depth charges in the after part of the _Dunraven_ might be +expected to explode. The 4-inch gun's crew aft knew the imminence of +this danger, but not a man moved although the deck beneath them was +rapidly becoming red hot; and Captain Campbell was so certain of the +magnificent discipline and gallantry of his crew that he still held on +so that the submarine might come clearly into view on the starboard side +clear of the smoke of the fire aft. In a few minutes the anticipated +explosion occurred. The 4-inch gun and gun's crew were blown into the +air just too soon for the submarine to be in the best position for being +engaged. The explosion itself caused the electrical apparatus to make +the "open fire" signal, whereupon the White Ensign was hoisted and the +only gun bearing commenced firing; but the submarine submerged at once. + +Fifteen minutes later a torpedo hit the ship, and Captain Campbell again +ordered "abandon ship" and sent away a second party of men to give the +impression that the ship had now been finally abandoned although her +true character had been revealed. Meanwhile he had made a wireless +signal to other ships to keep away as he still hoped to get the +submarine, which, now keeping submerged, moved round the ship for three +quarters of an hour, during which period the fire gained on the +_Dunraven_ and frequent explosions of ammunition took place. + +The submarine then came to the surface right astern where no guns could +bear on her, and recommenced her shellfire on the ship, hitting her +frequently. During this period the officers and men still remaining on +board gave no sign of their presence, Captain Campbell, by his example, +imbuing this remnant of his splendid ship's company with his own +indomitable spirit of endurance. The submarine submerged again soon +afterwards, and as she passed the ship Captain Campbell from his +submerged tube fired a torpedo at her, which just missed. Probably the +range was too short to allow the torpedo to gain its correct depth. She +went right round the ship, and a second torpedo was fired from the other +tube, which again missed. This torpedo was evidently seen from the +submarine, as she submerged at once. The ship was sinking, and it was +obviously of no use to continue the deception, which could only lead to +a useless sacrifice of life; wireless signals for assistance were +therefore made, and the arrival of some destroyers brought the action to +a conclusion. The wounded were transferred to the destroyers and the +ship taken in tow, but she sank whilst in tow forty-eight hours later. + +This action was perhaps the finest feat amongst the very many gallant +deeds performed by decoy ships during the war. It displayed to the full +the qualities of grim determination, gallantry, patience and resource, +the splendid training and high standard of discipline, which were +necessary to success in this form of warfare. Lieutenant Charles G. +Bonner, R.N.R., and Petty-Officer Ernest Pitcher, R.N., were awarded the +V.C. for their services in this action, and many medals for conspicuous +gallantry were also given to the splendid ship's company. + +Captain Campbell, as will be readily realized, met with great success in +his work, and he was the first to acknowledge how this success was due +to those who worked so magnificently under his command, and he also +realized the magnitude of the work performed by other decoy ships in all +areas, since he knew better than most people the difficulties of +enticing a submarine to her doom. + +On September 17, 1917, in position Lat. 49.42 N., Long. 13.18 W., the +decoy ship _Stonecrop_, a small steamer commanded by Commander M. +Blackwood, R.N., armed with one 4-inch, one 6-pounder gun and some +stick-bomb throwers and carrying four torpedo tubes, sighted a +submarine, which opened fire on her at long range, the fire being +returned by the 6-pounder mounted aft. After the shelling had continued +for some time the usual order was given to "abandon ship," and a little +later the periscope of the submarine was sighted some distance away. The +submarine gradually closed, keeping submerged, until within about a +quarter of a mile, when she passed slowly round the ship, and finally +came to the surface at a distance of about 500 yards on the starboard +quarter. She did not close nearer, so the order was given to open fire, +and hitting started after the third round had been fired and continued +until the submarine sank stern first. No survivors were picked up, but +all the indications pointed to the certainty of the destruction of the +submarine. + + +PATROL GUNBOATS + +Mention may here be made of another vessel of a special class designed +in 1917. In the early summer, in consequence of the shortage of +destroyers, of the delays in the production of new ones, and the great +need for more small craft suitable for escorting merchant ships through +the submarine zone, arrangements were made to build a larger and faster +class of trawler which would be suitable for convoy work under +favourable conditions, and which to a certain extent would take the +place of destroyers. Trawlers could be built with much greater rapidity +than destroyers, and trawler builders who could not build destroyers +could be employed for the work, thus supplementing the activities of the +yards which could turn out the bigger craft. + +Accordingly a 13-knot trawler was designed, and a large number ordered. +Great delays occurred, however, in their construction, as in that of all +other classes of vessel owing to the pressure of various kinds of war +work and other causes, and only one was delivered during 1917 instead of +the twenty or so which had been promised, whilst I believe that by July, +1918, not more than fourteen had been completed instead of the +anticipated number of forty. I was informed that they proved to be a +most useful type of vessel for the slower convoys, were excellent sea +boats, with a large radius of action, were a great relief to the +destroyers, and even to light cruisers, for convoy work. It is +understood that some fifty were completed by the end of the war. + + +NET PROTECTION FOR MERCHANT SHIPS + +This idea originated in 1915 or 1916 with Captain Edward C. Villiers, of +the _Actaeon_ Torpedo School ship. Experiments were carried out by a +battleship at Rosyth, in the first instance, and later at Scapa. They +were at that time unsuccessful. + +At the end of 1916 I gave directions for a reconsideration of the +matter, and fresh trials were made; but early in 1917 there seemed to be +no prospect of success, and the trials were again abandoned. However, +Captain Villiers displayed great confidence in the idea, and he +introduced modifications, with the result that later in the year 1917 +directions were given for fresh trials to be undertaken. At the end of +the year success was first obtained, and this was confirmed early in +1918, and the device finally adopted. A curious experience during the +trials was that the vessel carrying them out was actually fired at by a +German submarine, with the result that the net protection saved the ship +from being torpedoed. It is not often that an inventor receives such a +good advertisement. + + +DEPTH CHARGE THROWERS + +The first proposal for this device came from Portsmouth, where the +Commander-in-Chief, Admiral the Hon. Sir Stanley Colville, was +indefatigable in his efforts to combat the submarine; throwers +manufactured by Messrs. Thornycroft, of Southampton, were tried and gave +good results. The arrangement was one by which depth charges could be +projected to a distance of 40 yards from a vessel, and the throwers were +usually fitted one on each quarter so that the charges could be thrown +out on the quarter whilst others were being dropped over the stern, and +the chances of damaging or sinking the submarine attacked were thus +greatly increased. + +As soon as the earliest machines had been tried orders were placed for +large numbers and the supplies obtained were as follows: + +Deliveries commenced in July, 1917. +By September 1, 30 had been delivered. +By October 1, 97 had been delivered. +By December 1, 238 had been delivered. + + +COASTAL MOTOR BOATS + +At the end of 1916 we possessed 13 fast coastal motor boats, carrying +torpedoes, and having a speed of some 36 knots. They had been built to +carry out certain operations in the Heligoland Bight, working from +Harwich, but the preliminary air reconnaissance which it had been +decided was necessary had not been effected by the end of 1916 owing to +bad weather and the lack of suitable machines. + +When winter set in it became impossible, with the type of aircraft then +existing, to carry out the intended reconnaissance, and early in 1917 I +abandoned the idea of the operations for the winter and sent the boats +to the Dover Command for Sir R. Bacon to use from Dunkirk in operations +against enemy vessels operating from Ostend and Zeebrugge. They quickly +proved their value, and it became evident that they would also be useful +for anti-submarine work. A large number were ordered, some for +anti-submarine work and some for certain contemplated operations in +enemy waters, including a night attack on the enemy's light cruisers +known to lie occasionally in the Ems River, an operation that it was +intended to carry out in the spring of 1918. A daylight operation in +this neighbourhood, which was carried out during 1918, did not, from the +published reports, meet with success, the coastal motor boats being +attacked by aircraft, vessels against which they were defenceless. The +new boats were of an improved and larger type than the original 40-feet +boats. Delays occurred in construction owing principally to the +difficulty in obtaining engines by reason of the great demand for +engines for aircraft, and but few of the new boats were delivered during +the year 1917. + + +MINING OPERATIONS + +The policy which was carried out during 1917 in this respect, so far as +the supply of mines admitted, aimed at preventing the exit of submarines +from enemy ports. Incidentally, the fact that we laid large numbers of +mines in the Heligoland Bight rendered necessary such extensive sweeping +operations before any portion of the High Sea Fleet could put to sea as +to be very useful in giving us some indication of any movement that +might be intended. In view of the distance of the Grand Fleet from +German bases and the short time available in which to intercept the High +Sea Fleet if it came out for such a purpose as a raid on our coasts, or +on convoys, the information thus gathered would have proved of great +value. + +In planning mining operations in the Heligoland Bight, it was necessary +to take into consideration certain facts. The _first_ was the knowledge +that the Germans themselves had laid minefields in some portions of the +Bight, and it was necessary for our minelayers to give such suspected +areas a wide berth. _Secondly_, it was obvious that we could not lay +minefields in areas very near those which we ourselves had already +mined, since we should run the risk of blowing up our own ships with our +own mines. + +Mining operations had necessarily to be carried out at night, and as +there were no navigational aids in the way of lights, etc., in the +Heligoland Bight, the position in which our mines were laid was never +known with _absolute_ accuracy. Consequently an area in which we had +directed mines to be laid, and to which a minelayer had been sent, could +not safely be approached within a distance of some five miles on a +subsequent occasion. + +The use in mining operations of the device known as "taut wire" gear, +introduced by Vice-Admiral Sir Henry Oliver, was of great help in +ensuring accuracy in laying minefields and consequently in reducing the +danger distance surrounding our own minefields. + +As our mining operations increased in number we were driven farther and +farther out from the German ports for subsequent operations. This +naturally increased the area to be mined as the Heligoland Bight is +bell-mouthed in shape, but it had the advantage of making the operations +of German minesweepers and mine-bumpers more difficult and hazardous as +they had to work farther out, thus giving our light forces better +chances of catching them at work and engaging them. Such actions as that +on November 17, 1917, between our light forces and the German light +cruisers and minesweepers were the result. We did not, of course, lay +mines in either the Danish or Dutch territorial waters, and these waters +consequently afforded an exit for German vessels as our minefields +became most distant from German bases. + +Broadly speaking, the policy was to lay mines so thoroughly in the +Heligoland Bight as to force enemy submarines and other vessels to make +their exits along the Danish or Dutch coasts in territorial waters. + +At the end of the exit we stationed submarines to signal enemy movements +and to attack enemy vessels. We knew, of course, that the enemy would +sweep other channels for his ships, but as soon as we discovered the +position of these channels, which was not a very difficult matter, more +mines were laid at the end. In order to give neutrals fair warning, +certain areas which included the Heligoland Bight were proclaimed +dangerous. In this respect German and British methods may be contrasted: +We never laid a minefield which could possibly have been dangerous to +neutrals without issuing a warning stating that a certain area (which +included the minefield) was dangerous. The Germans never issued such a +warning unless the proclamation stating that half the Atlantic Ocean, +most of the North Sea, and nine-tenths of the Mediterranean were +dangerous could be considered as such. It was also intended, as mines +became available, to lay more deep minefields in positions near our own +coast in which enemy submarines were known to work; these minefields +would be safe for the passage of surface vessels, but our patrol craft +would force the submarines to dive into them. This system to a certain +extent had already been in use during 1915 and 1916. + +Schemes were also being devised by Admiral of the Fleet Sir Arthur +Wilson, who devoted much of his time to mining devices, by which mines +some distance below the surface would be exploded by an enemy submarine +even if navigating on the surface. + +Such was the policy. Its execution was difficult. + +The first difficulty lay in the fact that we did not possess a +thoroughly satisfactory mine. A percentage only of our mines exploded +when hit by a submarine, and they failed sometimes to take up their +intended depth when laid, betraying their presence by appearing on the +surface. + +Energetic measures were adopted to overcome this latter defect, but it +took time and but few mines were available for laying in the early +months of 1917. + +The result of our minelaying efforts is shown in the following table: + + Mines laid Deep mines laid + Year. in the Heligoland off our own coasts + Bight. to catch submarines. + + 1915 4,498 983 + 1916 1,679 2,573 + First quarter of 1917 4,865 ) + Second quarter of 1917 6,386 ) 3,843 + Third quarter of 1917 3,510 ) + +In the Straits of Dover, Thames Estuary and off the Belgian coast we +laid 2,664 mines in 1914, 6,337 in 1915, 9,685 in 1916, and 4,669 in the +first three quarters of 1917. + +These last mines were laid as fast as the alterations, made with a view +to increasing their efficiency, could be carried out. + +During the early part of the year 1917 the new pattern of mine, known as +the "H" Type, evolved in 1916, had been tried, and although not +perfectly satisfactory at the first trials, the success was sufficient +to warrant the placing of orders for 100,000 mines and in making +arrangements for the quickest possible manufacture. This was done by the +Director of Torpedoes and Mines, Rear-Admiral the Hon. Edward +Fitzherbert, under the direction of the then Fourth Sea Lord, +Rear-Admiral Lionel Halsey. + +Deliveries commenced in the summer of 1917, but by the end of September +only a little over 1,500 were ready for laying. Some 500 of these were +laid in September in the Heligoland Bight and were immediately +successful against enemy submarines. More were laid in the Bight during +October, November and December, and the remainder, as they were +produced, were prepared for laying in the new minefield in the Straits +of Dover. _In the fourth quarter of the year a total of 10,389 mines was +laid in the Heligoland Bight and in the Straits of Dover._ + +During this last quarter delivery of "H" pattern mines was as follows: +In October 2,350, November 5,300, December 4,800; total 12,450. So that +it will be seen that the mines were laid as fast as delivery was made. + +The great increase in projected minelaying operations during the year +1917 made it necessary also to add considerably to the number of +minelaying vessels. + +In January, 1917, the only vessels equipped for this service were four +merchant ships and the Flotilla Leader _Abdiel_, with a total minelaying +capacity of some 1,200 mines per trip. It was not advisable to carry out +minelaying operations in enemy waters during the period near full moon +owing to the liability of the minelayers being seen by patrol craft. +Under such conditions the position of the minefield would be known to +the enemy. As the operation of placing the mines on board occupied +several days, it was not passible to depend on an average of more than +three operations per ship per month from the larger minelayers. +Consequently, with the intended policy in view, it was obvious that more +minelayers must be provided. + +It was inadvisable to use merchant ships, since every vessel was +urgently required for trade or transport purposes, and the alternative +was to fit men-of-war for minelaying. The only old vessels of this type +suitable for mining in enemy waters were ships of the "Ariadne" class, +and although their machinery was not too reliable, two of these vessels +that were seaworthy were converted to minelayers. In addition a number +of the older light cruisers were fitted with portable rails on which +mines could be carried when minelaying operations were contemplated, in +place of a portion of the armament which could be removed; a flotilla of +destroyers, with some further flotilla leaders, were also fitted out as +minelayers, and several additional submarines were fitted for this +purpose. + +For a projected special scheme of minelaying in enemy waters a number of +lighters were ordered, and some of the motor launches and coastal motor +boats were fitted out and utilized for mining operations on the Belgian +coast towards the end of 1917. + +By the end of that year 12 light cruisers, 12 destroyers and flotilla +leaders and 5 submarines had been fitted for minelaying. Two old +cruisers had been added to the minelaying fleet and several other +vessels were in hand for the same purpose. The detailed plans of the +arrangements were prepared and the work of fitting out minelayers +carried out under the supervision of Admiral R.N. Ommanney, C.B., whose +services in this matter were of great value. The rapidity with which +ships were added to the minelaying fleet was largely due to his efforts. + +On the entry of the United States of America into the war a further +development of mining policy became feasible. The immense manufacturing +resources of the United States rendered a large production of mines an +easy matter, with the result that as soon as the United States Navy +produced a reliable type of mine the idea of placing a mine barrage +across the northern part of the North Sea which had been previously +discussed became a matter of practical politics. With this end in view a +still further addition to the minelaying fleet became necessary, and +since the mining would be carried out at leisure in this case and speed +was no great necessity for the minelayer owing to the distance of the +minefields from enemy waters, an old battleship was put in hand for +conversion. + +With the enormous increase in the number of mines on order the problem +of storage became of importance, including as it did the storage of the +very large number, some 120,000, required for the northern barrage. The +Third Sea Lord, Admiral Lionel Halsey, took this matter in hand with +characteristic energy, and in conjunction with United States naval +officers made all the necessary arrangements. + +The United States mines were stored in the vicinity of Invergordon, and +the British mines intended for use in the northern barrage were located +at Grangemouth, near Leith, where Rear-Admiral Clinton Baker was in +charge, as well as in other places, whilst those for use in the +Heligoland Bight and Channel waters were stored at Immingham and other +southern depots. + +The laying of the North Sea mine barrage was not accomplished without +very considerable delay, and many difficulties were encountered. It was +originally anticipated that the barrage would be completed in the spring +of 1918, but owing to various defects in both British and United States +mines which made themselves apparent when the operations commenced, due +partly to the great depth of water as well as to other causes, a delay +of several months took place; and, even when near completion, the +barrage was not so effective as many had hoped in spite of the great +expenditure of labour and material involved. I have not the figures of +the number of submarines that the barrage is thought to have accounted +for, but it was known to be disappointing. + + +FLARES + +In the late summer of 1917 _flares_ were experimented with; they were +intended to be used from kite balloons with the object of sighting +submarines when on the surface at night. Previously searchlights in +destroyers had been used for this purpose. The flares were not much +used, however, from kite balloons owing to lack of opportunity, but +trials which were carried out with flares from patrol craft, such as +trawlers and drifters, demonstrated that they would be of value from +these vessels, and when the Folkestone-Grisnez minefield was laid in +November and December, 1917, it was apparent that the flares would be of +use in forcing submarines to dive at night into the minefield to escape +detection on the surface and attack by gunfire. + +Manufacture on a large scale was therefore commenced, and during 1918 +the flares were in constant use across the Straits of Dover. + + +ELECTRICAL SUBMARINE DETECTOR + +The existence of this very valuable device was due to the work of +certain distinguished scientists, and experiments were carried out +during 1917. It was brought to perfection in the late autumn, and orders +were given to fit it in certain localities. Some difficulty was +experienced in obtaining the necessary material, but the work was well +in hand by the end of the year, and quickly proved its value. + + +SUBMARINE AGAINST SUBMARINE + +Prior to the year 1917 the only areas in which our own submarines +operated against enemy vessels of the same type was in the North Sea, or +occasionally in the vicinity of the Hebrides. Grand Fleet submarines +were used in the northern areas during 1916, and Harwich submarines +operated farther south, but the number of underwater craft available was +insufficient for any extended method of attack. Early in 1917, when our +mercantile losses were very heavy, some submarines were withdrawn from +the Harwich and Humber districts and formed into a flotilla off the +coast of Ireland for this form of operation. Some risk had to be +accepted in thus reducing our submarine strength in southern waters. At +the same time some Grand Fleet submarines were organized into a watching +patrol in the area off the Shetland Islands, through which enemy +submarines were expected to pass. The watch off the Horn Reef and in the +Heligoland Bight, which had previously been in force, was also +maintained. + +A little later the submarine flotilla off the Irish coast was +strengthened, and a regular patrol instituted near the North Channel +between Ireland and Scotland. The next step was the withdrawal of some +"C" Class submarines from coastal work on our east coast to work in the +area between England and Holland near the North Hinder Lightship, a +locality much frequented by enemy submarines on passage. Still later +some submarines were attached to the Portsmouth Command, where, working +under Sir Stanley Colville, they had some striking successes; others +went to the Dover Command. The latter were fitted with occulting lights +on top of the conning-tower, and were moored at night to buoys in the +Dover Net Barrage, in places where enemy submarines were likely to pass, +in order that they might have a chance of torpedoing them. A division of +submarines was also sent to Gibraltar, to operate against enemy cruiser +submarines working in that vicinity or near the Canaries. Successes +against enemy submarines were also obtained in the latter locality. + +Finally, the arrival of some United States submarines enabled the areas +in which this form of attack was in force to be still further extended, +after the American personnel had been trained to this form of warfare. +There was a great increase in the number of enemy submarines sunk by +this method of attack during 1917 as compared with previous years; the +number of vessels sunk does not, however, convey a complete appreciation +of the effect of this form of anti-submarine warfare. The great value of +it lay in the feeling of insecurity that it bred in the minds of the +enemy submarine commanders. The moral effect of the constant +apprehension that one is being "stalked" is considerable. Indeed, the +combination of our aircraft and our submarine patrols led to our vessels +reporting, regretfully, that it was very seldom that German submarines +were found on the surface in daylight, and towards the end of 1917 quite +a large proportion of the attacks on merchant ships took place at night. + +The work for our own vessels was very arduous indeed. It was only on +rare occasions that it was possible to bring off a successful attack on +a submarine that had been sighted, the low underwater speed of +submarines making it difficult to get into position when the enemy was +only sighted at short range, which was naturally usually the case. + +In order to obviate this difficulty directions were given in 1917 to +design a special type of submarine for this form of warfare, and I +believe that the first vessel was completed by the autumn of 1918. + +This account of the development of anti-submarine measures during 1917 +would not be complete without mention of the work of the Trade Division +of the Staff, of which Captain Richard Webb, C.B., was the Director +until September. + +This Division was either partly or wholly responsible for: + +(1) The great increase in the rapidity of placing the armaments on board +merchant ships. + +(2) The establishment of schools of instruction for captains and +officers of the Mercantile Marine. + +This training scheme was begun at Chatham Barracks in February, 1917, by +Commander E.L.B. Lockyer, acting under Captain Webb, and later was +extended to Portsmouth, Cardiff and Greenock. Its success was so marked, +and its benefit in assisting officers to handle their ships in the +manner best calculated to save them from submarine attack so great, that +the Admiralty was continually being pressed by shipowners and by the +officers of the Mercantile Marine to extend the instruction to more and +more ports. This was done so far as possible, our principal difficulty +being to provide officers capable of giving the instruction required. + +(3) The provision of wireless plant and operators to the Mercantile +Marine. This was another matter taken up with energy during 1917, and +with excellent results. + +(4) The drilling of guns crews for the merchant ships. Men were invited +to go through a course of drill, and large numbers responded and were +instructed at the Royal Naval Depot at the Crystal Palace. + +All these matters were additional to the important work upon which the +Trade Division was constantly employed, which included all blockade +questions, the routeing of merchant ships, examination of ships, etc. + +In addition to the instructional anti-submarine course for masters and +officers, gunnery courses for cadets and apprentices were started at +Portsmouth, Chatham and Devonport. A system of visits to ships by +officer instructors for the purpose of affording instruction and for +inspection, as well as for the purpose of lecturing, was instituted, and +arrangements were made for giving instruction in signalling. Some idea +of the work carried out will be gathered from the following figures +showing the instructional work carried out during the year 1917: + + Masters 1,929 + Officers 2,149 + Number of cadets and apprentices passed through + the gunnery course 543 + Number of merchant seamen trained in gunnery at + the Crystal Palace 3,964 + Number of ships visited by officer instructors 6,927 + Numbers attending these lectures: + Masters 1,361 + Officers 5,921 + Number of officers and men instructed in signalling 10,487 + +The keenness shown by officers and men of the merchant service +contributed in a marked degree to the success of the courses instituted; +just one example may be given. I visited the Royal Naval Depot at the +Crystal Palace early in 1918, and amongst other most interesting scenes +witnessed a large number of men of the merchant service at gun drill. I +questioned several of them as to their experiences, and many of the men +had had their ships torpedoed under them three, four or five times. +Amongst the gun crews was a steward who had been through this experience +four times. On my asking why he, as a steward, should be going through +the gunnery course, he replied that he hoped that by so doing he might +stand a chance of getting his own back by assisting to sink a submarine. + +The knowledge which I possessed of the measures introduced during the +year 1917 to combat the German submarine warfare, and the continual +increase in the efficiency of the anti-submarine work which I knew would +result from increased production of anti-submarine vessels and weapons, +led me in February, 1918, to state that in my opinion the submarine +menace would be "held" by the autumn of the year 1918. The remark, which +was made at what I understood to be a private gathering, was given very +wide publicity, and was criticized at the time, but it was fulfilled, as +the figures will indicate. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CONVOY SYSTEM + + +The question of the introduction of convoys for the protection of +merchant ships was under consideration at various times during the war. +The system had been employed during the old wars and had proved its +value in the case of attack by vessels on the surface, and it was +natural that thoughts should be directed towards its reintroduction when +the submarine campaign developed. There is one inherent disadvantage in +this system which cannot be overcome, although it can be mitigated by +careful organization, viz. the delay involved. Delay means, of course, a +loss of carrying-power, and when tonnage is already short any proposal +which must reduce its efficiency has to be very carefully examined. The +delay of the convoy system is due to two causes, (a) because the speed +of the convoy must necessarily be fixed by the speed of the slowest +ship, and (b) the fact that the arrival of a large number of ships at +one time may cause congestion and consequent delay at the port of +unloading. However, if additional safety is given there is compensation +for this delay when the risk is great. One danger of a convoy system +under modern conditions should be mentioned, viz. the increased risk +from attack by mines. If ships are sailing singly a minefield will in +all probability sink only one vessel--the first ship entering it. The +fate of that ship reveals the presence of the field, and with adequate +organization it is improbable that other vessels will be sunk in the +same field. In the case of a convoy encountering a minefield, as in the +case of a fleet, several ships may be sunk practically simultaneously. + +During the year 1916, whilst I was still in command of the Grand Fleet, +suggestions as to convoys had been forwarded to the Admiralty for the +better protection of the ocean trade against attack by surface vessels; +but it was pointed out to me that the number of cruisers available for +escort work was entirely insufficient, and that, consequently, the +suggestions could not be adopted. This objection was one that could only +be overcome by removing some of the faster merchant ships from the trade +routes and arming them. To this course there was the objection that we +were already--that is before the intensive campaign began--very short of +shipping. + +Shortly after my taking up the post of First Sea Lord at the Admiralty, +at the end of 1916, the question was discussed once more. At that time +the danger of attack by enemy raiders on shipping in the North Atlantic +was small; the protection needed was against attack by submarines, and +the dangerous area commenced some 300-400 miles from the British +Islands. It was known that unrestricted submarine warfare was about to +commence, and that this would mean that shipping would usually be +subjected to torpedo attack from submarines when in a submerged +condition. Against this form of attack the gun armament of cruisers or +armed merchant ships was practically useless, and, however powerfully +armed, ships of this type were themselves in peril of being torpedoed. +Small vessels of shallow draught, possessing high speed, offered the +only practicable form of protection. Shallow draught was necessary in +order that the protecting vessels should themselves be comparatively +immune from successful torpedo fire, and speed was essential for +offensive operations against the submarines. + +Convoy sailing was, as has been stated, the recognized method of trade +protection in the old wars, and this was a strong argument in favour of +its adoption in the late war. It should, however, be clearly understood +that the conditions had entirely changed. Convoy sailing for the +protection of merchant ships against torpedo attack by submarines was +quite a different matter from such a system as a preventive against +attack by surface vessels and involved far greater difficulties. In the +days of sailing ships especially, accurate station keeping was not very +necessary, and the ships comprising the convoy sailed in loose order and +covered a considerable area of water. On a strange vessel, also a +sailing vessel, being sighted, the protecting frigate or frigates would +proceed to investigate her character, whilst the ships composing the +convoy closed in towards one another or steered a course that would take +them out of danger. + +In the circumstances with which we were dealing in 1917 the requirements +were quite otherwise. It was essential for the protection of the convoy +that the ships should keep close and accurate station and should be able +to manoeuvre by signal. Close station was enjoined by the necessity of +reducing the area covered by the convoy; accurate station was required +to ensure safety from collision and freedom of manoeuvre. It will be +realized that a convoy comprising twenty to thirty vessels occupies +considerable space, even when steaming in the usual formation of four, +five or six columns. Since the number of destroyers or sloops that could +be provided for screening the convoy from torpedo attack by submarines +was bound to be very limited under any conditions, it was essential that +the columns of ships should be as short as possible; in other words, +that the ships should follow one another at close intervals, so that the +destroyers on each side of the convoy should be able as far as possible +to guard it from attack by submarines working from the flank, and that +they should be able with great rapidity to counter-attack a submarine +with depth charges should a periscope be sighted for a brief moment +above the surface, or the track of a torpedo be seen. In fact, it was +necessary, if the protection of a convoy was to be real protection, that +the ships composing the convoy should be handled in a manner that +approached the handling of battleships in a squadron. The diagram on p. +107 shows an ideal convoy with six destroyers protecting it, disposed in +the manner ordered at the start of the convoy system. + +[Illustration on page 107, with caption "Diagram illustrating a convoy +of 25 Merchant Ships, with an escort of 6 Destroyers zigzagging at high +speed for protection. The convoy shown in close order and on its normal +course."] + +[Illustration on page 108 shows, according to its caption, "Typical +convoy and escort of 10 Trawlers in the early days of convoy."] + +How far this ideal was attainable was a matter of doubt. Prior to 1917 +our experience of merchant ships sailing in company had been confined to +troop transports. These vessels were well officered and well manned, +carried experienced engine-room staffs, were capable of attaining +moderate speeds, and were generally not comparable to ordinary cargo +vessels, many of which were of very slow speed, and possessed a large +proportion of officers and men of limited sea experience, owing to the +very considerable personnel of the Mercantile Marine which had joined +the Royal Naval Reserve and was serving in the Fleet or in patrol craft. +Moreover, even the troop transports had not crossed the submarine zone +in company, but had been escorted independently; and many naval officers +who had been in charge of convoys, when questioned, were not convinced +that sailing in convoy under the conditions mentioned above was a +feasible proposition, nor, moreover, were the masters of the transports. + +In February, 1917, in order to investigate this aspect of the question, +a conference took place between the Naval Staff and the masters of cargo +steamers which were lying in the London docks. The masters were asked +their opinion as to how far their ships could be depended on to keep +station in a convoy of 12 to 20 vessels. They expressed a unanimous +opinion that it was not practicable to keep station under the conditions +mentioned, the difficulty being due to two causes: (1) the inexperience +of their deck officers owing to so many of them having been taken for +the Royal Naval Reserve, and (2) the inexperience of their engineers, +combined with the impossibility of obtaining delicate adjustments of +speed by reason of the absence of suitable engine-room telegraphs and +the poor quality of much of the coal used. When pressed as to the +greatest number of ships that could be expected to manoeuvre together in +safety, the masters of these cargo steamers, all experienced seamen, +gave it as their opinion that two or possibly three was the maximum +number. The opinions thus expressed were confirmed later by other +masters of merchant ships who were consulted on the subject. It is to +the eternal credit of the British Merchant Marine, which rendered +service of absolutely inestimable value to the Empire throughout the +war, that when put to the test by the adoption of the convoy system, +officers and men proved that they could achieve far more than they +themselves had considered possible. At the same time it should be +recognized how severe a strain was imposed on officers, particularly the +masters, of vessels sailing in convoy. + +The matter was kept constantly under review. In February, 1917, the +Germans commenced unrestricted submarine warfare against merchant ships +of all nationalities, and as a consequence our shipping losses, as well +as those of Allied and neutral countries, began to mount steadily each +succeeding month. The effect of this new phase of submarine warfare is +best illustrated by a few figures. + +During the last four months of 1916 the gross tonnage lost by _submarine +attack_ alone gave the following monthly average: British, 121,500; +Allies, 59,500; neutrals, 87,500; total, 268,500. + +In the first four months of 1917 the figures became, in round numbers: + + British. Allies. Neutrals. Total. + + January 104,000 62,000 116,000 282,000 + February 256,000 77,000 131,000 464,000 + March 283,000 74,000 149,000 506,000 + April 513,000 133,000 185,000 831,000 + +(The United States entered the war on April 6, 1917.) + +NOTE.