diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:18 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:34:18 -0700 |
| commit | 454010420292bf8ad99a960009dc9ced8ff33bb7 (patch) | |
| tree | 1ed7b07ce77d804a82f426cf17fd6878f678c598 /10350-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '10350-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 10350-h/10350-h.htm | 21284 |
1 files changed, 21284 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/10350-h/10350-h.htm b/10350-h/10350-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..52cb954 --- /dev/null +++ b/10350-h/10350-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,21284 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" + content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> +<meta content="pg2html (binary version 0.12a)" + name="generator"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of + Reviews, Political Tracts, + of Samuel Johnson. +</title> +<style type="text/css"> + <!-- + * { font-family: Times; + } + P { text-indent: 1em; + margin: 10%; + margin-top: .75em; + font-size: 14pt; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; } + HR { width: 33%; } + PRE { font-family: Times; font-size: 14pt;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; font-size: 14pt; margin-bottom: 0em;} + CENTER { padding: 10px;} + // --> +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10350 ***</div> + +<h1> + DR. JOHNSON'S WORKS. +</h1> +<h1> + REVIEWS, POLITICAL TRACTS, +</h1> +<center> + AND +</center> +<center> + LIVES OF EMINENT PERSONS. +</center> +<center> + THE WORKS OF +</center> +<center> + SAMUEL JOHNSON, LL.D. +</center> +<center> + IN ELEVEN VOLUMES. +</center> +<center> + VOLUME THE SIXTH. +</center> +<center> + MDCCCXXV. +</center> + + + +<br /><br /> +<hr> +<br /><br /> +<h2>Contents</h2> +<br /> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_2"> +REVIEWS. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_3"> +LETTER ON DU HALDE'S HISTORY OF CHINA, 1738. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_4"> +REVIEW OF THE ACCOUNT OF THE CONDUCT OF THE DUTCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_5"> +REVIEW OF MEMOIRS OF THE COURT OF AUGUSTUS; +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_6"> +REVIEW OF FOUR LETTERS FROM SIR ISAAC NEWTON TO DR BENTLEY, +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_7"> +REVIEW OF A JOURNAL OF EIGHT DAYS' JOURNEY, +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_8"> +REPLY TO A PAPER IN THE GAZETTEER OF MAY 26, 1757 [5]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_9"> +REVIEW [7] OF AN ESSAY ON THE WRITINGS AND GENIUS OF POPE. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_10"> +REVIEW OF A FREE ENQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF EVIL [10]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_11"> +REVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, FOR IMPROVING OF +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_12"> +REVIEW OF THE GENERAL HISTORY OP POLYBIUS, +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_13"> +REVIEW OF MISCELLANIES ON MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS, +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_14"> +ACCOUNT OF A BOOK ENTITLED AN HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL ENQUIRY +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_15"> +MARMOR NORFOLCIENSE: +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_16"> +OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATE OF AFFAIRS IN 1756 [23]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_17"> +AN INTRODUCTION TO THE POLITICAL STATE OF GREAT BRITAIN. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_18"> +OBSERVATIONS ON THE TREATY +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2HINT19"> +INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE, +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_20"> +ON THE BRAVERY OF THE ENGLISH COMMON SOLDIERS [28], +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_21"> +POLITICAL TRACTS. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_22"> +PREFATORY OBSERVATIONS TO POLITICAL TRACTS. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_23"> +THE FALSE ALARM. 1770. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_24"> +PREFATORY OBSERVATIONS ON FALKLAND'S ISLANDS. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_25"> +THOUGHTS ON THE LATE TRANSACTIONS RESPECTING FALKLAND'S ISLANDS. 1771. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_26"> +THE PATRIOT. [30] +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_27"> +TAXATION NO TYRANNY; +</a></p> + +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_29"> +LIVES OF EMINENT PERSONS. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_30"> +FATHER PAUL SARPI [33]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_31"> +BOERHAAVE. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_32"> +BLAKE. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_33"> +SIR FRANCIS DRAKE [44]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_34"> +BARRETIER [45]. +</a></p> + +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_37"> +MORIN [47]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_38"> +BURMAN [50]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_39"> +SYDENHAM [52]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_40"> +CHEYNEL [54]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_41"> +CAVE [59]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_42"> +KING OF PRUSSIA [63]. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_43"> +BROWNE. +</a></p> +<p class="toc"><a href="#2H_4_44"> +ASCHAM [89]. +</a></p> + +<p class="toc"><a href="#footnotes"> +FOOTNOTES. +</a></p> + +<br /><br /> +<hr> + + + +<a name="2H_TOC"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<h2> + CONTENTS OF THE SIXTH VOLUME. +</h2> + + +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> + + + + +<p><br> +REVIEWS.<br> +<br> +Letter on Du Halde's history of China.<br> +<br> +Review of the account of the conduct of the dutchess of Marlborough.<br> +<br> +Review of memoirs of the court of Augustus.<br> +<br> +Review of four letters from sir Isaac Newton.<br> +<br> +Review of a journal of eight days' journey.<br> +<br> +Reply to a paper in the Gazetteer.<br> +<br> +Review of an essay on the writings and genius of Pope.<br> +<br> +Review of a free enquiry into the nature and origin of evil.<br> +<br> +Review of the history of the Royal Society of London, &c.<br> +<br> +Review of the general history of Polybius.<br> +<br> +Review of miscellanies on moral and religious subjects.<br> +<br> +Account of a book entitled an historical and critical enquiry into the<br> +evidence produced by the earls of Moray and Morton against Mary queen of<br> +Scots, &c.<br> +<br> +Marmor Norfolciense; or, an essay on an ancient prophetical inscription<br> +in monkish rhyme, lately discovered near Lynn, in Norfolk.<br> +<br> +Observations on the state of affairs in 1756.<br> +<br> +An introduction to the political state of Great Britain.<br> +<br> +Observations on the treaty between his Britannic majesty and his<br> +imperial majesty of all the Russias, &c.<br> +<br> +Introduction to the proceedings of the committee appointed to manage the<br> +contributions for clothing French prisoners of war.<br> +<br> +On the bravery of the English common soldiers.<br> +<br> +<br> +POLITICAL TRACTS.<br> +<br> +Prefatory observations to political tracts.<br> +<br> +The False Alarm. 1770.<br> +<br> +Prefatory observations on Falkland's islands.<br> +<br> +Thoughts on the late transactions respecting Falkland's islands.<br> +<br> +The Patriot.<br> +<br> +Taxation no tyranny; an answer to the resolutions and address of the<br> +American congress. 1775.<br> +<br> +<br> +LIVES OF EMINENT PERSONS.<br> +<br> +Father Paul Sarpi.<br> +<br> +Boerhaave.<br> +<br> +Blake.<br> +<br> +Sir Francis Drake.<br> +<br> +Barretier.<br> +<br> +Additional account of the life of Barretier in the Gentleman's Magazine,<br> +1742.<br> +<br> +Morin.<br> +<br> +Burman.<br> +<br> +Sydenham.<br> +<br> +Cheynel.<br> +<br> +Cave.<br> +<br> +King of Prussia.<br> +<br> +Browne.<br> +<br> +Ascham.<br> +</p> + + + +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> + +<br> + + +<br> +<a name="2H_4_2"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> + +<h1><br> + REVIEWS. +</h1> +<a name="2H_4_3"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> + +<h2><br> + LETTER ON DU HALDE'S HISTORY OF CHINA, 1738. +</h2> +<p> + There are few nations in the world more talked of, or less known, than + the Chinese. The confused and imperfect account which travellers have + given of their grandeur, their sciences, and their policy, have, + hitherto, excited admiration, but have not been sufficient to satisfy + even a superficial curiosity. I, therefore, return you my thanks for + having undertaken, at so great an expense, to convey to English readers + the most copious and accurate account, yet published, of that remote and + celebrated people, whose antiquity, magnificence, power, wisdom, + peculiar customs, and excellent constitution, undoubtedly deserve the + attention of the publick. +</p> +<p> + As the satisfaction found in reading descriptions of distant countries + arises from a comparison which every reader naturally makes, between the + ideas which he receives from the relation, and those which were familiar + to him before; or, in other words, between the countries with which he + is acquainted, and that which the author displays to his imagination; so + it varies according to the likeness or dissimilitude of the manners of + the two nations. Any custom or law, unheard and unthought of before, + strikes us with that surprise which is the effect of novelty; but a + practice conformable to our own pleases us, because it flatters our + self-love, by showing us that our opinions are approved by the general + concurrence of mankind. Of these two pleasures, the first is more + violent, the other more lasting; the first seems to partake more of + instinct than reason, and is not easily to be explained, or defined; the + latter has its foundation in good sense and reflection, and evidently + depends on the same principles with most human passions. +</p> +<p> + An attentive reader will frequently feel each of these agreeable + emotions in the perusal of Du Halde. He will find a calm, peaceful + satisfaction, when he reads the moral precepts and wise instructions of + the Chinese sages; he will find that virtue is in every place the same; + and will look with new contempt on those wild reasoners, who affirm, + that morality is merely ideal, and that the distinctions between good + and ill are wholly chimerical. +</p> +<p> + But he will enjoy all the pleasure that novelty can afford, when he + becomes acquainted with the Chinese government and constitution; he will + be amazed to find that there is a country where nobility and knowledge + are the same, where men advance in rank as they advance in learning, and + promotion is the effect of virtuous industry; where no man thinks + ignorance a mark of greatness, or laziness the privilege of high birth. +</p> +<p> + His surprise will be still heightened by the relations he will there + meet with, of honest ministers, who, however incredible it may seem, + have been seen more than once in that monarchy, and have adventured to + admonish the emperours of any deviation from the laws of their country, + or any errour in their conduct, that has endangered either their own + safety, or the happiness of their people. He will read of emperours, + who, when they have been addressed in this manner, have neither stormed, + nor threatened, nor kicked their ministers, nor thought it majestick to + be obstinate in the wrong; but have, with a greatness of mind worthy of + a Chinese monarch, brought their actions willingly to the test of + reason, law, and morality, and scorned to exert their power in defence + of that which they could not support by argument. +</p> +<p> + I must confess my wonder at these relations was very great, and had been + much greater, had I not often entertained my imagination with an + instance of the like conduct in a prince of England, on an occasion that + happened not quite a century ago, and which I shall relate, that so + remarkable an example of spirit and firmness in a subject, and of + conviction and compliance in a prince, may not be forgotten. And I hope + you will look upon this letter as intended to do honour to my country, + and not to serve your interest by promoting your undertaking. +</p> +<p> + The prince, at the christening of his first son, had appointed a noble + duke to stand as proxy for the father of the princess, without regard to + the claim of a marquis, (heir apparent to a higher title,) to whom, as + lord of the bedchamber, then in waiting, that honour properly belonged. + —The marquis was wholly unacquainted with the affair, till he heard, + at dinner, the duke's health drunk, by the name of the prince he was + that evening to represent. This he took an opportunity, after dinner, of + inquiring the reason of, and was informed, by the prince's treasurer, of + his highness's intention. The marquis immediately declared, that he + thought his right invaded, and his honour injured, which he could not + bear without requiring satisfaction from the usurper of his privileges; + nor would he longer serve a prince who paid no regard to his lawful + pretensions. The treasurer could not deny that the marquis's claim was + incontestable, and, by his permission, acquainted the prince with his + resolution. The prince, thereupon, sending for the marquis, demanded, + with a resentful and imperious air, how he could dispute his commands, + and by what authority he presumed to control him in the management of + his own family, and the christening of his own son. The marquis + answered, that he did not encroach upon the prince's right, but only + defended his own: that he thought his honour concerned, and, as he was a + young man, would not enter the world with the loss of his reputation. + The prince, exasperated to a very high degree, repeated his commands; + but the marquis, with a spirit and firmness not to be depressed or + shaken, persisted in his determination to assert his claim, and + concluded with declaring that he would do himself the justice that was + denied him; and that not the prince himself should trample on his + character. He was then ordered to withdraw, and the duke coming to him, + assured him, that the honour was offered him unasked; that when he + accepted it, he was not informed of his lordship's claim, and that now + he very willingly resigned it. The marquis very gracefully acknowledged + the civility of the duke's expressions, and declared himself satisfied + with his grace's conduct; but thought it inconsistent with his honour to + accept the representation as a cession of the duke, or on any other + terms than as his own acknowledged right. The prince, being informed of + the whole conversation, and having, upon inquiry, found all the + precedents on the marquis's side, thought it below his dignity to + persist in an errour, and, restoring the marquis to his right upon his + own conditions, continued him in his favour, believing that he might + safely trust his affairs in the hands of a man, who had so nice a sense + of honour, and so much spirit to assert it. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_4"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF THE ACCOUNT OF THE CONDUCT OF THE DUTCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH <a href="#note-1">[1]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + The universal regard, which is paid by mankind to such accounts of + publick transactions as have been written by those who were engaged in + them, may be, with great probability, ascribed to that ardent love of + truth, which nature has kindled in the breast of man, and which remains + even where every other laudable passion is extinguished. We cannot but + read such narratives with uncommon curiosity, because we consider the + writer as indubitably possessed of the ability to give us just + representations, and do not always reflect, that, very often, + proportionate to the opportunities of knowing the truth, are the + temptations to disguise it. +</p> +<p> + Authors of this kind have, at least, an incontestable superiority over + those whose passions are the same, and whose knowledge is less. It is + evident that those who write in their own defence, discover often more + impartiality, and less contempt of evidence, than the advocates which + faction or interest have raised in their favour. +</p> +<p> + It is, however, to be remembered, that the parent of all memoirs, is the + ambition of being distinguished from the herd of mankind, and the fear + of either infamy or oblivion, passions which cannot but have some degree + of influence, and which may, at least, affect the writer's choice of + facts, though they may not prevail upon him to advance known falsehoods. + He may aggravate or extenuate particular circumstances, though he + preserves the general transaction; as the general likeness may be + preserved in painting, though a blemish is hid or a beauty improved. +</p> +<p> + Every man that is solicitous about the esteem of others, is, in a great + degree, desirous of his own, and makes, by consequence, his first + apology for his conduct to himself; and when he has once deceived his + own heart, which is, for the greatest part, too easy a task, he + propagates the deceit in the world, without reluctance or consciousness + of falsehood. +</p> +<p> + But to what purpose, it may be asked, are such reflections, except to + produce a general incredulity, and to make history of no use? The man + who knows not the truth cannot, and he who knows it, will not tell it; + what then remains, but to distrust every relation, and live in perpetual + negligence of past events; or, what is still more disagreeable, in + perpetual suspense? +</p> +<p> + That by such remarks some incredulity is, indeed, produced, cannot be + denied; but distrust is a necessary qualification of a student in + history. Distrust quickens his discernment of different degrees of + probability, animates his search after evidence, and, perhaps, heightens + his pleasure at the discovery of truth; for truth, though not always + obvious, is generally discoverable; nor is it any where more likely to + be found than in private memoirs, which are generally published at a + time when any gross falsehood may be detected by living witnesses, and + which always contain a thousand incidents, of which the writer could not + have acquired a certain knowledge, and which he has no reason for + disguising. +</p> +<p> + Such is the account lately published by the dutchess of Marlborough, of + her own conduct, by which those who are very little concerned about the + character which it is principally intended to preserve or to retrieve, + may be entertained and instructed. By the perusal of this account, the + inquirer into human nature may obtain an intimate acquaintance with the + characters of those whose names have crowded the latest histories, and + discover the relation between their minds and their actions. The + historian may trace the progress of great transactions, and discover the + secret causes of important events. And, to mention one use more, the + polite writer may learn an unaffected dignity of style, and an artful + simplicity of narration. +</p> +<p> + The method of confirming her relation, by inserting, at length, the + letters that every transaction occasioned, has not only set the greatest + part of the work above the danger of confutation, but has added to the + entertainment of the reader, who has now the satisfaction of forming to + himself the characters of the actors, and judging how nearly such, as + have hitherto been given of them, agree with those which they now give + of themselves. +</p> +<p> + Even of those whose letters could not be made publick, we have a more + exact knowledge than can be expected from general histories, because we + see them in their private apartments, in their careless hours, and + observe those actions in which they indulged their own inclinations, + without any regard to censure or applause. +</p> +<p> + Thus it is, that we are made acquainted with the disposition of king + William, of whom it may be collected, from various instances, that he + was arbitrary, insolent, gloomy, rapacious, and brutal; that he was, at + all times, disposed to play the tyrant; that he had, neither in great + things, nor in small, the manners of a gentleman; that he was capable of + gaining money by mean artifices, and that he only regarded his promise + when it was his interest to keep it. +</p> +<p> + There are, doubtless, great numbers who will be offended with this + delineation of the mind of the immortal William, but they whose honesty + or sense enables them to consider impartially the events of his reign, + will now be enabled to discover the reason of the frequent oppositions + which he encountered, and of the personal affronts which he was, + sometimes, forced to endure. They will observe, that it is not always + sufficient to do right, and that it is often necessary to add + gracefulness to virtue. They will recollect how vain it is to endeavour + to gain men by great qualities, while our cursory behaviour is insolent + and offensive; and that those may be disgusted by little things, who can + scarcely be pleased with great. +</p> +<p> + Charles the second, by his affability and politeness, made himself the + idol of the nation, which he betrayed and sold. William the third was, + for his insolence and brutality, hated by that people, which he + protected and enriched:—had the best part of these two characters been + united in one prince, the house of Bourbon had fallen before him. +</p> +<p> + It is not without pain, that the reader observes a shade encroaching + upon the light with which the memory of queen Mary has been hitherto + invested—the popular, the beneficent, the pious, the celestial queen + Mary, from whose presence none ever withdrew without an addition to his + happiness. What can be charged upon this delight of human kind? Nothing + less than that <i>she wanted bowels</i>, and was insolent with her power; + that she was resentful, and pertinacious in her resentment; that she + descended to mean acts of revenge, when heavier vengeance was not in her + power; that she was desirous of controlling where she had no authority, + and backward to forgive, even when she had no real injury to complain + of. +</p> +<p> + This is a character so different from all those that have been, + hitherto, given of this celebrated princess, that the reader stands in + suspense, till he considers the inconsistencies in human conduct, + remembers that no virtue is without its weakness, and considers that + queen Mary's character has, hitherto, had this great advantage, that it + has only been compared with those of kings. +</p> +<p> + The greatest number of the letters inserted in this account, were + written by queen Anne, of which it may be truly observed, that they will + be equally useful for the, confutation of those who have exalted or + depressed her character. They are written with great purity and + correctness, without any forced expressions, affected phrases, or + unnatural sentiments; and show uncommon clearness of understanding, + tenderness of affection, and rectitude of intention; but discover, at + the same time, a temper timorous, anxious, and impatient of misfortune; + a tendency to burst into complaints, helpless dependance on the + affection of others, and a weak desire of moving compassion. There is, + indeed, nothing insolent or overbearing; but then there is nothing + great, or firm, or regal; nothing that enforces obedience and respect, + or which does not rather invite opposition and petulance. She seems born + for friendship, not for government; and to be unable to regulate the + conduct of others, otherwise than by her own example. +</p> +<p> + That this character is just, appears from the occurrences in her reign, + in which the nation was governed, for many years, by a party whose + principles she detested, but whose influence she knew not how to + obviate, and to whose schemes she was subservient against her + inclination. +</p> +<p> + The charge of tyrannising over her, which was made, by turns, against + each party, proves that, in the opinion of both, she was easily to be + governed; and though it may be supposed, that the letters here published + were selected with some regard to respect and ceremony, it appears, + plainly enough, from them, that she was what she has been represented, + little more than the slave of the Marlborough family. +</p> +<p> + The inferiour characters, as they are of less importance, are less + accurately delineated; the picture of Harley is, at least, partially + drawn: all the deformities are heightened, and the beauties, for + beauties of mind he certainly had, are entirely omitted. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_5"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF MEMOIRS OF THE COURT OF AUGUSTUS; +</h2> +<center> + BY THOMAS BLACKWELL, J.U.D. +</center> +<center> + PRINCIPAL OF MARISCHAL COLLEGE, IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN <a href="#note-2">[2]</a>. +</center> +<p> + The first effect, which this book has upon the reader, is that of + disgusting him with the author's vanity. He endeavours to persuade the + world, that here are some new treasures of literature spread before his + eyes; that something is discovered, which, to this happy day, had been + concealed in darkness; that, by his diligence, time has been robbed of + some valuable monument which he was on the point of devouring; and that + names and facts, doomed to oblivion, are now restored to fame. +</p> +<p> + How must the unlearned reader be surprised, when he shall be told that + Mr. Blackwell has neither digged in the ruins of any demolished city, + nor found out the way to the library of Fez; nor had a single book in + his hands, that has not been in the possession of every man that was + inclined to read it, for years and ages; and that his book relates to a + people, who, above all others, have furnished employment to the + studious, and amusements to the idle; who have scarcely left behind them + a coin or a stone, which has not been examined and explained a thousand + times; and whose dress, and food, and household stuff, it has been the + pride of learning to understand. +</p> +<p> + A man need not fear to incur the imputation of vicious diffidence or + affected humility, who should have forborne to promise many novelties, + when he perceived such multitudes of writers possessed of the same + materials, and intent upon the same purpose. Mr. Blackwell knows well + the opinion of Horace, concerning those that open their undertakings + with magnificent promises; and he knows, likewise, the dictates of + common sense and common honesty, names of greater authority than that of + Horace, who direct, that no man should promise what he cannot perform. +</p> +<p> + I do not mean to declare, that this volume has nothing new, or that the + labours of those who have gone before our author, have made his + performance an useless addition to the burden of literature. New works + may be constructed with old materials; the disposition of the parts may + show contrivance; the ornaments interspersed may discover elegance. +</p> +<p> + It is not always without good effect, that men, of proper + qualifications, write, in succession, on the same subject, even when the + latter add nothing to the information given by the former; for the same + ideas may be delivered more intelligibly or more delightfully by one + than by another, or with attractions that may lure minds of a different + form. No writer pleases all, and every writer may please some. +</p> +<p> + But, after all, to inherit is not to acquire; to decorate is not to + make; and the man, who had nothing to do but to read the ancient + authors, who mention the Roman affairs, and reduce them to common + places, ought not to boast himself as a great benefactor to the studious + world. +</p> +<p> + After a preface of boast, and a letter of flattery, in which he seems to + imitate the address of Horace, in his "vile potabis modicis Sabinum"—he + opens his book with telling us, that the "Roman republic, after the + horrible proscription, was no more at <i>bleeding Rome</i>. The regal power + of her consuls, the authority of her senate, and the majesty of her + people, were now trampled under foot; these [for those] divine laws and + hallowed customs, that had been the essence of her constitution—were + set at nought, and her best friends were lying exposed in their blood." +</p> +<p> + These were surely very dismal times to those who suffered; but I know + not, why any one but a schoolboy, in his declamation, should whine over + the commonwealth of Rome, which grew great only by the misery of the + rest of mankind. The Romans, like others, as soon as they grew rich, + grew corrupt, and, in their corruption, sold the lives and freedoms of + themselves, and of one another. +</p> +<p> + "About this time, Brutus had his patience put to the <i>highest</i> trial: he + had been married to Clodia; but whether the family did not please him, + or whether he was dissatisfied with the lady's behaviour during his + absence, he soon entertained thoughts of a separation. <i>This raised a + good deal of talk</i>, and the women of the Clodian family inveighed + bitterly against Brutus—but he married Portia, who was worthy of such a + father as M. Cato, and such a husband as M. Brutus. She had a soul + capable of an <i>exalted passion</i>, and found a proper object to raise and + give it a sanction; she did not only love but adored her husband; his + worth, his truth, his every shining and heroic quality, made her gaze on + him like a god, while the endearing returns of esteem and tenderness she + met with, brought her joy, her pride, her every wish to centre in her + beloved Brutus." +</p> +<p> + When the reader has been awakened by this rapturous preparation, he + hears the whole story of Portia in the same luxuriant style, till she + breathed out her last, a little before the <i>bloody proscription</i>, and + "Brutus complained heavily of his friends at Rome, as not having paid + due attention to his lady in the declining state of her health." +</p> +<p> + He is a great lover of modern terms. His senators and their wives are + <i>gentlemen and ladies</i>. In this review of Brutus's army, <i>who was under + the command of gallant men, not braver officers than true patriots</i>, he + tells <i>us</i>, "that Sextus, the questor, was <i>paymaster, secretary at war, + and commissary general</i>; and that the <i>sacred discipline</i> of the Romans + required the closest connexion, like that of father and son, to subsist + between the general of an army and his questor. Cicero was <i>general of + the cavalry</i>, and the next <i>general officer</i> was Flavius, <i>master of Ihe + artillery</i>, the elder Lentulus was <i>admiral</i>, and the younger <i>rode</i> in + the <i>band of volunteers</i>; under these the tribunes, <i>with many others, + too tedious to name</i>." Lentulus, however, was but a subordinate officer; + for we are informed afterwards, that the Romans had made Sextus Pompeius + lord high admiral in all the seas of their dominions. Among other + affectations of this writer, is a furious and unnecessary zeal for + liberty; or rather, for one form of government as preferable to another. + This, indeed, might be suffered, because political institution is a + subject in which men have always differed, and, if they continue to obey + their lawful governours, and attempt not to make innovations, for the + sake of their favourite schemes, they may differ for ever, without any + just reproach from one another. But who can bear the hardy champion, who + ventures nothing? who, in full security, undertakes the defence of the + assassination of Cassar, and declares his resolution to speak plain? Yet + let not just sentiments be overlooked: he has justly observed, that the + greater part of mankind will be naturally prejudiced against Brutus, for + all feel the benefits of private friendship; but few can discern the + advantages of a well-constituted government <a href="#note-3">[3]</a>. +</p> +<p> + We know not whether some apology may not be necessary for the distance + between the first account of this book and its continuation. The truth + is, that this work, not being forced upon our attention by much publick + applause or censure, was sometimes neglected, and sometimes forgotten; + nor would it, perhaps, have been now resumed, but that we might avoid to + disappoint our readers by an abrupt desertion of any subject. +</p> +<p> + It is not our design to criticise the facts of this history, but the + style; not the veracity, but the address of the writer; for, an account + of the ancient Romans, as it cannot nearly interest any present reader, + and must be drawn from writings that have been long known, can owe its + value only to the language in which it is delivered, and the reflections + with which it is accompanied. Dr. Blackwell, however, seems to have + heated his imagination, so as to be much affected with every event, and + to believe that he can affect others. Enthusiasm is, indeed, + sufficiently contagious; but I never found any of his readers much + enamoured of the <i>glorious Pompey, the patriot approv'd</i>, or much + incensed against the <i>lawless Caesar</i>, whom this author, probably, stabs + every day and night in his sleeping or waking dreams. +</p> +<p> + He is come too late into the world with his fury for freedom, with his + Brutus and Cassius. We have all, on this side of the Tweed, long since + settled our opinions: his zeal for Roman liberty and declamations + against the violators of the republican constitution, only stand now in + the reader's way, who wishes to proceed in the narrative without the + interruption of epithets and exclamations. It is not easy to forbear + laughter at a man so bold in fighting shadows, so busy in a dispute two + thousand years past, and so zealous for the honour of a people, who, + while they were poor, robbed mankind, and, as soon as they became rich, + robbed one another. Of these robberies our author seems to have no very + quick sense, except when they are committed by Caesar's party, for every + act is sanctified by the name of a patriot. +</p> +<p> + If this author's skill in ancient literature were less generally + acknowledged, one might sometimes suspect, that he had too frequently + consulted the French writers. He tells us, that Archelaus, the Rhodian, + made a speech to Cassius, and, <i>in so saying</i>, dropt some tears; and + that Cassius, after the reduction of Rhodes, was <i>covered with + glory</i>.—Deiotarus was a keen and happy spirit—the ingrate Castor kept + his court. +</p> +<p> + His great delight is to show his universal acquaintance with terms of + art, with words that every other polite writer has avoided and despised. + When Pompey conquered the pirates, he destroyed fifteen hundred ships of + the line.—The Xanthian parapets were tore down.—Brutus, suspecting + that his troops were plundering, commanded the trumpets to sound to + their colours.—Most people understood the act of attainder passed by + the senate.—The Numidian troopers were unlikely in their appearance.— + The Numidians beat up one quarter after another.—Salvidienus resolved + to pass his men over, in boats of leather, and he gave orders for + equipping a sufficient number of that sort of small craft.—Pompey had + light, agile frigates, and fought in a strait, where the current and + caverns occasion swirls and a roll.—A sharp out-look was kept by the + admiral.—It is a run of about fifty Roman miles.—Brutus broke Lipella + in the sight of the army.—Mark Antony garbled the senate. He was a + brave man, well qualified for a commodore. +</p> +<p> + In his choice of phrases he frequently uses words with great solemnity, + which every other mouth and pen has appropriated to jocularity and + levity! The Rhodians gave up the contest, and, in poor plight, fled back + to Rhodes.—Boys and girls were easily kidnapped.—Deiotarus was a + mighty believer of augury.—Deiotarus destroyed his ungracious + progeny.—The regularity of the Romans was their mortal aversion.—They + desired the consuls to curb such heinous doings.—He had such a shrewd + invention, that no side of a question came amiss to him.—Brutus found + his mistress a coquettish creature. +</p> +<p> + He sometimes, with most unlucky dexterity, mixes the grand and the + burlesque together; <i>the violation of faith, sir</i>, says Cassius, <i>lies + at the door of the Rhodians by reite-rated acts of perfidy</i>.—The iron + grate fell down, crushed those under it to death, and catched the rest + as in a trap.—When the Xanthians heard the military shout, and saw the + flame mount, they concluded there would be no mercy. It was now about + sunset, and they had been at hot work since noon. +</p> +<p> + He has, often, words, or phrases, with which our language has hitherto + had no knowledge.—One was a heart-friend to the republic—A deed was + expeded.—The Numidians begun to reel, and were in hazard of falling + into confusion.—The tutor embraced his pupil close in his arms.—Four + hundred women were taxed, who have, no doubt, been the wives of the best + Roman citizens.—Men not born to action are inconsequential in + government.—Collectitious troops.—The foot, by their violent attack, + began the fatal break in the Pharsaliac field.—He and his brother, with + a politic, common to other countries, had taken opposite sides. +</p> +<p> + His epithets are of the gaudy or hyperbolical kind. The glorious + news—eager hopes and dismal fears—bleeding Rome—divine laws and + hallowed customs—merciless war—intense anxiety. +</p> +<p> + Sometimes the reader is suddenly ravished with a sonorous sentence, of + which, when the noise is past, the meaning does not long remain. When + Brutus set his legions to fill a moat, instead of heavy dragging and + slow toil, they set about it with huzzas and racing, as if they had been + striving at the Olympic games. They hurled impetuous down the huge trees + and stones, and, with shouts, forced them into the water; so that the + work, expected to continue half the campaign, was, with rapid toil, + completed in a few days. Brutus's soldiers fell to the gate with + resistless fury; it gave way, at last, with hideous crash.—This great + and good man, doing his duty to his country, received a mortal wound, + and glorious fell in the cause of Rome; may his memory be ever dear to + all lovers of liberty, learning, and humanity! This promise ought ever + to embalm his memory.—The queen of nations was torn by no foreign + invader.—Rome fell a sacrifice to her own sons, and was ravaged by her + unnatural offspring: all the great men of the state, all the good, all + the holy, were openly murdered by the wickedest and worst.—Little + islands cover the harbour of Brindisi, and form the narrow outlet from + the numerous creeks that compose its capacious port.—At the appearance + of Brutus and Cassius, a shout of joy rent the heavens from the + surrounding multitudes. +</p> +<p> + Such are the flowers which may be gathered, by every hand, in every part + of this garden of eloquence. But having thus freely mentioned our + author's faults, it remains that we acknowledge his merit; and confess, + that this book is the work of a man of letters, that it is full of + events displayed with accuracy, and related with vivacity; and though it + is sufficiently defective to crush the vanity of its author, it is + sufficiently entertaining to invite readers. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_6"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF FOUR LETTERS FROM SIR ISAAC NEWTON TO DR BENTLEY, +</h2> +<p> + Containing some arguments in proof of a Deity <a href="#note-4">[4]</a>. +</p> +<p> + It will certainly be required, that notice should be taken of a book, + however small, written on such a subject, by such an author. Yet I know + not whether these letters will be very satisfactory; for they are + answers to inquiries not published; and, therefore, though they contain + many positions of great importance, are, in some parts, imperfect and + obscure, by their reference to Dr. Bentley's letters. +</p> +<p> + Sir Isaac declares, that what he has done is due to nothing but industry + and patient thought; and, indeed, long consideration is so necessary in + such abstruse inquiries, that it is always dangerous to publish the + productions of great men, which are not known to have been designed for + the press, and of which it is uncertain, whether much patience and + thought have been bestowed upon them. The principal question of these + letters gives occasion to observe, how even the mind of Newton gains + ground, gradually, upon darkness. +</p> +<p> + "As to your first query," says he, "it seems to me, that if the matter + of our sun and planets, and all the matter of the universe, were evenly + scattered, throughout all the heavens, and every particle had an innate + gravity towards all the rest, and the whole space, throughout which this + matter was scattered, was but finite, the matter on the outside of this + space would, by its gravity, tend towards all the matter on the inside, + and, by consequence, fall down into the middle of the whole space, and + there compose one great spherical mass. But if the matter was evenly + disposed throughout an infinite space, it could never convene into one + mass, but some of it would convene into one mass, and some into another, + so as to make an infinite number of great masses, scattered, at great + distances, from one to another, throughout all that infinite space. And + thus might the sun and fixed stars be formed, supposing the matter were + of a lucid nature. But how the matter should divide itself into two + sorts, and that part of it, which is fit to compose a shining body, + should fall down into one mass, and make a sun, and the rest, which is + fit to compose an opaque body, should coalesce, not into one great body, + like the shining matter, but into many little ones; or, if the sun, at + first, were an opaque body, like the planets, or the planets lucid + bodies, like the sun, how he alone should be changed into a shining + body, whilst all they continue opaque, or all they be changed into + opaque ones, whilst he remains unchanged, I do not think more explicable + by mere natural causes, but am forced to ascribe it to the counsel and + contrivance of a voluntary agent." +</p> +<p> + The hypothesis of matter evenly disposed through infinite space, seems + to labour with such difficulties, as makes it almost a contradictory + supposition, or a supposition destructive of itself. +</p> +<p> + "Matter evenly disposed through infinite space," is either created or + eternal; if it was created, it infers a creator; if it was eternal, it + had been from eternity "evenly spread through infinite space;" or it had + been once coalesced in masses, and, afterwards, been diffused. Whatever + state was first must have been from eternity, and what had been from + eternity could not be changed, but by a cause beginning to act, as it + had never acted before, that is, by the voluntary act of some external + power. If matter, infinitely and evenly diffused, was a moment without + coalition, it could never coalesce at all by its own power. If matter + originally tended to coalesce, it could never be evenly diffused through + infinite space. Matter being supposed eternal, there never was a time, + when it could be diffused before its conglobation, or conglobated before + its diffusion. +</p> +<p> + This sir Isaac seems, by degrees, to have understood; for he says, in + his second letter: "The reason why matter, evenly scattered through a + finite space, would convene in the midst, you conceive the same with me; + but, that there should be a central particle, so accurately placed in + the middle, as to be always equally attracted on all sides, and, + thereby, continue without motion, seems to me a supposition fully as + hard as to make the sharpest needle stand upright upon its point on a + looking-glass. For, if the very mathematical centre of the central + particle be not accurately in the very mathematical centre of the + attractive power of the whole mass, the particle will not be attracted + equally on all sides. And much harder is it to suppose all the + particles, in an infinite space, should be so accurately poised, one + among another, as to stand still in a perfect equilibrium. For I reckon + this as hard as to make not one needle only, but an infinite number of + them, (so many as there are particles in an infinite space,) stand + accurately poised upon their points. Yet I grant it possible, at least, + by a divine power; and, if they were once to be placed, I agree with + you, that they would continue in that posture without motion, for ever, + unless put into new motion by the same power. When, therefore, I said, + that matter evenly spread through all space, would convene, by its + gravity, into one or more great masses, I understand it of matter not + resting in an accurate poise." +</p> +<p> + Let not it be thought irreverence to this great name, if I observe, that + by "matter evenly spread" through infinite space, he now finds it + necessary to mean "matter not evenly spread." Matter not evenly spread + will, indeed, convene, but it will convene as soon as it exists. And, in + my opinion, this puzzling question about matter, is only, how that could + be that never could have been, or what a man thinks on when he thinks on + nothing. +</p> +<p> + Turn matter on all sides, make it eternal, or of late production, finite + or infinite, there can be no regular system produced, but by a voluntary + and meaning agent. This the great Newton always asserted, and this he + asserts in the third letter; but proves, in another manner, in a manner, + perhaps, more happy and conclusive. +</p> +<p> + "The hypothesis of deriving the frame of the world, by mechanical + principles, from matter evenly spread through the heavens, being + inconsistent with my system, I had considered it very little, before + your letter put me upon it, and, therefore, trouble you with a line or + two more about it, if this comes not too late for your use. +</p> +<p> + "In my former, I represented, that the diurnal rotations of the planets + could not be derived from gravity, but required a divine arm to impress + them. And though gravity might give the planets a motion of descent + towards the sun, either directly, or with some little obliquity, yet the + transverse motions, by which they revolve in their several orbs, + required the divine arm to impress them, according to the tangents of + their orbs. I would now add, that the hypothesis of matter's being, at + first, evenly spread through the heavens, is, in my opinion, + inconsistent with the hypothesis of innate gravity, without a + supernatural power to reconcile them, and, therefore, it infers a deity. + For, if there be innate gravity, it is impossible now for the matter of + the earth, and all the planets and stars, to fly up from them, and + become evenly spread throughout all the heavens, without a supernatural + power; and, certainly, that which can never be hereafter, without a + supernatural power, could never be heretofore, without the same power." +</p> +<a name="2H_4_7"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF A JOURNAL OF EIGHT DAYS' JOURNEY, +</h2> +<p> + From Portsmouth to Kingston upon Thames, through Southampton, Wiltshire, + &c. with miscellaneous thoughts, moral and religious; in sixty-four + letters: addressed to two ladies of the partie. To which is added, an + Essay On Tea, considered as pernicious to health, obstructing industry, + and impoverishing the nation; with an account of its growth, and great + consumption in these kingdoms; with several political reflections; and + thoughts on publick love: in thirty-two letters to two ladies. By Mr. H. +</p> +<center> + ——-. +</center> +<p> + [From the Literary Magazine, vol. ii. No. xiii. 1757.] +</p> +<p> + Our readers may, perhaps, remember, that we gave them a short account of + this book, with a letter, extracted from it, in November, 1756. The + author then sent us an injunction, to forbear his work, till a second + edition should appear: this prohibition was rather too magisterial; for + an author is no longer the sole master of a book, which he has given to + the publick; yet he has been punctually obeyed; we had no desire to + offend him; and, if his character may be estimated by his book, he is a + man whose failings may well be pardoned for his virtues. +</p> +<p> + The second edition is now sent into the world, corrected and enlarged, + and yielded up, by the author, to the attacks of criticism. But he shall + find in us, no malignity of censure. We wish, indeed, that, among other + corrections, he had submitted his pages to the inspection of a + grammarian, that the elegancies of one line might not have been + disgraced by the improprieties of another; but, with us, to mean well is + a degree of merit, which overbalances much greater errours than impurity + of style. +</p> +<p> + We have already given, in our collections, one of the letters, in which + Mr. Hanway endeavours to show, that the consumption of tea is injurious + to the interest of our country. We shall now endeavour to follow him, + regularly, through all his observations on this modern luxury; but, it + can scarcely be candid not to make a previous declaration, that he is to + expect little justice from the author of this extract, a hardened and + shameless tea-drinker, who has, for twenty years, diluted his meals with + only the infusion of this fascinating plant; whose kettle has scarcely + time to cool; who with tea amuses the evening, with tea solaces the + midnight, and, with tea, welcomes the morning. +</p> +<p> + He begins by refuting a popular notion, that bohea and green tea are + leaves of the same shrub, gathered at different times of the year. He is + of opinion, that they are produced by different shrubs. The leaves of + tea are gathered in dry weather; then dried and curled over the fire, in + copper pans. The Chinese use little green tea, imagining, that it + hinders digestion, and excites fevers. How it should have either effect, + is not easily discovered; and, if we consider the innumerable + prejudices, which prevail concerning our own plants, we shall very + little regard these opinions of the Chinese vulgar, which experience + does not confirm. +</p> +<p> + When the Chinese drink tea, they infuse it slightly, and extract only + the more volatile parts; but though this seems to require great + quantities at a time, yet the author believes, perhaps, only because he + has an inclination to believe it, that the English and Dutch use more + than all the inhabitants of that extensive empire. The Chinese drink it, + sometimes, with acids, seldom with sugar; and this practice our author, + who has no intention to find anything right at home, recommends to his + countrymen. +</p> +<p> + The history of the rise and progress of tea-drinking is truly curious. + Tea was first imported, from Holland, by the earls of Arlington and + Ossory, in 1666; from their ladies the women of quality learned its use. + Its price was then three pounds a pound, and continued the same to 1707. + In 1715, we began to use green tea, and the practice of drinking it + descended to the lower class of the people. In 1720, the French began to + send it hither by a clandestine commerce. From 1717 to 1726, we + imported, annually, seven hundred thousand pounds. From 1732 to 1742, a + million and two hundred thousand pounds were every year brought to + London; in some years afterwards three millions; and in 1755, near four + millions of pounds, or two thousand tons, in which we are not to reckon + that which is surreptitiously introduced, which, perhaps, is nearly as + much. Such quantities are, indeed, sufficient to alarm us; it is, at + least, worth inquiry, to know what are the qualities of such a plant, + and what the consequences of such a trade. +</p> +<p> + He then proceeds to enumerate the mischiefs of tea, and seems willing to + charge upon it every mischief that he can find. He begins, however, by + questioning the virtues ascribed to it, and denies that the crews of the + Chinese ships are preserved, in their voyage homewards, from the scurvy + by tea. About this report I have made some inquiry, and though I cannot + find that these crews are wholly exempt from scorbutick maladies, they + seem to suffer them less than other mariners, in any course of equal + length. This I ascribe to the tea, not as possessing any medicinal + qualities, but as tempting them to drink more water, to dilute their + salt food more copiously, and, perhaps, to forbear punch, or other + strong liquors. +</p> +<p> + He then proceeds, in the pathetick strain, to tell the ladies how, by + drinking tea, they injure their health, and, what is yet more dear, + their beauty. +</p> +<p> + "To what can we ascribe the numerous complaints which prevail? How many + sweet creatures of your sex languish with a weak digestion, low spirits, + lassitudes, melancholy, and twenty disorders, which, in spite of the + faculty, have yet no names, except the general one of nervous + complaints? Let them change their diet, and, among other articles, leave + off drinking tea, it is more than probable, the greatest part of them + will be restored to health." +</p> +<p> + "Hot water is also very hurtful to the teeth. The Chinese do not drink + their tea so hot as we do, and yet they have bad teeth. This cannot be + ascribed entirely to sugar, for they use very little, as already + observed; but we all know, that hot or cold things, which pain the + teeth, destroy them also. If we drank less tea, and used gentle acids + for the gums and teeth, particularly sour oranges, though we had a less + number of French dentists, I fancy this essential part of beauty would + be much better preserved. +</p> +<p> + "The women in the United Provinces, who sip tea from morning till night, + are also as remarkable for bad teeth. They also look pallid, and many + are troubled with certain feminine disorders, arising from a relaxed + habit. The Portuguese ladies, on the other hand, entertain with + sweetmeats, and yet they have very good teeth; but their food, in + general, is more of a farinaceous and vegetable kind than ours. They + also drink cold water, instead of sipping hot, and never taste any + fermented liquors; for these reasons, the use of sugar does not seem to + be at all pernicious to them." +</p> +<p> + "Men seem to have lost their stature and comeliness, and women their + beauty. I am not young, but, methinks, there is not quite so much beauty + in this land as there was. Your very chambermaids have lost their bloom, + I suppose, by sipping tea. Even the agitations of the passions at cards + are not so great enemies to female charms. What Shakespeare ascribes to + the concealment of love, is, in this age, more frequently occasioned by + the use of tea." +</p> +<p> + To raise the fright still higher, he quotes an account of a pig's tail, + scalded with tea, on which, however, he does not much insist. +</p> +<p> + Of these dreadful effects, some are, perhaps, imaginary, and some may + have another cause. That there is less beauty in the present race of + females, than in those who entered the world with us, all of us are + inclined to think, on whom beauty has ceased to smile; but our fathers + and grandfathers made the same complaint before us; and our posterity + will still find beauties irresistibly powerful. +</p> +<p> + That the diseases, commonly called nervous, tremours, fits, habitual + depression, and all the maladies which proceed from laxity and debility, + are more frequent than in any former time, is, I believe, true, however + deplorable. But this new race of evils will not be expelled by the + prohibition of tea. This general languor is the effect of general + luxury, of general idleness. If it be most to be found among + tea-drinkers, the reason is, that tea is one of the stated amusements of + the idle and luxurious. The whole mode of life is changed; every kind of + voluntary labour, every exercise that strengthened the nerves, and + hardened the muscles, is fallen into disuse. The inhabitants are crowded + together in populous cities, so that no occasion of life requires much + motion; every one is near to all that he wants; and the rich and + delicate seldom pass from one street to another, but in carriages of + pleasure. Yet we eat and drink, or strive to eat and drink, like the + hunters and huntresses, the farmers and the housewives, of the former + generation; and they that pass ten hours in bed, and eight at cards, and + the greater part of the other six at the table, are taught to impute to + tea all the diseases which a life, unnatural in all its parts, may + chance to bring upon them. +</p> +<p> + Tea, among the greater part of those who use it most, is drunk in no + great quantity. As it neither exhilarates the heart, nor stimulates the + palate, it is commonly an entertainment merely nominal, a pretence for + assembling to prattle, for interrupting business, or diversifying + idleness. They, who drink one cup, and, who drink twenty, are equally + punctual in preparing or partaking it; and, indeed, there are few but + discover, by their indifference about it, that they are brought together + not by the tea, but the tea-table. Three cups make the common quantity, + so slightly impregnated, that, perhaps, they might be tinged with the + Athenian cicuta, and produce less effects than these letters charge upon + tea. +</p> +<p> + Our author proceeds to show yet other bad qualities of this hated leaf. +</p> +<p> + "Green tea, when made strong, even by infusion, is an emetick; nay, I am + told, it is used as such in China; a decoction of it certainly performs + this operation; yet, by long use, it is drunk by many without such an + effect. The infusion also, when it is made strong, and stands long to + draw the grosser particles, will convulse the bowels: even in the manner + commonly used, it has this effect on some constitutions, as I have + already remarked to you from my own experience. +</p> +<p> + "You see I confess my weakness without reserve; but those who are very + fond of tea, if their digestion is weak, and they find themselves + disordered, they generally ascribe it to any cause, except the true one. + I am aware that the effect, just mentioned, is imputed to the hot water; + let it be so, and my argument is still good: but who pretends to say, it + is not partly owing to particular kinds of tea? perhaps, such as partake + of copperas, which, there is cause to apprehend, is sometimes the case: + if we judge from the manner in which it is said to be cured, together + with its ordinary effects, there is some foundation for this opinion. + Put a drop of strong tea, either green or bohea, but chiefly the former, + on the blade of a knife, though it is not corrosive, in the same manner + as vitriol, yet there appears to be a corrosive quality in it, very + different from that of fruit, which stains the knife." +</p> +<p> + He afterwards quotes Paulli, to prove, that tea is a "desiccative, and + ought not to be used after the fortieth year." I have, then, long + exceeded the limits of permission, but I comfort myself, that all the + enemies of tea cannot be in the right. If tea be a desiccative, + according to Paulli, it cannot weaken the fibres, as our author + imagines; if it be emetick, it must constringe the stomach, rather than + relax it. +</p> +<p> + The formidable quality of tinging the knife, it has in common with + acorns, the bark, and leaves of oak, and every astringent bark or leaf: + the copperas, which is given to the tea, is really in the knife. Ink may + be made of any ferruginous matter, and astringent vegetable, as it is + generally made of galls and copperas. +</p> +<p> + From tea, the writer digresses to spirituous liquors, about which he + will have no controversy with the Literary Magazine; we shall, + therefore, insert almost his whole letter, and add to it one testimony, + that the mischiefs arising, on every side, from this compendious mode of + drunkenness, are enormous and insupportable; equally to be found among + the great and the mean; filling palaces with disquiet, and distraction, + harder to be borne, as it cannot be mentioned; and overwhelming + multitudes with incurable diseases, and unpitied poverty. +</p> +<p> + "Though tea and gin have spread their baneful influence over this + island, and his majesty's other dominions, yet, you may be well assured, + that the governors of the Foundling Hospital will exert their utmost + skill and vigilance, to prevent the children, under their care, from + being poisoned, or enervated by one or the other. This, however, is not + the case of workhouses: it is well known, to the shame of those who are + charged with the care of them, that gin has been too often permitted to + enter their gates;—and the debauched appetites of the people, who + inhabit these houses, has been urged as a reason for it. +</p> +<p> + "Desperate diseases require desperate remedies: if laws are rigidly + executed against murderers in the highway, those who provide a draught + of gin, which we see is murderous, ought not to be countenanced. I am + now informed, that in certain hospitals, where the number of the sick + used to be about 5600 in 14 years, +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + From 1704 to 1718, they increased to 8189; + From 1718 to 1734, still augmented to 12,710; + And from 1734 to 1749, multiplied to 38,147. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + "What a dreadful spectre does this exhibit! nor must we wonder, when + satisfactory evidence was given, before the great council of the nation, + that near eight millions of gallons of distilled spirits, at the + standard it is commonly reduced to for drinking, was actually consumed + annually in drams! the shocking difference in the numbers of the sick, + and, we may presume, of the dead also, was supposed to keep pace with + gin; and the most ingenious and unprejudiced physicians ascribed it to + this cause. What is to be done under these melancholy circumstances? + shall we still countenance the distillery, for the sake of the revenue; + out of tenderness to the few, who will suffer by its being abolished; + for fear of the madness of the people; or that foreigners will run it in + upon us? There can be no evil so great as that we now suffer, except the + making the same consumption, and paying for it to foreigners in money, + which I hope never will be the case. +</p> +<p> + "As to the revenue, it certainly may be replaced by taxes upon the + necessaries of life, even upon the bread we eat, or, in other words, + upon the land, which is the great source of supply to the public, and to + individuals. Nor can I persuade myself, but that the people may be + weaned from the habit of poisoning themselves. The difficulty of + smuggling a bulky liquid, joined to the severity which ought to be + exercised towards smugglers, whose illegal commerce is of so infernal a + nature, must, in time, produce the effect desired. Spirituous liquors + being abolished, instead of having the most undisciplined and abandoned + poor, we might soon boast a race of men, temperate, religious, and + industrious, even to a proverb. We should soon see the ponderous burden + of the poor's rate decrease, and the beauty and strength of the land + rejuvenate. Schools, workhouses, and hospitals, might then be sufficient + to clear our streets of distress and misery, which never will be the + case, whilst the love of poison prevails, and the means of ruin is sold + in above one thousand houses in the city of London, in two thousand two + hundred in Westminster, and one thousand nine hundred and thirty in + Holborn and St. Giles's. +</p> +<p> + "But if other uses still demand liquid fire, I would really propose, + that it should be sold only in quart bottles, sealed up, with the king's + seal, with a very high duty, and none sold without being mixed with a + strong emetic. +</p> +<p> + "Many become objects of charity by their intemperance, and this excludes + others, who are such by the unavoidable accidents of life, or who + cannot, by any means, support themselves. Hence it appears, that the + introducing new habits of life, is the most substantial charity; and + that the regulation of charity-schools, hospitals, and workhouses, not + the augmentation of their number, can make them answer the wise ends, + for which they were instituted. +</p> +<p> + "The children of beggars should be also taken from them, and bred up to + labour, as children of the public. Thus the distressed might be + relieved, at a sixth part of the present expense; the idle be compelled + to work or starve; and the mad be sent to Bedlam. We should not see + human nature disgraced by the aged, the maimed, the sickly, and young + children, begging their bread; nor would compassion be abused by those, + who have reduced it to an art to catch the unwary. Nothing is wanting + but common sense and honesty in the execution of laws. +</p> +<p> + "To prevent such abuse in the streets, seems more practicable than to + abolish bad habits within doors, where greater numbers perish. We see, + in many familiar instances, the fatal effects of example. The careless + spending of time among servants, who are charged with the care of + infants, is often fatal: the nurse frequently destroys the child! the + poor infant, being left neglected, expires whilst she is sipping her + tea! This may appear to you as rank prejudice, or jest; but, I am + assured, from the most indubitable evidence, that many very + extraordinary cases of this kind have really happened, among those whose + duty does not permit of such kind of habits. +</p> +<p> + "It is partly from such causes, that nurses of the children of the + public often forget themselves, and become impatient when infants cry; + the next step to this is using extraordinary means to quiet them. I have + already mentioned the term killing nurse, as known in some workhouses: + Venice treacle, poppy water, and Godfrey's cordial, have been the kind + instruments of lulling the child to his everlasting rest. If these pious + women could send up an ejaculation, when the child expired, all was + well, and no questions asked by the superiors. An ingenious friend of + mine informs me, that this has been so often the case, in some + workhouses, that Venice treacle has acquired the appellation of 'the + Lord have mercy upon me,' in allusion to the nurses' hackneyed + expression of pretended grief, when infants expire! Farewell." +</p> +<p> + I know not upon what observation Mr. Hanway founds his confidence in the + governours of the Foundling Hospital, men of whom I have not any + knowledge, but whom I entreat to consider a little the minds, as well as + bodies, of the children. I am inclined to believe irreligion equally + pernicious with gin and tea, and, therefore, think it not unseasonable + to mention, that, when, a few months ago, I wandered through the + hospital, I found not a child that seemed to have heard of his creed, or + the commandments. To breed up children in this manner, is to rescue them + from an early grave, that they may find employment for the gibbet; from + dying in innocence, that they may perish by their crimes. +</p> +<p> + Having considered the effects of tea upon the health of the drinker, + which, I think, he has aggravated in the vehemence of his zeal, and + which, after soliciting them by this watery luxury, year after year, I + have not yet felt, he proceeds to examine, how it may be shown to affect + our interest; and first calculates the national loss, by the time spent + in drinking tea. I have no desire to appear captious, and shall, + therefore, readily admit, that tea is a liquor not proper for the lower + classes of the people, as it supplies no strength to labour, or relief + to disease, but gratifies the taste, without nourishing the body. It is + a barren superfluity, to which those who can hardly procure what nature + requires, cannot prudently habituate themselves. Its proper use is to + amuse the idle, and relax the studious, and dilute the full meals of + those who cannot use exercise, and will not use abstinence. That time is + lost in this insipid entertainment cannot be denied; many trifle away, + at the tea-table, those moments which would be better spent; but that + any national detriment can be inferred from this waste of time, does not + evidently appear, because I know not that any work remains undone, for + want of hands. Our manufactures seem to be limited, not by the + possibility of work, but by the possibility of sale. +</p> +<p> + His next argument is more clear. He affirms, that one hundred and fifty + thousand pounds, in silver, are paid to the Chinese, annually, for three + millions of pounds of tea, and, that for two millions more, brought + clandestinely from the neighbouring coasts, we pay, at twenty-pence a + pound, one hundred sixty-six thousand six hundred and sixty-six pounds. + The author justly conceives, that this computation will waken us; for, + says he: "the loss of health, the loss of time, the injury of morals, + are not very sensibly felt by some, who are alarmed when you talk of the + loss of money." But he excuses the East India company, as men not + obliged to be political arithmeticians, or to inquire so much, what the + nation loses, as how themselves may grow rich. It is certain, that they, + who drink tea, have no right to complain of those that import it; but if + Mr. Hanway's computation be just, the importation, and the use of it, + ought, at once, to be stopped by a penal law. +</p> +<p> + The author allows one slight argument in favour of tea, which, in my + opinion, might be, with far greater justice, urged both against that and + many other parts of our naval trade. "The tea-trade employs," he tells + us, "six ships, and five or six hundred seamen, sent annually to China. + It, likewise, brings in a revenue of three hundred and sixty thousand + pounds, which, as a tax on luxury, may be considered as of great utility + to the state." The utility of this tax I cannot find: a tax on luxury is + no better than another tax, unless it hinders luxury, which cannot be + said of the impost upon tea, while it is thus used by the great and the + mean, the rich and the poor. The truth is, that, by the loss of one + hundred and fifty thousand pounds, we procure the means of shifting + three hundred and sixty thousand, at best, only from one hand to + another; but, perhaps, sometimes into hands by which it is not very + honestly employed. Of the five or six hundred seamen, sent to China, I + am told, that sometimes half, commonly a third part, perish in the + voyage; so that, instead of setting this navigation against the + inconveniencies already alleged, we may add to them, the yearly loss of + two hundred men, in the prime of life; and reckon, that the trade of + China has destroyed ten thousand men, since the beginning of this + century. +</p> +<p> + If tea be thus pernicious, if it impoverishes our country, if it raises + temptation, and gives opportunity to illicit commerce, which I have + always looked on, as one of the strongest evidences of the inefficacy + of our law, the weakness of our government, and the corruption of our + people, let us, at once, resolve to prohibit it for ever. +</p> +<p> + "If the question was, how to promote industry most advantageously, in + lieu of our tea-trade, supposing every branch of our commerce to be + already fully supplied with men and money? If a quarter the sum, now + spent in tea, were laid out, annually, in plantations, in making public + gardens, in paving and widening streets, in making roads, in rendering + rivers navigable, erecting palaces, building' bridges, or neat and + convenient houses, where are now only huts; draining lands, or rendering + those, which are now barren, of some use; should we not be gainers, and + provide more for health, pleasure, and long life, compared with the + consequences of the tea-trade?" +</p> +<p> + Our riches would be much better employed to these purposes; but if this + project does not please, let us first resolve to save our money, and we + shall, afterwards, very easily find ways to spend it. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_8"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REPLY TO A PAPER IN THE GAZETTEER OF MAY 26, 1757 <a href="#note-5">[5]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + It is observed, in Le Sage's Gil Bias, that an exasperated author is not + easily pacified. I have, therefore, very little hope of making my peace + with the writer of the Eight Days' Journey; indeed so little, that I + have long deliberated, whether I should not rather sit silently down, + under his displeasure, than aggravate my misfortune, by a defence, of + which my heart forbodes the ill success. Deliberation is often useless. + I am afraid, that I have, at last, made the wrong choice, and that I + might better have resigned my cause, without a struggle, to time and + fortune, since I shall run the hazard of a new oifence, by the necessity + of asking him, why he is angry. +</p> +<p> + Distress and terrour often discover to us those faults, with which we + should never have reproached ourselves in a happy state. Yet, dejected + as I am, when I review the transaction between me and this writer, I + cannot find, that I have been deficient in reverence. When his book was + first printed, he hints, that I procured a sight of it before it was + published. How the sight of it was procured, I do not now very exactly + remember; but, if my curiosity was greater than my prudence, if I laid + rash hands on the fatal volume, I have surely suffered, like him who + burst the box, from which evil rushed into the world. +</p> +<p> + I took it, however, and inspected it, as the work of an author not + higher than myself; and was confirmed in my opinion, when I found, that + these letters were <i>not written to be printed</i>. I concluded, however, + that, though not <i>written</i> to be <i>printed</i>, they were <i>printed</i> to be + <i>read</i>, and inserted one of them in the collection of November last. Not + many days after, I received a note, informing me, that I ought to have + waited for a more correct edition. This injunction was obeyed. The + edition appeared, and I supposed myself at liberty to tell my thoughts + upon it, as upon any other book, upon a royal manifesto, or an act of + parliament. But see the fate of ignorant temerity! I now find, but find + too late, that, instead of a writer, whose only power is in his pen, I + have irritated an important member of an important corporation; a man, + who, as he tells us in his letters, puts horses to his chariot. +</p> +<p> + It was allowed to the disputant of old to yield up the controversy, with + little resistance, to the master of forty legions. Those who know how + weakly naked truth can defend her advocates, would forgive me, if I + should pay the same respect to a governour of the foundlings. Yets the + consciousness of my own rectitude of intention incites me to ask once + again, how I have offended. +</p> +<p> + There are only three subjects upon which my unlucky pen has happened to + venture: tea; the author of the journal; and the foundling-hospital. +</p> +<p> + Of tea, what have I said? That I have drank it twenty years, without + hurt, and, therefore, believe it not to be poison; that, if it dries the + fibres, it cannot soften them; that, if it constringes, it cannot relax. + I have modestly doubted, whether it has diminished the strength of our + men, or the beauty of our women; and whether it much hinders the + progress of our woollen or iron manufactures; but I allowed it to be a + barren superfluity, neither medicinal nor nutritious, that neither + supplied strength nor cheerfulness, neither relieved weariness, nor + exhilarated sorrow: I inserted, without charge or suspicion of + falsehood, the sums exported to purchase it; and proposed a law to + prohibit it for ever. +</p> +<p> + Of the author I unfortunately said, that his injunction was somewhat too + magisterial. This I said, before I knew that he was a governour of the + foundlings; but he seems inclined to punish this failure of respect, as + the czar of Muscovy made war upon Sweden, because he was not treated + with sufficient honours, when he passed through the country in disguise. + Yet, was not this irreverence without extenuation. Something was said of + the merit of <i>meaning well</i>, and the journalist was declared to be a + man, <i>whose failings might well be pardoned for his virtues</i>. This is + the highest praise which human gratitude can confer upon human merit; + praise that would have more than satisfied Titus or Augustus, but which + I must own to be inadequate and penurious, when offered to the member of + an important corporation. +</p> +<p> + I am asked, whether I meant to satirize the man, or criticise the + writer, when I say, that "he believes, only, perhaps, because he has + inclination to believe it, that the English and Dutch consume more tea + than the vast empire of China." Between the writer and the man, I did + not, at that time, consider the distinction. The writer I found not of + more than mortal might, and I did not immediately recollect, that the + man put horses to his chariot. But I did not write wholly without + consideration. I knew but two causes of belief, evidence and + inclination. What evidence the journalist could have of the Chinese + consumption of tea, I was not able to discover. The officers of the East + India company are excluded, they best know why, from the towns and the + country of China; they are treated, as we treat gipsies and vagrants, + and obliged to retire, every night, to their own hovel. What + intelligence such travellers may bring, is of no great importance. And, + though the missionaries boast of having once penetrated further, I + think, they have never calculated the tea drunk by the Chinese. There + being thus no evidence for his opinion, to what could I ascribe it but + inclination. +</p> +<p> + I am yet charged, more heavily, for having said, that "he has no + intention to find any thing right at home." I believe every reader + restrained this imputation to the subject which produced it, and + supposed me to insinuate only, that he meant to spare no part of the + tea-table, whether essence or circumstance. But this line he has + selected, as an instance of virulence and acrimony, and confutes it by + a lofty and splendid panegyrick on himself. He asserts, that he finds + many things right at home, and that he loves his oountrv almost to + enthusiasm. +</p> +<p> + I had not the least doubt, that he found, in his country, many things to + please him; nor did I suppose, that he desired the same inversion of + every part of life, as of the use of tea. The proposal of drinking tea + sour showed, indeed, such a disposition to practical paradoxes, that + there was reason to fear, lest some succeeding letter should recommend + the dress of the Picts, or the cookery of the Eskimaux. However, I met + with no other innovations, and, therefore, was willing to hope, that he + found something right at home. +</p> +<p> + But his love of his country seemed not to rise quite to enthusiasm, + when, amidst his rage against tea, he made a smooth apology for the East + India company, as men who might not think themselves obliged to be + political arithmeticians. I hold, though no enthusiastick patriot, that + every man, who lives and trades under the protection of a community, is + obliged to consider, whether he hurts or benefits those who protect him; + and that the most which can be indulged to private interest, is a + neutral traffick, if any such can be, by which our country is not + injured, though it may not be benefited. +</p> +<p> + But he now renews his declamation against tea, notwithstanding the + greatness or power of those that have interest or inclination to support + it. I know not of what power or greatness he may dream. The importers + only have an interest in defending it. I am sure, they are not great, + and, I hope, they are not powerful. Those, whose inclination leads them + to continue this practice, are too numerous; but, I believe their power + is such, as the journalist may defy, without enthusiasm. The love of our + country, when it rises to enthusiasm, is an ambiguous and uncertain + virtue: when a man is enthusiastick, he ceases to be reasonable; and, + when he once departs from reason, what will he do, but drink sour tea? + As the journalist, though enthusiastically zealous for his country, has, + with regard to smaller things, the placid happiness of philosophical + indifference, I can give him no disturbance, by advising him to + restrain, even the love of his country, within due limits, lest it + should, sometimes, swell too high, fill the whole capacity of his soul, + and leave less room for the love of truth. +</p> +<p> + Nothing now remains, but that I review my positions concerning the + foundling hospital. What I declared last month, I declare now, once + more, that I found none of the children that appeared to have heard of + the catechism. It is inquired, how I wandered, and how I examined. There + is, doubtless, subtlety in the question; I know not well how to answer + it. Happily, I did not wander alone; I attended some ladies, with + another gentleman, who all heard and assisted the inquiry, with equal + grief and indignation. I did not conceal my observations. Notice was + given of this shameful defect soon after, at my request, to one of the + highest names of the society. This, I am now told, is incredible; but, + since it is true, and the past is out of human power, the most important + corporation cannot make it false. But, why is it incredible? Because, + in the rules of the hospital, the children are ordered to learn the + rudiments of religion. Orders are easily made, but they do not execute + themselves. They say their catechism, at stated times, under an able + master. But this able master was, I think, not elected before last + February; and my visit happened, if I mistake not, in November. The + children were shy, when interrogated by a stranger. This may be true, + but the same shiness I do not remember to have hindered them from + answering other questions; and I wonder, why children, so much + accustomed to new spectators, should be eminently shy. +</p> +<p> + My opponent, in the first paragraph, calls the inference that I made + from this negligence, a hasty conclusion: to the decency of this + expression I had nothing to object; but, as he grew hot in his career, + his enthusiasm began to sparkle; and, in the vehemence of his + postscript, he charges my assertions, and my reasons for advancing them, + with folly and malice. His argumentation, being somewhat enthusiastical, + I cannot fully comprehend, but it seems to stand thus: my insinuations + are foolish or malicious, since I know not one of the governours of the + hospital; for, he that knows not the governours of the hospital, must be + very foolish or malicious. +</p> +<p> + He has, however, so much kindness for me, that he advises me to consult + my safety, when I talk of corporations. I know not what the most + important corporation can do, becoming manhood, by which my safety is + endangered. My reputation is safe, for I can prove the fact; my quiet is + safe, for I meant well; and for any other safety, I am not used to be + very solicitous. +</p> +<p> + I am always sorry, when I see any being labouring in vain; and, in + return for the journalist's attention to my safety, I will confess some + compassion for his tumultuous resentment; since all his invectives fume + into the air, with so little effect upon me, that I still esteem him, as + one that has the <i>merit of meaning well</i>; and still believe him to be a + man, whose <i>failings may be justly pardoned for his virtues</i> <a href="#note-6">[6]</a>. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_9"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW <a href="#note-7">[7]</a> OF AN ESSAY ON THE WRITINGS AND GENIUS OF POPE. +</h2> +<p> + This is a very curious and entertaining miscellany of critical remarks + and literary history. Though the book promises nothing but observations + on the writings of Pope, yet no opportunity is neglected of introducing + the character of any other writer, or the mention of any performance or + event, in which learning is interested. From Pope, however, he always + takes his hint, and to Pope he returns again from his digressions. The + facts, which he mentions, though they are seldom anecdotes, in a + rigorous sense, are often such as are very little known, and such as + will delight more readers than naked criticism. +</p> +<p> + As he examines the works of this great poet, in an order nearly + chronological, he necessarily begins with his pastorals, which, + considered as representations of any kind of life, he very justly + censures; for there is in them a mixture of Grecian and English, of + ancient and modern images. Windsor is coupled with Hybla, and Thames + with Pactolus. He then compares some passages, which Pope has imitated, + or translated, with the imitation, or version, and gives the preference + to the originals, perhaps, not always upon convincing arguments. +</p> +<p> + Theocritus makes his lover wish to be a bee, that he might creep among + the leaves that form the chaplet of his mistress. Pope's enamoured swain + longs to be made the captive bird that sings in his fair one's bower, + that she might listen to his songs, and reward him with her kisses. The + critick prefers the image of Theocritus, as more wild, more delicate, + and more uncommon. +</p> +<p> + It is natural for a lover to wish, that he might be any thing that could + come near to his lady. But we more naturally desire to be that which she + fondles and caresses, than that which she would avoid, at least would + neglect. The snperiour delicacy of Theocritus I cannot discover, nor + can, indeed, find, that either in the one or the other image there is + any want of delicacy. Which of the two images was less common in the + time of the poet who used it, for on that consideration the merit of + novelty depends, I think it is now out of any critick's power to decide. +</p> +<p> + He remarks, I am afraid, with too much justice, that there is not a + single new thought in the pastorals; and, with equal reason, declares, + that their chief beauty consists in their correct and musical + versification, which has so influenced the English ear, as to render + every moderate rhymer harmonious. +</p> +<p> + In his examination of the Messiah, he justly observes some deviations + from the inspired author, which weaken the imagery, and dispirit the + expression. +</p> +<p> + On Windsor Forest, he declares, I think without proof, that descriptive + poetry was by no means the excellence of Pope; he draws this inference + from the few images introduced in this poem, which would not equally + belong to any other place. He must inquire, whether Windsor forest has, + in reality, any thing peculiar. +</p> +<p> + The Stag-chase is not, he says, so full, so animated, and so + circumstantiated, as Somerville's. Barely to say, that one performance + is not so good as another, is to criticise with little exactness. But + Pope has directed, that we should, in every work, regard the author's + end. The stag-chase is the main subject of Somerville, and might, + therefore, be properly dilated into all its circumstances; in Pope, it + is only incidental, and was to be despatched in a few lines. +</p> +<p> + He makes a just observation, "that the description of the external + beauties of nature, is usually the first effort of a young genius, + before he hath studied nature and passions. Some of Milton's most early, + as well as mos't exquisite pieces, are his Lycidas, l'Allegro, and il + Penseroso, if we may except his ode on the Nativity of Christ, which is, + indeed, prior in order of time, and in which a penetrating critick might + have observed the seeds of that boundless imagination, which was, one + day, to produce the Paradise Lost." +</p> +<p> + Mentioning Thomson, and other descriptive poets, he remarks, that + writers fail in their copies, for want of acquaintance with originals, + and justly ridicules those who think they can form just ideas of + valleys, mountains, and rivers, in a garret in the Strand. For this + reason, I cannot regret, with this author, that Pope laid aside his + design of writing American pastorals; for, as he must have painted + scenes, which he never saw, and manners, which he never knew, his + performance, though it might have been a pleasing amusement of fancy, + would have exhibited no representation of nature or of life. +</p> +<p> + After the pastorals, the critick considers the lyrick poetry of Pope, + and dwells longest on the ode on St. Cecilia's day, which he, like the + rest of mankind, places next to that of Dryden, and not much below it. + He remarks, after Mr. Spence, that the first stanza is a perfect + concert: the second he thinks a little flat; he justly commends the + fourth, but without notice of the best line in that stanza, or in the + poem: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Transported demi-gods stood round, + And men grew heroes at the sound." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + In the latter part of the ode, he objects to the stanza of triumph: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Thus song could prevail," &c. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + as written in a measure ridiculous and burlesque, and justifies his + answer, by observing, that Addison uses the same numbers in the scene of + Rosamond, between Grideline and sir Trusty: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "How unhappy is he," &c. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + That the measure is the same in both passages, must be confessed, and + both poets, perhaps, chose their numbers properly; for they both meant + to express a kind of airy hilarity. The two passions of merriment and + exultation are, undoubtedly, different; they are as different as a + gambol and a triumph, but each is a species of joy; and poetical + measures have not, in any language, been so far refined, as to provide + for the subdivisions of passion. They can only be adapted to general + purposes; but the particular and minuter propriety must be sought only + in the sentiment and language. Thus the numbers are the same in Colin's + Complaint, and in the ballad of Darby and Joan, though, in one, sadness + is represented, and, in the other, tranquillity; so the measure is the + same of Pope's Unfortunate Lady, and the Praise of Voiture. +</p> +<p> + He observes, very justly, that the odes, both of Dryden and Pope, + conclude, unsuitably and unnaturally, with epigram. +</p> +<p> + He then spends a page upon Mr. Handel's musick to Dryden's ode, and + speaks of him with that regard which he has generally obtained among the + lovers of sound. He finds something amiss in the air "With ravished + ears," but has overlooked, or forgotten, the grossest fault in that + composition, which is that in this line: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Revenge, revenge, Timotheus cries," +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + He has laid much stress upon the two latter words, which are merely + words of connexion, and ought, in musick, to be considered as + parenthetical. +</p> +<p> + From this ode is struck out a digression on the nature of odes, and the + comparative excellence of the ancients and moderns. He mentions the + chorus which Pope wrote for the duke of Buckingham; and thence takes + occasion to treat of the chorus of the ancients. He then comes to + another ode, of "The dying Christian to his Soul;" in which, finding an + apparent imitation of Flatman, he falls into a pleasing and learned + speculation, on the resembling passages to be found in different poets. +</p> +<p> + He mentions, with great regard, Pope's ode on Solitude, written when he + was but twelve years old, but omits to mention the poem on Silence, + composed, I think, as early, with much greater elegance of diction, + musick of numbers, extent of observation, and force of thought. If he + had happened to think on Baillet's chapter of Enfans célèbres, he might + have made, on this occasion, a very entertaining dissertation on early + excellence. +</p> +<p> + He comes next to the Essay on Criticism, the stupendous performance of a + youth, not yet twenty years old; and, after having detailed the + felicities of condition, to which he imagines Pope to have owed his + wonderful prematurity of mind, he tells us, that he is well informed + this essay was first written in prose. There is nothing improbable in + the report, nothing, indeed, but what is more likely than the contrary; + yet I <a href="#note-8">[8]</a> cannot forbear to hint to this writer, and all others, the + danger and weakness of trusting too readily to information. Nothing but + experience could evince the frequency of false information, or enable + any man to conceive, that so many groundless reports should be + propagated, as every man of eminence may hear of himself. Some men + relate what they think, as what they know; some men, of confused + memories and habitual inaccuracy, ascribe to one man, what belongs to + another; and some talk on, without thought or care. A few men are + sufficient to broach falsehoods, which are afterwards innocently + diffused by successive relaters. +</p> +<p> + He proceeds on, examining passage after passage of this essay; but we + must pass over all these criticisms, to which we have not something to + add or to object, or where this author does not differ from the general + voice of mankind. We cannot agree with him in his censure of the + comparison of a student advancing in science, with a traveller passing + the Alps, which is, perhaps, the best simile in our language; that, in + which the most exact resemblance is traced between things, in + appearance, utterly unrelated to each other. That the last line conveys + no new <i>idea</i>, is not true; it makes particular, what was before + general. Whether the description, which he adds from another author, be, + as he says, more full and striking than that of Pope, is not to be + inquired. Pope's description is relative, and can admit no greater + length than is usually allowed to a simile, nor any other particulars + than such as form the correspondence. +</p> +<p> + Unvaried rhymes, says this writer, highly disgust readers of a good ear. + It is, surely, not the ear, but the mind that is offended. The fault, + arising from the use of common rhymes, is, that by reading the past + line, the second may be guessed, and half the composition loses the + grace of novelty. +</p> +<p> + On occasion of the mention of an alexandrine, the critick observes, that + "the alexandrine may be thought a modern measure, but that <i>Robert of + Gloucester's Wife</i> is an alexandrine, with the addition of two + syllables; and that Sternhold and Hopkins translated the Psalms in the + same measure of fourteen syllables, though they are printed otherwise." +</p> +<p> + This seems not to be accurately conceived or expressed: an alexandrine, + with the addition of two syllables, is no more an alexandrine, than with + the detraction of two syllables. Sternhold and Hopkins did, generally, + write in the alternate measure of eight and six syllables; but Hopkins + commonly rhymed the first and third; Sternhold, only the second and + fourth: so that Sternhold may be considered, as writing couplets of long + lines; but Hopkins wrote regular stanzas. From the practice of printing + the long lines of fourteen syllables in two short lines, arose the + license of some of our poets, who, though professing to write in + stanzas, neglect the rhymes of the first and third lines. +</p> +<p> + Pope has mentioned Petronius, among the great names of criticism, as the + remarker justly observes, without any critical merit. It is to be + suspected, that Pope had never read his book, and mentioned him on the + credit of two or three sentences which he had often seen quoted, + imagining, that where there was so much, there must necessarily be more. + Young men, in haste to be renowned, too frequently talk of books which + they have scarcely seen. +</p> +<p> + The revival of learning, mentioned in this poem, affords an opportunity + of mentioning the chief periods of literary history, of which this + writer reckons five: that of Alexander, of Ptolemy Philadelphus, of + Augustus, of Leo the tenth, of queen Anne. +</p> +<p> + These observations are concluded with a remark, which deserves great + attention: "In no polished nation, after criticism has been much + studied, and the rules of writing established, has any very + extraordinary book ever appeared." +</p> +<p> + The Rape of the Lock was always regarded, by Pope, as the highest + production of his genius. On occasion of this work, the history of the + comick-heroick is given; and we are told, that it descended from Fassoni + to Boileau, from Boileau to Garth, and from Garth to Pope. Garth is + mentioned, perhaps, with too much honour; but all are confessed to be + inferiour to Pope. There is, in his remarks on this work, no discovery + of any latent beauty, nor any thing subtle or striking; he is, indeed, + commonly right, but has discussed no difficult question. +</p> +<p> + The next pieces to be considered are, the Verses to the Memory of an + unfortunate Lady, the Prologue to Cato, and Epilogue to Jane Shore. The + first piece he commends. On occasion of the second, he digresses, + according to his custom, into a learned dissertation on tragedies, and + compares the English and French with the Greek stage. He justly censures + Cato, for want of action and of characters; but scarcely does justice to + the sublimity of some speeches, and the philosophical exactness in the + sentiments. "The simile of mount Atlas, and that of the Numidian + traveller, smothered in the sands, are, indeed, in character," says the + critick, "but sufficiently obvious." The simile of the mountain is, + indeed, common; but that of the traveller, I do not remember. That it is + obvious is easy to say, and easy to deny. Many things are obvious, when + they are taught. +</p> +<p> + He proceeds to criticise the other works of Addison, till the epilogue + calls his attention to Rowe, whose character he discusses in the same + manner, with sufficient freedom and sufficient candour. +</p> +<p> + The translation of the epistle of Sappho to Phaon is next considered; + but Sappho and Ovid are more the subjects of this disquisition, than + Pope. We shall, therefore, pass over it to a piece of more importance, + the epistle of Eloisa to Abelard, which may justly be regarded, as one + of the works on which the reputation of Pope will stand in future times. +</p> +<p> + The critick pursues Eloisa through all the changes of passion, produces + the passages of her letters, to which any allusion is made, and + intersperses many agreeable particulars and incidental relations. There + is not much profundity of criticism, because the beauties are sentiments + of nature, which the learned and the ignorant feel alike. It is justly + remarked by him, that the wish of Eloisa, for the happy passage of + Abelard into the other world, is formed according to the ideas of + mystick devotion. +</p> +<p> + These are the pieces examined in this volume: whether the remaining part + of the work will be one volume, or more, perhaps the writer himself + cannot yet inform us <a href="#note-9">[9]</a>. This piece is, however, a complete work, so + far as it goes; and the writer is of opinion, that he has despatched the + chief part of his task; for he ventures to remark, that the reputation + of Pope, as a poet, among posterity, will be principally founded on his + Windsor Forest, Rape of the Lock, and Eloisa to Abelard; while the facts + and characters, alluded to in his late writings, will be forgotten and + unknown, and their poignancy and propriety little relished; for wit and + satire are transitory and perishable, but nature and passion are + eternal. +</p> +<p> + He has interspersed some passages of Pope's life, with which most + readers will be pleased. When Pope was yet a child, his father, who had + been a merchant in London, retired to Binfield. He was taught to read by + an aunt; and learned to write, without a master, by copying printed + books. His father used to order him to make English verses, and would + oblige him to correct and retouch them over and over, and, at last, + could say, "These are good rhymes." +</p> +<p> + At eight years of age, he was committed to one Taverner, a priest, who + taught him the rudiments of the Latin and Greek. At this time, he met + with Ogleby's Homer, which seized his attention; he fell next upon + Sandys's Ovid, and remembered these two translations, with pleasure, to + the end of his life. +</p> +<p> + About ten, being at school, near Hyde-park corner, he was taken to the + playhouse, and was so struck with the splendour of the drama, that he + formed a kind of play out of Ogleby's Homer, intermixed with verses of + his own. He persuaded the head boys to act this piece, and Ajax was + performed by his master's gardener. They were habited according to the + pictures in Ogleby. At twelve, he retired, with his father, to Windsor + forest, and formed himself by study in the best English poets. +</p> +<p> + In this extract, it was thought convenient to dwell chiefly upon such + observations, as relate immediately to Pope, without deviating, with the + author, into incidental inquiries. We intend to kindle, not to + extinguish, curiosity, by this slight sketch of a work, abounding with + curious quotations and pleasing disquisitions. He must be much + acquainted with literary history, both of remote and late times, who + does not find, in this essay, many things which he did not know before; + and, if there be any too learned to be instructed in facts or opinions, + he may yet properly read this book, as a just specimen of literary + moderation. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_10"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF A FREE ENQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF EVIL <a href="#note-10">[10]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + This is a treatise, consisting of six letters, upon a very difficult and + important question, which, I am afraid, this author's endeavours will + not free from the perplexity which has entangled the speculatists of all + ages, and which must always continue while <i>we see</i> but <i>in part</i>. He + calls it a <i>Free Enquiry</i>, and, indeed, his <i>freedom</i> is, I think, + greater than his modesty. Though he is far from the contemptible + arrogance, or the impious licentiousness of Bolingbroke, yet he decides, + too easily, upon questions out of the reach of human determination, with + too little consideration of mortal weakness, and with too much vivacity + for the necessary caution. +</p> +<p> + In the first letter, on evil in general, he observes, that, "it is the + solution of this important question, whence came <i>evil</i>? alone, that can + ascertain the moral characteristic of God, without which there is an end + of all distinction between good and evil." Yet he begins this inquiry by + this declaration: "That there is a supreme being, infinitely powerful, + wise, and benevolent, the great creator and preserver of all things, is + a truth so clearly demonstrated, that it shall be here taken for + granted." What is this, but to say, that we have already reason to grant + the existence of those attributes of God, which the present inquiry is + designed to prove? The present inquiry is, then, surely made to no + purpose. The attributes, to the demonstration of which the solution of + this great question is necessary, have been demonstrated, without any + solution, or by means of the solution of some former writer. +</p> +<p> + He rejects the Manichean system, but imputes to it an absurdity, from + which, amidst all its absurdities, it seems to be free, and adopts the + system of Mr. Pope. "That pain is no evil, if asserted with regard to + the individuals who suffer it, is downright nonsense; but if considered + as it affects the universal system, is an undoubted truth, and means + only, that there is no more pain in it, than what is necessary to the + production of happiness. How many soever of these evils, then, force + themselves into the creation, so long as the good preponderates, it is a + work well worthy of infinite wisdom and benevolence; and, + notwithstanding the imperfections of its parts, the whole is, most + undoubtedly, perfect." And, in the former part of the letter, he gives + the principle of his system in these words: "Omnipotence cannot work + contradictions; it can only effect all possible things. But so little + are we acquainted with the whole system of nature, that we know not what + are possible, and what are not; but if we may judge from that constant + mixture of pain with pleasure, and inconveniency with advantage, which + we must observe in every thing around us, we have reason to conclude, + that, to endue created beings with perfection, that is, to produce good, + exclusive of evil, is one of those impossibilities, which even infinite + power cannot accomplish." +</p> +<p> + This is elegant and acute, but will by no means calm discontent, or + silence curiosity; for, whether evil can be wholly separated from good + or not, it is plain, that they may be mixed, in various degrees, and, as + far as human eyes can judge, the degree of evil might have been less, + without any impediment to good. +</p> +<p> + The second letter, on the evils of imperfection, is little more than a + paraphrase of Pope's epistles, or, yet less than a paraphrase, a mere + translation of poetry into prose. This is, surely, to attack difficulty + with very disproportionate abilities, to cut the Gordian knot with very + blunt instruments. When we are told of the insufficiency of former + solutions, why is one of the latest, which no man can have forgotten, + given us again? I am told, that this pamphlet is not the effort of + hunger; what can it be, then, but the product of vanity? and yet, how + can vanity be gratified by plagiarism or transcription? When this + speculatist finds himself prompted to another performance, let him + consider, whether he is about to disburden his mind, or employ his + fingers; and, if I might venture to offer him a subject, I should wish, + that he would solve this question: Why he, that has nothing to write, + should desire to be a writer? +</p> +<p> + Yet is not this letter without some sentiments, which, though not new, + are of great importance, and may be read, with pleasure, in the + thousandth repetition. +</p> +<p> + "Whatever we enjoy, is purely a free gift from our creator; but, that we + enjoy no more, can never, sure, be deemed an injury, or a just reason to + question his infinite benevolence. All our happiness is owing to his + goodness; but, that it is no greater, is owing only to ourselves; that + is, to our not having any inherent right to any happiness, or even to + any existence at all. This is no more to be imputed to God, than the + wants of a beggar to the person who has relieved him: that he had + something, was owing to his benefactor; but that he had no more, only to + his own original poverty." +</p> +<p> + Thus far he speaks what every man must approve, and what every wise man + has said before him. He then gives us the system of subordination, not + invented, for it was known, I think, to the Arabian metaphysicians, but + adopted by Pope, and, from him, borrowed by the diligent researches of + this great investigator. +</p> +<p> + "No system can possibly be formed, even in imagination, without a + subordination of parts. Every animal body must have different members, + subservient to each other; every picture must be composed of various + colours, and of light and shade; all harmony must be formed of trebles, + tenours, and bases; every beautiful and useful edifice must consist of + higher and lower, more and less magnificent apartments. This is in the + very essence of all created things, and, therefore, cannot be prevented, + by any means whatever, unless by not creating them at all." +</p> +<p> + These instances are used, instead of Pope's oak and weeds, or Jupiter + and his satellites; but neither Pope, nor this writer, have much + contributed to solve the difficulty. Perfection, or imperfection, of + unconscious beings has no meaning, as referred to themselves; the base + and the treble are equally perfect; the mean and magnificent apartments + feel no pleasure or pain from the comparison. Pope might ask the weed, + why it was less than the oak? but the weed would never ask the question + for itself. The base and treble differ only to the hearer, meanness and + magnificence only to the inhabitant. There is no evil but must inhere in + a conscious being, or be referred to it; that is, evil must be felt, + before it is evil. Yet, even on this subject, many questions might be + offered, which human understanding has not yet answered, and which the + present haste of this extract will not suffer me to dilate. +</p> +<p> + He proceeds to an humble detail of Pope's opinion: "The universe is a + system, whose very essence consists in subordination; a scale of beings + descending, by insensible degrees, from infinite perfection to absolute + nothing; in which, though we may justly expect to find perfection in the + whole, could we possibly comprehend it; yet would it be the highest + absurdity to hope for it in all its parts, because the beauty and + happiness of the whole depend altogether on the just inferiority of its + parts; that is, on the comparative imperfections of the several beings + of which it is composed. +</p> +<p> + "It would have been no more an instance of God's wisdom to have created + no beings, but of the highest and most perfect order, than it would be + of a painter's art to cover his whole piece with one single colour, the + most beautiful he could compose. Had he confined himself to such, + nothing could have existed but demi-gods, or archangels, and, then, all + inferior orders must have been void and uninhabited; but as it is, + surely, more agreeable to infinite benevolence, that all these should be + filled up with beings capable of enjoying happiness themselves, and + contributing to that of others, they must, necessarily, be filled with + inferior beings; that is, with such as are less perfect, but from whose + existence, notwithstanding that less perfection, more felicity, upon the + whole, accrues to the universe, than if no such had been created. It is, + moreover, highly probable, that there is such a connexion between all + ranks and orders, by subordinate degrees, that they mutually support + each other's existence, and every one, in its place, is absolutely + necessary towards sustaining the whole vast and magnificent fabric. +</p> +<p> + "Our pretences for complaint could be of this only, that we are not so + high in the scale of existence as our ignorant ambition may desire; a + pretence which must eternally subsist, because, were we ever so much + higher, there would be still room for infinite power to exalt us; and, + since no link in the chain can be broke, the same reason for disquiet + must remain to those who succeed to that chasm, which must be occasioned + by our preferment. A man can have no reason to repine, that he is not an + angel; nor a horse, that he is not a man; much less, that, in their + several stations, they possess not the faculties of another; for this + would be an insufferable misfortune." +</p> +<p> + This doctrine of the regular subordination of beings, the scale of + existence, and the chain of nature, I have often considered, but always + left the inquiry in doubt and uncertainty. +</p> +<p> + That every being not infinite, compared with infinity, must be + imperfect, is evident to intuition; that, whatever is imperfect must + have a certain line which it cannot pass, is equally certain. But the + reason which determined this limit, and for which such being was + suffered to advance thus far, and no farther, we shall never be able to + discern. Our discoverers tell us, the creator has made beings of all + orders, and that, therefore, one of them must be such as man; but this + system seems to be established on a concession, which, if it be refused, + cannot be extorted. +</p> +<p> + Every reason which can be brought to prove, that there are beings of + every possible sort, will prove, that there is the greatest number + possible of every sort of beings; but this, with respect to man, we + know, if we know any thing, not to be true. +</p> +<p> + It does not appear, even to the imagination, that of three orders of + being, the first and the third receive any advantage from the + imperfection of the second, or that, indeed, they may not equally exist, + though the second had never been, or should cease to be; and why should + that be concluded necessary, which cannot be proved even to be useful? +</p> +<p> + The scale of existence, from infinity to nothing, cannot possibly have + being. The highest being not infinite, must be, as has been often + observed, at an infinite distance below infinity. Cheyne, who, with the + desire inherent in mathematicians to reduce every thing to mathematical + images, considers all existence as a cone; allows that the basis is at + an infinite distance from the body; and in this distance between finite + and infinite, there will be room, for ever, for an infinite series of + indefinable existence. +</p> +<p> + Between the lowest positive existence and nothing, wherever we suppose + positive existence to cease, is another chasm infinitely deep; where + there is room again for endless orders of subordinate nature, continued + for ever and for ever, and yet infinitely superiour to nonexistence. +</p> +<p> + To these meditations humanity is unequal. But yet we may ask, not of our + maker, but of each other, since, on the one side, creation, wherever it + stops, must stop infinitely below infinity, and on the other, infinitely + above nothing, what necessity there is, that it should proceed so far, + either way, that beings so high or so low should ever have existed? We + may ask; but, I believe, no created wisdom can give an adequate answer. +</p> +<p> + Nor is this all. In the scale, wherever it begins or ends, are infinite + vacuities. At whatever distance we suppose the next order of beings to + be above man, there is room for an intermediate order of beings between + them; and if for one order, then for infinite orders; since every thing + that admits of more or less, and consequently all the parts of that + which admits them, may be infinitely divided. So that, as far as we can + judge, there may be room in the vacuity between any two steps of the + scale, or between any two points of the cone of being, for infinite + exertion of infinite power. +</p> +<p> + Thus it appears, how little reason those, who repose their reason upon + the scale of being, have to triumph over them who recur to any other + expedient of solution, and what difficulties arise, on every side, to + repress the rebellions of presumptuous decision: "Qui pauca considerat, + facile pronunciat." In our passage through the boundless ocean of + disquisition, we often take fogs for land, and, after having long toiled + to approach them, find, instead of repose and harbours, new storms of + objection, and fluctuations of uncertainty. +</p> +<p> + We are next entertained with Pope's alleviations of those evils which we + are doomed to suffer. +</p> +<p> + "Poverty, or the want of riches, is generally compensated by having more + hopes, and fewer fears, by a greater share of health, and a more + exquisite relish of the smallest enjoyments, than those who possess them + are usually blessed with. The want of taste and genius, with all the + pleasures that arise from them, are commonly recompensed by a more + useful kind of common sense, together with a wonderful delight, as well + as success, in the busy pursuits of a scrambling world. The sufferings + of the sick are greatly relieved by many trifling gratifications, + imperceptible to others, and, sometimes, almost repaid by the + inconceivable transports occasioned by the return of health and vigour. + Folly cannot be very grievous, because imperceptible; and I doubt not + but there is some truth in that rant of a mad poet, that there is a + pleasure in being mad, which none but madmen know. Ignorance, or the + want of knowledge and literature, the appointed lot of all born to + poverty and the drudgeries of life, is the only opiate capable of + infusing that insensibility, which can enable them to endure the + miseries of the one, and the fatigues of the other. It is a cordial, + administered by the gracious hand of providence, of which they ought + never to be deprived by an ill-judged and improper education. It is the + basis of all subordination, the support of society, and the privilege of + individuals; and I have ever thought it a most remarkable instance of + the divine wisdom, that, whereas in all animals, whose individuals rise + little above the rest of their species, knowledge is instinctive; in + man, whose individuals are so widely different, it is acquired by + education; by which means the prince and the labourer, the philosopher + and the peasant, are, in some measure, fitted for their respective + situations." +</p> +<p> + Much of these positions is, perhaps, true; and the whole paragraph might + well pass without censure, were not objections necessary to the + establishment of knowledge. Poverty is very gently paraphrased by want + of riches. In that sense, almost every man may, in his own opinion, be + poor. But there is another poverty, which is want of competence of all + that can soften the miseries of life, of all that can diversify + attention, or delight imagination. There is yet another poverty, which + is want of necessaries, a species of poverty which no care of the + publick, no charity of particulars, can preserve many from feeling + openly, and many secretly. +</p> +<p> + That hope and fear are inseparably, or very frequently, connected with + poverty and riches, my surveys of life have not informed me. The milder + degrees of poverty are, sometimes, supported by hope; but the more + severe often sink down in motionless despondence. Life must be seen, + before it can be known. This author and Pope, perhaps, never saw the + miseries which they imagine thus easy to be borne. The poor, indeed, are + insensible of many little vexations, which sometimes imbitter the + possessions, and pollute the enjoyments, of the rich. They are not + pained by casual incivility, or mortified by the mutilation of a + compliment; but this happiness is like that of a malefactor, who ceases + to feel the cords that bind him, when the pincers are tearing his flesh. +</p> +<p> + That want of taste for one enjoyment is supplied by the pleasures of + some other, may be fairly allowed; but the compensations of sickness I + have never found near to equivalence, and the transports of recovery + only prove the intenseness of the pain. +</p> +<p> + With folly, no man is willing to confess himself very intimately + acquainted, and, therefore, its pains and pleasures are kept secret. But + what the author says of its happiness, seems applicable only to fatuity, + or gross dulness; for that inferiority of understanding, which makes one + man, without any other reason, the slave, or tool, or property of + another, which makes him sometimes useless, and sometimes ridiculous, is + often felt with very quick sensibility. On the happiness of madmen, as + the case is not very frequent, it is not necessary to raise a + disquisition, but I cannot forbear to observe, that I never yet knew + disorders of mind increase felicity: every madman is either arrogant and + irascible, or gloomy and suspicious, or possessed by some passion, or + notion, destructive to his quiet. He has always discontent in his look, + and malignity in his bosom. And, if he had the power of choice, he would + soon repent who should resign his reason to secure his peace. +</p> +<p> + Concerning the portion of ignorance necessary to make the condition of + the lower classes of mankind safe to the publick, and tolerable to + themselves, both morals and policy exact a nicer inquiry than will be + very soon or very easily made. There is, undoubtedly, a degree of + knowledge which will direct a man to refer all to providence, and to + acquiesce in the condition with which omniscient goodness has determined + to allot him; to consider this world as a phantom, that must soon glide + from before his eyes, and the distresses and vexations that encompass + him, as dust scattered in his path, as a blast that chills him for a + moment, and passes off for ever. +</p> +<p> + Such wisdom, arising from the comparison of a part with the whole of our + existence, those that want it most cannot possibly obtain from + philosophy; nor, unless the method of education, and the general tenour + of life are changed, will very easily receive it from religion. The bulk + of mankind is not likely to be very wise or very good; and I know not, + whether there are not many states of life, in which all knowledge, less + than the highest wisdom, will produce discontent and danger. I believe + it may be sometimes found, that a <i>little learning</i> is, to a poor man, a + <i>dangerous thing</i>. But such is the condition of humanity, that we easily + see, or quickly feel the wrong, but cannot always distinguish the right. + Whatever knowledge is superfluous, in irremediable poverty, is hurtful, + but the difficulty is to determine when poverty is irremediable, and at + what point superfluity begins. Gross ignorance every man has found + equally dangerous with perverted knowledge. Men, left wholly to their + appetites and their instincts, with little sense of moral or religious + obligation, and with very faint distinctions of right and wrong, can + never be safely employed, or confidently trusted; they can be honest + only by obstinacy, and diligent only by compulsion or caprice. Some + instruction, therefore, is necessary, and much, perhaps, may be + dangerous. +</p> +<p> + Though it should be granted, that those who are <i>born to poverty and + drudgery</i>, should not be <i>deprived</i>, by an <i>improper education</i>, of the + <i>opiate of ignorance</i>; even this concession will not be of much use to + direct our practice, unless it be determined, who are those that are + <i>born to poverty</i>. To entail irreversible poverty upon generation after + generation, only because the ancestor happened to be poor, is, in + itself, cruel, if not unjust, and is wholly contrary to the maxims of a + commercial nation, which always suppose and promote a rotation of + property, and offer every individual a chance of mending his condition + by his diligence. Those, who communicate literature to the son of a poor + man consider him, as one not born to poverty, but to the necessity of + deriving a better fortune from himself. In this attempt, as in others, + many fail and many succeed. Those that fail, will feel their misery more + acutely; but since poverty is now confessed to be such a calamity, as + cannot be borne without the opiate of insensibility, I hope the + happiness of those whom education enables to escape from it, may turn + the balance against that exacerbation which the others suffer. +</p> +<p> + I am always afraid of determining on the side of envy or cruelty. The + privileges of education may, sometimes, be improperly bestowed, but I + shall always fear to withhold them, lest I should be yielding to the + suggestions of pride, while I persuade myself that I am following the + maxims of policy; and, under the appearance of salutary restraints, + should be indulging the lust of dominion, and that malevolence which + delights in seeing others depressed. +</p> +<p> + Pope's doctrine is, at last, exhibited in a comparison, which, like + other proofs of the same kind, is better adapted to delight the fancy + than convince the reason. +</p> +<p> + "Thus the universe resembles a large and well-regulated family, in which + all the officers and servants, and even the domestic animals, are + subservient to each other, in a proper subordination: each enjoys the + privileges and perquisites peculiar to his place, and, at the same time, + contributes, by that just subordination, to the magnificence and + happiness of the whole." +</p> +<p> + The magnificence of a house is of use or pleasure always to the master, + and sometimes to the domesticks. But the magnificence of the universe + adds nothing to the supreme being; for any part of its inhabitants, with + which human knowledge is acquainted, an universe much less spacious or + splendid would have been sufficient; and of happiness it does not + appear, that any is communicated from the beings of a lower world to + those of a higher. +</p> +<p> + The inquiry after the cause of natural evil is continued in the third + letter, in which, as in the former, there is mixture of borrowed truth, + and native folly, of some notions, just and trite, with others uncommon + and ridiculous. +</p> +<p> + His opinion of the value and importance of happiness is certainly just, + and I shall insert it; not that it will give any information to any + reader, but it may serve to show, how the most common notion may be + swelled in sound, and diffused in bulk, till it shall, perhaps, astonish + the author himself. +</p> +<p> + "Happiness is the only thing of real value in existence, neither riches, + nor power, nor wisdom, nor learning, nor strength, nor beauty, nor + virtue, nor religion, nor even life itself, being of any importance, but + as they contribute to its production. All these are, in themselves, + neither good nor evil: happiness alone is their great end, and they are + desirable only as they tend to promote it." +</p> +<p> + Success produces confidence. After this discovery of the value of + happiness, he proceeds, without any distrust of himself, to tell us what + has been hid from all former inquirers. +</p> +<p> + "The true solution of this important question, so long and so vainly + searched for by the philosophers of all ages and all countries, I take + to be, at last, no more than this, that these real evils proceed from + the same source as those imaginary ones of imperfection, before treated + of, namely, from that subordination, without which no created system can + subsist; all subordination implying imperfection, all imperfection evil, + and all evil some kind of inconveniency or suffering: so that there + must, be particular inconvenieucies and sufferings annexed to every + particular rank of created beings by the circumstances of things, and + their modes of existence. +</p> +<p> + "God, indeed, might have made us quite other creatures, and placed us in + a world quite differently constituted; but then we had been no longer + men, and whatever beings had occupied our stations in the universal + system, they must have been liable to the same inconveniencies." +</p> +<p> + In all this, there is nothing that can silence the inquiries of + curiosity, or culm the perturbations of doubt. Whether subordination + implies imperfection may be disputed. The means respecting themselves + may be as perfect as the end. The weed, as a weed, is no less perfect + than the oak, as an oak. That <i>imperfection implies evil, and evil + suffering</i>, is by no means evident. Imperfection may imply privative + evil, or the absence of some good, but this privation produces no + suffering, but by the help of knowledge. An infant at the breast is yet + an imperfect man, but there is no reason for belief, that he is unhappy + by his immaturity, unless some positive pain be superadded. When this + author presumes to speak of the universe, I would advise him a little to + distrust his own faculties, however large and comprehensive. Many words, + easily understood on common occasions, become uncertain and figurative, + when applied to the works of omnipotence. Subordination, in human + affairs, is well understood; but, when it is attributed to the universal + system, its meaning grows less certain, like the petty distinctions of + locality, which are of good use upon our own globe, but have no meaning + with regard to infinite space, in which nothing is <i>high</i> or <i>low</i>. + That, if man, by exaltation to a higher nature, were exempted from the + evils which he now suffers, some other being must suffer them; that, if + man were not man, some other being must be man, is a position arising + from his established notion of the scale of being. A notion to which + Pope has given some importance, by adopting it, and of which I have, + therefore, endeavoured to show the uncertainty and inconsistency. This + scale of being I have demonstrated to be raised by presumptuous + imagination, to rest on nothing at the bottom, to lean on nothing at the + top, and to have vacuities, from step to step, through which any order + of being may sink into nihility without any inconvenience, so far as we + can judge, to the next rank above or below it. We are, therefore, little + enlightened by a writer who tells us, that any being in the state of man + must suffer what man suffers, when the only question that requires to be + resolved is: Why any being is in this state. Of poverty and labour he + gives just and elegant representations, which yet do not remove the + difficulty of the first and fundamental question, though supposing the + present state of man necessary, they may supply some motives to content. +</p> +<p> + "Poverty is what all could not possibly have been exempted from, not + only by reason of the fluctuating nature of human possessions, but + because the world could not subsist without it; for, had all been rich, + none could have submitted to the commands of another, or the necessary + drudgeries of life; thence all governments must have been dissolved, + arts neglected, and lands uncultivated, and so an universal penury have + overwhelmed all, instead of now and then pinching a few. Hence, by the + by, appears the great excellence of charity, by which men are enabled, + by a particular distribution of the blessings and enjoyments of life, on + proper occasions, to prevent that poverty, which, by a general one, + omnipotence itself could never have prevented; so that, by enforcing + this duty, God, as it were, demands our assistance to promote universal + happiness, and to shut out misery at every door, where it strives to + intrude itself. +</p> +<p> + "Labour, indeed, God might easily have excused us from, since, at his + command, the earth would readily have poured forth all her treasures, + without our inconsiderable assistance; but, if the severest labour + cannot sufficiently subdue the malignity of human nature, what plots and + machinations, what wars, rapine, and devastation, what profligacy and + licentiousness, must have been the consequences of universal idleness! + So that labour ought only to be looked upon, as a task kindly imposed + upon us by our indulgent creator, necessary to preserve our health, our + safety, and our innocence." +</p> +<p> + I am afraid, that "the latter end of his commonwealth forgets the + beginning." If God <i>could easily have excused us from labour</i>, I do not + comprehend why <i>he could not possibly have exempted all from poverty</i>. + For poverty, in its easier and more tolerable degree, is little more + than necessity of labour; and, in its more severe and deplorable state, + little more than inability for labour. To be poor is to work for others, + or to want the succour of others, without work. And the same exuberant + fertility, which would make work unnecessary, might make poverty + impossible. +</p> +<p> + Surely, a man who seems not completely master of his own opinion, should + have spoken more cautiously of omnipotence, nor have presumed to say + what it could perform, or what it could prevent. I am in doubt, whether + those, who stand highest in the <i>scale of being</i>, speak thus confidently + of the dispensations of their maker: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "For fools rush in, where angels fear to tread." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + Of our inquietudes of mind, his account is still less reasonable: + "Whilst men are injured, they must be inflamed with anger; and, whilst + they see cruelties, they must be melted with pity; whilst they perceive + danger, they must be sensible of fear." This is to give a reason for all + evil, by showing, that one evil produces another. If there is danger, + there ought to be fear; but, if fear is an evil, why should there be + danger? His vindication of pain is of the same kind: pain is useful to + alarm us, that we may shun greater evils, but those greater evils must + be pre-supposed, that the fitness of pain may appear. +</p> +<p> + Treating on death, he has expressed the known and true doctrine with + sprightliness of fancy, and neatness of diction. I shall, therefore, + insert it. There are truths which, as they are always necessary, do not + grow stale by repetition +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Death, the last and most dreadful of all evils, + is so far from being one, that it is the infallible + cure for all others. + + To die, is landing on some silent shore, + Where billows never beat, nor tempests roar. + Ere well we feel the friendly stroke, 'tis o'er. + + GARTH. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + For, abstracted from the sickness and sufferings usually attending it, + it is no more than the expiration of that term of life God was pleased + to bestow on us, without any claim or merit on our part. But was it an + evil ever so great, it could not be remedied, but by one much greater, + which is, by living for ever; by which means, our wickedness, + unrestrained by the prospect of a future state, would grow so + insupportable, our sufferings so intolerable by perseverance, and our + pleasures so tiresome by repetition, that no being in the universe could + be so completely miserable, as a species of immortal men. We have no + reason, therefore, to look upon death as an evil, or to fear it as a + punishment, even without any supposition of a future life: but, if we + consider it, as a passage to a more perfect state, or a remove only in + an eternal succession of still-improving states, (for which we have the + strongest reasons,) it will then appear a new favour from the divine + munificence; and a man must be as absurd to repine at dying, as a + traveller would be, who proposed to himself a delightful tour through + various unknown countries, to lament, that he cannot take up his + residence at the first dirty inn, which he baits at on the road. +</p> +<p> + "The instability of human life, or of the changes of its successive + periods, of which we so frequently complain, are no more than the + necessary progress of it to this necessary conclusion; and are so far + from being evils, deserving these complaints, that they are the source + of our greatest pleasures, as they are the source of all novelty, from + which our greatest pleasures are ever derived. The continual succession + of seasons in the human life, by daily presenting to us new scenes, + render it agreeable, and, like those of the year, afford us delights by + their change, which the choicest of them could not give us by their + continuance. In the spring of life, the gilding of the sunshine, the + verdure of the fields, and the variegated paintings of the sky, are so + exquisite in the eyes of infants, at their first looking abroad into a + new world, as nothing, perhaps, afterwards can equal: the heat and + vigour of the succeeding summer of youth, ripens for us new pleasures, + the blooming maid, the nightly revel, and the jovial chase: the serene + autumn of complete manhood feasts us with the golden harvests of our + worldly pursuits: nor is the hoary winter of old age destitute of its + peculiar comforts and enjoyments, of which the recollection and relation + of those past, are, perhaps, none of the least: and, at last, death + opens to us a new prospect, from whence we shall, probably, look back + upon the diversions and occupations of this world, with the same + contempt we do now on our tops and hobby horses, and with the same + surprise, that they could ever so much entertain or engage us." +</p> +<p> + I would not willingly detract from the beauty of this paragraph; and, in + gratitude to him who has so well inculcated such important truths, I + will venture to admonish him, since the chief comfort of the old is the + recollection of the past, so to employ his time and his thoughts, that, + when the imbecility of age shall come upon him, he may be able to + recreate its languors, by the remembrance of hours spent, not in + presumptuous decisions, but modest inquiries; not in dogmatical + limitations of omnipotence, but in humble acquiescence, and fervent + adoration. Old age will show him, that much of the book, now before us, + has no other use than to perplex the scrupulous, and to shake the weak, + to encourage impious presumption, or stimulate idle curiosity. +</p> +<p> + Having thus despatched the consideration of particular evils, he comes, + at last, to a general reason, for which <i>evil</i> may be said to be <i>our + good</i>. He is of opinion, that there is some inconceivable benefit in + pain, abstractedly considered; that pain, however inflicted, or wherever + felt, communicates some good to the general system of being, and, that + every animal is, some way or other, the better for the pain of every + other animal. This opinion he carries so far, as to suppose, that there + passes some principle of union through all animal life, as attraction is + communicated to all corporeal nature; and, that the evils suffered on + this globe, may, by some inconceivable means, contribute to the felicity + of the inhabitants of the remotest planet. +</p> +<p> + How the origin of evil is brought nearer to human conception, by any + <i>inconceivable</i> means, I am not able to discover. We believed, that the + present system of creation was right, though we could not explain the + adaptation of one part to the other, or for the whole succession of + causes and consequences. Where has this inquirer added to the little + knowledge that we had before? He has told us of the benefits of evil, + which no man feels, and relations between distant parts of the universe, + which he cannot himself conceive. There was enough in this question + inconceivable before, and we have little advantage from a new + inconceivable solution. +</p> +<p> + I do not mean to reproach this author for not knowing what is equally + hidden from learning and from ignorance. The shame is, to impose words, + for ideas, upon ourselves or others. To imagine, that we are going + forward, when we are only turning round. To think, that there is any + difference between him that gives no reason, and him that gives a + reason, which, by his own confession, cannot be conceived. +</p> +<p> + But, that he may not be thought to conceive nothing but things + inconceivable, he has, at last, thought on a way, by which human + sufferings may produce good effects. He imagines, that as we have not + only animals for food, but choose some for our diversion, the same + privilege may be allowed to some beings above us, <i>who may deceive, + torment, or destroy us, for the ends, only, of their own pleasure or + utility</i>. This he again finds impossible to be conceived, <i>but that + impossibility lessens not the probability of the conjecture, which, by + analogy, is so strongly confirmed</i>. I cannot resist the temptation of + contemplating this analogy, which, I think, he might have carried + further, very much to the advantage of his argument. He might have + shown, that these "hunters, whose game is man," have many sports + analogous to our own. As we drown whelps and kittens, they amuse + themselves, now and then, with sinking a ship, and stand round the + fields of Blenheim, or the walls of Prague, as we encircle a cockpit. As + we shoot a bird flying, they take a man in the midst of his business or + pleasure, and knock him down with an apoplexy. Some of them, perhaps, + are virtuosi, and delight in the operations of an asthma, as a human + philosopher in the effects of the air-pump. To swell a man with a + tympany is as good sport as to blow a frog. Many a merry bout have these + frolick beings at the vicissitudes of an ague, and good sport it is to + see a man tumble with an epilepsy, and revive and tumble again, and all + this he knows not why. As they are wiser and more powerful than we, they + have more exquisite diversions; for we have no way of procuring any + sport so brisk and so lasting, as the paroxysms of the gout and stone, + which, undoubtedly, must make high mirth, especially if the play be a + little diversified with the blunders and puzzles of the blind and deaf. + We know not how far their sphere of observation may extend. Perhaps, now + and then, a merry being may place himself in such a situation, as to + enjoy, at once, all the varieties of an epidemical disease, or amuse his + leisure with the tossings and contortions of every possible pain, + exhibited together. +</p> +<p> + One sport the merry malice of these beings has found means of enjoying, + to which we have nothing equal or similar. They now and then catch a + mortal, proud of his parts, and flattered either by the submission of + those who court his kindness, or the notice of those who suffer him to + court theirs. A head, thus prepared for the reception of false opinions, + and the projection of vain designs, they easily fill with idle notions, + till, in time, they make their plaything an author; their first + diversion commonly begins with an ode or an epistle, then rises, + perhaps, to a political irony, and is, at last, brought to its height, + by a treatise of philosophy. Then begins the poor animal to entangle + himself in sophisms, and flounder in absurdity, to talk confidently of + the scale of being, and to give solutions which himself confesses + impossible to be understood. Sometimes, however, it happens, that their + pleasure is without much mischief. The author feels no pain, but while + they are wondering at the extravagance of his opinion, and pointing him + out to one another, as a new example of human folly, he is enjoying his + own applause and that of his companions, and, perhaps, is elevated with + the hope of standing at the head of a new sect. +</p> +<p> + Many of the books which now crowd the world, may be justly suspected to + be written for the sake of some invisible order of beings, for surely + they are of no use to any of the corporeal inhabitants of the world. Of + the productions of the last bounteous year, how many can be said to + serve any purpose of use or pleasure! The only end of writing is to + enable the readers better to enjoy life, or better to endure it; and how + will either of those be put more in our power, by him who tells us, that + we are puppets, of which some creature, not much wiser than ourselves, + manages the wires! That a set of beings, unseen and unheard, are + hovering about us, trying experiments upon our sensibility, putting us + in agonies, to see our limbs quiver; torturing us to madness, that they + may laugh at our vagaries; sometimes obstructing the bile, that they may + see how a man looks, when he is yellow; sometimes breaking a traveller's + bones, to try how he will get home; sometimes wasting a man to a + skeleton, and sometimes killing him fat, for the greater elegance of his + hide. +</p> +<p> + This is an account of natural evil, which though, like the rest, not + quite new, is very entertaining, though I know not how much it may + contribute to patience. The only reason why we should contemplate evil + is, that we may bear it better; and I am afraid nothing is much more + placidly endured, for the sake of making others sport. +</p> +<p> + The first pages of the fourth letter are such, as incline me both to + hope and wish that I shall find nothing to blame in the succeeding part. + He offers a criterion of action, on account of virtue and vice, for + which I have often contended, and which must be embraced by all who are + willing to know, why they act, or why they forbear to give any reason of + their conduct to themselves or others. +</p> +<p> + "In order to find out the true origin of moral evil, it will be + necessary, in the first place, to enquire into its nature and essence; + or, what it is that constitutes one action evil, and another good. + Various have been the opinions of various authors on this criterion of + virtue; and this variety has rendered that doubtful, which must, + otherwise, have been clear and manifest to the meanest capacity. Some, + indeed, have denied, that there is any such thing, because different + ages and nations have entertained different sentiments concerning it; + but this is just as reasonable, as to assert, that there are neither + sun, moon, nor stars, because astronomers have supported different + systems of the motions and magnitudes of these celestial bodies. Some + have placed it in conformity to truth, some to the fitness of things, + and others to the will of God: but all this is merely superficial: they + resolve us not, why truth, or the fitness of things, are either eligible + or obligatory, or why God should require us to act in one manner rather + than another. The true reason of which can possibly be no other than + this, because some actions produce happiness, and others misery; so that + all moral good and evil are nothing more than the production of natural. + This alone it is that makes truth preferable to falsehood, this, that + determines the fitness of things, and this that induces God to command + some actions, and forbid others. They who extol the truth, beauty, and + harmony of virtue, exclusive of its consequences, deal but in pompous + nonsense; and they, who would persuade us, that good and evil are things + indifferent, depending wholly on the will of God, do but confound the + nature of things, as well as all our notions of God himself, by + representing him capable of willing contradictions; that is, that we + should be, and be happy, and, at the same time, that we should torment + and destroy each other; for injuries cannot be made benefits, pain + cannot be made pleasure, and, consequently, vice cannot be made virtue, + by any power whatever. It is the consequences, therefore, of all human + actions that must stamp their value. So far as the general practice of + any action tends to produce good, and introduce happiness into the + world, so far we may pronounce it virtuous; so much evil as it + occasions, such is the degree of vice it contains. I say the general + practice, because we must always remember, in judging by this rule, to + apply it only to the general species of actions, and not to particular + actions; for the infinite wisdom of God, desirous to set bounds to the + destructive consequences, which must, otherwise, have followed from the + universal depravity of mankind, has so wonderfully contrived the nature + of things, that our most vitious actions may, sometimes, accidentally + and collaterally, produce good. Thus, for instance, robbery may disperse + useless hoards to the benefit of the public; adultery may bring heirs, + and good humour too, into many families, where they would otherwise have + been wanting; and murder, free the world from tyrants and oppressors. + Luxury maintains its thousands, and vanity its ten thousands. + Superstition and arbitrary power contribute to the grandeur of many + nations, and the liberties of others are preserved by the perpetual + contentions of avarice, knavery, selfishness, and ambition; and thus the + worst of vices, and the worst of men, are often compelled, by + providence, to serve the most beneficial purposes, contrary to their own + malevolent tendencies and inclinations; and thus private vices become + public benefits, by the force only of accidental circumstances. But this + impeaches not the truth of the criterion of virtue, before mentioned, + the only solid foundation on which any true system of ethics can be + built, the only plain, simple, and uniform rule, by which we can pass + any judgment on our actions; but by this we may be enabled, not only to + determine which are good, and which are evil, but, almost + mathematically, to demonstrate the proportion of virtue or vice which + belongs to each, by comparing them with the degrees of happiness or + misery which they occasion. But, though the production of happiness is + the essence of virtue, it is by no means the end; the great end is the + probation of mankind, or the giving them an opportunity of exalting or + degrading themselves, in another state, by their behaviour in the + present. And thus, indeed, it answers two most important purposes: those + are, the conservation of our happiness, and the test of our obedience; + or, had not such a test seemed necessary to God's infinite wisdom, and + productive of universal good, he would never have permitted the + happiness of men, even in this life, to have depended on so precarious a + tenure, as their mutual good behaviour to each other. For it is + observable, that he, who best knows our formation, has trusted no one + thing of importance to our reason or virtue: he trusts only to our + appetites for the support of the individual, and the continuance of our + species; to our vanity, or compassion, for our bounty to others; and to + our fears, for the preservation of ourselves; often to our vices, for + the support of government, and, sometimes, to our follies, for the + preservation of our religion. But, since some test of our obedience was + necessary, nothing, sure, could have been commanded for that end, so + fit, and proper, and, at the same time, so useful, as the practice of + virtue; nothing could have been so justly rewarded with happiness, as + the production of happiness, in conformity to the will of God. It is + this conformity, alone, which adds merit to virtue, and constitutes the + essential difference between morality and religion. Morality obliges men + to live honestly and soberly, because such behaviour is most conducive + to public happiness, and, consequently, to their own; religion, to + pursue the same course, because conformable to the will of their + creator. Morality induces them to embrace virtue, from prudential + considerations; religion, from those of gratitude and obedience. + Morality, therefore, entirely abstracted from religion, can have nothing + meritorious in it; it being but wisdom, prudence, or good economy, + which, like health, beauty, or riches, are rather obligations conferred + upon us by God, than merits in us towards him; for, though we may be + justly punished for injuring ourselves, we can claim no reward for + self-preservation; as suicide deserves punishment and infamy, but a man + deserves no reward or honours for not being guilty of it. This I take to + be the meaning of all those passages in our scriptures, in which works + are represented to have no merit without faith; that is, not without + believing in historical facts, in creeds, and articles, but, without + being done in pursuance of our belief in God, and in obedience to his + commands. And now, having mentioned scripture, I cannot omit observing, + that the christian is the only religious or moral institution in the + world, that ever set, in a right light, these two material points, the + essence and the end of virtue, that ever founded the one in the + production of happiness, that is, in universal benevolence, or, in their + language, charity to all men; the other, in the probation of man, and + his obedience to his creator. Sublime and magnificent as was the + philosophy of the ancients, all their moral systems were deficient in + these two important articles. They were all built on the sandy + foundations of the innate beauty of virtue, or enthusiastic patriotism; + and their great point in view was the contemptible reward of human + glory; foundations, which were, by no means, able to support the + magnificent structures which they erected upon them; for the beauty of + virtue, independent of its effects, is unmeaning nonsense; patriotism, + which injures mankind in general, for the sake of a particular country, + is but a more extended selfishness, and really criminal; and all human + glory, but a mean and ridiculous delusion. +</p> +<p> + "The whole affair, then, of religion and morality, the subject of so + many thousand volumes, is, in short, no more than this: the supreme + being, infinitely good, as well as powerful, desirous to diffuse + happiness by all possible means, has created innumerable ranks and + orders of beings, all subservient to each other by proper subordination. + One of these is occupied by man, a creature endued with such a certain + degree of knowledge, reason, and freewill, as is suitable to his + situation, and placed, for a time, on this globe, as in a school of + probation and education. Here he has an opportunity given him of + improving or debasing his nature, in such a manner, as to render himself + fit for a rank of higher perfection and happiness, or to degrade himself + to a state of greater imperfection and misery; necessary, indeed, + towards carrying on the business of the universe, but very grievous and + burdensome to those individuals who, by their own misconduct, are + obliged to submit to it. The test of this his behaviour is doing good, + that is, cooperating with his creator, as far as his narrow sphere of + action will permit, in the production of happiness. And thus the + happiness and misery of a future state will be the just reward or + punishment of promoting or preventing happiness in this. So + artificially, by this means, is the nature of all human virtue and vice + contrived, that their rewards and punishments are woven, as it were, in + their very essence; their immediate effects give us a foretaste of their + future, and their fruits, in the present life, are the proper samples of + what they must unavoidably produce in another. We have reason given us + to distinguish these consequences, and regulate our conduct; and, lest + that should neglect its post, conscience also is appointed, as an + instinctive kind of monitor, perpetually to remind us both of our + interest and our duty." +</p> +<p> + "Si sic omnia dixisset!" To this account of the essence of vice and + virtue, it is only necessary to add, that the consequences of human + actions being sometimes uncertain, and sometimes remote, it is not + possible, in many cases, for most men, nor in all cases, for any man, to + determine what actions will ultimately produce happiness, and, + therefore, it was proper that revelation should lay down a rule to be + followed, invariably, in opposition to appearances, and, in every change + of circumstances, by which we may be certain to promote the general + felicity, and be set free from the dangerous temptation of <i>doing evil + that good may come</i>. Because it may easily happen, and, in effect, will + happen, very frequently, that our own private happiness may be promoted + by an act injurious to others, when yet no man can be obliged, by + nature, to prefer, ultimately, the happiness of others to his own; + therefore, to the instructions of infinite wisdom, it was necessary that + infinite power should add penal sanctions. That every man, to whom those + instructions shall be imparted, may know, that he can never, ultimately, + injure himself by benefiting others, or, ultimately, by injuring others + benefit himself; but that, however the lot of the good and bad may be + huddled together in the seeming confusion of our present state, the time + shall undoubtedly come, when the most virtuous will be most happy. +</p> +<p> + I am sorry, that the remaining part of this letter is not equal to the + first. The author has, indeed, engaged in a disquisition, in which we + need not wonder if he fails, in the solution of questions on which + philosophers have employed their abilities from the earliest times, +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "And found no end, in wand'ring mazes lost." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + He denies, that man was created <i>perfect</i>, because the system requires + subordination, and because the power of losing his perfection, of + "rendering himself wicked and miserable, is the highest imperfection + imaginable." Besides, the regular gradations of the scale of being + required, somewhere, "such a creature as man, with all his infirmities + about him; and the total removal of those would be altering his nature, + and, when he became perfect, he must cease to be man." +</p> +<p> + I have already spent some considerations on the <i>scale of being</i>, of + which, yet, I am obliged to renew the mention, whenever a new argument + is made to rest upon it; and I must, therefore, again remark, that + consequences cannot have greater certainty than the postulate from which + they are drawn, and that no system can be more hypothetical than this, + and, perhaps, no hypothesis more absurd. +</p> +<p> + He again deceives himself with respect to the perfection with which + <i>man</i> is held to be originally vested. "That man came perfect, that is, + endued with all possible perfection, out of the hands of his creator, is + a false notion derived from the philosophers.—The universal system + required subordination, and, consequently, comparative imperfection." + That <i>man was ever endued with all possible perfection</i>, that is, with + all perfection, of which the idea is not contradictory, or destructive + of itself, is, undoubtedly, <i>false</i>. But it can hardly be called <i>a + false notion</i>, because no man ever thought it, nor can it be derived + from the <i>philosophers</i>; for, without pretending to guess what + philosophers he may mean, it is very safe to affirm, that no philosopher + ever said it. Of those who now maintain that <i>man</i> was once perfect, who + may very easily be found, let the author inquire, whether <i>man</i> was ever + omniscient, whether he was ever omnipotent; whether he ever had even the + lower power of archangels or angels. Their answers will soon inform him, + that the supposed perfection of <i>man</i> was not absolute, but respective; + that he was perfect, in a sense consistent enough with subordination, + perfect, not as compared with different beings, but with himself in his + present degeneracy; not perfect, as an angel, but perfect, as man. +</p> +<p> + From this perfection, whatever it was, he thinks it necessary that man + should be debarred, because pain is necessary to the good of the + universe; and the pain of one order of beings extending its salutary + influence to innumerable orders above and below, it was necessary that + man should suffer; but, because it is not suitable to justice, that pain + should be inflicted on innocence, it was necessary that man should be + criminal. +</p> +<p> + This is given as a satisfactory account of the original of moral evil, + which amounts only to this, that God created beings, whose guilt he + foreknew, in order that he might have proper objects of pain, because + the pain of part is, no man knows how or why, necessary to the felicity + of the whole. +</p> +<p> + The perfection which man once had, may be so easily conceived, that, + without any unusual strain of imagination, we can figure its revival. + All the duties to God or man, that are neglected, we may fancy + performed; all the crimes, that are committed, we may conceive forborne. + Man will then be restored to his moral perfections; and into what head + can it enter, that, by this change, the universal system would be + shaken, or the condition of any order of beings altered for the worse? +</p> +<p> + He comes, in the fifth letter, to political, and, in the sixth, to + religious evils. Of political evil, if we suppose the origin of moral + evil discovered, the account is by no means difficult; polity being only + the conduct of immoral men in publick affairs. The evils of each + particular kind of government are very clearly and elegantly displayed, + and, from their secondary causes, very rationally deduced; but the first + cause lies still in its ancient obscurity. There is, in this letter, + nothing new, nor any thing eminently instructive; one of his practical + deductions, that "from government, evils cannot be eradicated, and their + excess only can be prevented," has been always allowed; the question, + upon which all dissension arises, is, when that excess begins, at what + point men shall cease to bear, and attempt to remedy. +</p> +<p> + Another of his precepts, though not new, well deserves to be + transcribed, because it cannot be too frequently impressed. +</p> +<p> + "What has here been said of their imperfections and abuses, is, by no + means, intended as a defence of them: every wise man ought to redress + them to the utmost of his power; which can be effected by one method + only, that is, by a reformation of manners; for, as all political evils + derive their original from moral, these can never be removed, until + those are first amended. He, therefore, who strictly adheres to virtue + and sobriety in his conduct, and enforces them by his example, does more + real service to a state, than he who displaces a minister, or dethrones + a tyrant: this gives but a temporary relief, but that exterminates the + cause of the disease. No immoral man, then, can possibly be a true + patriot; and all those who profess outrageous zeal for the liberty and + prosperity of their country, and, at the same time, infringe her laws, + affront her religion, and debauch her people, are but despicable quacks, + by fraud or ignorance increasing the disorders they pretend to remedy." +</p> +<p> + Of religion he has said nothing but what he has learned, or might have + learned, from the divines; that it is not universal, because it must be + received upon conviction, and successively received by those whom + conviction reached; that its evidences and sanctions are not + irresistible, because it was intended to induce, not to compel; and that + it is obscure, because we want faculties to comprehend it. What he means + by his assertion, that it wants policy, I do not well understand; he + does not mean to deny, that a good christian will be a good governour, + or a good subject; and he has before justly observed, that the good man + only is a patriot. +</p> +<p> + Religion has been, he says, corrupted by the wickedness of those to whom + it was communicated, and has lost part of its efficacy, by its connexion + with temporal interest and human passion. +</p> +<p> + He justly observes, that from all this no conclusion can be drawn + against the divine original of christianity, since the objections arise + not from the nature of the revelation, but of him to whom it is + communicated. +</p> +<p> + All this is known, and all this is true; but why, we have not yet + discovered. Our author, if I understand him right, pursues the argument + thus: the religion of man produces evils, because the morality of man is + imperfect; his morality is imperfect, that he may be justly a subject of + punishment; he is made subject to punishment, because the pain of part + is necessary to the happiness of the whole; pain is necessary to + happiness, no mortal can tell why, or how. +</p> +<p> + Thus, after having clambered, with great labour, from one step of + argumentation to another, instead of rising into the light of knowledge, + we are devolved back into dark ignorance; and all our effort ends in + belief, that for the evils of life there is some good reason, and in + confession, that the reason cannot be found. This is all that has been + produced by the revival of Chrysippus's untractableness of matter, and + the Arabian scale of existence. A system has been raised, which is so + ready to fall to pieces of itself, that no great praise can be derived + from its destruction. To object, is always easy, and, it has been well + observed by a late writer, that "the hand which cannot build a hovel, + may demolish a temple <a href="#note-11">[11]</a>." +</p> +<a name="2H_4_11"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, FOR IMPROVING OF +</h2> +<center> + NATURAL KNOWLEDGE, FROM ITS FIRST RISE; +</center> +<p> + In which the most considerable papers communicated to the society, which + have, hitherto, not been published, are inserted, in their proper order, + as a supplement to the Philosophical Transactions. By Thomas Birch, D. + D. secretary to the Royal society, 2 vols. 4to. +</p> +<p> + This book might, more properly, have been entitled by the author, a + diary than a history, as it proceeds regularly from day to day, so + minutely, as to number over the members present at each committee, and + so slowly, that two large volumes contain only the transactions of the + eleven first years from the institution of the society. +</p> +<p> + I am, yet, far from intending to represent this work as useless. Many + particularities are of importance to one man, though they appear + trifling to another; and it is always more safe to admit copiousness, + than to affect brevity. Many informations will be afforded by this book + to the biographer. I know not where else it can be found, but here, and + in Ward, that Cowley was doctor in physick. And, whenever any other + institution, of the same kind, shall be attempted, the exact relation of + the progress of the Royal society may furnish precedents. +</p> +<p> + These volumes consist of an exact journal of the society; of some papers + delivered to them, which, though registered and preserved, had been + never printed; and of short memoirs of the more eminent members, + inserted at the end of the year in which each died. +</p> +<p> + The original of the society is placed earlier in this history than in + that of Dr. Sprat. Theodore Haak, a German of the Palatinate, in 1645, + proposed, to some inquisitive and learned men, a weekly meeting, for the + cultivation of natural knowledge. The first associates, whose names + ought, surely, to be preserved, were Dr. Wilkins, Dr. Wallis, Dr. + Goddard, Dr. Ent, Dr. Glisson, Dr. Merret, Mr. Foster of Gresham, and + Mr. Haak. Sometime afterwards, Wilkins, Wallis, and Goddard, being + removed to Oxford, carried on the same design there by stated meetings, + and adopted into their society Dr. Ward, Dr. Bathurst, Dr. Petty, and + Dr. Willis. +</p> +<p> + The Oxford society coming to London, in 1659, joined their friends, and + augmented their number, and, for some time, met in Gresham college. + After the restoration, their number was again increased, and on the 28th + of November, 1660, a select party happening to retire for conversation, + to Mr. Rooke's apartment in Gresham college, formed the first plan of a + regular society. Here Dr. Sprat's history begins, and, therefore, from + this period, the proceedings are well known <a href="#note-12">[12]</a>. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_12"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF THE GENERAL HISTORY OP POLYBIUS, +</h2> +<center> + IN FIVE BOOKS, TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK, BY MR. HAMPTON. +</center> +<p> + This appears to be one of the books, which will long do honour to the + present age. It has been, by some remarker, observed, that no man ever + grew immortal by a translation; and, undoubtedly, translations into the + prose of a living language must be laid aside, whenever the language + changes, because the matter being always to be found in the original, + contributes nothing to the preservation of the form superinduced by the + translator. But such versions may last long, though they can scarcely + last always; and there is reason to believe that this will grow in + reputation, while the English tongue continues in its present state. +</p> +<p> + The great difficulty of a translator is to preserve the native form of + his language, and the unconstrained manner of an original writer. This + Mr. Hampton seems to have attained, in a degree of which there are few + examples. His book has the dignity of antiquity, and the easy flow of a + modern composition. +</p> +<p> + It were, perhaps, to be desired, that he had illustrated, with notes, an + author which must have many difficulties to an English reader, and, + particularly, that he had explained the ancient art of war; but these + omissions may be easily supplied, by an inferiour hand, from the + antiquaries and commentators. +</p> +<p> + To note omissions, where there is so much performed, would be invidious, + and to commend is unnecessary, where the excellence of the work may be + more easily and effectually shown, by exhibiting a specimen <a href="#note-13">[13]</a>. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_13"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + REVIEW OF MISCELLANIES ON MORAL AND RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS, +</h2> +<center> + IN PROSE AND VERSE; BY ELIZABETH HARRISON. +</center> +<p> + This volume, though only one name appears upon the first page, has been + produced by the contribution of many hands, and printed by the + encouragement of a numerous subscription, both which favours seem to be + deserved by the modesty and piety of her on whom they were bestowed. +</p> +<p> + The authors of the esssays in prose seem, generally, to have imitated, + or tried to imitate, the copiousness and luxunance of Mrs. Rowe; this, + however, is not all their praise, they have laboured to add to her + brightness of imagery, her purity of sentiments. The poets have had Dr. + Watts before their eyes, a writer who, if he stood not in the first + class of genius, compensated that defect, by a ready application of his + powers to the promotion of piety. The attempt to employ the ornaments of + romance in the decoration of religion was, I think, first made by Mr. + Boyle's Martyrdom of Theodora; but Boyle's philosophical studies did not + allow him time for the cultivation of style, and the completion of the + great design was reserved for Mrs. Rowe. Dr. Watts was one of the first + who taught the dissenters to write and speak like other men, by showing + them, that elegance might consist with piety. They would have both clone + honour to a better society, for they had that charity which might well + make their failings forgotten, and with which the whole Christian world + might wish for communion. They were pure from all the heresies of an + age, to which every opinion is become a favourite, that the universal + church has, hitherto, detested. +</p> +<p> + This praise the general interest of mankind requires to be given to + writers who please, and do not corrupt, who instruct, and do not weary. + But to them all human eulogies are vain, whom, I believe applauded by + angels and numbered with the just <a href="#note-14">[14]</a>. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_14"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + ACCOUNT OF A BOOK ENTITLED AN HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL ENQUIRY +</h2> +<p> + Into the evidence produced by the earls of MORAY and MORTON against +</p> +<center> + MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS <a href="#note-15">[15]</a>. +</center> +<p> + With an examination of the reverend Dr. Robertson's Dissertation, and + Mr. Hume's History, with respect to that evidence <a href="#note-16">[16]</a>. +</p> +<p> + We live in an age, in which there is much talk of independence, of + private judgment, of liberty of thought, and liberty of press. Our + clamorous praises of liberty sufficiently prove that we enjoy it; and + if, by liberty, nothing else be meant, than security from the + persecutions of power, it is so fully possessed by us, that little more + is to be desired, except that one should talk of it less, and use it + better. +</p> +<p> + But a social being can scarcely rise to complete independence; he that + has any wants, which others can supply, must study the gratification of + them, whose assistance he expects; this is equally true, whether his + wants be wants of nature, or of vanity. The writers of the present time + are not always candidates for preferment, nor often the hirelings of a + patron. They profess to serve no interest, and speak with loud contempt + of sycophants and slaves. +</p> +<p> + There is, however, a power, from whose influence neither they, nor their + predecessors, have ever been free. Those, who have set greatness at + defiance, have yet been the slaves of fashion. When an opinion has once + become popular, very few are willing to oppose it. Idleness is more + willing to credit than inquire; cowardice is afraid of controversy, and + vanity of answer; and he that writes merely for sale, is tempted to + court purchasers by flattering the prejudices of the publick. +</p> +<p> + It has now been fashionable, for near half a century, to defame and + vilify the house of Stuart, and to exalt and magnify the reign of + Elizabeth. The Stuarts have found few apologists, for the dead cannot + pay for praise; and who will, without reward, oppose the tide of + popularity? yet there remains, still, among us, not wholly + extinguished, a zeal for truth, a desire of establishing right, in + opposition to fashion. The author, whose work is now before as, has + attempted a vindication of Mary of Scotland, whose name has, for some + years, been generally resigned to infamy, and who has been considered, + as the murderer of her husband, and condemned by her own letters. +</p> +<p> + Of these letters, the author of this vindication confesses the + importance to be such, that, "if they be genuine, the queen was guilty; + and, if they be spurious, she was innocent." He has, therefore, + undertaken to prove them spurious, and divided his treatise into six + parts. +</p> +<p> + In the first is contained the history of the letters from their + discovery by the earl of Morton, their being produced against queen + Mary, and their several appearances in England, before queen Elizabeth + and her commissioners, until they were finally delivered back again to + the earl of Morton. +</p> +<p> + The second contains a short abstract of Mr. Goodall's arguments for + proving the letters to be spurious and forged; and of Dr. Robertson and + Mr. Hume's objections, by way of answer to Mr. Goodall, with critical + observations on these authors. +</p> +<p> + The third contains an examination of the arguments of Dr. Robertson and + Mr. Hume, in support of the authenticity of the letters. +</p> +<p> + The fourth contains an examination of the confession of Nicholas Hubert, + commonly called <i>French Paris</i>, with observations, showing the same to + be a forgery. +</p> +<p> + The fifth contains a short recapitulation, or summary, of the arguments + on both sides of the question. +</p> +<p> + The last is an historical collection of the direct or positive evidence + still on record, tending to show what part the earls of Murray and + Morton, and secretary Lethington, had in the murder of the lord Darnley. +</p> +<p> + The author apologizes for the length of this book, by observing, that it + necessarily comprises a great number of particulars, which could not + easily be contracted: the same plea may be made for the imperfection of + our extract, which will naturally fall below the force of the book, + because we can only select parts of that evidence, which owes its + strength to its concatenation, and which will be weakened, whenever it + is disjoined. +</p> +<p> + The account of the seizure of these controverted letters is thus given + by the queen's enemies. +</p> +<p> + "That in the castell of Edinburgh, thair was left be the erle of + Bothwell, before his fleeing away, and was send for be ane George + Dalgleish, his servand, who was taken be the erle of Mortoun, ane small + gylt coffer, not fully ane fute lang, garnisht in sindrie places with + the roman letter F. under ane king's crowne; wharin were certane + letteris and writings weel knawin, and be aithis to be affirmit to have + been written with the quene of Scottis awn hand to the erle." +</p> +<p> + The papers in the box were said to be eight letters, in French, some + love-sonnets in French also, and a promise of marriage by the queen to + Bothwell. +</p> +<p> + To the reality of these letters our author makes some considerable + objections, from the nature of things; but, as such arguments do not + always convince, we will pass to the evidence of facts. +</p> +<p> + On June 15, 1567, the queen delivered herself to Morton, and his party, + who imprisoned her. +</p> +<p> + June 20, 1567, Dalgleish was seized, and, six days after, was examined + by Morton; his examination is still extant, and there is no mention of + this fatal box. +</p> +<p> + Dec. 4, 1567, Murray's secret council published an act, in which is the + first mention of these letters, and in which they are said to be + <i>written and subscrivit with her awin hand</i>. Ten days after, Murray's + first parliament met, and passed an act, in which they mention <i>previe + letters written halelie</i> [wholly] <i>with her awin hand</i>. The difference + between <i>written and subscribed</i>, and <i>wholly written</i>, gives the author + just reason to suspect, first, a forgery, and then a variation of the + forgery. It is, indeed, very remarkable, that the first account asserts + more than the second, though the second contains all the truth; for the + letters, whether <i>written</i> by the queen or not, were not <i>subscribed</i>. + Had the second account differed from the first only by something added, + the first might have contained truth, though not all the truth; but as + the second corrects the first by diminution, the first cannot be cleared + from falsehood. +</p> +<p> + In October, 1568, these letters were shown at York to Elisabeth's + commissioners, by the agents of Murray, but not in their publick + character, as commissioners, but by way of private information, and were + not, therefore, exposed to Mary's commissioners. Mary, however, hearing + that some letters were intended to be produced against her, directed her + commissioners to require them for her inspection, and, in the mean time, + to declare them <i>false and feigned, forged and invented</i>, observing, + that there were many that could counterfeit her hand. +</p> +<p> + To counterfeit a name is easy, to counterfeit a hand, through eight + letters very difficult. But it does not appear that the letters were + ever shown to those who would desire to detect them; and, to the English + commissioners, a rude and remote imitation might be sufficient, since + they were not shown as judicial proofs; and why they were not shown as + proofs, no other reason can be given, than they must have then been + examined, and that examination would have detected the forgery. +</p> +<p> + These letters, thus timorously and suspiciously communicated, were all + the evidence against Mary; for the servants of Bothwell, executed for + the murder of the king, acquitted the queen, at the hour of death. These + letters were so necessary to Murray, that he alleges them, as the reason + of the queen's imprisonment, though he imprisoned her on the 16th, and + pretended not to have intercepted the letters before the 20th of June. +</p> +<p> + Of these letters, on which the fate of princes and kingdoms was + suspended, the authority should have been put out of doubt; yet that + such letters were ever found, there is no witness but Morton who accused + the queen, and Crawfurd, a dependent on Lennox, another of her accusers. + Dalgleish, the bearer, was hanged without any interrogatories concerning + them; and Hulet, mentioned in them, though then in prison, was never + called to authenticate them, nor was his confession produced against + Mary, till death had left him no power to disown it. +</p> +<p> + Elizabeth, indeed, was easily satisfied; she declared herself ready to + receive the proofs against Mary, and absolutely refused Mary the liberty + of confronting her accusers, and making her defence. Before such a + judge, a very little proof would be sufficient. She gave the accusers of + Mary leave to go to Scotland, and the box and letters were seen no more. + They have been since lost, and the discovery, which comparison of + writing might have made, is now no longer possible. Hume has, however, + endeavoured to palliate the conduct of Elizabeth, but "his account," + says our author, "is contradicted, almost in every sentence, by the + records, which, it appears, he has himself perused." +</p> +<p> + In the next part, the authenticity of the letters is examined; and it + seems to be proved, beyond contradiction, that the French letters, + supposed to have been written by Mary, are translated from the Scotch + copy, and, if originals, which it was so much the interest of such + numbers to preserve, are wanting, it is much more likely that they never + existed, than that they have been lost. +</p> +<p> + The arguments used by Dr. Robertson, to prove the genuineness of the + letters, are next examined. Robertson makes use, principally, of what he + calls the <i>internal evidence</i>, which, amounting, at most, to conjecture, + is opposed by conjecture equally probable. +</p> +<p> + In examining the confession of Nicholas Hubert, or French Paris, this + new apologist of Mary seems to gain ground upon her accuser. Paris is + mentioned, in the letters, as the bearer of them to Bothwell; when the + rest of Bothwell's servants were executed, clearing the queen in the + last moment, Paris, instead of suffering his trial, with the rest, at + Edinburgh, was conveyed to St. Andrew's, where Murray was absolute; put + into a dungeon of Murray's citadel; and, two years after, condemned by + Murray himself, nobody knew how. Several months after his death, a + confession in his name, without the regular testifications, was sent to + Cecil, at what exact time, nobody can tell. +</p> +<p> + Of this confession, Leslie, bishop of Ross, openly denied the + genuineness, in a book printed at London, and suppressed by Elizabeth; + and another historian of that time declares, that Paris died without any + confession; and the confession itself was never shown to Mary, or to + Mary's commissioners. The author makes this reflection: +</p> +<p> + "From the violent presumptions that arise from their carrying this poor + ignorant stranger from Edinburgh, the ordinary seat of justice; their + keeping him hid from all the world, in a remote dungeon, and not + producing him, with their other evidences, so as he might have been + publickly questioned; the positive and direct testimony of the author of + Crawfurd's manuscript, then living, and on the spot at the time; with + the publick affirmation of the bishop of Ross, at the time of Paris's + death, that he had vindicated the queen with his dying breath; the + behaviour of Murray, Morton, Buchanan, and even of Hay, the attester of + this pretended confession, on that occasion; their close and reserved + silence, at the time when they must have had this confession of Paris in + their pocket; and their publishing every other circumstance that could + tend to blacken the queen, and yet omitting this confession, the only + direct evidence of her supposed guilt; all this duly and dispassionately + considered, I think, one may safely conclude, that it was judged not fit + to expose, so soon, to light this piece of evidence against the queen; + which a cloud of witnesses, living, and present at Paris's execution, + would, surely, have given clear testimony against, as a notorious + imposture." +</p> +<p> + Mr. Hume, indeed, observes: "It is in vain, at present, to seek for + improbabilities in Nicholas Hubert's dying confession, and to magnify + the smallest difficulties into a contradiction. It was certainly a + regular judicial paper, given in regularly and judicially, and ought to + have been canvassed at the time, if the persons, whom it concerned, had + been assured of their innocence." To which our author makes a reply, + which cannot be shortened without weakening it: +</p> +<p> + "Upon what does this author ground his sentence? Upon two very plain + reasons, first, that the confession was a judicial one, that is, taken + in presence, or by authority of a judge. And secondly, that it was + regularly and judicially given in; that must be understood during the + time of the conferences before queen Elizabeth and her council, in + presence of Mary's commissioners; at which time she ought to have + canvassed it," says our author, "if she knew her innocence. +</p> +<p> + "That it was not a judicial confession, is evident: the paper itself + does not bear any such mark; nor does it mention, that it was taken in + presence of any person, or by any authority whatsoever; and, by + comparing it with the judicial examinations of Dalgleish, Hay, and + Hepburn, it is apparent, that it is destitute of every formality, + requisite in a judicial evidence. In what dark corner, then, this + strange production was generated, our author may endeavour to find out, + if he can. +</p> +<p> + "As to his second assertion, that it was regularly and judicially given + in, and, therefore, ought to have been canvassed, by Mary during the + conferences; we have already seen, that this, likewise, is not fact: the + conferences broke up in February, 1569: Nicholas Hubert was not hanged + till August thereafter, and his dying confession, as Mr. Hume calls it, + is only dated the 10th of that month. How, then, can this gentleman + gravely tell us, that this confession was judicially given in, and ought + to have been, at that very time, canvassed by queen Mary and her + commissioners? Such positive assertions, apparently contrary to fact, + are unworthy the character of an historian, and may, very justly, render + his decision, with respect to evidences of a higher nature, very + dubious. In answer, then, to Mr. Hume: As the queen's accusers did not + choose to produce this material witness, Paris, whom they had alive and + in their hands, nor any declaration or confession, from him, at the + critical and proper time for having it canvassed by the queen, I + apprehend our author's conclusion may fairly be used against himself; + that it is in vain, at present, to support the improbabilities and + absurdities in a confession, taken in a clandestine way, nobody knows + how, and produced, after Paris's death, by nobody knows whom, and, from + every appearance, destitute of every formality, requisite and common to + such sort of evidence: for these reasons, I am under no sort of + hesitation to give sentence against Nicholas Hubert's confession, as a + gross imposture and forgery." +</p> +<p> + The state of the evidence relating to the letters is this: +</p> +<p> + Morton affirms, that they were taken in the hands of Dalgleish. Hie + examination of Dalgleish is still extant, and he appears never to have + been once interrogated concerning the letters. +</p> +<p> + Morton and Murray affirm, that they were written by the queen's hand; + they were carefully concealed from Mary and her commissioners, and were + never collated by one man, who could desire to disprove them. +</p> +<p> + Several of the incidents mentioned in the letters are confirmed by the + oath of Crawfurd, one of Lennox's defendants, and some of the incidents + are so minute, as that they could scarcely be thought on by a forger. + Crawfurd's testimony is not without suspicion. Whoever practises + forgery, endeavours to make truth the vehicle of falsehood. +</p> +<p> + Of a prince's life very minute incidents are known; and if any are too + slight to be remarked, they may be safely feigned, for they are, + likewise, too slight to be contradicted. But there are still more + reasons for doubting the genuineness of these letters. They had no date + of time or place, no seal, no direction, no superscription. +</p> +<p> + The only evidences that could prove their authenticity were Dalgleish + and Paris; of which Dalgleish, at his trial, was never questioned about + them; Paris was never publickly tried, though he was kept alive through + the time of the conference. +</p> +<p> + The servants of Bothwell, who were put to death for the king's murder, + cleared Mary with their last words. +</p> +<p> + The letters were first declared to be subscribed, and were then produced + without subscription. +</p> +<p> + They were shown, during the conferences at York, privately, to the + English commissioners, but were concealed from the commissioners of + Mary. +</p> +<p> + Mary always solicited the perusal of these letters, and was always + denied it. +</p> +<p> + She demanded to be heard, in person, by Elizabeth, before the nobles of + England and the ambassadours of other princes, and was refused. +</p> +<p> + When Mary persisted in demanding copies of the letters, her + commissioners were dismissed with their box to Scotland, and the letters + were seen no more. +</p> +<p> + The French letters, which, for almost two centuries, have been + considered as originals, by the enemies of Mary's memory, are now + discovered to be forgeries, and acknowledged to be translations, and, + perhaps, French translations of a Latin translation. And the modern + accusers of Mary are forced to infer, from these letters, which now + exist, that other letters existed formerly, which have been lost, in + spite of curiosity, malice, and interest. +</p> +<p> + The rest of this treatise is employed in an endeavour to prove, that + Mary's accusers were the murderers of Darnly: through this inquiry it is + hot necessary to follow him; only let it be observed, that, if these + letters were forged by them, they may easily be thought capable of other + crimes. That the letters were forged, is now made so probable, that, + perhaps, they will never more be cited as testimonies. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_15"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + MARMOR NORFOLCIENSE: +</h2> +<p> + Or, an essay on an ancient prophetical inscription, in monkish rhyme, + lately discovered near Lynn, in Norfolk. By Probus Britannicus <a href="#note-17">[17]</a>. +</p> +<p> + In Norfolk, near the town of Lynn, in a field, which an ancient + tradition of the country affirms to have been once a deep lake, or meer, + and which appears, from authentick records, to have been called, about + two hundred years ago, <i>Palus</i>, or the marsh, was discovered, not long + since, a large square stone, which is found, upon an exact inspection, + to be a kind of coarse marble of a substance not firm enough to admit of + being polished, yet harder than our common quarries afford, and not + easily susceptible of injuries from weather or outward accidents. +</p> +<p> + It was brought to light by a farmer, who, observing his plough + obstructed by something, through which the share could not make its way, + ordered his servants to remove it. This was not effected without some + difficulty, the stone being three feet four inches deep, and four feet + square in the superficies; and, consequently, of a weight not easily + manageable. However, by the application of levers, it was, at length, + raised, and conveyed to a corner of the field, where it lay, for some + months, entirely unregarded; nor, perhaps, had we ever been made + acquainted with this venerable relick of antiquity, had not our good + fortune been greater than our curiosity. +</p> +<p> + A gentleman, well known to the learned world, and distinguished by the + patronage of the Maecenas of Norfolk, whose name, was I permitted to + mention it, would excite the attention of my reader, and add no small + authority to my conjectures, observing, as he was walking that way, that + the clouds began to gather, and threaten him with a shower, had + recourse, for shelter, to the trees under which this stone happened to + lie, and sat down upon it, in expectation of fair weather. At length he + began to amuse himself, in his confinement, by clearing the earth from + his seat with the point of his cane; and had continued this employment + some time, when he observed several traces of letters, antique and + irregular, which, by being very deeply engraven, were still easily + distinguishable. +</p> +<p> + This discovery so far raised his curiosity, that, going home + immediately, he procured an instrument proper for cutting out the clay, + that filled up the spaces of the letters; and, with very little labour, + made the inscription legible, which is here exhibited to the publick: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + POST-GENITIS. + + Cum lapidem hunc, magni + Qui nunc jacet incola stagni, + Vel pede equus tanget, + Vel arator vomere franget, + Sentiet aegra metus, + Effundet patria fletus, + Littoraque ut fluctu, + Resonabunt oppida luctu: + Nam foecunda rubri + Serpent per prata colubri, + Gramina vastantes, + Flores fructusque vorantes. + Omnia foedantes, + Vitiantes, et spoliantes; + Quanquam haud pugnaces, + Ibunt per cuncta minaces, + Fures absque timore, + Et pingues absque labore. + Horrida dementes + Rapiet discordia gentes; + Plurima tunc leges + Mutabit, plurima reges + Natio; conversa + In rabiem tunc contremet ursa + + MARMOR NORFOLCIENSE + + Cynthia, tunc latis + Florebunt lilia pratis; + Nec fremere audebit + Leo, sed violare timebit, + Omnia consuetus + Populari pascua lætus. + Ante oculos natos + Calceatos et cruciatos + Jam feret ignavus, + Vetitaque libidine pravus. + En quoque quod mirum, + Quod dicas denique dirum, + Sanguinem equus sugit, + Neque bellua victa remugit! +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + These lines he carefully copied, accompanied, in his letter of July 19, + with the following translation. +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + TO POSTERITY. + + Whene'er this stone, now hid beneath the lake, + The horse shall trample, or the plough shall break, + Then, O my country! shalt thou groan distrest, + Grief swell thine eyes, and terrour chill thy breast. + Thy streets with violence of woe shall sound, + Loud as the billows bursting on the ground. + Then through thy fields shall scarlet reptiles stray, + And rapine and pollution mark their way. + Their hungry swarms the peaceful vale shall fright, + Still fierce to threaten, still afraid to fight; + The teeming year's whole product shall devour, + Insatiate pluck the fruit, and crop the flow'r; + Shall glutton on the industrious peasants' spoil, + Rob without fear, and fatten without toil; + Then o'er the world shall discord stretch her wings; + Kings change their laws, and kingdoms change their kings. + The bear, enrag'd, th' affrighted moon shall dread; + The lilies o'er the vales triumphant spread; + Nor shall the lion, wont of old to reign + Despotick o'er the desolated plain, + Henceforth th' inviolable bloom invade, + Or dare to murmur in the flow'ry glade; + His tortur'd sons shall die before his face, + While he lies melting in a lewd embrace; + And, yet more strange! his veins a horse shall drain, + Nor shall the passive coward once complain. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + I make not the least doubt, but that this learned person has given us, + as an antiquary, a true and uncontrovertible representation of the + writer's meaning; and, am sure, he can confirm it by innumerable + quotations from the authors of the middle age, should he be publickly + called upon by any man of eminent rank in the republick of letters; nor + will he deny the world that satisfaction, provided the animadverter + proceeds with that sobriety and modesty, with which it becomes every + learned man to treat a subject of such importance. +</p> +<p> + Yet, with all proper deference to a name so justly celebrated, I will + take the freedom of observing, that he has succeeded better as a scholar + than a poet; having fallen below the strength, the conciseness, and, at + the same time, below the perspicuity of his author. I shall not point + out the particular passages in which this disparity is remarkable, but + content myself with saying, in general, that the criticisms, which there + is room for on this translation, may be almost an incitement to some + lawyer, studious of antiquity, to learn Latin. +</p> +<p> + The inscription, which I now proceed to consider, wants no arguments to + prove its antiquity to those among the learned, who are versed in the + writers of the darker ages, and know that the Latin poetry of those + times was of a peculiar cast and air, not easy to be understood, and + very difficult to be imitated; nor can it be conceived, that any man + would lay out his abilities on a way of writing, which, though attained + with much study, could gain him no reputation; and engrave his chimeras + on a stone, to astonish posterity. +</p> +<p> + Its antiquity, therefore, is out of dispute; but how high a degree of + antiquity is to be assigned it, there is more ground for inquiry than + determination. How early Latin rhymes made their appearance in the + world, is yet undecided by the criticks. Verses of this kind were called + leonine; but whence they derived that appellation, the learned Camden + <a href="#note-18">[18]</a> confesses himself ignorant; so that the style carries no certain + marks of its age. I shall only observe farther, on this head, that the + characters are nearly of the same form with those on king Arthur's + coffin; but whether, from their similitude, we may venture to pronounce + them of the same date, I must refer to the decision of better judges. +</p> +<p> + Our inability to fix the age of this inscription, necessarily infers our + ignorance of its author, with relation to whom, many controversies may + be started, worthy of the most profound learning, and most indefatigable + diligence. +</p> +<p> + The first question that naturally arises is: Whether he was a Briton or + a Saxon? I had, at first, conceived some hope that, in this question, in + which not only the idle curiosity of virtuosos, but the honour of two + mighty nations, is concerned, some information might be drawn from the + word <i>patria</i>, my country, in the third line; England being not, in + propriety of speech, the country of the Saxons; at least, not at their + first arrival. But, upon farther reflection, this argument appeared not + conclusive, since we find that, in all ages, foreigners have affected to + call England their country, even when, like the Saxons of old, they came + only to plunder it. +</p> +<p> + An argument in favour of the Britons may, indeed, be drawn from the + tenderness, with which the author seems to lament his country, and the + compassion he shows for its approaching calamities. I, who am a + descendant from the Saxons, and, therefore, unwilling to say any thing + derogatory from the reputation of my forefathers, must yet allow this + argument its full force; for it has been rarely, very rarely, known, + that foreigners, however well treated, caressed, enriched, flattered, or + exalted, have regarded this country with the least gratitude or + affection, till the race has, by long continuance, after many + generations, been naturalized and assimilated. +</p> +<p> + They have been ready, upon all occasions, to prefer the petty interests + of their own country, though, perhaps, only some desolate and worthless + corner of the world. They have employed the wealth of England, in paying + troops to defend mud-wall towns, and uninhabitable rocks, and in + purchasing barriers for territories, of which the natural sterility + secured them from invasion. +</p> +<p> + This argument, which wants no particular instances to confirm it, is, I + confess, of the greatest weight in this question, and inclines me + strongly to believe, that the benevolent author of this prediction must + have been born a Briton. +</p> +<p> + The learned discoverer of the inscription was pleased to insist, with + great warmth, upon the etymology of the word <i>patria</i>, which signifying, + says he, <i>the land of my father</i>, could be made use of by none, but such + whose ancestors had resided here; but, in answer to this demonstration, + as he called it, I only desired him to take notice, how common it is for + intruders of yesterday to pretend the same title with the ancient + proprietors, and, having just received an estate, by voluntary grant, to + erect a claim of <i>hereditary right</i>. +</p> +<p> + Nor is it less difficult to form any satisfactory conjecture, concerning + the rank or condition of the writer, who, contented with a consciousness + of having done his duty, in leaving this solemn warning to his country, + seems studiously to have avoided that veneration, to which his knowledge + of futurity, undoubtedly, entitled him, and those honours, which his + memory might justly claim from the gratitude of posterity; and has, + therefore, left no trace, by which the most sagacious and diligent + inquirer can hope to discover him. +</p> +<p> + This conduct, alone, ought to convince us, that the prediction is of no + small importance to mankind, since the author of it appears not to have + been influenced by any other motive, than that noble and exalted + philanthropy, which is above the narrow views of recompense or applause. +</p> +<p> + That interest had no share in this inscription, is evident beyond + dispute, since the age in which he lived received neither pleasure nor + instruction from it. Nor is it less apparent, from the suppression of + his name, that he was equally a stranger to that wild desire of fame, + which has, sometimes, infatuated the noblest minds. +</p> +<p> + His modesty, however, has not been able wholly to extinguish that + curiosity, which so naturally leads us, when we admire a performance, to + inquire after the author. Those, whom I have consulted on this occasion; + and my zeal for the honour of this benefactor of my country has not + suffered me to forget a single antiquary of reputation, have, almost + unanimously, determined, that it was written by a king. For where else, + said they, are we to expect that greatness of mind, and that dignity of + expression, so eminently conspicuous in this inscription! +</p> +<p> + It is with a proper sense of the weakness of my own abilities, that I + venture to lay before the publick the reasons which hinder me from + concurring with this opinion, which I am not only inclined to favour by + my respect for the authors of it, but by a natural affection for + monarchy, and a prevailing inclination to believe, that every excellence + is inherent in a king. +</p> +<p> + To condemn an opinion so agreeable to the reverence due to the regal + dignity, and countenanced by so great authorities, without a long and + accurate discussion, would be a temerity justly liable to the severest + censures. A. supercilious and arrogant determination of a controversy of + such importance, would, doubtless, be treated by the impartial and + candid with the utmost indignation. +</p> +<p> + But as I have too high an idea of the learning of my contemporaries, to + obtrude any crude, hasty, or indigested notions on the publick, I have + proceeded with the utmost degree of diffidence and caution; I have + frequently reviewed all my arguments, traced them backwards to their + first principles, and used every method of examination to discover, + whether all the deductions were natural and just, and whether I was not + imposed on by some specious fallacy; but the farther I carried my + inquiries, and the longer I dwelt upon this great point, the more was I + convinced, in spite of all my prejudices, that this wonderful prediction + was not written by a king. +</p> +<p> + For, after a laborious and attentive perusal of histories, memoirs, + chronicles, lives, characters, vindications, panegyricks and epitaphs, I + could find no sufficient authority for ascribing to any of our English + monarchs, however gracious or glorious, any prophetical knowledge or + prescience of futurity; which, when we consider how rarely regal virtues + are forgotten, how soon they are discovered, and how loudly they are + celebrated, affords a probable argument, at least, that none of them + have laid any claim to this character. For why should historians have + omitted to embellish their accounts with such a striking circumstance? + or, if the histories of that age are lost, by length of time, why was + not so uncommon an excellence transmitted to posterity, in the more + lasting colours of poetry? Was that unhappy age without a laureate? Was + there then no Young <a href="#note-19">[19]</a> or Philips [20], no Ward [21] or Mitchell [22], + to snatch such wonders from oblivion, and immortalize a prince of such + capacities? If this was really the case, let us congratulate ourselves + upon being reserved for better days; days so fruitful of happy writers, + that no princely virtue can shine in vain. Our monarchs are surrounded + with refined spirits, so penetrating, that they frequently discover, in + their masters, great qualities, invisible to vulgar eyes, and which, did + not they publish them to mankind, would be unobserved for ever. +</p> +<p> + Nor is it easy to find, in the lives of our monarchs, many instances of + that regard for posterity, which seems to have been the prevailing + temper of this venerable man. I have seldom, in any of the gracious + speeches delivered from the throne, and received, with the highest + gratitude and satisfaction, by both houses of parliament, discovered any + other concern than for the current year, for which supplies are + generally demanded in very pressing terms, and, sometimes, such as imply + no remarkable solicitude for posterity. +</p> +<p> + Nothing, indeed, can be more unreasonable and absurd, than to require, + that a monarch, distracted with cares and surrounded with enemies, + should involve himself in superfluous anxieties, by an unnecessary + concern about future generations. Are not pretenders, mock-patriots, + masquerades, operas, birthnights, treaties, conventions, reviews, + drawing-rooms, the births of heirs, and the deaths of queens, sufficient + to overwhelm any capacity but that of a king? Surely, he that acquits + himself successfully of such affairs may content himself with the glory + he acquires, and leave posterity to his successours. +</p> +<p> + That this has been the conduct of most princes, is evident from the + accounts of all ages and nations; and, therefore, I hope it will not be + thought that I have, without just reasons, deprived this inscription of + the veneration it might demand, as the work of a king. +</p> +<p> + With what laborious struggles against prejudice and inclination, with + what efforts of reasoning, and pertinacity of self-denial, I have + prevailed upon myself to sacrifice the honour of this monument to the + love of truth, none, who are unacquainted with the fondness of a + commentator, will be able to conceive. But this instance will be, I + hope, sufficient to convince the publick, that I write with sincerity, + and that, whatever my success may be, my intentions are good. +</p> +<p> + Where we are to look for our author, it still remains to be considered; + whether in the high road of publick employments, or the by-paths of + private life. +</p> +<p> + It has always been observed of those that frequent a court, that they + soon, by a kind of contagion, catch the regal spirit of neglecting + futurity. The minister forms an expedient to suspend, or perplex, an + inquiry into his measures, for a few months, and applauds and triumphs + in his own dexterity. The peer puts off his creditor for the present + day, and forgets that he is ever to see him more. The frown of a prince, + and the loss of a pension, have, indeed, been found of wonderful + efficacy to abstract men's thoughts from the present time, and fill them + with zeal for the liberty and welfare of ages to come. But, I am + inclined to think more favourably of the author of this prediction, than + that he was made a patriot by disappointment or disgust. If he ever saw + a court, I would willingly believe, that he did not owe his concern for + posterity to his ill reception there, but his ill reception there to his + concern for posterity. +</p> +<p> + However, since truth is the same in the mouth of a hermit, or a prince, + since it is not reason, but weakness, that makes us rate counsel by our + esteem for the counsellor, let us, at length, desist from this inquiry, + so useless in itself, in which we have room to hope for so little + satisfaction. Let us show our gratitude to the author, by answering his + intentions, by considering minutely the lines which he has left us, and + examining their import without heat, precipitancy, or party-prejudices; + let us endeavour to keep the just mean, between searching, ambitiously, + for far-fetched interpretations, and admitting such low meaning, and + obvious and low sense, as is inconsistent with those great and extensive + views, which it is reasonable to ascribe to this excellent man. +</p> +<p> + It may be yet further asked, whether this inscription, which appears in + the stone, be an original, and not rather a version of a traditional + prediction, in the old British tongue, which the zeal of some learned + man prompted him to translate and engrave, in a more known language, for + the instruction of future ages: but, as the lines carry, at the first + view, a reference both to the stone itself, and, very remarkably, to the + place where it was found, I cannot see any foundation for such a + suspicion. +</p> +<p> + It remains, now, that we examine the sense and import of the + inscription, which, after having long dwelt upon it, with the closest + and most laborious attention, I must confess myself not yet able fully + to comprehend. The following explications, therefore, are, by no means, + laid down as certain and indubitable truths, but as conjectures not + always wholly satisfactory, even to myself, and which I had not dared to + propose to so enlightened an age, an age which abounds with those great + ornaments of human nature, skepticks, antimoralists, and infidels, but + with hopes that they would excite some person of greater abilities, to + penetrate further into the oraculous obscurity of this wonderful + prediction. +</p> +<p> + Not even the four first lines are without their difficulties, in which + the time of the discovery of the stone seems to be the time assigned for + the events foretold by it: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Cum lapidem hunc, magni + Qui nunc jacet incola stagni, + Vel pede equus tanget, + Vel arator vomere franget, + Sentiet ægra metus, + Effundet patria fletus, + Littoraque ut fluctu, + Resonabunt oppida luctu." + + "Whene'er this stone, now hid beneath the lake, + The horse shall trample, or the plough shall break, + Then, O my country, shall thou groan distrest, + Grief in thine eyes, and terrour in thy breast. + Thy streets with violence of woe shall sound, + Loud as the billows bursting on the ground." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + "When this stone," says he, "which now lies hid beneath the waters of a + deep lake, shall be struck upon by the horse, or broken by the plough, + then shalt thou, my country, be astonished with terrours, and drowned in + tears; then shall thy towns sound with lamentations, as thy shores with + the roarings of the waves." These are the words literally rendered, but + how are they verified! The lake is dry, the stone is turned up, but + there is no appearance of this dismal scene. Is not all, at home, + satisfaction and tranquillity? all, abroad, submission and compliance? + Is it the interest, or inclination, of any prince, or state, to draw a + sword against us? and are we not, nevertheless, secured by a numerous + standing army, and a king who is, himself, an army? Have our troops any + other employment than to march to a review? Have our fleets encountered + any thing but winds and worms? To me the present state of the nation + seems so far from any resemblance to the noise and agitation of a + tempestuous sea, that it may be much more properly compared to the dead + stillness of the waves before a storm. +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Nam foecunda rubri + Serpent per prata colubri, + Gramina vastantes, + Flores fructusque vorantes, + Omnia foedantes, + Vitiantes, et spoliantes; + Quanquam haud pugnaces, + Ibunt per cuncta minaces, + Fures absque timore, + Et pingues absque labore." + + "Then through thy fields shall scarlet reptiles stray, + And rapine and pollution mark their way; + Their hungry swarms the peaceful vale shall fright, + Still fierce to threaten, still afraid to fight; + The teeming year's whole product shall devour, + Insatiate pluck the fruit, and crop the flow'r; + Shall glutton on the industrious peasants' spoil, + Rob without fear, and fatten without toil." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + He seems, in these verses, to descend to a particular account of this + dreadful calamity; but his description is capable of very different + senses, with almost equal probability: +</p> +<p> + "Red serpents," says he, (<i>rubri colubri</i> are the Latin words, which the + poetical translator has rendered <i>scarlet reptiles</i>, using a general + term for a particular, in my opinion, too licentiously,) "Red serpents + shall wander o'er her meadows, and pillage, and pollute," &c. The + particular mention of the colour of this destructive viper may be some + guide to us in this labyrinth, through which, I must acknowledge, I + cannot yet have any certain path. I confess, that, when a few days after + my perusal of this passage, I heard of the multitude of lady-birds seen + in Kent, I began to imagine that these were the fatal insects, by which + the island was to be laid waste, and, therefore, looked over all + accounts of them with uncommon concern. But, when my first terrours + began to subside, I soon recollected that these creatures, having both + wings and feet, would scarcely have been called serpents; and was + quickly convinced, by their leaving the country, without doing any hurt, + that they had no quality, but the colour, in common with the ravagers + here described. +</p> +<p> + As I am not able to determine any thing on this question, I shall + content myself with collecting, into one view, the several properties of + this pestiferous brood, with which we are threatened, as hints to more + sagacious and fortunate readers, who, when they shall find any red + animal, that ranges uncontrouled over the country, and devours the + labours of the trader and the husbandman; that carries with it + corruption, rapine, pollution, and devastation; that threatens without + courage, robs without fear, and is pampered without labour, they may + know that the prediction is completed. Let me only remark further, that + if the style of this, as of all other predictions, is figurative, the + serpent, a wretched animal that crawls upon the earth, is a proper + emblem of low views, self-interest, and base submission, as well as of + cruelty, mischief, and malevolence. +</p> +<p> + I cannot forbear to observe, in this place, that, as it is of no + advantage to mankind to be forewarned of inevitable and insurmountable + misfortunes, the author, probably, intended to hint to his countrymen + the proper remedies for the evils he describes. In this calamity, on + which he dwells longest, and which he seems to deplore with the deepest + sorrow, he points out one circumstance, which may be of great use to + disperse our apprehensions, and awaken us from that panick which the + reader must necessarily feel, at the first transient view of this + dreadful description. These serpents, says the original, are "haud + pugnaces," of no fighting race; they will threaten, indeed, and hiss, + and terrify the weak, and timorous, and thoughtless, but have no real + courage or strength. So that the mischief done by them, their ravages, + devastations, and robberies, must be only the consequences of cowardice + in the sufferers, who are harassed and oppressed, only because they + suffer it without resistance. We are, therefore, to remember, whenever + the pest, here threatened, shall invade us, that submission and tameness + will be certain ruin, and that nothing but spirit, vigilance, activity, + and opposition, can preserve us from the most hateful and reproachful + misery, that of being plundered, starved, and devoured by vermin and by + reptiles. +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Horrida dementes + Rapiet discordia gentes; + Plurima tunc leges + Mutabit, plurima reges + Natio." + + "Then o'er the world shall discord stretch her wings, + Kings change their laws, and kingdoms change their kings." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + Here the author takes a general survey of the state of the world, and + the changes that were to happen, about the time of the discovery of this + monument, in many nations. As it is not likely that he intended to touch + upon the affairs of other countries, any farther than the advantage of + his own made it necessary, we may reasonably conjecture, that he had a + full and distinct view of all the negotiations, treaties, confederacies, + of all the triple and quadruple alliances, and all the leagues offensive + and defensive, in which we were to be engaged, either as principals, + accessaries, or guarantees, whether by policy, or hope, or fear, or our + concern for preserving the balance of power, or our tenderness for the + liberties of Europe. He knew that our negotiators would interest us in + the affairs of the whole earth, and that no state could either rise or + decline in power, either extend or lose its dominions, without affecting + politicks, and influencing our councils. +</p> +<p> + This passage will bear an easy and natural application to the present + time, in which so many revolutions have happened, so many nations have + changed their masters, and so many disputes and commotions are + embroiling, almost in every part of the world. +</p> +<p> + That almost every state in Europe and Asia, that is, almost every + country, then known, is comprehended in this prediction, may be easily + conceived, but whether it extends to regions at that time undiscovered, + and portends any alteration of government in Carolina and Georgia, let + more able or more daring expositors determine: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Conversa + In rabiem tunc contremet ursa + Cynthia." + + "The bear, enrag'd, th' affrighted moon shall dread." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + The terrour created to the moon by the anger of the bear, is a strange + expression, but may, perhaps, relate to the apprehensions raised in the + Turkish empire, of which a crescent, or new moon, is the imperial + standard, by the increasing power of the emperess of Russia, whose + dominions lie under the northern constellation, called the Bear. +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Tunc latis + Florebunt lilia pratis." + + "The lilies o'er the vales triumphant spread." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + The lilies borne by the kings of France are an apt representation of + that country; and their flourishing over wide-extended valleys, seems to + regard the new increase of the French power, wealth, and dominions by + the advancement of their trade, and the accession of Lorrain. This is, + at first view, an obvious, but, perhaps, for that very reason not the + true sense of the inscription. How can we reconcile it with the + following passage: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Nec fremere audebit + Leo, sed violare timebit, + Omnia consuetus + Populari pascua laetus." + + "Nor shall the lion, wont of old to reign + Despotick o'er the desolated plain, + Henceforth, th' inviolable bloom invade, + Or dare to murmur in the flow'ry glade," +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + in which the lion that used, at pleasure, to lay the pastures waste, is + represented, as not daring to touch the lilies, or murmur at their + growth! The lion, it is true, is one of the supporters of the arms of + England, and may, therefore, figure our countrymen, who have, in ancient + times, made France a desert. But can it be said, that the lion dares not + murmur or rage, (for <i>fremere</i> may import both,) when it is evident, + that, for many years, this whole kingdom has murmured, however, it may + be, at present, calm and secure, by its confidence in the wisdom of our + politicians, and the address of our negotiators: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Ante oculos natos + Calceatos et cruciatos + Jam feret ignavus, + Vetitaque libidine pravus." + + "His tortur'd sons shall die before his face, + While he lies melting in a lewd embrace." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + Here are other things mentioned of the lion, equally unintelligible, if + we suppose them to be spoken of our nation, as that he lies sluggish, + and depraved with unlawful lusts, while his offspring is trampled and + tortured before his eyes. But in what place can the English be said to + be trampled or tortured? Where are they treated with injustice or + contempt? What nation is there, from pole to pole, that does not + reverence the nod of the British king? Is not our commerce + unrestrained? Are not the riches of the world our own? Do not our ships + sail unmolested, and our merchants traffick in perfect security? Is not + the very name of England treated by foreigners in a manner never known + before? Or if some slight injuries have been offered; if some of our + petty traders have been stopped, our possessions threatened; our effects + confiscated; our flag insulted; or our ears cropped, have we lain + sluggish and unactive? Have not our fleets been seen in triumph at + Spithead? Did not Hosier visit the Bastimentos, and is not Haddock now + stationed at Port Mahon? +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "En quoque quod mirum, + Quod dicas denique dirum, + Sanguinem equus sugit, + Neque bellua victa remugit!" + + "And, yet more strange! his veins a horse shall drain, + Nor shall the passive coward once complain!" +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + It is farther asserted, in the concluding lines, that the horse shall + suck the lion's blood. This is still more obscure than any of the rest; + and, indeed, the difficulties I have met with, ever since the first + mention of the lion, are so many and great, that I had, in utter despair + of surmounting them, once desisted from my design of publishing any + thing upon this subject; but was prevailed upon by the importunity of + some friends, to whom I can deny nothing, to resume my design; and I + must own, that nothing animated me so much as the hope, they flattered + me with, that my essay might be inserted in the Gazetteer, and, so, + become of service to my country. +</p> +<p> + That a weaker animal should suck the blood of a stronger, without + resistance, is wholly improbable, and inconsistent with the regard for + self-preservation, so observable in every order and species of beings. + We must, therefore, necessarily endeavour after some figurative sense, + not liable to so insuperable an objection. +</p> +<p> + Were I to proceed in the same tenour of interpretation, by which I + explained the moon and the lilies, I might observe, that a horse is the + arms of H——. But how, then, does the horse suck the lion's blood! + Money is the blood of the body politick.—But my zeal for the present + happy establishment will not suffer me to pursue a train of thought, + that leads to such shocking conclusions. The idea is detestable, and + such as, it ought to be hoped, can enter into the mind of none but a + virulent republican, or bloody jacobite. There is not one honest man in + the nation unconvinced, how weak an attempt it would be to endeavour to + confute this insinuation; an insinuation which no party will dare to + abet, and of so fatal and destructive a tendency, that it may prove + equally dangerous to the author, whether true or false. +</p> +<p> + As, therefore, I can form no hypothesis, on which a consistent + interpretation may be built, I must leave these loose and unconnected + hints entirely to the candour of the reader, and confess, that I do not + think my scheme of explication just, since I cannot apply it, throughout + the whole, without involving myself in difficulties, from which the + ablest interpreter would find it no easy matter to get free. +</p> +<p> + Being, therefore, convinced, upon an attentive and deliberate review of + these observations, and a consultation with my friends, of whose + abilities I have the highest esteem, and whose impartiality, sincerity, + and probity, I have long known, and frequently experienced, that my + conjectures are, in general, very uncertain, often improbable, and, + sometimes, little less than apparently false, I was long in doubt, + whether I ought not entirely to suppress them, and content myself with + publishing in the Gazetteer the inscription, as it stands engraven on + the stone, without translation or commentary, unless that ingenious and + learned society should favour the world with their own remarks. +</p> +<p> + To this scheme, which I thought extremely well calculated for the + publick good, and, therefore, very eagerly communicated to my + acquaintance and fellow-students, some objections were started, which, + as I had not foreseen, I was unable to answer. +</p> +<p> + It was observed, first, that the daily dissertations, published by that + fraternity, are written with such profundity of sentiment, and filled + with such uncommon modes of expression, as to be themselves sufficiently + unintelligible to vulgar readers; and that, therefore, the venerable + obscurity of this prediction, would much less excite the curiosity, and + awaken the attention of mankind, than if it were exhibited in any other + paper, and placed in opposition to the clear and easy style of an author + generally understood. +</p> +<p> + To this argument, formidable as it was, I answered, after a short pause, + that, with all proper deference to the great sagacity and advanced age + of the objector, I could not but conceive, that his position confuted + itself, and that a reader of the Gazetteer, being, by his own + confession, accustomed to encounter difficulties, and search for + meaning, where it was not easily to be found, must be better prepared, + than any other man, for the perusal of these ambiguous expressions; and + that, besides, the explication of this stone, being a task which nothing + could surmount but the most acute penetration, joined with indefatigable + patience, seemed, in reality, reserved for those who have given proofs + of both, in the highest degree, by reading and understanding the + Gazetteer. +</p> +<p> + This answer satisfied every one but the objector, who, with an obstinacy + not very uncommon, adhered to his own opinion, though he could not + defend it; and, not being able to make any reply, attempted to laugh + away my argument, but found the rest of my friends so little disposed to + jest upon this important question, that he was forced to restrain his + mirth, and content himself with a sullen and contemptuous silence. +</p> +<p> + Another of my friends, whom I had assembled on this occasion, having + owned the solidity of my answer to the first objection, offered a + second, which, in his opinion, could not be so easily defeated. +</p> +<p> + "I have observed," says he, "that the essays in the Gazetteer, though + written on very important subjects, by the ablest hands which ambition + can incite, friendship engage, or money procure, have never, though + circulated through the kingdom with the utmost application, had any + remarkable influence upon the people. I know many persons, of no common + capacity, that hold it sufficient to peruse these papers four times a + year; and others, who receive them regularly, and, without looking upon + them, treasure them under ground for the benefit of posterity. So that + the inscription may, by being inserted there, sink, once more, into + darkness and oblivion, instead of informing the age, and assisting our + present ministry in the regulation of their measures." +</p> +<p> + Another observed, that nothing was more unreasonable than my hope, that + any remarks or elucidations would be drawn up by that fraternity, since + their own employments do not allow them any leisure for such attempts. + Every one knows that panegyrick is, in its own nature, no easy task, and + that to defend is much more difficult than to attack; consider, then, + says he, what industry, what assiduity it must require, to praise and + vindicate a ministry like ours. +</p> +<p> + It was hinted, by another, that an inscription, which had no relation to + any particular set of men amongst us, but was composed many ages before + the parties, which now divide the nation, had a being, could not be so + properly conveyed to the world, by means of a paper dedicated to + political debates. +</p> +<p> + Another, to whom I had communicated my own observations, in a more + private manner, and who had inserted some of his own arguments, declared + it, as his opinion, that they were, though very controvertible and + unsatisfactory, yet too valuable to be lost; and that though to insert + the inscription in a paper, of which such numbers are daily distributed + at the expense of the publick, would, doubtless, be very agreeable to + the generous design of the author; yet he hoped, that as all the + students, either of politicks or antiquities, would receive both + pleasure and improvement from the dissertation with which it is + accompanied, none of them would regret to pay for so agreeable an + entertainment. +</p> +<p> + It cannot be wondered, that I have yielded, at last, to such weighty + reasons, and such insinuating compliments, and chosen to gratify, at + once, the inclinations of friends, and the vanity of an author. Yet, I + should think, I had very imperfectly discharged my duty to my country, + did I not warn all, whom either interest or curiosity shall incite to + the perusal of this treatise, not to lay any stress upon my + explications. +</p> +<p> + How a more complete and indisputable interpretation may be obtained, it + is not easy to say. This will, I suppose, be readily granted, that it is + not to be expected from any single hand, but from the joint inquiries, + and united labours, of a numerous society of able men, instituted by + authority, selected with great discernment and impartiality, and + supported at the charge of the nation. +</p> +<p> + I am very far from apprehending, that any proposal for the attainment of + so desirable an end, will be rejected by this inquisitive and + enlightened age, and shall, therefore, lay before the publick the + project which I have formed, and matured by long consideration, for the + institution of a society of commentators upon this inscription. +</p> +<p> + I humbly propose, that thirty of the most distinguished genius be chosen + for this employment, half from the inns of court, and half from the + army, and be incorporated into a society for five years, under the name + of the Society of Commentators. +</p> +<p> + That great undertakings can only be executed by a great number of hands, + is too evident to require any proof; and, I am afraid, all that read + this scheme will think, that it is chiefly defective in this respect, + and that when they reflect how many commissaries were thought necessary + at Seville, and that even their negotiations entirely miscarried, + probably for want of more associates, they will conclude, that I have + proposed impossibilities, and that the ends of the institution will be + defeated by an injudicious and ill timed frugality. +</p> +<p> + But if it be considered, how well the persons, I recommend, must have + been qualified, by their education and profession, for the provinces + assigned them, the objection will grow less weighty than it appears. It + is well known to be the constant study of the lawyers to discover, in + acts of parliament, meanings which escaped the committees that drew them + up, and the senates that passed them into laws, and to explain wills, + into a sense wholly contrary to the intention of the testator. How + easily may an adept in these admirable and useful arts, penetrate into + the most hidden import of this prediction? A man, accustomed to satisfy + himself with the obvious and natural meaning of a sentence, does not + easily shake off his habit; but a true-bred lawyer never contents + himself with one sense, when there is another to be found. +</p> +<p> + Nor will the beneficial consequences of this scheme terminate in the + explication of this monument: they will extend much further; for the + commentators, having sharpened and improved their sagacity by this long + and difficult course of study, will, when they return into publick life, + be of wonderful service to the government, in examining pamphlets, + songs, and journals, and in drawing up informations, indictments, and + instructions for special juries. They will be wonderfully fitted for the + posts of attorney and solicitor general, but will excel, above all, as + licensers for the stage. +</p> +<p> + The gentlemen of the army will equally adorn the province to which I + have assigned them, of setting the discoveries and sentiments of their + associates in a clear and agreeable light. The lawyers are well known + not to be very happy in expressing their ideas, being, for the most + part, able to make themselves understood by none but their own + fraternity. But the geniuses of the army have sufficient opportunities, + by their free access to the levee and the toilet, their constant + attendance on balls and assemblies, and that abundant leisure which they + enjoy, beyond any other body of men, to acquaint themselves with every + new word, and prevailing mode of expression, and to attain the utmost + nicety, and most polished prettiness of language. +</p> +<p> + It will be necessary, that, during their attendance upon the society, + they be exempt from any obligation to appear on Hyde park; and that upon + no emergency, however pressing, they be called away from their studies, + unless the nation be in immediate danger, by an insurrection of weavers, + colliers, or smugglers. +</p> +<p> + There may not, perhaps, be found in the army such a number of men, who + have ever condescended to pass through the labours, and irksome forms of + education in use, among the lower classes of people, or submitted to + learn the mercantile and plebeian arts of writing and reading. I must + own, that though I entirely agree with the notions of the uselessness of + any such trivial accomplishments in the military profession, and of + their inconsistency with more valuable attainments; though I am + convinced, that a man who can read and write becomes, at least, a very + disagreeable companion to his brother soldiers, if he does not + absolutely shun their acquaintance; that he is apt to imbibe, from his + books, odd notions of liberty and independency, and even, sometimes, of + morality and virtue, utterly inconsistent, with the desirable character + of a pretty gentleman; though writing frequently stains the whitest + finger, and reading has a natural tendency to cloud the aspect, and + depress that airy and thoughtless vivacity, which is the distinguishing + characteristick of a modern warriour; yet, on this single occasion, I + cannot but heartily wish, that, by a strict search, there may be + discovered, in the army, fifteen men who can write and read. +</p> +<p> + I know that the knowledge of the alphabet is so disreputable among these + gentlemen, that those who have, by ill fortune, formerly been taught it, + have partly forgot it by disuse, and partly concealed it from the world, + to avoid the railleries and insults to which their education might make + them liable: I propose, therefore, that all the officers of the army may + be examined upon oath, one by one, and that if fifteen cannot be + selected, who are, at present, so qualified, the deficiency may be + supplied out of those who, having once learned to read, may, perhaps, + with the assistance of a master, in a short time, refresh their + memories. +</p> +<p> + It may be thought, at the first sight of this proposal, that it might + not be improper to assign, to every commentator, a reader and secretary; + but, it may be easily conceived, that not only the publick might murmur + at such an addition of expense, but that, by the unfaithfulness or + negligence of their servants, the discoveries of the society may be + carried to foreign courts, and made use of to the disadvantage of our + own country. +</p> +<p> + For the residence of this society, I cannot think any place more proper + than Greenwich hospital, in which they may have thirty apartments fitted + up for them, that they may make their observations in private, and meet, + once a day, in the painted hall to compare them. +</p> +<p> + If the establishment of this society be thought a matter of too much + importance to be deferred till the new buildings are finished, it will + be necessary to make room for their reception, by the expulsion of such + of the seamen as have no pretensions to the settlement there, but + fractured limbs, loss of eyes, or decayed constitutions, who have lately + been admitted in such numbers, that it is now scarce possible to + accommodate a nobleman's groom, footman, or postilion, in a manner + suitable to the dignity of his profession, and the original design of + the foundation. +</p> +<p> + The situation of Greenwich will naturally dispose them to reflection and + study: and particular caution ought to be used, lest any interruption be + suffered to dissipate their attention, or distract their meditations: + for this reason, all visits and letters from ladies are strictly to be + prohibited; and if any of the members shall be detected with a lapdog, + pack of cards, box of dice, draught-table, snuffbox, or looking-glass, + he shall, for the first offence, be confined for three months to water + gruel, and, for the second, be expelled the society. +</p> +<p> + Nothing now remains, but that an estimate be made of the expenses + necessary for carrying on this noble and generous design. The salary to + be allowed each professor cannot be less than 2,000<i>l</i>. a year, which + is, indeed, more than the regular stipend of a commissioner of excise; + but, it must be remembered, that the commentators have a much more + difficult and important employment, and can expect their salaries but + for the short space of five years; whereas a commissioner (unless he + imprudently suffers himself to be carried away by a whimsical tenderness + for his country) has an establishment for life. +</p> +<p> + It will be necessary to allow the society, in general, 30,000<i>l</i>. + yearly, for the support of the publick table, and 40,000<i>l</i>. for secret + service. +</p> +<p> + Thus will the ministry have a fair prospect of obtaining the full sense + and import of the prediction, without burdening the publick with more + than 650,000<i>l</i>. which may be paid out of the sinking fund; or, if it be + not thought proper to violate that sacred treasure, by converting any + part of it to uses not primarily intended, may be easily raised by a + general poll-tax, or excise upon bread. +</p> +<p> + Having now completed my scheme, a scheme calculated for the publick + benefit, without regard to any party, I entreat all sects, factions, and + distinctions of men among us, to lay aside, for a time, their + party-feuds and petty animosities; and, by a warm concurrence on this + urgent occasion, teach posterity to sacrifice every private interest to + the advantage of their country. +</p> +<p> + [In this performance, which was first printed in the year 1739, Dr. + Johnson, "in a feigned inscription, supposed to have been found in + Norfolk, the country of sir Robert Walpole, then the obnoxious prime + minister of this country, inveighs against the Brunswick succession, and + the measures of government consequent upon it. To this supposed + prophecy, he added a commentory, making each expression apply to the + times, with warm anti-Hanoverian zeal."