--In neither case is the loss of fishing craft included. + +It will be realized that, since the losses towards the end of 1916 were +such as to give just cause for considerable anxiety, the later figures +made it clear that some method of counteracting the submarines must be +found and found quickly if the Allied cause was to be saved from +disaster. + +None of the anti-submarine measures that had been under consideration or +trial since the formation of the Anti-Submarine Division of the Naval +Staff in December, 1916, could _by any possibility_ mature for some +months, since time was necessary for the production of vessels and more +or less complicated matériel, and in these circumstances the only step +that could be taken was that of giving a trial to the convoy system for +the ocean trade, although the time was by no means yet ripe for +effective use of the system, by reason of the shortage of destroyers, +sloops and cruisers, which was still most acute, although the situation +was improving slowly month by month as new vessels were completed. + +Prior to this date we had already had some experience of convoys as a +protection against submarine attack. The coal trade of France had been +brought under convoy in March, 1917. The trade between Scandinavia and +North Sea ports was also organized in convoys in April of the same year, +this trade having since December, 1916, been carried out on a system of +"protected sailings." It is true that these convoys were always very +much scattered, particularly the Scandinavian convoy, which was composed +largely of neutral vessels and therefore presented exceptional +difficulties in the matter of organization and handling. The number of +destroyers which could be spared for screening the convoys was also very +small. The protection afforded was therefore more apparent than real, +but even so the results had been very good in reducing the losses by +submarine attack. The protection of the vessels employed in the French +coal trade was entrusted very largely to trawlers, as the ships +composing the convoy were mostly slow, so that in this case more +screening vessels were available, although they were not so efficient, +being themselves of slow speed. + +For the introduction of a system of convoy which would protect merchant +ships as far as their port of discharge in the United Kingdom, there +were two requirements: (a) A sufficient number of convoying cruisers or +armed merchant ships, whose role would be that of bringing the ships +comprising the convoy to some selected rendezvous outside the zone of +submarine activity, where it would be met by the flotilla of small +vessels which would protect the convoy through the submarine area. It +was essential that the ships of the convoy should arrive at this +rendezvous as an organized unit, well practised in station-keeping by +day, and at night, with the ships darkened, and that the vessels should +be capable also of zigzagging together and of carrying out such +necessary movements as alterations of course, etc.; otherwise the convoy +could not be safely escorted through the danger area. (b) The other +essential was the presence of the escorting flotilla in sufficient +strength. + +It has been mentioned that there was an insufficient number of vessels +available for use as convoying cruisers. It was estimated that about +fifty cruisers or armed merchant ships would be required for this +service if the homeward-bound trade to the British Isles alone was +considered. An additional twelve vessels would be necessary to deal with +the outward-bound trade. At the time only eighteen vessels were +available, and these could only be obtained by denuding the North +Atlantic entirely of cruisers. + +The situation in regard to destroyers or other fast vessels presented +equal difficulties. Early in February, 1917, we had available for +general convoy or patrol work only fourteen destroyers stationed at +Devonport and twelve sloops at Queenstown, and owing to repairs and the +necessity of resting officers and men periodically, only a proportion of +these were available at any one time. A number of these vessels were +required to escort troop transports through the submarine danger zone. +During the month of February six sloops were diverted from their proper +work of minesweeping in the North Sea and added to the patrol force at +Queenstown, and eight destroyers were taken from the Grand Fleet and +sent to southern waters for patrol and escort duty. There were obvious +objections to this weakening of the North Sea forces, but it was +necessary in the circumstances to ignore them. + +This total of forty destroyers and sloops represented the whole +available force at the end of February. Simultaneously a careful +investigation showed that for the institution of a system of convoy and +escort for homeward-bound Atlantic trade alone to the United Kingdom, +our requirements would be eighty-one destroyers or sloops and +forty-eight trawlers (the latter vessels being only suitable for +escorting the slow 6-7-knot ships of the trade from Gibraltar to the +United Kingdom). For the outward Atlantic trade from the United Kingdom +our estimated requirements were forty-four additional destroyers or +sloops. + +The deficiency in suitable vessels of this class is best shown by the +following table, which reveals the destroyer position at different +periods during the year 1917: + +-------------------------------------------------------------------- +Mediterranean. +----------------------------------------------------------------+ +Pembroke. | +-------------------------------------------------------------+ | +Queenstown. | | +---------------------------------------------------------+ | | +Bunerana. | | | +------------------------------------------------------+ | | | +North Channel. | | | | +---------------------------------------------------+ | | | | +Scapa and Invergordon. | | | | | +------------------------------------------------+ | | | | | +The Tyne. | | | | | | +---------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | +The Humber. | | | | | | | +------------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | +Lowestoft. | | | | | | | | +---------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | +The Nore. | | | | | | | | | +------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | +Portsmouth. | | | | | | | | | | +---------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | +Devonport. | | | | | | | | | | | +------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | +Dover. | | | | | | | | | | | | +---------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | +Harwich Fleet. | | | | | | | | | | | | | +------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Grand Fleet. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+--+--- +January. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Flotilla Leaders | 10| 2| 3| | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Modern destroyers | 97|45|18|14|13| | | | | | | | | |29 + |[A]| | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Destroyers of River | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +class and earlier | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +construction | | |11| 6|16| 9| | 9|11|15| 4| | | | 8 + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +P boats | | 2| 5| | 4|10| 4| 1| | | | | | | +--------------------+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+--+--- +June. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Flotilla Leaders | 10| 3| 4| | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Modern destroyers | 95|23|29|38|15| | | 5| | | | 4| 32| |29 + |[A]| | | | | | | | | | | |[B]| | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Destroyers of River | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +class and earlier | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +construction | | |10| 5|16| 7| |29| 1|11| 4| | | | 8 + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +P boats | | 2| 6| | 8| 9| 4| 1| | | | | | 5| +--------------------+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+--+--- +November. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Flotilla Leaders | 11| 4| 6| | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Modern destroyers |101|24|26|37| 9| | | 4| | | |29| 35| |32 + |[A]| | | | | | | | | | | |[B]| | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +Destroyers of River | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +class and earlier | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +construction | | |10| 4| 8|12| 2|30| |11| 4| | | | 8 + | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +P boats | | 2| 6| |31| | | 1| | | | | |10| +--------------------+---+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--+---+--+--- + +[Footnote A: Includes destroyers detached for protection work in other +commands.] + +[Footnote B: Includes United States destroyers.] + +There was the possible alternative of bringing only a small portion of +the trade under convoy by taking all the available fast small craft from +patrol duty and utilizing them to escort this portion of the trade, but +it was felt that as this would leave the _whole_ of the remaining trade +entirely without protection, and no fast patrol craft would be on the +trade routes to pick up the crews of any merchant ships that might be +sunk by submarines, the step was not justified. + +The next point for consideration was the possibility of obtaining +destroyers or sloops from other sources with which to increase the +forces for trade protection. The only commands on which it was possible +to draw further were the Grand Fleet, the Harwich and Dover forces, the +destroyers of old types working on the East Coast, or the destroyers and +"P" boats protecting our cross-Channel communications west of the Dover +Command. + +It was out of the question to reduce the Harwich or Dover flotillas +materially, as we were already running the gravest risks from the +inadequacy of these forces to deal with enemy destroyers and submarines +operating in southern waters from Zeebrugge or from German ports, and in +addition the Harwich Force furnished the sole protection for the weekly +convoy running between the Thames and Dutch ports, besides being much +required for reconnaissance and offensive operations in the Heligoland +Bight so far as it could be spared for this purpose. However, the +emergency was such that destroyers were taken from Harwich, as the force +obtained new vessels of a faster and more powerful type. The destroyers +on the East Coast and in the Portsmouth Command were already inadequate +to afford proper protection to the trade and the cross-Channel +communications, as evidenced by our losses. Here again, however, in +order to meet the very serious situation, some destroyers were +eventually transferred to Devonport from Portsmouth, but at the expense +of still less protection and fewer opportunities for offensive action +against submarines. There remained only the Grand Fleet destroyers on +which we could draw yet further. It had always been held that the Grand +Fleet required a total force of one hundred destroyers and ten flotilla +leaders for the double purpose of screening the ships from submarine +attack when at sea and of countering the enemy's destroyers and +attacking his heavy ships with torpedo fire in a fleet action. We had +gradually built the destroyer force of the Grand Fleet up to this figure +by the early spring of 1917, although, of course, it fell far short of +requirements in earlier months. It was well known to us that the High +Sea Fleet would be accompanied by at least eight flotillas, or +eighty-eight destroyers, when proceeding to sea at its _selected_ +moment, and it was quite probable that the number might be much higher, +as many more vessels were available. At our _average_ moment, even with +a nominal force of one hundred destroyers and ten flotilla leaders, we +could not expect that more than seventy destroyers and eight leaders +would be present with the Fleet, since, in addition to those absent +refitting, a considerable number were always engaged on trade protection +or anti-submarine work in northern waters which could not join up in +time to accompany the Fleet to sea. When the Scandinavian convoy was +started in April, 1917, one flotilla leader and six destroyers from the +Grand Fleet were used for its protection; other vessels in northern +waters also depended on Grand Fleet destroyers for protection. Any +further transference, therefore, of destroyers from the Grand Fleet to +southern waters for trade protection was a highly dangerous expedient, +involving increased risk from submarine attack on the heavy ships in the +event of the Fleet proceeding to sea, as well as disadvantages in a +Fleet action. The necessity, however, was so great that the risk had to +be faced, and for some months of 1917 from eight to twelve Grand Fleet +destroyers were used for trade protection in the Atlantic, principally +from Irish ports, in addition to those protecting trade in the North +Sea. + +It is interesting to note the number of persons who claim to have been +the first to urge the Admiralty to adopt convoys as a method of +protecting merchant ships against submarine attack. The claimants for +this distinction are not confined to Great Britain; the great majority +of them are people without any knowledge of the sea and naval matters, +certainly none of them possessed any knowledge of the number of vessels +needed to afford protection to the ships under convoy, nor of the +vessels which we could produce for the purpose at the time. + +Possibly the facts related above may serve to show that convoys were +commenced by Admiralty direction, and that they were started as soon as +and extended as rapidly as the necessary protecting vessels could be +provided. Those who argued then, or who have argued since, that we +should have reduced the number of destroyers with the Grand Fleet will +not, I think, meet with any support from those who served in that Fleet, +especially from the officers upon whom lay the responsibility for +countering any move of the High Sea Fleet. + +The entry of the United States into the war early in April eased the +situation somewhat. First it was hoped that the United States Navy would +assist us with destroyers and other small craft, and secondly it was a +fact that the great majority of the material imported into countries +contiguous to Germany came from the United States. There was reason to +anticipate that steps would be taken by the United States authorities in +the direction of some form of rationing of these countries, and in these +circumstances it was justifiable to reduce gradually the strength of our +blockading squadron of armed merchant vessels known as the 10th Cruiser +Squadron. By this means we could at once provide additional vessels to +act as convoying cruisers. + +Vice-Admiral W.S. Sims had arrived in this country in March, 1917, after +passing through an exciting experience, the ship in which he crossed +(the United States steamer _St. Louis_) being mined outside Liverpool. +He came to visit me at the Admiralty immediately after his arrival in +London, and from that day until I left the Admiralty at the end of the +year it was my privilege and pleasure to work in the very closest +co-operation with him. My friendship with the Admiral was of very long +standing. We had during many years exchanged views on different naval +subjects, but principally on gunnery questions. I, in common with other +British naval officers who had the honour of his acquaintance, had +always been greatly struck by his wonderful success in the post of +Inspector of Target Practice in the United States Navy. That success was +due not only to his intimate knowledge of gunnery, but also to his +attractive personality, charm of manner, keen sense of humour, and quick +and accurate grasp of any problem with which he was confronted. It was +fortunate indeed for the Allied cause that Admiral Sims should have been +selected to command the United States forces in European waters, for to +the qualities mentioned above he added a habit of speaking his mind with +absolutely fearless disregard of the consequences. This characteristic +has led him on more than one occasion into difficulty, but in the +circumstances with which we had to deal in 1917 it was just the quality +that was needed. It was a very difficult matter for those in authority +in the United States, separated as they were by 3,000 miles of sea from +the theatres of war, to realize the conditions in European waters, for +the Admiralty was not concerned only with the North Sea and Atlantic, +and the terse and straightforward reports of Admiral Sims, and his +convincing statements, went a long way towards bringing home to the +United States people at that time the extreme gravity of the situation +and the need for immediate action. He was consistently backed up by that +great ambassador, the late Mr. W.H. Page, who also honoured me with his +confidence, and to whom I spoke perfectly freely on all occasions. + +The assistance from the United States that it was hoped was now in sight +made the prospect of success following on the adoption of the convoy +system far more favourable, and preparations were put in hand for the +institution of an ocean convoy system on a large scale. In order to gain +some experience of the difficulties attending the working of cargo +ships, directions were given for an experimental convoy to be collected +at Gibraltar. The necessary officers were sent out to Gibraltar with +orders to assemble the convoy, to instruct the masters in the work that +lay before them, and to explain to them the system of sailing, the +manner in which the convoy would be handled, and the protection that +would be afforded. This naturally took time, and the convoy did not +arrive in England until after the middle of May. The experience gained +showed, however, that the difficulties apprehended by the officers of +the Mercantile Marine were not insuperable, and that, given adequate +protection by cruisers and small fast craft, the system was at least +practicable. It was accordingly decided to put it into operation at +once, and to extend it as rapidly as the increase in the numbers of our +destroyers and sloops permitted. + +The North Atlantic homeward-bound trade was brought under convoy in May, +1917, and the Gibraltar homeward-bound trade in July, but for some +months it was impossible to provide for the institution of a complete +convoy system. At first some 40 per cent, of the homeward-bound trade +was convoyed. Then the system was gradually extended to include first 60 +per cent., then 80 per cent., and finally 100 per cent, of the homeward +Atlantic trade and the trade from Gibraltar, trawlers being used as +escorts for the Gibraltar trade, as the majority of the ships therein +engaged were slow. But trawlers are unsatisfactory escort vessels. + +In the early stages of the convoy system difficulties were experienced +from the fact that all the available destroyers and most of the sloops +were used as escorts, with the result that the ships not under convoy +were left with but little protection. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE CONVOY SYSTEM AT WORK + + +As has been mentioned in Chapter II., the first ships to be brought +under a system of convoy were those engaged in the French coal trade and +in the trade between Scandinavia and the United Kingdom. + +In the case of the _French coal trade_, commencing in March, 1917, the +steamships engaged in the trade were sailed in groups from four +different assembly ports, viz.: + +Southend to Boulogne and Calais. +St. Helens to Havre. +Portland to Cherbourg. +Penzance to Brest. + +Between Southend and Boulogne and Calais the protection was given by the +vessels of the Dover Patrol in the course of their ordinary duties, but +for the other three routes special escort forces were utilized, and +daily convoys were the rule. + +Owing to the great demand for coal in France, sailing vessels were also +used, and sailed under convoy from several of the south-west ports. + +A large organization was required to deal with the trade, and this was +built up under the supervision of Captain Reginald G.H. Henderson, C.B., +of the Anti-Submarine Division of the Naval Staff, working under +Vice-Admiral (then Rear-Admiral) Sir Alexander Duff, head of the +Division, in conference with the Commanders-in-Chief, Portsmouth and +Plymouth, under whose direction and protection the convoys were run. The +immunity of this trade, carried out in the infested waters of the +English Channel, from successful attack by submarines was extraordinary. +No doubt the small size of the vessels concerned and their comparatively +shallow draught were a contributory cause to this immunity. The figures +for the period March to August, 1917, show that 8,825 vessels crossed +the Channel under convoy, and that only fourteen were lost. + +The history of the _Scandinavian and East Coast convoys_ dates back to +the autumn of 1916, when heavy losses were being incurred amongst +Scandinavian ships due to submarine attack. Thus in October, 1916, the +losses amongst Norwegian and Swedish ships by submarine attack were more +than three times as great as the previous highest monthly losses. Some +fear existed that the neutral Scandinavian countries might refuse to run +such risks and go to the extreme of prohibiting sailings. Towards the +end of 1916, before I left the Fleet, a system of "protected" sailings +was therefore introduced. In this system the Commander-in-Chief, Grand +Fleet, fixed upon a number of alternative routes between Norway and the +Shetland Islands, which were used by all vessels trading between +Scandinavia and Allied countries. The particular route in use at any +given moment was patrolled by the local forces from the Orkneys and +Shetlands, assisted when possible by small craft from the Grand Fleet. +The Admiral Commanding the Orkneys and Shetlands was placed in charge of +the arrangements, which were carried out by the Senior Naval Officer at +Lerwick, in the Shetland Islands. At this period the intention was that +the shipping from Norway should sail at dusk, reach a certain rendezvous +at dawn, and thence be escorted to Lerwick. The shipping from Lerwick +sailed at dawn under protection, dispersed at dark, and reached the +Norwegian coast at dawn. Difficulties, of course, arose in the event of +bad weather, or when the slow speed of the ships prevented the passage +of about 180 miles being made in approximately twenty-four hours, and by +April, 1917, it was evident that further steps were necessary to meet +these difficulties, which were again causing heavy losses. Early in +April, then, by direction from the Admiralty, a conference was held at +Longhope on the subject. Admiral Sir Frederick Brock, Commanding the +Orkneys and Shetlands, presided, and representatives from the Admiralty +and the Commands affected were present, and the adoption of a complete +convoy system to include the whole trade between the East Coast and +Norway was recommended. This proposal was approved by the Admiralty and +was put into force as soon as the necessary organization had matured. +Escorting vessels had with difficulty been provided, although in +inadequate numbers. The first convoys sailed towards the end of April, +1917. + +The system may be described briefly as follows. The convoys all put into +Lerwick, in the Shetland Islands, both on the eastward and westward +passages, so that Lerwick acted as a junction for the whole system. From +Lerwick, convoys to Scandinavia left in the afternoon under the +protection of two or three destroyers, and, with some armed patrol +vessels in company up to a certain stage, made the Norwegian coast at +varying points, and there dispersed, and the destroyers then picked up +the west-bound convoy at a rendezvous off the Norwegian coast shortly +before dark, and steered for a rendezvous between Norway and the +Shetland Islands, where an escort of armed patrol vessels joined the +convoy at daylight to assist in its protection to Lerwick. From Lerwick +convoys were dispatched to various points on the coast of the United +Kingdom; those making for southern ports on the East Coast were escorted +by a force composed of some of the old "River" class or of 30-knot class +destroyers, and trawlers belonging to the East Coast Command based on +the Humber, and those making for more northerly ports or ports on the +West Coast were escorted merely by armed patrol vessels, as the danger +of submarine attack to these convoys was not so great. + +The main difficulty was the provision of the destroyers required for the +proper protection of the convoys, and to a lesser degree the provision +of armed patrol vessels of the trawler, whaler, or drifter types. + +The conference held early in April, 1917, had reported that whilst +stronger protection was naturally desirable, the very least force that +could give defence to the convoys between Lerwick and the East Coast +ports would be a total of twenty-three destroyers and fifty trawlers, +whilst for each convoy between Lerwick and Norway at least two +destroyers and four trawlers were needed. The destroyers for the latter +convoys were provided by the Grand Fleet, although they could ill be +spared. The total number so utilized was six. It was only possible to +provide a force of twenty old destroyers and forty-five trawlers for the +East Coast convoys instead of the numbers recommended by the conference, +and owing to the age of a large majority of these destroyers and the +inevitable resultant occasional breakdown of machinery, the number +available frequently fell below twenty, although it was really +marvellous how those old destroyers stuck to the work to the eternal +credit of their crews, and particularly the engineering staffs. The +adoption of the system, however, resulted during the comparatively fine +summer weather in a considerable reduction in the number of merchant +ships lost, in spite of the fact that great difficulty was experienced +in keeping the ships of the convoys together, particularly at night, +dawn frequently finding the convoy very much scattered. + +It became obvious, however, that with the approach of winter the old +destroyers of the 30-knot class would have the greatest difficulty in +facing the heavy weather, and very urgent representations were made by +Sir Frederick Brock for their replacement by more modern vessels before +the winter set in. All that could be effected in this direction was +done, though at the expense of some of the Channel escorts. Urgent +requests for good destroyers were being received at the Admiralty from +every Command, and it was impossible to comply with them since the +vessels were not in existence. + +Certain other steps which may be enumerated were taken in connection +with the Scandinavian traffic. + +The convoys received such additional protection as could be given by the +airships which were gradually being stationed on the East Coast during +the year 1917, and decoy ships occasionally joined the convoys in order +to invite submarine attack on themselves. This procedure was indeed +adopted on all convoy routes as they were brought into being, the rule +being for the decoy ship to drop behind the convoy in the guise of a +straggler. + +Some of our submarines were also detailed to work in the vicinity of +convoy routes in order that they might take advantage of any opportunity +to attack enemy submarines if sighted; due precautions for their safety +were made. + +Among the difficulties with which the very energetic and resourceful +Admiral Commanding the Orkneys and Shetlands had to contend in his +working of the convoys was the persistent mining of the approach to +Lerwick Harbour by German submarines; a second difficulty was the great +congestion that took place in that harbour as soon as bad weather set in +during the autumn of 1917. The weather during the latter part of 1917 +was exceptionally bad, and great congestion and consequent delay to +shipping occurred both at Lerwick and in the Norwegian ports. As the +result of this congestion it became necessary to increase largely the +number of ships in each convoy, thereby enhancing the difficulty of +handling the convoy. + +At the commencement it had been decided to limit the size of a +Scandinavian convoy to six or eight vessels, but as the congestion +increased it became necessary to exceed this number considerably, +occasional convoys composed of as many as thirty to forty ships being +formed. A contributory cause to the increase in the size of convoys was +due to the fact that the trade between Lerwick and the White Sea, which +had been proceeding direct between those places during the first half of +1917, became the target of persistent submarine attack during the +summer, and in order to afford them protection it was necessary in the +autumn to include these ships also in the Scandinavian convoy for the +passage across the North Sea. Between the coast of Norway and the White +Sea they proceeded independently, hugging territorial waters as far as +possible. + +It will be realized that the institution of the convoy system of sailing +for the Scandinavian trade necessitated an extensive organization on the +Norwegian as well as on the British side of the North Sea. For this +reason Captain Arthur Halsey, R.N., was appointed in March, 1917, as +Naval Vice-Consul at Bergen, and the whole of the arrangements in regard +to the working of the convoys, the issue of orders, etc., from the +Norwegian side came under him and his staff, to which additions were +made from time to time. The position was peculiar in that British naval +officers were working in this manner in a neutral country, and it says +much for the discretion and tact of Captain Halsey and his staff and the +courtesy of the Norwegian Government officials that no difficulties +occurred. + +Steps were also taken to appoint officers at British ports for the work +of controlling the mercantile traffic, and as the organization became +perfected so the conditions gradually improved. + +By the end of September the bad weather prevalent in the North Sea had +caused great dislocation in the convoy system. Ships composing convoys +became much scattered and arrived so late off Lerwick as to prevent them +proceeding on their passage without entering harbour. Owing to the +overcrowding of Lerwick Harbour the system of changing convoy escorts +without entering harbour had been introduced, and the delays due to bad +weather were causing great difficulties in this respect. The question of +substituting the Tyne for Lerwick as the collecting port was first +discussed at this period, but the objections to the Tyne as an assembly +port were so strong as to prevent the adoption of the proposal. + +The system of convoy outlined above continued in force from April to +December, 1917, during which period some 6,000 vessels were convoyed +between Norway and the Humber with a total loss of about seventy ships. + +There was always the danger that Germany would attack the convoys by +means of surface vessels. The safeguard against such attacks was the +constant presence of forces from the Grand Fleet in the North Sea. In +view of the fact, however, that the distance of the convoy routes from +the Horn Reef was only between 300 and 350 miles, and that on a winter +night this distance could almost be covered at a speed of 20 knots +during the fourteen or fifteen hours of darkness that prevailed, it will +be seen that unless the convoys were actually accompanied by a force +sufficient to protect them against operations by surface vessels, there +was undoubted risk of successful attack. It was not possible to forecast +the class of vessels by which such an attack might be carried out or the +strength of the attacking force. The German decision in this respect +would naturally be governed by the value of the objective and by the +risk to be run. Admiral Scheer in his book states that on one occasion, +in April, 1918, the German battle-cruisers, supported by the battleships +and the remainder of the High Sea Fleet, attempted such an attack, but +found no convoy. It was always realized by us that an attack in great +force might be made on the convoy, but such risk had to be accepted. + +The movements of the ships of the Grand Fleet were a matter for the +Commander-in-Chief, provided always that no definite orders were issued +by the Admiralty or no warning of expected attack was given to the +Commander-in-Chief, and, prior to the first attack on the Scandinavian +convoy, no special force of cruisers or light cruisers accompanied the +convoy to guard it against attack by surface vessels, although a strong +deterrent to attack lay in the frequent presence of forces from the +Grand Fleet to the southward of the convoy routes, which forces would +seriously threaten the return of any raiding German vessels. As the +enemy would naturally make the northward passage by night we could +hardly expect to sight his ships on the outward trip. + +The first attack took place at daylight on October 17. The convoy on +this occasion consisted of twelve ships, two British, one Belgian, one +Danish, five Norwegian and three Swedish, and was under the +anti-submarine escort of the destroyers _Mary Rose_ and _Strongbow_, and +two trawlers, the _Elsie_ and _P. Fannon_. At dawn, shortly after 6.0 +A.M., two strange vessels were sighted to the southward, and were later +recognized as German light cruisers. They were challenged, but replied +by opening fire at about 6.15 A.M., disabling the _Strongbow_ with the +first salvo fired. The _Mary Rose_ steamed gallantly at the enemy with +the intention of attacking with torpedoes, but was sunk by gunfire +before she could achieve her object. The enemy vessels then attacked the +convoy, sinking all except the British and Belgian vessels, which +escaped undamaged. The _Strongbow_, shelled at close range, returned the +fire, using guns and torpedoes, but was completely overwhelmed by the +guns of the light cruisers and sank at about 9.30 A.M. The trawler +_Elsie_ effected very fine rescue work amongst the survivors both from +the _Strongbow_ and ships of the convoy, whilst under fire, and both +trawlers reached Lerwick. The enemy sheered off soon after 8.0 A.M. Most +unfortunately neither the _Strongbow_ nor the _Mary Rose_ succeeded in +getting a wireless signal through to our own vessels to report the +presence of enemy ships, otherwise there can be little doubt that they +would have been intercepted and sunk. We had in the North Sea, during +the night before the attack and during the day of the attack, a +particularly strong force of light cruisers comprising four or possibly +five squadrons (a total of not less than sixteen vessels), all to the +southward of the convoy route, and had the information of the attack +come through from the destroyers, these vessels would have been informed +at once and would have had an excellent chance of intercepting the +enemy. The extreme difficulty of preventing the egress of raiders from +the North Sea at night, even when so large a force is cruising, was well +illustrated by this incident, although a little reflection on the wide +area of water to be covered, together with a knowledge of the distance +that the eye can cover on a dark night (some 200 to 300 yards), would +show how very great are the chances in favour of evasion. + +This disaster to the Scandinavian convoy was bound to bring into +prominence the question of affording to it protection against future +attacks by surface vessels, for necessarily the protection against +surface vessels differed from that against submarines, a point which was +sometimes overlooked by those who were unfamiliar with the demands of +the two wars which were being waged--the one on the surface and the +other under the surface. It was very difficult to furnish efficient +protection against the surface form of attack from the resources of the +Grand Fleet if the practice of running a daily convoy was continued, +because it was impossible to forecast the strength or exact +character--battle-cruisers, cruisers or destroyers--of the attack; and +the first step was to reduce the number of convoys and to increase +correspondingly the number of ships in each convoy. A telegram was sent +to the Admiral Commanding the Orkneys and Shetlands on October 26 asking +whether the convoys could be conveniently reduced to three per week. A +reply was received on the 29th to the effect that the convoy could be +run every third day under certain conditions; the important conditions +were the use of the Tyne instead of the Hurnber as a collecting port, +and the provision of eight extra trawlers and nine modern destroyers. +Sir Frederick Brock stated that he was assuming cruiser protection to +the convoys and that the details would need to be worked out before the +change could be made. He suggested a conference. He was requested on +October 31 to consult the Vice-Admiral Commanding East Coast of England +as to the practicability of using the Tyne as a convoy collecting port. +Meanwhile Sir F. Brock had prepared a scheme for giving effect to his +proposals, and on November 5 he sent copies of this scheme to the +Vice-Admiral Commanding East Coast of England and other officers +concerned for their consideration. + +In forwarding proposals to the Admiralty on November 22, the +Commander-in-Chief of the Grand Fleet stated that the destroyers asked +for could not be provided from the Grand Fleet. Amongst other reasons it +was pointed out that the destroyers required for screening the light +cruisers protecting the convoys would have to be supplied from that +source, thus bringing an additional strain on the Grand Fleet flotillas. +He suggested the provision of these vessels from other Commands, such as +the Mediterranean, and pointed out the manifest advantages that would +result from providing a force for this convoy work that would be +additional to the Grand Fleet flotillas. Consideration of the proposals +at the Admiralty showed once again the great difficulty of providing the +destroyers. It was impossible to spare any from the Mediterranean, where +large troop movements needing destroyer protection were in progress, and +other Commands were equally unable to furnish them. Indeed, the demands +for destroyers from all directions were as insistent as ever. The +unsuitability of the Tyne as a collecting port was remarked upon by the +Naval Staff, as well as other objections to the scheme as put forward +from Scapa. In order to decide upon a workable scheme, directions were +given that a conference was to assemble at Scapa on December 10. An +officer from the Naval Staff was detailed to attend the conference, to +point out the objections which had been raised and, amongst other +matters, to bring to notice the advantage of the Firth of Forth as a +collecting port instead of the Tyne. + +Meanwhile steps had been taken to furnish as much protection as possible +from Grand Fleet resources to the convoys against attack by enemy +surface vessels. + +The conference of December 10 came to the conclusion that the Firth of +Forth was the best assembly place, and that the port of Methil in that +locality would offer great advantages. The conference made +recommendations as to the provision of destroyers as soon as they were +available, and, amongst other matters, mentioned the necessity for an +increase in the minesweeping force at Rosyth to meet a possible +extension of enemy minelaying when the new system was in operation. + +On December 12 a second attack on the convoy took place. In this +instance the attack was carried out by four German destroyers. Two +convoys were at sea, one east-bound and one west-bound, the east-bound +convoy being attacked. It was screened against submarine attack by two +destroyers--the _Pellew_ and _Partridge_--and four armed trawlers, and +comprised six vessels, one being British and the remainder neutrals. The +attack took place in approximately Lat. 59.50 N., Long. 3.50 E., and the +action resulted in the _Partridge_, the four trawlers, and the whole of +the convoy being sunk, and the _Pellew_ was so severely damaged as to be +incapable of continuing the action. At the time of this attack a +west-bound convoy was at sea to the westward of the other convoy, and +two armoured cruisers--the _Shannon_ and _Minotaur_--with four +destroyers were acting as a covering force for the convoys against +attack by surface vessels. A wireless signal from the _Partridge_ having +been intercepted, this force steamed at full speed for the scene of the +action, the destroyers arriving in time to pick up 100 survivors from +the convoy and trawlers, but not in time to save the convoy. The 3rd +Light Cruiser Squadron, also at sea, was some 85 miles to the southward +and eastward of the convoy when attacked, but neither this force nor the +_Shannon's_ force succeeded in intercepting the enemy before he reached +port. The short hours of daylight greatly facilitated his escape. + +On receipt of the report of the meeting of December 10, and in view of +the attack of December 12, the question of the interval between convoys +was specially considered in its relation to the ability of the Grand +Fleet to furnish protection against surface attack. It was decided that +for this reason it would only be possible to sail convoys from Methil +every third day so as to avoid having two convoys at sea at a time, a +situation with which the Grand Fleet could not deal satisfactorily. The +organization then drawn up actually came into effect on January 20, +1918, after my departure from the Admiralty, and was continued with +certain modifications to the end of the war. The principal modification +was an increase of the interval between convoys, first, to four, and +later to five days in order to relieve the strain on the Grand Fleet +arising from the provision of covering forces; the disadvantage of the +resultant increased size of the convoys had to be accepted. Under the +new system the Commander-in-Chief Coast of Scotland at Rosyth--Admiral +Sir Cecil Burney--became responsible for the control of the Scandinavian +convoys, the Admiralty selecting the routes. + +The introduction of the convoy system for the Atlantic trade dates from +the early days of May, 1917, when the prospect--for it was only then a +prospect--of increasing assistance from the U.S. Navy in regard to +destroyers and other small craft for escort duty as well as convoy +cruisers for ocean work, made the system possible. Action taken with the +U.S. authorities for the introduction of a system by which the trade +from that country in neutral shipping was controlled enabled the ships +of the 10th Cruiser Squadron to be gradually withdrawn from blockade +duties and utilized as ocean convoy cruisers. Even with assistance from +the U.S. Navy in the shape of old battleships and cruisers, the use of +the 10th Cruiser Squadron, the withdrawal of the 2nd Cruiser Squadron of +five ships from the Grand Fleet, the use of the ships of the North +American and West Indies Squadron and of some of our older battleships +from the Mediterranean, there was still a shortage of convoy cruisers; +this deficiency was made up by arming a number of the faster cargo +vessels with 6-inch guns for duty as convoy cruisers. These vessels +usually carried cargo themselves, so that no great loss of tonnage was +involved. + +On May 17 a committee was assembled at the Admiralty to draw up a +complete organization for a general convoy system. (The committee was +composed of the following officers: Captain H.W. Longden, R.N., Fleet +Paymaster H.W.E. Manisty, R.N., Commander J.S. Wilde, R.N., Lieutenant +G.E. Burton, R.N., and Mr. N.A. Leslie, of the Ministry of Shipping.) +This committee had before it the experience of an experimental convoy +which arrived from Gibraltar shortly after the commencement of the +committee's work, as well as the experience already gained in the +Scandinavian and French coal trade convoys, and the evidence of officers +such as Captain R.G. Henderson, R.N., who had made a close study of the +convoy question. + +On June 6 the report was completed. This valuable report dealt with the +whole organization needed for the institution of a complete system of +convoy for homeward and outward trade in the Atlantic. In anticipation +of the report steps had already been taken to commence the system, the +first homeward bound Atlantic convoy starting on May 24. A necessary +preliminary for the successful working of the convoys was a central +organization at the Admiralty. This organization--termed the Convoy +Section of the Trade Division of the Naval Staff--worked directly under +Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff, who had recently been placed on the Board of +Admiralty with the title of Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff +(A.C.N.S.), and who was in immediate control of the Anti-Submarine, +Trade and Minesweeping Divisions of the Staff. Fleet Paymaster H.W.E. +Manisty was appointed as Organizing Manager of Convoys, and the Convoy +Section, comprising at first some ten officers, soon increased to a +total of fifteen, and was in immediate touch with the Ministry of +Shipping through a representative, Mr. Leslie. His function was to make +such arrangements as would ensure co-operation between the loading and +discharging of cargoes and convoy requirements, and generally to +coordinate shipping needs with convoy needs. + +The organizing manager of the convoys and his staff controlled the +assembly, etc., of all convoys and vessels. + +The routing of the convoys and their protection, both ocean and +anti-submarine, was arranged under the superintendence of the A.C.N.S. + +In addition to the central Admiralty organization, an officer with the +necessary staff was appointed to each convoy port of assembly at home +and abroad. This officer's duties comprised the collection and +organization of the convoy and the issue of sailing orders and necessary +printed instructions to the masters of the vessels, seeing that they +were properly equipped for sailing in company, and forwarding +information to the Admiralty of the movements of the convoy. + +An essential feature of the system was the appointment of a convoy +commodore. This officer was quite distinct from the commanding officer +of the vessel forming the ocean escort, but acted under his orders when +in company. The duty of the convoy commodore, whose broad pennant was +hoisted in one of the ships, was, subject to instructions from the +commanding officer of the escorting vessel, to take general charge of +the convoy. + +The convoy commodores were either naval officers, admirals or captains +on the active or retired lists, or experienced merchant captains. The +duties were most arduous and responsible, but there was no lack of +volunteers for this work. Many of the convoy commodores had their ships +sunk under them. The country has every reason for much gratitude to +those who undertook this difficult and very responsible task. + +By July we had succeeded in increasing the strength of the +anti-submarine convoy escorting force to thirty-three destroyers (eleven +of which belonged to the United States Navy) and ten sloops, with eleven +more destroyers for the screening of troop transports through the +submarine zone and for the protection of the convoys eastward from the +Lizard, the position in which the other screening force left them. We +had remaining twelve sloops, which, with trawlers, were engaged in +protecting that considerable portion of the trade making for the south +of Ireland, which we could not yet bring under convoy. It was intended +to absorb these sloops for convoy protection as soon as circumstances +permitted. + +At this stage it was considered that a total of thirty-three more +destroyers or sloops was needed to complete the homeward convoy system. +The Admiralty was pressed to weaken yet further the Grand Fleet +destroyer force in order to extend the convoy system, but did not +consider such a course justified in view of the general naval situation. + +In arranging the organization of the Atlantic convoy system it was +necessary to take into consideration certain other important matters. +Amongst these were the following: + +1. The selection of ports of assembly and frequency of sailing. During +the latter half of 1917 the general arrangements were as follows for the +homeward trade: + +Port of Assembly. Frequency of Sailing. Destination. + +Gibraltar Every 4 days. Alternately to + E. & W. c'ts. +Sierra Leone Every 8 days. Either coast. +Dakar Every 8 days. Either coast. +Hampton Roads (U.S.A.) Every 4 days. Alternately to + E. & W. c'ts. +New York Every 8 days. Alternately to + E. & W. c'ts. +Halifax, N.S. Every 8 days. West coast. +Sydney (Cape Breton) Every 8 days. Alternately to + E. & W. c'ts. + +Each port served a certain area of trade, and vessels engaged in that +trade met at the port of assembly for convoy to the United Kingdom or to +France. + +The total number of merchant ships sailing thus in convoy every eight +days in September, 1917, was about 150, in convoys comprising from 12 to +30 ships, and the total escorting forces comprised: + + 50 ocean escort vessels (old battleships, cruisers, armed + merchant ships and armed escort ships), + 90 sloops and destroyers, + 15 vessels of the "P" class (small destroyers), + 50 trawlers, + +in addition to a considerable force for local escort near Gibraltar, +consisting of sloops, yachts, torpedo boats, U.S. revenue cruisers, U.S. +tugs, etc. + +At this period (September, 1917) outward convoys were also in operation, +the arrangement being that the outward convoy was escorted by destroyers +or sloops to a position 300 to 400 miles from the coast clear of the +known submarine area, and there dispersed to proceed independently, +there being insufficient ocean escort vessels to take the convoy on; +about twelve more were needed for this work. The escorting vessels used +for the outward convoys were destroyers or sloops which were due to +proceed to sea to meet a homeward convoy, the routine being that the +outward convoy should sail at such a time as would ensure the homeward +convoy being met by the escort without undue delay at the rendezvous, +since any long period of waiting about at a rendezvous was impossible +for the escorting vessels as they would have run short of fuel. It was +also undesirable, as it revealed to any submarine in the neighbourhood +the approach of a convoy. + +It will be realized by seamen that this procedure (which was forced upon +us by the shortage of escorting vessels) led to many difficulties. In +the first place the homeward convoys were frequently delayed by bad +weather, etc., on passage across the Atlantic, and, owing to the +insufficient range of the wireless installations, it was often not +possible for the commodore to acquaint the Admiralty of this delay in +time to stop the sailing of the outward convoys. Again, outward convoys +were often delayed by bad weather, resulting in the homeward convoy not +being met before entering the submarine zone. As the winter drew near +this was a source of constant anxiety, since so many of the vessels +outward bound were in ballast (empty), and their speed was consequently +quickly reduced in bad weather. The ships under these conditions became +in some cases almost unmanageable in a convoy, and the responsibilities +of the escorts were much intensified. + +In September, 1917, the following was the position in respect to outward +bound convoys: + +Port of Assembly. Frequency of Sailing. Destination. + +Lamlash Every 4 days. Atlantic ports. +Milford Haven Every 4 days. Gibraltar. +Queenstown Every 4 days. Atlantic ports. +Falmouth Every 8 days. Gibraltar. +Plymouth Every 4 days. Atlantic ports. + +About 150 vessels sailed every eight days in convoys varying in strength +from 12 to 30 ships. + +There was still a good deal of Atlantic trade that was not sailing under +convoy. This comprised trade between Gibraltar and North and South +America, between the Cape, South America and Dakar, and the coastal +trade between North and South America. It was estimated that an +additional twenty-five to thirty ocean escorts and eleven destroyers +would be needed to include the above trade in convoy. + +The Mediterranean trade is dealt with later. + +The question of speed was naturally one of great importance in the +convoy system. As has been stated earlier, the speed of a convoy like +that of a squadron or fleet is necessarily that of the slowest ship, and +in order to prevent delay to shipping, which was equivalent to serious +loss of its carrying power, it was very necessary that convoys should be +composed of ships of approximately the same speed. In order to achieve +this careful organization was needed, and the matter was not made easier +by the uncertainty that frequently prevailed as to the actual sea speed +of particular merchant ships. Some masters, no doubt from legitimate +pride in their vessels, credited them with speeds in excess of those +actually attained. Frequently coal of poor quality or the fact that a +ship had a dirty bottom reduced her speed to a very appreciable extent, +and convoy commodores had occasionally to direct ships under such +conditions to drop out of the convoy altogether and make their passage +alone. Obviously this action was not taken lightly owing to the risk +involved. Decision as to the sea speed of convoys was taken by the +convoy officer at the collecting port, and he based this on the result +of an examination of the records in the different ships. As a rule +convoys were classed as "slow" and "fast." Slow convoys comprised +vessels of a speed between 8 and 12-½ knots. Fast convoys included ships +with a speed between 12-½ and 16 knots. Ships of higher speed than 16 +knots did not as a rule sail in convoys, but trusted to their speed and +dark hours for protection in the submarine area. The Gibraltar convoy +(an exception to the general rule) contained ships of only 7 knots +speed. + +With the introduction of convoys the provision of efficient signal +arrangements became a matter of importance. The issue of printed +instructions to each master and the custom introduced of assembling the +masters to meet the captain of the escorting cruiser before sailing, so +that the conduct of the convoy might be explained, had the effect of +reducing signalling to a minimum, but it was necessary that each ship +should have a signalman on board, and the provision of the number of +signalmen required was no easy matter. A good wireless installation was +essential in the escorting cruiser and in the Commodore's ship in order +that the course of the convoy could be diverted by the Admiralty if the +known or suspected presence of submarines rendered it necessary, and +also for the purpose of giving to the Admiralty early information of the +position of a convoy approaching the coast, so that the escorting +destroyers could be dispatched in time. + +Fortunately for us, German submarines constantly used their wireless +installations when operating at sea, and as a consequence our wireless +directional stations were able to fix their positions by cross bearings. +This practice on the part of the enemy undoubtedly went far to assist us +both in anti-submarine measures and in diverting trade to a safe course. + +The introduction of the convoy system rendered the provision of +anti-submarine protection at ports of assembly a matter of great +importance, owing to the very large number of vessels that were +collected in them. Some of the ports were already in possession of these +defences, but amongst those for which net protection was prepared and +laid during 1917 were Halifax, Sydney (Cape Breton), Falmouth, Lamlash, +Rosslare (on the south-east coast of Ireland), Milford Haven, Sierra +Leone and Dakar. This involved extensive work, and was undertaken and +carried out with great rapidity by Captain F.C. Learmonth and his staff, +whose work in the production of net defences during the war was of +inestimable value, not only to ourselves, but to our Allies, for whom +large supplies of net defences were also provided. The U.S.A. also +adopted our system of net defence for their harbours on entry into the +war. Many anxious months were passed at the Admiralty and at the ports +named until the anti-submarine defences were completed. + +The escort of the convoys through the submarine zone imposed very heavy +work upon the destroyers, sloops and other screening vessels. This was +due partly to the fact that there were not sufficient vessels to admit +of adequate time being spent in harbour to rest the crews and effect +necessary repairs, and partly to the nature of the work itself and the +weather conditions under which so much of it was carried out. It will be +realized by those who have been at sea in these small craft that little +rest was obtainable in the Atlantic between the west coast of Ireland +and the mouth of the Channel and positions 800 to 400 miles to the +westward, except in the finest weather. When to this is added the +constant strain imposed by watching for the momentary appearance of a +periscope or the track of a torpedo, and the vigilance needed, +especially on dark and stormy nights, to keep touch with a large convoy +of merchant ships showing no lights, with the inevitable whipping up of +occasional stragglers from the convoy, some idea may be gathered of the +arduous and unceasing work accomplished by the anti-submarine escorts. + +It had been my practice during 1917 to call for returns from all +commands of the number of hours that vessels of the destroyer and light +cruiser type were actually under way per month, and these returns showed +how heavy was the strain on the destroyers, particularly those engaged +in convoy work. + +For several months, for instance, the destroyers in the flotillas +stationed at Devonport were under way on an average for just under 50 +per cent. of the month. + +This meant that several destroyers in these flotillas averaged quite 60 +per cent. or even 70 per cent. of their time under way, as other vessels +of the flotilla were laid up during the periods under review for long +refits due to collision or other damage, in addition to the necessary +four-monthly refit. + +Anyone familiar with the delicate nature of the machinery of +destroyers--which needs constant attention--and the conditions of life +at sea in them will appreciate the significance of these figures and the +strain which the conditions imposed on those on board as well as on the +machinery. + +It was evident in November, 1917, that the personnel and the machinery, +whilst standing the strain in a wonderful manner, were approaching the +limit of endurance, and anxiety was felt as to the situation during the +winter. + +Reports came in from the Grand Fleet indicating that the work of the +destroyers engaged in protecting the ships of the Scandinavian convoy +was telling heavily on the personnel, particularly on the commanding +officers, and one report stated that the convoy work produced far +greater strain than any other duty carried out by destroyers. No mean +proportion of the officers were suffering from a breakdown in health, +and since the _whole_ of the work of the Devonport, Queenstown and North +of Ireland flotillas consisted of convoy duty, whilst only a portion of +the Grand Fleet destroyers was engaged in this work, the opinions +expressed were very disquieting in their relation to the work of the +southern flotillas. + +However, the destroyers held on here as elsewhere, but it is only just +to the splendid endurance of the young officers and the men who manned +them to emphasize as strongly as I can the magnificent work they carried +out in the face of every difficulty, and without even the incentive of +the prospect of a fight with a foe that could be seen, this being the +compensation given in their work to the gallant personnel of the Dover, +Harwich and Grand Fleet flotillas. The convoy flotillas knew that their +only chance of action was with a submarine submerged, a form of warfare +in which the result was so very frequently unknown and therefore +unsatisfactory. + +Under the new conditions the Admiralty took upon itself responsibility +for the control of the ships of the Mercantile Marine in addition to its +control of the movements of the Fleet. Indeed the control of convoys was +even more directly under the Admiralty than was the control of the +Fleet. In the latter case the proper system is for the Admiralty to +indicate to the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Fleet, or to other Commands +the objective, and to supply all the information possible regarding the +strength of the enemy, his intentions and movements and such other +information as can be of use to the Commander-in-Chief, but to leave the +handling of the force to the Commander-in-Chief concerned. This is the +course which was usually followed during the late war. It was my +invariable practice when at the Admiralty. + +In the case of convoys, however, a different system was necessary owing +to the difficulty of transmitting information, the great delay that +would be caused were this attempted, and the impossibility of control +being exercised over all convoys at sea except by the Admiralty. +Consequently the actual movements of convoys for the greater part of +their passage were directed by the Naval Staff. Owing to ships not +showing lights at night, convoys were diverted clear of one another by +wireless signal if they were getting into dangerous proximity; they were +directed to alter course as necessary to avoid areas in which submarines +had been located, and occasionally it became necessary to alter the +destination of some ships as they approached home waters. The movements +of all convoys were "plotted" from day to day, indeed from hour to hour, +on a large-scale chart at the Admiralty, and it was easy to see at a +glance the position of all the ships at any given time. + +As the convoy approached home waters the ships came within the areas of +the Commanders-in-Chief, Coast of Ireland, Devonport, and Portsmouth, +and the Vice-Admiral Commanding the Dover Patrol, and were taken in +charge by one or other of them. At each port a staff existed which kept +a constant record of the movements of ships passing through or working +in the Command, and enabled the Commander-in-Chief to take instant +action if occasion arose. + +The success of the convoy system in protecting trade is best shown by +the figures relating to the year 1917 on the succeeding page (p. 144). +In considering these figures the loose station-keeping of the ships in +the Scandinavian convoy must be borne in mind. A large proportion of the +ships in this convoy were neutrals, and it was naturally not possible to +bring these vessels under discipline as was the case with convoys +composed of purely British ships. Consequently there was much +straggling, and the losses were proportionately heavier than in most of +the Atlantic convoys. The comparatively heavy losses in the Gibraltar +convoys were probably due to these convoys traversing two dangerous +submarine zones. The extraordinary immunity of the French coal trade +convoy from serious losses is remarkable and is probably due to the +short passage which enabled most of the distance to be traversed at +night and to the ships being of light draught. + +The table on the following page would not be complete were no reference +made to the heavy losses which were experienced during the year amongst +ships which were _unescorted_ through the danger zones, owing to the +fact that no escorting vessels were available for the work. + +LOSSES IN HOMEWARD BOUND CONVOYS, 1917. + +PORTS OF DEPARTURE OF CONVOYS. +|------------------------------------------------------------------ +| | No. of | No. lost | Percentage | +| Particulars | Ships | in | of | +| of Convoys. | convoyed | convoys | losses | +| | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| NEW YORK AND | of | 447 | 5 | 1 | +| HAMPTON ROADS | Aug. | | | | +| Started in May. |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 1,000 | 11 | 1 | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 1,280 | 11 | .93 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|------------------|----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| GIBRALTAR | of | 122 | 2 | 1.6 | +| Started in July | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 359 | 8 | 2.2 | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 484 | 12 | 2.5 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| SCANDINAVIAN. | of | 3,372 | 42 | 1.2 | +| Started in April.| Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 4,800 | 6 | 1.3 | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 5,560 | 3.63 | 1.1 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| FRENCH COAL | of | 8,871 | 16 | .18 | +| TRADE | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 12,446 | 20 | .16 | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 14,416 | 24 | .16 | +| | Nov. | | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In the Dakar convoy at the end of November and in the Halifax convoy 150 +ships had been brought home without loss, whilst in the Sierra Leone +convoy 1 ship had been lost out of 90 convoyed. + +LOSSES IN OUTWARD BOUND CONVOYS STARTED IN AUGUST + +PORTS OF COLLECTION OF CONVOYS. +|------------------------------------------------------------------ +| | No. of | No. lost | Percentage | +| Particulars | Ships | in | of | +| of Convoys. | convoyed | convoys | losses | +| | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| MILFORD | of | 86 | Nil. | Nil. | +| HAVEN. | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 360 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 535 | 3 | .56 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|------------------|----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| LAMLASH. | of | 35 | 1 | 2.8 | +| | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 175 | 2 | 1.1 | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 284 | 2 | .7 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| PLYMOUTH. | of | 42 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 246 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 414 | 1 | .23 | +| | Nov. | | | | +|-----------------------------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| FALMOUTH. | of | 14 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Aug. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 146 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Oct. | | | | +| |----------------------------------------------| +| | To end | | | | +| | of | 185 | Nil. | Nil. | +| | Nov. | | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------- + +In the convoys starting from Queenstown 180 ships had been sent out up +to the end of November without loss. + +There were naturally loud complaints of these losses, but these were +inevitable in the absence of escorting vessels, and no one realized the +dangers run more than those responsible for finding protection; every +available vessel was not only working at highest possible pressure, but, +as has been mentioned, breakdowns from overwork amongst escorting craft +were causing very considerable anxiety. + +The following figures show the dangers which were run by unescorted +vessels: + + Losses amongst British merchant + steamships in 1917 by submarine + attack, under separate escort, under + Period convoy or unescorted. + + Ships under Ships Ships + separate under unescorted. + escort. convoy. + +Quarter ending June 30 ... 17 26 158 + +Quarter ending September 30 ... 14 29 148 + +October and November ... 12 23 90 + +In considering the above table it should be pointed out that a large +proportion of the losses shown under the heading "Ships unescorted" took +place amongst ships which had either dispersed from a convoy or which +were on their way to join up with a convoy at the port of assembly. It +was unfortunately quite impossible to provide escorts for all ships +either to their ports of discharge or from their loading ports to the +ports of assembly for the convoy, as we had so few vessels available for +this work. Thus, in the month of November, 1917, out of 13 vessels +engaged in the main oversea trade that were lost, 6 were in convoy, 5 +had left or had not joined their convoy, and 2 were not joining a convoy +and were unescorted. + +November was the month of smallest British losses during the period of +unrestricted warfare in 1917, and it is of interest to examine the +losses for that month. The total number of ships lost was 51. As many as +1,197 vessels entered or left home waters in _overseas trade_ exclusive +of the Mediterranean trade. Of this aggregate 87.5 per cent, were in +convoy, and the total number of these vessels sunk (13) was divided +amongst the following trades: North America, 1; Gibraltar, 5; West +Africa and South America, 1; the Bay of Biscay, Portugal and Spanish +ports west of Gibraltar, 5; Scandinavian, 1. In the same month there +were 2,159 _cross-Channel sailings _and ten losses, nine of these +vessels being unescorted. + +Particulars of the locality of the total British losses of 51 ships for +the month of November are as follows: + +East Coast north of St. Abb's 1 +East Coast between St. Abb's and Yarmouth 4 +East Coast, Yarmouth to the Downs 4 (2 by mine) +English Channel 21 (7 by mine) +Bristol Channel 4 +Irish Sea 2 +Bay of Biscay 2 +South of Cape St. Vincent 1 +Mediterranean 11 +East of Suez 1 (by mine) + +In order to give some idea of the great volume of traffic on the East +Coast and the consequent difficulty of affording proper protection, it +may be mentioned that in the month of October, 1917, the number of +vessels passing between Spurn Head (River Humber) and St. Abb's Head (to +the northward) was 740 going north and 920 going south. Of this total +only 223 of the northward--and 413 of the southward-bound vessels were +in convoy or under escort, the total losses being eleven, all amongst +the unaccompanied ships. + +Mention should be made here of the very serious situation which arose +during the year 1917 owing to the success attending the attacks by enemy +submarines on oil tankers bringing oil fuel to the United Kingdom for +the use of the Fleet. A great many of these tank vessels were of great +length and slow speed and presented the easiest of targets to the +torpedo attack of a submerged submarine. So many vessels were sunk that +our reserve of oil fuel became perilously low. Instead of a reserve of +some five or six months we were gradually reduced to one of about eight +weeks, and in order to economize expenditure of fuel it actually became +necessary at one time to issue directions that the speed of oil-burning +warships was to be limited except in cases of the greatest urgency. Such +an order in war was a matter of much gravity; the great majority of our +light cruisers and destroyers were fitted to burn oil fuel only, as well +as our latest and most powerful battleships. The crisis was eventually +overcome by drawing upon every source (including the Grand Fleet) for +destroyers to escort the tankers through the submarine danger areas, and +by the assistance given us by the Ministry of Shipping in bringing +supplies of oil fuel to this country in the double bottoms of merchant +ships. By the end of 1917 the situation had greatly improved. + +The losses of shipping during 1917 were particularly heavy in the +Mediterranean. Apart from the fact that the narrow waters of that sea +render difficult a policy of evasion on the part of merchant shipping +and give great advantages to the submarine, it was thought that the +heavy losses in the early part of the year were partly due to the method +of routeing the ships then in force, and in reply to representations +made to the French Admiralty this system was altered by the French +Commander-in-Chief. It should be noted that the Mediterranean outside +the Adriatic was under French naval control in accordance with the +agreement entered into with France and Italy. The cordial co-operation +of the French Admiralty with us, and the manner in which our proposals +were met, form very pleasant memories of my term of office at the +Admiralty. During the greater part of the year 1917 Admiral Lacaze was +Minister of Marine, whilst Admiral de Bon held office as Chief of the +Naval Staff during the whole year. Nothing could exceed the courtesy +extended to me by these distinguished officers, for whom I conceived +great admiration and respect. + +The result of the altered arrangement was a decided but temporary +improvement, and the losses again became serious during the summer +months. I then deemed it desirable that the control of the traffic +should be placed in the hands of officers stationed at Malta, this being +a central position from which any necessary change in the arrangements +could be made more rapidly and with greater facility than by the French +Commander-in-Chief, who was also controlling fleet movements and who, +for this reason alone, was not in a position to act quickly. + +A unified command in the Mediterranean would undoubtedly have been the +most satisfactory and efficient system to adopt, but the time was not +ripe for proposing that solution in 1917, and the alternative was +adopted of British control of the traffic routes throughout the whole +Mediterranean Sea subject to the general charge of the French +Commander-in-Chief which was necessary in such an eventuality arising as +an attempted "break out" of the Austrian Fleet. + +Accordingly, with the consent of the French and Italian Admiralties, +Vice-Admiral the Hon. Sir Somerset Gough-Calthorpe, K.C.B., was +dispatched to the Mediterranean as British Commander-in-Chief; he was in +control generally of all British Naval forces in the Mediterranean, and +especially in charge of all the arrangements for the protection of trade +and for anti-submarine operations, the patrol vessels of all the +nationalities concerned being placed under his immediate orders for the +purpose, whilst the whole of the Mediterranean remained under the +general control of Vice-Admiral Gauchet, the French Commander-in-Chief. +Admiral Calthorpe was assisted by French and Italian officers, and the +Japanese Government, which had previously dispatched twelve destroyers +to the Mediterranean to assist in the protection of trade, also gave to +Admiral Calthorpe the control of these vessels. + +In the requests which we addressed to the Japanese Admiralty I always +received great assistance from Admiral Funakoshi, the Naval Attaché in +London. His co-operation was of a close and most cordial nature. + +The services of the Japanese destroyers in the Mediterranean were of +considerable value to the Allied cause. A striking instance of the +seamanlike and gallant conduct of their officers and men was furnished +on the occasion of the torpedoing of a British transport by an enemy +submarine off the coast of Italy, when by the work of the Japanese +escorting destroyers the great majority of those on board were saved. + +Admiral Calthorpe on leaving England was charged with the duty of +organizing convoys in the Mediterranean on the lines of those already in +force in other waters as soon as the necessary vessels were available, +and a conference of Allied officers sat at Malta soon after his arrival, +when a definite scheme of convoy was prepared. There had always, +however, been a great scarcity of fast patrol vessels in the +Mediterranean for this work. Divided control of the forces in that area +was partly responsible for this. The Austrian destroyers were considered +by the Italian Admiralty to be so serious a menace in the Adriatic as to +render it necessary to keep in that sea the great majority of the +Italian destroyers as well as several French vessels of this class. The +situation at the eastern end of the Mediterranean necessitated a force +of some eight British destroyers being kept in the Aegean Sea to deal +with any Turkish vessels that might attempt to force the blockade of the +Dardanelles, whilst operations on the Syrian coast engaged the services +of some French and British destroyers. Continual troop movements in the +Mediterranean also absorbed the sendees of a considerable number of +vessels of this type. + +Consequently there was a great shortage of fast small craft for escort +and mercantile convoy work. It was estimated that the escort force +required for the protection of a complete system of convoy in the +Mediterranean was approximately 290 vessels, the total number available +being about 215. + +In spite, then, of the success of Admiral Calthorpe's work, the result +was that convoys were not started in the Mediterranean until October, +and they were then but inadequately protected, and losses were heavy, +both from this cause and from the fact already mentioned--that the +Mediterranean is a sea which, by reason of its confined nature, is +particularly suited for operations by submarines against trade. Its +narrowness at various points, such as the Straits of Gibraltar, the +Malta Channel, the Straits of Messina, and the passages to the Ægean +cause such convergence of trade as to make it a very simple matter for a +submarine to operate with success. Evasion by change of route is almost +impossible. Operations designed to prevent the exit of submarines from +the Adriatic were difficult, because the depth of water in the Straits +of Otranto militated against the adoption of effective mining and the +laying of an effective net barrage. + +For the above reasons the Admiralty was always very averse to the +sending of a large volume of our Far Eastern trade through the +Mediterranean, and strongly urged the Cape route instead; but the +shortage of shipping, combined with the increased length of the Cape +route, influenced the Ministry of Shipping to press strongly for the +Mediterranean as opposed to the other route. A "through" convoy from +England to Port Said was started in October, and by the end of November +two ships had been sunk out of the thirty-five that had been under +convoy. The return convoy; Port Said to England, was only started in +December. + +The losses of British merchant steamships per quarter in the +Mediterranean during 1917 is shown below: + +Quarter ending June 30 69 + +September 30 29 + +October and November 28 + +It is impossible to close this chapter describing the convoys without +mention being made of the fine work accomplished by those upon whose +shoulders fell the task of organizing and working the whole system. I +cannot hope that I have succeeded in conveying to readers of this volume +an adequate conception of the great and marvellously successful +performance that it was or a full appreciation of what immense +difficulties the staff had to contend with. They were very completely +realized by me, who saw them appear day by day and disappear under +treatment. + +The head of the organization was, of course, Rear-Admiral A.L. Duff, the +member of the Board and Staff immediately responsible also for the whole +anti-submarine organization. Only those who witnessed Admiral Duff's +work at the Admiralty during 1917 can realize the immense debt that the +country owes to his untiring ability, patience, energy and resource. +Capt. H.G. Henderson, who had been associated with the convoy system +from its start, was an invaluable assistant, as also was Commander I.W. +Carrington. Capt. Richard Webb, the Director of the Trade Division, and +Capt. Frederic A. Whitehead, the Director of the Mercantile Movements +Division, took an important share in the work of organization, whilst +the work of Convoy Manager was carried through with quite exceptional +skill by Paymaster-Commander H.W.E. Manisty. These officers were +assisted by most capable staffs, and the Ministry of Shipping, without +whose assistance the work could not possibly have been successfully +carried out, co-operated most cordially. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +THE ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATES; OUR NAVAL POLICY EXPLAINED + + +The entry of the United States of America into the war in April, 1917, +had an important although not an immediate effect upon our Naval policy. +That the effect was not immediate was due to the fact that the United +States Navy was at the time indifferently provided with the particular +classes of vessels which were so greatly needed for submarine warfare, +viz. destroyers and other small surface craft, submarines and light +cruisers; further, the United States mercantile fleet did not include +any considerable number of small craft which could be usefully employed +for patrol and escort duty. The armed forces of the United States of +America were also poorly equipped with aircraft, and had none available +for Naval work. According to our knowledge at the time the United States +Navy, in April, 1917, possessed twenty-three large and about twenty-four +small destroyers, some of which were unfit to cross the Atlantic; there +were about twelve submarines capable of working overseas, but not well +suited for anti-submarine work, and only three light cruisers of the +"Chester" class. On the other hand about seven armoured cruisers were +available in Atlantic waters for convoy duties, and the Navy included a +fine force of battleships, of which fourteen were in full commission in +April. + +At first, therefore, it was clear that the assistance which could be +given to the Allied Navies would be but slight even if all available +destroyers were sent to European waters. This was, presumably, well +known to the members of the German Naval Staff, and possibly explains +their view that the entry of the United States of America would be of +little help to the Allied cause. The Germans did not, however, make +sufficient allowance for the productive power of the United States, and +perhaps also it was thought in Germany that public opinion in the United +States would not allow the Navy Department to send over to European +waters such destroyers and other vessels of value in anti-submarine +warfare as were available at once or would be available as time +progressed. The German Staff may have had in mind the situation during +the Spanish-American War when the fact of Admiral Cervera's weak and +inefficient squadron being at large was sufficient to affect adversely +the naval strategy of the United States to a considerable extent and to +paralyze the work of the United States Navy in an offensive direction. + +Very fortunately for the Allied cause a most distinguished officer of +the United States Navy, Vice-Admiral W.S. Sims, came to this country to +report on the situation and to command such forces as were sent to +European waters. Admiral Sims, in his earlier career before reaching the +flag list, was a gunnery officer of the very first rank. He had +assimilated the ideas of Sir Percy Scott of our own Navy, who had +revolutionized British naval gunnery, and he had succeeded, in his +position as Inspector of Target Practice in the United States Navy, in +producing a very marked increase in gunnery efficiency. Later when in +command, first of a battleship, then of the destroyer flotillas, and +finally as head of the United States Naval War College, his close study +of naval strategy and tactics had peculiarly fitted him for the +important post for which he was selected, and he not only held the +soundest views on such subjects himself, but was able, by dint of the +tact and persuasive eloquence that had carried him successfully through +his gunnery difficulties, to impress his views on others. + +Admiral Sims, from the first moment of his arrival in this country, was +in the closest touch with the Admiralty in general and with myself in +particular. His earliest question to me was as to the direction in which +the United States Navy could afford assistance to the Allied cause. My +reply was that the first essential was the dispatch to European waters +of every available destroyer, trawler, yacht, tug and other small craft +of sufficient speed to deal with submarines, other vessels of these +classes following as fast as they could be produced; further that +submarines and light cruisers would also be of great value as they +became available. Admiral Sims responded wholeheartedly to my requests. +He urged the Navy Department with all his force to send these vessels +and send them quickly. He frequently telegraphed to the United States +figures showing the tonnage of merchant ships being sunk week by week in +order to impress on the Navy Department and Government the great urgency +of the situation. I furnished him with figures which even we ourselves +were not publishing, as I felt that nothing but the knowledge given by +these figures could impress those who were removed by 3,000 miles of sea +from the scene of a Naval war unique in many of its features. + +Meanwhile the British Naval Commander-in-Chief in North American waters, +Vice-Admiral Sir Montague Browning, had been directed to confer with the +United States Navy Department and to point out our immediate +requirements and explain the general situation. + +On April 6 the United States declared war on Germany. On April 13 we +received information from Washington that the Navy Department was +arranging to co-operate with our forces for the protection of trade in +the West Atlantic should any enemy raiders escape from the North Sea, +that six United States destroyers would be sent to European waters in +the immediate future, and that the United States would undertake the +protection of trade on the west coast of Canada and North America as +well as in the Gulf of Mexico. It was further indicated that the number +of United States destroyers for European waters would be increased at an +early date. The vital importance of this latter step was being +constantly urged by Admiral Sims. + +When Mr. Balfour's mission left for the United States in April, +Rear-Admiral Sir Dudley de Chair, the naval representative on the +mission, was requested to do all in his power to impress on the United +States Navy Department the very urgent necessity that existed for the +immediate provision of small craft for anti-submarine operations in +European waters and for the protection of trade. + +He was informed that the position could not be considered satisfactory +until the number of trawlers and sloops available for patrol and escort +duty was greatly increased and that a total of at least _another hundred +destroyers was required_. + +It was pointed out that difficulty might arise from the natural desire +of the United States Government to retain large numbers of small craft +for the protection of shipping in the vicinity of the United States +coast, but it was at the same time indicated that our experience showed +that the number of submarines that the Germans could maintain on the +western side of the Atlantic was very small, and that the real danger +therefore existed in European waters. + +Admiral de Chair was asked amongst other matters to emphasize the +assistance which United States submarines could render on the eastern +side of the Atlantic, where they would be able to undertake +anti-submarine operations, and he was also directed to endeavour to +obtain assistance in the production of mines, and the provision of ships +for minelaying work. Great stress was, of course, laid upon the very +important question of a large output of merchant ships and the necessity +for repairing and putting into service the German merchant ships +interned in U.S. ports was urged; directions were also given to Admiral +de Chair to ascertain from Mr. Schwab, of the Bethlehem Steel Company, +and other firms, to what extent they could build for the British Navy +destroyers, sloops, trawlers and submarines, and the rapidity of such +production. + +The need for sloops was so great that I sent a personal telegram to Mr. +Schwab, whose acquaintance I had made in October, 1914, on the occasion +of the loss of the _Audacious_, begging him to build at once a hundred +of these vessels to our order. I felt certain from the experience we had +gained of Mr. Schwab's wonderful energy and power, as illustrated by the +work accomplished by him in providing us in 1915 with ten submarines +built in the extraordinarily short period of five months, that he would +produce sloops at a very rapid rate and that there would be no delay in +starting if he undertook the work. The drawings had already been sent +over. However he was not able to undertake the work as the U.S. +Government decided that his yards would all be required for their own +work. This was unfortunate, as I had hoped that these vessels would have +been built in from four to six months, seeing that the drawings were +actually ready; they would have been invaluable in the latter part of +1917. + +Whilst the mission was in the United States constant communications +passed on these subjects, the heavy losses taking place in merchant +ships were stated, and every effort was made to impress upon the Navy +Department the urgency of the situation. + +The tenor of our communications will be gathered from these quotations +from a personal telegram sent by me to Admiral de Chair on April 26, +viz.: + + +"For Rear-Admiral de Chair from First Sea Lord. + +"You must emphasize most strongly to the United States authorities the +very serious nature of the shipping position. We lost 55 British ships +last week approximately 180,000 tons and rate of loss is not +diminishing. + + * * * * * + +"Press most strongly that the number of destroyers sent to Ireland +should be increased to twenty-four at once if this number is available. + +"Battleships are not required but concentration on the vital question of +defeat of submarine menace is essential. + +"Urge on the authorities that everything should give way to the +submarine menace and that by far the most important place on which to +concentrate patrols is the S.W. of Ireland. + + * * * * * + +"You must keep constantly before the U.S. authorities the great gravity +of the situation and the need that exists for immediate action. + +"Our new methods will not be effective until July and the critical +period is April to July." + + +It was very necessary to bring home to the United States Navy Department +the need for early action. Admiral Sims informed me--as soon as he +became aware of the heavy losses to merchant shipping that were taking +place--that neither he nor anyone else in the United States had realized +that the situation was so serious. This was, of course, largely due to +the necessity which we were under of not publishing facts which would +encourage the enemy or unduly depress our own people. Further, he +informed me that an idea was prevalent in the United States that the +_morale_ of the German submarine crews had been completely broken by +their losses in submarines. This impression was the successful result of +certain action on our part taken with intent to discourage the enemy. +Whatever may have been the case later in the year, we had, however, no +evidence in the spring of 1917 of deterioration of _morale_ amongst +German submarine crews, nor was there any reason for such a result. It +was therefore necessary to be quite frank with Admiral Sims; we knew +quite well that we could not expect new measures to be effective for +some few months, and we knew also that we could not afford a continuance +of the heavy rate of loss experienced in April, without a serious effect +being produced upon our war effort. We were certainly not in the state +of panic which has been ascribed to us in certain quarters, but we did +want those who were engaged in the war on the side of the Allies to +understand the situation in order that they might realize the value that +early naval assistance would bring to the Allied cause. There is no +doubt that great difficulty must be experienced by those far removed +from the theatre of war in understanding the conditions in the war zone. +This was exemplified at a time when we had organized the trade in +convoys and the system was showing itself effective in greatly reducing +losses from submarine attack. We were pressing the United States to +strengthen our escorting forces as far as possible in order to extend +the convoy system, when a telegram arrived from Washington to the effect +that it was considered that ships which were armed were safer when +sailing singly than when in convoy. It has also been stated that the +Admiralty held the view at this time that no solution of the problem +created by the enemy's submarine campaign was in sight. This is +incorrect. We had confidence in the measures--most of them dependent on +the manufacture of material--which were in course of preparation by the +time the United States entered the war, but our opinion was that there +was no _immediate_ solution beyond the provision of additional vessels +for the protection of shipping, and the reason for this view was that +time was required before other measures could be put into effective +operation; this is evident from the final paragraph of my telegram to +Admiral de Chair, dated April 26, which I have quoted. + +The first division of six United States destroyers, under the command of +Lieut.-Commander T.K. Taussig, arrived in British waters on May 2, and +they were most welcome. It was interesting to me personally that +Lieut.-Commander Taussig should be in command, as he, when a +sub-lieutenant, had been wounded on the same day as myself during the +Boxer campaign in China, and we had been together for some time +subsequently. + +At about this time our advice was sought by the United States Navy +Department as to the best type of anti-submarine craft for the United +States to build; on this subject a very short experience in the war +theatre caused Admiral Sims to hold precisely similar views to myself. +As a result of the advice tendered a great building programme of +destroyers, large submarine-hunting motor launches and other small craft +was embarked upon. Although the completion of these vessels was delayed +considerably beyond anticipated dates, they did, in 1918, exercise an +influence on the submarine war. + +The Germans made one great mistake, for which we were thankful. As +already mentioned, it was anticipated that they would send submarines to +work off the United States coast immediately after the declaration of +war by that country. Indeed we were expecting to hear of the presence of +submarines in the West Atlantic throughout the whole of 1917. They did +not appear there until May, 1918. The moral effect of such action in +1917 would have been very great and might possibly have led to the +retention in the United States of some of the destroyers and other small +craft which were of such assistance in European waters in starting the +convoy system. Admiral Sims was himself, I think, anxious on this head. +When the Germans did move in this direction in 1918 it was too late; it +was by that time realized in the United States that the enemy could not +maintain submarines in sufficient numbers in their waters to exercise +any decisive effect, although the shipping losses might be considerable +for a time, and consequently no large change of policy was made. + +As is well known, Admiral Sims, with the consent of the United States +Navy Department, placed all vessels which were dispatched to British +waters under the British flag officers in whose Command they were +working. This step, which at once produced unity of command, is typical +of the manner in which the two navies, under the guidance of their +senior officers, worked together throughout the war. The destroyers +operating from Queenstown came under Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly; Captain +Pringle, the senior United States officer on the spot, whose services +were ever of the utmost value, was appointed as Chief of the Staff to +Sir Lewis Bayly, whilst on the occasion of Sir Lewis Bayly, at my urgent +suggestion, consenting to take a few days' leave in the summer of 1917, +Admiral Sims, at our request, took his place at Queenstown, hoisting his +flag in command of the British and United States naval forces. The +relations between the officers and men of the two navies in this Command +were of the happiest possible nature, and form one of the pleasantest +episodes of the co-operation between the two nations. The United States +officers and men very quickly realized the strong personality of the +Commander-in-Chief at Queenstown, and became imbued with the same +feelings of great respect and admiration for him as were held by British +officers and men. Also he made the officers feel that Admiralty House, +Queenstown, was their home when in port, and saw that everything +possible was done for the comfort of the men. The very high standard of +duty set by Sir Lewis, and very fully sustained by him, was cheerfully +and willingly followed by the United States force, the personnel of +which earned his warmest admiration. I think it will be agreed in years +to come that the comradeship between the two navies, first initiated in +the Queenstown Command, went very far towards cementing the bonds of +union between the two great English-speaking nations. + +This was the first step in co-operation. The next was taken when the +United States Navy Department, as the result of a request made by us to +Admiral Sims, sent to Gibraltar a detachment of three light cruisers and +a number of revenue cutters as patrol and escort vessels, placing the +whole force under the British senior naval officer at Gibraltar, +Rear-Admiral Heathcote Grant. Here again the relations between the two +navies were of the happiest nature. Finally, later in the year, I +discussed with Admiral Sims the desirability of a small force of United +States battleships being sent to reinforce the Grand Fleet. + +When the project was first mentioned my object in asking for the ships +was that they might relieve some of our earlier "Dreadnoughts," which at +that time it was desired to use for another purpose. I discussed the +matter also with Admiral Mayo, the Commander-in-Chief of the United +States Atlantic Fleet, during his visit to this country in August, 1917, +and with Admiral Benson, the Chief of Operations in the United States +Navy Department, when he came over later in the year. Admiral Benson +gave directions that four coal-burning battleships should be sent over. +We were obliged to ask for coal-burning battleships instead of the more +modern vessels with oil-fired boilers owing to the great shortage of oil +fuel in this country and the danger of our reserves being still further +depleted. These vessels, under Rear-Admiral Hugh Rodman, arrived in +British waters early in December, 1917, and formed a division of the +Grand Fleet. The co-operation afloat was now complete, and all that was +needed was further co-operation between the British Admiralty and the +United States Navy Department. + +This had already formed the subject of discussions, first between +Admiral Sims and myself, and later with Admirals Mayo and Benson. + +During the summer of 1917 Admiral Sims had been invited to attend the +daily meetings of the naval members of the operations side of the Board, +an invitation which he accepted, and his co-operation was of great +value; but we both felt it desirable to go a step farther, and I had +suggested the extreme desirability of the United States Navy Department +sending officers of experience of different ranks to work in the +Admiralty, both on the operations and material side, officers upon whom +the Navy Department could rely to place before us the views of the +Department and to transmit their view of the situation as the result of +their work and experience at the Admiralty. We had pressed strongly for +the adoption of this course. Admiral Benson, after discussions, assented +to it, and the officers on the material side commenced work in the +Admiralty towards the end of 1917, whilst those on the operations side +joined the War Staff early in 1918. + +It was felt that this course would complete the co-operation between the +navies of the two countries and, further, that the United States Navy +Department would be kept in the closest possible touch with the British +Admiralty in all respects. + +It is particularly to be remembered that even before we had established +this close liaison the whole of the United States naval forces in +British waters had been placed under the command of British naval +officers. This step, so conducive to good results owing to the unity of +command which was thus obtained, won our highest admiration, showing as +it did a fine spirit of self-effacement on the part of the senior +American naval officers. + +The visits of Admirals Mayo and Benson to this country were productive +of very good results. The exchange of information which took place was +most beneficial, as was the experience which the admirals gained of +modern naval warfare. Moreover, the utterly baseless suggestion which +had, unfortunately, found expression in some organs of the Press of the +United States that we were not giving the fullest information to the +Navy Department was completely disproved. + +When Admiral Mayo arrived in England he informed me that the main +objects of his visit as Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet were: + +(1) To ascertain our present policy and plans. + +(2) To inquire as to the changes, if any, that were contemplated in the +immediate or more distant future. + +(3) To ascertain what further assistance it was desired that the United +States should provide from resources then available or likely to be soon +available, and the measures that the United States should take to +provide future forces and material. + +Papers were prepared under my direction for Admiral Mayo giving full +information of our immediate needs, of past procedure and of future +plans. As to our needs, the main requests were: + +(1) An increase in the number of destroyers, in order to enlarge the +convoy system and to provide better protection for each convoy. An +additional 55 destroyers were stated to be required for this service. + +(2) An increase in the number of convoy cruisers for the same reason. +The total addition of cruisers or old battleships was given as 41. + +(3) An increase in the number of patrol craft, tugs, etc., for +anti-submarine work. + +(4) The rapid building of merchant ships. + +(5) The supply of a large number of mines for the proposed barrage in +the North Sea, and assistance towards laying them by the provision of +United States minelaying vessels. + +(6) Aircraft assistance in the shape of three large seaplane stations on +the coast of Ireland, with some 36 machines at each station. + +(7) The provision of four coal-burning battleships of the "Dreadnought" +type to replace Grand Fleet "Dreadnought" battleships which it was +desired to use for other purposes. + +Admiral Mayo was informed that some 100,000 mines would be required from +the Americans for forming and maintaining that portion of the North Sea +Barrage which it was suggested should be laid by them, in addition to +the large number that it was proposed that we ourselves should lay in +the barrage, and that as the barrage would need patrolling by a large +number of small craft, great help would be afforded if the United States +could provide some of these vessels. It was estimated at that time that +the barrage would absorb the services of some 250 small vessels in order +that a sufficient number might be kept constantly on patrol. + +It may be of interest to give the history of the North Sea Barrage so +far as I can recollect it. Our views on such a scheme were sought by the +United States Navy Department in the spring of 1917. Owing to various +military circumstances, even at that time we had no prospect of +obtaining mines in adequate numbers for such work for at least nine to +twelve months, nor could we provide the necessary craft to patrol the +barrage. Our view was that such mines as became available during the +last months of 1917 would be more effective if laid nearer to the German +North Sea naval bases, and in the Straits of Dover, than at such a +distance from these bases as the suggestion involved. Apart from our +desire to stop the submarines near their bases, the pros and cons of the +scheme were as follows: + +The advantages were: + +(1) That, except for the difficulty of preventing the submarines from +using Norwegian territorial waters for egress, a North Sea Barrage would +be a menace to submarines using the Kattegat exit as well as those +coming from North Sea bases. + +(2) That the enemy would be unable to sweep up the minefield, owing to +its distance (over 200 miles) from his bases. + +The disadvantages were: + +(1) The immense number of mines required--some 120,000, excluding +reserves--and the improbability of producing them in Great Britain. + +(2) The great depth of water in which many of them were to be moored, a +depth in which no mines had ever been successfully laid before; time +would be required to devise arrangements that would enable the mines to +be laid at such depths. + +(3) The very large number of patrol craft that would be needed to force +submarines to dive into that portion of the minefield which was safe for +surface vessels and the difficulty of maintaining them at sea in bad +North Sea weather. + +(4) The difficulty of preventing egress by the submarines in Norwegian +territorial waters, in which, even if mines were laid, they would have +to be moored at such a depth as not to constitute a danger to vessels on +the surface. + +Shortly after the subject was broached to us we learned that the United +States Navy had devised a mine that it was expected would be +satisfactory for the purpose of the barrage. An experienced mining +officer was at once sent over by us to inspect the mine and to give to +the United States officers such assistance as was possible due to his +great knowledge of mining under war conditions. + +When he arrived in the United States the mine was still in the +experimental stage, but later he reported that it promised to be +successful, and in view of the great manufacturing resources in America, +it appeared that a considerable proportion of the mines for the barrage +could be provided by the United States Navy. Our own efforts to produce +a mine suitable for very great depths were also proving successful and +anticipations as to manufacture were optimistic. Accordingly plans were +prepared for a barrage across the North Sea, which were given to Admiral +Mayo before he left England on his return to the United States. Without +seriously relaxing our mining operations in the Heligoland Bight, and +without interfering with our mine barrage on the Folkestone-Grisnez +line, we anticipated at this time that we could provide mines for our +portion of the North Sea Barrage by the time that the United States +supply of mines was in readiness to be laid. + +Admiral Mayo was also furnished with papers dealing at length with our +naval policy at the time and the intended future policy, both in home +waters and abroad. Papers were given him relating to our air policy, to +the attitude of neutral countries, to the Belgian coast problem, to the +blockade, to the defence of trade (including one on the convoy system), +to such subjects as the defensive armament of merchant ships with guns, +smoke apparatus and mine defence gear, the instruction of the personnel +in their use, and the system of issuing route instruction to merchant +ships. An important statement was also supplied giving a detailed +account of our anti-submarine policy, both at the time and in the +future. + +These papers gave the fullest information on the naval problem, and were +intended to put the United States Naval Department in a position to +appreciate the whole position and its many embarrassments, though we +realized that these could be appreciated only by those who, like Admiral +Sims, were in daily contact with the problems. It will possibly be of +further interest if mention is made of some of the points to which +attention was drawn. + +Admiral Mayo, for instance, was informed that British naval policy was +being directed in 1917, as during the remainder of the war, to exerting +constant economic pressure upon the enemy with a view to forcing him to +come to terms. We also endeavoured to prevent the enemy from interfering +with the conduct of the war by ourselves and our Allies. In the +effective pursuit of that policy the duty of the Navy involved: + +(1) The protection of the sea communications of the Allied armies and +the protection of British and Allied trade. + +(2) The prevention of enemy trade in order to interfere with his +military operations and to exert economic pressure. + +(3) Resistance to invasion and raids. + +It was pointed out that the question at issue in each case was the +control of sea communications, and in order to attain that control +permanently and completely the enemy's naval forces both above and below +water had to be destroyed or effectually masked. As the weaker German +Fleet not unnaturally refused decisive action and as its _destruction_ +had hitherto not been achieved, we had adopted a policy of guarding an +area between our vital communications and the enemy's ports, and of +guarding the areas through which the trade and transports passed; these +were the only methods of frustrating attacks made either by surface +vessels or by submarines which succeeded in reaching open waters. It was +pointed out that a combination of these two methods had been in force +during the wars of the eighteenth century, blockades being combined with +the convoy system and the patrol of local areas by frigates, etc. +History, in fact, was repeating itself. + +We mentioned that a close blockade of the German North Sea and Baltic +ports presented insuperable difficulties under the conditions of modern +warfare, and the alternative of controlling the Dover and +Norway-Scotland exits to the North Sea had been adopted. The former +protected the communications of the armies in France, whilst the two +combined covered the maritime communications of the world outside the +North Sea and Baltic, and if they could be effectively guarded our first +two objects would be attained. + +So far as the Dover exit was concerned we stated that the narrowness of +the waters, with the consequent risk to the enemy from our mines and +torpedoes, had so far acted as a deterrent to his capital ships; we had +to depend on the light forces at Harwich and Dover to deal with any +enemy surface craft attacking the southern area from German ports. + +We pointed out that the control of the Norway-Scotland exit depended +upon the presence of the Grand Fleet at Rosyth or at Scapa. This fleet +ensured the safety of all the vessels engaged in protecting trade and in +hunting submarines outside the North Sea. + +Mention was made of the fact that the enemy could not open the sea +routes for his own war ships without risking a serious action, and that +so far he had shown no inclination to run that risk. The Battle of +Jutland having been fought in the previous year, any future movement of +the High Sea Fleet into the North Sea would probably be merely with the +object of drawing our capital ships into prepared areas so as to bring +about a process of attrition by mines and torpedoes. Such a movement had +been carried out on August 19, 1916. The reasons which had led to the +adoption of the Orkney-Faroe-Iceland blockade line were also explained. + +It was pointed out that in the early stages of the war, the foregoing +general dispositions had sufficed to protect the Allies' communications +and to throttle those of the enemy outside the Baltic. Although enemy +cruisers in foreign waters and a few raiding vessels which had evaded +the blockade had inflicted losses on trade, losses from such causes +could not reach really serious proportions so long as the enemy trusted +to evasion and refused to face the Grand Fleet. The danger of serious +loss from attack by raiding surface craft had also been greatly +minimized by the adoption of the convoy system. But as the enemy's +submarines increased in size, efficiency and numbers, the situation had +been modified, for evasion by submarines of the command exercised by the +Grand Fleet was easy, and our vital sea communications could be attacked +by them without the risk of a fleet action. + +So far as the protection of trade was concerned, the effect therefore of +the submarine campaign had been to remove the barrier established by the +Grand Fleet and to transfer operations to the focal areas and approach +routes. + +As the situation developed, a policy of dealing with the submarines by +armed patrol craft and decoy ships in these areas had therefore been put +into force. Merchant ships had been armed as rapidly as possible, and in +addition efforts had been made to intercept the submarines _en route_ to +these areas both in the vicinity of German waters and farther afield. + +The great area covered by the approach routes and the increasing radius +of submarine operations had made the provision of a sufficient number of +patrol vessels a practical impossibility and had led to a general +adoption of the convoy system as rapidly as the supply of fast small +craft made this possible. + +The methods of attacking German submarines before they could reach open +waters, by extensive mining in the Heligoland Bight, with the exception +of Dutch and Danish territorial waters, were also mentioned. + +As regards _future_ naval policy it was pointed out that the enemy +submarine campaign was the dominating factor to such an extent that any +sustained increase in the then rate of sinking merchant ships might +eventually prove disastrous. + +Mention was made of the fact that the enemy was still producing +submarines faster than the Allies were destroying them; the policy of +coping with submarines after they reached the open sea had not as yet +been sufficiently effective to balance construction against losses, even +in combination with the extensive minefields laid in the Heligoland +Bight. + +The future policy was therefore being directed towards an attempt at a +still more concentrated and effective control in the areas between the +enemy's ports and our trade routes, and it was proposed to form some +description of block or barrage through which the enemy submarines would +not be able to pass without considerable risk. Four forms had been +considered: + +(1) A method of blocking either mechanically or by mines all the exits +of the submarines from their North Sea or Baltic bases. + +(2) A barrage of mines at different depths, from near the surface of the +sea to near the bottom. + +(3) A combination of deep mines with a patrolling force of surface craft +and aircraft whose object would be to force the submarines under the +surface into the minefield. + +(4) A force of surface craft and aircraft patrolling an area of +sufficient extent to prevent submarines coming to the surface to +recharge their batteries during the hours of darkness. + +Admiral Mayo was informed that in our opinion the first scheme as given +above, viz. _that of absolutely sealing the exits, was the only radical +cure for the evil_, but that there were very great difficulties to be +overcome before such an operation could be successfully carried out. He +was shown the plan that had been prepared for a mechanical block of all +the enemy North Sea bases, and he entirely concurred in the +impracticability of carrying it out. Such a plan had been advocated by +some officers and by other people; it was, of course, most attractive in +theory and appealed strongly to those who looked at the question +superficially. When, however, a definite operation came to be worked out +in detail the difficulties became very apparent, and even enthusiastic +supporters of the _idea_ were forced to change their views. It was not a +matter for surprise to me that the idea of sealing the exits from +submarine bases was urged by so many people on both sides of the +Atlantic. It was, of course, the obvious counter to the submarine +campaign, and it appealed with force to that considerable section which +feels vaguely, and rightly, that _offensive_ action is needed, without +being quite so clear as to the means by which it is to be carried out. + +In this particular case I informed the clever and able officers to whom +the planning of the operation was entrusted that they were to proceed on +the assumption that we intended to seal the enemy's ports somehow, and +that they were to devise the best possible scheme, drawing up all the +necessary orders for the operations. This was done in the most complete +detail and with great care and ingenuity, but at the end there was no +difference of opinion whatever as to the inadvisability of proceeding +with the operations. + +It is to be observed in connexion with this question that sealing the +North Sea bases would not have been a complete cure, since submarines +could still make their exit via the Kattegat, where we could not block +channels without violating the neutrality of other nations. + +The final conclusion arrived at _was to use a combination of the last +three alternatives_ provided that _a satisfactory type of mine_ could be +produced in sufficient numbers and a sufficient supply of small craft +provided by ourselves and the United States. + +Full details were given to Admiral Mayo of the proposed North Sea +Barrage on a line totalling 230 miles in length, which was divided into +three parts, Areas A, B and C, of which Area A only would be dangerous +to surface vessels. + +It was estimated that Area A would require 36,300 mines, and it was +proposed that this area should be mined by the United States forces with +United States mines. + +It was proposed that the British should mine Area B, the requirements +being 67,500 mines, and that the United States should mine Area C, for +which 18,000 United States mines would be required. + +The reasons governing the selection of the mine barrage area were fully +given, and the advantages arising from the use of the United States +pattern of mine instead of the British mine for Areas A and C were +stated. + +Admiral Mayo was also informed of our intention to establish a mine +barrage in the Channel, on the Folkestone-Grisnez line, as soon as mines +were available, with a strong force of patrol vessels stationed there, +whose duty it would be to compel enemy submarines to dive into the +minefield. He was further made acquainted with our intended policy of +still closer minelaying in the Heligoland Bight. + +Although Admiral Mayo was not actually informed of the details of the +future policy which it was hoped to adopt in the Adriatic for the +improvement of the Otranto Barrage, various schemes were at the time +being worked out between the British, French and Italian Admiralties, +having as their object the prevention or obstruction of the exit of +enemy submarines from the Adriatic, in the same way as it was hoped to +obstruct German submarines from making their exit from the North Sea +without incurring heavy losses. The great depth of water in the southern +part of the Adriatic constituted the main difficulty facing us in the +solution of this problem. In August, 1917, it was, however, definitely +decided to establish a barrage of nets and mines across the Straits of +Otranto, and the work was put in hand. This became effective during +1918. + +The paper on Naval Air Policy showed the aim of the Admiralty to be: + +To provide in sufficient numbers a type of airship which would be able +to scout with the Grand Fleet, and, in this respect, to perform the duty +of light cruisers. Airship stations had been established on the East +Coast for this purpose. + +To provide also a type of airship for coastal patrol work and for the +escort of merchant ships in convoy. For these airships stations had been +established on the East, South and West Coasts and at Scapa. + +To provide a sufficient supply of kite balloons for the work of the +Grand Fleet. Fleet kite balloon stations had already been established at +Rosyth and Scapa, and the resources of the latter station were +supplemented by a kite balloon ship. It was intended also to provide +kite balloons for flotillas or single vessels engaged in submarine +hunting or in convoy work. A large number of kite balloon stations for +anti-submarine work had been or were being established round the coast +for this work. + +As to the future programme of rigid airships, Admiral Mayo was told that +it was under consideration to construct three new rigid stations, also +that three new stations for the use of non-rigids for anti-submarine +work were to be established, while it was also proposed to provide +sufficient resources to allow of a number of kite balloons being worked +in vessels between the North of Scotland and Norway and to the eastward +of the English Channel. + +Admiral Mayo was also informed that it was proposed to provide +sufficient "heavier than air" craft of various types for the Fleet, both +to insure adequate air reconnaissance and to drive off hostile aircraft. +The Grand Fleet was at the time already provided with three seaplane +carriers, and the _Furious_ and other special vessels were being fitted +to carry aircraft. Many of the armoured vessels and light cruisers of +the Fleet had also been fitted to carry aircraft, whilst the Harwich +light cruiser force possessed one seaplane carrier; two carriers were +devoted to anti-submarine work, and three were employed in the +Mediterranean. + +It was further stated that machines for naval reconnaissance were +working from several East Coast stations, and that lighters to carry +seaplanes for more extended reconnaissance and offensive work were under +construction. The work carried out by our naval aircraft off the Belgian +coast, comprising the duty of keeping the coast under constant +observation, of spotting the gunfire of ships, of fighting aircraft and +bombing objectives of importance, were also mentioned, as well as the +work in the Mediterranean, where there were four bases in the Aegean. + +The extensive anti-submarine patrol work round the British Isles and in +the Mediterranean was touched upon, there being "heavier than air" +stations at the time at + +Houton Bay. +Dundee. +South Shields. +Bembridge. +Calshot. +Portland. +Killingholme. +Yarmouth. +Felixstowe. +Westgate. +Dover. +Newhaven. +Cherbourg. +Plymouth. +Newlyn. +Scilly. +Fishguard. + +Steps were being taken to extend the number of stations as soon as +possible, the new programme including stations at such places as + +Padstow. +Wexford. +Queenstown. +Berehaven. +Loch Foyle. +Loch Ryan (or in the Hebrides). +Shetlands. +Peterhead. + +In the event of the United