—Boswell's Life, i.] +</p> +<a name="2H_4_16"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + OBSERVATIONS ON THE STATE OF AFFAIRS IN 1756 <a href="#note-23">[23]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + The time is now come, in which every Englishman expects to be informed + of the national affairs, and in which he has a right to have that + expectation gratified. For whatever may be urged by ministers, or those + whom vanity or interest make the followers of ministers, concerning the + necessity of confidence in our governours, and the presumption of + prying, with profane eyes, into the recesses of policy, it is evident, + that this reverence can be claimed only by counsels yet unexecuted, and + projects suspended in deliberation. But when a design has ended in + miscarriage or success, when every eye, and every ear, is witness to + general discontent, or general satisfaction, it is then a proper time to + disentangle confusion, and illustrate obscurity; to show by what causes + every event was produced, and in what effects it is likely to terminate; + to lay down, with distinct particularity, what rumour always huddles in + general exclamations, or perplexes by undigested narratives; to show + whence happiness or calamity is derived, and whence it may be expected; + and honestly to lay before the people, what inquiry can gather of the + past, and conjecture can estimate of the future. +</p> +<p> + The general subject of the present war is sufficiently known. It is + allowed, on both sides, that hostilities began in America, and that the + French and English quarrelled about the boundaries of their settlements, + about grounds and rivers, to which, I am afraid, neither can show any + other right than that of power, and which neither can occupy but by + usurpation, and the dispossession of the natural lords and original + inhabitants. Such is the contest, that no honest man can heartily wish + success to either party. +</p> +<p> + It may, indeed, be alleged, that the Indians have granted large tracts + of land both to one and to the other; but these grants can add little to + the validity of our titles, till it be experienced, how they were + obtained; for, if they were extorted by violence, or induced by fraud; + by threats, which the miseries of other nations had shown not to be + vain; or by promises, of which no performance was ever intended, what + are they but new modes of usurpation, but new instances of crueltv and + treachery? +</p> +<p> + And, indeed, what but false hope, or resistless terrour, can prevail + upon a weaker nation to invite a stronger into their country, to give + their lands to strangers, whom no affinity of manners, or similitude of + opinion, can be said to recommend, to permit them to build towns, from + which the natives are excluded, to raise fortresses, by which they are + intimidated, to settle themselves with such strength, that they cannot + afterwards be expelled, but are, for ever, to remain the masters of the + original inhabitants, the dictators of their conduct, and the arbiters + of their fate? +</p> +<p> + When we see men acting thus against the precepts of reason, and the + instincts of nature, we cannot hesitate to determine, that, by some + means or other, they were debarred from choice; that they were lured or + frighted into compliance; that they either granted only what they found + impossible to keep, or expected advantages upon the faith of their new + inmates, which there was no purpose to confer upon them. It cannot be + said, that the Indians originally invited us to their coasts; we went, + uncalled and unexpected, to nations who had no imagination that the + earth contained any inhabitants, so distant and so different from + themselves. We astonished them with our ships, with our arms, and with + our general superiority. They yielded to us, as to beings of another and + higher race, sent among them from some unknown regions, with power which + naked Indians could not resist and, which they were, therefore, by every + act of humility, to propitiate, that they, who could so easily destroy, + might be induced to spare. +</p> +<p> + To this influence, and to this only, are to be attributed all the + cessions and submissions of the Indian princes, if, indeed, any such + cessions were ever made, of which we have no witness, but those who + claim from them; and there is no great malignity in suspecting, that + those who have robbed have also lied. +</p> +<p> + Some colonies, indeed, have been established more peaceably than others. + The utmost extremity of wrong has not always been practised; but those + that have settled in the new world, on the fairest terms, have no other + merit than that of a scrivener, who ruins in silence, over a plunderer + that seizes by force; all have taken what had other owners, and all have + had recourse to arms, rather than quit the prey on which they had + fastened. +</p> +<p> + The American dispute, between the French and us, is, therefore, only the + quarrel of two robbers for the spoils of a passenger; but, as robbers + have terms of confederacy, which they are obliged to observe, as members + of the gang, so the English and French may have relative rights, and do + injustice to each other, while both are injuring the Indians. And such, + indeed, is the present contest: they have parted the northern continent + of America between them, and are now disputing about their boundaries, + and each is endeavouring the destruction of the other, by the help of + the Indians, whose interest it is that both should be destroyed. +</p> +<p> + Both nations clamour, with great vehemence, about infractions of limits, + violation of treaties, open usurpation, insidious artifices, and breach + of faith. The English rail at the perfidious French, and the French at + the encroaching English: they quote treaties on each side, charge each + other with aspiring to universal monarchy, and complain, on either part, + of the insecurity of possession near such turbulent neighbours. +</p> +<p> + Through this mist of controversy, it can raise no wonder, that the truth + is not easily discovered. When a quarrel has been long carried on + between individuals, it is often very hard to tell by whom it was begun. + Every fact is darkened by distance, by interest, and by multitudes. + Information is not easily procured from far; those whom the truth will + not favour, will not step, voluntarily, forth to tell it; and where + there are many agents, it is easy for every single action to be + concealed. +</p> +<p> + All these causes concur to the obscurity of the question: By whom were + hostilities in America commenced? Perhaps there never can be remembered + a time, in which hostilities had ceased. Two powerful colonies, inflamed + with immemorial rivalry, and placed out of the superintendence of the + mother nations, were not likely to be long at rest. Some opposition was + always going forward, some mischief was every day done or meditated, and + the borderers were always better pleased with what they could snatch + from their neighbours, than what they had of their own. +</p> +<p> + In this disposition to reciprocal invasion, a cause of dispute never + could be wanting. The forests and deserts of America are without + landmarks, and, therefore, cannot be particularly specified in + stipulations; the appellations of those wide-extended regions have, in + every mouth, a different meaning, and are understood, on either side, as + inclination happens to contract or extend them. Who has yet pretended to + define, how much of America is included in Brazil, Mexico, or Peru? It + is almost as easy to divide the Atlantick ocean by a line, as clearly to + ascertain the limits of those uncultivated, uninhabitable, unmeasured + regions. +</p> +<p> + It is, likewise, to be considered, that contracts concerning boundaries + are often left vague and indefinite, without necessity, by the desire of + each party, to interpret the ambiguity to its own advantage, when a fit + opportunity shall be found. In forming stipulations, the commissaries + are often ignorant, and often negligent; they are, sometimes, weary with + debate, and contract a tedious discussion into general terms, or refer + it to a former treaty, which was never understood. The weaker part is + always afraid of requiring explanations, and the stronger always has an + interest in leaving the question undecided: thus it will happen, without + great caution on either side, that, after long treaties, solemnly + ratified, the rights that had been disputed are still equally open to + controversy. +</p> +<p> + In America, it may easily be supposed, that there are tracts of land not + yet claimed by either party, and, therefore, mentioned in no treaties; + which yet one, or the other, may be afterwards inclined to occupy; but + to these vacant and unsettled countries each nation may pretend, as each + conceives itself entitled to all that is not expressly granted to the + other. +</p> +<p> + Here, then, is a perpetual ground of contest; every enlargement of the + possessions of either will be considered as something taken from the + other, and each will endeavour to regain what had never been claimed, + but that the other occupied it. +</p> +<p> + Thus obscure in its original is the American contest. It is difficult to + find the first invader, or to tell where invasion properly begins; but, + I suppose, it is not to be doubted, that after the last war, when the + French had made peace with such apparent superiority, they naturally + began to treat us with less respect in distant parts of the world, and + to consider us, as a people from whom they had nothing to fear, and who + could no longer presume to contravene their designs, or to check their + progress. +</p> +<p> + The power of doing wrong with impunity seldom waits long for the will; + and, it is reasonable to believe, that, in America, the French would + avow their purpose of aggrandizing themselves with, at least, as little + reserve as in Europe. We may, therefore, readily believe, that they were + unquiet neighbours, and had no great regard to right, which they + believed us no longer able to enforce. +</p> +<p> + That in forming a line of forts behind our colonies, if in no other part + of their attempt, they had acted against the general intention, if not + against the literal terms of treaties, can scarcely be denied; for it + never can be supposed, that we intended to be inclosed between the sea + and the French garrisons, or preclude ourselves from extending our + plantations backwards, to any length that our convenience should + require. +</p> +<p> + With dominion is conferred every thing that can secure dominion. He that + has the coast, has, likewise, the sea, to a certain distance; he that + possesses a fortress, has the right of prohibiting another fortress to + be built within the command of its cannon. When, therefore, we planted + the coast of North America, we supposed the possession of the inland + region granted to an indefinite extent; and every nation that settled in + that part of the world, seems, by the permission of every other nation, + to have made the same supposition in its own favour. +</p> +<p> + Here, then, perhaps, it will be safest to fix the justice of our cause; + here we are apparently and indisputably injured, and this injury may, + according to the practice of nations, be justly resented. Whether we + have not, in return, made some encroachments upon them, must be left + doubtful, till our practices on the Ohio shall be stated and vindicated. + There are no two nations, confining on each other, between whom a war + may not always be kindled with plausible pretences on either part, as + there is always passing between them a reciprocation of injuries, and + fluctuation of encroachments. +</p> +<p> + From the conclusion of the last peace, perpetual complaints of the + supplantations and invasions of the French have been sent to Europe, + from our colonies, and transmitted to our ministers at Paris, where good + words were, sometimes, given us, and the practices of the American + commanders were, sometimes, disowned; but no redress was ever obtained, + nor is it probable, that any prohibition was sent to America. We were + still amused with such doubtful promises, as those who are afraid of war + are ready to interpret in their own favour, and the French pushed + forward their line of fortresses, and seemed to resolve, that before our + complaints were finally dismissed, all remedy should be hopeless. +</p> +<p> + We, likewise, endeavoured, at the same time, to form a barrier against + the Canadians, by sending a colony to New Scotland, a cold uncomfortable + tract of ground; of which we had long the nominal possession, before we + really began to occupy it. To this, those were invited whom the + cessation of war deprived of employment, and made burdensome to their + country; and settlers were allured thither by many fallacious + descriptions of fertile valleys and clear skies. What effects these + pictures of American happiness had upon my countrymen, I was never + informed, but, I suppose, very few sought provision in those frozen + regions, whom guilt, or poverty, did not drive from their native + country. About the boundaries of this new colony there were some + disputes; but, as there was nothing yet worth a contest, the power of + the French was not much exerted on that side; some disturbance was, + however, given, and some skirmishes ensued. But, perhaps, being peopled + chiefly with soldiers, who would rather live by plunder than by + agriculture, and who consider war as their best trade, New Scotland + would be more obstinately defended than some settlements of far greater + value; and the French are too well informed of their own interest, to + provoke hostility for no advantage, or to select that country for + invasion, where they must hazard much and can win little. They, + therefore, pressed on southward, behind our ancient and wealthy + settlements, and built fort after fort, at such distances that they + might conveniently relieve one another, invade our colonies with sudden + incursions, and retire to places of safety, before our people could + unite to oppose them. +</p> +<p> + This design of the French has been long formed, and long known, both in + America and Europe, and might, at first, have been easily repressed, had + force been used instead of expostulation. When the English attempted a + settlement upon the island of St. Lucia, the French, whether justly or + not, considering it as neutral, and forbidden to be occupied by either + nation, immediately landed upon it, and destroyed the houses, wasted the + plantations, and drove, or carried away, the inhabitants. This was done + in the time of peace, when mutual professions of friendship were daily + exchanged by the two courts, and was not considered as any violation of + treaties, nor was any more than a very soft remonstrance made on our + part. +</p> +<p> + The French, therefore, taught us how to act; but an Hanoverian quarrel + with the house of Austria, for some time, induced us to court, at any + expense, the alliance of a nation, whose very situation makes them our + enemies. We suffered them to destroy our settlements, and to advance + their own, which we had an equal right to attack. The time, however, + came, at last, when we ventured to quarrel with Spain, and then France + no longer suffered the appearance of peace to subsist between us, but + armed in defence of her ally. +</p> +<p> + The events of the war are well known: we pleased ourselves with a + victory at Dettingen, where we left our wounded men to the care of our + enemies, but our army was broken at Fontenoy and Val; and though, after + the disgrace which we suffered in the Mediterranean, we had some naval + success, and an accidental dearth made peace necessary for the French, + yet they prescribed the conditions, obliged us to give hostages, and + acted as conquerors, though as conquerors of moderation. +</p> +<p> + In this war the Americans distinguished themselves in a manner unknown + and unexpected. The New English raised an army, and, under the command + of Pepperel, took cape Breton, with the assistance of the fleet. This is + the most important fortress in America. We pleased ourselves so much + with the acquisition, that we could not think of restoring it; and, + among the arguments used to inflame the people against Charles Stuart, + it was very clamorously urged, that if he gained the kingdom, he would + give cape Breton back to the French. +</p> +<p> + The French, however, had a more easy expedient to regain cape Breton, + than by exalting Charles Stuart to the English throne. They took, in + their turn, fort St. George, and had our East India company wholly in + their power, whom they restored, at the peace, to their former + possessions, that they may continue to export our silver. +</p> +<p> + Cape Breton, therefore, was restored, and the French were reestablished + in America, with equal power and greater spirit, having lost nothing by + the war, which they had before gained. +</p> +<p> + To the general reputation of their arms, and that habitual superiority + which they derive from it, they owe their power in America, rather than + to any real strength or circumstances of advantage. Their numbers are + yet not great; their trade, though daily improved, is not very + extensive; their country is barren; their fortresses, though numerous, + are weak, and rather shelters from wild beasts, or savage nations, than + places built for defence against bombs or cannons. Cape Breton has been + found not to be impregnable; nor, if we consider the state of the places + possessed by the two nations in America, is there any reason upon which + the French should have presumed to molest us, but that they thought our + spirit so broken, that we durst not resist them; and in this opinion our + long forbearance easily confirmed them. +</p> +<p> + We forgot, or rather avoided to think, that what we delayed to do, must + be done at last, and done with more difficulty, as it was delayed + longer; that while we were complaining, and they were eluding, or + answering our complaints, fort was rising upon fort, and one invasion + made a precedent for another. +</p> +<p> + This confidence of the French is exalted by some real advantages. If + they possess, in those countries, less than we, they have more to gain, + and less to hazard; if they are less numerous, they are better united. +</p> +<p> + The French compose one body with one head. They have all the same + interest, and agree to pursue it by the same means. They are subject to + a governour, commissioned by an absolute monarch, and participating the + authority of his master. Designs are, therefore, formed without debate, + and executed without impediment. They have yet more martial than + mercantile ambition, and seldom suffer their military schemes to be + entangled with collateral projects of gain: they have no wish but for + conquest, of which they justly consider riches as the consequence. +</p> +<p> + Some advantages they will always have, as invaders. They make war at the + hazard of their enemies: the contest being carried on in our + territories, we must lose more by a victory, than they will suffer by a + defeat. They will subsist, while they stay, upon our plantations; and, + perhaps, destroy them, when they can stay no longer. If we pursue them, + and carry the war into their dominions, our difficulties will increase + every step as we advance, for we shall leave plenty behind us, and find + nothing in Canada, but lakes and forests, barren and trackless; our + enemies will shut themselves up in their forts, against which it is + difficult to bring cannon through so rough a country, and which, if they + are provided with good magazines, will soon starve those who besiege + them. +</p> +<p> + All these are the natural effects of their government and situation; + they are accidentally more formidable, as they are less happy. But the + favour of the Indians, which they enjoy, with very few exceptions, among + all the nations of the northern continent, we ought to consider with + other thoughts; this favour we might have enjoyed, if we had been + careful to deserve it. The French, by having these savage nations on + their side, are always supplied with spies and guides, and with + auxiliaries, like the Tartars to the Turks, or the Hussars to the + Germans, of no great use against troops ranged in order of battle, but + very well qualified to maintain a war among woods and rivulets, where + much mischief may be done by unexpected onsets, and safety be obtained + by quick retreats. They can waste a colony by sudden inroads, surprise + the straggling planters, frighten the inhabitants into towns, hinder the + cultivation of lands, and starve those whom they are not able to conquer +</p> +<center> + <a href="#note-24">[24]</a>. +</center> +<a name="2H_4_17"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + AN INTRODUCTION TO THE POLITICAL STATE OF GREAT BRITAIN. +</h2> +<p> + Written in the year 1756 <a href="#note-25">[25]</a>. +</p> +<p> + The present system of English politicks may properly be said to have + taken rise in the reign of queen Elizabeth. At this time the protestant + religion was established, which naturally allied us to the reformed + state, and made all the popish powers our enemies. +</p> +<p> + We began in the same reign to extend our trade, by which we made it + necessary to ourselves to watch the commercial progress of our + neighbours; and if not to incommode and obstruct their traffick, to + hinder them from impairing ours. +</p> +<p> + We then, likewise, settled colonies in America, which was become the + great scene of European ambition; for, seeing with what treasures the + Spaniards were annually enriched from Mexico and Peru, every nation + imagined, that an American conquest, or plantation, would certainly fill + the mother country with gold and silver. This produced a large extent of + very distant dominions, of which we, at this time, neither knew nor + foresaw the advantage or incumbrance; we seem to have snatched them into + our hands, upon no very just principles of policy, only because every + state, according to a prejudice of long continuance, concludes itself + more powerful, as its territories become larger. +</p> +<p> + The discoveries of new regions, which were then every day made, the + profit of remote traffick, and the necessity of long voyages, produced, + in a few years, a great multiplication of shipping. The sea was + considered as the wealthy element; and, by degrees, a new kind of + sovereignty arose, called naval dominion. +</p> +<p> + As the chief trade of the world, so the chief maritime power was at + first in the hands of the Portuguese and Spaniards, who, by a compact, + to which the consent of other princes was not asked, had divided the + newly discovered countries between them; but the crown of Portugal + having fallen to the king of Spain, or being seized by him, he was + master of the ships of the two nations, with which he kept all the + coasts of Europe in alarm, till the armada, which he had raised, at a + vast expense, for the conquest of England, was destroyed, which put a + stop, and almost an end, to the naval power of the Spaniards. +</p> +<p> + At this time, the Dutch, who were oppressed by the Spaniards, and feared + yet greater evils than they felt, resolved no longer to endure the + insolence of their masters: they, therefore, revolted; and, after a + struggle, in which they were assisted by the money and forces of + Elizabeth, erected an independent and powerful commonwealth. +</p> +<p> + When the inhabitants of the Low Countries had formed their system of + government, and some remission of the war gave them leisure to form + schemes of future prosperity, they easily perceived, that, as their + territories were narrow, and their numbers small, they could preserve + themselves only by that power which is the consequence of wealth; and + that, by a people whose country produced only the necessaries of life, + wealth was not to be acquired, but from foreign dominions, and by the + transportation of the products of one country into another. +</p> +<p> + From this necessity, thus justly estimated, arose a plan of commerce, + which was, for many years, prosecuted with industry and success, perhaps + never seen in the world before, and by which the poor tenants of + mud-walled villages, and impassable bogs, erected themselves into high + and mighty states, who put the greatest monarchs at defiance, whose + alliance was courted by the proudest, and whose power was dreaded by the + fiercest nation. By the establishment of this state, there arose, to + England, a new ally, and a new rival. +</p> +<p> + At this time, which seems to be the period destined for the change of + the face of Europe, France began first to rise into power, and, from + defending her own provinces with difficulty and fluctuating success, to + threaten her neighbours with encroachments and devastations. Henry the + fourth having, after a long struggle, obtained the crown, found it easy + to govern nobles, exhausted and wearied with a long civil war, and + having composed the disputes between the protestants and papists, so as + to obtain, at least, a truce for both parties, was at leisure to + accumulate treasure, and raise forces, which he purposed to have + employed in a design of settling for ever the balance of Europe. Of this + great scheme he lived not to see the vanity, or to feel the + disappointment; for he was murdered in the midst of his mighty + preparations. +</p> +<p> + The French, however, were, in this reign, taught to know their own + power; and the great designs of a king, whose wisdom they had so long + experienced, even though they were not brought to actual experiment, + disposed them to consider themselves as masters of the destiny of their + neighbours; and, from that time, he that shall nicely examine their + schemes and conduct, will, I believe, find that they began to take an + air of superiority, to which they had never pretended before; and that + they have been always employed, more or less openly, upon schemes of + dominion, though with frequent interruptions from domestick troubles, + and with those intermissions which human counsels must always suffer, as + men intrusted with great affairs are dissipated in youth, and languid in + age; are embarrassed by competitors, or, without any external reason, + change their minds. +</p> +<p> + France was now no longer in dread of insults, and invasions from + England. She was not only able to maintain her own territories, but + prepared, on all occasions, to invade others; and we had now a + neighbour, whose interest it was to be an enemy, and who has disturbed + us, from that time to this, with open hostility, or secret machinations. +</p> +<p> + Such was the state of England, and its neighbours, when Elizabeth left + the crown to James of Scotland. It has not, I think, been frequently + observed, by historians, at how critical a time the union of the two + kingdoms happened. Had England and Scotland continued separate kingdoms, + when France was established in the full possession of her natural power, + the Scots, in continuance of the league, which it would now have been + more than ever their interest to observe, would, upon every instigation + of the French court, have raised an army with French money, and harassed + us with an invasion, in which they would have thought themselves + successful, whatever numbers they might have left behind them. To a + people warlike and indigent, an incursion into a rich country is never + hurtful. The pay of France, and the plunder of the northern countries, + would always have tempted them to hazard their lives, and we should have + been under a necessity of keeping a line of garrisons along our border. +</p> +<p> + This trouble, however, we escaped, by the accession of king James; but + it is uncertain, whether his natural disposition did not injure us more + than this accidental condition happened to benefit us. He was a man of + great theoretical knowledge, but of no practical wisdom; he was very + well able to discern the true interest of himself, his kingdom, and his + posterity, but sacrificed it, upon all occasions, to his present + pleasure or his present ease; so conscious of his own knowledge and + abilities, that he would not suffer a minister to govern, and so lax of + attention, and timorous of opposition, that he was not able to govern + for himself. With this character, James quietly saw the Dutch invade our + commerce; the French grew every day stronger and stronger; and the + protestant interest, of which he boasted himself the head, was oppressed + on every side, while he writ, and hunted, and despatched ambassadours, + who, when their master's weakness was once known, were treated, in + foreign courts, with very little ceremony. James, however, took care to + be flattered at home, and was neither angry nor ashamed at the + appearance that he made in other countries. +</p> +<p> + Thus England grew weaker, or, what is, in political estimation, the same + thing, saw her neighbours grow stronger, without receiving + proportionable additions to her own power. Not that the mischief was so + great as it is generally conceived or represented; for, I believe, it + may be made to appear, that the wealth of the nation was, in this reign, + very much increased, though, that of the crown was lessened. Our + reputation for war was impaired; but commerce seems to have been carried + on with great industry and vigour, and nothing was wanting, but that we + should have defended ourselves from the encroachments of our neighbours. +</p> +<p> + The inclination to plant colonies in America still continued, and this + being the only project in which men of adventure and enterprise could + exert their qualities, in a pacifick reign, multitudes, who were + discontented with their condition in their native country, and such + multitudes there will always be, sought relief, or, at least, a change, + in the western regions, where they settled, in the northern part of the + continent, at a distance from the Spaniards, at that time almost the + only nation that had any power or will to obstruct us. +</p> +<p> + Such was the condition of this country, when the unhappy Charles + inherited the crown. He had seen the errours of his father, without + being able to prevent them, and, when he began his reign, endeavoured to + raise the nation to its former dignity. The French papists had begun a + new war upon the protestants: Charles sent a fleet to invade Rhée and + relieve Rochelle, but his attempts were defeated, and the protestants + were subdued. The Dutch, grown wealthy and strong, claimed the right of + fishing in the British seas: this claim the king, who saw the increasing + power of the states of Holland, resolved to contest. But, for this end, + it was necessary to build a fleet, and a fleet could not be built + without expense: he was advised to levy ship-money, which gave occasion + to the civil war, of which the events and conclusion are too well known. +</p> +<p> + While the inhabitants of this island were embroiled among themselves, + the power of France and Holland was every day increasing. The Dutch had + overcome the difficulties of their infant commonwealth; and, as they + still retained their vigour and industry, from rich grew continually + richer, and from powerful more powerful. They extended their traffick, + and had not yet admitted luxury; so that they had the means and the will + to accumulate wealth, without any incitement to spend it. The French, + who wanted nothing to make them powerful, but a prudent regulation of + their revenues, and a proper use of their natural advantages, by the + successive care of skilful ministers, became, every day, stronger, and + more conscious of their strength. +</p> +<p> + About this time it was, that the French first began to turn their + thoughts to traffick and navigation, and to desire, like other nations, + an American territory. All the fruitful and valuable parts of the + western world were, already, either occupied, or claimed; and nothing + remained for France, but the leavings of other navigators, for she was + not yet haughty enough to seize what the neighbouring powers had already + appropriated. +</p> +<p> + The French, therefore, contented themselves with sending a colony to + Canada, a cold, uncomfortable, uninviting region, from which nothing but + furs and fish were to be had, and where the new inhabitants could only + pass a laborious and necessitous life, in perpetual regret of the + deliciousness and plenty of their native country. +</p> +<p> + Notwithstanding the opinion which our countrymen have been taught to + entertain of the comprehension and foresight of French politicians, I am + not able to persuade myself, that when this colony was first planted, it + was thought of much value, even by those that encouraged it; there was, + probably, nothing more intended, than to provide a drain, into which the + waste of an exuberant nation might be thrown, a place where those who + could do no good might live without the power of doing mischief. Some + new advantage they, undoubtedly, saw, or imagined themselves to see, and + what more was necessary to the establishment of the colony, was supplied + by natural inclination to experiments, and that impatience of doing + nothing, to which mankind, perhaps, owe much of what is imagined to be + effected by more splendid motives. +</p> +<p> + In this region of desolate sterility they settled themselves, upon + whatever principle; and, as they have, from that time, had the happiness + of a government, by which no interest has been neglected, nor any part + of their subjects overlooked, they have, by continual encouragement and + assistance from France, been perpetually enlarging their bounds, and + increasing their numbers. +</p> +<p> + These were, at first, like other nations who invaded America, inclined + to consider the neighbourhood of the natives, as troublesome and + dangerous, and are charged with having destroyed great numbers; but they + are now grown wiser, if not honester, and, instead of endeavouring to + frighten the Indians away, they invite them to inter-marriage and + cohabitation, and allure them, by all practicable methods, to become the + subjects of the king of France. +</p> +<p> + If the Spaniards, when they first took possession of the newly + discovered world, instead of destroying the inhabitants by thousands, + had either had the urbanity or the policy to have conciliated them by + kind treatment, and to have united them, gradually, to their own people, + such an accession might have been made to the power of the king of + Spain, as would have made him far the greatest monarch that ever yet + ruled in the globe; but the opportunity was lost by foolishness and + cruelty, and now can never be recovered. +</p> +<p> + When the parliament had finally prevailed over our king, and the army + over the parliament, the interests of the two commonwealths of England + and Holland soon appeared to be opposite, and a new government declared + war against the Dutch. In this contest was exerted the utmost power of + the two nations, and the Dutch were finally defeated, yet not with such + evidence of superiority, as left us much reason to boast our victory: + they were obliged, however, to solicit peace, which was granted them on + easy conditions; and Cromwell, who was now possessed of the supreme + power, was left at leisure to pursue other designs. +</p> +<p> + The European powers had not yet ceased to look with envy on the Spanish + acquisitions in America, and, therefore, Cromwell thought, that if he + gained any part of these celebrated regions, he should exalt his own + reputation, and enrich the country. He, therefore, quarrelled with the + Spaniards upon some such subject of contention, as he that is resolved + upon hostility may always find; and sent Penn and Venables into the + western seas. They first landed in Hispaniola, whence they were driven + off, with no great reputation to themselves; and that they might not + return without having done something, they afterwards invaded Jamaica, + where they found less resistance, and obtained that island, which was + afterwards consigned to us, being probably of little value to the + Spaniards, and continues, to this day, a place of great wealth and + dreadful wickedness, a den of tyrants and a dungeon of slaves. +</p> +<p> + Cromwell, who, perhaps, had not leisure to study foreign politicks, was + very fatally mistaken with regard to Spain and France. Spain had been + the last power in Europe which had openly pretended to give law to other + nations, and the memory of this terrour remained, when the real cause + was at an end. We had more lately been frighted by Spain than by France; + and though very few were then alive of the generation that had their + sleep broken by the armada, yet the name of the Spaniards was still + terrible and a war against them was pleasing to the people. +</p> +<p> + Our own troubles had left us very little desire to look out upon the + continent; an inveterate prejudice hindered us from perceiving, that, + for more than half a century, the power of France had been increasing, + and that of Spain had been growing less; nor does it seem to have been + remembered, which yet required no great depth of policy to discern, that + of two monarchs, neither of which could be long our friend, it was our + interest to have the weaker near us; or, that if a war should happen, + Spain, however wealthy or strong in herself, was, by the dispersion of + her territories, more obnoxious to the attacks of a naval power, and, + consequently, had more to fear from us, and had it less in her power to + hurt us. +</p> +<p> + All these considerations were overlooked by the wisdom of that age; and + Cromwell assisted the French to drive the Spaniards out of Flanders, at + a time when it was our interest to have supported the Spaniards against + France, as formerly the Hollanders against Spain, by which we might, at + least, have retarded the growth of the French power, though, I think, it + must have finally prevailed. +</p> +<p> + During this time our colonies, which were less disturbed by our + commotions than the mother-country, naturally increased; it is probable + that many, who were unhappy at home, took shelter in those remote + regions, where, for the sake of inviting greater numbers, every one was + allowed to think and live his own way. The French settlement, in the + mean time, went slowly forward, too inconsiderable to raise any + jealousy, and too weak to attempt any encroachments. +</p> +<p> + When Cromwell died, the confusions that followed produced the + restoration of monarchy, and some time was employed in repairing the + ruins of our constitution, and restoring the nation to a state of peace. + In every change, there will be many that suffer real or imaginary + grievances, and, therefore, many will be dissatisfied. This was, + perhaps, the reason why several colonies had their beginning in the + reign of Charles the second. The quakers willingly sought refuge in + Pennsylvania; and it is not unlikely that Carolina owed its inhabitants + to the remains of that restless disposition, which had given so much + disturbance to our country, and had now no opportunity of acting at + home. +</p> +<p> + The Dutch, still continuing to increase in wealth and power, either + kindled the resentment of their neighbours by their insolence, or raised + their envy by their prosperity. Charles made war upon them without much + advantage; but they were obliged, at last, to confess him the sovereign + of the narrow seas. They were reduced almost to extremities by an + invasion from France; but soon recovered from their consternation, and, + by the fluctuation of war, regained their cities and provinces with the + same speed as they had lost them. +</p> +<p> + During the time of Charles the second, the power of France was every day + increasing; and Charles, who never disturbed himself with remote + consequences, saw the progress of her arms and the extension of her + dominions, with very little uneasiness. He was, indeed, sometimes + driven, by the prevailing faction, into confederacies against her; but + as he had, probably, a secret partiality in her favour, he never + persevered long in acting against her, nor ever acted with much vigour; + so that, by his feeble resistance, he rather raised her confidence than + hindered her designs. +</p> +<p> + About this time the French first began to perceive the advantage of + commerce, and the importance of a naval force; and such encouragement + was given to manufactures, and so eagerly was every project received, by + which trade could be advanced, that, in a few years, the sea was filled + with their ships, and all the parts of the world crowded with their + merchants. There is, perhaps, no instance in human story, of such a + change produced in so short a time, in the schemes and manners of a + people, of so many new sources of wealth opened, and such numbers of + artificers and merchants made to start out of the ground, as was seen in + the ministry of Colbert. +</p> +<p> + Now it was that the power of France became formidable to England. Her + dominions were large before, and her armies numerous; but her operations + were necessarily confined to the continent. She had neither ships for + the transportation of her troops, nor money for their support in distant + expeditions. Colbert saw both these wants, and saw that commerce only + would supply them. The fertility of their country furnishes the French + with commodities; the poverty of the common people keeps the price of + labour low. By the obvious practice of selling much and buying little, + it was apparent, that they would soon draw the wealth of other countries + into their own; and, by carrying out their merchandise in their own + vessels, a numerous body of sailors would quickly be raised. +</p> +<p> + This was projected, and this was performed. The king of France was soon + enabled to bribe those whom he could not conquer, and to terrify, with + his fleets, those whom his armies could not have approached. The + influence of France was suddenly diffused all over the globe; her arms + were dreaded, and her pensions received in remote regions, and those + were almost ready to acknowledge her sovereignty, who, a few years + before, had scarcely heard her name. She thundered on the coasts of + Africa, and received ambassadours from Siam. +</p> +<p> + So much may be done by one wise man endeavouring, with honesty, the + advantage of the publick. But that we may not rashly condemn all + ministers, as wanting wisdom or integrity, whose counsels have produced + no such apparent benefits to their country, it must be considered, that + Colbert had means of acting, which our government does not allow. He + could enforce all his orders by the power of an absolute monarch; he + could compel individuals to sacrifice their private profit to the + general good; he could make one understanding preside over many hands, + and remove difficulties by quick and violent expedients. Where no man + thinks himself under any obligation to submit to another, and, instead + of cooperating in one great scheme, every one hastens through by-paths + to private profit, no great change can suddenly be made; nor is + superiour knowledge of much effect, where every man resolves to use his + own eyes and his own judgment, and every one applauds his own dexterity + and diligence, in proportion as he becomes rich sooner than his + neighbour. +</p> +<p> + Colonies are always the effects and causes of navigation. They who visit + many countries find some, in which pleasure, profit, or safety invite + them to settle; and these settlements, when they are once made, must + keep a perpetual correspondence with the original country to which they + are subject, and on which they depend for protection in danger, and + supplies in necessity. So that a country, once discovered and planted, + must always find employment for shipping, more certainly than any + foreign commerce, which, depending on casualties, may be sometimes more, + and sometimes less, and which other nations may contract or suppress. A + trade to colonies can never be much impaired, being, in reality, only an + intercourse between distant provinces of the same empire, from which + intruders are easily excluded; likewise the interest and affection of + the correspondent parties, however distant, is the same. +</p> +<p> + On this reason all nations, whose power has been exerted on the ocean, + have fixed colonies in remote parts of the world; and while those + colonies subsisted, navigation, if it did not increase, was always + preserved from total decay. With this policy the French were well + acquainted, and, therefore, improved and augmented the settlements in + America and other regions, in proportion as they advanced their schemes + of naval greatness. +</p> +<p> + The exact time, in which they made their acquisitions in America, or + other quarters of the globe, it is not necessary to collect. It is + sufficient to observe, that their trade and their colonies increased + together; and, if their naval armaments were carried on, as they really + were, in greater proportion to their commerce, than can be practised in + other countries, it must be attributed to the martial disposition at + that time prevailing in the nation, to the frequent wars which Lewis the + fourteenth made upon his neighbours, and to the extensive commerce of + the English and Dutch, which afforded so much plunder to privateers, + that war was more lucrative than traffick. +</p> +<p> + Thus the naval power of France continued to increase during the reign of + Charles the second, who, between his fondness of ease and pleasure, the + struggles of faction, which he could not suppress, and his inclination + to the friendship of absolute monarchy, had not much power or desire to + repress it. And of James the second it could not be expected, that he + should act against his neighbours with great vigour, having the whole + body of his subjects to oppose. He was not ignorant of the real interest + of his country; he desired its power and its happiness, and thought + rightly, that there is no happiness without religion; but he thought + very erroneously and absurdly, that there is no religion without popery. +</p> +<p> + When the necessity of self-preservation had impelled the subjects of + James to drive him from the throne, there came a time in which the + passions, as well as interest of the government, acted against the + French, and in which it may, perhaps, be reasonably doubted, whether the + desire of humbling France was not stronger, than that of exalting + England: of this, however, it is not necessary to inquire, since, though + the intention may be different, the event will be the same. All mouths + were now open to declare what every eye had observed before, that the + arms of France were become dangerous to Europe; and that, if her + encroachments were suffered a little longer, resistance would be too + late. +</p> +<p> + It was now determined to reassert the empire of the sea; but it was more + easily determined than performed: the French made a vigorous defence + against the united power of England and Holland, and were sometimes + masters of the ocean, though the two maritime powers were united against + them. At length, however, they were defeated at La Hogue; a great part + of their fleet was destroyed, and they were reduced to carry on the war + only with their privateers, from whom there was suffered much petty + mischief, though there was no danger of conquest or invasion. They + distressed our merchants, and obliged us to the continual expense of + convoys and fleets of observation; and, by skulking in little coves and + shallow waters, escaped our pursuit. +</p> +<p> + In this reign began our confederacy with the Dutch, which mutual + interest has now improved into a friendship, conceived by some to be + inseparable; and, from that time, the states began to be termed, in the + style of politicians, our faithful friends, the allies which nature has + given us, our protestant confederates, and by many other names of + national endearment. We have, it is true, the same interest, as opposed + to France, and some resemblance of religion, as opposed to popery; but + we have such a rivalry, in respect of commerce, as will always keep us + from very close adherence to each other. No mercantile man, or + mercantile nation, has any friendship but for money, and alliance + between them will last no longer, than their common safety, or common + profit is endangered; no longer than they have an enemy, who threatens + to take from each more than either can steal from the other. +</p> +<p> + We were both sufficiently interested in repressing the ambition, and + obstructing the commerce of France; and, therefore, we concurred with as + much fidelity, and as regular cooperation, as is commonly found. The + Dutch were in immediate danger, the armies of their enemies hovered over + their country, and, therefore, they were obliged to dismiss, for a time, + their love of money, and their narrow projects of private profit, and to + do what a trader does not willingly, at any time, believe necessary, to + sacrifice a part for the preservation of the whole. +</p> +<p> + A peace was at length made, and the French, with their usual vigour and + industry, rebuilt their fleets, restored their commerce, and became, in + a very few years, able to contest again the dominion of the sea. Their + ships were well built, and always very numerously manned; their + commanders, having no hopes but from their bravery, or their fortune, + were resolute, and, being very carefully educated for the sea, were + eminently skilful. +</p> +<p> + All this was soon perceived, when queen Anne, the then darling of + England, declared war against France. Our success by sea, though + sufficient to keep us from dejection, was not such as dejected our + enemies. It is, indeed, to be confessed, that we did not exert our whole + naval strength; Marlborough was the governour of our counsels, and the + great view of Marlborough was a war by land, which he knew well how to + conduct, both to the honour of his country and his own profit. The fleet + was, therefore, starved, that the army might be supplied, and naval + advantages were neglected, for the sake of taking a town in Flanders, to + be garrisoned by our allies. The French, however, were so weakened by + one defeat after another, that, though their fleet was never destroyed + by any total overthrow, they at last retained it in their harbours, and + applied their whole force to the resistance of the confederate army, + that now began to approach their frontiers, and threatened to lay waste + their provinces and cities. +</p> +<p> + In the latter years of this war, the danger of their neighbourhood in + America, seems to have been considered, and a fleet was fitted out, and + supplied with a proper number of land forces, to seize Quebec, the + capital of Canada, or New France; but this expedition miscarried, like + that of Anson against the Spaniards, by the lateness of the season, and + our ignorance of the coasts on which we were to act. We returned with + loss, and only excited our enemies to greater vigilance, and, perhaps, + to stronger fortifications. +</p> +<p> + When the peace of Utrecht was made, which those, who clamoured among us + most loudly against it, found it their interest to keep, the French + applied themselves, with the utmost industry, to the extension of their + trade, which we were so far from hindering, that, for many years, our + ministry thought their friendship of such value, as to be cheaply + purchased by whatever concession. +</p> +<p> + Instead, therefore, of opposing, as we had hitherto professed to do, the + boundless ambition of the house of Bourbon, we became, on a sudden, + solicitous for its exaltation, and studious of its interest. We assisted + the schemes of France and Spain with our fleets, and endeavoured to make + these our friends by servility, whom nothing but power will keep quiet, + and who must always be our enemies, while they are endeavouring to grow + greater, and we determine to remain free. +</p> +<p> + That nothing might be omitted, which could testify our willingness to + continue, on any terms, the good friends of France, we were content to + assist, not only their conquests, but their traffick; and, though we did + not openly repeal the prohibitory laws, we yet tamely suffered commerce + to be carried on between the two nations, and wool was daily imported, + to enable them to make cloth, which they carried to our markets, and + sold cheaper than we. +</p> +<p> + During all this time they were extending and strengthening their + settlements in America, contriving new modes of traffick, and framing + new alliances with the Indian nations. They began now to find these + northern regions, barren and desolate as they are, sufficiently valuable + to desire, at least, a nominal possession, that might furnish a pretence + for the exclusion of others; they, therefore, extended their claim to + tracts of land, which they could never hope to occupy, took care to give + their dominions an unlimited magnitude, have given, in their maps, the + name of Louisiana to a country, of which part is claimed by the + Spaniards, and part by the English, without any regard to ancient + boundaries, or prior discovery. +</p> +<p> + When the return of Columbus from his great voyage had filled all Europe + with wonder and curiosity, Henry the seventh sent Sebastian Cabot to try + what could be found for the benefit of England: he declined the track of + Columbus, and, steering to the westward, fell upon the island, which, + from that time, was called by the English Newfoundland. Our princes seem + to have considered themselves as entitled, by their right of prior + seizure, to the northern parts of America, as the Spaniards were + allowed, by universal consent, their claim to the southern region for + the same reason; and we, accordingly, made our principal settlements + within the limits of our own discoveries, and, by degrees, planted the + eastern coast, from Newfoundland to Georgia. +</p> +<p> + As we had, according to the European principles, which allow nothing to + the natives of these regions, our choice of situation in this extensive + country, we naturally fixed our habitations along the coast, for the + sake of traffick and correspondence and all the conveniencies of + navigable rivers. And when one port or river was occupied, the next + colony, instead of fixing themselves in the inland parts behind the + former, went on southward, till they pleased themselves with another + maritime situation. For this reason our colonies have more length than + depth; their extent, from east to west, or from the sea to the interior + country, bears no proportion to their reach along the coast, from north + to south. +</p> +<p> + It was, however, understood, by a kind of tacit compact among the + commercial powers, that possession of the coast included a right to the + inland; and, therefore, the charters granted to the several colonies, + limit their districts only from north to south, leaving their + possessions from east to west unlimited and discretional, supposing + that, as the colony increases, they may take lands as they shall want + them, the possession of the coasts, excluding other navigators, and the + unhappy Indians having no right of nature or of nations. +</p> +<p> + This right of the first European possessour was not disputed, till it + became the interest of the French to question it. Canada, or New France, + on which they made their first settlement, is situated eastward of our + colonies, between which they pass up the great river of St. Lawrence, + with Newfoundland on the north, and Nova Scotia on the south. Their + establishment in this country was neither envied nor hindered; and they + lived here, in no great numbers, a long time, neither molesting their + European neighbours, nor molested by them. +</p> +<p> + But when they grew stronger and more numerous, they began to extend + their territories; and, as it is natural for men to seek their own + convenience, the desire of more fertile and agreeable habitations + tempted them southward. There is land enough to the north and west of + their settlements, which they may occupy with as good right as can be + shown by the other European usurpers, and which neither the English nor + Spaniards will contest; but of this cold region, they have enough + already, and their resolution was to get a better country. This was not + to be had, but by settling to the west of our plantations, on ground + which has been, hitherto, supposed to belong to us. +</p> +<p> + Hither, therefore, they resolved to remove, and to fix, at their own + discretion, the western border of our colonies, which was, heretofore, + considered as unlimited. Thus by forming a line of forts, in some + measure parallel to the coast, they inclose us between their garrisons, + and the sea, and not only hinder our extension westward, but, whenever + they have a sufficient navy in the sea, can harass us on each side, as + they can invade us, at pleasure, from one or other of their forts. +</p> +<p> + This design was not, perhaps, discovered as soon as it was formed, and + was certainly not opposed so soon as it was discovered: we foolishly + hoped, that their encroachments would stop; that they would be prevailed + on, by treaty and remonstrance, to give up what they had taken, or to + put limits to themselves. We suffered them to establish one settlement + after another, to pass boundary after boundary, and add fort to fort, + till, at last, they grew strong enough to avow their designs, and defy + us to obstruct them. +</p> +<p> + By these provocations, long continued, we are, at length, forced into a + war, in which we have had, hitherto, very ill fortune. Our troops, under + Braddock, were dishonourably defeated; our fleets have yet done nothing + more than taken a few merchant ships, and have distressed some private + families, but have very little weakened the power of France. The + detention of their seamen makes it, indeed, less easy for them to fit + out their navy; but this deficiency will be easily supplied by the + alacrity of the nation, which is always eager for war. +</p> +<p> + It is unpleasing to represent our affairs to our own disadvantage; yet + it is necessary to show the evils which we desire to be removed; and, + therefore, some account may very properly be given of the measures which + have given them their present superiority. +</p> +<p> + They are said to be supplied from France with better governours than our + colonies have the fate to obtain from England. A French governour is + seldom chosen for any other reason than his qualifications for his + trust. To be a bankrupt at home, or to be so infamously vitious, that he + cannot be decently protected in his own country, seldom recommends any + man to the government of a French colony. Their officers are commonly + skilful, either in war or commerce, and are taught to have no + expectation of honour or preferment, but from the justice and vigour of + their administration. +</p> +<p> + Their great security is the friendship of the natives, and to this + advantage they have certainly an indubitable right; because it is the + consequence of their virtue. It is ridiculous to imagine, that the + friendship of nations, whether civil or barbarous, can be gained and + kept but by kind treatment; and, surely, they who intrude, uncalled, + upon the country of a distant people, ought to consider the natives as + worthy of common kindness, and content themselves to rob, without + insulting them. The French, as has been already observed, admit the + Indians, by intermarriage, to an equality with themselves; and those + nations, with which they have no such near intercourse, they gain over + to their interest by honesty in their dealings. Our factors and traders, + having no other purpose in view than immediate profit, use all the arts + of an European counting-house, to defraud the simple hunter of his furs. +</p> +<p> + These are some of the causes of our present weakness; our planters are + always quarrelling with their governour, whom they consider as less to + be trusted than the French; and our traders hourly alienate the Indians + by their tricks and oppressions, and we continue every day to show, by + new proofs; that no people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_18"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + OBSERVATIONS ON THE TREATY +</h2> +<p> + Between his Britannick majesty and imperial majesty of all the Russias, + signed at Moscow, Dec. 11, 1742; the treaty between his Britannick + majesty and the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, signed June 18, 1755; and the + treaty between his Britannick majesty and her imperial majesty of all + the Russias, signed at St. Petersburg, Sept. 19/20, 1755 <a href="#note-26">[26]</a>. +</p> +<p> + These are the treaties which, for many months, filled the senate with + debates, and the kingdom with clamours; which were represented, on one + part, as instances of the most profound policy and the most active care + of the publick welfare, and, on the other, as acts of the most + contemptible folly and most flagrant corruption, as violations of the + great trust of government, by which the wealth of Britain is sacrificed + to private views and to a particular province. +</p> +<p> + What honours our ministers and negotiators may expect to be paid to + their wisdom; it is hard to determine, for the demands of vanity are not + easily estimated. They should consider, before they call too loudly for + encomiums, that they live in an age, when the power of gold is no longer + a secret, and in which no man finds much difficulty in making a bargain, + with money in his hand. To hire troops is very easy to those who are + willing to pay their price. It appears, therefore, that whatever has + been done, was done by means which every man knows how to use, if + fortune is kind enough to put them in his power. To arm the nations of + the north in the cause of Britain, to bring down hosts against France, + from the polar circle, has, indeed, a sound of magnificence, which might + induce a mind unacquainted with publick affairs to imagine, that some + effort of policy, more than human, had been exerted, by which distant + nations were armed in our defence, and the influence of Britain was + extended to the utmost limits of the world. But when this striking + phenomenon of negotiation is more nearly inspected, it appears a + bargain, merely mercantile, of one power that wanted troops more than + money, with another that wanted money, and was burdened with troops; + between whom their mutual wants made an easy contract, and who have no + other friendship for each other, than reciprocal convenience happens to + produce. +</p> +<p> + We shall, therefore, leave the praises of our ministers to others, yet + not without this acknowledgment, that if they have done little, they do + not seem to boast of doing much; and, that whether influenced by modesty + or frugality, they have not wearied the publick with mercenary + panegyrists, but have been content with the concurrence of the + parliament, and have not much solicited the applauses of the people. +</p> +<p> + In publick, as in private transactions, men more frequently deviate from + the right, for want of virtue, than of wisdom; and those who declare + themselves dissatisfied with these treaties, impute them not to folly, + but corruption. +</p> +<p> + By these advocates for the independence of Britain, who, whether their + arguments be just, or not, seem to be most favourably heard by the + people, it is alleged, that these treaties are expensive, without + advantage; that they waste the treasure, which we want for our own + defence, upon a foreign interest; and pour the gains of our commerce + into the coffers of princes, whose enmity cannot hurt, nor friendship + help us; who set their subjects to sale, like sheep or oxen, without any + inquiry after the intentions of the buyer; and will withdraw the troops, + with which they have supplied us, whenever a higher bidder shall be + found. +</p> +<p> + This, perhaps, is true; but whether it be true, or false, is not worth + inquiry. We did not expect to buy their friendship, but their troops; + nor did we examine upon what principle we were supplied with assistance; + it was sufficient that we wanted forces, and that they were willing to + furnish them. Policy never pretended to make men wise and good; the + utmost of her power is to make the best use of men, such as they are, to + lay hold on lucky hours, to watch the present wants, and present + interests of others, and make them subservient to her own convenience. +</p> +<p> + It is further urged, with great vehemence, that these troops of Russia + and Hesse are not hired in defence of Britain; that we are engaged, in a + naval war, for territories on a distant continent; and that these + troops, though mercenaries, can never be auxiliaries; that they increase + the burden of the war, without hastening its conclusion, or promoting + its success; since they can neither be sent into America, the only part + of the world where England can, on the present occasion, have any + employment for land-forces, nor be put into our ships, by which, and by + which only, we are now to oppose and subdue our enemies. +</p> +<p> + Nature has stationed us in an island, inaccessible but by sea; and we + are now at war with an enemy, whose naval power is inferiour to our own, + and from whom, therefore, we are in no danger of invasion: to what + purpose, then, are troops hired in such uncommon numbers? To what end do + we procure strength, which we cannot exert, and exhaust the nation with + subsidies, at a time when nothing is disputed, which the princes, who + receive our subsidies, can defend? If we had purchased ships, and hired + seamen, we had apparently increased our power, and made ourselves + formidable to our enemies, and, if any increase of security be possible, + had secured ourselves still better from invasions: but what can the + regiments of Russia, or of Hesse, contribute to the defence of the + coasts of England; or, by what assistance can they repay us the sums, + which we have stipulated to pay for their costly friendship? +</p> +<p> + The king of Great Britain has, indeed, a territory on the continent, of + which the natives of this island scarcely knew the name, till the + present family was called to the throne, and yet know little more than + that our king visits it from time to time. Yet, for the defence of this + country, are these subsidies apparently paid, and these troops evidently + levied. The riches of our nation are sent into distant countries, and + the strength, which should be employed in our own quarrel, consequently + impaired, for the sake of dominions, the interest of which has no + connexion with ours, and which, by the act of succession, we took care + to keep separate from the British kingdoms. +</p> +<p> + To this the advocates for the subsidies say, that unreasonable + stipulations, whether in the act of settlement, or any other contract, + are, in themselves, void; and that if a country connected with England, + by subjection to the same sovereign, is endangered by an English + quarrel, it must be defended by English force; and that we do not engage + in a war, for the sake of Hanover, but that Hanover is, for our sake, + exposed to danger. +</p> +<p> + Those who brought in these foreign troops have still something further + to say in their defence, and of no honest plea is it our intention to + defraud them. They grant, that the terrour of invasion may, possibly, be + groundless; that the French may want the power, or the courage, to + attack us in our own country; but they maintain, likewise, that an + invasion is possible, that the armies of France are so numerous, that + she may hazard a large body on the ocean, without leaving herself + exposed; that she is exasperated to the utmost degree of acrimony, and + would be willing to do us mischief, at her own peril. They allow, that + the invaders may be intercepted at sea, or that, if they land, they may + be defeated by our native troops. But they say, and say justly, that + danger is better avoided than encountered; that those ministers consult + more the good of their country, who prevent invasion, than repel it; and + that, if these auxiliaries have only saved us from the anxiety of + expecting an enemy at our doors, or from the tumult and distress which + an invasion, how soon soever repressed, would have produced, the publick + money is not spent in vain. +</p> +<p> + These arguments are admitted by some, and by others rejected. But even + those that admit them, can admit them only as pleas of necessity; for + they consider the reception of mercenaries into our country, as the + desperate "remedy of desperate distress;" and think, with great reason, + that all means of prevention should be tried, to save us from any second + need of such doubtful succours. +</p> +<p> + That we are able to defend our own country, that arms are most safely + entrusted to our own hands, and that we have strength, and skill, and + courage, equal to the best of the nations of the continent, is the + opinion of every Englishman, who can think without prejudice, and speak + without influence; and, therefore, it will not be easy to persuade the + nation, a nation long renowned for valour, that it can need the help of + foreigners to defend it from invasion. We have been long without the + need of arms by our good fortune, and long without the use by our + negligence; so long, that the practice, and almost the name, of our old + trained bands is forgotten; but the story of ancient times will tell us, + that the trained bands were once able to maintain the quiet and safety + of their country; and reason, without history, will inform us, that + those men are most likely to fight bravely, or, at least, to fight + obstinately, who fight for their own houses and farms, for their own + wives and children. +</p> +<p> + A bill was, therefore, offered for the prevention of any future danger + or invasion, or necessity of mercenary forces, by reestablishing and + improving the militia. It was passed by the commons, but rejected by the + lords. That this bill, the first essay of political consideration, as a + subject long forgotten, should be liable to objection, cannot be + strange; but surely, justice, policy, common reason, require, that we + should be trusted with our own defence, and be kept, no longer in such a + helpless state as, at once, to dread our enemies and confederates. +</p> +<p> + By the bill, such as it was formed, sixty thousand men would always be + in arms. We have shown <a href="#note-27">[27]</a> how they may be, upon any exigence, easily + increased to a hundred and fifty thousand; and, I believe, neither our + friends nor enemies will think it proper to insult our coasts, when they + expect to find upon them a hundred and fifty thousand Englishmen, with + swords in their hands. +</p> +<a name="2HINT19"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + INTRODUCTION TO THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE COMMITTEE, +</h2> +<p> + Appointed to manage the contributions begun at London, December 18, + 1758, for clothing French prisoners of war. +</p> +<p> + The committee intrusted with the money, contributed to the relief of the + subjects of France, now prisoners in the British dominions, here lay + before the publick an exact account of all the sums received and + expended, that the donors may judge how properly their benefactions have + been applied. +</p> +<p> + Charity would lose its name, were it influenced by so mean a motive as + human praise; it is, therefore, not intended to celebrate, by any + particular memorial, the liberality of single persons, or distinct + societies; it is sufficient, that their works praise them. +</p> +<p> + Yet he, who is far from seeking honour, may very justly obviate censure. + If a good example has been set, it may lose its influence by + misrepresentation; and, to free charity from reproach is itself a + charitable action. +</p> +<p> + Against the relief of the French only one argument has been brought; but + that one is so popular and specious, that, if it were to remain + unexamined, it would, by many, be thought irrefragable. It has been + urged, that charity, like other virtues, may be improperly and + unseasonably exerted; that, while we are relieving Frenchmen, there + remain many Englishmen unrelieved; that, while we lavish pity on our + enemies, we forget the misery of our friends. +</p> +<p> + Grant this argument all it can prove, and what is the conclusion?—That + to relieve the French is a good action, but that a better may be + conceived. This is all the result, and this all is very little. To do + the best can seldom be the lot of man: it is sufficient if, when + opportunities are presented, he is ready to do good. How little virtue + could be practised, if beneficence were to wait always for the most + proper objects, and the noblest occasions; occasions that may never + happen, and objects that may never be found. +</p> +<p> + It is far from certain, that a single Englishman will suffer by the + charity to the French. New scenes of misery make new impressions; and + much of the charity, which produced these donations, may be supposed to + have been generated by a species of calamity never known among us + before. Some imagine, that the laws have provided all necessary relief, + in common cases, and remit the poor to the care of the publick; some + have been deceived by fictitious misery, and are afraid of encouraging + imposture; many have observed want to be the effect of vice, and + consider casual alms-givers as patrons of idleness. But all these + difficulties vanish in the present case: we know, that for the prisoners + of war there is no legal provision; we see their distress, and are + certain of its cause; we know that they are poor and naked, and poor and + naked without a crime. +</p> +<p> + But it is not necessary to make any concessions. The opponents of this + charity must allow it to be good, and will not easily prove it not to be + the best. That charity is best, of which the consequences are most + extensive: the relief of enemies has a tendency to unite mankind in + fraternal affection; to soften the acrimony of adverse nations, and + dispose them to peace and amity; in the mean time, it alleviates + captivity, and takes away something from the miseries of war. The rage + of war, however mitigated, will always fill the world with calamity and + horrour; let it not, then, be unnecessarily extended; let animosity and + hostility cease together; and no man be longer deemed an enemy, than + while his sword is drawn against us. +</p> +<p> + The effects of these contributions may, perhaps, reach still further. + Truth is best supported by virtue: we may hope, from those who feel, or + who see, our charity, that they shall no longer detest, as heresy, that + religion, which makes its professors the followers of him, who has + commanded us to "do good to them that hate us." +</p> +<a name="2H_4_20"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + ON THE BRAVERY OF THE ENGLISH COMMON SOLDIERS <a href="#note-28">[28]</a>, +</h2> +<p> + By those who have compared the military genius of the English with that + of the French nation, it is remarked, that "the French officers will + always lead, if the soldiers will follow;" and that "the English + soldiers will always follow, if their officers will lead." +</p> +<p> + In all pointed sentences, some degree of accuracy must be sacrificed to + conciseness; and, in this comparison, our officers seem to lose what our + soldiers gain. I know not any reason for supposing that the English + officers are less willing than the French to lead; but it is, I think, + universally allowed, that the English soldiers are more willing to + follow. Our nation may boast, beyond any other people in the world, of a + kind of epidemick bravery, diffused equally through all its ranks. We + can show a peasantry of heroes, and fill our armies with clowns, whose + courage may vie with that of their general. +</p> +<p> + There may be some pleasure in tracing the causes of this plebeian + magnanimity. The qualities which, commonly, make an army formidable, are + long habits of regularity, great exactness of discipline, and great + confidence in the commander. Regularity may, in time, produce a kind of + mechanical obedience to signals and commands, like that which the + perverse cartesians impute to animals; discipline may impress such an + awe upon the mind, that any danger shall be less dreaded, than the + danger of punishment; and confidence in the wisdom, or fortune, of the + general may induce the soldiers to follow him blindly to the most + dangerous enterprise. +</p> +<p> + What may be done by discipline and regularity, may be seen in the troops + of the Russian emperess, and Prussian monarch. We find, that they may be + broken without confusion, and repulsed without flight. +</p> +<p> + But the English troops have none of these requisites, in any eminent + degree. Regularity is, by no means, part of their character: they are + rarely exercised, and, therefore, show very little dexterity in their + evolutions, as bodies of men, or in the manual use of their weapons, as + individuals; they neither are thought by others, nor by themselves, more + active, or exact, than their enemies, and, therefore, derive none of + their courage from such imaginary superiority. +</p> +<p> + The manner in which they are dispersed in quarters, over the country, + during times of peace, naturally produces laxity of discipline: they are + very little in sight of their officers; and, when they are not engaged + in the slight duty of the guard, are suffered to live, every man his own + way. +</p> +<p> + The equality of English privileges, the impartiality of our laws, the + freedom of our tenures, and the prosperity of our trade, dispose us very + little to reverence superiours. It is not to any great esteem of the + officers, that the English soldier is indebted for his spirit in the + hour of battle; for, perhaps, it does not often happen, that he thinks + much better of his leader than of himself. The French count, who has + lately published the Art of War, remarks, how much soldiers are + animated, when they see all their dangers shared by those who were born + to be their masters, and whom they consider, as beings of a different + rank. The Englishman despises such motives of courage: he was born + without a master; and looks not on any man, however dignified by lace or + titles, as deriving, from nature, any claims to his respect, or + inheriting any qualities superiour to his own. +</p> +<p> + There are some, perhaps, who would imagine, that every Englishman fights + better than the subjects of absolute governments, because he has more to + defend. But what has the English more than the French soldier? Property + they are both, commonly, without. Liberty is, to the lowest rank of + every nation, little more than the choice of working or starving; and + this choice is, I suppose, equally allowed in every country. The English + soldier seldom has his head very full of the constitution; nor has there + been, for more than a century, any war that put the property or liberty + of a single Englishman in danger. +</p> +<p> + Whence, then, is the courage of the English vulgar? It proceeds, in my + opinion, from that dissolution of dependence, which obliges every man to + regard his own character. While every man is fed by his own hands, he + has no need of any servile arts; he may always have wages for his + labour; and is no less necessary to his employer, than his employer is + to him. While he looks for no protection from others, he is naturally + roused to be his own protector; and having nothing to abate his esteem + of himself, he, consequently, aspires to the esteem of others. Thus + every man that crowds our streets is a man of honour, disdainful of + obligation, impatient of reproach, and desirous of extending his + reputation among those of his own rank; and, as courage is in most + frequent use, the fame of courage is most eagerly pursued. From this + neglect of subordination, I do not deny, that some inconveniencies may, + from time to time, proceed: the power of the law does not, always, + sufficiently supply the want of reverence, or maintain the proper + distinction between different ranks; but good and evil will grow up in + this world together; and they who complain, in peace, of the insolence + of the populace, must remember, that their insolence in peace is bravery + in war. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_21"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + POLITICAL TRACTS. +</h2> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Fallitur, egregio quisquis sub principe credit + Servitium, nunquam libertas gratior extat + Quam sub rege pio. + + CLAUDIANUS. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<a name="2H_4_22"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + PREFATORY OBSERVATIONS TO POLITICAL TRACTS. +</h2> +<p> + On Johnson's character, as a political writer, we cannot dwell with + pleasure, since we cannot speak of it with praise. In the following + pamphlets, however, though we cannot honestly subscribe to their + doctrines, we must admire the same powers of composition, the same play + of imagination, the same keen sarcasm and indignant reproof, that + embellish his other productions. He might, and did, think wrongly on + these subjects, but he never wrote what he did not believe to be true, + and, therefore, must be acquitted of all charges of servility or + dishonesty. The False Alarm was published in 1770, and "intended," says + Mr. Boswell, "to justify the conduct of the ministry, and their majority + in the house of commons, for having virtually assumed it as an axiom, + that the expulsion of a member of parliament was equivalent to + exclusion, and thus having declared colonel Lutterel to be duly elected + for the county of Middlesex, notwithstanding Mr. Wilkes had a great + majority of votes. This being justly considered as a gross violation of + the right of election, an alarm for the constitution extended itself all + over the kingdom. To prove this alarm to be false, was the purpose of + Johnson's pamphlet; but even his vast powers are inadequate to cope with + constitutional truth and reason, and his argument failed of effect; and + the house of commons have since expunged the offensive resolution from + their journals. That the house of commons might have expelled Mr. Wilkes + repeatedly, and as often as he should be rechosen, was not to be denied; + but incapacitation cannot be but by an act of the whole legislature. It + was wonderful to see how a prejudice in favour of government in general, + and an aversion to popular clamour, could blind and contract such an + understanding as Johnson's in this particular case." Where Boswell + expresses himself with regard to Johnson, in terms so reprehensive as + the above, we cannot be accused of severity in repeating his just + censure. Several answers appeared, but, perhaps, all of them, in + compliance with the excited feelings of the times, dealt rather in + personal abuse of Johnson, as a pensioner and hireling, than in fair and + manly argument. The chief were, the Crisis; a Letter to Dr. Samuel + Johnson; and, the Constitution Defender and Pensioner exposed, in + Remarks on the False Alarm. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_23"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + THE FALSE ALARM. 1770. +</h2> +<p> + One of the chief advantages derived by the present generation from the + improvement and diffusion of philosophy, is deliverance from unnecessary + terrours, and exemption from false alarms. The unusual appearances, + whether regular or accidental, which once spread consternation over ages + of ignorance, are now the recreations of inquisitive security. The sun + is no more lamented when it is eclipsed, than when it sets; and meteors + play their coruscations without prognostick or prediction. +</p> +<p> + The advancement of political knowledge may be expected to produce, in + time, the like effects. Causeless discontent, and seditious violence, + will grow less frequent and less formidable, as the science of + government is better ascertained, by a diligent study of the theory of + man. It is not, indeed, to be expected, that physical and political + truth should meet with equal acceptance, or gain ground upon the world + with equal facility. The notions of the naturalist find mankind in a + state of neutrality, or, at worst, have nothing to encounter but + prejudice and vanity; prejudice without malignity, and vanity without + interest. But the politician's improvements are opposed by every passion + that can exclude conviction or suppress it; by ambition, by avarice, by + hope, and by terrour, by publick faction, and private animosity. +</p> +<p> + It is evident, whatever be the cause, that this nation, with all its + renown for speculation and for learning, has yet made little proficiency + in civil wisdom. We are still so much unacquainted with our own state, + and so unskilful in the pursuit of happiness, that we shudder without + danger, complain without grievances, and suffer our quiet to be + disturbed, and our commerce to be interrupted, by an opposition to the + government, raised only by interest, and supported only by clamour, + which yet has so far prevailed upon ignorance and timidity, that many + favour it, as reasonable, and many dread it, as powerful. +</p> +<p> + What is urged by those who have been so industrious to spread suspicion, + and incite fury, from one end of the kingdom to the other, may be known, + by perusing the papers which have been, at once, presented as petitions + to the king, and exhibited in print as remonstrances to the people. It + may, therefore, not be improper to lay before the publick the + reflections of a man, who cannot favour the opposition, for he thinks it + wicked, and cannot fear it, for he thinks it weak. +</p> +<p> + The grievance which has produced all this tempest of outrage, the + oppression in which all other oppressions are included, the invasion + which has left us no property, the alarm that suffers no patriot to + sleep in quiet, is comprised in a vote of the house of commons, by which + the freeholders of Middlesex are deprived of a Briton's + birthright—representation in parliament. +</p> +<p> + They have, indeed, received the usual writ of election; but that writ, + alas! was malicious mockery: they were insulted with the form, but + denied the reality, for there was one man excepted from their choice: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Non de vi, neque cæde, nec veneno, + Sed lis est mihi de tribus capellis." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + The character of the man, thus fatally excepted, I have no purpose to + delineate. Lampoon itself would disdain to speak ill of him, of whom no + man speaks well. It is sufficient, that he is expelled the house of + commons, and confined in gaol, as being legally convicted of sedition + and impiety. +</p> +<p> + That this man cannot be appointed one of the guardians and counsellors + of the church and state, is a grievance not to be endured. Every lover + of liberty stands doubtful of the fate of posterity, because the chief + county in England cannot take its representative from a gaol. +</p> +<p> + Whence Middlesex should obtain the right of being denominated the chief + county cannot easily be discovered; it is, indeed, the county where the + chief city happens to stand, but, how that city treated the favourite of + Middlesex, is not yet forgotten. The county, as distinguished from the + city, has no claim to particular consideration. That a man was in gaol + for sedition and impiety, would, I believe, have been, within memory, a + sufficient reason why he should not come out of gaol a legislator. This + reason, notwithstanding the mutability of fashion, happens still to + operate on the house of commons. Their notions, however strange, may be + justified by a common observation, that few are mended by imprisonment, + and that he, whose crimes have made confinement necessary, seldom makes + any other use of his enlargement, than to do, with greater cunning, what + he did before with less. +</p> +<p> + But the people have been told, with great confidence, that the house + cannot control the right of constituting representatives; that he who + can persuade lawful electors to choose him, whatever be his character, + is lawfully chosen, and has a claim to a seat in parliament, from which + no human authority can depose him. +</p> +<p> + Here, however, the patrons of opposition are in some perplexity. They + are forced to confess, that, by a train of precedents, sufficient to + establish a custom of parliament, the house of commons has jurisdiction + over its own members; that the whole has power over individuals; and + that this power has been exercised sometimes in imprisonment, and often + in expulsion. +</p> +<p> + That such power should reside in the house of commons, in some cases, is + inevitably necessary; since it is required, by every polity, that where + there is a possibility of offence, there should be a possibility of + punishment. A member of the house cannot be cited for his conduct in + parliament before any other court; and, therefore, if the house cannot + punish him, he may attack, with impunity, the rights of the people, and + the title of the king. +</p> +<p> + This exemption from the authority of other courts was, I think, first + established in favour of the five members in the long parliament. It is + not to be considered as an usurpation, for it is implied in the + principles of government. If legislative powers are not coordinate, they + cease, in part, to be legislative; and if they be coordinate, they are + unaccountable; for to whom must that power account, which has no + superiour? +</p> +<p> + The house of commons is, indeed, dissoluble by the king, as the nation + has, of late, been very clamorously told; but while it subsists it is + coordinate with the other powers, and this coordination ceases only, + when the house, by dissolution, ceases to subsist. +</p> +<p> + As the particular representatives of the people are, in their publick + character, above the control of the courts of law, they must be subject + to the jurisdiction of the house; and as the house, in the exercise of + its authority, can be neither directed nor restrained, its own + resolutions must be its laws, at least, if there is no antecedent + decision of the whole legislature. +</p> +<p> + This privilege, not confirmed by any written law or positive compact, + but by the resistless power of political necessity, they have exercised, + probably, from their first institution, but certainly, as their records + inform us, from the 23rd of Elizabeth, when they expelled a member for + derogating from their privileges. +</p> +<p> + It may, perhaps, be doubted, whether it was originally necessary, that + this right of control and punishment should extend beyond offences in + the exercise of parliamentary duty, since all other crimes are + cognizable by other courts. But they who are the only judges of their + own rights, have exerted the power of expulsion on other occasions, and + when wickedness arrived at a certain magnitude, have considered an + offence against society, as an offence against the house. +</p> +<p> + They have, therefore, divested notorious delinquents of their + legislative character, and delivered them up to shame or punishment, + naked and unprotected, that they might not contaminate the dignity of + parliament. +</p> +<p> + It is allowed, that a man attainted of felony cannot sit in parliament, + and the commons probably judged, that, not being bound to the forms of + law, they might treat these as felons, whose crimes were, in their + opinion, equivalent to felony; and that, as a known felon could not be + chosen, a man, so like a felon that he could not easily be + distinguished, ought to be expelled. +</p> +<p> + The first laws had no law to enforce them; the first authority was + constituted by itself. The power exercised by the house of commons is of + this kind; a power rooted in the principles of government, and branched + out by occasional practice; a power which necessity made just, and + precedents have made legal. +</p> +<p> + It will occur, that authority thus uncontroulable may, in times of heat + and contest, be oppressively and injuriously exerted, and that he who + suffers injustice is without redress, however innocent, however + miserable. +</p> +<p> + The position is true, but the argument is useless. The commons must be + controlled, or be exempt from control. If they are exempt, they may do + injury which cannot be redressed, if they are controlled, they are no + longer legislative. +</p> +<p> + If the possibility of abuse be an argument against authority, no + authority ever can be established: if the actual abuse destroys its + legality, there is no legal government now in the world. +</p> +<p> + This power, which the commons have so long exercised, they ventured to + use once more against Mr. Wilkes, and, on the 3rd of February, 1769, + expelled him the house, "for having printed and published a seditious + libel, and three obscene and impious libels." +</p> +<p> + If these imputations were just, the expulsion was, surely, seasonable; + and that they were just, the house had reason to determine, as he had + confessed himself, at the bar, the author of the libel which they term + seditious, and was convicted, in the King's Bench, of both the + publications. +</p> +<p> + But the freeholders of Middlesex were of another opinion. They either + thought him innocent, or were not offended by his guilt. When a writ was + issued for the election of a knight for Middlesex, in the room of John + Wilkes, esq. expelled the house, his friends, on the sixteenth of + February, chose him again. +</p> +<p> + On the 17th, it was resolved, "that John Wilkes, esq. having been, in + this session of parliament, expelled the house, was, and is, incapable + of being elected a member to serve in this present parliament." +</p> +<p> + As there was no other candidate, it was resolved, at the same time, that + the election of the sixteenth was a void election. +</p> +<p> + The freeholders still continued to think, that no other man was fit to + represent them, and, on the sixteenth of March, elected him once more. + Their resolution was now so well known, that no opponent ventured to + appear. +</p> +<p> + The commons began to find, that power, without materials for operation, + can produce no effect. They might make the election void for ever, but + if no other candidate could be found, their determination could only be + negative. They, however, made void the last election, and ordered a new + writ. +</p> +<p> + On the 13th of April was a new election, at which Mr. Lutterel, and + others, offered themselves candidates. Every method of intimidation was + used, and some acts of violence were done, to hinder Mr. Lutterel from + appearing. He was not deterred, and the poll was taken, which exhibited, + for +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Mr. Wilkes 1143 + Mr. Lutterel 296 +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + The sheriff returned Mr. Wilkes; but the house, on April the fifteenth, + determined that Mr. Lutterel was lawfully elected. +</p> +<p> + From this day began the clamour, which has continued till now. Those who + had undertaken to oppose the ministry, having no grievance of greater + magnitude, endeavoured to swell this decision into bulk, and distort it + into deformity, and then held it out to terrify the nation. +</p> +<p> + Every artifice of sedition has been since practised to awaken discontent + and inflame indignation. The papers of every day have been filled with + exhortations and menaces of faction. The madness has spread through all + ranks, and through both sexes; women and children have clamoured for Mr. + Wilkes; honest simplicity has been cheated into fury, and only the wise + have escaped infection. +</p> +<p> + The greater part may justly be suspected of not believing their own + position, and with them it is not necessary to dispute. They cannot be + convinced who are convinced already, and it is well known that they will + not be ashamed. The decision, however, by which the smaller number of + votes was preferred to the greater, has perplexed the minds of some, + whose opinions it were indecent to despise, and who, by their integrity, + well deserve to have their doubts appeased. +</p> +<p> + Every diffuse and complicated question may be examined by different + methods, upon different principles; and that truth, which is easily + found by one investigator, may be missed by another, equally honest and + equally diligent. +</p> +<p> + Those who inquire, whether a smaller number of legal votes can elect a + representative in opposition to a greater, must receive, from every + tongue, the same answer. +</p> +<p> + The question, therefore, must be, whether a smaller number of legal + votes shall not prevail against a greater number of votes not legal. +</p> +<p> + It must be considered, that those votes only are legal which are legally + given, and that those only are legally given, which are given for a + legal candidate. +</p> +<p> + It remains, then, to be discussed, whether a man expelled can be so + disqualified by a vote of the house, as that he shall be no longer + eligible by lawful electors. +</p> +<p> + Here we must again recur, not to positive institutions, but to the + unwritten law of social nature, to the great and pregnant principle of + political necessity. All government supposes subjects; all authority + implies obedience: to suppose in one the right to command what another + has the right to refuse, is absurd and contradictory; a state, so + constituted, must rest for ever in motionless equipoise, with equal + attractions of contrary tendency, with equal weights of power balancing + each other. +</p> +<p> + Laws which cannot be enforced can neither prevent nor rectify disorders. + A sentence which cannot be executed can have no power to warn or to + reform. If the commons have only the power of dismissing, for a few + days, the man whom his constituents can immediately send back; if they + can expel, but cannot exclude, they have nothing more than nominal + authority, to which, perhaps, obedience never may be paid. +</p> +<p> + The representatives of our ancestors had an opinion very different: they + fined and imprisoned their members; on great provocation, they disabled + them for ever; and this power of pronouncing perpetual disability is + maintained by Selden himself. +</p> +<p> + These claims seem to have been made and allowed, when the constitution + of our government had not yet been sufficiently studied. Such powers are + not legal, because they are not necessary; and of that power which only + necessity justifies, no more is to be admitted than necessity obtrudes. +</p> +<p> + The commons cannot make laws; they can only pass resolutions, which, + like all resolutions, are of force only to those that make them, and to + those, only while they are willing to observe them. +</p> +<p> + The vote of the house of commons has, therefore, only so far the force + of a law, as that force is necessary to preserve the vote from losing + its efficacy; it must begin by operating upon themselves, and extend its + influence to others, only by consequences arising from the first + intention. He that starts game on his own manor, may pursue it into + another. +</p> +<p> + They can properly make laws only for themselves: a member, while he + keeps his seat, is subject to these laws; but when he is expelled, the + jurisdiction ceases, for he is now no longer within their dominion. +</p> +<p> + The disability, which a vote can superinduce to expulsion, is no more + than was included in expulsion itself; it is only a declaration of the + commons, that they will permit no longer him, whom they thus censure, to + sit with them in parliament; a declaration made by that right, which + they necessarily possess, of regulating their own house, and of + inflicting punishment on their own delinquents. +</p> +<p> + They have, therefore, no other way to enforce the sentence of + incapacity, than that of adhering to it. They cannot otherwise punish + the candidate so disqualified for offering himself, nor the electors for + accepting him. But if he has any competitor, that competitor must + prevail, and if he has none, his election will be void; for the right of + the house to reject annihilates, with regard to the man so rejected, the + right of electing. +</p> +<p> + It has been urged, that the power of the house terminates with their + session; since a prisoner, committed by the speaker's warrant, cannot be + detained during the recess. That power, indeed, ceases with the session, + which must operate by the agency of others; because, when they do not + sit, they can employ no agent, having no longer any legal existence; but + that which is exercised on themselves revives at their meeting, when the + subject of that power still subsists: they can, in the next session, + refuse to re-admit him, whom, in the former session, they expelled. That + expulsion inferred exclusion, in the present case, must be, I think, + easily admitted. The expulsion, and the writ issued for a new election + were in the same session, and, since the house is, by the rule of + parliament, bound for the session by a vote once passed, the expelled + member cannot be admitted. He that cannot be admitted, cannot be + elected; and the votes given to a man ineligible being given in vain, + the highest number for an eligible candidate becomes a majority. +</p> +<p> + To these conclusions, as to most moral, and to all political positions, + many objections may be made. The perpetual subject of political + disquisition is not absolute, but comparative good. Of two systems of + government, or two laws relating to the same subject, neither will ever + be such as theoretical nicety would desire, and, therefore, neither can + easily force its way against prejudice and obstinacy; each will have its + excellencies and defects; and every man, with a little help from pride, + may think his own the best. +</p> +<p> + It seems to be the opinion of many, that expulsion is only a dismission + of the representative to his constituents, with such a testimony against + him, as his sentence may comprise; and that, if his constituents, + notwithstanding the censure of the house, thinking his case hard, his + fault trifling, or his excellencies such as overbalance it, should again + choose him, as still worthy of their trust, the house cannot refuse him, + for his punishment has purged his fault, and the right of electors must + not be violated. +</p> +<p> + This is plausible, but not cogent. It is a scheme of representation, + which would make a specious appearance in a political romance, but + cannot be brought into practice among us, who see every day the towering + head of speculation bow down unwillingly to groveling experience. +</p> +<p> + Governments formed by chance, and gradually improved by such expedients, + as the successive discovery of their defects happened to suggest, are + never to be tried by a regular theory. They are fabricks of dissimilar + materials, raised by different architects, upon different plans. We must + be content with them, as they are; should we attempt to mend their + disproportions, we might easily demolish, and difficultly rebuild them. +</p> +<p> + Laws are now made, and customs are established; these are our rules, and + by them we must be guided. +</p> +<p> + It is uncontrovertibly certain, that the commons never intended to leave + electors the liberty of returning them an expelled member; for they + always require one to be chosen in the room of him that is expelled, and + I see not with what propriety a man can be rechosen in his own room. +</p> +<p> + Expulsion, if this were its whole effect, might very often be desirable. + Sedition, or obscenity, might be no greater crimes in the opinion of + other electors, than in that of the freeholders of Middlesex; and many a + wretch, whom his colleagues should expel, might come back persecuted + into fame, and provoke, with harder front, a second expulsion. +</p> +<p> + Many of the representatives of the people can hardly be said to have + been chosen at all. Some, by inheriting a borough, inherit a seat; and + some sit by the favour of others, whom, perhaps, they may gratify by the + act which provoked the expulsion. Some are safe by their popularity, and + some by their alliances. None would dread expulsion, if this doctrine + were received, but those who bought their elections, and who would be + obliged to buy them again at a higher price. +</p> +<p> + But as uncertainties are to be determined by things certain, and customs + to be explained, where it is possible, by written law, the patriots have + triumphed with a quotation from an act of the fourth and fifth of Anne, + which permits those to be rechosen, whose seats are vacated by the + acceptance of a place of profit. This they wisely consider as an + expulsion, and from the permission, in this case, of a reelection, + infer, that every other expulsion leaves the delinquent entitled to the + same indulgence. This is the paragraph: +</p> +<p> + "If any person, being chosen a member of the house of commons, shall + accept of any office from the crown, during such time as he shall + continue a member, his election shall be, and is hereby declared to be + void; and a new writ shall issue for a new election, as if such person, + so accepting, was naturally dead. Nevertheless such person shall be + capable of being again elected, as if his place had not become void as + aforesaid." +</p> +<p> + How this favours the doctrine of readmission, by a second choice, I am + not able to discover. The statute of the thirtieth of Charles the second + had enacted, that "he who should sit in the house of commons, without + taking the oaths, and subscribing the test, should be disabled to sit in + the house during that parliament, and a writ should issue for the + election of a new member, in place of the member so disabled, as if such + member had naturally died." +</p> +<p> + This last clause is, apparently, copied in the act of Anne, but with the + common fate of imitators. In the act of Charles, the political death + continued during the parliament; in that of Anne it was hardly worth the + while to kill the man whom the next breath was to revive. It is, + however, apparent, that in the opinion of the parliament, the dead-doing + lines would have kept him motionless, if he had not been recovered by a + kind exception. A seat vacated could not be regained, without express + permission of the same statute. +</p> +<p> + The right of being chosen again to a seat thus vacated, is not enjoyed + by any general right, but required a special clause and solicitous + provision. +</p> +<p> + But what resemblance can imagination conceive between one man vacating + his seat by a mark of favour from the crown, and another driven from it + for sedition and obscenity? The acceptance of a place contaminates no + character; the crown that gives it, intends to give with it always + dignity, sometimes authority. The commons, it is well known, think not + worse of themselves, or others, for their offices of profit; yet profit + implies temptation, and may expose a representative to the suspicion of + his constituents; though, if they still think him worthy of their + confidence, they may again elect him. +</p> +<p> + Such is the consequence. When a man is dismissed by law to his + constituents, with new trust and new dignity, they may, if they think + him incorruptible, restore him to his seat; what can follow, therefore, + but that, when the house drives out a varlet, with publick infamy, he + goes away with the like permission to return? +</p> +<p> + If infatuation be, as the proverb tells us, the forerunner of + destruction, how near must be the ruin of a nation that can be incited + against its governours by sophistry like this! I may be excused, if I + catch the panick, and join my groans, at this alarming crisis, with the + general lamentation of weeping patriots. +</p> +<p> + Another objection is, that the commons, by pronouncing the sentence of + disqualification, make a law, and take upon themselves the power of the + whole legislature. Many quotations are then produced to prove, that the + house of commons can make no laws. +</p> +<p> + Three acts have been cited, disabling members, for different terms, on + different occasions; and it is profoundly remarked, that if the commons + could, by their own privilege, have made a disqualification, their + jealousy of their privileges would never have admitted the concurrent + sanction of the other powers. +</p> +<p> + I must for ever remind these puny controvertists, that those acts are + laws of permanent obligation; that two of them are now in force, and + that the other expired only when it had fulfilled its end. Such laws the + commons cannot make; they could, perhaps, have determined for + themselves, that they would expel all who should not take the test, but + they could leave no authority behind them, that should oblige the next + parliament to expel them. They could refuse the South sea directors, but + they could not entail the refusal. They can disqualify by vote, but not + by law; they cannot know that the sentence of disqualification + pronounced to-day may not become void to-morrow, by the dissolution of + their own house. Yet, while the same parliament sits, the + disqualification continues, unless the vote be rescinded; and, while it + so continues, makes the votes, which freeholders may give to the + interdicted candidate, useless and dead, since there cannot exist, with + respect to the same subject, at the same time, an absolute power to + choose and an absolute power to reject. +</p> +<p> + In 1614, the attorney general was voted incapable of a seat in the house + of commons; and the nation is triumphantly told, that, though the vote + never was revoked, the attorney general is now a member. He, certainly, + may now be a member, without revocation of the vote. A law is of + perpetual obligation; but a vote is nothing, when the voters are gone. A + law is a compact reciprocally made by the legislative powers, and, + therefore, not to be abrogated but by all the parties. A vote is simply + a resolution, which binds only him that is willing to be bound. +</p> +<p> + I have thus punctiliously and minutely pursued this disquisition, + because I suspect, that these reasoners, whose business is to deceive + others, have sometimes deceived themselves, and I am willing to free + them from their embarrassment, though I do not expect much gratitude for + my kindness. +</p> +<p> + Other objections are yet remaining, for of political objections there + cannot easily be an end. It has been observed, that vice is no proper + cause of expulsion; for if the worst man in the house were always to be + expelled, in time none would be left; but no man is expelled for being + worst, he is expelled for being enormously bad; his conduct is compared, + not with that of others, but with the rule of action. +</p> +<p> + The punishment of expulsion, being in its own nature uncertain, may be + too great or too little for the fault. +</p> +<p> + This must be the case of many punishments. Forfeiture of chattels is + nothing to him that has no possessions. Exile itself may be accidentally + a good; and, indeed, any punishment, less than death, is very different + to different men. +</p> +<p> + But, if this precedent be admitted and established, no man can, + hereafter, be sure that he shall be represented by him whom he would + choose. One half of the house may meet early in the morning, and snatch + an opportunity to expel the other, and the greater part of the nation + may, by this stratagem, be without its lawful representatives. +</p> +<p> + He that sees all this, sees very far. But I can tell him of greater + evils yet behind. There is one possibility of wickedness, which, at this + alarming crisis, has not yet been mentioned. Every one knows the malice, + the subtlety, the industry, the vigilance, and the greediness of the + Scots. The Scotch members are about the number sufficient to make a + house. I propose it to the consideration of the supporters of the bill + of rights, whether there is not reason to suspect that these hungry + intruders from the north are now contriving to expel all the English. We + may then curse the hour in which it was determined, that expulsion and + exclusion are the same; for who can guess what may be done, when the + Scots have the whole house to themselves? +</p> +<p> + Thus agreeable to custom and reason, notwithstanding all objections, + real or imaginary, thus consistent with the practice of former times, + and thus consequential to the original principles of government, is that + decision, by which so much violence of discontent has been excited, + which has been so dolorously bewailed, and so outrageously resented. +</p> +<p> + Let us, however, not be seduced to put too much confidence in justice or + in truth: they have often been found inactive in their own defence, and + give more confidence than help to their friends and their advocates. It + may, perhaps, be prudent to make one momentary concession to falsehood, + by supposing the vote in Mr. Lutterel's favour to be wrong. +</p> +<p> + All wrong ought to be rectified. If Mr. Wilkes is deprived of a lawful + seat, both he and his electors have reason to complain; but it will not + be easily found, why, among the innumerable wrongs of which a great part + of mankind are hourly complaining, the whole care of the publick should + be transferred to Mr. Wilkes and the freeholders of Middlesex, who might + all sink into nonexistence, without any other effect, than that there + would be room made for a new rabble, and a new retailer of sedition and + obscenity. The cause of our country would suffer little; the rabble, + whencesoever they come, will be always patriots, and always supporters + of the bill of rights. +</p> +<p> + The house of commons decides the disputes arising from elections. Was it + ever supposed, that in all cases their decisions were right? Every man, + whose lawful election is defeated, is equally wronged with Mr. Wilkes, + and his constituents feel their disappointment, with no less anguish + than the freeholders of Middlesex. These decisions have often been + apparently partial, and, sometimes, tyrannically oppressive. A majority + has been given to a favourite candidate, by expunging votes which had + always been allowed, and which, therefore, had the authority by which + all votes are given, that of custom uninterrupted. When the commons + determine who shall be constituents, they may, with some propriety, be + said to make law, because those determinations have, hitherto, for the + sake of quiet, been adopted by succeeding parliaments. A vote, + therefore, of the house, when it operates as a law, is to individuals a + law only temporary, but to communities perpetual. +</p> +<p> + Yet, though all this has been done, and though, at every new parliament, + much of this is expected to be done again, it has never produced, in any + former time, such an alarming crisis. We have found, by experience, that + though a squire has given ale and venison in vain, and a borough has + been compelled to see its dearest interest in the hands of him whom it + did not trust, yet the general state of the nation has continued the + same. The sun has risen, and the corn has grown, and, whatever talk has + been of the danger of property, yet he that ploughed the field commonly + reaped it; and he that built a house was master of the door; the + vexation excited by injustice suffered, or supposed to be suffered, by + any private man, or single community, was local and temporary, it + neither spread far, nor lasted long. +</p> +<p> + The nation looked on with little care, because there did not seem to be + much danger. The consequence of small irregularities was not felt, and + we had not yet learned to be terrified by very distant enemies. +</p> +<p> + But quiet and security are now at an end. Our vigilance is quickened, + and our comprehension is enlarged. We not only see events in their + causes, but before their causes; we hear the thunder while the sky is + clear, and see the mine sprung before it is dug. Political wisdom has, + by the force of English genius, been improved, at last, not only to + political intuition, but to political prescience. +</p> +<p> + But it cannot, I am afraid, be said, that as we are grown wise, we are + made happy. It is said of those who have the wonderful power called + second sight, that they seldom see any thing but evil: political second + sight has the same effect; we hear of nothing but of an alarming crisis, + of violated rights, and expiring liberties. The morning rises upon new + wrongs, and the dreamer passes the night in imaginary shackles. +</p> +<p> + The sphere of anxiety is now enlarged; he that hitherto cared only for + himself, now cares for the publick; for he has learned, that the + happiness of individuals is comprised in the prosperity of the whole; + and that his country never suffers, but he suffers with it, however it + happens that he feels no pain. +</p> +<p> + Fired with this fever of epidemick patriotism, the tailor slips his + thimble, the draper drops his yard, and the blacksmith lays down his + hammer; they meet at an honest ale-house, consider the state of the + nation, read or hear the last petition, lament the miseries of the time, + are alarmed at the dreadful crisis, and subscribe to the support of the + bill of rights. +</p> +<p> + It sometimes, indeed, happens, that an intruder, of more benevolence + than prudence, attempts to disperse their cloud of dejection, and ease + their hearts by seasonable consolation. He tells them, that though the + government cannot be too diligently watched, it may be too hastily + accused; and that, though private judgment is every man's right, yet we + cannot judge of what we do not know; that we feel at present no evils + which government can alleviate, and that the publick business is + committed to men, who have as much right to confidence as their + adversaries; that the freeholders of Middlesex, if they could not choose + Mr. Wilkes, might have chosen any other man, and that "he trusts we have + within the realm, five hundred as good as he;" that even if this, which + has happened to Middlesex, had happened to every other county, that one + man should be made incapable of being elected, it could produce no great + change in the parliament, nor much contract the power of election; that, + what has been done is, probably, right; and that if it be wrong, it is + of little consequence, since a like case cannot easily occur; that + expulsions are very rare, and if they should, by unbounded insolence of + faction, become more frequent, the electors may easily provide a second + choice. +</p> +<p> + All this he may say, but not half of this will be heard; his opponents + will stun him and themselves with a confused sound of pensions and + places, venality and corruption, oppression and invasion, slavery and + ruin. +</p> +<p> + Outcries, like these, uttered by malignity, and echoed by folly; general + accusations of indeterminate wickedness; and obscure hints of impossible + designs, dispersed among those that do not know their meaning, by those + that know them to be false, have disposed part of the nation, though but + a small part, to pester the court with ridiculous petitions. +</p> +<p> + The progress of a petition is well known. An ejected placeman goes down + to his county or his borough, tells his friends of his inability to + serve them, and his constituents of the corruption of the government. + His friends readily understand that he who can get nothing, will have + nothing to give. They agree to proclaim a meeting; meat and drink are + plentifully provided; a crowd is easily brought together, and those who + think that they know the reason of their meeting, undertake to tell + those who know it not; ale and clamour unite their powers; the crowd, + condensed and heated, begins to ferment with the leaven of sedition: all + see a thousand evils, though they cannot show them; and grow impatient + for a remedy, though they know not what. +</p> +<p> + A speech is then made by the <i>Cicero</i> of the day; he says much, and + suppresses more; and credit is equally given to what he tells, and what + he conceals. The petition is read, and universally approved. Those who + are sober enough to write, add their names, and the rest would sign it, + if they could. +</p> +<p> + Every man goes home and tells his neighbour of the glories of the day; + how he was consulted, and what he advised; how he was invited into the + great room, where his lordship called him by his name; how he was + caressed by sir Francis, sir Joseph, or sir George; how he eat turtle + and venison, and drank unanimity to the three brothers. +</p> +<p> + The poor loiterer, whose shop had confined him, or whose wife had locked + him up, hears the tale of luxury with envy, and, at last, inquires what + was their petition. Of the petition nothing is remembered by the + narrator, but that it spoke much of fears and apprehensions, and + something very alarming, and that he is sure it is against the + government; the other is convinced that it must be right, and wishes he + had been there, for he loves wine and venison, and is resolved, as long + as he lives, to be against the government. +</p> +<p> + The petition is then handed from town to town, and from house to house; + and, wherever it comes, the inhabitants flock together, that they may + see that which must be sent to the king. Names are easily collected. One + man signs, because he hates the papists; another, because he has vowed + destruction to the tumpikes; one, because it will vex the parson; + another, because he owes his landlord nothing; one, because he is rich; + another, because he is poor; one, to show that he is not afraid; and + another, to show that he can write. +</p> +<p> + The passage, however, is not always smooth. Those who collect + contributions to sedition, sometimes apply to a man of higher rank and + more enlightened mind, who, instead of lending them his name, calmly + reproves them for being seducers of the people. +</p> +<p> + You who are here, says he, complaining of venality, are yourselves the + agents of those who having estimated themselves at too high a price, are + only angry that they are not bought. You are appealing from the + parliament to the rabble, and inviting those who, scarcely, in the most + common affairs, distinguish right from wrong, to judge of a question + complicated with law written and unwritten, with the general principles + of government, and the particular customs of the house of commons; you + are showing them a grievance, so distant that they cannot see it, and so + light that they cannot feel it; for how, but by unnecessary intelligence + and artificial provocation, should the farmers and shopkeepers of + Yorkshire and Cumberland know or care how Middlesex is represented? + Instead of wandering thus round the county to exasperate the rage of + party, and darken the suspicions of ignorance, it is the duty of men + like you, who have leisure for inquiry, to lead back the people to their + honest labour; to tell them, that submission is the duty of the + ignorant, and content the virtue of the poor; that they have no skill in + the art of government, nor any interest in the dissensions of the great; + and when you meet with any, as some there are, whose understandings are + capable of conviction, it will become you to allay this foaming + ebullition, by showing them, that they have as much happiness as the + condition of life will easily receive; and that a government, of which + an erroneous or unjust representation of Middlesex is the greatest crime + that interest can discover, or malice can upbraid, is government + approaching nearer to perfection, than any that experience has known, or + history related. +</p> +<p> + The drudges of sedition wish to change their ground; they hear him with + sullen silence, feel conviction without repentance, and are confounded, + but not abashed; they go forward to another door, and find a kinder + reception from a man enraged against the government, because he has just + been paying the tax upon his windows. +</p> +<p> + That a petition for a dissolution of the parliament will, at all times, + have its favourers, may be easily imagined. The people, indeed, do not + expect that one house of commons will be much honester or much wiser + than another; they do not suppose that the taxes will be lightened; or, + though they have been so often taught to hope it, that soap and candles + will be cheaper; they expect no redress of grievances, for of no + grievances, but taxes, do they complain; they wish not the extension of + liberty, for they do not feel any restraint; about the security of + privilege or property they are totally careless, for they see no + property invaded, nor know, till they are told, that any privilege has + suffered violation. +</p> +<p> + Least of all do they expect, that any future parliament will lessen its + own powers, or communicate to the people that authority which it has + once obtained. +</p> +<p> + Yet a new parliament is sufficiently desirable. The year of election is + a year of jollity; and, what is still more delightful, a year of + equality: the glutton now eats the delicacies for which he longed when + he could not purchase them, and the drunkard has the pleasure of wine, + without the cost: the drone lives awhile without work, and the + shopkeeper, in the flow of money, raises his price: the mechanick, that + trembled at the presence of sir Joseph, now bids him come again for an + answer: and the poacher, whose gun has been seized, now finds an + opportunity to reclaim it. Even the honest man is not displeased to see + himself important, and willingly resumes, in two years, that power which + he had resigned for seven. Few love their friends so well as not to + desire superiority by unexpensive benefaction. +</p> +<p> + Yet, notwithstanding all these motives to compliance, the promoters of + petitions have not been successful. Few could be persuaded to lament + evils which they did not suffer, or to solicit for redress which they do + not want. The petition has been, in some places, rejected; and, perhaps, + in all but one, signed only by the meanest and grossest of the people. +</p> +<p> + Since this expedient, now invented or revived, to distress the + government, and equally practicable, at all times, by all who shall be + excluded from power and from profit, has produced so little effect, let + us consider the opposition as no longer formidable. The great engine has + recoiled upon them. They thought, that <i>the terms</i>, they <i>sent, were + terms of weight</i>, which would have <i>amazed all, and stumbled many</i>; but + the consternation is now over, and their foes <i>stand upright</i>, as + before. +</p> +<p> + With great propriety and dignity the king has, in his speech, neglected + or forgotten them. He might easily know, that what was presented, as the + sense of the people, is the sense only of the profligate and dissolute; + and, that whatever parliament should be convened, the same petitioners + would be ready, for the same reason, to request its dissolution. +</p> +<p> + As we once had a rebellion of the clowns, we have now an opposition of + the pedlers. The quiet of the nation has been, for years, disturbed by a + faction, against which all factions ought to conspire; for its original + principle is the desire of leveling; it is only animated, under the name + of zeal, by the natural malignity of the mean against the great. +</p> +<p> + When, in the confusion which the English invasions produced in France, + the villains, imagining that they had found the golden hour of + emancipation, took arms in their hands, the knights of both nations + considered the cause as common, and suspending the general hostility, + united to chastise them. +</p> +<p> + The whole conduct of this despicable faction is distinguished by + plebeian grossness, and savage indecency. To misrepresent the actions + and the principles of their enemies is common to all parties; but the + insolence of invective, and brutality of reproach, which have lately + prevailed, are peculiar to this. +</p> +<p> + An infallible characteristick of meanness is cruelty. This is the only + faction, that has shouted at the condemnation of a criminal, and that, + when his innocence procured his pardon, has clamoured for his blood. +</p> +<p> + All other parties, however enraged at each other, have agreed to treat + the throne with decency; but these low-born railers have attacked not + only the authority, but the character of their sovereign, and have + endeavoured, surely without effect, to alienate the affections of the + people from the only king, who, for almost a century, has much appeared + to desire, or much endeavoured to deserve them. They have insulted him + with rudeness, and with menaces, which were never excited by the gloomy + sullenness of William, even when half the nation denied him their + allegiance; nor by the dangerous bigotry of James, unless, when he was + finally driven from his palace; and with which scarcely the open + hostilities of rebellion ventured to vilify the unhappy Charles, even in + the remarks on the cabinet of Naseby. +</p> +<p> + It is surely not unreasonable to hope, that the nation will consult its + dignity, if not its safety, and disdain to be protected or enslaved by + the declaimers, or the plotters of a city tavern. Had Rome fallen by the + Catilinarian conspiracy, she might have consoled her fate by the + greatness of her destroyers; but what would have alleviated the disgrace + of England, had her government been changed by Tiler or by Ket? +</p> +<p> + One part of the nation has never before contended with the other, but + for some weighty and apparent interest. If the means were violent, the + end was great. The civil war was fought for what each army called, and + believed, the best religion and the best government. The struggle in the + reign of Anne, was to exclude or restore an exile king. We are now + disputing, with almost equal animosity, whether Middlesex shall be + represented, or not, by a criminal from a gaol. +</p> +<p> + The only comfort left, in such degeneracy, is, that a lower state can be + no longer possible. +</p> +<p> + In this contemptuous censure, I mean not to include every single man. In + all lead, says the chymist, there is silver; and in all copper there is + gold. But mingled masses are justly denominated by the greater quantity, + and when the precious particles are not worth extraction, a faction and + a pig must be melted down together to the forms and offices that chance + allots them: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Fiunt urceoli, pelves, sartago, patellæ." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + A few weeks will now show, whether the government can be shaken by empty + noise, and whether the faction, which depends upon its influence, has + not deceived, alike, the publick and itself. That it should have + continued till now, is sufficiently shameful. None can, indeed, wonder + that it has been supported by the sectaries, the natural fomenters of + sedition, and confederates of the rabble, of whose religion little now + remains but hatred of establishments, and who are angry to find + separation now only tolerated, which was once rewarded; but every honest + man must lament, that it has been regarded with frigid neutrality by the + tories, who, being long accustomed to signalize their principles by + opposition to the court, do not yet consider, that they have, at last, a + king, who knows not the name of party, and who wishes to be the common + father of all his people. +</p> +<p> + As a man inebriated only by vapours soon recovers in the open air; a + nation discontented to madness, without any adequate cause, will return + to its wits and its allegiance, when a little pause has cooled it to + reflection. Nothing, therefore, is necessary, at this alarming crisis, + but to consider the alarm as false. To make concessions is to encourage + encroachment. Let the court despise the faction, and the disappointed + people will soon deride it. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_24"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + PREFATORY OBSERVATIONS ON FALKLAND'S ISLANDS. +</h2> +<p> + The following thoughts were published in 1771; from materials furnished + to the author by the ministry. His description of the miseries of war is + most eloquently persuasive, and his invectives against the opposition, + and their mysterious champion, abound with the most forcible and + poignant satire. In a letter to Mr. Langton, from Johnson, we find that + lord North stopped the sale, before many copies had been dispersed. + Johnson avowed to his friend, that he did not distinctly know the reason + of the minister's conduct; but, in all probability, it was dictated by a + dread of the effects of unqualified asperity, and, accordingly, in the + second edition, many of the more violent expressions were softened down + or expunged. It has been thought, by some, that Dr. Johnson rated the + value of the Falkland islands to England too low.—ED. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_25"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + THOUGHTS ON THE LATE TRANSACTIONS RESPECTING FALKLAND'S ISLANDS. 1771. +</h2> +<p> + To proportion the eagerness of contest to its importance seems too hard + a task for human wisdom. The pride of wit has kept ages busy in the + discussion of useless questions, and the pride of power has destroyed + armies, to gain or to keep unprofitable possessions. +</p> +<p> + Not, many years have passed, since the cruelties of war were filling the + world with terrour and with sorrow; rage was at last appeased, or + strength exhausted, and, to the harassed nations peace was restored with + its pleasures and its benefits. Of this state all felt the happiness, + and all implored the continuance; but what continuance of happiness can + be expected, when the whole system of European empire can be in danger + of a new concussion, by a contention for a few spots of earth, which, in + the deserts of the ocean, had almost escaped human notice, and which, if + they had not happened to make a seamark, had, perhaps, never had a name! +</p> +<p> + Fortune often delights to dignify what nature has neglected; and that + renown which cannot be claimed by intrinsick excellence or greatness, + is, sometimes, derived from unexpected accidents. The Rubicon was + ennobled by the passage of Caesar, and the time is now come, when + Falkland's islands demand their historian. +</p> +<p> + But the writer, to whom this employment shall be assigned, will have few + opportunities of descriptive splendour, or narrative elegance. Of other + countries it is told, how often they have changed their government; + these islands have, hitherto, changed only their name. Of heroes to + conquer, or legislators to civilize, here has been no appearance; + nothing has happened to them, but that they have been, sometimes, seen + by wandering navigators, who passed by them in search of better + habitations. +</p> +<p> + When the Spaniards, who, under the conduct of Columbus, discovered + America, had taken possession of its most wealthy regions, they + surprised and terrified Europe, by a sudden and unexampled influx of + riches. They were made, at once, insupportably insolent, and might, + perhaps, have become irresistibly powerful, had not their mountainous + treasures been scattered in the air, with the ignorant profusion of + unaccustomed opulence. +</p> +<p> + The greater part of the European potentates saw this stream of riches + flowing into Spain, without attempting to dip their own hands in the + golden fountain. France had no naval skill or power; Portugal was + extending her dominions in the east, over regions formed in the gaiety + of nature; the Hanseatick league, being planned only for the security of + traffick, had no tendency to discovery or invasion; and the commercial + states of Italy, growing rich by trading between Asia and Europe, and + not lying upon the ocean, did not desire to seek, by great hazards, at a + distance, what was, almost at home, to be found with safety. +</p> +<p> + The English, alone, were animated by the success of the Spanish + navigators, to try if any thing was left that might reward adventure, or + incite appropriation. They sent Cabot into the north, but in the north + there was no gold or silver to be found. The best regions were + pre-occupied, yet they still continued their hopes and their labours. + They were the second nation that dared the extent of the Pacifick ocean, + and the second circumnavigators of the globe. +</p> +<p> + By the war between Elizabeth and Philip, the wealth of America became + lawful prize, and those who were less afraid of danger than of poverty, + supposed that riches might easily be obtained by plundering the + Spaniards. Nothing is difficult, when gain and honour unite their + influence; the spirit and vigour of these expeditions enlarged our views + of the new world, and made us first acquainted with its remoter coasts. +</p> +<p> + In the fatal voyage of Cavendish, (1592,) captain Davis, who, being sent + out as his associate, was afterwards parted from him, or deserted him, + as he was driven, by violence of weather, about the straits of Magellan, + is supposed to have been the first who saw the lands now called + Falkland's islands, but his distress permitted him not to make any + observation; and he left them, as he found them, without a name. +</p> +<p> + Not long afterwards, (1594,) sir Richard Hawkins being in the same seas, + with the same designs, saw these islands again, if they are, indeed, the + same islands, and, in honour of his mistress, called them Hawkins's + maiden land. +</p> +<p> + This voyage was not of renown sufficient to procure a general reception + to the new name; for when the Dutch, who had now become strong enough + not only to defend themselves, but to attack their masters, sent (1598) + Verhagen and Sebald de Wert into the South seas, these islands, which + were not supposed to have been known before, obtained the denomination + of Sebald's islands, and were, from that time, placed in the charts; + though Frezier tells us, that they were yet considered as of doubtful + existence. +</p> +<p> + Their present English name was, probably, given them (1689) by Strong, + whose journal, yet unprinted, may be found in the Museum. This name was + adopted by Halley, and has, from that time, I believe, been received + into our maps. +</p> +<p> + The privateers, which were put into motion by the wars of William and + Anne, saw those islands, and mention them; but they were yet not + considered as territories worth a contest. Strong affirmed that there + was no wood; and Dampier suspected that they had no water. +</p> +<p> + Frezier describes their appearance with more distinctness, and mentions + some ships of St. Malo's, by which they had been visited, and to which + he seems willing enough to ascribe the honour of discovering islands, + which yet he admits to have been seen by Hawkins, and named by Sebald de + Wert. He, I suppose, in honour of his countrymen, called them the + Malouines, the denomination now used by the Spaniards, who seem not, + till very lately, to have thought them important enough to deserve a + name. +</p> +<p> + Since the publication of Anson's voyage, they have very much changed + their opinion, finding a settlement in Pepys's, or Falkland's island, + recommended by the author as necessary to the success of our future + expeditions against the coast of Chili, and as of such use and + importance, that it would produce many advantages in peace, and, in war, + would make us masters of the South sea. +</p> +<p> + Scarcely any degree of judgment is sufficient to restrain the + imagination from magnifying that on which it is long detained. The + relater of Anson's voyage had heated his mind with its various events; + had partaken the hope with which it was begun, and the vexation suffered + by its various miscarriages, and then thought nothing could be of + greater benefit to the nation, than that which might promote the success + of such another enterprise. +</p> +<p> + Had the heroes of that history even performed and attained all that, + when they first spread their sails, they ventured to hope, the + consequence would yet have produced very little hurt to the Spaniards, + and very little benefit to the English. They would have taken a few + towns; Anson and his companions would have shared the plunder or the + ransome; and the Spaniards, finding their southern territories + accessible, would, for the future, have guarded them better. +</p> +<p> + That such a settlement may be of use in war, no man, that considers its + situation, will deny. But war is not the whole business of life; it + happens but seldom, and every man, either good or wise, wishes that its + frequency were still less. That conduct which betrays designs of future + hostility, if it does not excite violence, will always generate + malignity; it must for ever exclude confidence and friendship, and + continue a cold and sluggish rivalry, by a sly reciprocation of indirect + injuries, without the bravery of war or the security of peace. +</p> +<p> + The advantage of such a settlement, in time of peace, is, I think, not + easily to be proved. For what use can it have, but of a station for + contraband traders, a nursery of fraud, and a receptacle of theft! + Narborough, about a century ago, was of opinion, that no advantage could + be obtained in voyages to the South sea, except by such an armament as, + with a sailor's morality, <i>might trade by force</i>. It is well known, that + the prohibitions of foreign commerce, are, in these countries, to the + last degree, rigorous, and that no man, not authorized by the king of + Spain, can trade there but by force or stealth. Whatever profit is + obtained must be gained by the violence of rapine, or dexterity of + fraud. +</p> +<p> + Government will not, perhaps, soon arrive at such purity and excellence, + but that some connivance, at least, will be indulged to the triumphant + robber and successful cheat. He that brings wealth home is seldom + interrogated by what means it was obtained. This, however, is one of + those modes of corruption with which mankind ought always to struggle, + and which they may, in time, hope to overcome. There is reason to + expect, that, as the world is more enlightened, policy and morality + will, at last, be reconciled, and that nations will learn not to do what + they would not suffer. +</p> +<p> + But the silent toleration of suspected guilt is a degree of depravity + far below that which openly incites, and manifestly protects it. To + pardon a pirate may be injurious to mankind; but how much greater is the + crime of opening a port, in which all pirates shall be safe! The + contraband trader is not more worthy of protections; if, with + Narborough, he trades by force, he is a pirate; if he trade secretly, he + is only a thief. Those who honestly refuse his traffick, he hates, as + obstructers of his profit; and those, with whom he deals, he cheats, + because he knows that they dare not complain. He lives with a heart full + of that malignity, which fear of detection always generates in those, + who are to defend unjust acquisitions against lawful authority; and when + he comes home, with riches thus acquired, he brings a mind hardened in + evil, too proud for reproof, and too stupid for reflection; he offends + the high by his insolence, and corrupts the low by his example. +</p> +<p> + Whether these truths were forgotten, or despised; or, whether some + better purpose was then in agitation, the representation made in Anson's + voyage had such effect upon the statesmen of that time, that, in 1748, + some sloops were fitted out for the fuller knowledge of Pepys's and + Falkland's islands, and for further discoveries in the South sea. This + expedition, though, perhaps, designed to be secret, was not long + concealed from Wall, the Spanish ambassadour, who so vehemently opposed + it, and so strongly maintained the right of the Spaniards to the + exclusive dominion of the South sea, that the English ministry + relinquished part of their original design, and declared, that the + examination of those two islands was the utmost that their orders should + comprise. +</p> +<p> + This concession was sufficiently liberal or sufficiently submissive; yet + the Spanish court was neither gratified by our kindness, nor softened by + our humility. Sir Benjamin Keene, who then resided at Madrid, was + interrogated by Carvajal, concerning the visit intended to Pepys's and + Falkland's islands, in terms of great jealousy and discontent; and the + intended expedition was represented, if not as a direct violation of the + late peace, yet as an act inconsistent with amicable intentions, and + contrary to the professions of mutual kindness, which then passed + between Spain and England. Keene was directed to protest, that nothing + more than mere discovery was intended, and that no settlement was to be + established. The Spaniard readily replied, that, if this was a voyage of + wanton curiosity, it might be gratified with less trouble, for he was + willing to communicate whatever was known; that to go so far only to + come back was no reasonable act; and it would be a slender sacrifice to + peace and friendship to omit a voyage, in which nothing was to be + gained; that if we left the, places as we found them, the voyage was + useless; and if we took possession, it was a hostile armament; nor could + we expect that the Spaniards would suppose us to visit the southern + parts of America only from curiosity, after the scheme proposed by the + author of Anson's voyage. +</p> +<p> + When once we had disowned all purpose of settling, it is apparent, that + we could not defend the propriety of our expedition by arguments + equivalent to Carvajal's objections. The ministry, therefore, dismissed + the whole design, but no declaration was required, by which our right to + pursue it, hereafter, might be annulled. +</p> +<p> + From this time Falkland's island was forgotten or neglected, till the + conduct of naval affairs was intrusted to the earl of Egmont, a man + whose mind was vigorous and ardent, whose knowledge was extensive, and + whose designs were magnificent; but who had somewhat vitiated his + judgment by too much indulgence of romantick projects and airy + speculations. +</p> +<p> + Lord Egmont's eagerness after something new determined him to make + inquiry after Falkland's island, and he sent out captain Byron, who, in + the beginning of the year 1765, took, he says, a formal possession, in + the name of his Britannick majesty. +</p> +<p> + The possession of this place is, according to Mr. Byron's + representation, no despicable acquisition. He conceived the island to be + six or seven hundred miles round, and represented it, as a region naked + indeed of wood, but which, if that defect were supplied, would have all + that nature, almost all that luxury could want. The harbour he found + capacious and secure, and, therefore, thought it worthy of the name of + Egmont. Of water there was no want, and the ground he described, as + having all the excellencies of soil, and as covered with antiscorbutick + herbs, the restoratives of the sailor. Provision was easily to be had, + for they killed, almost every day, a hundred geese to each ship, by + pelting them with stones. Not content with physick and with food, he + searched yet deeper for the value of the new dominion. He dug in quest + of ore; found iron in abundance, and did not despair of nobler metals. +</p> +<p> + A country thus fertile and delightful, fortunately found where none + would have expected it, about the fiftieth degree of southern latitude, + could not, without great supineness, be neglected. Early in the next + year, (January 8, 1766,) captain Macbride arrived at port Egmont, where + he erected a small block-house, and stationed a garrison; His + description was less flattering. He found what he calls a mass of + islands and broken lands, of which the soil was nothing but a bog, with + no better prospect than that of barren mountains, beaten by storms + almost perpetual. Yet this, says he, is summer, and if the winds of + winter hold their natural proportion, those who lie but two cables' + length from the shore, must pass weeks without any communication with + it. The plenty which regaled Mr. Byron, and which might have supported + not only armies, but armies of Patagons, was no longer to be found. The + geese were too wise to stay, when men violated their haunts, and Mr. + Macbride's crew could only now and then kill a goose, when the weather + would permit. All the quadrupeds which he met there were foxes, supposed + by him to have been brought upon the ice; but of useless animals, such + as sea lions and penguins, which he calls vermin, the number was + incredible. He allows, however, that those who touch at these islands + may find geese and snipes, and, in the summer months, wild celery and + sorrel. +</p> +<p> + No token was seen, by either, of any settlement ever made upon this + island; and Mr. Macbride thought himself so secure from hostile + disturbance, that, when he erected his wooden block-house, he omitted to + open the ports and loopholes. +</p> +<p> + When a garrison was stationed at port Egmont, it was necessary to try + what sustenance the ground could be, by culture, excited to produce. A + garden was prepared; but the plants that sprung up withered away in + immaturity: some fir seeds were sown; but, though this be the native + tree of rugged climates, the young firs, that rose above the ground, + died like weaker herbage: the cold continued long, and the ocean seldom + was at rest. +</p> +<p> + Cattle succeeded better than vegetables. Goats, sheep, and hogs, that + were carried thither, were found to thrive and increase, as in other + places. +</p> +<p> + "Nil mortalibus arduum est:" there is nothing which human courage will + not undertake, and little that human, patience will not endure. The + garrison lived upon Falkland's island, shrinking from the blast, and + shuddering at the billows. +</p> +<p> + This was a colony which could never become independent, for it never + could be able to maintain itself. The necessary supplies were annually + sent from England, at an expense which the admiralty began to think + would not quickly be repaid. But shame of deserting a project, and + unwillingness to contend with a projector that meant well, continued the + garrison, and supplied it with regular remittances of stores and + provision. +</p> +<p> + That of which we were almost weary ourselves, we did not expect any one + to envy; and, therefore, supposed that we should be permitted to reside + in Falkland's island, the undisputed lords of tempest-beaten barrenness. +</p> +<p> + But, on the 28th of November, 1769, captain Hunt, observing a Spanish + schooner hovering about the island, and surveying it, sent the commander + a message, by which he required him to depart. The Spaniard made an + appearance of obeying, but, in two days, came back with letters, written + by the governour of port Solidad, and brought by the chief officer of a + settlement, on the east part of Falkland's island. +</p> +<p> + In this letter, dated Malouina, November 30, the governour complains, + that captain Hunt, when he ordered the schooner to depart, assumed a + power to which he could have no pretensions, by sending an imperious + message to the Spaniards, in the king of Spain's own dominions. +</p> +<p> + In another letter, sent at the same time, he supposes the English to be + in that part only by accident, and to be ready to depart, at the first + warning. This letter was accompanied by a present, of which, says he, + "If it be neither equal to my desire nor to your merit, you must impute + the deficiency to the situation of us both." +</p> +<p> + In return to this hostile civility, captain Hunt warned them from the + island, which he claimed in the name of the king, as belonging to the + English, by right of the first discovery and the first settlement. +</p> +<p> + This was an assertion of more confidence than certainty. The right of + discovery, indeed, has already appeared to be probable, but the right + which priority of settlement confers, I know not whether we yet can + establish. +</p> +<p> + On December 10, the officer, sent by the governour of port Solidad, made + three protests against captain Hunt, for threatening to fire upon him; + for opposing his entrance into port Egmont; and for entering himself + into port Solidad. On the 12th, the governour of port Solidad formally + warned captain Hunt to leave port Egmont, and to forbear the navigation + of these seas, without permission from the king of Spain. +</p> +<p> + To this captain Hunt replied, by repeating his former claim; by + declaring that his orders were to keep possession; and by once more + warning the Spaniards to depart. +</p> +<p> + The next month produced more protests and more replies, of which the + tenour was nearly the same. The operations of such harmless enmity + having produced no effect, were then reciprocally discontinued, and the + English were left, for a time, to enjoy the pleasures of Falkland's + island, without molestation. +</p> +<p> + This tranquillity, however, did not last long. A few months afterwards, + (June 4, 1770,) the Industry, a Spanish frigate, commanded by an + officer, whose name was Madariaga, anchored in port Egmont, bound, as + was said, for port Solidad, and reduced, by a passage from Buenos Ayres + of fifty-three days, to want of water. +</p> +<p> + Three days afterwards, four other frigates entered the port, and a broad + pendant, such as is borne by the commander of a naval armament, was + displayed from the Industry. Captain Farmer, of the Swift frigate, who + commanded the garrison, ordered the crew of the Swift to come on shore, + and assist in its defence; and directed captain Maltby to bring the + Favourite frigate, which he commanded, nearer to the land. The Spaniards + easily discovering the purpose of his motion, let him know, that if he + weighed his anchor, they would fire upon his ship; but, paying no regard + to these menaces, he advanced toward the shore. The Spanish fleet + followed, and two shots were fired, which fell at a distance from him. + He then sent to inquire the reason of such hostility, and was told, that + the shots were intended only as signals. +</p> +<p> + Both the English captains wrote, the next day, to Madariaga, the Spanish + commodore, warning him from the island, as from a place which the + English held by right of discovery. +</p> +<p> + Madariaga, who seems to have had no desire of unnecessary mischief, + invited them (June 9) to send an officer, who should take a view of his + forces, that they might be convinced of the vanity of resistance, and do + that, without compulsion, which he was, upon refusal, prepared to + enfcrce. +</p> +<p> + An officer was sent, who found sixteen hundred men, with a train of + twenty-seven cannon, four mortars, and two hundred bombs. The fleet + consisted of five frigates, from twenty to thirty guns, which were now + stationed opposite to the block-house. +</p> +<p> + He then sent them a formal memorial, in which he maintained his master's + right to the whole Magellanick region, and exhorted the English to + retire quietly from the settlement, which they could neither justify by + right, nor maintain by power. +</p> +<p> + He offered them the liberty of carrying away whatever they were desirous + to remove, and promised his receipt for what should be left, that no + loss might be suffered by them. +</p> +<p> + His propositions were expressed in terms of great civility; but he + concludes with demanding an answer in fifteen minutes. +</p> +<p> + Having, while he was writing, received the letters of warning, written + the day before by the English captains, he told them, that he thought + himself able to prove the king of Spain's title to all those countries, + but that this was no time for verbal altercations. He persisted in his + determination, and allowed only fifteen minutes for an answer. +</p> +<p> + To this it was replied, by captain Farmer, that though there had been + prescribed yet a shorter time, he should still resolutely defend his + charge; that this, whether menace or force, would be considered as an + insult on the British flag, and that satisfaction would certainly be + required. +</p> +<p> + On the next day, June 10, Madariaga landed his forces, and it may be + easily imagined, that he had no bloody conquest. The English had only a + wooden block-house, built at Woolwich, and carried in pieces to the + island, with a small battery of cannon. To contend with obstinacy had + been only to lavish life without use or hope, After the exchange of a + very few shots, a capitulation was proposed. +</p> +<p> + The Spanish commander acted with moderation; he exerted little of the + conqueror; what he had offered before the attack, he granted after the + victory; the English were allowed to leave the place with every honour, + only their departure was delayed, by the terms of the capitulation, + twenty days; and, to secure their stay, the rudder of the Favourite was + taken off. What they desired to carry away they removed without + molestation; and of what they left, an inventory was drawn, for which + the Spanish officer, by his receipt, promised to be accountable. +</p> +<p> + Of this petty revolution, so sudden and so distant, the English ministry + could not possibly have such notice, as might enable them to prevent it. + The conquest, if such it may be called, cost but three days; for the + Spaniards, either supposing the garrison stronger than it was, or + resolving to trust nothing to chance, or considering that, as their + force was greater, there was less dariger of bloodshed, came with a + power that made resistance ridiculous, and, at once, demanded and + obtained possession. +</p> +<p> + The first account of any discontent expressed by the Spaniards, was + brought by captain Hunt, who arriving at Plymouth, June 3, 1770, + informed the admiralty, that the island had been claimed in December, by + the governour of port Solidad. +</p> +<p> + This claim, made by an officer of so little dignity, without any known + direction from his superiours, could be considered only as the zeal or + officiousness of an individual, unworthy of publick notice, or the + formality of remonstrance. +</p> +<p> + In August, Mr. Harris, the resident at Madrid, gave notice to lord + Weymouth, of an account newly brought to Cadiz, that the English were in + possession of port Cuizada, the same which we call port Egmont, in the + Magellanick sea; that in January, they had warned away two Spanish + ships; and that an armament was sent out in May, from Buenos Ayres, to + dislodge them. +</p> +<p> + It was, perhaps, not yet certain, that this account was true; but the + information, however faithful, was too late for prevention. It was + easily known, that a fleet despatched in May, had, before August, + succeeded or miscarried. +</p> +<p> + In October, captain Maltby came to England, and gave the account which I + have now epitomised, of his expulsion from Falkland's islands. +</p> +<p> + From this moment, the whole nation can witness, that no time was lost. + The navy was surveyed, the ships refitted, and commanders appointed; and + a powerful fleet was assembled, well manned and well stored, with + expedition, after so long a peace, perhaps, never known before, and with + vigour, which, after the waste of so long a war, scarcely any other + nation had been capable of exerting. +</p> +<p> + This preparation, so illustrious in the eyes of Europe, and so + efficacious in its event, was obstructed by the utmost power of that + noisy faction, which has too long filled the kingdom, sometimes with the + roar of empty menace, and sometimes with the yell of hypocritical + lamentation. Every man saw, and every honest man saw with detestation, + that they who desired to force their sovereign into war, endeavoured, at + the same time, to disable him from action. +</p> +<p> + The vigour and spirit of the ministry easily broke through all the + machinations of these pygmy rebels, and our armament was quickly such as + was likely to make our negotiations effectual. +</p> +<p> + The prince of Masseran, in his first conference with the English + ministers on this occasion, owned that he had from Madrid received + intelligence, that the English had been forcibly expelled from + Falkland's island, by Buccarelli, the governour of Buenos Ayres, without + any particular orders from the king of Spain. But being asked, whether, + in his master's name, he disavowed Buccarelli's violence, he refused to + answer, without direction. +</p> +<p> + The scene of negotiation was now removed to Madrid, and, in September, + Mr. Harris was directed to demand, from Grimaldi, the Spanish minister, + the restitution of Falkland's island, and a disavowal of Buccarelli's + hostilities. +</p> +<p> + It was to be expected that Grimaldi would object to us our own + behaviour, who had ordered the Spaniards to depart from the same island. + To this it was replied, that the English forces were, indeed, directed + to warn other nations away; but, if compliance were refused, to proceed + quietly in making their settlement, and suffer the subjects, of whatever + power, to remain there without molestation. By possession thus taken, + there was only a disputable claim advanced, which might be peaceably and + regularly decided, without insult and without force; and, if the + Spaniards had complained at the British court, their reasons would have + been heard, and all injuries redressed; but that, by presupposing the + justice of their own title, and having recourse to arms, without any + previous notice or remonstrance, they had violated the peace, and + insulted the British government; and, therefore, it was expected, that + satisfaction should be made by publick disavowal, and immediate + restitution. +</p> +<p> + The answer of Grimaldi was ambiguous and cold. He did not allow that any + particular orders had been given for driving the English from their + settlement; but made no scruple of declaring, that such an ejection was + nothing more than the settlers might have expected; and that Buccarelli + had not, in his opinion, incurred any blame, as the general injunctions + to the American governours were to suffer no encroachments on the + Spanish dominions. +</p> +<p> + In October, the prince of Masseran proposed a convention, for the + accommodation of differences by mutual concessions, in which the warning + given to the Spaniards, by Hunt, should be disavowed on one side, and + the violence used by Buccarelli, on the other. This offer was + considered, as little less than a new insult, and Grimaldi was told, + that injury required reparation; that when either party had suffered + evident wrong, there was not the parity subsisting, which is implied in + conventions and contracts; that we considered ourselves as openly + insulted, and demanded satisfaction, plenary and unconditional. +</p> +<p> + Grimaldi affected to wonder, that we were not yet appeased by their + concessions. They had, he said, granted all that was required; they had + offered to restore the island in the state in which they found it; but + he thought that they, likewise, might hope for some regard, and that the + warning, sent by Hunt, would be disavowed. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Harris, our minister at Madrid, insisted, that the injured party had + a right to unconditional reparation, and Grimaldi delayed his answer, + that a council might be called. In a few days, orders were despatched to + prince Masseran, by which he was commissioned to declare the king of + Spain's readiness to satisfy the demands of the king of England, in + expectation of receiving from him reciprocal satisfaction, by the + disavowal, so often required, of Hunt's warning. +</p> +<p> + Finding the Spaniards disposed to make no other acknowledgments, the + English ministry considered a war as not likely to be long avoided. In + the latter end of November, private notice was given of their danger to + the merchants at Cadiz, and the officers, absent from Gibraltar, were + remanded to their posts. Our naval force was every day increased, and we + made no abatement of our original demand. +</p> +<p> + The obstinacy of the Spanish court still continued, and, about the end + of the year, all hope of reconciliation was so nearly extinguished, that + Mr. Harris was directed to withdraw, with the usual forms, from his + residence at Madrid. +</p> +<p> + Moderation is commonly firm, and firmness is commonly successful; having + not swelled our first requisition with any superfluous appendages, we + had nothing to yield, we, therefore, only repeated our first + proposition, prepared for war, though desirous of peace. +</p> +<p> + About this time, as is well known, the king of France dismissed Choiseul + from his employments. What effect this revolution of the French court + had upon the Spanish counsels, I pretend not to be informed. Choiseul + had always professed pacifick dispositions; nor is it certain, however + it may be suspected, that he talked in different strains to different + parties. +</p> +<p> + It seems to be almost the universal errour of historians to suppose it + politically, as it is physically true, that every effect has a + proportionate cause. In the inanimate action of matter upon matter, the + motion produced can be but equal to the force of the moving power; but + the operations of life, whether private or publick, admit no such laws. + The caprices of voluntary agents laugh at calculation. It is not always + that there is a strong reason for a great event. Obstinacy and + flexibility, malignity and kindness, give place, alternately, to each + other; and the reason of these vicissitudes, however important may be + the consequences, often escapes the mind in which the change is made. +</p> +<p> + Whether the alteration, which began in January to appear in the Spanish + counsels, had any other cause than conviction of the impropriety of + their past conduct, and of the danger of a new war, it is not easy to + decide; but they began, whatever was the reason, to relax their + haughtiness, and Mr. Harris's departure was countermanded. +</p> +<p> + The demands first made by England were still continued, and on January + 22d, the prince of Masseran delivered a declaration, in which the king + of Spain "disavows the violent enterprise of Buccarelli," and promises + "to restore the port and fort called Egmont, with all the artillery and + stores, according to the inventory." +</p> +<p> + To this promise of restitution is subjoined, that "this engagement to + restore port Egmont cannot, nor ought, in any wise, to affect the + question of the prior right of sovereignty of the <i>Malouine</i>, otherwise + called Falkland's islands." +</p> +<p> + This concession was accepted by the earl of Rochford, who declared, on + the part of his master, that the prince of Masseran, being authorized by + his catholick majesty, "to offer, in his majesty's name, to the king of + Great Britain, a satisfaction for the injury done him, by dispossessing + him of port Egmont;" and, having signed a declaration, expressing that + his catholick majesty "disavows the expedition against port Egmont, and + engages to restore it, in the state in which it stood before the 10th of + June, 1770, his Britannick majesty will look upon the said declaration, + together with the full performance of the engagement on the part of his + catholick majesty, as a satisfaction for the injury done to the crown of + Great Britain." +</p> +<p> + This is all that was originally demanded. The expedition is disavowed, + and the island is restored. An injury is acknowledged by the reception + of lord Rochford's paper, who twice mentions the word <i>injury</i>, and + twice the word <i>satisfaction</i>. +</p> +<p> + The Spaniards have stipulated, that the grant of possession shall not + preclude the question of prior right, a question which we shall probably + make no haste to discuss, and a right, of which no formal resignation + was ever required. This reserve has supplied matter for much clamour, + and, perhaps the English ministry would have been better pleased had the + declaration been without it. But when we have obtained all that was + asked, why should we complain that we have not more? When the possession + is conceded, where is the evil that the right, which that concession + supposes to be merely hypothetical, is referred to the Greek calends for + a future disquisition? Were the Switzers less free, or less secure, + because, after their defection from the house of Austria, they had never + been declared independent before the treaty of Westphalia? Is the king + of France less a sovereign, because the king of England partakes his + title? +</p> +<p> + If sovereignty implies undisputed right, scarce any prince is a + sovereign through his whole dominions; if sovereignty consists in this, + that no superiour is acknowledged, our king reigns at port Egmont with + sovereign authority. Almost every new-acquired territory is, in some + degree, controvertible, and till the controversy is decided, a term very + difficult to be fixed, all that can be had is real possession and actual + dominion. +</p> +<p> + This, surely, is a sufficient answer to the feudal gabble of a man, who + is every day lessening that splendour of character which once + illuminated the kingdom, then dazzled, and afterwards inflamed it; and + for whom it will be happy if the nation shall, at last, dismiss him to + nameless obscurity, with that equipoise of blame and praise which + Corneille allows to Richelieu, a man who, I think, had much of his + merit, and many of his faults: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Chacun parle à son gré de ce grand cardinal; + Mais, pour moi, je n'en dirai rien: + Il m'a fait trop de bien pour en dire du mal; + Il m'a fait trop de mal pour en dire du bien." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + To push advantages too far is neither generous nor just. Had we insisted + on a concession of antecedent right, it may not misbecome us, either as + moralists or politicians, to consider what Grimaldi could have answered. + We have already, he might say, granted you the whole effect of right, + and have not denied you the name. We have not said, that the right was + ours before this concession, but only that what right we had, is not, by + this concession, vacated. We have now, for more than two centuries, + ruled large tracts of the American continent, by a claim which, perhaps, + is valid only upon this consideration, that no power can produce a + better; by the right of discovery, and prior settlement. And by such + titles almost all the dominions of the earth are holden, except that + their original is beyond memory, and greater obscurity gives them + greater veneration. Should we allow this plea to be annulled, the whole + fabrick of our empire shakes at the foundation. When you suppose + yourselves to have first descried the disputed island, you suppose what + you can hardly prove. We were, at least, the general discoverers of the + Magellanick region, and have hitherto held it with all its adjacencies. + The justice of this tenure the world has, hitherto, admitted, and + yourselves, at least, tacitly allowed it, when, about twenty years ago, + you desisted from your purposed expedition, and expressly disowned any + design of settling, where you are now not content to settle and to + reign, without extorting such a confession of original right, as may + invite every other nation to follow you. +</p> +<p> + To considerations such as these, it is reasonable to impute that anxiety + of the Spaniards, from which the importance of this island is inferred + by Junius, one of the few writers of his despicable faction, whose name + does not disgrace the page of an opponent. The value of the thing + disputed may be very different to him that gains and him that loses it. + The Spaniards, by yielding Falkland's island, have admitted a precedent + of what they think encroachment; have suffered a breach to be made in + the outworks of their empire; and, notwithstanding the reserve of prior + right, have suffered a dangerous exception to the prescriptive tenure of + their American territories. +</p> +<p> + Such is the loss of Spain; let us now compute the profit of Britain. We + have, by obtaining a disavowal of Buccarelli's expedition, and a + restitution of our settlement, maintained the honour of the crown, and + the superiority of our influence. Beyond this what have we acquired? + What, but a bleak and gloomy solitude, an island, thrown aside from + human use, stormy in winter, and barren in summer; an island, which not + the southern savages have dignified with habitation; where a garrison + must be kept in a state that contemplates with envy the exiles of + Siberia; of which the expense will be perpetual, and the use only + occasional; and which, if fortune smile upon our labours, may become a + nest of smugglers in peace, and in war the refuge of future bucaniers. + To all this the government has now given ample attestation, for the + island has been since abandoned, and, perhaps, was kept only to quiet + clamours, with an intention, not then wholly concealed, of quitting it + in a short time. +</p> +<p> + This is the country of which we have now possession, and of which a + numerous party pretends to wish that we had murdered thousands for the + titular sovereignty. To charge any men with such madness approaches to + an accusation defeated by its own incredibility. As they have been long + accumulating falsehoods, it is possible that they are now only adding + another to the heap, and that they do not mean all that they profess. + But of this faction what evil may not be credited? They have hitherto + shown no virtue, and very little wit, beyond that mischievous cunning + for which it is held, by Hale, that children may be hanged! +</p> +<p> + As war is the last of remedies, "cuncta prius tentanda," all lawful + expedients must be used to avoid it. As war is the extremity of evil, it + is, surely, the duty of those, whose station intrusts them with the care + of nations, to avert it from their charge. There are diseases of animal + nature, which nothing but amputation can remove; so there may, by the + depravation of human passions, be sometimes a gangrene in collective + life, for which fire and the sword are the necessary remedies; but in + what can skill or caution be better shown, than preventing such dreadful + operations, while there is yet room for gentler methods! +</p> +<p> + It is wonderful with what coolness and indifference the greater part of + mankind see war commenced. Those that hear of it at a distance, or read + of it in books, but have never presented its evils to their minds, + consider it as little more than a splendid game, a proclamation, an + army, a battle, and a triumph. Some, indeed, must perish in the most + successful field, but they die upon the bed of honour, "resign their + lives amidst the joys of conquest, and, filled with England's glory, + smile in death." +</p> +<p> + The life of a modern soldier is ill represented by heroick fiction. War + has means of destruction more formidable than the cannon and the sword. + Of the thousands and ten thousands, that perished in our late contests + with France and Spain, a very small part ever felt the stroke of an + enemy; the rest languished in tents and ships, amidst damps and + putrefaction; pale, torpid, spiritless, and helpless; gasping and + groaning, unpitied among men, made obdurate by long continuance of + hopeless misery; and were, at last, whelmed in pits, or heaved into the + ocean, without notice and without remembrance. By incommodious + encampments and unwholesome stations, where courage is useless, and + enterprise impracticable, fleets are silently dispeopled, and armies + sluggishly melted away. +</p> +<p> + Thus is a people gradually exhausted, for the most part, with little + effect. The wars of civilized nations make very slow changes in the + system of empire. The publick perceives scarcely any alteration, but an + increase of debt; and the few individuals who are benefited are not + supposed to have the clearest right to their advantages. If he that + shared the danger enjoyed the profit, and, after bleeding in the battle, + grew rich by the victory, he might show his gains without envy. But, at + the conclusion of a ten years' war, how are we recompensed for the death + of multitudes, and the expense of millions, but by contemplating the + sudden glories of paymasters and agents, contractors and commissaries, + whose equipages shine like meteors, and whose palaces rise like + exhalations! +</p> +<p> + These are the men who, without virtue, labour, or hazard, are growing + rich, as their country is impoverished; they rejoice, when obstinacy or + ambition adds another year to slaughter and devastation; and laugh, from + their desks, at bravery and science, while they are adding figure to + figure, and cipher to cipher, hoping for a new contract from a new + armament, and computing the profits of a siege or tempest. +</p> +<p> + Those who suffer their minds to dwell on these considerations, will + think it no great crime in the ministry, that they have not snatched, + with eagerness, the first opportunity of rushing into the field, when + they were able to obtain, by quiet negotiation, all the real good that + victory could have brought us. +</p> +<p> + Of victory, indeed, every nation is confident before the sword is drawn; + and this mutual confidence produces that wantonness of bloodshed, that + has so often desolated the world. But it is evident, that of + contradictory opinions, one must be wrong; and the history of mankind + does not want examples, that may teach caution to the daring, and + moderation to the proud. +</p> +<p> + Let us not think our laurels blasted by condescending to inquire, + whether we might not possibly grow rather less than greater by attacking + Spain. Whether we should have to contend with Spain alone, whatever has + been promised by our patriots, may very reasonably be doubted. A war + declared for the empty sound of an ancient title to a Magellanick rock, + would raise the indignation of the earth against us. These encroachers + on the waste of nature, says our ally the Russian, if they succeed in + their first effort of usurpation, will make war upon us for a title to + Kamtschatka. These universal settlers, says our ally the Dane, will, in + a short time, settle upon Greenland, and a fleet will batter Copenhagen, + till we are willing to confess, that it always was their own. +</p> +<p> + In a quarrel, like this, it is not possible that any power should favour + us, and it is very likely that some would oppose us. The French, we are + told, are otherwise employed: the contests between the king of France, + and his own subjects, are sufficient to withhold him from supporting + Spain. But who does not know that a foreign war has often put a stop to + civil discords? It withdraws the attention of the publick from domestick + grievances, and affords opportunities of dismissing the turbulent and + restless to distant employments. The Spaniards have always an argument + of irresistible persuasion: if France will not support them against + England, they will strengthen England against France. +</p> +<p> + But let us indulge a dream of idle speculation, and suppose that we are + to engage with Spain, and with Spain alone; it is not even yet very + certain that much advantage will be gained. Spain is not easily + vulnerable; her kingdom, by the loss or cession of many fragments of + dominion, is become solid and compact. The Spaniards have, indeed, no + fleet able to oppose us, but they will not endeavour actual opposition: + they will shut themselves up in their own territories, and let us + exhaust our seamen in a hopeless siege: they will give commissions to + privateers of every nation, who will prey upon our merchants without + possibility of reprisal. If they think their Plata fleet in danger, they + will forbid it to set sail, and live awhile upon the credit of treasure + which all Europe knows to be safe; and which, if our obstinacy should + continue till they can no longer be without it, will be conveyed to them + with secrecy and security, by our natural enemies the French, or by the + Dutch our natural allies. +</p> +<p> + But the whole continent of Spanish America will lie open to invasion; we + shall have nothing to do but march into these wealthy regions, and make + their present masters confess, that they were always ours by ancient + right. We shall throw brass and iron out of our houses, and nothing but + silver will be seen among us. +</p> +<p> + All this is very desirable, but it is not certain that it can be easily + attained. Large tracts of America were added, by the last war, to the + British dominions; but, if the faction credit their own Apollo, they + were conquered in Germany. They, at best, are only the barren parts of + the continent, the refuse of the earlier adventurers, which the French, + who came last, had taken only as better than nothing. +</p> +<p> + Against the Spanish dominions we have never, hitherto, been able to do + much. A few privateers have grown rich at their expense, but no scheme + of conquest has yet been successful. They are defended, not by walls + mounted with cannons, which by cannons may be battered, but by the + storms of the deep, and the vapours of the land, by the flames of + calenture and blasts of pestilence. +</p> +<p> + In the reign of Elizabeth, the favourite period of English greatness, no + enterprises against America had any other consequence than that of + extending English navigation. Here Cavendish perished, after all his + hazards; and here Drake and Hawkins, great as they were in knowledge and + in fame, having promised honour to themselves, and dominion to the + country, sunk by desperation and misery in dishonourable graves. +</p> +<p> + During the protectorship of Cromwell, a time of which the patriotick + tribes still more ardently desire the return, the Spanish dominions were + again attempted; but here, and only here, the fortune of Cromwell made a + pause. His forces were driven from Hispaniola; his hopes of possessing + the West Indies vanished; and Jamaica was taken, only that the whole + expedition might not grow ridiculous. +</p> +<p> + The attack of Carthagena is yet remembered, where the Spaniards, from + the ramparts, saw their invaders destroyed by the hostility of the + elements, poisoned by the air, and crippled by the dews; where every + hour swept away battalions; and, in the three days that passed between + the descent and reembarkation, half an army perished. +</p> +<p> + In the last war the Havanna was taken; at what expense is too well + remembered. May my country be never cursed with such another conquest! +</p> +<p> + These instances of miscarriage, and these arguments of difficulty, may, + perhaps, abate the military ardour of the publick. Upon the opponents of + the government their operation will be different; they wish for war, but + not for conquest; victory would defeat their purposes equally with + peace, because prosperity would naturally continue the trust in those + hands which had used it fortunately. The patriots gratified themselves + with expectations that some sinistrous accident, or erroneous conduct, + might diffuse discontent, and inflame malignity. Their hope is + malevolence, and their good is evil. +</p> +<p> + Of their zeal for their country we have already had a specimen. While + they were terrifying the nation with doubts, whether it was any longer + to exist; while they represented invasive armies as hovering in the + clouds, and hostile fleets, as emerging from the deeps; they obstructed + our levies of seamen, and embarrassed our endeavours of defence. Of such + men he thinks with unnecessary candour who does not believe them likely + to have promoted the miscarriage, which they desired, by intimidating + our troops, or betraying our counsels. +</p> +<p> + It is considered as an injury to the publick, by those sanguinary + statesmen, that though the fleet has been refitted and manned, yet no + hostilities have followed; and they, who sat wishing for misery and + slaughter, are disappointed of their pleasure. But as peace is the end + of war, it is the end, likewise, of preparations for war; and he may be + justly hunted down, as the enemy of mankind, that can choose to snatch, + by violence and bloodshed, what gentler means can equally obtain. +</p> +<p> + The ministry are reproached, as not daring to provoke an enemy, lest ill + success should discredit and displace them. I hope that they had better + reasons; that they paid some regard to equity and humanity; and + considered themselves as intrusted with the safety of their + fellow-subjects, and as the destroyers of all that should be + superfluously slaughtered. But let us suppose, that their own safety had + some influence on their conduct, they will not, however, sink to a level + with their enemies. Though the motive might be selfish, the act was + innocent. They, who grow rich by administering physick, are not to be + numbered with them that get money by dispensing poison. If they maintain + power by harmlessness and peace, they must for ever be at a great + distance from ruffians, who would gain it by mischief and confusion. The + watch of a city may guard it for hire; but are well employed in + protecting it from those, who lie in wait to fire the streets, and rob + the houses, amidst the conflagration. +</p> +<p> + An unsuccessful war would, undoubtedly, have had the effect which the + enemies of the ministry so earnestly desire; for who could have + sustained the disgrace of folly ending in misfortune? But had wanton + invasion undeservedly prospered, had Falkland's island been yielded + unconditionally, with every right, prior and posterior; though the + rabble might have shouted, and the windows have blazed, yet those who + know the value of life, and the uncertainty of publick credit, would + have murmured, perhaps unheard, at the increase of our debt, and the + loss of our people. +</p> +<p> + This thirst of blood, however the visible promoters of sedition may + think it convenient to shrink from the accusation, is loudly avowed by + Junius, the writer to whom his party owes much of its pride, and some of + its popularity. Of Junius it cannot be said, as of Ulysses, that he + scatters ambiguous expressions among the vulgar; for he cries havock, + without reserve, and endeavours to let slip the dogs of foreign or of + civil war, ignorant whither they are going, and careless what may be + their prey. +</p> +<p> + Junius has sometimes made his satire felt, but let not injudicious + admiration mistake the venom of the shaft for the vigour of the bow. He + has sometimes sported with lucky malice; but to him that knows his + company, it is not hard to be sarcastick in a mask. While he walks, like + Jack the giant-killer, in a coat of darkness, he may do much mischief + with little strength. Novelty captivates the superficial and + thoughtless; vehemence delights the discontented and turbulent. He that + contradicts acknowledged truth will always have an audience; he that + vilifies established authority will always find abettors. +</p> +<p> + Junius burst into notice with a blaze of impudence which has rarely + glared upon the world before, and drew the rabble after him, as a + monster makes a show. When he had once provided for his safety, by + impenetrable secrecy, he had nothing to combat but truth and justice, + enemies whom he knows to be feeble in the dark. Being then at liberty to + indulge himself in all the immunities of invisibility; out of the reach + of danger, he has been bold; out of the reach of shame, he has been + confident. As a rhetorician, he has had the art of persuading, when he + seconded desire; as a reasoner, he has convinced those who had no doubt + before; as a moralist, he has taught, that virtue may disgrace; and, as + a patriot, he has gratified the mean by insults on the high. Finding + sedition ascendant, he has been able to advance it; finding the nation + combustible, he has been able to inflame it. Let us abstract from his + wit the vivacity of insolence, and withdraw from his efficacy the + sympathetick favour of plebeian malignity; I do not say that we shall + leave him nothing; the cause that I defend, scorns the help of + falsehood; but if we leave him only his merit, what will be his praise? +</p> +<p> + It is not by his liveliness of imagery, his pungency of periods, or his + fertility of allusion, that he detains the cits of London, and the boors + of Middlesex. Of style and sentiment they take no cognizance. They + admire him, for virtues like their own, for contempt of order, and + violence of outrage; for rage of defamation, and audacity of falsehood. + The supporters of the bill of rights feel no niceties of composition, + nor dexterities of sophistry; their faculties are better proportioned to + the bawl of Bellas, or barbarity of Beckford; but they are told, that + Junius is on their side, and they are, therefore, sure that Junius is + infallible. Those who know not whither he would lead them, resolve to + follow him; and those who cannot find his meaning, hope he means + rebellion. +</p> +<p> + Junius is an unusual phenomenon, on which some have gazed with wonder, + and some with terrour, but wonder and terrour are transitory passions. + He will soon be more closely viewed, or more attentively examined; and + what folly has taken for a comet, that from its flaming hair shook + pestilence and war, inquiry will find to be only a meteor, formed by the + vapours of putrefying democracy, and kindled into flame by the + effervescence of interest, struggling with conviction; which, after + having plunged its followers in a bog, will leave us, inquiring why we + regard it. +</p> +<p> + Yet, though I cannot think the style of Junius secure from criticism, + though his expressions are often trite, and his periods feeble, I should + never have stationed him where he has placed himself, had I not rated + him by his morals rather than his faculties. What, says Pope, must be + the priest, where a monkey is the god? What must be the drudge of a + party, of which the heads are Wilkes and Crosby, Sawbridge and Townsend? +</p> +<p> + Junius knows his own meaning, and can, therefore, tell it. He is an + enemy to the ministry; he sees them growing hourly stronger. He knows + that a war, at once unjust and unsuccessful, would have certainly + displaced them, and is, therefore, in his zeal for his country, angry + that war was not unjustly made, and unsuccessfully conducted. But there + are others whose thoughts are less clearly expressed, and whose schemes, + perhaps, are less consequentially digested; who declare that they do not + wish for a rupture, yet condemn the ministry for not doing that, by + which a rupture would naturally have been made. +</p> +<p> + If one party resolves to demand what the other resolves to refuse, the + dispute can be determined only by arbitration; and between powers who + have no common superiour, there is no other arbitrator than the sword. +</p> +<p> + Whether the ministry might not equitably have demanded more is not worth + a question. The utmost exertion of right is always invidious, and, where + claims are not easily determinable, is always dangerous. We asked all + that was necessary, and persisted in our first claim, without mean + recession, or wanton aggravation. The Spaniards found us resolute, and + complied, after a short struggle. +</p> +<p> + The real crime of the ministry is, that they have found the means of + avoiding their own ruin; but the charge against them is multifarious and + confused, as will happen, when malice and discontent are ashamed of + their complaint. The past and the future are complicated in the censure. + We have heard a tumultuous clamour about honour and rights, injuries and + insults, the British flag and the Favourite's rudder, Buccarelli's + conduct and Grimaldi's declarations, the Manilla ransome, delays and + reparation. +</p> +<p> + Through the whole argument of the faction runs the general errour, that + our settlement on Falkland's island was not only lawful, but + unquestionable; that our right was not only certain, but acknowledged; + and that the equity of our conduct was such, that the Spaniards could + not blame or obstruct it, without combating their own conviction, and + opposing the general opinion of mankind. +</p> +<p> + If once it be discovered that, in the opinion of the Spaniards, our + settlement was usurped, our claim arbitrary, and our conduct insolent, + all that has happened will appear to follow by a natural concatenation. + Doubts will produce disputes and disquisition; disquisition requires + delay, and delay causes inconvenience. +</p> +<p> + Had the Spanish government immediately yielded, unconditionally, all + that was required, we might have been satisfied; but what would Europe + have judged of their submission? that they shrunk before us, as a + conquered people, who, having lately yielded to our arms, were now + compelled to sacrifice to our pride. The honour of the publick is, + indeed, of high importance; but we must remember, that we have had to + transact with a mighty king and a powerful nation, who have unluckily + been taught to think, that they have honour to keep or lose, as well as + ourselves. +</p> +<p> + When the admiralty were told, in June, of the warning given to Hunt, + they were, I suppose, informed that Hunt had first provoked it by + warning away the Spaniards, and naturally considered one act of + insolence as balanced by another, without expecting that more would be + done on either side. Of representations and remonstrances there would be + no end, if they were to be made whenever small commanders are uncivil to + each other; nor could peace ever be enjoyed, if, upon such transient + provocations, it be imagined necessary to prepare for war. We might + then, it is said, have increased our force with more leisure and less + inconvenience; but this is to judge only by the event. We omitted to + disturb the publick, because we did not suppose that an armament would + be necessary. +</p> +<p> + Some months afterwards, as has been told, Buccarelli, the governour of + Buenos Ayres, sent against the settlement of port Egmont a force which + ensured the conquest. The Spanish commander required the English + captains to depart, but they, thinking that resistance necessary, which + they knew to be useless, gave the Spaniards the right of prescribing + terms of capitulation. The Spaniards imposed no new condition, except + that the sloop should not sail under twenty days; and of this they + secured the performance by taking off the rudder. +</p> +<p> + To an inhabitant of the land there appears nothing in all this + unreasonable or offensive. If the English intended to keep their + stipulation, how were they injured by the detention of the rudder? If + the rudder be to a ship, what his tail is in fables to a fox, the part + in which honour is placed, and of which the violation is never to be + endured, I am sorry that the Favourite suffered an indignity, but cannot + yet think it a cause for which nations should slaughter one another. +</p> +<p> + When Buccarelli's invasion was known, and the dignity of the crown + infringed, we demanded reparation and prepared for war, and we gained + equal respect by the moderation of our terms, and the spirit of our + exertion. The Spanish minister immediately denied that Buccarelli had + received any particular orders to seize port Egmont, nor pretended that + he was justified, otherwise than by the general instructions by which + the American governours are required to exclude the subjects of other + powers. +</p> +<p> + To have inquired whether our settlement at port Egmont was any violation + of the Spanish rights, had been to enter upon a discussion, which the + pertinacity of political disputants might have continued without end. + We, therefore, called for restitution, not as a confession of right, but + as a reparation of honour, which required that we should be restored to + our former state upon the island, and that the king of Spain should + disavow the action of his governour. +</p> +<p> + In return to this demand, the Spaniards expected from us a disavowal of + the menaces, with which they had been first insulted by Hunt; and if the + claim to the island be supposed doubtful, they certainly expected it + with equal reason. This, however, was refused, and our superiority of + strength gave validity to our arguments. +</p> +<p> + But we are told, that the disavowal of the king of Spain is temporary + and fallacious; that Buccarelli's armament had all the appearance of + regular forces and a concerted expedition; and that he is not treated at + home as a man guilty of piracy, or as disobedient to the orders of his + master. +</p> +<p> + That the expedition was well planned, and the forces properly supplied, + affords no proof of communication between the governour and his court. + Those who are intrusted with the care of kingdoms in another hemisphere, + must always be trusted with power to defend them. +</p> +<p> + As little can be inferred from his reception at the Spanish court. He is + not punished, indeed; for what has he done that deserves punishment? He + was sent into America to govern and defend the dominions of Spain. He + thought the English were encroaching, and drove them away. No Spaniard + thinks that he has exceeded his duty, nor does the king of Spain charge + him with excess. The boundaries of dominion, in that part of the world, + have not yet been settled; and he mistook, if a mistake there was, like + a zealous subject, in his master's favour. +</p> +<p> + But all this inquiry is superfluous. Considered as a reparation of + honour, the disavowal of the king of Spain, made in the sight of all + Europe, is of equal value, whether true or false. There is, indeed, no + reason to question its veracity; they, however, who do not believe it, + must allow the weight of that influence, by which a great prince is + reduced to disown his own commission. +</p> +<p> + But the general orders, upon which the governour is acknowledged to have + acted, are neither disavowed <i>nor</i> explained. Why the Spaniards should + disavow the defence of their own territories, the warmest disputant will + find it difficult to tell; and, if by an explanation is meant an + accurate delineation of the southern empire, and the limitation of their + claims beyond the line, it cannot be imputed to any very culpable + remissness, that what has been denied for two centuries to the European + powers, was not obtained in a hasty wrangle about a petty settlement. +</p> +<p> + The ministry were too well acquainted with negotiation to fill their + heads with such idle expectations. The question of right was + inexplicable and endless. They left it, as it stood. To be restored to + actual possession was easily practicable. This restoration they required + and obtained. +</p> +<p> + But they should, say their opponents, have insisted upon more; they + should have exacted not only, reparation of our honour, but repayment of + our expense. Nor are they all satisfied with the recovery of the costs + and damages of the present contest; they are for taking this opportunity + of calling in old debts, and reviving our right to the ransome of + Manilla. +</p> +<p> + The Manilla ransome has, I think, been most mentioned by the inferiour + bellowers of sedition. Those who lead the faction know that it cannot be + remembered much to their advantage. The followers of lord Rockingham + remember, that his ministry began and ended without obtaining it; the + adherents to Grenville would be told, that he could never be taught to + understand our claim. The law of nations made little of his knowledge. + Let him not, however, be depreciated in his grave. If he was sometimes + wrong, he was often right. <a href="#note-29">[29]</a> +</p> +<p> + Of reimbursement the talk has been more confident, though not more + reasonable. The expenses of war have been often desired, have been + sometimes required, but were never paid; or never, but when resistance + was hopeless, and there remained no choice between submission and + destruction. +</p> +<p> + Of our late equipments, I know not from whom the charge can be very + properly expected. The king of Spain disavows the violence which + provoked us to arm, and for the mischiefs, which he did not do, why + should he pay? Buccarelli, though he had learned all the arts of an + East Indian governour, could hardly have collected, at Buenos Ayres, a + sum sufficient to satisfy our demands. If he be honest, he is hardly + rich; and if he be disposed to rob, he has the misfortune of being + placed, where robbers have been before him. +</p> +<p> + The king of Spain, indeed, delayed to comply with our proposals, and our + armament was made necessary by unsatisfactory answers and dilatory + debates. The delay certainly increased our expenses, and, it is not + unlikely, that the increase of our expenses put an end to the delay. +</p> +<p> + But this is the inevitable process of human affairs. Negotiation + requires time, What is not apparent to intuition must be found by + inquiry. Claims that have remained doubtful for ages cannot be settled + in a day. Reciprocal complaints are not easily adjusted, but by + reciprocal compliance. The Spaniards, thinking themselves entitled to + the island, and injured by captain Hunt, in their turn demanded + satisfaction, which was refused; and where is the wonder, if their + concessions were delayed! They may tell us, that an independent nation + is to be influenced not by command, but by persuasion; that, if we + expect our proposals to be received without deliberation, we assume that + sovereignty which they do not grant us; and that if we arm, while they + are deliberating, we must indulge our martial ardour at our own charge. +</p> +<p> + The English ministry asked all that was reasonable, and enforced all + that they asked. Our national honour is advanced, and our interest, if + any interest we have, is sufficiently secured. There can be none amongst + us, to whom this transaction does not seem happily concluded, but those + who, having fixed their hopes on publick calamities, sat, like vultures, + waiting for a day of carnage. Having worn out all the arts of domestick + sedition, having wearied violence, and exhausted falsehood, they yet + flattered themselves with some assistance from the pride or malice of + Spain; and when they could no longer make the people complain of + grievances, which they did not feel, they had the comfort yet of + knowing, that real evils were possible, and their resolution is well + known of charging all evil on their governours. +</p> +<p> + The reconciliation was, therefore, considered as the loss of their last + anchor; and received not only with the fretfulness of disappointment, + but the rage of desperation. When they found that all were happy, in + spite of their machinations, and the soft effulgence of peace shone out + upon the nation, they felt no motion but that of sullen envy; they could + not, like Milton's prince of hell, abstract themselves a moment from + their evil; as they have not the wit of Satan, they have not his virtue; + they tried, once again, what could be done by sophistry without art, and + confidence without credit. They represented their sovereign as + dishonoured, and their country as betrayed, or, in their fiercer + paroxysms of fury, reviled their sovereign as betraying it. +</p> +<p> + Their pretences I have here endeavoured to expose, by showing, that more + than has been yielded, was not to be expected, that more, perhaps, was + not to be desired, and that, if all had been refused, there had scarcely + been an adequate reason for a war. +</p> +<p> + There was, perhaps, never much danger of war, or of refusal, but what + danger there was, proceeded from the faction. Foreign nations, + unacquainted with the insolence of common councils, and unaccustomed to + the howl of plebeian patriotism, when they heard of rabbles and riots, + of petitions and remonstrances, of discontent in Surrey, Derbyshire, and + Yorkshire; when they saw the chain of subordination broken, and the + legislature threatened and defied, naturally imagined, that such a + government had little leisure for Falkland's island; they supposed that + the English, when they returned ejected from port Egmont, would find + Wilkes invested with the protectorate, or see the mayor of London, what + the French have formerly seen their mayors of the palace, the commander + of the army, and tutor of the king; that they would be called to tell + their tale before the common council; and that the world was to expect + war or peace from a vote of the subscribers to the bill of rights. +</p> +<p> + But our enemies have now lost their hopes, and our friends, I hope, are + recovered from their fears. To fancy that our government can be + subverted by the rabble, whom its lenity has pampered into impudence, is + to fear that a city may be drowned by the overflowing of its kennels. + The distemper which cowardice or malice thought either decay of the + vitals, or resolution of the nerves, appears, at last, to have been + nothing more than a political <i>phtheiriasis</i>, a disease too loathsome + for a plainer name, but the effect of negligence rather than of + weakness, and of which the shame is greater than the danger. +</p> +<p> + Among the disturbers of our quiet are some animals of greater bulk, whom + their power of roaring persuaded us to think formidable; but we now + perceive that sound and force do not always go together. The noise of a + savage proves nothing but his hunger. +</p> +<p> + After all our broils, foreign and domestick, we may, at last, hope to + remain awhile in quiet, amused with the view of our own success. We have + gained political strength, by the increase of our reputation; we have + gained real strength, by the reparation of our navy; we have shown + Europe, that ten years of war have not yet exhausted us; and we have + enforced our settlement on an island on which, twenty years ago, we + durst not venture to look. +</p> +<p> + These are the gratifications only of honest minds; but there is a time, + in which hope comes to all. From the present happiness of the publick, + the patriots themselves may derive advantage. To be harmless, though by + impotence, obtains some degree of kindness: no man hates a worm as he + hates a viper; they were once dreaded enough to be detested, as serpents + that could bite; they have now shown that they can only hiss, and may, + therefore, quietly slink into holes, and change their slough, unmolested + and forgotten. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_26"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + THE PATRIOT. <a href="#note-30">[30]</a> +</h2> +<center> + ADDRESSED TO THE ELECTORS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 1774. +</center> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + They bawl for freedom in their senseless mood, + Yet still revolt when truth would set them free; + License they mean, when they cry liberty, + For who loves that must first be wise and good. + + MILTON. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + To improve the golden moment of opportunity, and catch the good that is + within our reach, is the great art of life. Many wants are suffered, + which might once have been supplied; and much time is lost in regretting + the time which had been lost before. +</p> +<p> + At the end of every seven years comes the saturnalian season, when the + freemen of great Britain may please themselves with the choice of their + representatives. This happy day has now arrived, somewhat sooner than it + could be claimed. +</p> +<p> + To select and depute those, by whom laws are to be made, and taxes to be + granted, is a high dignity, and an important trust; and it is the + business of every elector to consider, how this dignity may be well + sustained, and this trust faithfully discharged. +</p> +<p> + It ought to be deeply impressed on the minds of all who have voices in + this national deliberation, that no man can deserve a seat in + parliament, who is not a patriot. No other man will protect our rights: + no other man can merit our confidence. +</p> +<p> + A patriot is he whose publick conduct is regulated by one single motive, + the love of his country; who, as an agent in parliament, has, for + himself, neither hope nor fear, neither kindness nor resentment, but + refers every thing to the common interest. +</p> +<p> + That of five hundred men, such as this degenerate age affords, a + majority can be found thus virtuously abstracted, who will affirm? Yet + there is no good in despondence: vigilance and activity often effect + more than was expected. Let us take a patriot, where we can meet him; + and, that we may not flatter ourselves by false appearances, distinguish + those marks which are certain, from those which may deceive; for a man + may have the external appearance of a patriot, without the constituent + qualities; as false coins have often lustre, though they want weight. + Some claim a place in the list of patriots, by an acrimonious and + unremitting opposition to the court. +</p> +<p> + This mark is by no means infallible. Patriotism is not necessarily + included in rebellion. A man may hate his king, yet not love his + country. He that has been refused a reasonable, or unreasonable request, + who thinks his merit underrated, and sees his influence declining, + begins soon to talk of natural equality, the absurdity of "many made for + one," the original compact, the foundation of authority, and the majesty + of the people. As his political melancholy increases, he tells, and, + perhaps, dreams, of the advances of the prerogative, and the dangers of + arbitrary power; yet his design, in all his declamation, is not to + benefit his country, but to gratify his malice. +</p> +<p> + These, however, are the most honest of the opponents of government; + their patriotism is a species of disease; and they feel some part of + what they express. But the greater, far the greater number of those who + rave and rail, and inquire and accuse, neither suspect nor fear, nor + care for the publick; but hope to force their way to riches, by + virulence and invective, and are vehement and clamorous, only that they + may be sooner hired to be silent. +</p> +<p> + A man sometimes starts up a patriot, only by disseminating discontent, + and propagating reports of secret influence, of dangerous counsels, of + violated rights, and encroaching usurpation. +</p> +<p> + This practice is no certain note of patriotism. To instigate the + populace with rage beyond the provocation, is to suspend publick + happiness, if not to destroy it. He is no lover of his country, that + unnecessarily disturbs its peace. Few errours and few faults of + government, can justify an appeal to the rabble; who ought not to judge + of what they cannot understand, and whose opinions are not propagated by + reason, but caught by contagion. +</p> +<p> + The fallaciousness of this note of patriotism is particularly apparent, + when the clamour continues after the evil is past. They who are still + filling our ears with Mr. Wilkes, and the freeholders of Middlesex, + lament a grievance that is now at an end. Mr. Wilkes may be chosen, if + any will choose him, and the precedent of his exclusion makes not any + honest, or any decent man, think himself in clanger. +</p> +<p> + It may be doubted, whether the name of a patriot can be fairly given, as + the reward of secret satire, or open outrage. To fill the newspapers + with sly hints of corruption and intrigue, to circulate the Middlesex + Journal, and London Pacquet, may, indeed, be zeal; but it may, likewise, + be interest and malice. To offer a petition, not expected to be granted; + to insult a king-with a rude remonstrance, only because there is no + punishment for legal insolence, is not courage, for there is no danger; + nor patriotism, for it tends to the subversion of order, and lets + wickedness loose upon the land, by destroying the reverence due to + sovereign authority. +</p> +<p> + It is the quality of patriotism to be jealous and watchful, to observe + all secret machinations, and to see publick dangers at a distance. The + true lover of his country is ready to communicate his fears, and to + sound the alarm, whenever he perceives the approach of mischief. But he + sounds no alarm, when there is no enemy; he never terrifies his + countrymen till he is terrified himself. The patriotism, therefore, may + be justly doubted of him, who professes to be disturbed by + incredibilities; who tells, that the last peace was obtained by bribing + the princess of Wales; that the king is grasping at arbitrary power; + and, that because the French, in the new conquests, enjoy their own + laws, there is a design at court of abolishing, in England, the trial by + juries. +</p> +<p> + Still less does the true patriot circulate opinions which he knows to be + false. No man, who loves his country, fills the nation with clamorous + complaints, that the protestant religion is in danger, because "popery + is established in the extensive province of Quebec," a falsehood so open + and shameless, that it can need no confutation among those who know that + of which it is almost impossible for the most unenlightened zealot to be + ignorant: +</p> +<p> + That Quebec is on the other side of the Atlantick, at too great a + distance to do much good or harm to the European world: +</p> +<p> + That the inhabitants, being French, were always papists, who are + certainly more dangerous as enemies than as subjects: +</p> +<p> + That though the province be wide, the people are few, probably not so + many as may be found in one of the larger English counties: +</p> +<p> + That persecution is not more virtuous in a protestant than a papist; and + that, while we blame Lewis the fourteenth, for his dragoons and his + galleys, we ought, when power comes into our hands, to use it with + greater equity: +</p> +<p> + That when Canada, with its inhabitants, was yielded, the free enjoyment + of their religion was stipulated; a condition, of which king William, + who was no propagator of popery, gave an example nearer home, at the + surrender of Limerick: +</p> +<p> + That in an age, where every mouth is open for <i>liberty of conscience</i>, + it is equitable to show some regard to the conscience of a papist, who + may be supposed, like other men, to think himself safest in his own + religion; and that those, at least, who enjoy a toleration, ought not to + deny it to our new subjects. +</p> +<p> + If liberty of conscience be a natural right, we have no power to + withhold it; if it be an indulgence, it may be allowed to papists, while + it is not denied to other sects. +</p> +<p> + A patriot is necessarily and invariably a lover of the people. But even + this mark may sometimes deceive us. +</p> +<p> + The people is a very heterogeneous and confused mass of the wealthy and + the poor, the wise and the foolish, the good and the bad. Before we + confer on a man, who caresses the people, the title of patriot, we must + examine to what part of the people he directs his notice. It is + proverbially said, that he who dissembles his own character, may be + known by that of his companions. If the candidate of patriotism + endeavours to infuse right opinions into the higher ranks, and, by their + influence, to regulate the lower; if he consorts chiefly with the wise, + the temperate, the regular, and the virtuous, his love of the people may + be rational and honest. But if his first or principal application be to + the indigent, who are always inflammable; to the weak, who are naturally + suspicious; to the ignorant, who are easily misled; and to the + profligate, who have no hope but from mischief and confusion; let his + love of the people be no longer boasted. No man can reasonably be + thought a lover of his country, for roasting an ox, or burning a boot, + or attending the meeting at Mile-end, or registering his name in the + lumber troop. He may, among the drunkards, be a hearty fellow, and, + among sober handicraftsmen, a free-spoken gentleman; but he must have + some better distinction, before he is a patriot. +</p> +<p> + A patriot is always ready to countenance the just claims, and animate + the reasonable hopes of the people; he reminds them, frequently, of + their rights, and stimulates them to resent encroachments, and to + multiply securities. +</p> +<p> + But all this may be done in appearance, without real patriotism. He that + raises false hopes to serve a present purpose, only makes a way for + disappointment and discontent. He who promises to endeavour, what he + knows his endeavours unable to effect, means only to delude his + followers by an empty clamour of ineffectual zeal. +</p> +<p> + A true patriot is no lavish promiser: he undertakes not to shorten + parliaments; to repeal laws; or to change the mode of representation, + transmitted by our ancestors; he knows that futurity is not in his + power, and that all times are not alike favourable to change. +</p> +<p> + Much less does he make a vague and indefinite promise of obeying the + mandates of his constituents. He knows the prejudices of faction, and + the inconstancy of the multitude. He would first inquire, how the + opinion of his constituents shall be taken. Popular instructions are, + commonly, the work, not of the wise and steady, but the violent and + rash; meetings held for directing representatives are seldom attended + but by the idle and the dissolute; and he is not without suspicion, that + of his constituents, as of other numbers of men, the smaller part may + often be the wiser. +</p> +<p> + He considers himself as deputed to promote the publick good, and to + preserve his constituents, with the rest of his countrymen, not only + from being hurt by others, but from hurting themselves. +</p> +<p> + The common marks of patriotism having been examined, and shown to be + such as artifice may counterfeit, or folly misapply, it cannot be + improper to consider, whether there are not some characteristical modes + of speaking or acting, which may prove a man to be not a patriot. +</p> +<p> + In this inquiry, perhaps, clearer evidence may be discovered, and firmer + persuasion attained; for it is, commonly, easier to know what is wrong + than what is right; to find what we should avoid, than what we should + pursue. +</p> +<p> + As war is one of the heaviest of national evils, a calamity in which + every species of misery is involved; as it sets the general safety to + hazard, suspends commerce, and desolates the country; as it exposes + great numbers to hardships, dangers, captivity, and death; no man, who + desires the publick prosperity, will inflame general resentment by + aggravating minute injuries, or enforcing disputable rights of little + importance. +</p> +<p> + It may, therefore, be safely pronounced, that those men are no patriots, + who, when the national honour was vindicated in the sight of Europe, and + the Spaniards having invaded what they call their own, had shrunk to a + disavowal of their attempt, and a relaxation of their claim, would still + have instigated us to a war, for a bleak and barren spot in the + Magellanick ocean, of which no use could be made, unless it were a place + of exile for the hypocrites of patriotism. +</p> +<p> + Yet let it not be forgotten, that, by the howling violence of patriotick + rage, the nation was, for a time, exasperated to such madness, that, for + a barren rock under a stormy sky, we might have now been fighting and + dying, had not our competitors been wiser than ourselves; and those who + are now courting the favour of the people, by noisy professions of + publick spirit, would, while they were counting the profits of their + artifice, have enjoyed the patriotick pleasure of hearing, sometimes, + that thousands had been slaughtered in a battle, and, sometimes, that a + navy had been dispeopled by poisoned air and corrupted food. He that + wishes to see his country robbed of its rights cannot be a patriot. +</p> +<p> + That man, therefore, is no patriot, who justifies the ridiculous claims + of American usurpation; who endeavours to deprive the nation of its + natural and lawful authority over its own colonies; those colonies, + which were settled under English protection; were constituted by an + English charter; and have been defended by English arms. +</p> +<p> + To suppose, that by sending out a colony, the nation established an + independent power; that when, by indulgence and favour, emigrants are + become rich, they shall not contribute to their own defence, but at + their own pleasure; and that they shall not be included, like millions + of their fellow-subjects, in the general system of representation; + involves such an accumulation of absurdity, as nothing but the show of + patriotism could palliate. +</p> +<p> + He that accepts protection, stipulates obedience. We have always + protected the Americans; we may, therefore, subject them to government. +</p> +<p> + The less is included in the greater. That power which can take away + life, may seize upon property. The parliament may enact, for America, a + law of capital punishment; it may, therefore, establish a mode and + proportion of taxation. +</p> +<p> + But there are some who lament the state of the poor Bostonians, because + they cannot all be supposed to have committed acts of rebellion, yet all + are involved in the penalty imposed. This, they say, is to violate the + first rule of justice, by condemning the innocent to suffer with the + guilty. +</p> +<p> + This deserves some notice, as it seems dictated by equity and humanity, + however it may raise contempt by the ignorance which it betrays of the + state of man, and the system of things. That the innocent should be + confounded with the guilty, is, undoubtedly, an evil; but it is an evil + which no care or caution can prevent. National crimes require national + punishments, of which many must necessarily have their part, who have + not incurred them by personal guilt. If rebels should fortify a town, + the cannon of lawful authority will endanger, equally, the harmless + burghers and the criminal garrison. +</p> +<p> + In some cases, those suffer most who are least intended to be hurt. If + the French, in the late war, had taken an English city, and permitted + the natives to keep their dwellings, how could it have been recovered, + but by the slaughter of our friends? A bomb might as well destroy an + Englishman as a Frenchman; and, by famine, we know that the inhabitants + would be the first that should perish. +</p> +<p> + This infliction of promiscuous evil may, therefore, be lamented, but + cannot be blamed. The power of lawful government must be maintained; and + the miseries which rebellion produces, can be charged only on the + rebels. +</p> +<p> + That man, likewise, is not a patriot, who denies his governours their + due praise, and who conceals from the people the benefits which they + receive. Those, therefore, can lay no claim to this illustrious + appellation, who impute want of publick spirit to the late parliament; + an assembly of men, whom, notwithstanding some fluctuation of counsel, + and some weakness of agency, the nation must always remember with + gratitude, since it is indebted to them for a very ample concession, in + the resignation of protections, and a wise and honest attempt to improve + the constitution, in the new judicature instituted for the trial of + elections. +</p> +<p> + The right of protection, which might be necessary, when it was first + claimed, and was very consistent with that liberality of immunities, in + which the feudal constitution delighted, was, by its nature, liable to + abuse, and had, in reality, been sometimes misapplied to the evasion of + the law, and the defeat of justice. The evil was, perhaps, not adequate + to the clamour; nor is it very certain, that the possible good of this + privilege was not more than equal to the possible evil. It is, however, + plain, that, whether they gave any thing or not to the publick, they, at + least, lost something from themselves. They divested their dignity of a + very splendid distinction, and showed that they were more willing than + their predecessors to stand on a level with their fellow-subjects. +</p> +<p> + The new mode of trying elections, if it be found effectual, will diffuse + its consequences further than seems yet to be foreseen. It is, I + believe, generally considered as advantageous only to those who claim + seats in parliament; but, if to choose representatives be one of the + most valuable rights of Englishmen, every voter must consider that law + as adding to his happiness, which makes his suffrage efficacious; since + it was vain to choose, while the election could be controlled by any + other power. +</p> +<p> + With what imperious contempt of ancient rights, and what audaciousness + of arbitrary authority former parliaments have judged the disputes about + elections, it is not necessary to relate. The claim of a candidate, and + the right of electors, are said scarcely to have been, even in + appearance, referred to conscience; but to have been decided by party, + by passion, by prejudice, or by frolick. To have friends in the borough + was of little use to him, who wanted friends in the house; a pretence + was easily found to evade a majority, and the seat was, at last, his, + that was chosen, not by his electors, but his fellow-senators. +</p> +<p> + Thus the nation was insulted with a mock election, and the parliament + was filled with spurious representatives one of the most important + claims, that of right to sit in the supreme council of the kingdom, was + debated in jest, and no man could be confident of success from the + justice of his cause. +</p> +<p> + A disputed election is now tried with the same scrupulousness and + solemnity, as any other title. The candidate that has deserved well of + his neighbours, may now be certain of enjoying the effect of their + approbation; and the elector, who has voted honestly for known merit, + may be certain, that he has not voted in vain. +</p> +<p> + Such was the parliament, which some of those, who are now aspiring to + sit in another, have taught the rabble to consider as an unlawful + convention of men, worthless, venal, and prostitute, slaves of the + court, and tyrants of the people. +</p> +<p> + That the next house of commons may act upon the principles of the last, + with more constancy and higher spirit, must be the wish of all who wish + well to the publick; and, it is surely not too much to expect, that the + nation will recover from its delusion, and unite in a general abhorrence + of those, who, by deceiving the credulous with fictitious mischiefs, + overbearing the weak by audacity of falsehood, by appealing to the + judgment of ignorance, and flattering the vanity of meanness, by + slandering honesty, and insulting dignity, have gathered round them + whatever the kingdom can supply of base, and gross, and profligate; and + "raised by merit to this bad eminence," arrogate to themselves the name + of patriots. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_27"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + TAXATION NO TYRANNY; +</h2> +<p> + An answer <a href="#note-31">[31]</a> to the resolutions and address of the American congress. +</p> +<center> + 1775. +</center> +<p> + In all the parts of human knowledge, whether terminating in science + merely speculative, or operating upon life, private or civil, are + admitted some fundamental principles, or common axioms, which, + being-generally received, are little doubted, and, being little doubted, + have been rarely proved. +</p> +<p> + Of these gratuitous and acknowledged truths, it is often the fate to + become less evident by endeavours to explain them, however necessary + such endeavours may be made by the misapprehensions of absurdity, or the + sophistries of interest. It is difficult to prove the principles of + science; because notions cannot always be found more intelligible than + those which are questioned. It is difficult to prove the principles of + practice, because they have, for the most part, not been discovered by + investigation, but obtruded by experience; and the demonstrator will + find, after an operose deduction, that he has been trying to make that + seen, which can be only felt. +</p> +<p> + Of this kind is the position, that "the supreme power of every community + has the right of requiring, from all its subjects, such contributions as + are necessary to the publick safety or publick prosperity," which was + considered, by all mankind, as comprising the primary and essential + condition of all political society, till it became disputed by those + zealots of anarchy, who have denied, to the parliament of Britain the + right of taxing the American colonies. +</p> +<p> + In favour of this exemption of the Americans from the authority of their + lawful sovereign, and the dominion of their mother-country, very loud + clamours have been raised, and many wild assertions advanced, which, by + such as borrow their opinions from the reigning fashion, have been + admitted as arguments; and, what is strange, though their tendency is to + lessen English honour and English power, have been heard by Englishmen, + with a wish to find them true. Passion has, in its first violence, + controlled interest, as the eddy for awhile runs against the stream. +</p> +<p> + To be prejudiced is always to be weak; yet there are prejudices so near + to laudable, that they have been often praised, and are always pardoned. + To love their country has been considered as virtue in men, whose love + could not be otherwise than blind, because their preference was made + without a comparison; but it has never been my fortune to find, either + in ancient or modern writers, any honourable mention of those, who have, + with equal blindness, hated their country. +</p> +<p> + These antipatriotick prejudices are the abortions of folly impregnated + by faction, which, being produced against the standing order of nature, + have not strength sufficient for long life. They are born only to scream + and perish, and leave those to contempt or detestation, whose kindness + was employed to nurse them into mischief. +</p> +<p> + To perplex the opinion of the publick many artifices have been used, + which, as usually happens, when falsehood is to be maintained by fraud, + lose their force by counteracting one another. +</p> +<p> + The nation is, sometimes, to be mollified by a tender tale of men, who + fled from tyranny to rocks and deserts, and is persuaded to lose all + claims of justice, and all sense of dignity, in compassion for a + harmless people, who, having worked hard for bread in a wild country, + and obtained, by the slow progression of manual industry, the + accommodations of life, are now invaded by unprecedented oppression, and + plundered of their properties by the harpies of taxation. +</p> +<p> + We are told how their industry is obstructed by unnatural restraints, + and their trade confined by rigorous prohibitions; how they are + forbidden to enjoy the products of their own soil, to manufacture the + materials which nature spreads before them, or to carry their own goods + to the nearest market; and surely the generosity of English virtue will + never heap new weight upon those that are already overladen; will never + delight in that dominion, which cannot be exercised, but by cruelty and + outrage. +</p> +<p> + But, while we are melting in silent sorrow, and, in the transports of + delirious pity, dropping both the sword and balance from our hands, + another friend of the Americans thinks it better to awaken another + passion, and tries to alarm our interest, or excite our veneration, by + accounts of their greatness and their opulence, of the fertility of + their land, and the splendour of their towns. We then begin to consider + the question with more evenness of mind, are ready to conclude that + those restrictions are not very oppressive, which have been found + consistent with this speedy growth of prosperity; and begin to think it + reasonable, that they who thus flourish under the protection of our + government, should contribute something towards its expense. +</p> +<p> + But we are soon told, that the Americans, however wealthy, cannot be + taxed; that they are the descendants of men who left all for liberty, + and that they have constantly preserved the principles and stubbornness + of their progenitors; that they are too obstinate for persuasion, and + too powerful for constraint; that they will laugh at argument, and + defeat violence; that the continent of North America contains three + millions, not of men merely, but of whigs, of whigs fierce for liberty, + and disdainful of dominion; that they multiply with the fecundity of + their own rattlesnakes, so that every quarter of a century doubles their + numbers. +</p> +<p> + Men accustomed to think themselves masters do not love to be threatened. + This talk is, I hope, commonly thrown away, or raises passions different + from those which it was intended to excite. Instead of terrifying the + English hearer to tame acquiescence, it disposes him to hasten the + experiment of bending obstinacy, before it is become yet more obdurate, + and convinces him that it is necessary to attack a nation thus + prolifick, while we may yet hope to prevail. When he is told, through + what extent of territory we must travel to subdue them, he recollects + how far, a few years ago, we travelled in their defence. When it is + urged, that they will shoot up, like the hydra, he naturally considers + how the hydra was destroyed. +</p> +<p> + Nothing dejects a trader like the interruption of his profits. A + commercial people, however magnanimous, shrinks at the thought of + declining traffick and an unfavourable balance. The effect of this + terrour has been tried. We have been stunned with the importance of our + American commerce, and heard of merchants, with warehouses that are + never to be emptied, and of manufacturers starving for want of work. +</p> +<p> + That our commerce with America is profitable, however less than + ostentatious or deceitful estimates have made it, and that it is our + interest to preserve it, has never been denied; but, surely, it will + most effectually be preserved, by being kept always in our own power. + Concessions may promote it for a moment, but superiority only can ensure + its continuance. There will always be a part, and always a very large + part of every community, that have no care but for themselves, and whose + care for themselves reaches little further than impatience of immediate + pain, and eagerness for the nearest good. The blind are said to feel + with peculiar nicety. They who look but little into futurity, have, + perhaps, the quickest sensation of the present. A merchant's desire is + not of glory, but of gain; not of publick wealth, but of private + emolument; he is, therefore, rarely to be consulted about war and peace, + or any designs of wide extent and distant consequence. +</p> +<p> + Yet this, like other general characters, will sometimes fail. The + traders of Birmingham have rescued themselves from all imputation of + narrow selfishness, by a manly recommendation to parliament of the + rights and dignity of their native country. +</p> +<p> + To these men I do not intend to ascribe an absurd and enthusiastick + contempt of interest, but to give them the rational and just praise of + distinguishing real from seeming good; of being able to see through the + cloud of interposing difficulties, to the lasting and solid happiness of + victory and settlement. +</p> +<p> + Lest all these topicks of persuasion should fail, the greater actor of + patriotism has tried another, in which terrour and pity are happily + combined, not without a proper superaddition of that admiration which + latter ages have brought into the drama. The heroes of Boston, he tells + us, if the stamp act had not been repealed, would have left their town, + their port, and their trade, have resigned the splendour of opulence, + and quitted the delights of neighbourhood, to disperse themselves over + the country, where they would till the ground, and fish in the rivers, + and range the mountains, and be free. +</p> +<p> + These, surely, are brave words. If the mere sound of freedom can operate + thus powerfully, let no man, hereafter, doubt the story of the Pied + Piper. The removal of the people of Boston into the country, seems, even + to the congress, not only difficult in its execution, but important in + its consequences. The difficulty of execution is best known to the + Bostonians themselves; the consequence alas! will only be, that they + will leave good houses to wiser men. +</p> +<p> + Yet, before they quit the comforts of a warm home, for the sounding + something which they think better, he cannot be thought their enemy who + advises them, to consider well whether they shall find it. By turning + fishermen or hunters, woodmen or shepherds, they may become wild, but it + is not so easy to conceive them free; for who can be more a slave than + he that is driven, by force, from the comforts of life, is compelled to + leave his house to a casual comer, and, whatever he does, or wherever he + wanders, finds, every moment, some new testimony of his own subjection? + If choice of evil be freedom, the felon in the galleys has his option of + labour or of stripes. The Bostonian may quit his house to starve in the + fields; his dog may refuse to set, and smart under the lash, and they + may then congratulate each other upon the smiles of liberty, "profuse of + bliss, and pregnant with delight." +</p> +<p> + To treat such designs as serious, would be to think too contemptuously + of Bostonian understandings. The artifice, indeed, is not new: the + blusterer, who threatened in vain to destroy his opponent, has, + sometimes, obtained his end, by making it believed, that he would hang + himself. +</p> +<p> + But terrours and pity are not the only means by which the taxation of + the Americans is opposed. There are those, who profess to use them only + as auxiliaries to reason and justice; who tell us, that to tax the + colonies is usurpation and oppression, an invasion of natural and legal + rights, and a violation of those principles which support the + constitution of English government. +</p> +<p> + This question is of great importance. That the Americans are able to + bear taxation, is indubitable; that their refusal may be overruled, is + highly probable; but power is no sufficient evidence of truth. Let us + examine our own claim, and the objections of the recusants, with caution + proportioned to the event of the decision, which must convict one part + of robbery, or the other of rebellion. +</p> +<p> + A tax is a payment, exacted by authority, from part of the community, + for the benefit of the whole. From whom, and in what proportion such + payment shall be required, and to what uses it shall be applied, those + only are to judge to whom government is intrusted. In the British + dominions taxes are apportioned, levied, and appropriated by the states + assembled in parliament. +</p> +<p> + Of every empire all the subordinate communities are liable to taxation, + because they all share the benefits of government, and, therefore, ought + all to furnish their proportion of the expense. +</p> +<p> + This the Americans have never openly denied. That it is their duty to + pay the costs of their own safety, they seem to admit; nor do they + refuse their contribution to the exigencies, whatever they may be, of + the British empire; but they make this participation of the publick + burden a duty of very uncertain extent, and imperfect obligation, a duty + temporary, occasional, and elective, of which they reserve to themselves + the right of settling the degree, the time, and the duration; of judging + when it may be required, and when it has been performed. +</p> +<p> + They allow to the supreme power nothing more than the liberty of + notifying to them its demands or its necessities. Of this notification + they profess to think for themselves, how far it shall influence their + counsels; and of the necessities alleged, how far they shall endeavour + to relieve them. They assume the exclusive power of settling not only + the mode, but the quantity, of this payment. They are ready to cooperate + with all the other dominions of the king; but they will cooperate by no + means which they do not like, and at no greater charge than they are + willing to bear. +</p> +<p> + This claim, wild as it may seem; this claim, which supposes dominion + without authority, and subjects without subordination, has found among + the libertines of policy, many clamorous and hardy vindicators. The laws + of nature, the rights of humanity, the faith of charters, the danger of + liberty, the encroachments of usurpation, have been thundered in our + ears, sometimes by interested faction, and sometimes by honest + stupidity. +</p> +<p> + It is said by Fontenelle, that if twenty philosophers shall resolutely + deny that the presence of the sun makes the day, he will not despair but + whole nations may adopt the opinion. So many political dogmatists have + denied to the mother-country the power of taxing the colonies, and have + enforced their denial with so much violence of outcry, that their sect + is already very numerous, and the publick voice suspends its decision. +</p> +<p> + In moral and political questions, the contest between interest and + justice has been often tedious and often fierce, but, perhaps, it never + happened before, that justice found much opposition, with interest on + her side. +</p> +<p> + For the satisfaction of this inquiry, it is necessary to consider, how a + colony is constituted; what are the terms of migration, as dictated by + nature, or settled by compact; and what social or political rights the + man loses or acquires, that leaves his country to establish himself hi a + distant plantation. +</p> +<p> + Of two modes of migration the history of mankind informs us, and so far + as I can yet discover, of two only. In countries where life was yet + unadjusted, and policy unformed, it sometimes happened, that, by the + dissensions of heads of families, by the ambition of daring adventurers, + by some accidental pressure of distress, or by the mere discontent of + idleness, one part of the community broke off from the rest, and + numbers, greater or smaller, forsook their habitations, put themselves + under the command of some favourite of fortune, and with, or without the + consent of their countrymen or governours, went out to see what better + regions they could occupy, and in what place, by conquest or by treaty, + they could gain a habitation. +</p> +<p> + Sons of enterprise, like these, who committed to their own swords their + hopes and their lives, when they left their country, became another + nation, with designs, and prospects, and interests, of their own. They + looked back no more to their former home; they expected no help from + those whom they had left behind; if they conquered, they conquered for + themselves; if they were destroyed, they were not by any other power + either lamented or revenged. +</p> +<p> + Of this kind seem to have been all the migrations of the early world, + whether historical or fabulous, and of this kind were the eruptions of + those nations, which, from the north, invaded the Roman empire, and + filled Europe with new sovereignties. +</p> +<p> + But when, by the gradual admission of wiser laws and gentler manners, + society became more compacted and better regulated, it was found, that + the power of every people consisted in union, produced by one common + interest, and operating in joint efforts and consistent counsels. +</p> +<p> + From this time independence perceptibly wasted away. No part of the + nation was permitted to act for itself. All now had the same enemies and + the same friends; the government protected individuals, and individuals + were required to refer their designs to the prosperity of the + government. +</p> +<p> + By this principle it is, that states are formed and consolidated. Every + man is taught to consider his own happiness, as combined with the + publick prosperity, and to think himself great and powerful, in + proportion to the greatness and power of his governours. +</p> +<p> + Had the western continent been discovered between the fourth and tenth + century, when all the northen world was in motion; and had navigation + been, at that time, sufficiently advanced to make so long a passage + easily practicable, there is little reason for doubting, but the + intumescence of nations would have found its vent, like all other + expansive violence, where there was least resistance; and that Huns and + Vandals, instead of fighting their way to the south of Europe, would + have gone, by thousands and by myriads, under their several chiefs, to + take possession of regions smiling with pleasure, and waving with + fertility, from which the naked inhabitants were unable to repel them. +</p> +<p> + Every expedition would, in those days of laxity, have produced a + distinct and independent state. The Scandinavian heroes might have + divided the country among them, and have spread the feudal subdivision + of regality from Hudson's bay to the Pacifick ocean. +</p> +<p> + But Columbus came five or six hundred years too late for the candidates + of sovereignty. When he formed his project of discovery, the + fluctuations of military turbulence had subsided, and Europe began to + regain a settled form, by established government and regular + subordination. No man could any longer erect himself into a chieftain, + and lead out his fellow-subjects, by his own authority, to plunder or to + war. He that committed any act of hostility, by land or sea, without the + commission of some acknowledged sovereign, was considered, by all + mankind, as a robber or pirate, names which were now of little credit, + and of which, therefore, no man was ambitious. +</p> +<p> + Columbus, in a remoter time, would have found his way to some + discontented lord, or some younger brother of a petty sovereign, who + would have taken fire at his proposal, and have quickly kindled, with + equal heat, a troop of followers: they would have built ships, or have + seized them, and have wandered with him, at all adventures, as far as + they could keep hope in their company. But the age being now past of + vagrant excursion and fortuitous hostility, he was under the necessity + of travelling from court to court, scorned and repulsed as a wild + projector, an idle promiser of kingdoms in the clouds; nor has any part + of the world yet had reason to rejoice that he found, at last, reception + and employment. +</p> +<p> + In the same year, in a year hitherto disastrous to mankind, by the + Portuguese was discovered the passage of the Indies, and by the + Spaniards the coast of America. The nations of Europe were fired with + boundless expectations, and the discoverers, pursuing their enterprise, + made conquests in both hemispheres of wide extent. But the adventurers + were not contented with plunder: though they took gold and silver to + themselves, they seized islands and kingdoms in the name of their + sovereigns. When a new region was gained, a governour was appointed by + that power, which had given the commission to the conqueror; nor have I + met with any European, but Stukely, of London, that formed a design of + exalting himself in the newly found countries to independent dominion. +</p> +<p> + To secure a conquest, it was always necessary to plant a colony, and + territories, thus occupied and settled, were rightly considered, as mere + extensions, or processes of empire; as ramifications which, by the + circulation of one publick interest, communicated with the original + source of dominion, and which were kept flourishing and spreading by the + radical vigour of the mother-country. +</p> +<p> + The colonies of England differ no otherwise from those of other nations, + than as the English constitution differs from theirs. All government is + ultimately and essentially absolute, but subordinate societies may have + more