States being in a position to co-operate in +the work, it was recommended that the three main seaplane stations in +Ireland should be taken over by the Americans, and equipped, manned and +controlled entirely by United States personnel. + +In regard to the convoy system a full description of the whole +organization was given, with the results up to date, and details of the +vessels available and still needed for its protection. + +Full information was afforded on the subject of the arming of merchant +ships and fitting other defensive measures to them, and the routeing +system in use for merchant ships was described in detail. + +In the remarks on our anti-submarine warfare it was pointed out that +anti-submarine measures were carried out both on the surface, under +water, and in the air. + +The surface measures were described as follows: + +In twelve of the twenty-two areas into which the waters round the United +Kingdom were divided, regular _hunting flotillas_ were at work, +comprising trawlers and motor launches fitted with hydrophones. Before +the institution of the convoy system a few fast vessels, such as +destroyers or "P" boats, had been formed into hunting flotillas, but the +convoy work had necessitated the withdrawal of all these vessels, and +the work of the flotillas had suffered in consequence, the speed of +trawlers being too slow to offer the same prospect of success in such +anti-submarine measures. The flotillas of motor launches which had been +formed were of considerable utility in fine weather, but they could only +operate in comparatively smooth water. + +At the time of Admiral Mayo's visit a force of thirty-two trawlers to +work with about six sloops or destroyers was being organized as vessels +became available, to operate in the North Sea with a view to engaging +enemy submarines on passage in those waters. + +It was also pointed out to Admiral Mayo that the coast patrol vessels +which were not actually in the hunting flotillas were all engaged in +anti-submarine work and did frequently come into action against the +German submarines. + +Finally Admiral Mayo was informed that the convoy system itself was +looked upon as an offensive measure since the German submarines would, +in order to attack vessels under convoy, be forced into contact with the +fast craft engaged in the work of escort and thus place themselves in +positions in which they could themselves be successfully attacked. + +Admiral Mayo, during his stay in European waters, inspected some of our +naval bases and paid a visit to the Grand Fleet. + +He crossed to France in order that he might see the work being carried +out at French ports by vessels of the United States Navy, and while +returning from this visit he honoured the British Navy by accompanying +Sir Reginald Bacon and myself in H.M.S. _Broke_ to witness a bombardment +of Ostend by the monitor _Terror_. On this occasion Admiral Mayo's flag +was hoisted in the _Broke_ and subsequently presented to him as a +souvenir of the first occasion of a United States Admiral having been +under fire in a British man-of-war. It is satisfactory to record that +subsequent aerial photographs showed that much damage to workshops, +etc., had been caused by this bombardment. + +The Admiral and his Staff very quickly established themselves in the +high regard of British naval officers, and it was with much regret that +we witnessed their return to the United States. My own associations with +the Admiral had led to a feeling of great friendship. He left behind him +his Chief of Staff, Captain Jackson, who to our great regret had been +seriously injured in a motor accident. + +Admiral Benson's visit took place later in the year. I had written to +him urging him to come across so that he might have first-hand knowledge +of the state of affairs and of the policy being followed. During his +visit the same questions were discussed as with Admiral Mayo, and +important action was taken in the direction of closer naval co-operation +between the Allies by the formation of an Allied Naval Council +consisting of the Ministers of Marine and the Chiefs of the Naval Staff +of the Allied Nations and of the United States. This proposal had been +under discussion for some little time, and, indeed, naval _conferences_ +had been held on previous occasions. The first of these during my tenure +of office at the Admiralty was on January 23 and 24, 1917, and another +was held during the visit of Admiral Mayo and at the instigation of the +Government of the United States on September 4 and 5, 1917. On this +latter occasion important discussions had taken place, principally on +the subject of submarine warfare, the methods of dealing with it in home +waters and in the Mediterranean, and such matters as the provision of +mercantile shipping for the use of our Allies. + +There was, however, no regular council sitting at specified intervals, +and it was this council which came into being in the early part of +December. Its functions were to watch over the general conduct of the +naval war and to insure co-ordination of the effort at sea as well as +the development of all scientific operations connected with the conduct +of the war. + +Special emphasis was laid upon the fact that the individual +responsibility of the respective Chiefs of the Naval Staff and of the +Commanders-in-Chief at sea towards their Governments as regards +operations in hand as well as the strategical and technical disposition +of the forces placed under their command remained unchanged; this +proviso was a necessity in naval warfare, and was very strongly insisted +upon by the Admiralty. + +The attention of the Council was directed at the earliest meetings to +the situation in the Mediterranean, where naval forces from the British +Empire, France, Greece, Italy, Japan and the United States were working, +and where the need for close co-operation was most urgent. The real need +in the Mediterranean, as was frequently pointed out, was the inclusion +of the naval forces of all the Allied nations under one single command. +In 1918 strong efforts were made to carry out this policy, and indeed +the actual Admiralissimo was selected, but the attempt failed in the +end. + +Both these distinguished American officers were reminded, as indeed they +must have seen for themselves, that the successful combating of the +submarine danger depended largely on the manufacture of material, and +that the resources of this country, with its great fleet and its large +and increasing armies, were so seriously taxed that the execution of the +plans of the Admiralty were being constantly and gravely delayed. The +Admiralty was, indeed, seriously embarrassed by difficulties in the +adequate supply of mines and other means of destroying submarines as +well as of fast craft of various descriptions. The Admiralty, as was +pointed out, were doing not what they would like to do, but what they +could do, both in the way of offensive and defensive action. The +supplies of raw material and labour controlled in large measure the +character and extent of the operations at sea. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PATROL CRAFT AND MINESWEEPING SERVICES + + +It is difficult to give an idea of the truly magnificent work achieved +by the patrol and minesweeping services during the year 1917 without +showing how these services expanded after the outbreak of war in 1914. + +When war was declared the only vessels immediately available for the +work consisted of seven torpedo gunboats manned by officers and men of +the Royal Navy, and fourteen trawlers manned by fishermen. All these +vessels were fitted for regular minesweeping work, and the crews of the +trawlers formed a part of what was known as the "Trawler Reserve." Other +trawlers, exceeding eighty in number, became, however, almost +immediately available at the outbreak of war under the organized Trawler +Reserve which had been set up a year or two preceding the outbreak of +war. Men belonging to this reserve had been trained in the work of +minesweeping and were paid a small retaining fee. + +As soon as the German methods of indiscriminate minelaying and submarine +attacks upon merchant ships commenced, a great expansion of this force +became necessary. The matter was handled energetically by the Admiralty +at the time, and by the end of 1914 over 700 vessels (yachts, trawlers +and drifters) were employed on patrol and minesweeping duties, and the +Admiralty had also commenced to build vessels of the trawler type +specially for this work. + +By the commencement of 1917 there were in use some 2,500 yachts, +trawlers and drifters, the great majority of them manned by fishermen or +men of the R.N.R. or R.N.V.R. and officered by trawler or drifter +skippers or officers of the R.N.R. or R.N.V.R., many of them having +temporary commissions in these services. + +Early in the war the coast of the United Kingdom had been divided into +areas for purposes of patrol and minesweeping, and each area was under +the command of a naval officer on either the active or retired list. + +The Chart D shows the respective areas at one period. No very important +changes took place in the delimitation of the areas during the war, and +the chart may therefore be considered generally representative of the +organization. Chart E shows the zones into which the Mediterranean was +divided. + +[Transcriber's note: Charts D and E are maps of the waters around the +United Kingdom, and the waters of the Mediterranean, respectively, with +patrol zones marked.] + +In December, 1917, the number of vessels of different classes actually +appropriated to various areas is given on the next page in Table A for +the British Isles and Table B for the Mediterranean. + +TABLE A: AUXILIARY PATROLS IN HOME WATERS. + +------------------------------------------------------------+ + Boom Defence Drifters, etc. | +--------------------------------------------------------+ | + Boom Defence Trawlers. | | +----------------------------------------------------+ | | + Patrol Paddlers. | | | +-------------------------------------------------+ | | | + Paddle or Screw Minesweepers. | | | | +----------------------------------------------+ | | | | + Motor Boats. | | | | | +-------------------------------------------+ | | | | | + Motor Drifters. | | | | | | +----------------------------------------+ | | | | | | + Other Drifters. | | | | | | | +------------------------------------+ | | | | | | | + Net Drifters. | | | | | | | | +--------------------------------+ | | | | | | | | + Motor Launches. | | | | | | | | | +----------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | + Whalers. | | | | | | | | | | +------------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | + Trawlers. | | | | | | | | | | | +--------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | | + Yachts. | | | | | | | | | | | | +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+--+--+---+---+ +Area No. | | | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | | | + I | 5| 44| 4| 6| 22| 2|11| | 3| | | 6| + II | 6|119| 7| 15| 72|112| 6| | 8| | 60| 83| + IV | 1| 27| | 12| 10| 3| | | | | 15| 10| + V | 1| 20| | 8| 12| 1| 7| | | | | | + VI | 6| 51| 1| 24| 9| 14|14| |13| | 20| 23| + VIII | 1| 51| | 16| 25| | 4| | 9| | | | + IX | 1| 93| 3| 6| 25| 1| 4| | 8| | 7| 25| + [ | 2| 16| | 6| 27| | | 2| | | | | + X -[ | | 53| | 6| | 19| | | | | | | + - | | 30| | 6| 28| | 2| | 7| | | 5| + - | 1| 29| | 33| 42| | | | 9| | 3| 13| + XI | 2| 70| | 31|101| | | |19| | | 2| + | 1| | | | | 30| | | | | | | + XII | 2| 35| | 26| 22| 10| | | 6| | | 10| + | | 18| | 5| 18| | | | | | | | + | | 14| | 2| 25| 2| | | | | | | + | | 6| | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | 4| 37| | | 1| | | | | + XIII | 1| 27| | 19| 15| | | | 5| | | | + XIIIA | | 54| | 21| 19| | | | | | | 1| + XIV | 2| 44| | 14| 41| | | | | | | 2| + | | 6| | 6| 6| | | | 5| | | | + XV | 3| 46| | 8| 59| 2| | | | | 3| | + XVI | 3| 19| | 12| 13| | | | | | | 1| + | | 9| | 6| 16| | 5| | 5| | | | + XVII | 3| 26| | 12| 68| 1| | | 4| | | 1| + | 1| 10| | 6| 31| | | | | | 4| 2| + XVIII | | 31| | | 11| 4| | | | | 4| | + XIX | | 7| | 8| | | | | | | | | + XX | | 8| | 6| 4| | | | | | | 1| + XXI | 1| 15| | 16| 11| | 6| | 7| | 2| 3| + XXII | 1| 10| | 6| 14| | | | | | | | +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+--+--+---+---+ + +TABLE B: AUXILIARY PATROLS IN THE MEDITERRANEAN ZONES + +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+--+--+---+---+ + I | 7| 9| | 19| | | | | | | | | + VI | 1| 12| | 42|116| | | | | | | | + VIII | 2| 61| | 21| 25| | | | | | 2| 2| + V | 1| 51| | 18| | | | | | 5| | | + X | 1| 47| | 17| 6| | | | | 5| | | + | 2| | | 12| | | | | | | | | + | 2| 22| | | 4| | | | | | 2| | + | 1| 4| | 11| | | | 7| | | | | +----------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+--+--+--+--+---+---+ + +It will be seen that the total number of British patrol and minesweeping +craft, exclusive of the stationary boom defence vessels, was at this +time 3,084. Of this number 473 were in the Mediterranean, 824 were in +the English Channel between The Nore and Falmouth, 557 were in Irish +waters or on the west coast of England, and the remaining 1,230 were on +the east coast of England and the east and west coasts of Scotland and +the Orkneys and Shetlands. + +The work of these vessels was almost entirely of an anti-submarine or +minesweeping nature. + +The trawlers were engaged in patrol duty, convoy escort service, and +minesweeping. The drifters worked drifting nets fitted with mines as an +anti-submarine weapon, and also in the case of the Dover area they laid +and kept efficient a barrage of mine nets off the Belgian coast. Some +were also fitted with hydrophones and formed hunting flotillas, and some +were engaged in minesweeping duties, or in patrolling swept channels. At +Fleet bases a small number were required to attend on the ships of the +Fleet, and to assist in the work of the base. The whalers, being faster +vessels than the trawlers, were mostly engaged on escort duty or on +patrol. The motor launches were employed for anti-submarine work, fitted +with hydrophones, and worked in company with drifters and torpedo-boat +destroyers, or in minesweeping in areas in which their light draught +rendered it advantageous and safer to employ them instead of heavier +draught vessels to locate minefields, and in the Dover area they were +largely used to work smoke screens for operations on the Belgian coast. + +As the convoy system became more general, so the work of the small craft +in certain areas altered from patrol and escort work to convoy duty. +These areas were those on the East Coast and north-west of Scotland +through which the Scandinavian and East Coast trade passed, and those in +the Channel frequented by the vessels employed in the French coal trade. +The majority of these ships were of comparatively slow speed, and +trawlers possessed sufficient speed to accompany them, but a few +destroyers of the older type formed a part of the escorting force, both +for the purpose of protection and also for offensive action against +submarines attacking the convoys, the slow speed of trawlers +handicapping them greatly in this respect. + +The difficulty of dealing with submarines may be gauged by the enormous +number of small craft thus employed, but a consideration of the +characteristics of a submarine and of the great volume of traffic +passing up and down our coasts will assist in a realization of the +varied and difficult problems set to the British Navy. + +For instance, the total number of vessels passing Lowestoft during the +month of April, 1917, was 1,837 British and Allied and 208 neutral, +giving a _daily_ average of 62 British and Allied and 7 neutral ships; +and as Admiral Sir Reginald Bacon has mentioned in his book, "The Dover +Patrol, 1915-17" (page 51), an average of between 80 to 100 merchant +vessels passed Dover daily during 1917. A study of these figures gives +some idea of the number of targets offered daily to ordinary submarines +and minelaying submarines in two of the areas off our coasts. When it is +borne in mind that the Germans had similar chances of inflicting heavy +losses on our mercantile marine all round the coasts of the United +Kingdom, and that it was obviously impossible to tell where an +underwater attack would take place, it will be realized that once +submarines reached our coasts, nothing short of an immense number of +small craft could deal satisfactorily with the situation, and afford any +degree of protection to trade. Minelaying by submarines was a +particularly difficult problem with which to deal; the enemy frequently +changed his methods, and such changes when discovered involved +alterations in our own procedure. Thus for some time after the +commencement of minelaying by submarines, the whole of the mines of one +submarine would be laid in a comparatively small area. It was fairly +easy to deal with this method as a dangerous area was proclaimed round +the spot where a mine was discovered, and experience soon showed the +necessary extent of area to proclaim. Later the submarines laid mines in +groups of about six. This necessitated the proclamation of more than one +area, and was naturally a more difficult problem. At a further stage the +submarines scattered their mines in even smaller numbers, and the task +of ensuring a safe channel was still further increased. The most +difficult artifice to deal with, however, was the introduction by the +Germans of a delay action device in their mines, which caused them to +remain at the bottom for varying periods after being laid. The ordinary +mine-sweep, the function of which was to catch the mooring rope of the +mine and drag the mine clear of the channel, was, of course, ineffective +against the mine on the bottom, and there was no guarantee that mines +might not be released from the bottom and rise to a depth at which they +were dangerous, _after the channel had been swept and reported clear_. +To deal with this danger a chain-sweep to work on the bottom was +introduced, but its use presented many difficulties, especially over a +rocky bottom. + +When a regular swept and buoyed channel was in use the enemy had little +difficulty in deciding on the positions in which to lay mines by reason +of the presence of the buoys. This fact constituted the principal +disadvantage in the use of a buoyed channel, but in certain places where +the traffic was heavy the procedure was inevitable, and it greatly +simplified the work of the patrol craft and minesweepers; the only +precautions possible lay in the use of alternative marked channels, and +in the laying of defensive deep minefields outside the channel in which +enemy submarines might compass their own destruction. As rapidly as our +supply of mines admitted, this latter device was adopted in positions +where the minefields could not constitute a danger to our own +submarines. False buoyed channels with mined areas round them could also +be laid in which to catch the submarine. Another device was that of +altering the position of light vessels and buoys with the object of +putting a submarine on to a shoal. + +The situation with which our patrol and minesweeping craft had to deal +having now been stated, it remains to speak of the magnificent manner in +which they accomplished their task. + +I regret very deeply that, in spite of a strong desire to undertake the +task, I have neither the information nor the literary ability to do +justice to the many deeds of individual gallantry, self-sacrifice and +resource performed by the splendid officers and men who manned the small +craft. No words of mine can adequately convey the intense admiration +which I felt, and which I know was shared by the whole Navy, for the +manner in which their arduous and perilous work was carried out. These +fine seamen, though quite strange to the hazardous work which they were +called upon to undertake, quickly accustomed themselves to their new +duties, and the nation should ever be full of gratitude that it bred +such a race of hardy, skilful and courageous men as those who took so +great a part in defeating the greatest menace with which the Empire has +ever been faced. + +There are, however, just two cases in 1917, typical of many others, +which I cannot forbear from mentioning. The first occurred off the East +Coast of England. + +On August 15 the armed fishing craft _Nelson_ and _Ethel and Millie_ +were attacked by gunfire by a German submarine on the surface at a range +of four to five miles. + +The submarine first concentrated her fire on the _Nelson_, which +immediately slipped her trawl and went to action stations. The third +shot from the submarine pierced the trawler's bows, and, having +established the range, the submarine poured a well-directed fire into +the _Nelson_, under which she rapidly began to settle down. + +The seventh shot struck the skipper, Thomas Crisp, D.S.C., R.N.R., +taking off both his legs and partly disembowelling him. + +In spite of the terrible nature of his injuries he retained +consciousness and gave instructions to the mate, who was his son, to +send a message by carrier pigeon to the senior officer of his base +reporting that he was engaged with the enemy; he then bade him fight to +the last. + +The _Nelson_, armed with one small gun, replied to the enemy's fire +until the heavy heel which she had assumed made it impossible to bring +the gun to bear. As she was then on the point of sinking the mate +decided to abandon her and take to the boat, and begged his father to +give them leave to carry him. This, however, the old man sternly refused +to do, and ordered his son to throw him overboard. + +The nature of his wounds being such that he would have died if he had +been moved, they deemed it best, after consultation, to leave him where +he lay. Accordingly, yielding to his reiterated order to abandon the +ship, they left this most gallant seaman lying in his blood, and +embarked in the boat as the _Nelson_ sank. + +The submarine in the meanwhile concentrated her fire on the _Ethel and +Millie_, and having eventually sunk her, made the survivors of the crew +prisoners, and steamed away. + +The crew of the _Nelson_ were rescued by a man-of-war after being in +their boat for forty-four hours. + +The second case occurred in the Adriatic. On the night in question our +drifter patrol in the Straits of Otranto was attacked by a force of +Austrian light cruisers. The drifters were each armed with a 3-pounder +gun, and the light cruisers with 4-inch and 6-inch guns. The drifters +were, of course, quite unable to defend themselves. Nevertheless the +indomitable skipper, I. Watt, of the drifter _Gowan Lea_, when summoned +to surrender by an Austrian light cruiser which was firing at his craft, +shouted defiance, waved his hat to his men, and ordered them to open +fire with the 3-pounder gun. His orders were obeyed, and, surprising to +relate, the light cruiser sheered off, and this fine seaman with his +gallant ship's company brought the _Gowan Lea_ into port in safety. + +Admiral Sir Reginald Bacon, in his most interesting narrative of the +work of the Dover Patrol, has brought to light many individual instances +of work gallantly performed; it is much to be hoped that before +recollection fades, those who can speak of the actions of individuals in +other areas will tell their countrymen something of the great deeds +performed. + +A feature of the patrol service of much interest was the manner in which +a large number of retired officers, including many of flag rank--who had +reached mature age--volunteered for service in the yachts and other +small craft engaged in the work. The late Admiral Sir Alfred Paget was +one of the first, if not the first, to come forward, and in order to +avoid any difficulty in the matter of rank, this fine veteran proposed +to sink his Naval status and to accept a commission as captain of the +Royal Naval Reserve. Sir Alfred, in common with many other officers who +took up this work, was over sixty, but age did not deter these gallant +seamen from facing the hardship and discomfort of service in small craft +in the North Sea and elsewhere. To name all the officers who undertook +this duty, or who were in charge of patrol areas, would be impossible, +and it may seem invidious to mention names at all; but I cannot forbear +to speak of some of those with whom I came most frequently into contact +during 1917. Sir James Startin, K.C.B., who was the life and soul of the +patrols and minesweepers working from Granton, was frequently at sea in +decoy ships fitted out there, as well as in minesweepers, etc., and +together with his son won the Albert Medal for saving life during the +war; Admiral J.L. Marx, C.B., D.S.O., served also in a decoy ship; +Admiral John Denison, D.S.O., was in charge first at Falmouth and later +at Kingstown; Admiral T.P. Walker, D.S.O., had his yacht sunk under him; +Admiral Sir Charles Dare, K.C.M.G., C.B., won great distinction in +command of the patrols, etc., working from Milford Haven; and +Rear-Admiral C.H. Simpson's Peterhead trawlers, splendidly manned, took +a heavy toll of enemy submarines. A large number of retired Naval +officers below the rank of admiral served in minesweepers and patrol +craft, and in command of various areas, and their work was of the +greatest possible value. A few of those with whom I came into personal +contact during the year 1917 were the late Captain F. Bird, C.M.G., +D.S.O., who was most conspicuous in command of the drifters of the Dover +Patrol; Captain W. Vansittart Howard, D.S.O., who commanded the Dover +Trawler Patrol with such ability; Commander Sir George Armstrong, Bart., +who so successfully inspired the minesweeping force working from Havre; +and Commander H.F. Cayley, D.S.O., whose services in the Harwich +minesweeping force, working under his brother, Rear-Admiral C.G. Cayley, +were invaluable. + +So much for the patrol craft. The great work carried out by the +minesweepers can be best judged by quoting a few figures for 1917, +during which year the mine menace attained its maximum intensity, owing +to the large increase in the number of German submarine minelayers. + +During the year 1916 the average number of mines swept up per month was +178. + +Statistics for 1917 show the following numbers of mines swept up per +month: + +January 250 +February 380 +March 473 +April 515 +May 360 +June 470 +July 404 +August 352 +September 418 +October 237 +November 184 +December 188 + +making the average per month in 1917 355 mines. + +It will be noticed how rapidly the figures rose in the early part of the +year, and how great was the diminution in the figures for the later +months. This decrease was due to the fact that the extension of +anti-submarine measures was beginning to take effect, and the +destruction of German submarines, and especially of submarine minelayers +of the U.C. type, was becoming considerable. + +The heavy work involved a great strain on the minesweeping service, and +the greatest possible credit is due to the personnel of that service for +the fine response made to the call for additional exertions and heavier +risks. + +At the same time the organizing work achieved at Headquarters by the +minesweeping section of the Naval Staff should not be forgotten. At the +head of this section was Captain Lionel G. Preston, C.B.; he had +succeeded to the post of Head of the Minesweeping Service early in 1917, +after two and a half years of strenuous and most successful minesweeping +work in the Grand Fleet flotillas, and he at once grappled with the task +of dealing with the large number of mines then being laid by German +submarines. + +Instructions were issued to fit all patrol craft round the coast for +minesweeping work in addition to their patrol duties, and they were used +for sweeping as required. Many drifters were also fitted for +minesweeping in addition to the trawlers hitherto employed; and although +there was some prejudice against these vessels on account of their +slower speed, they proved to be of great assistance. Every available +small craft that could be fitted for the work was pressed into the +service, including a considerable number of motor launches. + +There was unfortunately great delay in the building of the "Hunt" class +of minesweeper, which was the type ordered in 1916 and repeated in 1917, +and in spite of very large additional orders for this class of vessel +having been placed early in 1917 (a total of 100 extra vessels being +ordered), the number completed during that year was only sixteen, +together with a single paddle sweeper. Consequently we were dependent +for the largely increased work on improvised craft, and the very +greatest credit is due to all who were concerned in this arduous and +dangerous duty that the waters were kept comparatively clear of mines, +and that our losses from this cause were so small when the immense +number of mines swept up is considered. + +Fortunately the enemy lost very heavily in submarines of the U.C., or +minelaying type, largely because they were working of necessity in +waters near our coast, so that our anti-submarine measures had a better +chance, since they were easier to locate and destroy than submarines +working farther afield. By the commencement of 1918 the average number +of mines swept up monthly showed a very remarkable decrease, the average +for the first two months of that year being only 159 per month, eloquent +testimony to the efficiency of the anti-submarine measures in operation +during 1917. I have no information as to the figures for the remaining +months of 1918. + +The record of minesweeping work would not be complete without figures +showing the damage caused by mines to minesweeping vessels. + +During the last six months of 1916 the average number of these craft +sunk or damaged by mines _per month_ was 5.7, while for the first six +months of 1917 the figures rose to ten per month. For the second six +months of 1917 the figures fell to four per month, a reduction even on +the losses towards the end of 1916, in spite of the fact that more mines +were being dealt with. This reduction may have been due to improvements +effected in organization as the result of experience. + +Similarly the total number of merchant ships sunk or damaged by mines, +which during the first six months of 1917 totalled 90, dropped in the +second six months to 49. + +By far the greater proportion of mines swept up were laid in Area +10--i.e. the Nore, Harwich and Lowestoft area. This part of the coast +was nearest to the German submarine base at Zeebrugge, and as the +greater part of the east coast traffic passed through the area it +naturally came in for a great deal of minelaying attention. Out of some +2,400 mines swept up in the first half of 1917, over 800 came from Area +10 alone. The greatest number of casualties to merchant ships from mines +during this same period also occurred in Area 10, which in this respect +was, however, rivalled by Area 8--the Tyne. Many ships also struck mines +in Areas 11 and 12 in the English Channel, and in both of these areas a +considerable number of mines were swept up. + +In addition to the daily risks of being themselves blown up which were +run by the vessels engaged in this work, many very gallant deeds were +performed by individual officers and men of the minesweeping force, who +were one and all imbued with the idea that their first duty was to keep +a clear channel for traffic regardless of the consequence to themselves. +I must leave to abler pens than mine the task of recording in fitting +phrase some of the courageous actions of our small craft which will be +looked upon as amongst the most glorious episodes of the Naval part of +the Great War, and content myself to mention only one case, that of the +trawler _Grand Duke_, working in the Milford area in May, 1917. In this +instance a flotilla of minesweepers was employed in sweeping when two +mines exploded in the sweep towed by the second pair of minesweeping +trawlers in the flotilla. The wire parted and one of the two trawlers +proceeded to heave in the "kite," the contrivance employed to keep the +sweep at the required depth. When hove short up it was discovered that a +mine was foul of the wire and that it had been hauled up against the +ship's side. Just beneath the surface the circular outline of a second +mine could also be detected entangled in the wire and swirling round in +the current beneath the trawler's counter. In the circumstances, since +any roll of the ship might suffice to strike one of the horns of either +mine and detonate the charges, the officer in charge of the trawler +chose the best course open to him in view of his responsibility for the +lives of those under his command, and ordered the trawler to be +abandoned. + +The senior officer of the division of minesweepers thereupon called for +a volunteer, and accompanied by the engineman, boarded the abandoned +trawler, and disregarding the imminent probability of an explosion +caused by the contact of the ship and the mine, cut the sweep and kite +wires. The mines fell clear without detonating, and by means of a rope +passed to another trawler they were towed clear of the spot. + +It is appropriate to close this chapter by giving a synopsis of the +losses amongst our patrol escort and minesweeping vessels between the +commencement of the war and the end of 1917 due (1) to enemy action, and +(2) to the increased navigational dangers incidental to service afloat +under war conditions. + +Under the first heading--enemy action--the losses were 8 yachts, 6 motor +launches, 3 motor boats, 150 trawlers, 59 drifters, and 10 paddle +minesweepers; and the losses due to navigational risks were 5 yachts, 55 +trawlers, 7 motor launches, 3 motor boats, 30 drifters, and 1 paddle +minesweeper, whilst the total loss of life was 197 officers and 1,782 +men. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE DOVER PATROL AND THE HARWICH FORCES + + +Vice-Admiral Sir Reginald Bacon has given ("The Dover Patrol, +1915-1917," Hutchinson & Co., 1919.) a most valuable record of the +varied work carried out in the Straits of Dover and on the Belgian coast +during the period of his command. There is little to be added to this +great record, but it may be of interest to mention the general Admiralty +policy which governed the Naval operations in southern waters during the +year 1917, and the methods by which that policy was carried out. + +The policy which was adopted in southern waters, and especially in the +Straits of Dover, was that, so far as the means at our disposal +admitted, the Straits should be rendered impassable for enemy ships of +all kinds, from battleships to submarines, with a view to protecting the +cross-Channel communications of our Army in France, of affording +protection to trade in the Channel, and preventing a military landing by +the Germans either in the south of England or on the left flank of the +Allied Army in France. So long as the Belgian coast ports remained in +German possession, the Naval force that could be based there constituted +a very serious menace to the cross-Channel traffic. This really applied +more to destroyers than to submarines, and for this reason: submarines +have an infinitely larger radius of action than destroyers, and if the +Belgian coast ports had not been in German occupation, the additional +210 miles from the Ems would not have been a matter of serious moment to +them, and if sighted on the longer passage they could submerge. The case +was quite different with destroyers or other surface vessels; in the +first place they were open to attack by our vessels during the passage +to and from the Ems, and in the second the additional distance to be +traversed was a matter for consideration, since they carried only +limited supplies of fuel. + +A fact to which the Admiralty frequently directed attention was that, +although annoyance and even serious inconvenience might be caused to the +enemy by sea and air operations against Ostend and Zeebrugge, no +_permanent_ result could be achieved by the Navy alone unless backed up +by an advance on land. The Admiralty was heart and soul for an audacious +policy, providing the form of attack and the occasion offered a +reasonable prospect of success. Owing to the preoccupations of the Army, +we had to be satisfied with bombardments of the ports by unprotected +monitors, which had necessarily to be carried out at very long ranges, +exceeding 25,000 yards, and necessitating direction of the fire by +aircraft. + +Bruges, about eight miles from the sea, was the real base of enemy +submarines and destroyers, Zeebrugge and Ostend being merely exits from +Bruges, and the use of the latter could only be denied to the enemy by +land attack or by effective blocking operations at Ostend and Zeebrugge, +for, if only one port was closed, the other could be used. + +Neither Zeebrugge, Ostend, nor Bruges could be rendered untenable to the +enemy with the guns available during 1917, although Ostend in +particular, and Zeebrugge to a lesser extent, could be, and were +frequently, brought under fire when certain conditions prevailed, and +some temporary damage caused. Indeed, the fire against Ostend was so +effective that the harbour fell into disuse as a base towards the end of +1917. We were arranging also in 1917 for mounting naval guns on shore +that would bring Bruges under fire, after the enemy had been driven from +Ostend by the contemplated operation which is mentioned later. When +forced to abandon this operation, in consequence of the military advance +being held up by the weather, these guns were mounted in monitors. + +In the matter of blocking the entrance to the ports of Zeebrugge and +Ostend, the fact had to be recognized that effective _permanent_ +blocking operations against destroyers and submarines were not +practicable, mainly because of the great rise and fall above low water +at ordinary spring tides, which is 14 feet at Ostend and 13 feet at +Zeebrugge for about half the days in each month. Low water at Ostend +also lasts for one hour. Therefore, even if block-ships were sunk in the +most favourable position the operation of making a passage by cutting +away the upper works of the block-ships was not a difficult matter, and +the Germans are a painstaking people. This passage could be used for +some time on each side of high water by vessels like destroyers drawing +less than 14 feet, or submarines drawing, say, 14 feet. The block would, +therefore, be of a temporary and not a permanent nature, although it +would undoubtedly be a source of considerable inconvenience. At the same +time it was realized that, although permanent blocking was not +practicable, a temporary block would be of use, and that _the moral +effect alone of such an operation would be of great value_. These +considerations, together with the abandonment of the proposed landing on +the Belgian coast, owing to unfavourable military conditions, led to the +decision late in 1917 to undertake blocking operations concurrently with +an attack on the vessels alongside the Mole at Zeebrugge. + +In order to carry out the general policy mentioned, the eastern end of +the Straits of Dover had been heavily mined at intervals during the war, +and these mines had proved to be a sufficient deterrent against any +attempt on the part of surface vessels larger than destroyers to pass +through. Owing to the rise of tide enemy destroyers could pass over the +minefields at high water without risk of injury, and they frequently did +so pass. Many attempts had been made to prevent the passage of enemy +submarines by means of obstructions, but without much success; and at +the end of 1916 a "mine net barrage"--i.e. a series of wire nets of wide +mesh carrying mines--was in process of being placed by us right across +the Straits from the South Goodwin Buoy to the West Dyck Bank, a length +of 28 miles, it being arranged that the French would continue the +barrage from this position to the French coast. The construction of the +barrage was much delayed by the difficulty in procuring mooring buoys, +and it was not completed until the late summer of 1917. Even then it was +not an effective barrier owing to the tidal effects, as submarines were +able to pass over it during strong tides, or to dive under the nets as +an alternative; it was not practicable to use nets more than 60 feet +deep, whilst the depth of water in places exceeded 120 feet. + +Deep mines were laid to guard the water below the net, but although +these were moored at some considerable distance from the barrage, +trouble was experienced owing to the mines dragging their moorings in +the strong tide-way and fouling the nets. One series had to be entirely +swept up for this reason. Many devices were tried with the object of +improving this barrage, and many clever brains were at work on it. _And +all the time our drifters with their crews of gallant fishermen, with +Captain Bird at their head, worked day after day at the task of keeping +the nets efficient_. + +In spite of its deficiencies the barrage was believed to be responsible +for the destruction of a few submarines, and it did certainly render the +passage of the Straits more difficult, and therefore its moral effect +was appreciable. Towards the end of 1917, however, evidence came into +our possession showing that more submarines were actually passing the +Straits of Dover than had been believed to be the case, and it became a +question whether a proportion of the drifters, etc., required for the +maintenance of the nets of the barrage should be utilized instead for +patrol work in the vicinity of the mine barrage then being laid between +Folkestone and Cape Grisnez. This action was taken, drifters being +gradually moved to the new area. + +In April, 1916, a net barrage, with lines of deep mines on the Belgian +side of the nets, had also been laid along the Belgian coast covering +the exits from the ports of Ostend and Zeebrugge as well as the coast +between those ports. These nets were laid at a distance of some 24,000 +yards from the shore. This plan had proved most successful in preventing +minelaying by submarines in the Straits of Dover, and the barrage was +maintained from May to October, but the weather conditions had prevented +its continuance from that date. + +The operation was repeated in 1917, the barrage being kept in position +until December, when the question of withdrawing the craft required for +its maintenance for patrol work in connection with the minefield laid on +the Folkestone-Grisnez line came under discussion. + +The Belgian coast barrage being in the nature of a surprise was probably +more useful as a deterrent to submarine activity in 1916 than in 1917. +In both years a strong patrol of monitors, destroyers, minesweepers, +drifters for net repairs, and other vessels was maintained in position +to the westward of the barrage to prevent interference with the nets by +enemy vessels and to keep them effective. + +These vessels were patrolling daily within 13 or 14 sea miles of the two +enemy destroyer and submarine bases, and although occasionally attacked, +were not driven off in spite of the superior destroyer force which the +enemy could always bring to bear. In 1917 actions between our vessels +and those of the enemy, and between our own and enemy aircraft, were of +very frequent occurrence. The Germans also introduced a new weapon in +the form of fast motor boats controlled by a cable from the shore and +guided by signals from aircraft, these boats being heavily loaded in the +fore part with explosives which detonated on contact with any vessels +attacked. On only one occasion in four attacks were the boats successful +in hitting their mark, and the monitor _Terror_, which was struck in +this instance, although considerably damaged in her bulge protection, +was successfully brought back to port and repaired. + +Whilst our monitors were on patrol near the barrage, as well as on other +occasions, every favourable opportunity was taken of bombarding the +bases at Zeebrugge and Ostend. In the former case the targets fired at +were the lock gates, and in the latter the workshops, to which +considerable damage was frequently occasioned, as well as to vessels +lying in the basin. + +These bombardments were carried out in 1917 at distances exceeding +25,000 yards. The long range was necessary on account of the net +barrage, and also because of the rapidity with which the "Knocke" and +"Tirpitz" shore batteries obtained the range of monitors attacking them, +one hit on an unprotected monitor being sufficient to sink her. + +They were also invariably carried out under the protection of a smoke +screen; in the autumn of 1917 the enemy commenced to start a smoke +screen himself as soon as we opened fire, thus interfering with our +observation of fire even from aircraft, but in spite of this much damage +resulted from the bombardments. Our observation of fire being +necessarily carried out by aircraft, and the enemy attempting similar +measures in his return gunfire, resulted in aerial combats over the +monitors being a frequent occurrence. + +The carefully organized arrangements made by Admiral Bacon for these +coastal bombardments excited my warm admiration. He left nothing to +chance, and everything that ingenuity could devise and patient +preparation could assist was done to ensure success. He received +assistance from a staff which, though small in number, was imbued with +his own spirit, and he brought to great perfection and achieved +wonderful success in methods of warfare of which the Navy had had no +previous experience. + +During the year 1917 aerial bombing attacks were persistently carried +out on the German naval bases in Belgium by the Royal Naval Air Force at +Dunkirk, which came within the sphere of the Dover Command. These +attacks had as their main object the destruction of enemy vessels lying +in these bases, and of the means for their maintenance and repair. The +attacks, under the very skilful direction of Captain Lambe, R.N., were +as incessant as our resources and the weather admitted, and our gallant +and splendidly efficient airmen of the R.N.A.S. were veritable thorns in +the sides of the Germans. Our bombing machines as well as our fighting +aircraft were often required to attack military instead of naval +objectives, and several squadrons of our fighting machines were lent to +the military for the operations carried out during the year on the +Western Front; they did most excellent work, and earned the high +commendation of Sir Douglas Haig (now Earl Haig). But we were still able +to work against naval objectives. Zeebrugge, for instance, was bombed on +seven nights during April and five nights during May, and during +September a total weight of 86 tons of bombs was dropped on enemy +objectives by the Dunkirk Naval aircraft, and we had good reason to be +satisfied with the results achieved. During this same month 18 enemy +aircraft were destroyed and 43 driven down. Attacks upon enemy +aerodromes were very frequent, and this form of aerial offensive +undoubtedly exercised a very deterrent influence upon enemy aerial +activity over England. Two submarines also were attacked and were +thought to be destroyed, all by our machines from Dunkirk. To Commodore +Godfrey Paine, the Fifth Sea Lord at the Admiralty, who was in charge of +the R.N.A.S., and to the staff assisting him our thanks were due for the +great work they accomplished in developing new and efficient types of +machines and in overcoming so far as was possible the difficulties of +supply. The amount of bombing work carried out in 1917 cannot, of +course, compare with that accomplished during 1918, when production had +got into its stride and the number of machines available was +consequently so very much larger. + +Whether it was due to our aerial attacks on Bruges that the German +destroyers in the autumn months frequently left that base and lay at +Zeebrugge cannot be known, but they did so, and as soon as we discovered +this fact by aerial photographs, plans were laid by Sir Reginald Bacon +for a combined naval and aerial night operation. The idea was for the +aircraft to bomb Zeebrugge heavily in the vicinity of the Mole, as we +ascertained by trial that on such occasions the enemy's destroyers left +the Mole and proceeded outside the harbour. There we had our coastal +motor boats lying off waiting for the destroyers to come out, and on the +first occasion that the operation was carried out one German destroyer +was sunk and another believed to have been damaged, if not also sunk, by +torpedoes fired by the coastal motor boats, to which very great credit +is due for their work, not only on this, but on many other occasions; +these boats were manned by a very gallant and enterprising personnel. + +Numerous other operations against enemy destroyers, torpedo boats and +submarines were carried out during the year, as recounted in Sir +Reginald Bacon's book, and in the autumn, when supplies of the new +pattern mines were becoming available, some minelaying destroyers were +sent to Dover; these vessels, as well as coastal motor boats and motor +launches, were continually laying mines in the vicinity of Zeebrugge and +Ostend with excellent results, a considerable number of German +destroyers and torpedo boats working from Zeebrugge being known to have +been mined, and a fair proportion of them sunk by these measures. + +In addition to the operations carried out in the vicinity of the Belgian +coast, the Dover force constantly laid traps for the enemy destroyers +and submarines in waters through which they were known to pass. + +Lines of mined nets laid across the expected track of enemy vessels was +a device frequently employed; submarines, as has been stated, were used +on the cross-Channel barrage to watch for the passage of enemy +submarines and destroyers, and everything that ingenuity could suggest +was done to catch the German craft if they came out. + +Such measures were supplementary to the work of the destroyers engaged +on the regular Dover Patrol, the indomitable Sixth Flotilla. + +A great deal depended upon the work of these destroyers. They formed the +principal, indeed practically the only, protection for the vast volume +of trade passing the Straits of Dover as well as for our cross-Channel +communications. When the nearness of Zeebrugge and Ostend to Dover is +considered (a matter of only 72 and 62 miles respectively), and the fact +that one and sometimes two German flotillas, each comprising eleven +large and heavily armed torpedo-boat destroyers, were usually based on +Bruges, together with a force of large modern torpedo boats and a very +considerable number of submarines, it will be realized that the position +was ever one of considerable anxiety. It was further always possible for +the enemy to send reinforcements of additional flotillas from German +ports, or to send heavier craft with minesweepers to sweep a clear +channel, timing their arrival to coincide with an intended attack, and +thus to place the German forces in a position of overwhelming +superiority. + +Our own Dover force at the commencement of 1917 consisted of one light +cruiser, three flotilla leaders, eighteen modern destroyers, including +several of the old "Tribal" class, eleven old destroyers of the 30-knot +class (the latter being unfit to engage the German destroyers), and five +"P" boats. Of this total the average number not available at any moment +may be taken as at least one-third. This may seem a high estimate, but +in addition to the ordinary refits and the time required for boiler +cleaning, the vessels of the Dover Patrol working in very dangerous, +foggy and narrow waters suffered heavy casualties from mines and +collisions. The work of the Dover force included the duty of escorting +the heavy traffic between Dover and Folkestone and the French ports, +this being mostly carried on during daylight hours owing to the +prevalence of submarine-laid mines and the necessity for sweeping the +various channels before the traffic--which included a very large troop +traffic--was allowed to cross. An average of more than twenty transports +and hospital ships crossed the Straits daily during 1917, irrespective +of other vessels. The destroyers which were engaged during daylight +hours in this work, and those patrolling the barrages across the Straits +and off the Belgian coast, obviously required some rest at night, and +this fact reduced the number available for duty in the dark hours, the +only time during which enemy destroyer attacks took place. + +Up to the spring of 1917 the examination service of all vessels passing +the Straits of Dover had been carried out in the Downs. This led to a +very large number of merchant ships being at anchor in the Downs at +night, and these vessels were obviously open to attack by enemy craft of +every description. It was always a marvel to me that the enemy showed +such a lack of enterprise in failing to take advantage of these +conditions. In order to protect these vessels to some extent, a light +cruiser from Dover, and one usually borrowed from Harwich, together with +a division of destroyers either from Dover, or borrowed also from +Harwich, were anchored off Ramsgate, and backed by a monitor if one was +available, necessitating a division of strength and a weakening of the +force available for work in the Straits of Dover proper. + +The result of this conflict of interests in the early part of the year +was that for the patrol of the actual Straits in the darkness of night +on a line some 30 miles in length, the number of vessels available +rarely if ever exceeded six--viz. two flotilla leaders and four +destroyers, with the destroyers resting in Dover (four to six in number) +with steam ready at short notice as a reserve. + +An attack had been made on the Dover Patrol in October, 1916, which had +resulted in the loss by us of one destroyer and six drifters, and +serious damage to another destroyer. A consideration of the +circumstances of this attack after my arrival at the Admiralty led me to +discuss with Sir Reginald Bacon the question of keeping such forces as +we had in the Straits at night concentrated as far as possible. This +disposition naturally increased the risk of enemy vessels passing +unobserved, but ensured that they would be encountered in greater, +although not equal, force if sighted. + +Steps were also taken to reduce the tempting bait represented by the +presence of so many merchant ships in the Downs at night. Sir Reginald +Bacon proposed that the portion of the examination service which dealt +with south-going ships should be moved to Southend, and the transfer was +effected as rapidly as possible and without difficulty, thereby +assisting to free us from a source of anxiety. + +During the early part of 1917 the enemy carried out a few destroyer +raids both on English coast towns in the vicinity of Dover and the +French ports of Dunkirk and Calais. As a result of these raids, which, +though regrettable, were of no military importance, a good deal of +ill-informed criticism was levelled at the Admiralty and the +Vice-Admiral commanding at Dover. To anyone conversant with the +conditions, the wonder was not that the raids took place, but that the +enemy showed so little enterprise in carrying out--with the great +advantages he possessed--operations of real, if not vital, military +value. + +The only explanation is that he foresaw the moral effect that his +tip-and-run raids would produce; and he considered that the effect of +the resulting agitation might be of no inconsiderable value to himself; +the actual damage done was almost negligible, apart from the loss of +some eight lives, which we all deplored. It is perhaps natural that +people who have never experienced war at close quarters should be +impatient if its consequences are brought home to them. A visit to +Dunkirk would have shown what war really meant, and the bearing of the +inhabitants of that town would have taught a valuable lesson. + +The conditions in the Straits have already been mentioned, but too much +emphasis cannot be laid on them. The enemy who possessed the +incalculable advantage of the initiative, had at his disposal, whenever +he took heart to plan an attack, a force of at least twenty-two very +good destroyers, all unfortunately of higher speed than anything we +could bring against them, and more heavily armed than many of our +destroyers. This force was based within seventy miles of Dover, and as +the Germans had no traffic of any sort to defend, was always available +for offensive operations against our up and down or cross-Channel +traffic. Our Dover force was inferior even at full strength, but owing +to the inevitable absence of vessels under repair or refitting and the +manifold duties imposed upon it, was bound to be in a position of marked +inferiority in any night attack undertaken by the Germans against any +objective in the Straits. + +The enemy had a great choice of objectives. These were: first, the +traffic in the Channel or the destroyers watching the Straits (the most +important military objective); second, the merchant ships anchored in +the Downs; third, the British monitors anchored off Dunkirk; fourth, the +French ports, Dunkirk, Boulogne and Calais, and the British port of +Dover; and fifth, the British undefended towns of Ramsgate, Margate, +Lowestoft, etc., which German mentality did not hesitate to attack. + +A glance at Chart F [Transcriber's note: Not preserved in book.] will +show how widely separated are these objectives and how impossible it was +for the small Dover force to defend them all simultaneously, especially +during the hours of darkness. Any such attempt would have led to a +dispersion of force which would have been criminal. The distance from +Dunkirk along the French coast to Calais, thence to Dover and along the +English coast to the North Foreland is 60 miles. The distance at which +an enemy destroyer can be seen at night is about a quarter of a mile, +and the enemy could select any point of the 60 miles for attack, or +could vary the scene of operations by bombarding Lowestoft or towns in +the vicinity, which were only 80 miles from Zeebrugge and equally +vulnerable to attack, since the enemy's destroyers could leave their +base before dark, carry out their hurried bombardment, and return before +daylight. In whatever quarter he attacked he could be certain of great +local superiority of force, although, of course, he knew full well that +the first sign of an attack would be a signal to our forces to try to +cut him off from his bases. Therein lay the reason for the tip-and-run +nature of the raids, which lasted for a few minutes only. The enemy +realized that we should endeavour to intercept his force as soon as it +had disclosed its presence. The Germans had naturally to take the risk +of encountering our vessels on the way to his objectives, but at night +this risk was but slight. + +As it was obviously impossible to prevent bombardments by stationing +destroyers in adequate force for the protection of each town, the only +possible alternative, unless such bombardments were ignored, was to give +the most vulnerable points protection by artillery mounted on shore. +This was a War Office, not an Admiralty, responsibility; but as the War +Office had not the means available, the Admiralty decided to take the +matter in hand, and in the spring of 1917 some 6-inch naval guns taken +from our reserves were mounted in the vicinity of the North Foreland. +Further, an old monitor, which was of no use for other work owing to her +machinery being unfit, was moored to the southward of Ramsgate, and her +guns commanded the Downs. Searchlights were also mounted on shore, but +more reliance was placed on the use of star shells, of which the +earliest supplies were sent to these guns. The result was immediately +apparent. German destroyers appeared one night later on off the North +Foreland and opened fire, which was returned by the monitor and the +shore guns. The enemy immediately withdrew, and never appeared again in +1917 in this neighbourhood. + +Meanwhile efforts had been made to increase the strength of the Dover +force, and by the end of June it stood at 4 flotilla leaders, 29 modern +destroyers (including "Tribal" class), 10 old 30-knotters, and 6 "P" +boats. The increase in strength was rendered possible owing to the +relief of destroyers of the "M" and "L" classes at Harwich by new +vessels recently completed and by the weakening of that force +numerically. The flotilla leaders were a great asset to Dover, as, +although they were coal-burning ships and lacked the speed of the German +destroyers, their powerful armament made it possible for them to engage +successfully a numerically greatly superior force. This was clearly +shown on the occasion of the action between the _Broke_ and _Swift_ and +a German force of destroyers on the night of April 20-21, 1917. + +The flotilla leaders on that occasion were, as was customary, patrolling +at the Dover end of the cross-Channel barrage. The enemy's destroyers +were in two detachments. One detachment, consisting apparently of four +boats, passed, it was thought, round the western end of the barrage at +high tide close to the South Goodwin Buoy, and fired a few rounds at +Dover. The other detachment of two boats went towards Calais, and the +whole force seems to have met at a rendezvous prior to its return to its +base. + +The _Broke_ and _Swift_ intercepted them on their return, and after a +hot engagement succeeded in sinking two of the enemy vessels, one being +very neatly rammed by the _Broke_ (Captain E.R.G.R. Evans, C.B.), and +the second sunk by torpedoes. Some of the remaining four boats +undoubtedly suffered serious damage. Our flotilla leaders were handled +with conspicuous skill, and the enemy was taught a lesson which resulted +in his displaying even greater caution in laying his plans and evincing +a greater respect for the Dover force for many months. + +The success of the _Broke_ and _Swift_ was received with a chorus of +praise, and this praise was undoubtedly most fully deserved, but once +again an example was furnished of the manner in which public attention +becomes riveted upon the dramatic moments of naval warfare whilst the +long and patient labour by which the dramatic moments are brought about +is ignored. + +Thus in this case, but little attention was drawn to the years of +arduous work performed by the Sixth Flotilla in the Straits of Dover by +day and by night, in dense fogs, heavy gales and blinding snowstorms, in +waters which were constantly mined, and in the face of an enemy who was +bound to be in greatly superior force whenever he chose to attack. + +Little thought was given either to the wonderful and most gallant work +carried out by the drifters of the Patrol, manned largely by fishermen, +and practically defenceless against attack by the German destroyers. + +The careful organization which conduced to the successful action was +forgotten. Sir Reginald Bacon has told the story of all this work in his +book, and I need not repeat it. But let it be added that victory depends +less on such enheartening incidents, welcome as they are, than on the +patient and usually monotonous performance of duty at sea by day and by +night in all weathers, and on the skill in organization of the staff +ashore in foreseeing and forestalling enemy activity on a hundred and +one occasions of which the public necessarily knows nothing. + +It has been stated that reliable information reached us in the autumn of +1917 that enemy submarines were passing the Straits of Dover in much +greater numbers than we had hitherto believed to be the case, and the +inefficiency of the net barrage in preventing the passage was apparent. + +Early in the year (in February) Sir Reginald Bacon had put forward a +proposal for a deep minefield on the line Folkestone--Cape Grisnez, but +confined only to the portion of the line to the southward of the Varne +Shoal. + +It was known that enemy submarines as a rule made this portion of their +passage submerged, and the minefield was designed to catch them. + +The proposal was approved after personal discussion with Admiral Bacon, +and directions were given that the earliest supplies of the new pattern +mines were to be allocated for this service; these mines commenced to +become available early in the following November, and were immediately +laid. + +Admiral Bacon suggested later the extension of the minefield to the +westward of the Varne Shoal, so as to make it a complete barrier across +the Channel. This was also approved and measures were taken to provide +the necessary mines. + +The question of illuminating at night the area covered by the deep +minefield was also discussed at length with Sir Reginald Bacon. Various +proposals were considered, such as the use of searchlights on Cape +Grisnez and at Folkestone, together with the provision of small +light-ships fitted with searchlights and moored at intervals across the +Channel, and also the use of flares from patrol craft. Flares had +already been experimented with from kite balloons by the Anti-Submarine +Division of the War Staff, and they were found on trial to be efficient +when used from drifters, and of great use in illuminating the patrol +area so that the patrol craft might have better opportunities for +sighting submarines and the latter be forced to dive into the +minefields. + +A committee had been meanwhile appointed by the First Lord to consider +the question of the Dover Barrage in the light of the information we +then possessed as to the passage of enemy submarines through the Straits +of Dover. This committee visited Dover on several occasions, and its +members, some of whom were naval officers and some civilian engineers, +were shown the existing arrangements. + +The committee, which considered at first the question of providing an +_obstruction_, ended by reporting that the existing barrage was +inefficient (a fact which had become apparent), and made proposals for +the establishment of the already approved minefield on the +Folkestone-Grisnez line. I do not recollect that any definite new ideas +were evolved as the outcome of the labours of this committee; some ideas +regarding the details of the minefield, particularly as to the best form +of obstruction that would catch submarines or other vessels on the +surface, were put forward, as also some proposals for erecting towers in +certain positions in the Straits. I do not think that these latter ever +matured. The manner in which the minefield should be illuminated at +night was discussed by the committee, and arrangements were made for the +provision of the vessels proposed by Admiral Bacon. + +Some disagreement arose on the subject of the provision of the necessary +number of vessels for patrolling the minefield with a view to forcing +the submarines to dive. In my view a question of this nature was one to +be left in the hands of the Vice-Admiral at Dover, with experience on +the spot, after I had emphasized to him the extreme importance attached +to the provision of an ample number of patrol craft at the earliest +possible moment. Interference by the Admiralty in such a detail of a +flag officer's command would in my opinion have been dangerous and +incorrect, for so long as a flag officer retains the confidence of the +Board he must be left to work his command in the manner considered best +by him after having been informed of the approved general policy, since +he is bound to be acquainted with the local situation to a far greater +extent than any officer serving at the Admiralty or elsewhere. I +discussed the matter personally with Sir Reginald Bacon, and was +satisfied that he was aware of the views held by me and of the necessity +for providing the patrol craft even at the expense of other services, as +soon as he could make the requisite arrangements. + +Sir Reginald Bacon's three years' experience at Dover was a great asset +in dealing with this matter, as with other questions connected with the +Command, more especially the difficult and embarrassing operations on +the Belgian coast. His ingenuity, originality, patience, power of +organization and his methodical preparations for carrying out operations +were always a great factor in ensuring success. These qualities were +never shown more clearly than during the preparations made for landing a +force of some 14,000 officers and men with tanks, artillery and +transport on the coast of Belgium under the very muzzles of the German +heavy coast artillery. It was estimated that the whole force would be +put on shore in a period of twenty minutes. The scheme is described in +full in Chapter IX. of the first volume of Sir Reginald Bacon's book on +the Dover Patrol. He had put the proposal before Admiral Sir Henry +Jackson, my predecessor, who had expressed his concurrence so far as the +naval portion of the scheme was concerned, and provided that the army +made the necessary advance in Flanders. When the scheme was shown to me +shortly after taking office as First Sea Lord I confess that I had some +doubts as to the possibility of manoeuvring two monitors, with a pontoon +550 feet in length secured ahead of and between the bows of the +monitors, but in view of the immense importance of driving the Germans +from the Belgian coast and the fact that this scheme, if practicable, +promised to facilitate greatly such an operation, approval was given for +the construction of a pontoon, and after witnessing the first trials of +the pontoon secured between two monitors which were themselves lashed +together, I became convinced that this part of the operation was +perfectly feasible. The remaining pontoons were therefore constructed, +and preparations commenced in the greatest secrecy for the whole +operation. + +The next matter for trial was the arrangement devised by Sir R. Bacon +for making it possible for tanks to mount the sea wall. These trials +were carried out with great secrecy against a model of the sea wall +built at the Headquarters of the Tank Corps in France, and were quite +successful. It was necessary to see actual photographs of the tanks +mounting the coping at the top of the sea wall to be convinced of the +practicability of the scheme. A matter of great importance was the +necessity for obtaining accurate information of the slope of the beach +at the projected landing places in order that the practicability of +grounding the pontoon could be ascertained. This information Sir R. +Bacon, with his characteristic patience and ingenuity, obtained by means +of aerial photographs taken at various states of tide. + +Finally, to gain exact knowledge of the rise and fall of the tide, +Admiral Bacon employed a submarine which submerged in the vicinity of +Nieuport and registered the height of water above her hull for a period +of twenty-four hours under conditions of spring and neap tides. + +The preparations for the landing involved much collaboration with the +military authorities, and Sir Reginald Bacon was frequently at G.H.Q. +for the purpose. As soon as it was decided that the 1st Division was to +provide the landing party, conferences took place between Admiral Bacon +and General Sir Henry Rawlinson (now Lord Rawlinson), and I took the +opportunity of a visit paid by Sir H. Rawlinson to London to confer with +him myself. Subsequently a conference took place at the War Office at +which Sir Douglas Haig was present. + +There was entire unanimity between the Navy and Army over the proposed +operation, and we greatly admired the manner in which the Sister Service +took up the work of preparing for the landing. Secrecy was absolutely +vital to success, as the whole scheme was dependent on the operation +being a surprise, more particularly in the selection of the landing +place. Admiral Bacon describes in his book the methods by which secrecy +was preserved. As time passed, and the atrocious weather in Flanders +during the summer of 1917 prevented the advance of our Army, it became +more and more difficult to preserve secrecy; but although the fact that +some operation of the kind was in preparation gradually became known to +an increasing number of people, it is safe to say that the enemy never +realized until long after the operation had been abandoned its real +nature or the locality selected for it. + +Some officers with experience of the difficulties encountered during the +landings at Gallipoli expressed doubts of the practicability of the +operation in the face of the heavy fire from large guns and from machine +guns which might be expected, but the circumstances were so different +from those at Gallipoli that neither Sir Reginald Bacon nor I shared +these doubts. The heavy bombardment of the coast batteries by our own +shore guns, which had been greatly strengthened for the purpose, the +rapidity of the landing, the use of a dense smoke screen, the fact of +the landing being a complete surprise, the use of tanks for dealing with +hostile machine guns, the interruption to the enemy's shore +communications by heavy artillery fire, and the bombardment by monitors +of the coast well to the eastward of the landing place as a feint, were +all new factors, and all promised to assist towards success. + +Of the supreme importance of the operation there could be no question. +Ever since 1914 the Navy had been pressing for the recapture of the +ports on the Belgian coast, and they could only be taken by means of a +combined operation. Sir John French (now Field-Marshal Viscount French) +himself had in the early days of the war pointed, out the great +importance of securing the coast, but circumstances beyond his control +were too powerful for him. + +It was in these circumstances that the decision to undertake the +operation was made, and when it became necessary to abandon it owing to +the inability of the Army to co-operate the intense disappointment felt +by all those who had worked so hard to ensure its success can be +realized. + +The Harwich force, consisting of the 5th Light Cruiser Squadron and the +flotilla of destroyers, was the only other British force stationed in +south-eastern waters if we except the local craft at the Nore. The 5th +Light Cruiser Squadron and the flotilla were under the command of +Commodore (now Rear-Admiral) Sir Reginald Tyrwhitt, an officer whose +vessels were, if we except the Dover patrol, more frequently in contact +with the enemy than any other British force in Home waters. Sir Reginald +Tyrwhitt had several functions to perform: + +(1) It was always hoped that he would be able to join forces with the +Grand Fleet should events foreshadow a meeting with the High Sea Fleet. + +(2) We depended very largely on him for reconnaissance work in the +southern part of the North Sea and into the German Bight. + +(3) It fell to his lot as a rule to provide the covering force for +aerial operations carried out from seaplane carriers in southern waters. + +(4) His force was best placed to cut off any enemy light craft that +might be located in southern waters and to attack Zeppelins at sea on +their return from raids over England. + +(5) He was called upon almost weekly to cover the passage of the convoy +of merchant ships between the Thames and Holland known as the "Dutch +Convoy." + +(6) He was constantly called upon the provide reinforcements for the +Dover Patrol or to assist in operations carried out by the latter force. + +These miscellaneous duties involved a great deal of work for the Harwich +force and particularly for the destroyers. + +The necessity for continually providing reinforcements from the Harwich +force for the Dover Patrol was a standing handicap to Sir Reginald +Tyrwhitt's operations; he took the matter philosophically, although I +always realized how difficult it made his work at times, and whenever, +as was frequent, combined operations were carried out by the two forces, +the greatest harmony prevailed between the Commands. + +At the commencement of 1917 the Harwich force comprised 8 light +cruisers, 2 flotilla leaders and 45 destroyers. During the year new +vessels were either added to it or replaced older craft which were +withdrawn for other services, and at the end of the year the force +included 9 light cruisers, 4 flotilla leaders and 24 destroyers. + +The force was constantly operating in the outer waters of the Heligoland +Bight to seaward of our minefields. The objects of the presence of our +ships in these waters, in addition to reconnaissance work and aerial +operations, were: + +(a) To intercept any enemy light forces which might be intending to +operate off our coasts or which might be on passage between German +ports. + +(b) To surprise and attack enemy minesweeping vessels. + +(c) To destroy Zeppelins either on reconnaissance or raiding work. + +(d) To capture enemy merchant ships trading between Dutch and German +ports, or neutrals with contraband trading to Germany. + +The opportunities that were given to the force under heading (a) were +exceedingly rare during the year 1917, when even the light forces of the +High Sea Fleet were content to remain almost constantly in port except +when engaged in the operations in the Baltic, and excepting also on the +two occasions on which attacks were made on the Scandinavian convoy; but +a portion of the Harwich force succeeded on one occasion in intercepting +a flotilla of German destroyers _en route_ to Zeebrugge from German +ports with the result that one destroyer was seriously damaged and +forced into the Dutch port of Ymuiden and another either sunk or badly +damaged. + +Forces from Harwich also succeeded in capturing or sinking twenty-four +merchant ships trading between Antwerp and Dutch ports and Germany +during the year, but the main result of the operations of this force was +shown in the refusal of the enemy to risk his vessels except under cover +of darkness in the area in which the Harwich force worked. + +The duty of protecting the Dutch convoy imposed a heavy strain upon the +Harwich force. During the year 1917, 520 eastbound and 511 westbound +vessels were convoyed between Dutch and British ports with the loss of +only four ships by submarine attack, one by destroyer attack, and one by +mine. The price paid by the force for this success was the loss of four +destroyers by mines, and one by collision, and the damage of three +destroyers by mine or torpedo, and of five destroyers and one light +cruiser by collision. The frequent collisions were due to the conditions +under which the traffic was carried out at night without lights, and to +the prevalence of fogs. The procedure adopted by the force was +frequently changed as it necessarily became known to the Germans. + +The extraordinarily small losses in the convoys were a very great +tribute to the handling of the protecting force and to the organization +in Holland for arranging sailings, when it is borne in mind that it was +almost impossible to prevent leakage of information to German agents +once the time of sailing was given out, and that the convoys were open +to attack from destroyers and submarines operating either from Zeebrugge +or from the Ems or other German ports. The orders of course emanated +from the Admiralty, and of all the great work achieved by Vice-Admiral +Sir Henry Oliver, the Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, during his +service at the Admiralty in the year 1917 and indeed in the two +preceding years, the success attending the work of this convoy was +certainly not the least. + +It is difficult to put into words the great admiration which I felt for +Sir Henry Oliver's work throughout the war. Our association commenced +during my command of the Grand Fleet, but became of course much closer +at the Admiralty, and during my service there his assistance was of +immense help to me and of incalculable value to the nation. + +It was fortunate indeed for the Allied cause that he held such important +Staff appointments during the most critical periods of the war. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE SEQUEL + + +The foregoing chapters have been devoted to describing the measures that +were devised or put into force or that were in course of preparation +during the year 1917 to deal with the unrestricted submarine warfare +against merchant shipping adopted by Germany and Austria in February of +that year. It now remains to state, so far as my information admits, the +effect of those measures. + +British anti-submarine measures were almost non-existent at the +commencement of the war. Sir Arthur Wilson, when in command of the +Channel Fleet in the early days of the submarine, had experimented with +nets as an anti-submarine measure, and shortly before the war submarines +were exercised at stalking one another in a submerged condition; also +the question of employing a light gun for use against the same type of +enemy craft when on the surface had been considered, and some of our +submarines had actually been provided with such a gun of small calibre. +Two patterns of towed explosive sweeps had also been tried and adopted, +but it cannot be said that we had succeeded in finding any satisfactory +anti-submarine device, although many brains were at work on the subject, +and therefore the earliest successes against enemy submarines were +principally achieved by ramming tactics. Gradually other devices were +thought out and adopted; these comprised drift and stationary nets +fitted with mines, the depth charge, decoy ships of various natures, +gunfire from patrol craft and gunfire from armed merchant ships, as well +as the numerous devices mentioned in Chapter III. + +Except at the very commencement of the war, when production of craft in +Germany was slow, presumably as a result of the comparatively small +number under construction when war broke out, the British measures +failed until towards the end of 1917 in sinking submarines at a rate +approaching in any degree that at which the Germans were producing them. + +Thus Germany started the war with 28 submarines; five were added and +five were lost during 1914, leaving the number still 28 at the +commencement of 1915. + +During 1915, so far as our knowledge went, 54 were added and only 19 +were lost, the total at the commencement of 1916 being therefore 63. + +During 1916 it is believed that 87 submarines were added and 25 lost, +leaving the total at the commencement of 1917 at 125. + +During 1917 our information was that 78 submarines were added and 66 +lost, leaving the total at the end of the year at 137. + +The losses during 1917, given quarterly, indicate the increasing +effectiveness of our anti-submarine measures. These losses, so far as we +know them, were: + +First quarter ... 10 Third quarter ... 20 +Second quarter ... 12 Fourth quarter ... 24 + +During 1918, according to Admiral Scheer ("Germany's High Sea Fleet In +the World War," page 335), 74 submarines were added to the fleet in the +period January to October. The losses during this year up to the date of +the Armistice totalled 70, excluding those destroyed by the Germans on +the evacuation of Bruges and those blown up by them at Pola and Cattaro. +Taken quarterly the losses were: + +First quarter ... 18 Third quarter ... 21 +Second quarter ... 26 Fourth quarter (to + date of Armistice) ... 6 + +It will be seen from the foregoing figures for 1917 and 1918 that the +full result of the anti-submarine measures inaugurated in 1917 and +previous years was being felt in the last quarter of 1917, the results +for 1918 being very little in advance of those for the previous +half-year. + +According to our information, as shown by the figures given above, the +Germans had completed by October, 1918, a total of 326 submarines of all +classes, exclusive of those destroyed by them in November at Bruges, +Pola and Cattaro. + +Admiral von Capelle informed the Reichstag Committee that a total of 810 +was ordered before and during the war. It follows from that statement +that over 400 must have been under construction or contemplated at the +time of the Armistice. + +It is understood that the number of submarines actually building at the +end of 1918 was, however, only about 200, which perhaps was the total +capacity of the German shipyards at one time. + +At the risk of repetition it is as well to repeat here the figures +giving the quarterly losses of merchant ships during 1917 and 1918, as +they indicate in another and effective way the influence of the +anti-submarine measures. + +These figures are: + + 1917 + + British. Foreign. Total. +1st quarter 911,840 707,533 1,519,373 +2nd quarter 1,361,870 875,064 2,236,934 +3rd quarter 952,938 541,535 1,494,473 +4th quarter 782,887 489,954 1,272,843 + + + 1918 + + British. Foreign. Total. +1st quarter 697,668 445,668 1,143,336 +2nd quarter 630,862 331,145 962,007 +3rd quarter 512,030 403,483 915,513 +4th quarter 83,952 93,582 177,534 + + Figures for 4th quarter are for Month of October only. + +The decline of the losses of British shipping was progressive from the +second quarter of 1917; in the third quarter of 1918 the reduction in +the tonnage sunk became very marked, and suggested definitely the +approaching end of the submarine menace. + +The fact that during the second quarter of 1918 the world's output of +tonnage overtook the world's losses was another satisfactory feature. +The output for 1917 and 1918 is shown in the following table: + + United Dominions, + Kingdom Allied and Total for + Output. Neutral World. + Countries. + 1917 +1st quarter 246,239 340,807 587,046 +2nd quarter 249,331 435,717 685,048 +3rd quarter 248,283 426,778 675,061 +4th quarter 419,621 571,010 990,631 + + 1918 +1st quarter 320,280 550,037 870,317 +2nd quarter 442,966 800,308 1,243,274 +3rd quarter 411,395 972,735 1,384,130 +4th quarter, Oct. only 136,100 375,000 511,100 + +It will be noticed that by the last quarter of 1918 the output of +shipping in the United Kingdom alone had overtaken the losses of British +shipping. + +It is not possible to give exact information as to the particular means +by which the various German submarines were disposed of, but it is +believed that of the 186 vessels mentioned as having been lost by the +Germans at least thirty-five fell victims to the depth charge, large +orders for which had been placed by the Admiralty in 1917, and it is +probably safe to credit mines, of which there was a large and rapidly +increasing output throughout 1917, with the same number--thirty-five--a +small proportion of these losses being due to the mines in the North Sea +Barrage. Our own submarines accounted for some nineteen. + +Our destroyers and patrol craft of all natures sank at least twenty by +means of gunfire or the ram, and some four or five more by the use of +towed sweeps of various natures. Our decoy ships sank about twelve; four +German submarines are known to have been sunk by being rammed by +men-of-war other than destroyers, four by merchant ships, and about ten +by means of our nets. It is fairly certain that at least seven were +accounted for by aerial attack. Six were interned, some as the result of +injury after action with our vessels. + +The total thus accounted for is 156. It was always difficult to obtain +exact information of the fate of submarines, particularly in such cases +as mine attack, and the figures, therefore, do not cover the whole of +the German losses which we estimated at 185. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +"PRODUCTION" AT THE ADMIRALTY DURING 1917 + + +The anti-submarine measures initiated during the year 1917 and continued +throughout the year 1918, as well as those in force in the earlier years +of the war, depended very much for their success on the work carried out +by the Admiralty Departments responsible for design and production, and +apart from this these departments, during the year 1917, carried out a +great deal of most valuable work in the direction of improving the +efficiency of the material with which the vessels of the Grand Fleet and +other warships were equipped. + +Early in 1917 certain changes were made in the Naval Ordnance +Department. When Captain Dreyer took up the post of Director of Naval +Ordnance in succession to Rear-Admiral Morgan Singer on March 1, the +opportunity was seized of removing the Torpedo Department, which had +hitherto been a branch of the Naval Ordnance Department, from the +control of the Director of Naval Ordnance, and Rear-Admiral Fitzherbert +was appointed as Director of Torpedoes and Mines, with two assistant +Directors under him, one for torpedoes and the other for mines. It had +for some time been apparent to me that the torpedo and mining work of +the Fleet required a larger and more independent organization, and the +intention to adopt a very extensive mining policy accentuated the +necessity of appointing a larger staff and according it greater +independence. The change also relieved the D.N.O. of some work and gave +him more liberty to concentrate on purely ordnance matters. + +Captain Dreyer, from his experience as Flag Captain in the _Iron Duke_, +was well aware of the directions in which improvement in armament +efficiency was necessary, and a variety of questions were taken up by +him with great energy. + +Some of the more important items of the valuable work achieved by the +Naval Ordnance Department during the year 1917, in addition to the +provision of various anti-submarine measures mentioned in Chapter III, +were: + +(1) The introduction of a new armour-piercing shell of far greater +efficiency than that previously in use; the initial designs for these +shells were produced in the drawing office of the Department of the +Director of Naval Ordnance. + +(2) The introduction of star shell. + +(3) The improvement of the arrangements made, after our experience in +the Jutland action, for preventing the flash of exploding shell from +being communicated to the magazines. + +Taking these in order, the _New Armour-piercing Shell_ would have +produced a very marked effect had a Fleet action been fought in 1918. +Twelve thousand of these new pattern shell had been ordered by November, +1917, after a long series of experiments, and a considerable number were +in an advanced stage of construction by the end of the year. With our +older pattern of shell, as used by the Fleet at Jutland and in earlier +actions, there was no chance of the burst of the shell, when fired at +battle range, taking place inboard, after penetrating the side armour of +modern German capital ships, in such a position that the fragments might +be expected to reach and explode the magazines. A large proportion of +the shell burst on the face of the armour, the remainder while passing +through it. In the case of the new shell, which was certainly twice as +efficient and which would penetrate the armour without breaking up, the +fragments would have a very good chance of reaching the magazines of +even the latest German ships. + +The greatest credit was due to the Ordnance Department and to our +enterprising manufacturers for the feat which they achieved. We had +pressed for a shell of this nature as the result of our experience +during the Jutland action, and it was badly wanted. + +We had experienced the need for an efficient _Star Shell_ both in the +Grand Fleet and in southern waters, and after the Jutland action the +attention of the Admiralty had been drawn by me to the efficiency of the +German shell of this type. In the early part of 1917, during one of the +short night bombardments of the south coast by German destroyers, some +German star shell, unexploded, reached the shore. Directions were at +once given to copy these shell and not to waste time by trying to +improve upon them, a procedure dear to technical minds but fatal when +time is of the first importance. Success was soon attained, and star +shell were issued during 1917 to all our ships, the vessels of the Dover +and Harwich patrol force and the shore battery at the North Foreland +being the first supplied. + +Important experiments were carried out in 1917 on board H.M.S. +_Vengeance_ to test the _Anti-flash_ arrangements with which the Fleet +had been equipped as the result of certain of our ships being blown up +in the Jutland action. Valuable information was obtained from these +experiments and the arrangements were improved accordingly. + +The work of the Torpedo and Mining Department was also of great value +during 1917. The principal task lay in perfecting the new pattern mine +and arranging for its production in great numbers, in overcoming the +difficulties experienced with the older pattern mines, and in arranging +for a greatly increased production of explosives for use in mines, depth +charges, etc. + +These projects were in hand when the new organization involving the +appointment of an Admiralty Controller was adopted. + +The circumstances in which this great and far-reaching change in +organization was brought about were as follows. In the spring of 1917 +proposals were made to the Admiralty by the then Prime Minister that +some of the work carried out at that time by the Third Sea Lord should +be transferred to a civilian. At first it was understood by us that the +idea was to re-institute the office of additional Civil Lord, which +office was at the time held by Sir Francis Hopwood (now Lord +Southborough), whose services, however, were being utilized by the +Foreign Office, and who had for this reason but little time to devote to +Admiralty work. To this proposal no objection was raised. + +At a later stage, however, it became evident that the proposal was more +far reaching and that the underlying idea was to place a civilian in +charge of naval material generally and of all shipbuilding, both naval +and mercantile. Up to the spring of 1916 mercantile shipbuilding had +been carried out under the supervision of the Board of Trade, but when +the office of Shipping Controller was instituted this work had been +placed under that Minister, who was assisted by a committee of +shipbuilders termed the "Shipbuilding Advisory Committee." Statistics +show that good results as regards mercantile ship production were not +obtained under either the Board of Trade or the Shipping Controller, one +reason being that the supply of labour and material, which were very +important factors, was a matter of competition between the claims of the +Navy and those of the Mercantile Marine, and another the fact that many +men had been withdrawn from the shipyards for service in the Army. There +was especial difficulty in providing labour for the manufacture of +machinery, and at one time the Admiralty went so far as to lend +artificers to assist in the production of engines. The idea of placing +the production of ships for both services under one head appealed to and +was supported by the Admiralty. The next step was a proposal to the +Admiralty that Sir Eric Geddes, at that time the head of the military +railway organization in France with the honorary rank of Major-General, +should become Admiralty Controller. This would place him in charge of +all shipbuilding for both services as well as that portion of the work +of the Third Sea Lord which related to armament production. I was +requested to see Sir Eric whilst attending a conference in Paris with a +view to his being asked to take up the post of Admiralty Controller. +This I did after discussing the matter with some of the heads of the War +Office Administration and members of General Headquarters in France. + +I learned from Sir Eric Geddes that he felt capable of undertaking the +work on the understanding that he was assured of my personal support; he +said that experience in his railway work in France had shown the +difficulty of taking over duties hitherto performed by officers, and +stated that it could not have been carried through without the strong +support of the Commander-in-Chief; for this reason he considered he must +be assured of my support at the Admiralty. In view of the importance +attached to combining under one administration the work of both naval +and mercantile shipbuilding for the reasons already stated, and +influenced in some degree by the high opinion held of Sir Eric Geddes by +the Prime Minister, I came to the conclusion that his appointment would +be of benefit to Admiralty work, and therefore gave him the assurance +and said that I would do my best to smooth over any difficulties with +the existing Admiralty officials, whether naval or technical. + +In these circumstances Sir Eric Geddes was offered the post of Admiralty +Controller by Sir Edward Carson, then First Lord, and accepted it. It +was arranged that a naval officer should continue to hold the post of +Third Sea Lord and that he should be jointly responsible, so far as the +Navy was concerned, for all _design_ work on its technical side, whether +for ships, ordnance material, mines, torpedoes, etc., etc., whilst the +Controller became entirely responsible for _production_. It was obvious +that goodwill and tact would be required to start this new organization, +which was decidedly complicated, and that the post of Third Sea Lord +would be difficult to fill. At the request of Sir Eric Geddes +Rear-Admiral Lionel Halsey, C.B., who at that time was Fourth Sea Lord, +was asked if he would become Third Sea Lord in the new organization. He +consented and was appointed. When the detailed organization, drawn up to +meet the views of Sir E. Geddes, was examined by the naval officers +responsible for armament work, strong objections were raised to that +part of the organization which affected their responsibility for the +control and approval of designs and of inspection. + +Sir Eric held the view that inspection should come under the officials +in charge of production and that the designing staff should also be +under him, the designs being drawn up to meet the views of the naval +officers and finally approved by them. Personally I saw no _danger_ in +the proposals regarding design, because the responsibility of the naval +officer for final approval was recognized; but there was a certain +possibility of delay if the naval technical officer lost control over +the designing staff. I fully agreed with the criticisms on the subject +of inspection, the argument being that only naval officers accustomed to +_use_ the ordnance material could know the dangers that might arise from +faulty inspection, and that the producer had temptations in his path, +especially under war conditions, to make inspection subservient to +rapidity of production. Sir Eric Geddes finally waived his objections. +He informed me that he based his arguments largely on his experience at +the Ministry of Munitions, with which he had been associated earlier in +the war. The contention of the naval officers at the Admiralty was that +even if the organization proposed was found to be workable for the Army, +it would not be satisfactory for the Navy, as in our case it was +essential that the responsibility for approval of design and for +inspection should be independent of the producer, whether the producer +was a Government official or a contractor. Apart from questions of +general principle in this matter, accidents to ordnance material in the +Navy, or the production of inferior ammunition, may involve, and have +involved, the most serious results, even the complete loss of +battleships with their crews, as the result of a magazine explosion or +the bursting of a heavy gun. I could not find that the organization at +the Ministry of Munitions had, even in its early days, placed design, +inspection and production under one head; inspection and design had each +its own head and were separate from production. In any case in 1918 the +Ministry of Munitions reverted to the Admiralty system of placing the +responsibility for design and inspection under an artillery expert who +was neither a manufacturer nor responsible for production. + +The matters referred to above may appear unimportant to the civilian +reader, but any question relating to the efficiency of its material is +of such paramount importance to the fighting efficiency of the Navy that +it is necessary to mention it with a view to the avoidance of future +mistakes. + +The new organization resulted in the creation of a very large +administrative staff for the purpose of accelerating the production of +ships, ordnance material, mines, etc. Indeed, the increase in numbers +was so great that it became necessary to find additional housing room, +and the offices of the Board of Education were taken over for the +purpose. It was felt that the increase in staff, though it involved, of +course, very heavy expenditure, would be justified if it resulted in +increased rapidity of production. It will be readily understood that +such an immense change in organization, one which I had promised to see +through personally, and which was naturally much disliked by all the +Admiralty departments, threw a vast volume of extra work on my +shoulders, work which had no connexion with the operations of war, and +this too at a period when the enemy's submarine campaign was at its +height. I should not have undertaken it but for the hope that the change +would result in greatly increased production, particularly of warships +and merchant ships. + +The success of this new organization can only be measured by the results +obtained, and by this standard, if it were possible to eliminate some of +the varying and incalculable factors, we should be able to judge the +extent to which the change was justified. It was a change for which, +under pressure, I bore a large share of responsibility, and it involved +replacing, in the middle of a great war, an organization built up by +experts well acquainted with naval needs by one in which a considerable +proportion of the personnel had no previous experience of the work. The +change was, of course, an experiment; the danger lay in the fact that, +until technical and Admiralty experience has been gained, even men of +the greatest ability in other walks of life may find it difficult to +produce satisfactory results even if there are no limits imposed on the +size of the Staff which assists them. + +The question of production is best examined under various headings and +the results under the old Admiralty organization compared with those +under the new, although comparison is admittedly difficult owing to +changing conditions. + + +WARSHIP PRODUCTION + +Under the Admiralty organization existing up to May, 1917, the Third Sea +Lord--as the Controller was termed when changes were introduced by Mr. +Churchill in 1912--was head of the Departments of the Director of Naval +Construction and Engineer in Chief, and of that part of the work of the +Director of Naval Ordnance which dealt with the design and production of +guns and gun mountings. Under the new organization a civilian Controller +became responsible for production, the Third Sea Lord being associated +with him on technical matters of design. + +A special department for warship production and repairs was set up under +a Deputy Controller, the Third Sea Lord having no authority over this +department except by his association with the Controller. + +Under the old organization it had been the custom during the war for the +Third Sea Lord to give to the Board and to the Commander-in-Chief of the +Grand Fleet a personal forecast of the anticipated dates of completion +of all warships under construction. My experience whilst in command of +the Grand Fleet had been that this personal forecast was generally +fairly accurate for six months ahead. + +As an example it may be stated that in the first four months of 1917 the +delivery of destroyers _was within one of the forecast_ made in October, +1916, four vessels of the class being slightly behind and three ahead of +the forecast. Of thirteen "E" class submarines forecasted in October, +1916, for delivery by March, 1917, all except two were delivered by +April; of twelve "K" class submarines forecasted for delivery in the +same period, all except three were delivered by April, 1917. It should +be stated that these "K" class submarines were vessels of a new type, +involving new problems of some difficulty. + +On the other hand there was considerable delay in the completion of a +number of the thirty "P" boats forecasted in October, 1916, for delivery +during the first seven months of 1917, and the April forecast showed +that only twenty out of the thirty would be delivered during that +period. There was also some delay in the delivery of twin screw +minesweepers, twenty of which were shown in the forecast of October, +1916, as due for delivery in the first six months of 1917. The April, +1917, forecast showed that six had been delivered or would complete in +April, ten more would complete within the estimated period, and the four +remaining would be overdue and would not be delivered until July or +August. + +These figures show the degree of reliance which could be placed on the +personal forecasts of the Third Sea Lord under the old organization. It +is, of course, a fact that accurate forecasts do not _necessarily_ mean +that the rate of production is satisfactory, but only that the forecast +is to be depended on. We were never at all satisfied with the rate of +production, either under the old or the new organization. Accuracy of +forecast was, however, of great use from the Staff point of view in +allotting new ships to the various commands and in planning operations. + +To turn now to the figures given by the Admiralty Controller under the +new organization. The table below shows the forecasts ("F") given in +June, 1917, and the deliveries ("D") of different classes of warships +month by month during the period of July to November of that year: + +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + Class of | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Deficit in +Vessel. | F | D | F | D | F | D | F | D | F | D | 5 months +-------------------------------------------------------------------- +Flotilla | | | | | | | | | | | + Leaders | | | | | | | | | | | + and T.B.D's.| 5 | 2 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 4 +Submarines | 2 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 1 | 11 +Sloops | 3 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 5 +"P." Boats | 6 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 3 +------------------------------------------------------------------ + +Amongst vessels which were classed as auxiliaries the figures were: + + + Class of | July. | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Deficit in +Vessel. | F | D | F | D | F | D | F | D | F | D | 5 months +-------------------------------------------------------------------- +Minesweepers | 5 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 +Trawlers |25 |18 |23 |14 |30 |13 |27 |28 |33 |24 | 41 +-------------------------------------------------------------------- + +It will be seen from these figures that the forecast of June was +inaccurate even for the three succeeding months and that the total +deficit in the five months was considerable, except in the case of +T.B.D.'s and "P" boats. + +The most disappointing figures were those relating to submarines, +trawlers and minesweepers. The case of the submarines may be put in +another way, thus: + +In the June forecast twenty-six submarines were forecasted for delivery +during the period July to the end of December, the dates of three, +however, being somewhat uncertain; of this total of twenty-six, _only +nine were actually delivered_. Of the remainder, seven were shown in a +November forecast as delayed for four months, two for five months, and +one for nine months. + +The attention of the Production Departments was continually directed to +the very serious effect which the delay was producing on our +anti-submarine measures, and the First Lord, Sir Eric Geddes, was +informed of the difficult position which was arising. In the early part +of December I pointed out to the Third Sea Lord and the Admiralty +Controller, Sir Allan Anderson, that it was obviously impossible for the +Naval Staff to frame future policy unless some dependence could be +placed on the forecast of deliveries. The Controller in reply stated +that accurate forecasts were most difficult, and proposed a discussion +with the Third Sea Lord and myself, but I had left the Admiralty before +the discussion took place. + +The delays, as will be seen from the tables given, were most serious in +the case of vessels classed as auxiliaries. Sir Thomas Bell, who +possessed great experience of shipbuilding in a private capacity, was at +the head of the Department of the Deputy Controller for Dockyards and +Shipbuilding, and the Director of Warship Production was a distinguished +Naval constructor. The Deputy Controller of Auxiliary Shipbuilding was +an officer lent from the War Office, whose previous experience had lain, +I believe, largely in the railway world; some of his assistants and +staff were, however, men with experience of shipbuilding. + +When I became First Sea Lord at the end of 1916 the new building +programme, which had received the sanction of the Cabinet, was as +follows: + + 8 Flotilla leaders. 500 Trawlers. +65 T.B.D.'s. 60 Submarines. +34 Sloops. 4 Seaplane carriers. +48 Screw minesweepers. 60 Boom defence vessels. +16 Paddle " + +During the early part of 1917 it was decided to substitute 56 screw +minesweepers and 8 paddle sweepers for the approved programme of this +class of vessel and to add another 50 screw minesweepers to meet the +growing mine menace, as well as to substitute 115 drifters for 50 of the +trawlers, and to request the Canadian Government to build 36 trawlers +and 100 drifters mainly for use in Canadian waters. It was also decided +to lay down 36 mercantile decoy ships and 12 tugs, and to build 56 motor +skimmers on the lines of the coastal motor boats, which were then +showing their value off the Belgian coast. The programme therefore, in +May, 1917, was as follows: + +Flotilla leaders 8 +T.B.D.'s 65 +Patrol boats 6 +Sloops 34 +Minesweepers (screw) 56 + " (paddle) 8 +Additional twin-screw minesweepers 50 +Submarines 60 +Trawlers 450 +Drifters 115 +Canadian trawlers 36 + " drifters 100 +Boom defence vessels 60 +Mercantile decoy ships 36 +Seaplane carriers 4 +Tugs 12 +Motor skimmers 56 + +Meanwhile intelligence had been received which indicated that Germany +was building such a considerable number of light cruisers as to +jeopardize our supremacy in this class of vessel, and it was decided by +the Board that we ought to build eight more light cruisers even at the +cost of appropriating the steel intended for the construction of six +merchant ships. + +Further, the German submarine programme was developing with great +rapidity, and our own submarines of the "L" class were taking a very +long time to build. It was therefore proposed to substitute eighteen +additional "H" class submarines for four of the "L" class, as the +vessels of the "H" class were capable of more rapid construction, thus +making the total number of submarines on order 74. Approval was also +sought for the addition of 24 destroyers and four "P" boats to the +programme, bringing the number of destroyers on order up to a total of +89. + +The programme was approved, a slight change being made in the matter of +the seaplane carriers by fitting out one of the "Raleigh" class of +cruisers as a seaplane vessel in order to obtain an increased number of +vessels of this type more rapidly than by building. Later in the year +the cruiser _Furious_ was also converted into a seaplane carrier, and +she carried out much useful work in 1918. + + +MERCANTILE SHIPBUILDING + +A greatly increased output of merchant ships had been anticipated under +the new organization, which placed mercantile construction under the +Admiralty Controller instead of under the Ministry of Shipping. It was +expected that the difficulties due, under the previous arrangement, to +competing claims for steel and labour would vanish with very beneficial +results. + +It was, as previously stated, mainly with this object that the Admiralty +had agreed to the change. The start was promising enough. After a review +of the situation hopes were held out that during the second half of 1917 +an addition of about 1,000,000 tons of shipping from the shipyards +within the United Kingdom would be effected. This figure, indeed, was +given to the House of Commons by the Prime Minister on August 16, 1917. + +On comparing this figure with that of the first half of the year (a +total of about 484,000 tons) there was distinct cause for gratification; +it is right to state that Admiralty officials who had previously been +watching mercantile shipbuilding regarded the estimate as very +optimistic. Further, it was anticipated by the then Admiralty +Controller, Sir Eric Geddes, that during the year 1918, with some +addition to the labour strength, a total output of nearly two million +tons was possible, provided steel was forthcoming, whilst with +considerably greater additions to the labour strength and to the supply +of steel, and with the help of the National Shipyards proposed by the +Controller, the total output might even reach three million tons. + +The actual results fell very short of these forecasts, the total output +for the second half of the year was only 620,000 tons, the monthly +totals in gross tonnage for the whole year being: + +January 46,929 July 81,188 +February 78,436 August 100,900 +March 115,654 September 60,685 +April 67,536 October 145,844 +May 68,083 November 158,826 +June 108,397 December 112,486 + +In January, 1918, the total dropped to 58,568 tons, and in February was +only 100,038 tons. In March it was announced that Lord Pirie would take +the position of Controller General of Merchant Shipbuilding. The +subsequent results in the direction of output of merchant ships do not +properly come within the scope of this book, which is intended to deal +only with work during the year 1917, but it may be of interest to give +here the output month by month. It was as follows: + + +January 58,568 July 141,948 +February 100,038 August 124,675 +March 161,674 September 144,772 +April 111,533 October 136,000 +May 197,274 November 105,093 +June 134,159 December 118,276 + +Total for the year 1,534,110 + +It will be seen that the results for 1918 were an improvement on those +for 1917, the exact figure for that year being 1,163,474 tons; these +results, however, fell very short of the optimistic estimates given in +July, 1917. + + +MERCANTILE REPAIR WORK + +The Controller's Department undoubtedly succeeded in the work of +improving the arrangements for the repair of merchant ships. This is +shown by an analysis of the total number of vessels that _completed_ +repairs during various months. + +In August, 1917, the number was 382, with a tonnage of 1,183,000. In +November the figure became 542 ships, with a tonnage of 1,509,000. There +remained under repair at the end of August 326 ships, and at the end of +November 350 ships, these figures indicating that the greater number of +completions was not due to the smaller number of vessels being damaged +or the damages being less in extent. + +Considerable credit is due to the Department for this successful +acceleration of repair work which naturally had a great influence on the +shipping situation. + + +ARMAMENT PRODUCTION + +It was not, I think, realized either by the Government or by the +civilians brought into the Admiralty during the year 1917 that there was +a very great difference between the Admiralty and the War Office +organizations in the matter of production of material, nor was it +recognized that naval officers are by their training and experience +better fitted to deal with such matters on a large scale than are +military officers, except perhaps officers in the Artillery and Royal +Engineers. Whatever may be the case in the future, the Navy in pre-war +days was so much more dependent on material than the Army as to make +questions relating to naval material of far greater importance that was +the case with military material. This fact is apt to be forgotten by +those writers on naval affairs who think that an intimate knowledge of +questions relating to naval material _and its use_ is of little +importance. I trust that this belief will never become general in the +service, for the naval officer who is not familiar with the design and +production of material is handicapped when he comes to use it. + +Ignorance of the great experience of the Admiralty in handling problems +of production and of the past success of Admiralty methods in this +respect gave rise to a good deal of misconception. The fact that it had +been necessary to form a separate Ministry (that of Munitions) to deal +with the production of war material for the Army probably fostered the +idea that matters at the Admiralty should be altered in a similar +direction. + +The post of Deputy Controller of Armament Production was created under +the new organization, and all matters concerning the production of guns, +gun-mountings, projectiles, cordite, torpedoes, mines, paravanes and all +other war material was placed under him. I have dealt earlier in this +chapter with the questions of design and inspection over which some +disagreement arose. + +I was not conscious that the new organization succeeded in speeding up +armament production during 1917, and during the latter part of the year +I was much concerned with the delays in ordnance production as revealed +during 1917 and as exposed by the forecasts for 1918. + +It is very possible, on the other hand, that in the case of mines the +results were good. The old Admiralty organization had not been equipped +to deal with such an immense number of mines as were on order, and +although a large organization for their production was started by Sir +Lionel Halsey, when Fourth Sea Lord, with the assistance of Admiral +Fitzherbert and Captain Litchfield-Speer, it had not been sufficiently +long at work for an opinion to be given as to whether the results in +production would have been as good as under the D.C.A.P. + +In considering the whole question of production during the year 1917 it +should be borne in mind that very extensive orders were placed in the +early part of that year for guns, gun-mountings, mines, warships of the +smaller class and patrol craft, and that if we compare only the actual +output for 1917 with that of previous years without taking the above +fact into account, we might form an incorrect impression as to the +success of the organization for production. For instance, in the last +quarter of 1917, 1,515 guns of all calibres were delivered, as against +1,101 in the first quarter; in the month of November 1,335 mines of all +natures and 2,078 depth charges were filled, as compared with 625 mines +and 542 depth charges in July. These figures were the result of the +large orders placed early in the year, and it was not until 1918 that +the full fruits of the orders placed in 1917 became apparent. The +figures for that year, however, are not at my disposal. + +One great advantage which resulted from the new organization, viz., the +creation of a Directorate of Materials and Priority, must be mentioned. +This Directorate controlled the distribution of all steel for all +services and produced a very beneficial effect on the issue of supplies +of steel to shipbuilders. The immense increase in staff which resulted +from the institution of the office of Admiralty Controller is exhibited +in the lists of staff in 1918 as compared with the staff in the early +part of 1917. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +NAVAL WORK + + +The main effort of the Navy during the year 1917 was directed towards +the defeat of the enemy's submarines, since the Central Powers confined +their naval effort almost entirely to this form of warfare, but many +other problems occupied our attention at the Admiralty, and some of +these may be mentioned. + +Considerable discussion took place in the early part of the year on the +subject of the policy to be pursued in the Eastern theatre of war, and +naval opinion on the possibility of effecting a landing in force at +different points was invited and given. It need only be said here that +the matter was brought forward more than once, and that the situation +from the naval point of view was always clear. The feasible landing +places so far as we were concerned were unsuited to the military +strategy at that period; the time required to collect or build the great +number of lighters, horse boats, etc., for the strong force required was +not available, and it was a sheer impossibility to provide in a short +period all the small craft needed for an operation of magnitude, whilst +the provision of the necessary anti-submarine defences would have taxed +our resources to the utmost and have prevented essential work of this +nature in other theatres. + +The work of the Navy, therefore, _off the coast of Palestine_ was +confined to protecting the left flank of the advancing army and +assisting its operations, and to establishing, as the troops advanced, +bases on the coast at which stores, etc., could be landed. This task was +effectively carried out. + +The anchorages on this coast are all entirely open to the sea, and +become untenable at very short notice, so that the work of the Navy was +always carried out under considerable difficulty. Nor could the ships +working on the flank be adequately guarded against submarine attack, and +some losses were experienced, the most important being the sinking of +Monitor M15 and the destroyer _Staunch_ by a submarine attack off Deir +el Belah (nine miles south of Gaza) in November. + +The Navy continued its co-operation with the Army in the _Salonika +theatre of war_, assisted by the Royal Naval Air Service, and +bombardments were continually carried out on military objectives. +Similarly _in the Adriatic_ our monitors and machines of the R.N.A.S. +assisted the military forces of the Allies; particularly was this the +case at the time of the Austrian advance to the Piave, where our +monitors did much useful work in checking enemy attempts to cross that +river. + +_Off the Gallipoli Peninsula_ the Naval watch on the mouth of the +Dardanelles was continued; extensive new minefields were laid during the +year, and were effective in sinking the _Breslau_ and severely damaging +the _Goeben_ when those vessels attempted a sortie on January 20, 1918. +The R.N.A.S. during the year carried out many long distance +reconnaissance and bombing operations over Constantinople and the +vicinity. + +_In the Red Sea_ Naval operations were carried out in conjunction with +friendly Arabs, and the Arabian coast cleared of Turkish forces. + +_In the White Sea_ during the latter part of 1917 the whole of the Naval +work fell upon British Naval forces when the Russian ships, which had +co-operated hitherto, had come under the influence of the political +situation. Our force in these waters consisted largely of trawlers +engaged in minesweeping and escort work. The latter duty imposed a very +heavy strain on officers and men, involving as it did the safe conduct +during the year of no fewer than one thousand ships carrying stores and +munitions for the Russian military forces. + +_In the Baltic_ the situation became very difficult owing first to the +Russian revolution and, finally, to the Russian debacle. Our force in +these waters consisted of seven submarines. It became evident at the +beginning of October, 1917, that the Germans were intending to carry out +some operations in the Baltic against Russia, and the question of +affording assistance was at once considered by the Naval Staff. It was +surmised that but little dependence could be placed on the Russian +Baltic Fleet (events showed this surmise to be accurate), and in order +to keep our control over the North Sea and ensure the safety of our +communications with France it was obvious that for any action we might +decide to take we should be obliged to divide the Grand Fleet, sending +such portion of that Command into the Baltic as could successfully +engage the High Sea Fleet if encountered, as well as to secure the +return passage via the Great Belt, and retaining a sufficient force to +deal with such German vessels as might attempt operations in the North +Sea or Channel during our raid into the Baltic. + +There were many ways in which the Germans might seriously hamper, if not +entirely prevent, the return of our fleet from the Baltic unless we +secured the exits. The Great Belt could easily be closed by block-ships +at its narrowest points, and extensive minefields could be laid. It was +obvious, therefore, that to secure the exit a strong force would be +required, and that it would necessarily occupy a position where it would +be open to serious attack. + +The initial operation of gaining access to the Baltic via the Great +Belt, though not impossible, was difficult, involving as it did sweeping +passages through very extensive minefields, and even when our ships were +in the Baltic fairly constant sweeping would be necessary. + +Finally, the whole operation would be complicated by the question of +fuel supply, especially to the destroyers and other small craft with a +limited radius of action, since we could not depend upon Russian sources +of supply. These were amongst the considerations which made it clear +that the operation was not one that I could recommend. The Russian naval +view is given in the following statement which appeared in the Russian +Press in October: + + +The Naval General Staff categorically denies the rumours circulated in +Petrograd on the 8th and 9th instant, to the effect that the British or +French Fleet had broken through to the Baltic Sea. + +At the same time it is pointed out that it would be a physical +impossibility for the Allies' Fleet to come in from the western +entrance, because it would be necessary to pass through the Sound or +through one of the two Belts. + +Entry to the Sound through Danish or Swedish waters could not also be +affected owing to the fact that these waters in part are only 18 feet +deep, while large-sized vessels would require at least 30 feet of water. + +As regards the entry to the Belts, this would be an extremely hazardous +undertaking as parts of the routes are under control of the Germans who +have constructed their own defences consisting of mines and batteries. + +In these circumstances, according to the opinion of our naval experts, +an entrance into the Baltic by the Allies' Fleets could only be +undertaken after gaining possession of these waters and the adjacent +coast; and then only with the co-operation of land forces. + + +The Germans had an easy task in the Baltic, as the Russian resistance +was not of a serious nature; our submarines attacked on every possible +occasion, and scored some successes against German vessels. Towards the +end of the year it became necessary to consider the action to be taken +in regard to our submarines, as the German control of the Baltic became +effective, and the demobilization of the Russian fleet became more and +more pronounced. Many schemes for securing their escape from these +waters were discussed, but the chances of success were so small, and the +submarines themselves possessed so little fighting value owing to their +age, that eventually instructions were sent to the senior officer to +destroy the submarines before they could fall into German hands. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE FUTURE + + +It is natural that the task of recounting the facts in the foregoing +chapters should cause one's thoughts to turn to the future. The Empire +has passed through a period of great danger, during which its every +interest was threatened, and it has come successfully out of the ordeal, +but to those upon whom the responsibility lay of initiating and +directing the nation's policy the serious nature of the perils which +faced us were frequently such as to justify the grave anxiety which +sprang from full knowledge of events and their significance. + +An international organization is in process of being brought into +existence which, if it does not entirely prevent a recurrence of the +horrors of the four and a half years of war, will, it is hoped, at least +minimize the chances of the repetition of such an experience as that +through which the world has so recently passed. But the League of +Nations is still only a skeleton to be clothed with authority and +supported by the public opinion of the world if it is to be a success. +It is in its infancy, and so far the most optimistic have not advanced +beyond hopes in its efficiency; and if the lessons of the past are +correctly interpreted, as they were interpreted by our forefathers in +their day, those upon whom responsibility lies in future years for the +safety and prosperity of the Empire will see to it that, so far as lies +in their power, whatever else may be left undone, the security of the +sea communications of the Empire is ensured. Not one of us but must have +realized during the war, if he did not realize it before, that the +all-important thing upon which we must set our minds is the ability to +use the sea communications of the far-flung Empire, which is only united +by the seas so long as we can use them. But while governments may +realize their duty in this matter, and set out with good intentions, it +is, after all, upon the people who elect governments that the final +responsibility lies, and therefore it is to them that it is so necessary +to bring home in season and out of season the dangers that confront us +if our sea communications are imperilled. + +The danger which confronted the British peoples was never so great in +any previous period as it was during the year 1917 when the submarine +menace was at its height, and it may be hoped that the lessons to be +learned from the history of those months will never be forgotten. The +British Empire differs from any other nation or empire which has ever +existed. Our sea communications are our very life-blood, and it is not +greatly exaggerating the case to say that the safety of those +communications is the one consideration of first-class importance. Upon +a solid sense of their security depends not only our prosperity, but +also the actual lives of a large proportion of the inhabitants. There is +no other nation in the world which is situated as the people of these +islands are situated; therefore there is no other nation to whom sea +power is in the least degree as essential as it is to us. Four out of +five of our loaves and most of our raw materials for manufacture must +come to us by sea, and it is only by the sea that we can hold any +commercial intercourse with the Dominions, Dependencies and Crown +Colonies, which together make up what we call the Empire, with a +population of 400,000,000 people. + +What, then, are we to do in the future to ensure the safety of the +communications between these islands and the rest of the Empire? As a +matter of course we should be in a position to safeguard them against +any possible form of attack from whatever quarter it may come. So far as +can be seen there is no present likelihood of the transport of food or +raw materials being effected in anything but vessels which move upon the +surface of the sea. It is true that, as a result of the war, people's +thoughts turn in the direction of transport, both of human beings and of +merchandise, by air or under the water, but there is no possible chance, +for at least a generation to come, of either of these methods of +transport being able to compete commercially with transport in vessels +sailing on the sea. Therefore the problem of guarding our communications +resolves itself into one of securing the safety of vessels which move +upon the surface of the sea, whatever may be the character of the +attack. + +I do not desire to enter into any discussion here as to the method by +which these vessels can be protected, except to say that it is necessary +for us to be in a position of superiority in all the weapons by which +their safety may be endangered. At the present time there are two +principal forms of attack: (1) by vessels which move on the surface, and +(2) by vessels which move under water. A third danger--namely, one from +the air--is also becoming of increasing importance. The war has shown us +how to ensure safety against the first two forms of attack, and our duty +as members of a great maritime Empire is to take steps to maintain +effective forces for the purpose. + +In order to carry out this duty it will be greatly to our advantage if +the matter can be dealt with by all the constituent parts of the Empire. +A recent tour of the greater part of the British Empire has shown me +that the importance of sea power is very fully realized by the great +majority of our kith and kin overseas, and that there is a strong desire +on their part to co-operate in what is, after all, the concern of the +whole Empire. It seems to me of the greatest possible importance that +this matter of an Empire naval policy and an Empire naval organization +should be settled at the earliest possible moment, and that it should be +looked at from the broadest point of view. + +I do not think that we in this country can claim to have taken into +sufficient account the very natural views and the very natural ambitions +which animate the peoples overseas. We have, in point of fact, looked at +the whole question too locally, whilst we have been suggesting to the +Dominions that they are inclined to make this error, and unless we +depart from that attitude there is a possibility that we shall not reap +the full benefit of the resources of the Empire, which are very great +and are increasing. In war it is not only the material which counts, but +the spirit of a people, and we must enlist the support, spontaneous and +effective, of every section of the King's Dominions in the task of sea +defence which lies before us, consulting fully and unreservedly the +representatives of our kith and kin, and giving them the benefit of +whatever instructed advice we, with ancient traditions and matured +knowledge, may possess. + +In framing our future naval policy it is obvious that we must be guided +by what is being done abroad. We are bound to keep an absolutely safe +margin of naval strength, and that margin must exist in all arms and in +all classes of vessels. At the moment, and no doubt for some time to +come, difficulties in regard to finance will exist, but it would seem to +be nothing more than common sense to insist that the one service which +is vital to our existence should be absolutely the last to suffer for +need of money. During a period of the greatest financial pressure it may +be necessary to economize somewhat in the construction of new ships, and +in the upkeep of certain of our naval bases which the result of the war +and consequent considerations of future strategy may suggest to be not +of immediate importance, although even here it may well be necessary to +develop other naval bases to meet changed conditions; but we cannot +afford to fall behind in organization, in the testing and development of +new ideas, or in the strength of our personnel or in its training. A +well trained personnel and a carefully thought out organization cannot +by any possibility be quickly extemporized. + +It is the height of economic folly to stint experimental research, for +it is in times of stress that the value of past experimental work is +shown. In the matter of organization we must be certain that adequate +means are taken to ensure that the different arms which must co-operate +in war are trained to work together under peace conditions. A modern +fleet consists of many units of different types--battleships, +battle-cruisers, light cruisers, destroyers and submarines. Before I +relinquished the command of the Grand Fleet, large sea-going submarines +of high speed, vessels of the "K" class, had been built to accompany the +surface vessels to sea. It is very essential that senior officers should +have every opportunity of studying tactical schemes in which various +classes of ships and kinds of weapons are employed. In considering the +future of the Navy it is impossible to ignore aircraft. There are many +important problems which the Navy and the Air Service ought to work out +together. A fleet without aircraft will be a fleet without eyes, and +aircraft will, moreover, be necessary, not only for reconnaissance work, +but for gun-spotting, as well as, possibly, for submarine hunting. Air +power is regarded by many officers of wide practical experience as an +essential complement to sea power, whatever future the airship and +aeroplane may have for independent action. A captain who is going to +fight his ship successfully must have practised in time of peace with +all the weapons he will employ in action, and he must have absolute +control over all the elements constituting the fighting power of his +ship. In a larger sense, the same may be said of an admiral in command +of a fleet; divided control may mean disaster. The advent of aircraft +has introduced new and, at present, only partially explored problems +into naval warfare, and officers commanding naval forces will require +frequent opportunities of studying them. They must be worked out with +naval vessels and aircraft acting in close association. With the Air +Service under separate control, financially as well as in an executive +and administrative sense, is it certain that the Admiralty will be able +to obtain machines and personnel in the necessary numbers to carry out +all the experimental and training work that is essential for efficiency +in action? Is it also beyond doubt that unity of command at sea, which +is essential to victory, will be preserved? In view of all the +possibilities which the future holds now that the airship and aeroplane +have arrived, it is well that there should be no doubt on such matters, +for inefficiency might in conceivable circumstances spell defeat. + +Then there is the question of the personnel of the fleet. It would be +most unwise to allow the strength of the trained personnel of the Navy +to fall below the limit of reasonable safety, because it is upon that +trained personnel that the success of the enormous expansions needed in +war so largely depends. This was found during the late struggle, when +the personnel was expanded from 150,000 to upwards of 400,000, throwing +upon the pre-war nucleus a heavy responsibility in training, equipment +and organizing. Without the backbone of a highly trained personnel of +sufficient strength, developments in time of sudden emergency cannot +possibly be effected. In the late war we suffered in this respect, and +we should not forget the lesson. + +In future wars, if any such should occur, trained personnel will be of +even greater importance than it was in the Great War, because the +advance of science increases constantly the importance of the highly +trained individual, and if nothing else is certain it can surely be +predicted that science will play an increasing part in warfare in the +future. Only those officers and men who served afloat in the years +immediately preceding the opening of hostilities know how great the +struggle was to gain that high pitch of efficiency which the Navy had +reached at the outbreak of war, and it was the devotion to duty of our +magnificent pre-war personnel that went far to ensure our victory. It is +essential that the Navy of the future should not be given a yet harder +task than fell to the Navy of the past as a result of a policy of +starving the personnel. + +There is, perhaps, just one other point upon which I might touch in +conclusion. I would venture to suggest to my countrymen that there +should be a full realization of the fact that the Naval Service as a +whole is a highly specialized profession. It is one in which the senior +officers have passed the whole of their lives, and during their best +years their thoughts are turned constantly in one direction--namely, how +they can best fit the Navy and themselves for possible war. The country +as a whole has probably but little idea of the great amount of technical +knowledge that is demanded of the naval officer in these days. He must +possess this knowledge in addition to the lessons derived from his study +of war, and the naval officer is learning from the day that he enters +the Service until the day that he leaves it. + +The Navy, then, is a profession which is at least as highly specialized +as that of a surgeon, an engineer, or a lawyer. Consequently, it would +seem a matter of common sense that those who have not adopted the Navy +as a profession should pay as much respect to the professional judgment +of the naval officer as they would to that of the surgeon or the +engineer or the lawyer, each in his own sphere. Governments are, of +course, bound to be responsible for the policy of the country, and +policy governs defence, but, both in peace and in war, I think it will +be agreed that the work of governments in naval affairs should end at +policy, and that the remainder should be left to the expert. That is the +basis of real economy in association with efficiency, and victory in war +goes to the nation which, under stress and strain, develops the highest +efficiency in action. + + + + +INDEX + +_Abdiel_ as minelayer, +Admiralty, the, American co-operation at, + and the control of convoys, + anomalies at, + lack of naval officers at, + naval air policy of, + official summary of changes in personnel of Board, + over-centralization at, + "production" at, in 1917, + reorganization at, + the Staff in October, 1916, + in April, 1917, + end of December, 1917, + end of November, 1918, +Admiralty Controller, appointment of an, +Admiralty Organization for Production, growth of the, +Adriatic, the, Austrian destroyers in, + R.N.A.S. assists military forces of Allies in, +Aegean Sea, the, British destroyers in, +Aeroplane, the Handley-Page type of, +Aeroplane stations, +Air Ministry, the, establishment of, +Air power as complement to sea power, +Aircraft, bombing attacks by, + for anti-submarine work, + the eyes of a fleet, +Airship stations, +Airships as protection for convoys, +Allied Naval Council, formation of, +America enters the war, + (see also United States) +American battleships and destroyers in British waters, +Anderson, Sir A.G., +Anti-flash arrangements, improvements of, +Anti-submarine convoy escorting force, the, strengthened, +Anti-submarine devices, +Anti-submarine Division of Naval Staff, Directors of, + formation of, +Anti-submarine instructional schools, +Anti-submarine operations, +Anti-submarine protection for ports of assembly, +Approach areas, and how protected, +Arabian coast cleared of Turkish forces, +Armament production, +Armed merchant ships, +Armour-piercing shell, an improved, +Armstrong, Commander Sir George, +Atlantic convoys, losses in, + organization of system of, +_Audacious_, loss of, +Auxiliary patrols, deficiency in deliveries of, + in home waters and in Mediterranean zones, + +Bacon, Sir Reginald, + a daring scheme of, abandoned, + author's tribute to, + his book on the "Dover Patrol," + his proposal for Folkestone-Cape Grisnez minefield, + organizes coastal bombardments, + witnesses bombardment of Ostend, +Baker, Rear-Admiral Clinton, +Balfour, Rt. Hon. A.J., a mission to the United States, + offers author post of First Sea Lord, +Baltic, the, a difficult situation in, +Barrage, Folkestone-Cape Grisnez, + four forms of, + off Belgian coast, + the Dover, + the North Sea, + the Otranio, +Bayly, Admiral Sir Lewis, in command at Queenstown, +Belgian coast, barrage off, + mining the, +Bell, Sir Thomas, +Benson, Admiral, and author, + visits England, +Bergen, Capt. Halsey's appointment to, +Bethlehem Steel Company, the, +Bird, Captain F., of the Dover patrol, +Blackwood, Commander M., +Blockade of German ports, difficulties of, +Board of Invention and Research, the (B.I.R.), +Bomb-throwers and howitzers, +Bonner, Lieutenant Charles G., awarded the V.C., +Boxer campaign in China, the, +_Breslau_, loss of, +British and German production of submarines, etc., compared, +British Empire, the, importance of security of sea communications of, +British merchant steamships, losses from submarines, + losses of unescorted, + submarine sinks enemy destroyer, +Brock, Admiral Sir Frederick, and the disaster to the Scandinavian + convoy, +_Broke_, action with German destroyers, + conveys author to witness bombardment of Ostend, +Brown, Commander Yeats, +Browning, Vice-Admiral Sir Montague, confers with U.S. Navy Department, +Bruges, aerial attacks on, as enemy base, + enemy evacuation of, +proposed long-range bombardment of, +Burney, Admiral Sir Cecil, at Rosyth, + Second Sea Lord, +Burney, Lieutenant Dennis, a clever device of, +Burton, Lieutenant G. E., + +Calais, enemy destroyer raids on, +Calthorpe, Admiral (see Gough-Calthorpe) +Campbell, Captain Gordon, + awarded the V.C., + fights with submarines, + sinks an enemy submarine, +Canadian Government asked to build vessels for use in Canadian waters, +Cape Grisnez-Folkestone mine barrage, +Capelle, Admiral von, and submarine construction, +Cardiff, instructional anti-submarine school at, +Carrington, Commander I.W., +Carson, Sir Edward, a tribute to, + and the defensive arming of merchant ships, + becomes First Lord, + leaves the Admiralty, + offers post of Admiralty Controller to Sir Eric Geddes, +Cassady, Lieut. G.L., awarded the D.S.C., +Cattaro, Germans destroy their submarines at, +Cayley, Rear-Admiral C.G., +Cayley, Commander H.F., +Cervera, Admiral, and the Spanish-American War, +Chain-sweep, a, introduction of, +Chatham, gunnery courses for cadets and apprentices at, + instructional anti-submarine school at, +Chief of the Staff, duties and responsibilities of, +Churchill, Right Hon. Winston, and Staff organization, +Coal-ships, French, convoy of, +Coastal motor boats, +Coastal traffic, regulation of: typical instructions, +Colville, Admiral the Hon. Sir Stanley, +Constantinople, bombing operations in vicinity of, +Convoy commodores, appointment of, +Convoy Section of Trade Division of Naval Staff, the, +"Convoy sloops," +Convoy system, the, a committee on, at the Admiralty, + growth of, + introduction of, + successful organization and working of, + the system at work, +Convoys, as protection against submarine attack: success of, + enemy attacks on, + losses in homeward and outward bound, +Coode, Captain C.P.R., +Crisp, Thomas, of the _Nelson_, +Cross-Channel sailings and losses, +Crystal Palace, Royal Naval Depot at, + author's visit to, + +Dakar convoy, the, +Dare, Admiral Sir Charles, +Dartmouth, a successful attack on an enemy submarine off, +Dazzle painting for merchant ships, system of, +De Bon, Admiral, +De Chair, Rear-Admiral Sir Dudley, and the U.S. mission, +Decoy ships, + and the convoy of merchant shipping, + fitted with torpedo tubes, + number of enemy submarines sunk by, + typical actions fought by, +Delay action fuses, +Denison, Admiral John, +Depth charge throwers, +Depth charges, + enemy submarine victims to, +Deputy Controller of Armament Production, appointment of a, +Destroyers, American, in British waters, + and patrol craft, number of enemy submarines sunk by, + available force in February, 1917 + average output of British, + enemy flotilla of, intercepted, + essential to Grand Fleet, + fitted with "fish" hydrophones, + heavy strain on, + hunting flotillas of, +Destroyers, inadequate number of British, + of the Dover Patrol, + time taken in building, +Devonport, gunnery courses for cadets and apprentices at, +D'Eyncourt, Sir Eustace T., +Directional hydrophones, +Directorate of Materials and Priority, creation of, +Dover, daily average of mercantile marine passing, + enemy destroyer raids on, +Dover Patrol, the, + an enemy attack on, + Sir Reginald Bacon's book on, + the Sixth Flotilla and its arduous work, +Dover, Straits of, inefficiency of the barrage, + minelaying in, + passage of U-boats through, +Dreyer, Captain F.C., + and the defensive arming of merchant ships, + appointed Director of Naval Ordnance, + energy of, +Drift nets, mines fitted to, +Drifters, work of, +Duff, Rear-Admiral A.L., + a tribute to, + becomes A.C.N.S., +Dunkirk, enemy destroyer raids on, + Royal Naval Force at, and their work, + _Dunraven_ (decoy ship), a gallant fight by, +Dutch convoy, the, + +East coast and Norway, trade between, convoyed, +East Coast, the, volume of trade on, and difficulty of proper +protection of, +Electrical submarine detector, the, +_Elsie_, +English coast towns, destroyer raids on, +Escorts for merchant shipping, +Ethel and Millie sunk by submarine, +Evans, Captain E.R.G.R., of the _Broke_, rams an enemy vessel, + +Falmouth convoy, the, + losses in 1917, +Farrington, Captain Alexander, and decoy ships, +"Fish" hydrophones, invention of, +Fisher, Lord, + destroyer programme of, +Fisher, Captain W.W., Director of Anti-Submarine Division, + tribute to, +Fitzherbert, Rear-Admiral the Hon. Edward, + appointed Director of Torpedoes and Mines, +"Flares," + for night illumination of minefields, +Folkestone-Cape Grisnez mine barrage, +Ford Company, the (U.S.A.), +France, the Staff organization at G.H.Q. in, +Fremantle, Rear-Admiral Sydney, +French, Sir John (Field-Marshal Viscount), +French Admiralty, the, cordial co-operation with Allies, +French coal trade, the, convoy of, + losses in 1917, +Fuller, Captain C.T.M., +Funakoshi, Admiral, Japanese Naval Attache in London, +_Furious_ converted into a seaplane carrier, + +Gallipoli, hydrophone training school at, + naval work at, +Gauchet, Vice-Admiral, +Geddes, Sir Eric, becomes Admiralty Controller, + becomes First Lord, + disappointing forecasts of, +General Headquarters in France, Staff organization at, +German Army, von Schellendorft; on Staff work in, +German attacks on convoys, + campaign against merchant shipping, + operations in the Baltic against Russia, + prisoners assist a decoy ship to port, + star shells, efficiency of, + submarine commanders and decoy ships, + submarine fleet at commencement of war and subsequent additions, + view of entry of America into the war, +Germans, the, a new weapon of, + destroy their submarines, + their choice of objectives for night attacks, + their lack of enterprise, + tip-and-run raids by, +Germany, America declares war on, + estimated total of submarines in 1917, + her submarine production, + naval programme of, + submarine force of and her losses, +Gibb, Colonel Alexander, +Gibraltar, an American detachment at, + an experimental convoy collected at, +Gibraltar convoy, the, + a reason for heavy losses in, +Gibraltar convoy, the, losses in 1917, +_Glen_ (decoy ship), +_Goeben_ severely damaged, +Gough-Calthorpe, Vice-Admiral the Hon. Sir Somerset, his Mediterranean + command, +_Gowan Lea_, +_Grand Duke_ trawler, +Grand Fleet, the, changes in command of, + destroyers and, + destroyers used for Atlantic trade, +Grant, Captain H.W., +Grant, Rear-Admiral Heathcote, his command at Gibraltar, +Greenock, instructional anti-submarine school at, +Gunnery courses for cadets and apprentices, + +Haig, Sir Douglas (Earl), commends work of air force, +Halifax convoy, the, +Hall, Rear-Admiral Sir Reginald, +Halsey, Captain Arthur, appointed Naval Vice-Consul at Bergen, +Halsey, Commodore (Rear-Admiral) Lionel, + becomes Third Sea Lord, +Hampton Roads and New York convoy, + losses in 1917, +Harwich, hydrophone station at, +Harwich force, the, and its commander, + duties of, + intercepts a flotilla of German destroyers, +Hawkcraig, hydrophone station at, +Heath, Vice-Admiral Sir H.L., +Heligoland Bight, mining of, + proclaimed a dangerous area, +Henderson, Captain Reginald G.H., + a tribute to, +Henderson, Captain Reginald G.H., and the convoy system, +Homeward-bound convoys, losses in, +Hope, Rear-Admiral George P.W., appointed Deputy First Sea Lord, +Hopwood, Sir Francis (Lord Southborough), +Hotham, Captain A.G., +Howard, Captain W. Vansittart, +Howitzers and bomb-throwers, +Hydrophone stations and training schools, +Hydrophones, + directional, + fitted to auxiliary patrols, + +Irvine, Lieutenant, fights a submarine, + +Jackson, Admiral Sir Heney, + First Sea Lord, +Jackson, Captain, injured in a motor accident, +Japanese destroyers in the Mediterranean, +Jellicoe, Admiral (Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa), a personal telegram to + Mr. Schwab, + a tour of the British Empire and its lessons, + amicable relations with U.S. Navy, + and merchant ship construction, + and the building programme of 1916, + and the Dover Patrol, + and the future naval policy, + and the reorganization at the Admiralty, + and the submarine menace, +Jellicoe, Admiral (Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa), becomes First Sea Lord + and Chief of Naval Staff, + confers with Mr. Balfour, + friendship with Admiral Mayo, + his admiration for the work of Admiral Sir Henry Oliver, + his proposals for Admiralty reorganization, + on the convoy system, + on the work of destroyers, + praises work and organization of convoys, + relations with Admiral Sims, + unveils a memorial to Lieut. Commander Sanders, + visits New Zealand, + witnesses bombardment of Ostend, + wounded in the Boxer campaign, +Jutland battle, and the shells used in, + +Kite balloons, + +Lacaze, Admiral, +Lambe, Captain C.L., and his command, +Lamlash convoy, the, + losses in 1917, +League of Nations, the, +Learmonth, Captain F.C., +Lerwick as junction for convoy system, + enemy mining of, +Leslie, N.A., +Ley, Rear-Admiral J.C., +Litchfield-Speer, Captain, +Lockyer, Commander E.L.B., +Longden, Captain H.W. +Lowestoft, average daily number of vessels passing, + bombardment of, +_Lusitania_, loss of, + +MacNamara, Right Hon. T.J., +Madden, Admiral Sir Charles, +Malta, hydrophone training school at, +Manisty, Fleet Paymaster H.W.E., + appointed Organizing Manager of Convoys, +Margate, bombardment of, +Mark-Wardlaw, Lieutenant, decoy ship of, +Marx, Admiral J.L., +Mary _Rose_, sinking of, +Mayo, Admiral, and author, + object of his visit to England, + visits Grand Fleet, + witnesses bombardment of Ostend, +Mediterranean, the, Japanese destroyers in, + narrow waters of, + need of a unified command in, + shipping losses in 1917 in, +Mercantile marine, daily average of, + passing Lowestoft and Dover, + schools of instruction for, + wireless for, + (See also Merchant ships) +Mercantile Movements Division, formation of, + its head, +Mercantile repair work, + shipbuilding, +Merchant ships, arming of, + convoying, + losses of, + route orders for, + submarines and, + (Cf. Mercantile marine) +Merz, Sir Charles H., +Milford Haven convoy, the, + losses in 1917, +Mine-cutters (see Paravanes) +Minelayers, fleet of, strengthened, +Minelaying, British and German methods of, contrasted, +Minelaying by submarines, + difficulty of dealing with problem of, +Mine net barrage, definition of, +Mines, American, + Britain, number laid in 1915-17, + number of submarines sunk by, +Mines and minefields, + as protection against enemy submarines, + "H" type of, + improved type of, + inadequate supply of, + influence of, in Great War, +Minesweepers, delay in deliveries of, +Minesweeping and patrol services, +Minesweeping craft, damage caused by mines to, + gallantry of officers and men of, +Minesweeping Division, formation of the, +Minesweeping, introduction of a chain-sweep, + statistics for 1916, 1917, +Ministry of Munitions, formation of, +_Minotaur_, +Mobilization and Movements Department, formation of, +Monitor M15, loss of, +Monitors, bombardment of enemy ports by, +Morris, Sub-Lieutenant K., +Motor boats, coastal, + launches as submarine hunters, + fitted with hydrophones, + in home waters and in the Mediterranean, +Murray, Sir O., + +Nash, Mr., invents the "fish" hydrophone, +Naval Ordnance Department, the, changes in, +Naval Staff and the movements of convoys, + confers with masters of cargo steamers, + minesweeping section of, + Operations Division of, strengthened, + reorganization of, +Navy, the, a specialized profession, + considerations on the future of, + personnel of: importance of, + Staff work in, + work of, during 1917, +_Nelson_ attacked and sunk, +Net barrage at Dover, +Net protection against torpedo fire, + at ports of assembly, +Nets as an anti-submarine measure, +New York and Hampton Roads convoy, + losses in 1917, +Nicholson, Captain R.L., +North Foreland, the, naval guns mounted in vicinity of, + star shells supplied to, +North Sea barrage, the, + advantages and disadvantages of, +North Sea, the, convoy system at work in, +Norway convoy, the, + +Oil tankers, serious loss of, +Oliver, Vice-Admiral Sir Henry, + and mining operations, + becomes D.C.N.S., + his valuable work, +Ommanney, Admiral R.N., an appreciation of his services, +Operations Division of Naval Staff strengthened, +Ordnance production, delay in, +Ostend, bombardment of, +Otranto, hydrophone station at, +Otranto, Straits of, a drifter patrol attacked by Austrian light + cruisers, + mining the, +"Otter" mine destroyers, +Outward-bound convoys, losses in, +Overseas trade, vessels sunk in 1917, + +"P" Boats, fitted with "fish" hydrophones, + hunting flotillas of, +_P. Fannon_, +Page, Mr. W.H., relations with author, +Paget, Admiral Sir Alfred, +Paine, Commodore Godfrey, + joins the Air Council, +Palestine, work of the Navy off coast of, +Paravanes, and their use, +_Pargust_ (decoy ship), +_Partridge_, sinking of, +Patrol craft and minesweeping services, + a tribute to officers and men of, + as decoy vessels, + hydrophones for, + lack of British, + retired officers volunteer for work in, + synopsis of losses among, +Patrol gunboats, +Pease, Mr. A.F., +_Pellew_, damaged in action, +Persius, Captain, and the construction of German submarines, +Personnel of the Navy, importance of, +Piave, the, Austrian advance to, +Pirie, Lord, becomes Controller-General of Merchant Shipbuilding, +Pitcher, Petty-Officer Ernest, awarded V.C., +Plymouth convoy, the, + losses in 1917, +Pola, Germans destroy their submarines at, +Portland, submarine-hunting flotillas at, +Ports of assembly for Atlantic convoy system, +Portsmouth, gunnery courses for cadets and apprentices at, + instructional anti-submarine school at, +Pound, Captain A.D.P., +Preston, Captain Lionel G., Head of Minesweeping Service, +Pretyman, Right Hon. E.G., +_Prince Charles_, success of, against an enemy submarine, +Pringle, Captain, appointed Chief of Staff to Sir Lewis Bayly, +_Prize_ sinks a submarine, +Production of warships, etc., and forecasts of _et seq._, +Projectiles, anti-submarine, +"Protected sailings," system of, + +Q-Boats (_see_ Decoy ships), +Q22 in action with a submarine, +Queenstown, amicable relations between British and U.S. Navies at, +Queenstown convoy, the, + +Ramsgate, bombardment of, +Rawlinson, General Sir Henry (Lord), confers with Admiral Bacon, +Red Sea, naval operations in, +Rodman, Rear-Admiral Hugh, +Route orders, and principle on which compiled, +Royal Naval Air Service, the, activities of, + bombs enemy bases, +Royal Naval Air Service, the, in the Eastern theatre of war, +Russian Baltic Fleet, the, + demobilization of, +Russian Navy, the defection of, +Russo-Japanese war, the, +Ryan, Captain, experimental work of, + +_St. Louis_ mined outside Liverpool, +Salonika, Navy co-operation with Army in, +Sanders, Lieutenant W. E., actions with submarines, + awarded the V.C., + memorial to, +Scandinavian convoy, the, + enemy attacks on a, + loose station-keeping of ships in, + losses in 1917, +Scapa, a conference at, +Scarlett, Wing-Captain F.R., +Scheer, Admiral, his work on the High Sea Fleet, + on the convoy system, +Schellendorff, von, on German Army Staffs, +Schwab, Mr., +Sea, the, considerations on future safeguarding of, +Seaplane, advent of "America" type of, +Seaplane carriers, +Seaplane stations, +Searchlights, +_Shannon_, +Shipbuilding Advisory Committee, +Shipbuilding programme of 1916, British, +Shipping (British, Allied and neutral), losses in 1917, +Shipping Controller, appointment of a, +Sierra Leone convoy, the, +Signalling arrangements for convoys, + instruction in, +Simpson, Rear-Admiral C.H., +Sims, Vice-Admiral W.S., arrives in London, + ensures unity of command, + his career, + hoists his flag at Queenstown, + in command of U.S. forces in European waters, +Singer, Admiral Morgan, +Smoke screens, +Spanish-American War, the, +Special service or decoy ships, +Specialist training in the Navy, +Speed, importance of, in convoy system, +Star shells, introduction of, +Startin, Admiral Sir James, the Albert Medal for, +_Staunch_ sunk by submarine, +_Slonecrop_ (decoy ship) sinks a submarine, +_Strongbow_, sinking of, +Submarine attacks on decoy ships, + campaign of 1917, the, + danger, the, difficulties of combating, + detector, an electrical, + -hunting flotillas, + warfare, offensive and defensive measures against, +Submarines, British, delay in deliveries of, + estimated number of enemy sinkings by, + fitted as minelayers, + length of time taken in construction of, + offensive use of, + operations against enemy submarines, + production of, + value of depth charges against, +Submarines, German, + aircraft attacks on, + Allied losses by, 1916-17, + as minelayers, + devices for circumventing, + losses of, +Submarines, German, rapid construction of, + success of, in the Mediterranean, +_Swift_, action with German destroyers, +Sydney (Cape Breton) convoy, the, +Syrian Coast, the, operations on, + +Taussig, Lieut-Commander T.K., +"Taut wire" gear, value of the device, +_Terror_, bombardment of Ostend by, + damaged, +Thames Estuary, mines laid in the, +Torpedo and Mining Department, the + valuable work of, +Torpedo, the, in general use, +Tothill, Rear-Admiral H.H.D., +Trade Division of the Naval Staff, the, +"Trawler Reserve," the, +Trawlers as minesweepers, + convoy work of, + delay in deliveries of, + hunting flotilla work of, +Troop transports, escorts for, +Tyrwhitt, Rear-Admiral Sir Reginald, and his command, + +U-Boats, various types of, (see also Submarines, German) +Unescorted ships, losses by submarine attack in 1917, +United Kingdom, the, approach areas for traffic to, + coast divided into areas for patrol and minesweeping, +United States Navy, a detachment dispatched to Gibraltar, + co-operation with British Navy, + In 1917, +United States, the, a new type of mine produced in, +United States, the, and the convoy system, + declares war on Germany, + rate of ship production in, + (See also America) +"Unrestricted submarine warfare," object of, + opening of, + +_Vengeance_, experimental tests in, +Villiers, Captain Edward C., net protection device of, + +Warship production in 1917, +Watt, I., skipper of _Gowan Lea_, +Webb, Captain Richard, in charge of Trade Division, +Wemyss, Vice-Admiral Sir Rosslyn, becomes Deputy First Sea Lord, + Chief of Naval Staff, +Whalers and their work, +White Sea, the, British naval work in, +Whitehead, Captain Frederic A., Director of Mercantile Movements + Division, +Wilde, Commander J.S., +Wilson, Admiral Sir Arthur, anti-submarine measures of, +Wireless, importance of, in convoys, + provided for the Mercantile Marine, + patrol work of, + +Zeebrugge, aerial bombing attacks on, + bombardment of, +Zeppelin assists in a hunt for a British submarine, + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Crisis of the Naval War +by John Rushworth Jellicoe + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10409 *** |