immunities, or individuals greater liberty, as the operations of + government are differently conducted. An Englishman in the common course + of life and action feels no restraint. An English colony has very + liberal powers of regulating its own manners, and adjusting its own + affairs. But an English individual may, by the supreme authority, be + deprived of liberty, and a colony divested of its powers, for reasons of + which that authority is the only judge. +</p> +<p> + In sovereignty there are no gradations. There may be limited royalty, + there may be limited consulship; but there can be no limited government. + There must, in every society, be some power or other, from which there + is no appeal, which admits no restrictions, which pervades the whole + mass of the community, regulates and adjusts all subordination, enacts + laws or repeals them, erects or annuls judicatures, extends or contracts + privileges, exempt itself from question or control, and bounded only by + physical necessity. +</p> +<p> + By this power, wherever it subsists, all legislation and jurisdiction is + animated and maintained. From this all legal rights are emanations, + which, whether equitably or not, may be legally recalled. It is not + infallible, for it may do wrong; but it is irresistible, for it can be + resisted only by rebellion, by an act which makes it questionable, what + shall be thenceforward the supreme power. +</p> +<p> + An English colony is a number of persons, to whom the king grants a + charter, permitting them to settle in some distant country, and enabling + them to constitute a corporation enjoying such powers as the charter + grants, to be administered in such forms as the charter prescribes. As a + corporation, they make laws for themselves; but as a corporation, + subsisting by a grant from higher authority, to the control of that + authority they continue subject. +</p> +<p> + As men are placed at a greater distance from the supreme council of the + kingdom, they must be intrusted with ampler liberty of regulating their + conduct by their own wisdom. As they are more secluded from easy + recourse to national judicature, they must be more extensively + commissioned to pass judgment on each other. +</p> +<p> + For this reason our more important and opulent colonies see the + appearance, and feel the effect, of a regular legislature, which, in + some places, has acted so long with unquestioned authority, that it has + forgotten whence that authority was originally derived. +</p> +<p> + To their charters the colonies owe, like other corporations, their + political existence. The solemnities of legislation, the administration + of justice, the security of property, are all bestowed upon them by the + royal grant. Without their charter, there would be no power among them, + by which any law could be made, or duties enjoined; any debt recovered, + or criminal punished. +</p> +<p> + A charter is a grant of certain powers or privileges, given to a part of + the community for the advantage of the whole, and is, therefore, liable, + by its nature, to change or to revocation. Every act of government aims + at publick good. A charter, which experience has shown to be detrimental + to the nation, is to be repealed; because general prosperity must always + be preferred to particular interest. If a charter be used to evil + purposes, it is forfeited, as the weapon is taken away which is + injuriously employed. +</p> +<p> + The charter, therefore, by which provincial governments are constituted, + may be always legally, and, where it is either inconvenient in its + nature, or misapplied in its use, may be equitably repealed; by such + repeal the whole fabrick of subordination is immediately destroyed, and + the constitution sunk at once into a chaos; the society is dissolved + into a tumult of individuals, without authority to command, or + obligation to obey, without any punishment of wrongs, but by personal + resentment, or any protection of right, but by the hand of the + possessor. +</p> +<p> + A colony is to the mother-country, as a member to the body, deriving its + action and its strength from the general principle of vitality; + receiving from the body, and communicating to it, all the benefits and + evils of health and disease; liable, in dangerous maladies, to sharp + applications, of which the body, however, must partake the pain; and + exposed, if incurably tainted, to amputation, by which the body, + likewise, will be mutilated. +</p> +<p> + The mother-country always considers the colonies, thus connected, as + parts of itself; the prosperity or unhappiness of either, is the + prosperity or unhappiness of both; not, perhaps, of both in the same + degree, for the body may subsist, though less commodiously, without a + limb, but the limb must perish, if it be parted from the body. +</p> +<p> + Our colonies, therefore, however distant, have been, hitherto, treated + as constituent parts of the British empire. The inhabitants incorporated + by English charters are entitled to all the rights of Englishmen. They + are governed by English laws, entitled to English dignities, regulated + by English counsels, and protected by English arms; and it seems to + follow, by consequence not easily avoided, that they are subject to + English government, and chargeable by English taxation. +</p> +<p> + To him that considers the nature, the original, the progress, and the + constitution of the colonies, who remembers that the first discoverers + had commissions from the crown, that the first settlers owe to a charter + their civil forms and regular magistracy, and that all personal + immunities and legal securities, by which the condition of the subject + has been, from time to time, improved, have been extended to the + colonists, it will not be doubted, but the parliament of England has a + right to bind them by statutes, and to bind them in all cases + whatsoever; and has, therefore, a natural and constitutional power of + laying upon them any tax or impost, whether external or internal, upon + the product of land, or the manufactures of industry, in the exigencies + of war, or in the time of profound peace, for the defence of America, + for the purpose of raising a revenue, or for any other end beneficial to + the empire. +</p> +<p> + There are some, and those not inconsiderable for number, nor + contemptible for knowledge, who except the power of taxation from the + general dominion of parliament, and hold, that whatever degress of + obedience may be exacted, or whatever authority may be exercised in + other acts of government, there is still reverence to be paid to money, + and that legislation passes its limits when it violates the purse. +</p> +<p> + Of this exception, which, by a head not fully impregnated with + politicks, is not easily comprehended, it is alleged, as an unanswerable + reason, that the colonies send no representatives to the house of + commons. +</p> +<p> + It is, say the American advocates, the natural distinction of a freeman, + and the legal privilege of an Englishman, that he is able to call his + possessions his own, that he can sit secure in the enjoyment of + inheritance or acquisition, that his house is fortified by the law, and + that nothing can be taken from him, but by his own consent. This consent + is given for every man by his representative in parliament. The + Americans, unrepresented, cannot consent to English taxations, as a + corporation, and they will not consent, as individuals. +</p> +<p> + Of this argument, it has been observed by more than one, that its force + extends equally to all other laws, for a freeman is not to be exposed to + punishment, or be called to any onerous service, but by his own consent. + The congress has extracted a position from the fanciful Montesquieu + that, "in a free state, every man, being a free agent, ought to be + concerned in his own government." Whatever is true of taxation, is true + of every other law, that he who is bound by it, without his consent, is + not free, for he is not concerned in his own government. +</p> +<p> + He that denies the English parliament the right of taxation, denies it, + likewise, the right of making any other laws, civil or criminal, yet + this power over the colonies was never yet disputed by themselves. They + have always admitted statutes for the punishment of offences, and for + the redress or prevention of inconveniencies; and the reception of any + law draws after it, by a chain which cannot be broken, the unwelcome + necessity of submitting to taxation. +</p> +<p> + That a freeman is governed by himself, or by laws to which he has + consented, is a position of mighty sound; but every man that utters it, + with whatever confidence, and every man that hears it, with whatever + acquiescence, if consent be supposed to imply the power of refusal, + feels it to be false. We virtually and implicitly allow the institutions + of any government, of which we enjoy the benefit, and solicit the + protection. In wide extended dominions, though power has been diffused + with the most even hand, yet a very small part of the people are either + primarily or secondarily consulted in legislation. The business of the + publick must be done by delegation. The choice of delegates is made by a + select number, and those who are not electors stand idle and helpless + spectators of the commonweal, "wholly unconcerned in the government of + themselves." +</p> +<p> + Of the electors the hap is but little better. They are often far from + unanimity in their choice; and where the numbers approach to equality, + almost half must be governed not only without, but against their choice. +</p> +<p> + How any man can have consented to institutions established in distant + ages, it will be difficult to explain. In the most favourite residence + of liberty, the consent of individuals is merely passive; a tacit + admission, in every community, of the terms which that community grants + and requires. As all are born the subjects of some state or other, we + may be said to have been all born consenting to some system of + government. Other consent than this the condition of civil life does not + allow. It is the unmeaning clamour of the pedants of policy, the + delirious dream of republican fanaticism. +</p> +<p> + But hear, ye sons and daughters of liberty, the sounds which the winds + are wafting from the western continent. The Americans are telling one + another, what, if we may judge from their noisy triumph, they have but + lately discovered, and what yet is a very important truth: "That they + are entitled to life, liberty, and property; and that they have never + ceded to any sovereign power whatever a right to dispose of either + without their consent." +</p> +<p> + While this resolution stands alone, the Americans are free from + singularity of opinion; their wit has not yet betrayed them to heresy. + While they speak as the naked sons of nature, they claim but what is + claimed by other men, and have withheld nothing but what all withhold. + They are here upon firm ground, behind entrenchments which never can be + forced. +</p> +<p> + Humanity is very uniform. The Americans have this resemblance to + Europeans, that they do not always know when they are well. They soon + quit the fortress, that could neither have been ruined by sophistry, nor + battered by declamation. Their next resolution declares, that "Their + ancestors, who first settled the colonies, were, at the time of their + emigration from the mother-country, entitled to all the rights, + liberties, and immunities of free and natural-born subjects within the + realm of England." +</p> +<p> + This, likewise, is true; but when this is granted, their boast of + original rights is at an end; they are no longer in a state of nature. + These lords of themselves, these kings of ME, these demigods of + independence sink down to colonists, governed by a charter. If their + ancestors were subjects, they acknowledged a sovereign; if they had a + right to English privileges, they were accountable to English laws; and, + what must grieve the lover of liberty to discover, had ceded to the king + and parliament, whether the right or not, at least, the power of + disposing, "without their consent, of their lives, liberties, and + properties." It, therefore, is required of them to prove, that the + parliament ever ceded to them a dispensation from that obedience, which + they owe as natural-born subjects, or any degree of independence or + immunity, not enjoyed by other Englishmen. +</p> +<p> + They say, that by such emigration, they by no means forfeited, + surrendered, or lost any of those rights; but, that "they were, and + their descendants now are, entitled to the exercise and enjoyment of all + such of them, as their local and other circumstances enable them to + exercise and enjoy." +</p> +<p> + That they who form a settlement by a lawful charter, having committed no + crime, forfeit no privileges, will be readily confessed; but what they + do not forfeit by any judicial sentence, they may lose by natural + effects. As man can be but in one place, at once, he cannot have the + advantages of multiplied residence. He that will enjoy the brightness of + sunshine, must quit the coolness of the shade. He who goes voluntarily + to America, cannot complain of losing what he leaves in Europe. He, + perhaps, had a right to vote for a knight or burgess; by crossing the + Atlantick, he has not nullified his right; but he has made its exertion + no longer possible. <a href="#note-32">[32]</a> By his own choice he has left a country, where + he had a vote and little property, for another, where he has great + property, but no vote. But as this preference was deliberate and + unconstrained, he is still "concerned in the government of himself;" he + has reduced himself from a voter, to one of the innumerable multitude + that have no vote. He has truly "ceded his right," but he still is + governed by his own consent; because he has consented to throw his atom + of interest into the general mass of the community. Of the consequences + of his own act he has no cause to complain; he has chosen, or intended + to choose, the greater good; he is represented, as himself desired, in + the general representation. +</p> +<p> + But the privileges of an American scorn the limits of place; they are + part of himself, and cannot be lost by departure from his country; they + float in the air, or glide under the ocean: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Doris amara suam non intermisceat undam." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + A planter, wherever he settles, is not only a freeman, but a legislator: + "ubi imperator, ibi Roma." "As the English colonists are not represented + in the British parliament, they are entitled to a free and exclusive + power of legislation in their several legislatures, in all cases of + taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of the + sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and accustomed. We + cheerfully consent to the operation of such acts of the British + parliament, as are, bona fide, restrained to the regulation of our + external commerce—excluding every idea of taxation, internal or + external, for raising a revenue on the subjects of America, without + their consent." +</p> +<p> + Their reason for this claim is, "that the foundation of English liberty, + and of all government, is a right in the people to participate in their + legislative council." +</p> +<p> + "They inherit," they say, "from their ancestors, the right which their + ancestors possessed, of enjoying all the privileges of Englishmen." That + they inherit the right of their ancestors is allowed; but they can + inherit no more. Their ancestors left a country, where the + representatives of the people were elected by men particularly + qualified, and where those who wanted qualifications, or who did not use + them, were bound by the decisions of men, whom they had not deputed. +</p> +<p> + The colonists are the descendants of men, who either had no vote in + elections, or who voluntarily resigned them for something, in their + opinion, of more estimation; they have, therefore, exactly what their + ancestors left them, not a vote in making laws, or in constituting + legislators, but the happiness of being protected by law, and the duty + of obeying it. +</p> +<p> + What their ancestors did not carry with them, neither they nor their + descendants have since acquired. They have not, by abandoning their part + in one legislature, obtained the power of constituting another, + exclusive and independent, any more than the multitudes, who are now + debarred from voting, have a right to erect a separate parliament for + themselves. +</p> +<p> + Men are wrong for want of sense, but they are wrong by halves for want + of spirit. Since the Americans have discovered that they can make a + parliament, whence comes it that they do not think themselves equally + empowered to make a king? If they are subjects, whose government is + constituted by a charter, they can form no body of independent + legislature. If their rights are inherent and underived, they may, by + their own suffrages, encircle, with a diadem, the brows of Mr. Cushing. +</p> +<p> + It is further declared, by the congress of Philadelphia, "that his + majesty's colonies are entitled to all the privileges and immunities + granted and confirmed to them by royal charters, or secured to them by + their several codes of provincial laws." +</p> +<p> + The first clause of this resolution is easily understood, and will be + readily admitted. To all the privileges which a charter can convey, they + are, by a royal charter, evidently entitled. The second clause is of + greater difficulty; for how can a provincial law secure privileges or + immunities to a province? Provincial laws may grant, to certain + individuals of the province, the enjoyment of gainful, or an immunity + from onerous offices; they may operate upon the people to whom they + relate; but no province can confer provincial privileges on itself. They + may have a right to all which the king has given them; but it is a + conceit of the other hemisphere, that men have a right to all which they + have given to themselves. +</p> +<p> + A corporation is considered, in law, as an individual, and can no more + extend its own immunities, than a man can, by his own choice, assume + dignities or titles. +</p> +<p> + The legislature of a colony (let not the comparison be too much + disdained) is only the vestry of a larger parish, which may lay a cess + on the inhabitants, and enforce the payment; but can extend no influence + beyond its own district, must modify its particular regulations by the + general law, and, whatever may be its internal expenses, is still liable + to taxes laid by superiour authority. +</p> +<p> + The charters given to different provinces are different, and no general + right can be extracted from them. The charter of Pennsylvania, where + this congress of anarchy has been impudently held, contains a clause + admitting, in express terms, taxation by the parliament. If, in the + other charters, no such reserve is made, it must have been omitted, as + not necessary, because it is implied in the nature of subordinate + government. They who are subject to laws, are liable to taxes. If any + such immunity had been granted, it is still revocable by the + legislature, and ought to be revoked, as contrary to the publick good, + which is, in every charter, ultimately intended. +</p> +<p> + Suppose it true, that any such exemption is contained in the charter of + Maryland, it can be pleaded only by the Marylanders. It is of no use for + any other province; and, with regard even to them, must have been + considered as one of the grants in which the king has been deceived; and + annulled, as mischievous to the publick, by sacrificing to one little + settlement the general interest of the empire; as infringing the system + of dominion, and violating the compact of government. But Dr. Tucker has + shown, that even this charter promises no exemption from parliamentary + taxes. +</p> +<p> + In the controversy agitated about the beginning of this century, whether + the English laws could bind Ireland, Davenant, who defended against + Molyneux the claims of England, considered it as necessary to prove + nothing more, than that the present Irish must be deemed a colony. +</p> +<p> + The necessary connexion of representatives with taxes, seems to have + sunk deep into many of those minds, that admit sounds, without their + meaning. +</p> +<p> + Our nation is represented in parliament by an assembly as numerous as + can well consist with order and despatch, chosen by persons so + differently qualified in different places, that the mode of choice seems + to be, for the most part, formed by chance, and settled by custom. Of + individuals, far the greater part have no vote, and, of the voters, few + have any personal knowledge of him to whom they intrust their liberty + and fortune. +</p> +<p> + Yet this representation has the whole effect expected or desired, that + of spreading so wide the care of general interest, and the participation + of publick counsels, that the advantage or corruption of particular men + can seldom operate with much injury to the publick. +</p> +<p> + For this reason many populous and opulent towns neither enjoy nor desire + particular representatives: they are included in the general scheme of + publick administration, and cannot suffer but with the rest of the + empire. +</p> +<p> + It is urged, that the Americans have not the same security, and that a + British legislator may wanton with their property; yet, if it be true, + that their wealth is our wealth, and that their ruin will be our ruin, + the parliament has the same interest in attending to them, as to any + other part of the nation. The reason why we place any confidence in our + representatives is, that they must share in the good or evil which their + counsels shall produce. Their share is, indeed, commonly consequential + and remote; but it is not often possible that any immediate advantage + can be extended to such numbers as may prevail against it. We are, + therefore, as secure against intentional depravations of government, as + human wisdom can make us, and upon this security the Americans may + venture to repose. +</p> +<p> + It is said, by the old member who has written an appeal against the tax, + that "as the produce of American labour is spent in British + manufactures, the balance of trade is greatly against them; whatever you + take directly in taxes is, in effect, taken from your own commerce. If + the minister seizes the money, with which the American should pay his + debts, and come to market, the merchant cannot expect him as a customer, + nor can the debts, already contracted, be paid.—Suppose we obtain from + America a million, instead of one hundred thousand pounds, it would be + supplying one personal exigence by the future ruin of our commerce." +</p> + +<p> + Part of this is true; but the old member seems not to perceive, that, if + his brethren of the legislature know this as well as himself, the + Americans are in no danger of oppression, since by men commonly + provident they must be so taxed, as that we may not lose one way, what + we gain another. +</p> +<p> + The same old member has discovered, that the judges formerly thought it + illegal to tax Ireland, and declares that no cases can be more alike + than those of Ireland and America; yet the judges whom he quotes have + mentioned a difference. Ireland, they say, "hath a parliament of its + own." When any colony has an independent parliament, acknowledged by the + parliament of Britain, the cases will differ less. Yet, by the sixth of + George the first, chapter fifth, the acts of the British parliament bind + Ireland. +</p> +<p> + It is urged, that when Wales, Durham, and Chester were divested of their + particular privileges, or ancient government, and reduced to the state + of English counties, they had representatives assigned them. +</p> +<p> + To those from whom something had been taken, something in return might + properly be given. To the Americans their charters are left, as they + were, nor have they lost any thing, except that of which their sedition + has deprived them. If they were to be represented in parliament, + something would be granted, though nothing is withdrawn. +</p> +<p> + The inhabitants of Chester, Durham, and Wales were invited to exchange + their peculiar institutions for the power of voting, which they wanted + before. The Americans have voluntarily resigned the power of voting, to + live in distant and separate governments; and what they have voluntarily + quitted, they have no right to claim. +</p> +<p> + It must always be remembered, that they are represented by the same + virtual representation as the greater part of Englishmen; and that, if + by change of place, they have less share in the legislature than is + proportionate to their opulence, they, by their removal, gained that + opulence, and had originally, and have now, their choice of a vote at + home, or riches at a distance. +</p> +<p> + We are told, what appears to the old member and to others, a position + that must drive us into inextricable absurdity: that we have either no + right, or the sole right, of taxing the colonies. The meaning is, that + if we can tax them, they cannot tax themselves; and that if they can tax + themselves, we cannot tax them. We answer, with very little hesitation, + that, for the general use of the empire, we have the sole right of + taxing them. If they have contributed any thing in their own assemblies, + what they contributed was not paid, but given; it was not a tax or + tribute, but a present. Yet they have the natural and legal power of + levying money on themselves for provincial purposes, of providing for + their own expense at their own discretion. Let not this be thought new + or strange; it is the state of every parish in the kingdom. +</p> +<p> + The friends of the Americans are of different opinions. Some think, + that, being unrepresented, they ought to tax themselves; and others, + that they ought to have representatives in the British parliament. +</p> +<p> + If they are to tax themselves, what power is to remain in the supreme + legislature? That they must settle their own mode of levying their money + is supposed. May the British parliament tell them how much they shall + contribute? If the sum may be prescribed, they will return few thanks + for the power of raising it; if they are at liberty to grant or to deny, + they are no longer subjects. +</p> +<p> + If they are to be represented, what number of these western orators are + to be admitted? This, I suppose, the parliament must settle; yet, if men + have a natural and unalienable right to be represented, who shall + determine the number of their delegates? Let us, however, suppose them + to send twenty-three, half as many as the kingdom of Scotland, what will + this representation avail them? To pay taxes will be still a grievance. + The love of money will not be lessened, nor the power of getting it + increased. +</p> +<p> + Whither will this necessity of representation drive us? Is every petty + settlement to be out of the reach of government, till it has sent a + senator to parliament; or may two of them, or a greater number, be + forced to unite in a single deputation? What, at last, is the difference + between him that is taxed, by compulsion, without representation, and + him that is represented, by compulsion, in order to be taxed? +</p> +<p> + For many reigns the house of commons was in a state of fluctuation: new + burgesses were added, from time to time, without any reason now to be + discovered; but the number has been fixed for more than a century and a + half, and the king's power of increasing it has been questioned. It will + hardly be thought fit to new-model the constitution in favour of the + planters, who, as they grow rich, may buy estates in England, and, + without any innovation, effectually represent their native colonies. +</p> +<p> + The friends of the Americans, indeed, ask for them what they do not ask + for themselves. This inestimable right of representation they have never + solicited. They mean not to exchange solid money for such airy honour. + They say, and say willingly, that they cannot conveniently be + represented; because their inference is, that they cannot be taxed. They + are too remote to share the general government, and, therefore, claim + the privilege of governing themselves. +</p> +<p> + Of the principles contained in the resolutions of the congress, however + wild, indefinite, and obscure, such has been the influence upon American + understanding, that, from New England to South Carolina, there is formed + a general combination of all the provinces against their mother-country. + The madness of independence has spread from colony to colony, till order + is lost, and government despised; and all is filled with misrule, + uproar, violence, and confusion. To be quiet is disaffection, to be + loyal is treason. +</p> +<p> + The congress of Philadelphia, an assembly convened by its own authority, + has promulgated a declaration, in compliance with which the + communication between Britain and the greatest part of North America, is + now suspended. They ceased to admit the importation of English goods, in + December, 1774, and determine to permit the exportation of their own no + longer than to November, 1775. +</p> +<p> + This might seem enough; but they have done more: they have declared, + that they shall treat all as enemies who do not concur with them in + disaffection and perverseness; and that they will trade with none that + shall trade with Britain. +</p> +<p> + They threaten to stigmatize, in their gazette, those who shall consume + the products or merchandise of their mother-country, and are now + searching suspected houses for prohibited goods. +</p> +<p> + These hostile declarations they profess themselves ready to maintain by + force. They have armed the militia of their provinces, and seized the + publick stores of ammunition. They are, therefore, no longer subjects, + since they refuse the laws of their sovereign, and, in defence of that + refusal, are making open preparations for war. +</p> +<p> + Being now, in their own opinion, free states, they are not only raising + armies, but forming alliances, not only hastening to rebel themselves, + but seducing their neighbours to rebellion. They have published an + address to the inhabitants of Quebec, in which discontent and resistance + are openly incited, and with very respectful mention of "the sagacity of + Frenchmen," invite them to send deputies to the congress of + Philadelphia; to that seat of virtue and veracity, whence the people of + England are told, that to establish popery, "a religion fraught with + sanguinary and impious tenets," even in Quebec, a country of which the + inhabitants are papists, is so contrary to the constitution, that it + cannot be lawfully done by the legislature itself; where it is made one + of the articles of their association, to deprive the conquered French of + their religious establishment; and whence the French of Quebec are, at + the same time, flattered into sedition, by professions of expecting + "from the liberality of sentiment distinguishing their nation, that + difference of religion will not prejudice them against a hearty amity, + because the transcendant nature of freedom elevates all, who unite in + the cause, above such low-minded infirmities." +</p> +<p> + Quebec, however, is at a great distance. They have aimed a stroke, from + which they may hope for greater and more speedy mischief. They have + tried to infect the people of England with the contagion of disloyalty. + Their credit is, happily, not such as gives them influence proportionate + to their malice. When they talk of their pretended immunities + "guaranteed by the plighted faith of government, and the most solemn + compacts with English sovereigns," we think ourselves at liberty to + inquire, when the faith was plighted, and the compact made; and, when we + can only find, that king James and king Charles the first promised the + settlers in Massachusetts bay, now famous by the appellation of + Bostonians, exemption from taxes for seven years, we infer, with Mr. + Mauduit, that, by this "solemn compact," they were, after expiration of + the stipulated term, liable to taxation. +</p> +<p> + When they apply to our compassion, by telling us, that they are to be + carried from their own country to be tried for certain offences, we are + not so ready to pity them, as to advise them not to offend. While they + are innocent they are safe. +</p> +<p> + When they tell of laws made expressly for their punishment, we answer, + that tumults and sedition were always punishable, and that the new law + prescribes only the mode of execution. +</p> +<p> + When it is said, that the whole town of Boston is distressed for a + misdemeanor of a few, we wonder at their shamelessness; for we know that + the town of Boston and all the associated provinces, are now in + rebellion to defend or justify the criminals. +</p> +<p> + If frauds in the imposts of Boston are tried by commission without a + jury, they are tried here in the same mode; and why should the + Bostonians expect from us more tenderness for them than for ourselves? +</p> +<p> + If they are condemned unheard, it is because there is no need of a + trial. The crime is manifest and notorious. All trial is the + investigation of something doubtful. An Italian philosopher observes, + that no man desires to hear what he has already seen. +</p> +<p> + If their assemblies have been suddenly dissolved, what was the reason? + Their deliberations were indecent, and their intentions seditious. The + power of dissolution is granted and reserved for such times of + turbulence. Their best friends have been lately soliciting the king to + dissolve his parliament; to do what they so loudly complain of + suffering. +</p> +<p> + That the same vengeance involves the innocent and guilty, is an evil to + be lamented; but human caution cannot prevent it, nor human power always + redress it. To bring misery on those who have not deserved it, is part + of the aggregated guilt of rebellion. +</p> +<p> + That governours have been sometimes given them, only that a great man + might get ease from importunity, and that they have had judges, not + always of the deepest learning, or the purest integrity, we have no + great reason to doubt, because such misfortunes happen to ourselves. + Whoever is governed, will, sometimes, be governed ill, even when he is + most "concerned in his own government." +</p> +<p> + That improper officers or magistrates are sent, is the crime or folly of + those that sent them. When incapacity is discovered, it ought to be + removed; if corruption is detected, it ought to be punished. No + government could subsist for a day, if single errours could justify + defection. +</p> +<p> + One of their complaints is not such as can claim much commiseration from + the softest bosom. They tell us, that we have changed our conduct, and + that a tax is now laid, by parliament, on those who were never taxed by + parliament before. To this, we think, it may be easily answered, that + the longer they have been spared, the better they can pay. +</p> +<p> + It is certainly not much their interest to represent innovation as + criminal or invidious; for they have introduced into the history of + mankind a new mode of disaffection, and have given, I believe, the first + example of a proscription published by a colony against the + mother-country. +</p> +<p> + To what is urged of new powers granted to the courts of admiralty, or + the extension of authority conferred on the judges, it may be answered, + in a few words, that they have themselves made such regulations + necessary; that they are established for the prevention of greater + evils; at the same time, it must be observed, that these powers have not + been extended since the rebellion in America. +</p> +<p> + One mode of persuasion their ingenuity has suggested, which it may, + perhaps, be less easy to resist. That we may not look with indifference + on the American contest, or imagine that the struggle is for a claim, + which, however decided, is of small importance and remote consequence, + the Philadelphian congress has taken care to inform us, that they are + resisting the demands of parliament, as well for our sakes as their own. +</p> +<p> + Their keenness of perspicacity has enabled them to pursue consequences + to a greater distance; to see through clouds impervious to the dimness + of European sight; and to find, I know not how, that when they are + taxed, we shall be enslaved. +</p> +<p> + That slavery is a miserable state we have been often told, and, + doubtless, many a Briton will tremble to find it so near as in America; + but how it will be brought hither the congress must inform us. The + question might distress a common understanding; but the statesmen of the + other hemisphere can easily resolve it. "Our ministers," they say, "axe + our enemies, and if they should carry the point of taxation, may, with + the same army, enslave us. It may be said, we will not pay them; but + remember," say the western sages, "the taxes from America, and, we may + add, the men, and particularly the Roman catholicks of this vast + continent, will then be in the power of your enemies. Nor have you any + reason to expect, that, after making slaves of us, many of us will + refuse to assist in reducing you to the same abject state." +</p> +<p> + These are dreadful menaces; but suspecting that they have not much the + sound of probability, the congress proceeds: "Do not treat this as + chimerical. Know, that in less than half a century, the quitrents + reserved to the crown, from the numberless grants of this vast + continent, will pour large streams of wealth into the royal coffers. If + to this be added the power of taxing America, at pleasure, the crown + will possess more treasure than may be necessary to purchase the remains + of liberty in your island." +</p> +<p> + All this is very dreadful; but, amidst the terrour that shakes my frame, + I cannot forbear to wish, that some sluice were opened for these streams + of treasure. I should gladly see America return half of what England has + expended in her defence; and of the stream that will "flow so largely in + less than half a century," I hope a small rill, at least, may be found + to quench the thirst of the present generation, which seems to think + itself in more danger of wanting money, than of losing liberty. +</p> +<p> + It is difficult to judge with what intention such airy bursts of + malevolence are vented; if such writers hope to deceive, let us rather + repel them with scorn, than refute them by disputation. +</p> +<p> + In this last terrifick paragraph are two positions, that, if our fears + do not overpower our reflection, may enable us to support life a little + longer. We are told by these croakers of calamity, not only that our + present ministers design to enslave us, but that the same malignity of + purpose is to descend through all their successors; and that the wealth + to be poured into England by the Pactolus of America, will, whenever it + comes, be employed to purchase the "remains of liberty." +</p> +<p> + Of those who now conduct the national affairs, we may, without much + arrogance, presume to know more than themselves; and of those who shall + succeed them, whether minister or king, not to know less. +</p> +<p> + The other position is, that "the crown," if this laudable opposition + should not be successful, "will have the power of taxing America at + pleasure." Surely they think rather too meanly of our apprehensions, + when they suppose us not to know what they well know themselves, that + they are taxed, like all other British subjects, by parliament; and that + the crown has not, by the new imposts, whether right or wrong, obtained + any additional power over their possessions. +</p> +<p> + It were a curious, but an idle speculation, to inquire, what effect + these dictators of sedition expect from the dispersion of their letter + among us. If they believe their own complaints of hardship, and really + dread the danger which they describe, they will naturally hope to + communicate the same perceptions to their fellow-subjects. But, + probably, in America, as in other places, the chiefs are incendiaries, + that hope to rob in the tumults of a conflagration, and toss brands + among a rabble passively combustible. Those who wrote the address, + though they have shown no great extent or profundity of mind, are yet, + probably, wiser than to believe it: but they have been taught, by some + master of mischief, how to put in motion the engine of political + electricity; to attract, by the sounds of liberty and property; to + repel, by those of popery and slavery; and to give the great stroke, by + the name of Boston. +</p> +<p> + When subordinate communities oppose the decrees of the general + legislature with defiance thus audacious, and malignity thus + acrimonious, nothing remains but to conquer or to yield; to allow their + claim of independence, or to reduce them, by force, to submission and + allegiance. +</p> +<p> + It might be hoped, that no Englishman could be found, whom the menaces + of our own colonists, just rescued from the French, would not move to + indignation, like that of the Scythians, who, returning from war, found + themselves excluded from their own houses by their slaves. +</p> +<p> + That corporations, constituted by favour, and existing by sufferance, + should dare to prohibit commerce with their native country, and threaten + individuals by infamy, and societies with, at least, suspension of + amity, for daring to be more obedient to government than themselves, is + a degree of insolence which not only deserves to be punished, but of + which the punishment is loudly demanded by the order of life and the + peace of nations. +</p> +<p> + Yet there have risen up, in the face of the publick, men who, by + whatever corruptions, or whatever infatuation, have undertaken to defend + the Americans, endeavour to shelter them from resentment, and propose + reconciliation without submission. +</p> +<p> + As political diseases are naturally contagious, let it be supposed, for + a moment, that Cornwall, seized with the Philadelphian phrensy, may + resolve to separate itself from the general system of the English + constitution, and judge of its own rights in its own parliament. A + congress might then meet at Truro, and address the other counties in a + style not unlike the language of the American patriots: +</p> +<p> + "FRIENDS AND FELLOW-SUBJECTS,—We, the delegates of the several towns + and parishes of Cornwall, assembled to deliberate upon our own state, + and that of our constituents, having, after serious debate and calm + consideration, settled the scheme of our future conduct, hold it + necessary to declare the resolutions which we think ourselves entitled + to form, by the unalienable rights of reasonable beings, and into which + we have been compelled by grievances and oppressions, long endured by us + in patient silence, not because we did not feel, or could not remove + them, but because we were unwilling to give disturbance to a settled + government, and hoped that others would, in time, find, like ourselves, + their true interest and their original powers, and all cooperate to + universal happiness. +</p> +<p> + "But since, having long indulged the pleasing expectation, we find + general discontent not likely to increase, or not likely to end in + general defection, we resolve to erect alone the standard of liberty. +</p> +<p> + "Know then, that you are no longer to consider Cornwall as an English + county, visited by English judges, receiving law from an English + parliament, or included in any general taxation of the kingdom; but as a + state, distinct and independent, governed by its own institutions, + administered by its own magistrates, and exempt from any tax or tribute, + but such as we shall impose upon ourselves. +</p> +<p> + "We are the acknowledged descendants of the earliest inhabitants of + Britain, of men, who, before the time of history, took possession of the + island desolate and waste, and, therefore, open to the first occupants. + Of this descent, our language is a sufficient proof, which, not quite a + century ago, was different from yours. +</p> +<p> + "Such are the Cornishmen; but who are you? who, but the unauthorised and + lawless children of intruders, invaders, and oppressors? who, but the + transmitters of wrong, the inheritors of robbery? In claiming + independence, we claim but little. We might require you to depart from a + land which you possess by usurpation, and to restore all that you have + taken from us. +</p> +<p> + "Independence is the gift of nature. No man is born the master of + another. Every Cornishman is a freeman; for we have never resigned the + rights of humanity: and he only can be thought free, who is 'not + governed but by his own consent. +</p> +<p> + "You may urge, that the present system of government has descended + through many ages, and that we have a larger part in the representation + of the kingdom than any other county. +</p> +<p> + "All this is true, but it is neither cogent nor persuasive. We look to + the original of things. Our union with the English counties was either + compelled by force, or settled by compact. +</p> +<p> + "That which was made by violence, may by violence be broken. If we were + treated as a conquered people, our rights might be obscured, but could + never be extinguished. The sword can give nothing but power, which a + sharper sword can take away. +</p> +<p> + "If our union was by compact, whom could the compact bind, but those + that concurred in the stipulations? We gave our ancestors no commission + to settle the terms of future existence. They might be cowards that were + frighted, or blockheads that were cheated; but, whatever they were, they + could contract only for themselves. What they could establish, we can + annul. +</p> +<p> + "Against our present form of government, it shall stand in the place of + all argument, that we do not like it. While we are governed as we do not + like, where is our liberty? We do not like taxes, we will, therefore, + not be taxed: we do not like your laws, and will not obey them. +</p> +<p> + "The taxes laid by our representatives, are laid, you tell us, by our + own consent; but we will no longer consent to be represented. Our number + of legislators was originally a burden, and ought to have been refused; + it is now considered as a disproportionate advantage; who, then, will + complain if we resign it? +</p> +<p> + "We shall form a senate of our own, under a president whom the king + shall nominate, but whose authority we will limit, by adjusting his + salary to his merit. We will not withhold a proper share of contribution + to the necessary expense of lawful government, but we will decide for + ourselves what share is proper, what expense is necessary, and what + government is lawful. +</p> +<p> + "Till our counsel is proclaimed independent and unaccountable, we will, + after the tenth day of September, keep our tin in our own hands: you can + be supplied from no other place, and must, therefore, comply, or be + poisoned with the copper of your own kitchens. +</p> +<p> + "If any Cornishman shall refuse his name to this just and laudable + association, he shall be tumbled from St. Michael's mount, or buried + alive in a tin-mine; and if any emissary shall be found seducing + Cornishmen to their former state, he shall be smeared with tar, and + rolled in feathers, and chased with dogs out of our dominions. +</p> +<p> + "From the Cornish congress at Truro." +</p> +<p> + Of this memorial, what could be said, but that it was written in jest, + or written by a madman? Yet I know not whether the warmest admirers of + Pennsylvanian eloquence, can find any argument in the addresses of the + congress, that is not, with greater strength, urged by the Cornishman. +</p> +<p> + The argument of the irregular troops of controversy, stripped of its + colours, and turned out naked to the view, is no more than this. Liberty + is the birthright of man, and where obedience is compelled, there is no + liberty. The answer is equally simple. Government is necessary to man, + and where obedience is not compelled, there is no government. +</p> +<p> + If the subject refuses to obey, it is the duty of authority to use + compulsion. Society cannot subsist but by the power, first of making + laws, and then of enforcing them. +</p> +<p> + To one of the threats hissed out by the congress, I have put nothing + similar into the Cornish proclamation; because it is too wild for folly, + and too foolish for madness. If we do not withhold our king and his + parliament from taxing them, they will cross the Atlantick, and enslave + us. +</p> +<p> + How they will come, they have not told us; perhaps they will take wing, + and light upon our coasts. When the cranes thus begin to flutter, it is + time for pygmies to keep their eyes about them. The great orator + observes, that they will be very fit, after they have been taxed, to + impose chains upon us. If they are so fit as their friend describes + them, and so willing as they describe themselves, let us increase our + army, and double our militia. +</p> +<p> + It has been, of late, a very general practice to talk of slavery among + those who are setting at defiance every power that keeps the world in + order. If the learned author of the Reflections on Learning has rightly + observed, that no man ever could give law to language, it will be vain + to prohibit the use of the word slavery; but I could wish it more + discreetly uttered: it is driven, at one time, too hard into our ears by + the loud hurricane of Pennsylvanian eloquence, and, at another, glides + too cold into our hearts by the soft conveyance of a female patriot, + bewailing the miseries of her friends and fellow-citizens. +</p> +<p> + Such has been the progress of sedition, that those who, a few years ago, + disputed only our right of laying taxes, now question the validity of + every act of legislation. They consider themselves as emancipated from + obedience, and as being no longer the subjects of the British crown. + They leave us no choice, but of yielding or conquering, of resigning our + dominion or maintaining it by force. +</p> +<p> + From force many endeavours have been used, either to dissuade, or to + deter us. Sometimes the merit of the Americans is exalted, and sometimes + their sufferings are aggravated. We are told of their contributions to + the last war; a war incited by their outcries, and continued for their + protection; a war by which none but themselves were gainers. All that + they can boast is, that they did something for themselves, and did not + wholly stand inactive, while the sons of Britain were fighting in their + cause. +</p> +<p> + If we cannot admire, we are called to pity them; to pity those that show + no regard to their mother-country; have obeyed no law, which they could + violate; have imparted no good, which they could withhold; have entered + into associations of fraud to rob their creditors; and into combinations + to distress all who depended on their commerce. We are reproached with + the cruelty of shutting one port, where every port is shut against us. + We are censured as tyrannical, for hindering those from fishing, who + have condemned our merchants to bankruptcy, and our manufacturers to + hunger. +</p> +<p> + Others persuade us to give them more liberty, to take off restraints, + and relax authority; and tell us what happy consequences will arise from + forbearance; how their affections will be conciliated, and into what + diffusions of beneficence their gratitude will luxuriate. They will love + their friends. They will reverence their protectors. They will throw + themselves into our arms, and lay their property at our feet; they will + buy from no other what we can sell them; they will sell to no other what + we wish to buy. +</p> +<p> + That any obligations should overpower their attention to profit, we have + known them long enough not to expect. It is not to be expected from a + more liberal people. With what kindness they repay benefits, they are + now showing us, who, as soon as we have delivered them from France, are + defying and proscribing us. +</p> +<p> + But if we will permit them to tax themselves, they will give us more + than we require. If we proclaim them independent, they will, during + pleasure, pay us a subsidy. The contest is not now for money, but for + power. The question is not, how much we shall collect, but, by what + authority the collection shall be made. +</p> +<p> + Those who find that the Americans cannot be shown, in any form, that may + raise love or pity, dress them in habiliments of terrour, and try to + make us think them formidable. The Bostonians can call into the field + ninety thousand men. While we conquer all before us, new enemies will + rise up behind, and our work will be always to begin. If we take + possession of the towns, the colonists will retire into the inland + regions, and the gain of victory will be only empty houses, and a wide + extent of waste and desolation. If we subdue them for the present, they + will universally revolt in the next war, and resign us, without pity, to + subjection and destruction. +</p> +<p> + To all this it may be answered, that between losing America, and + resigning it, there is no great difference; that it is not very + reasonable to jump into the sea, because the ship is leaky. All those + evils may befall us, but we need not hasten them. +</p> +<p> + The dean of Gloucester has proposed, and seems to propose it seriously, + that we should, at once, release our claims, declare them masters of + themselves, and whistle them down the wind. His opinion is, that our + gain from them will be the same, and our expense less. What they can + have most cheaply from Britain, they will still buy; what they can sell + to us at the highest price, they will still sell. +</p> +<p> + It is, however, a little hard, that, having so lately fought and + conquered for their safety, we should govern them no longer. By letting + them loose before the war, how many millions might have been saved. One + wild proposal is best answered by another. Let us restore to the French + what we have taken from them. We shall see our colonists at our feet, + when they have an enemy so near them. Let us give the Indians arms, and + teach them discipline, and encourage them, now and then, to plunder a + plantation. Security and leisure are the parents of sedition. +</p> +<p> + While these different opinions are agitated, it seems to be determined, + by the legislature, that force shall be tried. Men of the pen have + seldom any great skill in conquering kingdoms, but they have strong + inclination to give advice. I cannot forbear to wish, that this + commotion may end without bloodshed, and that the rebels may be subdued + by terrour rather than by violence; and, therefore, recommend such a + force as may take away, not only the power, but the hope of resistance, + and, by conquering without a battle, save many from the sword. +</p> +<p> + If their obstinacy continues, without actual hostilities, it may, + perhaps, be mollified, by turning out the soldiers to free quarters, + forbidding any personal cruelty or hurt. It has been proposed, that the + slaves should be set free, an act which, surely, the lovers of liberty + cannot but commend. If they are furnished with firearms for defence, and + utensils for husbandry, and settled in some simple form of government + within the country, they may be more grateful and honest than their + masters. +</p> +<p> + Far be it from any Englishman, to thirst for the blood of his + fellow-subjects. Those who most deserve our resentment are, unhappily, + at less distance. The Americans, when the stamp act was first proposed, + undoubtedly disliked it, as every nation dislikes an impost; but they + had no thought of resisting it, till they were encouraged and incited by + European intelligence, from men whom they thought their friends, but who + were friends only to themselves. +</p> +<p> + On the original contrivers of mischief let an insulted nation pour out + its vengeance. With whatever design they have inflamed this pernicious + contest, they are, themselves, equally detestable. If they wish success + to the colonies, they are traitors to this country; if they wish their + defeat, they are traitors, at once, to America and England. To them, and + them only, must be imputed the interruption of commerce, and the + miseries of war, the sorrow of those that shall be ruined, and the blood + of those that shall fall. +</p> +<p> + Since the Americans have made it necessary to subdue them, may they be + subdued with the least injury possible to their persons and their + possessions! When they are reduced to obedience, may that obedience be + secured by stricter laws and stronger obligations! +</p> +<p> + Nothing can be more noxious to society, than that erroneous clemency, + which, when a rebellion is suppressed, exacts no forfeiture, and + establishes no securities, but leaves the rebels in their former state. + Who would not try the experiment, which promises advantage without + expense? If rebels once obtain a victory, their wishes are + accomplished; if they are defeated, they suffer little, perhaps less + than their conquerors; however often they play the game, the chance is + always in their favour. In the mean time, they are growing rich by + victualling the troops that we have sent against them, and, perhaps, + gain more by the residence of the army than they lose by the obstruction + of their port. +</p> +<p> + Their charters being now, I suppose, legally forfeited, may be modelled, + as shall appear most commodious to the mother-country. Thus the + privileges which are found, by experience, liable to misuse, will be + taken away, and those who now bellow as patriots, bluster as soldiers, + and domineer as legislators, will sink into sober merchants and silent + planters, peaceably diligent, and securely rich. +</p> +<p> + But there is one writer, and, perhaps, many who do not write, to whom + the contraction of these pernicious privileges appears very dangerous, + and who startle at the thoughts of "England free, and America in + chains." Children fly from their own shadow, and rhetoricians are + frighted by their own voices. Chains is, undoubtedly, a dreadful word; + but, perhaps, the masters of civil wisdom may discover some gradations + between chains and anarchy. Chains need not be put upon those who will + be restrained without them. This contest may end in the softer phrase of + English superiority and American obedience. +</p> +<p> + We are told, that the subjection of Americans may tend to the diminution + of our own liberties; an event, which none but very perspicacious + politicians are able to foresee. If slavery be thus fatally contagious, + how is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers + of negroes? +</p> +<p> + But let us interrupt awhile this dream of conquest, settlement, and + supremacy. Let us remember, that being to contend, according to one + orator, with three millions of whigs, and, according to another, with + ninety thousand patriots of Massachusetts bay, we may possibly be + checked in our career of reduction. We may be reduced to peace upon + equal terms, or driven from the western continent, and forbidden to + violate, a second time, the happy borders of the land of liberty. The + time is now, perhaps, at hand, which sir Thomas Browne predicted, + between jest and earnest: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "When America should no more send out her treasure, + But spend it at home in American pleasure." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + If we are allowed, upon our defeat, to stipulate conditions, I hope the + treaty of Boston will permit us to import into the confederated cantons + such products as they do not raise, and such manufactures as they do not + make, and cannot buy cheaper from other nations, paying, like others, + the appointed customs; that, if an English ship salutes a fort with four + guns, it shall be answered, at least, with two; and that, if an + Englishman be inclined to hold a plantation, he shall only take an oath + of allegiance to the reigning powers, and be suffered, while he lives + inoffensively, to retain his own opinion of English rights, unmolested + in his conscience by an oath of abjuration. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_29"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + LIVES OF EMINENT PERSONS. +</h2> +<a name="2H_4_30"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + FATHER PAUL SARPI <a href="#note-33">[33]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Father Paul, whose name, before he entered into the monastick life, + was Peter Sarpi, was born at Venice, August 14, 1552. His father + followed merchandise, but with so little success, that, at his death, + he left his family very ill provided for; but under the care of a + mother, whose piety was likely to bring the blessings of providence + upon them, and whose wise conduct supplied the want of fortune by + advantages of greater value. +</p> +<p> + Happily for young Sarpi, she had a brother, master of a celebrated + school, under whose direction he was placed by her. Here he lost no + time; but cultivated his abilities, naturally of the first rate, with + unwearied application. He was born for study, having a natural + aversion to pleasure and gaiety, and a memory so tenacious, that he + could repeat thirty verses upon once hearing them. +</p> +<p> + Proportionable to his capacity was his progress in literature: at + thirteen, having made himself master of school-learning, he turned his + studies to philosophy and the mathematicks; and entered upon logick, + under Capella, of Cremona; who, though a celebrated master of that + science, confessed himself, in a very little time, unable to give his + pupil further instructions. +</p> +<p> + As Capella was of the order of the Servites, his scholar was induced, + by his acquaintance with him, to engage in the same profession, though + his uncle and his mother represented to him the hardships and + austerities of that kind of life, and advised him, with great zeal, + against it. +</p> +<p> + But he was steady in his resolutions, and, in 1566, took the habit of + the order, being then only in his fourteenth year, a time of life, in + most persons, very improper for such engagements; but, in him, + attended with such maturity of thought, and such a settled temper, + that he never seemed to regret the choice he then made, and which he + confirmed by a solemn publick profession, in 1572. +</p> +<p> + At a general chapter of the Servites, held at Mantua, Paul, for so we + shall now call him, being then only twenty years old, distinguished + himself so much, in a publick disputation, by his genius and learning, + that William, duke of Mantua, a great patron of letters, solicited the + consent of his superiours to retain him at his court; and not only + made him publick professor of divinity in the cathedral, but honoured + him with many proofs of his esteem. +</p> +<p> + But father Paul, finding a court life not agreeable to his temper, + quitted it two years afterwards, and retired to his beloved privacies, + being then not only acquainted with the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and + Chaldee languages, but with philosophy, the mathematicks, canon and + civil law, all parts of natural philosophy, and chymistry itself; for + his application was unremitted, his head clear, his apprehension + quick, and his memory retentive. +</p> +<p> + Being made a priest, at twenty-two, he was distinguished by the + illustrious cardinal Borromeo with his confidence, and employed by + him, on many occasions, not without the envy of persons of less merit, + who were so far exasperated as to lay a charge against him, before the + inquisition, for denying that the trinity could be proved from the + first chapter of Genesis; but the accusation was too ridiculous to be + taken notice of. +</p> +<p> + After this, he passed successively through the dignities of his order, + and, in the intervals of his employment, applied himself to his + studies with so extensive a capacity, as left no branch of knowledge + untouched. By him Acquapendente, the great anatomist, confesses, that + he was informed how vision is performed; and there are proofs, that he + was not a stranger to the circulation of the blood. +</p> +<p> + He frequently conversed upon astronomy with mathematicians; upon + anatomy with surgeons; upon medicine with physicians; and with + chymists upon the analysis of metals, not as a superficial inquirer, + but as a complete master. +</p> +<p> + But the hours of repose, that he employed so well, were interrupted by + a new information in the inquisition, where a former acquaintance + produced a letter, written by him, in ciphers, in which he said, "that + he detested the court of Rome, and that no preferment was obtained + there, but by dishonest means." This accusation, however dangerous, + was passed over, on account of his great reputation, but made such + impression on that court, that he was afterward denied a bishoprick by + Clement the eighth. After these difficulties were surmounted, father + Paul again retired to his solitude, where he appears, by some writings + drawn up by him at that time, to have turned his attention more to + improvements in piety than learning. Such was the care with which he + read the scriptures, that, it being his custom to draw a line under + any passage which he intended more nicely to consider, there was not a + single word in his New Testament but was underlined; the same marks of + attention appeared in his Old Testament, Psalter, and Breviary. +</p> +<p> + But the most active scene of his life began about the year 1615, when + pope Paul the fifth, exasperated by some decrees of the senate of + Venice, that interfered with the pretended rights of the church, laid + the whole state under an interdict. +</p> +<p> + The senate, filled with indignation at this treatment, forbade the + bishops to receive or publish the pope's bull; and, convening the + rectors of the churches, commanded them to celebrate divine service in + the accustomed manner, with which most of them readily complied; but + the jesuits, and some others, refusing, were, by a solemn edict, + expelled the state. +</p> +<p> + Both parties having proceeded to extremities, employed their ablest + writers to defend their measures: on the pope's side, among others, + cardinal Bellarmine entered the lists, and, with his confederate + authors, defended the papal claims, with great scurrility of + expression, and very sophistical reasonings, which were confuted by + the Venetian apologists, in much more decent language, and with much + greater solidity of argument. +</p> +<p> + On this occasion father Paul was most eminently distinguished, by his + Defence of the Rights of the Supreme Magistrate; his treatise of + Excommunications, translated from Gerson, with an Apology, and other + writings, for which he was cited before the inquisition at Rome; but + it may be easily imagined that he did not obey the summons. +</p> +<p> + The Venetian writers, whatever might be the abilities of their + adversaries, were, at least, superiour to them in the justice of their + cause. The propositions maintained on the side of Rome were these: + that the pope is invested with all the authority of heaven and earth: + that all princes are his vassals, and that he may annul their laws at + pleasure: that kings may appeal to him, as he is temporal monarch of + the whole earth: that he can discharge subjects from their oaths of + allegiance, and make it their duty to take up arms against their + sovereign: that he may depose kings without any fault committed by + them, if the good of the church requires it: that the clergy are + exempt from all tribute to kings, and are not accountable to them, + even in cases of high treason: that the pope cannot err; that his + decisions are to be received and obeyed on pain of sin, though all the + world should judge them to be false; that the pope is God upon earth; + that his sentence and that of God are the same; and that to call his + power in question, is to call in question the power of God; maxims + equally shocking, weak, pernicious, and absurd; which did not require + the abilities or learning of father Paul, to demonstrate their + falsehood, and destructive tendency. +</p> +<p> + It may be easily imagined, that such principles were quickly + overthrown, and that no court, but that of Rome, thought it for its + interest to favour them. The pope, therefore, finding his authors + confuted, and his cause abandoned, was willing to conclude the affair + by treaty, which, by the mediation of Henry the fourth of France, was + accommodated upon terms very much to the honour of the Venetians. +</p> +<p> + But the defenders of the Venetian rights were, though comprehended in + the treaty, excluded by the Romans from the benefit of it; some, upon + different pretences, were imprisoned, some sent to the galleys, and + all debarred from preferment. But their malice was chiefly aimed + against father Paul, who soon found the effects of it; for, as he was + going one night to his convent, about six months after the + accommodation, he was attacked by five ruffians, armed with + stilettoes, who gave him no less than fifteen stabs, three of which + wounded him in such a manner, that he was left for dead. The murderers + fled for refuge to the nuncio, and were afterwards received into the + pope's dominions, but were pursued by divine justice, and all, except + one man who died in prison, perished by violent deaths. +</p> +<p> + This and other attempts upon his life, obliged him to confine himself + to his convent, where he engaged in writing the history of the council + of Trent, a work unequalled for the judicious disposition of the + matter, and artful texture of the narration, commended by Dr. Burnet, + as the completest model of historical writing, and celebrated by Mr. + Wotton, as equivalent to any production of antiquity; in which the + reader finds "liberty without licentiousness, piety without hypocrisy, + freedom of speech without neglect of decency, severity without rigour, + and extensive learning without ostentation." +</p> +<p> + In this and other works of less consequence, he spent the remaining + part of his life, to the beginning of the year 1622, when he was + seized with a cold and fever, which he neglected, till it became + incurable. He languished more than twelve months, which he spent + almost wholly in a preparation for his passage into eternity; and, + among his prayers and aspirations, was often heard to repeat, "Lord! + now let thy servant depart in peace." +</p> +<p> + On Sunday, the eighth of January of the next year, he rose, weak as he + was, to mass, and went to take his repast with the rest; but, on + Monday, was seized with a weakness that threatened immediate death; + and, on Thursday, prepared for his change, by receiving the viaticum + with such marks of devotion, as equally melted and edified the + beholders. +</p> +<p> + Through the whole course of his illness, to the last hour of his life, + he was consulted by the senate in publick affairs, and returned + answers, in his greatest weakness, with such presence of mind, as + could only arise from the consciousness of innocence. +</p> +<p> + On Sunday, the day of his death, he had the passion of our blessed + saviour read to him out of St. John's gospel, as on every other day of + that week, and spoke of the mercy of his redeemer, and his confidence + in his merits. +</p> +<p> + As his end evidently approached, the brethren of the convent came to + pronounce the last prayers, with which he could only join in his + thoughts, being able to pronounce no more than these words, "Esto + perpetua," mayst thou last for ever; which was understood to be a + prayer for the prosperity of his country. +</p> +<p> + Thus died father Paul, in the seventy-first year of his age; hated by + the Romans, as their most formidable enemy, and honoured by all the + learned for his abilities, and by the good for his integrity. His + detestation of the corruption of the Roman church appears in all his + writings, but particularly in this memorable passage of one of his + letters: "There is nothing more essential than to ruin the reputation + of the jesuits; by the ruin of the jesuits, Rome will be ruined; and + if Rome is ruined, religion will reform of itself." +</p> +<p> + He appears, by many passages of his life, to have had a high esteem of + the church of England; and his friend, father Fulgentio, who had + adopted all his notions, made no scruple of administering to Dr. + Duncomb, an English gentleman that fell sick at Venice, the communion + in both kinds, according to the Common Prayer, which he had with him + in Italian. +</p> +<p> + He was buried with great pomp, at the publick charge, and a + magnificent monument was erected, to his memory. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_31"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + BOERHAAVE. +</h2> +<p> + The following account of the late Dr. Boerhaave, so loudly celebrated, + and so universally lamented through the whole learned world, will, we + hope, be not unacceptable to our readers: we could have made it much + larger, by adopting flying reports, and inserting unattested facts: a + close adherence to certainty has contracted our narrative, and + hindered it from swelling to that bulk, at which modern histories + generally arrive. +</p> +<p> + Dr. Herman Boerhaave was born on the last day of December, 1668, about + one in the morning, at Voorhout, a village two miles distant from + Leyden: his father, James Boerhaave, was minister of Voorhout, of whom + his son <a href="#note-34">[34]</a>, in a small account of his own life, has given a very + amiable character, for the simplicity and openness of his behaviour, + for his exact frugality in the management of a narrow fortune, and the + prudence, tenderness, and diligence, with which he educated a numerous + family of nine children: he was eminently skilled in history and + genealogy, and versed in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. +</p> +<p> + His mother was Hagar Daelder, a tradesman's daughter of Amsterdam, + from whom he might, perhaps, derive an hereditary inclination to the + study of physick, in which she was very inquisitive, and had obtained + a knowledge of it, not common in female students. +</p> +<p> + This knowledge, however, she did not live to communicate to her son; + for she died, in 1673, ten years after her marriage. +</p> +<p> + His father, finding himself encumbered with the care of seven + children, thought it necessary to take a second wife, and in July, + 1674, was married to Eve du Bois, daughter of a minister of Leyden, + who, by her prudent and impartial conduct, so endeared herself to her + husband's children, that they all regarded her as their own mother. +</p> +<p> + Herman Boerhaave was always designed, by his father, for the ministry, + and, with that view, instructed by him in grammatical learning, and + the first elements of languages; in which he made such a proficiency, + that he was, at the age of eleven years, not only master of the rules + of grammar, but capable of translating with tolerable accuracy, and + not wholly ignorant of critical niceties. +</p> +<p> + At intervals, to recreate his mind and strengthen his constitution, it + was his father's custom to send him into the fields, and employ him in + agriculture, and such kind of rural occupations, which he continued, + through all his life, to love and practise; and, by this vicissitude + of study and exercise, preserved himself, in a great measure, from + those distempers and depressions, which are frequently the + consequences of indiscreet diligence and uninterrupted application; + and from which students, not well acquainted with the constitution of + the human body, sometimes fly for relief, to wine instead of exercise, + and purchase temporary ease, by the hazard of the most dreadful + consequences. +</p> +<p> + The studies of young Boerhaave were, about this time, interrupted by + an accident, which deserves a particular mention, as it first inclined + him to that science, to which he was, by nature, so well adapted, and + which he afterwards carried to so great perfection. +</p> +<p> + In the twelfth year of his age, a stubborn, painful, and malignant + ulcer, broke out upon his left thigh; which, for near five years, + defeated all the art of the surgeons and physicians, and not only + afflicted him with most excruciating pains, but exposed him to such + sharp and tormenting applications, that the disease and remedies were + equally insufferable. Then it was, that his own pain taught him to + compassionate others, and his experience of the inefficacy of the + methods then in use, incited him to attempt the discovery of others + more certain. +</p> +<p> + He began to practise, at least, honestly, for he began upon himself; + and his first essay was a prelude to his future success, for having + laid aside all the prescriptions of his physicians, and all the + applications of his surgeons, he at last, by tormenting the part with + salt and urine, effected a cure. +</p> +<p> + That he might, on this occasion, obtain the assistance of surgeons + with less inconvenience and expense, he was brought, by his father, at + fourteen, to Leyden, and placed in the fourth class of the publick + school, after being examined by the master: here his application and + abilities were equally conspicuous. In six months, by gaining the + first prize in the fourth class, he was raised to the fifth; and, in + six months more, upon the same proof of the superiority of his genius, + rewarded with another prize, and translated to the sixth; from whence + it is usual, in six months more, to be removed to the university. +</p> +<p> + Thus did our young student advance in learning and reputation, when, + as he was within view of the university, a sudden and unexpected blow + threatened to defeat all his expectations. +</p> +<p> + On the 12th of November, in 1682, his father died, and left behind him + a very slender provision for his widow, and nine children, of which + the eldest was not yet seventeen years old. +</p> +<p> + This was a most afflicting loss to the young scholar, whose fortune + was by no means sufficient to bear the expenses of a learned + education, and who, therefore, seemed to be now summoned, by + necessity, to some way of life more immediately and certainly + lucrative; but, with a resolution equal to his abilities, and a spirit + not so depressed and shaken, he determined to break through the + obstacles of poverty, and supply, by diligence, the want of fortune. +</p> +<p> + He, therefore, asked, and obtained the consent of his guardians, to + prosecute his studies, so long as his patrimony would support him; + and, continuing his wonted industry, gained another prize. +</p> +<p> + He was now to quit the school for the university, but on account of + the weakness yet remaining in his thigh, was, at his own entreaty, + continued six months longer under the care of his master, the learned + Winschotan, where he was once more honoured with the prize. +</p> +<p> + At his removal to the university, the same genius and industry met + with the same encouragement and applause. The learned Triglandius, one + of his father's friends, made soon after professor of divinity at + Leyden, distinguished him in a particular manner, and recommended him + to the friendship of Mr. Van Apphen, in whom he found a generous and + constant patron. +</p> +<p> + He became now a diligent hearer of the most celebrated professors, and + made great advances in all the sciences, still regulating his studies + with a view, principally, to divinity, for which he was originally + intended by his father; and, for that reason, exerted his utmost + application to attain an exact knowledge of the Hebrew tongue. +</p> +<p> + Being convinced of the necessity of mathematical learning, he began to + study those sciences in 1687, but without that intense industry with + which the pleasure he found in that kind of knowledge, induced him + afterwards to cultivate them. +</p> +<p> + In 1690, having performed the exercises of the university with + uncommon reputation, he took his degree in philosophy; and, on that + occasion, discussed the important and arduous subject of the distinct + natures of the soul and body, with such-accuracy, perspicuity, and + subtilty, that he entirely confuted all the sophistry of Epicurus, + Hobbes, and Spinosa, and equally raised the characters of his piety + and erudition. +</p> +<p> + Divinity was still his great employment, and the chief aim of all his + studies. He read the scriptures in their original languages; and when + difficulties occurred, consulted the interpretations of the most + ancient fathers, whom he read in order of time, beginning with Clemens + Romanus. +</p> +<p> + In the perusal of those early writers <a href="#note-35">[35]</a>, he was struck with the + profoundest veneration of the simplicity and purity of their + doctrines, the holiness of their lives, and the sanctity of the + discipline practised by them; but, as he descended to the lower ages, + found the peace of Christianity broken by useless controversies, and + its doctrines sophisticated by the subtilties of the schools: he found + the holy writers interpreted according to the notions of philosophers, + and the chimeras of metaphysicians adopted as articles of faith: he + found difficulties raised by niceties, and fomented to bitterness and + rancour: he saw the simplicity of the christian doctrine corrupted by + the private fancies of particular parties, while each adhered to its + own philosophy, and orthodoxy was confined to the sect in power. +</p> +<p> + Having now exhausted his fortune in the pursuit of his studies, he + found the necessity of applying to some profession, that, without + engrossing all his time, might enable him to support himself; and + having obtained a very uncommon knowledge of the mathematicks, he read + lectures in those sciences to a select number of young gentlemen in + the university. +</p> +<p> + At length, his propension to the study of physick grew too violent to + be resisted; and, though he still intended to make divinity the great + employment of his life, he could not deny himself the satisfaction of + spending some time upon the medical writers, for the perusal of which + he was so well qualified by his acquaintance with the mathematicks and + philosophy. +</p> +<p> + But this science corresponded so much with his natural genius, that he + could not forbear making that his business, which he intended only as + his diversion; and still growing more eager, as he advanced further, + he at length determined wholly to master that profession, and to take + his degree in physick, before he engaged in the duties of the + ministry. +</p> +<p> + It is, I believe, a very just observation, that men's ambition is, + generally, proportioned to their capacity. Providence seldom sends any + into the world with an inclination to attempt great things, who have + not abilities, likewise, to perform them. To have formed the design of + gaining a complete knowledge of medicine, by way of digression from + theological studies, would have been little less than madness in most + men, and would have only exposed them to ridicule and contempt. But + Boerhaave was one of those mighty geniuses, to whom scarce any thing + appears impossible, and who think nothing worthy of their efforts, but + what appears insurmountable to common understandings. +</p> +<p> + He began this new course of study by a diligent perusal of Vesalius, + Bartholine, and Fallopius; and, to acquaint himself more fully with + the structure of bodies, was a constant attendant upon Nuck's publick + dissections in the theatre, and himself very accurately inspected the + bodies of different animals. +</p> +<p> + Having furnished himself with this preparatory knowledge, he began to + read the ancient physicians, in the order of time, pursuing his + inquiries downwards, from Hippocrates through all the Greek and Latin + writers. +</p> +<p> + Finding, as he tells us himself, that Hippocrates was the original + source of all medical knowledge, and that all the later writers were + little more than transcribers from him, he returned to him with more + attention, and spent much time in making extracts from him, digesting + his treatises into method, and fixing them in his memory. +</p> +<p> + He then descended to the moderns, among whom none engaged him longer, + or improved him more, than Sydenham, to whose merit he has left this + attestation, "that he frequently perused him, and always with greater + eagerness." +</p> +<p> + His insatiable curiosity after knowledge engaged him now in the + practice of chymistry, which he prosecuted with all the ardour of a + philosopher, whose industry was not to be wearied, and whose love of + truth was too strong to suffer him to acquiesce in the reports of + others. +</p> +<p> + Yet did he not suffer one branch of science to withdraw his attention + from others: anatomy did not withhold him from chymistry, nor + chymistry, enchanting as it is, from the study of botany, in which he + was no less skilled than in other parts of physick. He was not only a + careful examiner of all the plants in the garden of the university, + but made excursions, for his further improvement, into the woods and + fields, and left no place unvisited, where any increase of botanical + knowledge could be reasonably hoped for. +</p> +<p> + In conjunction with all these inquiries, he still pursued his + theological studies, and still, as we are informed by himself, + "proposed, when he had made himself master of the whole art of + physick, and obtained the honour of a degree in that science, to + petition regularly for a license to preach, and to engage in the cure + of souls;" and intended, in his theological exercise, to discuss this + question, "why so many were formerly converted to Christianity by + illiterate persons, and so few at present by men of learning." +</p> +<p> + In pursuance of this plan he went to Hardewich, in order to take the + degree of doctor in physick, which he obtained in July, 1693, having + performed a publick disputation, "de utilitate explorandorum + excrementorum in aegris, ut signorum." +</p> +<p> + Then returning to Leyden, full of his pious design of undertaking the + ministry, he found, to his surprise, unexpected obstacles thrown in + his way, and an insinuation dispersed through the university, that + made him suspected, not of any slight deviation from received + opinions, not of any pertinacious adherence to his own notions in + doubtful and disputable matters, but of no less than Spinosism, or, in + plainer terms, of atheism itself. +</p> +<p> + How so injurious a report came to be raised, circulated, and credited, + will be, doubtless, very eagerly inquired; we shall, therefore, give + the relation, not only to satisfy the curiosity of mankind, but to + show that no merit, however exalted, is exempt from being not only + attacked, but wounded, by the most contemptible whispers. Those who + cannot strike with force, can, however, poison their weapon, and, weak + as they are, give mortal wounds, and bring a hero to the grave; so + true is that observation, that many are able to do hurt, but few to do + good. +</p> +<p> + This detestable calumny owed its rise to an incident, from which no + consequence of importance could be possibly apprehended. As Boerhaave + was sitting in a common boat, there arose a conversation among the + passengers, upon the impious and pernicious doctrine of Spinosa, + which, as they all agreed, tends to the utter overthrow of all + religion. Boerhaave sat, and attended silently to this discourse for + some time, till one of the company, willing to distinguish himself by + his zeal, instead of confuting the positions of Spinosa by argument, + began to give a loose to contumelious language, and virulent + invectives, which Boerhaave was so little pleased with, that, at last, + he could not forbear asking him, whether he had ever read the author + he declaimed against. +</p> +<p> + The orator, not being able to make much answer, was checked in the + midst of his invectives, but not without feeling a secret resentment + against the person who had, at once, interrupted his harangue, and + exposed his ignorance. +</p> +<p> + This was observed by a stranger who was in the boat with them; he + inquired of his neighbour the name of the young man, whose question + had put an end to the discourse, and having learned it, set it down in + his pocket-book, as it appears, with a malicious design, for in a few + days it was the common conversation at Leyden, that Boerhaave had + revolted to Spinosa. +</p> +<p> + It was in vain that his advocates and friends pleaded his learned and + unanswerable confutation of all atheistical opinions, and particularly + of the system of Spinosa, in his discourse of the distinction between + soul and body. Such calumnies are not easily suppressed, when they are + once become general. They are kept alive and supported by the malice + of bad, and, sometimes, by the zeal of good men, who, though they do + not absolutely believe them, think it yet the securest method to keep + not only guilty, but suspected men out of publick employments, upon + this principle, that the safety of many is to be preferred before the + advantage of few. +</p> +<p> + Boerhaave, finding this formidable opposition raised against his + pretensions to ecclesiastical honours or preferments, and even against + his design of assuming the character of a divine, thought it neither + necessary nor prudent to struggle with the torrent of popular + prejudice, as he was equally qualified for a profession, not, indeed, + of equal dignity or importance, but which must, undoubtedly, claim the + second place among those which are of the greatest benefit to mankind. +</p> +<p> + He, therefore, applied himself to his medical studies with new ardour + and alacrity, reviewed all his former observations and inquiries, and + was continually employed in making new acquisitions. +</p> +<p> + Having now qualified himself for the practice of physick, he began to + visit patients, but without that encouragement which others, not + equally deserving, have sometimes met with. His business was, at + first, not great, and his circumstances by no means easy; but still, + superiour to any discouragement, he continued his search after + knowledge, and determined that prosperity, if ever he was to enjoy it, + should be the consequence not of mean art, or disingenuous + solicitations, but of real merit, and solid learning. +</p> +<p> + His steady adherence to his resolutions appears yet more plainly from + this circumstance: he was, while he yet remained in this unpleasing + situation, invited by one of the first favourites of king William the + third, to settle at the Hague, upon very advantageous conditions; but + declined the offer; for having no ambition but after knowledge, he was + desirous of living at liberty, without any restraint upon his looks, + his thoughts, or his tongue, and at the utmost distance from all + contentions and state-parties. His time was wholly taken up in + visiting the sick, studying, ntaking chymical experiments, searching + into every part of medicine with the utmost diligence, teaching the + mathematicks, and reading the scriptures, and those authors who + profess to teach a certain method of loving God <a href="#note-36">[36]</a>. +</p> +<p> + This was his method of living to the year 1701, when he was + recommended, by Van Berg, to the university, as a proper person to + succeed Drelincurtius in the professorship of physick, and elected, + without any solicitations on his part, and almost without his consent, + on the 18th of May. +</p> +<p> + On this occasion, having observed, with grief, that Hippocrates, whom + he regarded not only as the father, but as the prince of physicians, + was not sufficiently read or esteemed by young students, he pronounced + an oration, "de commendando studio Hippocratico;" by which he restored + that great author to his just and ancient reputation. +</p> +<p> + He now began to read publick lectures with great applause, and was + prevailed upon, by his audience, to enlarge his original design, and + instruct them in chymistry. This he undertook, not only to the great + advantage of his pupils, but to the great improvement of the art + itself, which had, hitherto, been treated only in a confused and + irregular manner, and was little more than a history of particular + experiments, not reduced to certain principles, nor connected one with + another: this vast chaos he reduced to order, and made that clear and + easy, which was before, to the last degree, difficult and obscure. +</p> +<p> + His reputation now began to bear some proportion to his merit, and + extended itself to distant universities; so that, in 1703, the + professorship of physick being vacant at Groningen, he was invited + thither; but he refused to leave Leyden, and chose to continue his + present course of life. +</p> +<p> + This invitation and refusal being related to the governours of the + university of Leyden, they had so grateful a sense of his regard for + them, that they immediately voted an honorary increase of his salary, + and promised him the first professorship that should be vacant. +</p> +<p> + On this occasion he pronounced an oration upon the use of mechanicks + in the science of physick, in which he endeavoured to recommend a + rational and mathematical inquiry into the causes of diseases, and the + structure of bodies; and to show the follies and weaknesses of the + jargon introduced by Paracelsus, Helmont, and other chymical + enthusiasts, who have obtruded upon the world the most airy dreams, + and, instead of enlightening their readers with explications of + nature, have darkened the plainest appearances, and bewildered mankind + in errour and obscurity. +</p> +<p> + Boerhaave had now for nine years read physical lectures, but without + the title or dignity of a professor, when, by the death of professor + Hotten, the professorship of physick and botany fell to him of course. +</p> +<p> + On this occasion he asserted the simplicity and facility of the + science of physick, in opposition to those that think obscurity + contributes to the dignity of learning, and that to be admired it is + necessary not to be understood. +</p> +<p> + His profession of botany made it part of his duty to superintend the + physical garden, which improved so much by the immense number of new + plants which he procured, that it was enlarged to twice its original + extent. +</p> +<p> + In 1714, he was deservedly advanced to the highest dignities of the + university, and, in the same year, made physician of St. Augustin's + hospital in Leyden, into which the students are admitted twice a week, + to learn the practice of physick. +</p> +<p> + This was of equal advantage to the sick and to the students, for the + success of his practice was the best demonstration of the soundness of + his principles. +</p> +<p> + When he laid down his office of governour of the university, in 1715, + he made an oration upon the subject of "attaining to certainty in + natural philosophy;" in which he declares, in the strongest terms, in + favour of experimental knowledge; and reflects, with just severity, + upon those arrogant philosophers, who are too easily disgusted with + the slow methods of obtaining true notions by frequent experiments; + and who, possessed with too high an opinion of their own abilities, + rather choose to consult their own imaginations, than inquire into + nature, and are better pleased with the charming amusement of forming + hypotheses, than the toilsome drudgery of making observations. +</p> +<p> + The emptiness and uncertainty of all those systems, whether venerable + for their antiquity, or agreeable for their novelty, he has evidently + shown; and not only declared, but proved, that we are entirely + ignorant of the principles of things, and that all the knowledge we + have, is of such qualities alone as are discoverable by experience, or + such as may be deduced from them by mathematical demonstration. +</p> +<p> + This discourse, filled as it was with piety, and a true sense of the + greatness of the supreme being, and the incomprehensibility of his + works, gave such offence to a professor of Franeker, who professed the + utmost esteem for Des Cartes, and considered his principles as the + bulwark of orthodoxy, that he appeared in vindication of his darling + author, and spoke of the injury done him with the utmost vehemence, + declaring little less than that the cartesian system and the Christian + must inevitably stand and fall together; and that to say that we were + ignorant of the principles of things, was not only to enlist among the + skepticks, but to sink into atheism itself. +</p> +<p> + So far can prejudice darken the understanding, as to make it consider + precarious systems as the chief support of sacred and invariable + truth. +</p> +<p> + This treatment of Boerhaave was so far resented by the governours of + his university, that they procured from Franeker a recantation of the + invective that had been thrown out against him: this was not only + complied with, but offers were made him of more ample satisfaction; to + which he returned an answer not less to his honour than the victory he + gained, "that he should think himself sufficiently compensated, if his + adversary received no further molestation on his account." +</p> +<p> + So far was this weak and injudicious attack from shaking a reputation + not casually raised by fashion or caprice, but founded upon solid + merit, that the same year his correspondence was desired upon botany + and natural philosophy by the academy of sciences at Paris, of which + he was, upon the death of count Marsigli, in the year 1728, elected a + member. +</p> +<p> + Nor were the French the only nation by which this great man was + courted and distinguished; for, two years after, he was elected fellow + of our Royal society. +</p> +<p> + It cannot be doubted but, thus caressed and honoured with the highest + and most publick marks of esteem by other nations, he became more + celebrated in the university; for Boerhaave was not one of those + learned men, of whom the world has seen too many, that disgrace their + studies by their vices, and, by unaccountable weaknesses, make + themselves ridiculous at home, while their writings procure them the + veneration of distant countries, where their learning is known, but + not their follies. +</p> +<p> + Not that his countrymen can be charged with being insensible of his + excellencies, till other nations taught them to admire him; for, in + 1718, he was chosen to succeed Le Mort in the professorship of + chymistry; on which occasion he pronounced an oration, "De chemia + errores suos expurgante," in which he treated that science with an + elegance of style not often to be found in chymical writers, who seem + generally to have affected, not only a barbarous, but unintelligible + phrase, and to have, like the Pythagoreans of old, wrapt up their + secrets in symbols and enigmatical expressions, either because they + believed that mankind would reverence most what they least understood, + or because they wrote not from benevolence, but vanity, and were + desirous to be praised for their knowledge, though they could not + prevail upon themselves to communicate it. +</p> +<p> + In 1722, his course, both of lectures and practice, was interrupted by + the gout, which, as he relates it in his speech after his recovery, he + brought upon himself, by an imprudent confidence in the strength of + his own constitution, and by transgressing those rules which he had a + thousand times inculcated to his pupils and acquaintance. Rising in + the morning before day, he went immediately, hot and sweating, from + his bed into the open air, and exposed himself to the cold dews. +</p> +<p> + The history of his illness can hardly be read without horrour: he was + for five months confined to his bed, where he lay upon his back + without daring to attempt the least motion, because any effort renewed + his torments, which were so exquisite, that he was, at length, not + only deprived of motion but of sense. Here art was at a stand; nothing + could be attempted, because nothing-could be proposed with the least + prospect of success. At length, having, in the sixth month of his + illness, obtained some remission, he took simple medicines <a href="#note-37">[37]</a> in + large quantities, and, at length, wonderfully recovered. +</p> +<p> + His recovery, so much desired, and so unexpected, was celebrated on + Jan. 11, 1723, when he opened his school again, with general joy and + publick illuminations. +</p> +<p> + It would be an injury to the memory of Boerhaave, not to mention what + was related by himself to one of his friends, that when he lay whole + days and nights without sleep, he found no method of diverting his + thoughts so effectual, as meditation upon his studies, and that he + often relieved and mitigated the sense of his torments, by the + recollection of what he had read, and by reviewing those stores of + knowledge, which he had reposited in his memory. +</p> +<p> + This is, perhaps, an instance of fortitude and steady composure of + mind, which would have been for ever the boast of the stoick schools, + and increased the reputation of Seneca or Cato. The patience of + Boerhaave, as it was more rational, was more lasting than theirs; it + was that "patientia Christiana," which Lipsius, the great master of + the stoical philosophy, begged of God in his last hours; it was + founded on religion, not vanity, not on vain reasonings, but on + confidence in God. +</p> +<p> + In 1727, he was seized with a violent burning fever, which continued + so long, that he was once more given up by his friends. +</p> +<p> + From this time he was frequently afflicted with returns of his + distemper, which yet did not so far subdue him, as to make him lay + aside his studies or his lectures, till, in 1726, he found himself so + worn out, that it was improper for him to continue any longer the + professorships of botany or chymistry, which he, therefore, resigned, + April 28, and, upon his resignation, spoke a "Sermo academicus," or + oration, in which he asserts the power and wisdom of the creator from + the wonderful fabrick of the human body; and confutes all those idle + reasoners, who pretend to explain the formation of parts, or the + animal operations, to which he proves, that art can produce nothing + equal, nor any thing parallel. One instance I shall mention, which is + produced by him, of the vanity of any attempt to rival the work of + God. Nothing is more boasted by the admirers of chymistry, than that + they can, by artificial heats and digestion, imitate the productions + of nature. "Let all these heroes of science meet together," says + Boerhaave; "let them take bread and wine, the food that forms the + blood of man, and, by assimilation, contributes to the growth of the + body: let them try all their arts, they shall not be able, from these + materials, to produce a single drop of blood. So much is the most + common act of nature beyond the utmost efforts of the most extended + science!" +</p> +<p> + From this time Boerhaave lived with less publick employment, indeed, + but not an idle or an useless life; for, besides his hours spent in + instructing his scholars, a great part of his time was taken up by + patients, which came, when the distemper would admit it, from all + parts of Europe to consult him, or by letters which, in more urgent + cases, were continually sent to inquire his opinion and ask his + advice. +</p> +<p> + Of his sagacity, and the wonderful penetration with which he often + discovered and described, at first sight of a patient, such distempers + as betray themselves by no symptoms to common eyes, such wonderful + relations have been spread over the world, as, though attested beyond + doubt, can scarcely be credited. I mention none of them, because I + have no opportunity of collecting testimonies, or distinguishing + between those accounts which are well proved, and those which owe + their rise to fiction and credulity. +</p> +<p> + Yet I cannot but implore, with the greatest earnestness, such as have + been conversant with this great man, that they will not so far neglect + the common interest of mankind, as to suffer any of these + circumstances to be lost to posterity. Men are generally idle, and + ready to satisfy themselves, and intimidate the industry of others, by + calling that impossible which is only difficult. The skill to which + Boerhaave attained, by a long and unwearied observation of nature, + ought, therefore, to be transmitted, in all its particulars, to future + ages, that his successors may be ashamed to fall below him, and that + none may hereafter excuse his ignorance, by pleading the impossibility + of clearer knowledge. +</p> +<p> + Yet so far was this great master from presumptuous confidence in his + abilities, that, in his examinations of the sick, he was remarkably + circumstantial and particular. He well knew that the originals of + distempers are often at a distance from their visible effects; that to + conjecture, where certainty may be obtained, is either vanity or + negligence; and that life is not to be sacrificed, either to an + affectation of quick discernment, or of crowded practice, but may be + required, if trifled away, at the hand of the physician. +</p> +<p> + About the middle of the year 1737, he felt the first approaches of + that fatal illness that brought him to the grave, of which we have + inserted an account, written by himself, Sept. 8, 1738, to a friend at + London <a href="#note-38">[38]</a>; which deserves not only to be preserved, as an historical + relation of the disease which deprived us of so great a man, but as a + proof of his piety and resignation to the divine will. +</p> +<p> + In this last illness, which was, to the last degree, lingering, + painful, and afflictive, his constancy and firmness did not forsake + him. He neither intermitted the necessary cares of life, nor forgot + the proper preparations for death. Though dejection and lowness of + spirits was, as he himself tells us, part of his distemper, yet even + this, in some measure, gave way to that vigour, which the soul + receives from a consciousness of innocence. +</p> +<p> + About three weeks before his death he received a visit, at his country + house, from the reverend Mr. Schultens, his intimate friend, who found + him sitting without-door, with his wife, sister, and daughter: after + the compliments of form, the ladies withdrew, and left them to private + conversation; when Boerhaave took occasion to tell him what had been, + during his illness, the chief subject of his thoughts. He had never + doubted of the spiritual and immaterial nature of the soul; but + declared that he had lately had a kind of experimental certainty of + the distinction between corporeal and thinking substances, which mere + reason and philosophy cannot afford, and opportunities of + contemplating the wonderful and inexplicable union of soul and body, + which nothing but long sickness can give. This he illustrated by a + description of the effects which the infirmities of his body had upon + his faculties, which yet they did not so oppress or vanquish, but his + soul was always master of itself, and always resigned to the pleasure + of its maker. +</p> +<p> + He related, with great concern, that once his patience so far gave way + to extremity of pain, that, after having lain fifteen hours in + exquisite tortures, he prayed to God that he might be set free by + death. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Schultens, by way of consolation, answered, that he thought such + wishes, when forced by continued and excessive torments, unavoidable + in the present state of human nature; that the best men, even Job + himself, were not able to refrain from such starts of impatience. This + he did not deny; but said, "he that loves God, ought to think nothing + desirable, but what is most pleasing to the supreme goodness." +</p> +<p> + Such were his sentiments, and such his conduct, in this state of + weakness and pain: as death approached nearer, he was so far from + terrour or confusion, that he seemed even less sensible of pain, and + more cheerful under his torments, which continued till the 23rd day of + September, 1738, on which he died, between four and five in the + morning, in the 70th year of his age. +</p> +<p> + Thus died Boerhaave, a man formed by nature for great designs, and + guided by religion in the exertion of his abilities. He was of a + robust and athletick constitution of body, so hardened by early + severities, and wholesome fatigue, that he was insensible of any + sharpness of air, or inclemency of weather. He was tall, and + remarkable for extraordinary strength. There was, in his air and + motion, something rough and artless, but so majestick and great, at + the same time, that no man ever looked upon him without veneration, + and a kind of tacit submission to the superiority of his genius. +</p> +<p> + The vigour and activity of his mind sparkled visibly in his eyes; nor + was it ever observed, that any change of his fortune, or alteration in + his affairs, whether happy or unfortunate, affected his countenance. +</p> +<p> + He was always cheerful, and desirous of promoting mirth by a facetious + and humorous conversation; he was never soured by calumny and + detraction, nor ever thought it necessary to confute them; "for they + are sparks," said he, "which, if you do not blow them, will go out of + themselves." +</p> +<p> + Yet he took care never to provoke enemies by severity of censure, for + he never dwelt on the faults or defects of others, and was so far from + inflaming the envy of his rivals, by dwelling on his own excellencies, + that he rarely mentioned himself or his writings. +</p> +<p> + He was not to be overawed or depressed by the presence, frowns, or + insolence of great men, but persisted, on all occasions, in the right, + with a resolution always present and always calm. He was modest, but + not timorous, and firm without rudeness. +</p> +<p> + He could, with uncommon readiness and certainty, make a conjecture of + men's inclinations and capacity by their aspect. +</p> +<p> + His method of life was to study in the morning and evening, and to + allot the middle of the day to his publick business. His usual + exercise was riding, till, in his latter years, his distempers made it + more proper for him to walk: when he was weary, he amused himself with + playing on the violin. +</p> +<p> + His greatest pleasure was to retire to his house in the country, where + he had a garden stored with all the herbs and trees which the climate + would bear; here he used to enjoy his hours unmolested, and prosecute + his studies without interruption. +</p> +<p> + The diligence with which he pursued his studies, is sufficiently + evident from his success. Statesmen and generals may grow great by + unexpected accidents, and a fortunate concurrence of circumstances, + neither procured nor foreseen by themselves; but reputation in the + learned world must be the effect of industry and capacity. Boerhaave + lost none of his hours, but, when he had attained one science, + attempted another; he added physick to divinity, chymistry to the + mathematicks, and anatomy to botany. He examined systems by + experiments, and formed experiments into systems. He neither neglected + the observations of others, nor blindly submitted to celebrated names. + He neither thought so highly of himself, as to imagine he could + receive no light from books, nor so meanly, as to believe he could + discover nothing but what was to be learned from them. He examined the + observations of other men, but trusted only to his own. +</p> +<p> + Nor was he unacquainted with the art of recommending truth by + elegance, and embellishing the philosopher with polite literature: he + knew that but a small part of mankind will sacrifice their pleasure to + their improvement, and those authors who would find many readers, must + endeavour to please while they instruct. +</p> +<p> + He knew the importance of his own writings to mankind, and lest he + might, by a roughness and barbarity of style, too frequent among men + of great learning, disappoint his own intentions, and make his labours + less useful, he did not neglect the politer arts of eloquence and + poetry. Thus was his learning, at once, various and exact, profound + and agreeable. +</p> +<p> + But his knowledge, however uncommon, holds, in his character, but the + second place; his virtue was yet much more uncommon than his learning. + He was an admirable example of temperance, fortitude, humility, and + devotion. His piety, and a religious sense of his dependance on God, + was the basis of all his virtues, and the principle of his whole + conduct. He was too sensible of his weakness to ascribe any thing to + himself, or to conceive that he could subdue passion, or withstand + temptation, by his own natural power; he attributed every good + thought, and every laudable action, to the father of goodness. Being + once asked by a friend, who had often admired his patience under great + provocations, whether he knew what it was to be angry, and by what + means he had so entirely suppressed that impetuous and ungovernable + passion, he answered, with the utmost frankness and sincerity, that he + was naturally quick of resentment, but that he had, by daily prayer + and meditation, at length attained to this mastery over himself. +</p> +<p> + As soon as he arose in the morning, it was, throughout his whole life, + his daily practice to retire for an hour to private prayer and + meditation; this, he often told his friends, gave him spirit and + vigour in the business of the day, and this he, therefore, commended, + as the best rule of life; for nothing, he knew, could support the + soul, in all distresses, but a confidence in the supreme being; nor + can a steady and rational magnanimity flow from any other source than + a consciousness of the divine favour. +</p> +<p> + He asserted, on all occasions, the divine authority and sacred + efficacy of the holy scriptures; and maintained that they alone taught + the way of salvation, and that they only could give peace of mind. The + excellency of the Christian religion was the frequent subject of his + conversation. A strict obedience to the doctrine, and a diligent + imitation of the example of our blessed saviour, he often declared to + be the foundation of true tranquillity. He recommended to his friends + a careful observation of the precept of Moses, concerning the love of + God and man. He worshipped God as he is in himself, without attempting + to inquire into his nature. He desired only to think of God, what God + knows of himself. There he stopped, lest, by indulging his own ideas, + he should form a deity from his own imagination, and sin by falling + down before him. To the will of God he paid an absolute submission, + without endeavouring to discover the reason of his determinations; and + this he accounted the first and most inviolable duty of a Christian. + When he heard of a criminal condemned to die, he used to think: Who + can tell whether this man is not better than I? or, if I am better, it + is not to be ascribed to myself, but to the goodness of God. +</p> +<p> + Such were the sentiments of Boerhaave, whose words we have added in + the note <a href="#note-39">[39]</a>. So far was this man from being made impious by + philosophy, or vain by knowledge, or by virtue, that he ascribed all + his abilities to the bounty, and all his goodness to the grace of God. + May his example extend its influence to his admirers and followers! + May those who study his writings imitate his life! and those who + endeavour after his knowledge, aspire likewise to his piety! +</p> +<p> + He married, September 17, 1710, Mary Drolenveaux, the only daughter of + a burgomaster of Leyden, by whom he had Joanna Maria, who survived her + father, and three other children, who died in their infancy. The works + of this great writer are so generally known, and so highly esteemed, + that, though it may not be improper to enumerate them in the order of + time, in which they were published, it is wholly unnecessary to give + any other account of them. +</p> +<p> + He published, in 1707, Institutiones medicae; to which he added, in + 1708, Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis. +</p> +<p> + 1710, Index stirpium in horto academico. +</p> +<p> + 1719, De materia medica, et remediorum formulis liber; and, in 1727, a + second edition. +</p> +<p> + 1720, Alter index stirpium, &c. adorned with plates, and containing + twice the number of plants as the former. +</p> +<p> + 1722, Epistola ad cl. Ruischium, qua sententiam Malpighianam de + glandulis defendit. +</p> +<p> + 1724, Atrocis nee prius descripti morbi historia illustrissimi baronis + Wassenariae. +</p> +<p> + 1725, Opera anatomica et chirurgica Andreae Vesalii; with the life of + Vesalius. +</p> +<p> + 1728, Altera atrocis rarissimique morbi marchionis de Sancto Albano + historia. +</p> +<p> + Auctores de lue Aphrodisiaca, cum tractatu praefixo. +</p> +<p> + 1731, Aretaei Cappadocis nova editio. +</p> +<p> + 1732, Elementa Chemiae. +</p> +<p> + 1734, Observata de argento vivo, ad Reg. Soc. et Acad. Scient. +</p> +<p> + These are the writings of the great Boerhaave, which have made all + encomiums useless and vain, since no man can attentively peruse them, + without admiring the abilities, and reverencing the virtue of the + author. <a href="#note-40">[40]</a> +</p> +<a name="2H_4_32"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + BLAKE. +</h2> +<p> + At a time when a nation is engaged in a war with an enemy, whose + insults, ravages, and barbarities have long called for vengeance, an + account of such English commanders as have merited the acknowledgments + of posterity, by extending the powers, and raising the honour of their + country, seems to be no improper entertainment for our readers <a href="#note-41">[41]</a>. + We shall, therefore, attempt a succinct narration of the life and + actions of admiral Blake, in which we have nothing further in view, + than to do justice to his bravery and conduct, without intending any + parallel between his achievements, and those of our present admirals. +</p> +<p> + Robert Blake was born at Bridgewater, in Somersetshire, in August, + 1598; his father being a merchant of that place, who had acquired a + considerable fortune by the Spanish trade. Of his earliest years we + have no account, and, therefore, can amuse the reader with none of + those prognosticks of his future actions, so often met with in + memoirs. +</p> +<p> + In 1615, he entered into the university of Oxford, where he continued + till 1623, though without being much countenanced or caressed by his + superiours, for he was more than once disappointed in his endeavours + after academical preferments. It is observable, that Mr. Wood, in his + Athenæ Oxonieuses, ascribes the repulse he met with at Wadham college, + where he was competitor for a fellowship, either to want of learning, + or of stature. With regard to the first objection, the same writer had + before informed us, that he was an early riser and studious, though he + sometimes relieved his attention by the amusements of fowling and + fishing. As it is highly probable that he did not want capacity, we + may, therefore, conclude, upon this confession of his diligence, that + he could not fail of being learned, at least, in the degree requisite + to the enjoyment of a fellowship; and may safely ascribe his + disappointment to his want of stature, it being the custom of sir + Henry Savil <a href="#note-42">[42]</a>, then warden of that college, to pay much regard to + the outward appearance of those who solicited preferment in that + society. So much do the greatest events owe sometimes to accident or + folly! +</p> +<p> + He afterwards retired to his native place, where "he lived," says + Clarendon, "without any appearance of ambition to be a greater man + than he was, but inveighed with great freedom against the license of + the times, and power of the court." +</p> +<p> + In 1640, he was chosen burgess for Bridgewater by the puritan party, + to whom he had recommended himself by the disapprobation of bishop + Laud's violence and severity, and his non-compliance with those new + ceremonies, which he was then endeavouring to introduce. +</p> +<p> + When the civil war broke out, Blake, in conformity with his avowed + principles, declared for the parliament; and, thinking a bare + declaration for right not all the duty of a good man, raised a troop + of dragoons for his party, and appeared in the field with so much + bravery, that he was, in a short time, advanced, without meeting any + of those obstructions which he had encountered in the university. +</p> +<p> + In 1645, he was governour of Tauntou, when the lord Goring came before + it with an army of ten thousand men. The town was ill fortified, and + unsupplied with almost every thing necessary for supporting a siege. + The state of this garrison encouraged colonel Windham, who was + acquainted with Blake, to propose a capitulation, which was rejected + by Blake, with indignation and contempt; nor were either menaces or + persuasions of any effect, for he maintained the place, under all its + disadvantages, till the siege was raised by the parliament's army. +</p> +<p> + He continued, on many other occasions, to give proofs of an + insuperable courage, and a steadiness of resolution not to be shaken; + and, as a proof of his firm adherence to the parliament, joined with + the borough of Taunton, in returning thanks for their resolution to + make no more addresses to the king. Yet was he so far from approving + the death of Charles the first, that he made no scruple of declaring, + that he would venture his life to save him, as willingly as he had + done to serve the parliament. +</p> +<p> + In February, 1648-9, he was made a commissioner of the navy, and + appointed to serve on that element, for which he seems by nature to + have been designed. He was soon afterwards sent in pursuit of prince + Rupert, whom he shut up in the harbour of Kinsale, in Ireland, for + several months, till want of provisions, and despair of relief, + excited the prince to make a daring effort for his escape, by forcing + through the parliament's fleet: this design he executed with his usual + intrepidity, and succeeded in it, though with the loss of three ships. + He was pursued by Blake to the coast of Portugal, where he was + received into the Tagus, and treated with great distinction by the + Portuguese. +</p> +<p> + Blake, coming to the mouth of that river, sent to the king a + messenger, to inform him, that the fleet, in his port, belonging to + the publick enemies of the commonwealth of England, he demanded leave + to fall upon it. This being refused, though the refusal was in very + soft terms, and accompanied with declarations of esteem, and a present + of provisions, so exasperated the admiral, that, without any + hesitation, he fell upon the Portuguese fleet, then returning from + Brasil, of which he took seventeen ships, and burnt three. It was to + no purpose that the king of Portugal, alarmed at so unexpected a + destruction, ordered prince Rupert to attack him, and retake the + Brasil ships. Blake carried home his prizes without molestation, the + prince not having force enough to pursue him, and well pleased with + the opportunity of quitting a port, where he could no longer be + protected. +</p> +<p> + Blake soon supplied his fleet with provision, and received orders to + make reprisals upon the French, who had suffered their privateers to + molest the English trade; an injury which, in those days, was always + immediately resented, and if not repaired, certainly punished. Sailing + with this commission, he took in his way a French man of war, valued + at a million. How this ship happened to be so rich, we are not + informed; but as it was a cruiser, it is probable the rich lading was + the accumulated plunder of many prizes. Then following the unfortunate + Rupert, whose fleet, by storms and battles, was now reduced to five + ships, into Carthagena, he demanded leave of the Spanish governour to + attack him in the harbour, but received the same answer which had been + returned before by the Portuguese: "That they had a right to protect + all ships that came into their dominions; that, if the admiral were + forced in thither, he should find the same security; and that he + required him not to violate the peace of a neutral port." Blake + withdrew, upon this answer, into the Mediterranean; and Rupert, then + leaving Carthagena, entered the port of Malaga, where he burnt and + sunk several English merchant ships. Blake, judging this to be an + infringement of the neutrality professed by the Spaniards, now made no + scruple to fall upon Rupert's fleet in the harbour of Malaga, and, + having destroyed three of his ships, obliged him to quit the sea, and + take sanctuary at the Spanish court. +</p> +<p> + In February, 1650-1, Blake, still continuing to cruise in the + Mediterranean, met a French ship of considerable force, and commanded + the captain to come on board, there being no war declared between the + two nations. The captain, when he came, was asked by him, "whether he + was willing to lay down his sword, and yield," which he gallantly + refused, though in his enemy's power. Blake, scorning to take + advantage of an artifice, and detesting the appearance of treachery, + told him, "that he was at liberty to go back to his ship, and defend + it, as long as he could." The captain willingly accepted his offer, + and, after a fight of two hours, confessed himself conquered, kissed + his sword, and surrendered it. +</p> +<p> + In 1652, broke out the memorable war between the two commonwealths of + England and Holland; a war, in which the greatest admirals that, + perhaps, any age has produced, were engaged on each side; in which + nothing less was contested than the dominion of the sea, and which was + carried on with vigour, animosity, and resolution, proportioned to the + importance of the dispute. The chief commanders of the Dutch fleets + were Van Trump, De Ruyter, and De Witt, the most celebrated names of + their own nation, and who had been, perhaps, more renowned, had they + been opposed by any other enemies. The states of Holland, having + carried on their trade without opposition, and almost without + competition, not only during the unactive reign of James the first, + but during the commotions of England, had arrived to that height of + naval power, and that affluence of wealth, that, with the arrogance + which a long-continued prosperity naturally produces, they began to + invent new claims, and to treat other nations with insolence, which + nothing can defend, but superiority of force. They had for some time + made uncommon preparations, at a vast expense, and had equipped a + large fleet, without any apparent danger threatening them, or any + avowed design of attacking their neighbours. This unusual armament was + not beheld by the English without some jealousy, and care was taken to + fit out such a fleet as might secure the trade from interruption, and + the coasts from insults; of this Blake was constituted admiral for + nine months. In this situation the two nations remained, keeping a + watchful eye upon each other, without acting hostilities on either + side, till the 18th of May, 1652, when Van Trump appeared in the + Downs, with a fleet of forty-five men of war. Blake, who had then but + twenty ships, upon the approach of the Dutch admiral, saluted him with + three single shots, to require that he should, by striking his flag, + show that respect to the English, which is due to every nation in + their own dominions; to which the Dutchman answered with a broadside; + and Blake, perceiving that he intended to dispute the point of honour, + advanced with his own ship before the rest of his fleet, that, if it + were possible, a general battle might be prevented. But the Dutch, + instead of admitting him to treat, fired upon him from their whole + fleet, without any regard to the customs of war, or the law of + nations. Blake, for some time, stood alone against their whole force, + till the rest of his squadron coming up, the fight was continued from + between four and five in the afternoon, till nine at night, when the + Dutch retired with the loss of two ships, having not destroyed a + single vessel, nor more than fifteen men, most of which were on board + the admiral, who, as he wrote to the parliament, was himself engaged + for four hours with the main body of the Dutch fleet, being the mark + at which they aimed; and, as Whitlock relates, received above a + thousand shot. Blake, in his letter, acknowledges the particular + blessing and preservation of God, and ascribes his success to the + justice of his cause, the Dutch having first attacked him upon the + English coast. It is, indeed, little less than miraculous, that a + thousand great shot should not do more execution; and those who will + not admit the interposition of providence, may draw, at least, this + inference from it, that the bravest man is not always in the greatest + danger. +</p> +<p> + In July, he met the Dutch fishery fleet, with a convoy of twelve men + of war, all which he took, with one hundred of their herring-busses. + And, in September, being stationed in the Downs, with about sixty + sail, he discovered the Dutch admirals, De Witt and De Ruyter, with + near the same number, and advanced towards them; but the Dutch being + obliged, by the nature of their coast, and shallowness of their + rivers, to build their ships in such a manner, that they require less + depth of water than the English vessels, took advantage of the form of + their shipping, and sheltered themselves behind a flat, called Kentish + Knock; so that the English, finding some of their ships aground, were + obliged to alter their course; but perceiving, early the next morning, + that the Hollanders had forsaken their station, they pursued them with + all the speed that the wind, which was weak and uncertain, allowed, + but found themselves unable to reach them with the bulk of their + fleet, and, therefore, detached some of the lightest frigates to chase + them. These came so near, as to fire upon them about three in the + afternoon; but the Dutch, instead of tacking about, hoisted their + sails, steered toward their own coast, and finding themselves, the + next day, followed by the whole English fleet, retired into Goree. The + sailors were eager to attack them in their own harbours; but a council + of war being convened, it was judged imprudent to hazard the fleet + upon the shoals, or to engage in any important enterprise, without a + fresh supply of provisions. +</p> +<p> + That, in this engagement, the victory belonged to the English, is + beyond dispute, since, without the loss of one ship, and with no more + than forty men killed, they drove the enemy into their own ports, took + the rearadmiral and another vessel, and so discouraged the Dutch + admirals, who had not agreed in their measures, that De Ruyter, who + had declared against hazarding a battle, desired to resign his + commission, and De Witt, who had insisted upon fighting, fell sick, as + it was supposed, with vexation. But how great the loss of the Dutch + was is not certainly known; that two ships were taken, they are too + wise to deny, but affirm that those two were all that were destroyed. + The English, on the other side, affirm, that three of their vessels + were disabled at the first encounter, that their numbers on the second + day were visibly diminished, and that on the last day they saw three + or four ships sink in their flight. +</p> +<p> + De Witt being now discharged by the Hollanders, as unfortunate, and + the chief command restored to Van Trump, great preparations were made + for retrieving their reputation, and repairing those losses. Their + endeavours were assisted by the English themselves, now made factious + by success; the men, who were intrusted with the civil administration, + being jealous of those whose military commands had procured so much + honour, lest they who raised them should be eclipsed by them. Such is + the general revolution of affairs in every state; danger and distress + produce unanimity and bravery, virtues which are seldom unattended + with success; but success is the parent of pride, and pride of + jealousy and faction; faction makes way for calamity, and happy is + that nation whose calamities renew their unanimity. Such is the + rotation of interests, that equally tend to hinder the total + destruction of a people, and to obstruct an exorbitant increase of + power. +</p> +<p> + Blake had weakened his fleet by many detachments, and lay with no more + than forty sail in the Downs, very ill provided both with men and + ammunition, and expecting new supplies from those whose animosity + hindered them from providing them, and who chose rather to see the + trade of their country distressed, than the sea officers exalted by a + new acquisition of honour and influence. +</p> +<p> + Van Trump, desirous of distinguishing himself, at the resumption of + his command, by some remarkable action, had assembled eighty ships of + war, and ten fireships, and steered towards the Downs, where Blake, + with whose condition and strength he was probably acquainted, was then + stationed. Blake, not able to restrain his natural ardour, or, + perhaps, not fully informed of the superiority of his enemies, put out + to encounter them, though his fleet was so weakly manned, that half of + his ships were obliged to lie idle without engaging, for want of + sailors. The force of the whole Dutch fleet was, therefore, sustained + by about twenty-two ships. Two of the English frigates, named the + Vanguard and the Victory, after having, for a long time, stood engaged + amidst the whole Dutch fleet, broke through without much injury, nor + did the English lose any ships till the evening, when the Garland, + carrying forty guns, was boarded, at once, by two great ships, which + were opposed by the English, till they had scarcely any men left to + defend the decks; then retiring into the lower part of the vessel, + they blew up their decks, which were now possessed by the enemy, and, + at length, were overpowered and taken. The Bonaventure, a stout + well-built merchant ship, going to relieve the Garland, was attacked + by a man of war, and, after a stout resistance, in which the captain, + who defended her with the utmost bravery, was killed, was likewise + carried off by the Dutch. Blake, in the Triumph, seeing the Garland in + distress, pressed forward to relieve her, but in his way had his + foremast shattered, and was himself boarded; but, beating off the + enemies, he disengaged himself, and retired into the Thames, with the + loss only of two ships of force, and four small frigates, but with his + whole fleet much shattered. Nor was the victory gained at a cheap + rate, notwithstanding the unusual disproportion of strength; for of + the Dutch flagships, one was blown up, and the other two disabled; a + proof of the English bravery, which should have induced Van Trump to + have spared the insolence of carrying a broom at his top-mast, in his + triumphant passage through the Channel, which he intended as a + declaration, that he would sweep the seas of the English shipping; + this, which he had little reason to think of accomplishing, he soon + after perished in attempting. +</p> +<p> + There are, sometimes, observations and inquiries, which all historians + seem to decline by agreement, of which this action may afford us an + example: nothing appears, at the first view, more to demand our + curiosity, or afford matter for examination, than this wild encounter + of twenty-two ships, with a force, according to their accounts who + favour the Dutch, three times superiour. Nothing can justify a + commander in fighting under such disadvantages, but the impossibility + of retreating. But what hindered Blake from retiring, as well before + the fight, as after it? To say he was ignorant of the strength of the + Dutch fleet, is to impute to him a very criminal degree of negligence; + and, at least, it must be confessed, that from the time he saw them, + he could not but know that they were too powerful to be opposed by + him, and even then there was time for retreat. To urge the ardour of + his sailors, is to divest him of the authority of a commander, and to + charge him with the most reproachful weakness that can enter into the + character of a general. To mention the impetuosity of his own courage, + is to make the blame of his temerity equal to the praise of his + valour; which seems, indeed, to be the most gentle censure that the + truth of history will allow. We must then admit, amidst our eulogies + and applauses, that the great, the wise, and the valiant Blake, was + once betrayed to an inconsiderate and desperate enterprise, by the + resistless ardour of his own spirit, and a noble jealousy of the + honour of his country. +</p> +<p> + It was not long, before he had an opportunity of revenging his loss, + and restraining the insolence of the Dutch. On the 18th of February, + 1652-3, Blake, being at the head of eighty sail, and assisted, at his + own request, by colonels Monk and Dean, espied Van Trump, with a fleet + of above one hundred men of war, as Clarendon relates, of seventy by + their own publick accounts, and three hundred merchant ships under his + convoy. The English, with their usual intrepidity, advanced towards + them; and Blake, in the Triumph, in which he always led his fleet, + with twelve ships more, came to an engagement with the main body of + the Dutch fleet, and by the disparity of their force was reduced to + the last extremity, having received in his hull no fewer than seven + hundred shots, when Lawson, in the Fairfax, came to his assistance. + The rest of the English fleet now came in, and the fight was continued + with the utmost degree of vigour and resolution, till the night gave + the Dutch an opportunity of retiring, with the loss of one flagship, + and six other men of war. The English had many vessels damaged, but + none lost. On board Lawson's ship were killed one hundred men, and as + many on board Blake's, who lost his captain and secretary, and himself + received a wound in the thigh. +</p> +<p> + Blake, having set ashore his wounded men, sailed in pursuit of Van + Trump, who sent his convoy before, and himself retired fighting + towards Bulloign. Blake ordered his light frigates to follow the + merchants; still continued to harass Van Trump; and, on the third day, + the 20th of February, the two fleets came to another battle, in which + Van Trump once more retired before the English, and, making use of the + peculiar form of his shipping, secured himself in the shoals. The + accounts of this fight, as of all the others, are various; but the + Dutch writers themselves confess, that they lost eight men of war, and + more than twenty merchant ships; and, it is probable, that they + suffered much more than they are willing to allow, for these repeated + defeats provoked the common people to riots and insurrections, and + obliged the states to ask, though ineffectually, for peace. +</p> +<p> + In April following, the form of government in England was changed, and + the supreme authority assumed by Cromwell; upon which occasion Blake, + with his associates, declared that, notwithstanding the change in the + administration, they should still be ready to discharge their trust, + and to defend the nation from insults, injuries, and encroachments. + "It is not," said Blake, "the business of a sea-man to mind state + affairs, but to hinder foreigners from fooling us." This was the + principle from which he never deviated, and which he always + endeavoured to inculcate in the fleet, as the surest foundation of + unanimity and steadiness. "Disturb not one another with domestick + disputes, but remember that we are English, and our enemies are + foreigners. Enemies! which, let what party soever prevail, it is + equally the interest of our country to humble and restrain." +</p> +<p> + After the 30th of April, 1653, Blake, Monk, and Dean sailed out of the + English harbours with one hundred men of war, and finding the Dutch + with seventy sail on their own coasts, drove them to the Texel, and + took fifty doggers. Then they sailed northward in pursuit of Van + Trump, who, having a fleet of merchants under his convoy, durst not + enter the Channel, but steered towards the Sound, and, by great + dexterity and address, escaped the three English admirals, and + brought all his ships into their harbour; then, knowing that Blake was + still in the north, came before Dover, and fired upon that town, but + was driven off by the castle. +</p> +<p> + Monk and Dean stationed themselves again at the mouth of the Texel, + and blocked up the Dutch in their own ports with eighty sail; but + hearing that Van Trump was at Goree, with one hundred and twenty men + of war, they ordered all ships of force in the river and ports to + repair to them. +</p> +<p> + On June the 3rd, the two fleets came to an engagement, in the + beginning of which Dean was carried off by a cannon-ball; yet the + fight continued from about twelve to six in the afternoon, when the + Dutch gave way, and retreated fighting. +</p> +<p> + On the 4th, in the afternoon, Blake came up with eighteen fresh ships, + and procured the English a complete victory; nor could the Dutch any + otherwise preserve their ships than by retiring, once more, into the + flats and shallows, where the largest of the English vessels could not + approach. +</p> +<p> + In this battle Van Trump boarded viceadmiral Penn; but was beaten off, + and himself boarded, and reduced to blow up his decks, of which the + English had got possession. He was then entered, at once, by Penn and + another; nor could possibly have escaped, had not De Ruyter and De + Witt arrived at that instant, and rescued him. +</p> +<p> + However the Dutch may endeavour to extenuate their loss in this + battle, by admitting no more than eight ships to have been taken or + destroyed, it is evident that they must have received much greater + damages, not only by the accounts of more impartial historians, but by + the remonstrances and exclamations of their admirals themselves; Van + Trump declaring before the states, that "without a numerous + reinforcement of large men of war, he could serve them no more;" and + De Witt crying out before them, with the natural warmth of his + character: "Why should I be silent before my lords and masters? The + English are our masters, and by consequence masters of the sea." +</p> +<p> + In November, 1654, Blake was sent by Cromwell into the Mediterranean, + with a powerful fleet, and may be said to have received the homage of + all that part of the world, being equally courted by the haughty + Spaniards, the surly Dutch, and the lawless Algerines. +</p> +<p> + In March, 1656, having forced Algiers to submission, he entered the + harbour of Tunis, and demanded reparation for the robberies practised + upon the English by the pirates of that place, and insisted that the + captives of his nation should be set at liberty. The governour, having + planted batteries along the shore, and drawn up his ships under the + castles, sent Blake an haughty and insolent answer: "there are our + castles of Goletta and Porto Ferino," said he, "upon which you may do + your worst;" adding other menaces and insults, and mentioning, in + terms of ridicule, the inequality of a fight between ships and + castles. Blake had, likewise, demanded leave to take in water, which + was refused him. Fired with this inhuman and insolent treatment, he + curled his whiskers, as was his custom when he was angry, and, + entering Porto Ferino with his great ships, discharged his shot so + fast upon the batteries and castles, that in two hours the guns were + dismounted, and the works forsaken, though he was, at first, exposed + to the fire of sixty cannon. He then ordered his officers to send out + their long boats, well manned, to seize nine of the piratical ships + lying in the road, himself continuing to fire upon the castle. This + was so bravely executed, that, with the loss of only twenty-five men + killed, and forty-eight wounded, all the ships were fired in the sight + of Tunis. Thence sailing to Tripoli, he concluded a peace with that + nation; then returning to Tunis, he found nothing but submission. And + such, indeed, was his reputation, that he met with no further + opposition, but collected a kind of tribute from the princes of those + countries, his business being to demand reparation for all the + injuries offered to the English during the civil wars. He exacted from + the duke of Tuscany 60,000<i>l</i>. and, as it is said, sent home + sixteen ships laden with the effects which he had received from + several states. +</p> +<p> + The respect with which he obliged all foreigners to treat his + countrymen, appears from a story related by bishop Burnet. When he lay + before Malaga, in a time of peace with Spain, some of his sailors went + ashore, and meeting a procession of the host, not only refused to pay + any respect to it, but laughed at those that did. The people, being + put, by one of the priests, upon resenting this indignity, fell upon + them and beat them severely. When they returned to their ship, they + complained of their ill treatment; upon which Blake sent to demand the + priest who had procured it. The viceroy answered that, having no + authority over the priests, he could not send him: to which Blake + replied, "that he did not inquire into the extent of the viceroy's + authority, but that, if the priest were not sent within three hours, + he would burn the town." The viceroy then sent the priest to him, who + pleaded the provocation given by the seamen. Blake bravely and + rationally answered, that if he had complained to him, he would have + punished them severely, for he would not have his men affront the + established religion of any place; but that he was angry that the + Spaniards should assume that power, for he would have all the world + know, "that an Englishman was only to be punished by an Englishman." + So, having used the priest civilly, he sent him back, being satisfied + that he was in his power. This conduct so much pleased Cromwell, that + he read the letter in council with great satisfaction, and said, "he + hoped to make the name of an Englishman as great as ever that of a + Roman had been." +</p> +<p> + In 1650, the protector, having declared war against Spain, despatched + Blake, with twenty-five men of war, to infest their coasts, and + intercept their shipping. In pursuance of these orders he cruised all + winter about the straits, and then lay at the mouth of the harbour of + Cales, where he received intelligence, that the Spanish Plata fleet + lay at anchor in the bay of Santa Cruz, in the isle of Teneriffe. On + the 13th of April, 1657, he departed from Cales, and, on the 20th, + arrived at Santa Cruz, where he found sixteen Spanish vessels. The bay + was defended on the north side by a castle, well mounted with cannon, + and in other parts with seven forts, with cannon proportioned to the + bigness, all united by a line of communication manned with musketeers. + The Spanish admiral drew up his small ships under the cannon of the + castle, and stationed six great galleons with their broadsides to the + sea: an advantageous and prudent disposition, but of little effect + against the English commander; who, determining to attack them, + ordered Stayner to enter the bay with his squadron: then posting some + of his larger ships to play upon the fortifications, himself attacked + the galleons, which, after a gallant resistance, were, at length, + abandoned by the Spaniards, though the least of them was bigger than + the biggest of Blake's ships. The forts and smaller vessels being now + shattered and forsaken, the whole fleet was set on fire, the galleons + by Blake, and the smaller vessels by Stayner, the English vessels + being too much shattered in the fight to bring them away. Thus was the + whole Plata fleet destroyed, "and the Spaniards," according to Rapin's + remark, "sustained a great loss of ships, money, men, and merchandise, + while the English gained nothing but glory;" as if he that increases + the military reputation of a people, did not increase their power, and + he that weakens his enemy, in effect, strengthens himself. +</p> +<p> + "The whole action," says Clarendon, "was so incredible, that all men, + who knew the place, wondered that any sober man, with what courage + soever endowed, would ever have undertaken it, and they could hardly + persuade themselves to believe what they had done; while the Spaniards + comforted themselves with the belief, that they were devils, and not + men, who had destroyed them in such a manner. So much a strong + resolution of bold and courageous men can bring to pass, that no + resistance or advantage of ground can disappoint them; and it can + hardly be imagined bow small a loss the English sustained in this + unparalleled action, not one ship being left behind, and the killed + and wounded not exceeding two hundred men; when the slaughter, on + board the Spanish ships and on shore, was incredible." The general + cruised, for some time afterwards, with his victorious fleet, at the + mouth of Cales, to intercept the Spanish shipping; but, finding his + constitution broken, by the fatigue of the last three years, + determined to return home, and died before he came to land. +</p> +<p> + His body was embalmed, and having lain some time in state at Greenwich + house, was buried in Henry the seventh's chapel, with all the funeral + solemnity due to the remains of a man so famed for his bravery, and so + spotless in his integrity; nor is it without regret, that I am obliged + to relate the treatment his body met, a year after the restoration, + when it was taken up by express command, and buried in a pit in St. + Margaret's church-yard. Had he been guilty of the murder of Charles + the first, to insult his body had been a mean revenge; but, as he was + innocent, it was, at least, inhumanity, and, perhaps, ingratitude. + "Let no man," says the oriental proverb, "pull a dead lion by the + beard." +</p> +<p> + But that regard which was denied his body, has been paid to his better + remains, his name and his memory. Nor has any writer dared to deny him + the praise of intrepidity, honesty, contempt of wealth, and love of + his country. "He was the first man," says Clarendon, "that declined + the old track, and made it apparent that the sciences might be + attained in less time than was imagined. He was the first man that + brought ships to contemn castles on shore, which had ever been thought + very formidable, but were discovered by him to make a noise only, and + to fright those who could rarely be hurt by them. He was the first + that infused that proportion of courage into seamen, by making them + see, by experience, what mighty things they could do, if they were + resolved; and taught them to fight in fire, as well as upon the water; + and, though he has been very well imitated and followed, was the first + that gave the example of that kind of naval courage, and bold and + resolute achievements." +</p> +<p> + To this attestation of his military excellence, it may be proper to + subjoin an account of his moral character, from the author of Lives, + English and Foreign. "He was jealous," says that writer, "of the + liberty of the subject, and the glory of his nation; and as he made + use of no mean artifices to raise himself to the highest command at + sea, so he needed no interest but his merit to support him in it. He + scorned nothing more than money, which, as fast as it came in, was + laid out by him in the service of the state, and to show that he was + animated by that brave, publick spirit, which has since been reckoned + rather romantick than heroick. And he was so disinterested, that + though no man had more opportunities to enrich himself than he, who + had taken so many millions from the enemies of England, yet he threw + it all into the publick treasury, and did not die five hundred pounds + richer than his father left him; which the author avers, from his + personal knowledge of his family and their circumstances, having been + bred up in it, and often heard his brother give this account of him. + He was religious, according to the pretended purity of these times, + but would frequently allow himself to be merry with his officers, and, + by his tenderness and generosity to the seamen, had so endeared + himself to them, that, when he died, they lamented his loss, as that + of a common father." +</p> +<p> + Instead of more testimonies, his character may be properly concluded + with one incident of his life, by which it appears how much the spirit + of Blake was superiour to all private views. His brother, in the last + action with the Spaniards, having not done his duty, was, at Blake's + desire, discarded, and the ship was given to another; yet was he not + less regardful of him as a brother, for, when he died, he left him his + estate, knowing him well qualified to adorn or enjoy a private + fortune, though he had found him unfit to serve his country in a + publick character, and had, therefore, not suffered him to rob it. +</p> +<hr> +<p> + The following brief synopsis of Blake's life, differing, in some + slight particulars, from Johnson's memoir, is taken from Aubrey's + Letters, ii. p. 241. +</p> +<center> + ADMIRALL BLAKE. +</center> +<p> + Was borne at ... in com. Somerset, was of Albon hall, in Oxford. He + was there a young man of strong body, and good parts. He was an early + riser, and studyed well, but also took his robust pleasures of fishing + and fowling, &c. He would steale swannes <a href="#note-43">[43]</a>—He served in the house + of comons for.... A°. Dni ... he was made admiral! He did the greatest + actions at sea that ever were done. He died A°. Dni ... and was buried + in K.H. 7th's chapell; but upon the returne of the kinge, his body was + taken up again and removed by Mr. Wells' occasion, and where it is + now, I know not. Qu. Mr. Wells of Bridgewater?—Ed. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_33"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + SIR FRANCIS DRAKE <a href="#note-44">[44]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Francis Drake was the son of a clergyman, in Devonshire, who being + inclined to the doctrine of the protestants, at that time much opposed + by Henry the eighth, was obliged to fly from his place of residence + into Kent, for refuge, from the persecution raised against him, and + those of the same opinion, by the law of the six articles. +</p> +<p> + How long he lived there, or how he was supported, was not known; nor + have we any account of the first years of sir Francis Drake's life, of + any disposition to hazards and adventures which might have been + discovered in his childhood, or of the education which qualified him + for such wonderful attempts. +</p> +<p> + We are only informed, that he was put apprentice, by his father, to + the master of a small vessel, that traded to France and the Low + Countries, under whom he, probably, learned the rudiments of + navigation, and familiarized himself to the dangers and hardships of + the sea. +</p> +<p> + But how few opportunities soever he might have, in this part of his + life, for the exercise of his courage, he gave so many proofs of + diligence and fidelity, that his master, dying unmarried, left him his + little vessel, in reward of his services; a circumstance that deserves + to be remembered, not only as it may illustrate the private character + of this brave man, but as it may hint, to all those, who may hereafter + propose his conduct for their imitation, that virtue is the surest + foundation both of reputation and fortune, and that the first step to + greatness is to be honest. +</p> +<p> + If it were not improper to dwell longer on an incident, at the first + view so inconsiderable, it might be added, that it deserves the + reflection of those, who, when they are engaged in affairs not + adequate to their abilities, pass them over with a contemptuous + neglect, and while they amuse themselves with chimerical schemes, and + plans of future undertakings, suffer every opportunity of smaller + advantage to slip away, as unworthy their regard. They may learn, from + the example of Drake, that diligence in employments of less + consequence, is the most successful introduction to greater + enterprises. +</p> +<p> + After having followed, for some time, his master's profession, he grew + weary of so narrow a province, and, having sold his little vessel, + ventured his effects in the new trade to the West Indies, which, + having not been long discovered, and very little frequented by the + English, till that time, were conceived so much to abound in wealth, + that no voyage thither could fail of being recompensed by great + advantages. Nothing was talked of among the mercantile or adventurous + part of mankind, but the beauty and riches of the new world. Fresh + discoveries were frequently made, new countries and nations never + heard of before, were daily described, and it may easily be concluded, + that the relaters did not diminish the merit of their attempts, by + suppressing or diminishing any circumstance that might produce wonder, + or excite curiosity. Nor was their vanity only engaged in raising + admirers, but their interest, likewise, in procuring adventurers, who + were, indeed, easily gained by the hopes which naturally arise from + new prospects, though, through ignorance of the American seas, and by + the malice of the Spaniards, who, from the first discovery of those + countries, considered every other nation that attempted to follow + them, as invaders of their rights, the best concerted designs often + miscarried. +</p> +<p> + Among those who suffered most from the Spanish injustice, was captain + John Hawkins, who, having been admitted, by the viceroy, to traffick + in the bay of Mexico, was, contrary to the stipulation then made + between them, and in violation of the peace between Spain and England, + attacked without any declaration of hostilities, and obliged, after an + obstinate resistance, to retire with the loss of four ships, and a + great number of his men, who were either destroyed or carried into + slavery. +</p> +<p> + In this voyage Drake had adventured almost all his fortune, which he + in vain endeavoured to recover, both by his own private interest, and + by obtaining letters from queen Elizabeth; for the Spaniards, deaf to + all remonstrances, either vindicated the injustice of the viceroy, or, + at least, forbore to redress it. +</p> +<p> + Drake, thus oppressed and impoverished, retained, at least, his + courage and his industry, that ardent spirit that prompted him to + adventures, and that indefatigable patience that enabled him to + surmount difficulties. He did not sit down idly to lament misfortunes + which heaven had put it in his power to remedy, or to repine at + poverty, while the wealth of his enemies was to be gained. But having + made two voyages to America, for the sake of gaining intelligence of + the state of the Spanish settlements, and acquainted himself with the + seas and coasts, he determined on a third expedition of more + importance, by which the Spaniards should find how imprudently they + always act, who injure and insult a brave man. +</p> +<p> + On the 24th of May, 1572, Francis Drake set sail from Plymouth, in the + Pascha, of seventy tons, accompanied by the Swan, of twenty-five tons, + commanded by his brother John Drake, having, in both the vessels, + seventy-three men and boys, with a year's provision, and such + artillery and ammunition, as was necessary for his undertaking, which, + however incredible it may appear to such as consider rather his force + than his fortitude, was no less than to make reprisals upon the most + powerful nation in the world. +</p> +<p> + The wind continuing favourable, they entered, June 29th, between + Guadaloupe and Dominica, and, on July 6th, saw the highland of Santa + Martha; then continuing their course, after having been becalmed for + some time, they arrived at port Pheasant, so named by Drake, in a + former voyage to the east of Nombre de Dios. Here he proposed to build + his pinnaces, which he had brought in pieces ready framed from + Plymouth, and was going ashore, with a few men unarmed, but, + discovering a smoke at a distance, ordered the other boat to follow + him with a greater force. +</p> +<p> + Then marching towards the fire, which was in the top of a high tree, + he found a plate of lead nailed to another tree, with an inscription + engraved upon it by one Garret, an Englishman, who had left that place + but five days before, and had taken this method of informing him, that + the Spaniards had been advertised of his intention to anchor at that + place, and that it, therefore, would be prudent to make a very short + stay there. +</p> +<p> + But Drake, knowing how convenient this place was for his designs, and + considering that the hazard and waste of time, which could not be + avoided, in seeking another station, was equivalent to any other + danger which was to be apprehended from the Spaniards, determined to + follow his first resolution; only, for his greater security, he + ordered a kind of palisade, or fortification, to be made, by felling + large trees, and laying the trunks and branches, one upon another, by + the side of the river. +</p> +<p> + On July 20th, having built their pinnaces, and being joined by one + captain Rause, who happened to touch at the same place, with a bark of + fifty men, they set sail towards Nombre de Dios, and, taking two + frigates at the island of Pines, were informed by the negroes, which + they found in them, that the inhabitants of that place were in + expectation of some soldiers, which the governour of Panama had + promised, to defend them from the Symerons, or fugitive negroes, who, + having escaped from the tyranny of their masters, in great numbers, + had settled themselves under two kings, or leaders, on each side of + the way between Nombre de Dios and Panama, and not only asserted their + natural right to liberty and independence, but endeavoured to revenge + the cruelties they had suffered, and had lately put the inhabitants of + Nombre de Dios into the utmost consternation. +</p> +<p> + These negroes the captain set on shore on the mainland, so that they + might, by joining the Symerons, recover their liberty, or, at least, + might not have it in their power to give the people of Nombre de Dios + any speedy information of his intention to invade them. +</p> +<p> + Then selecting fifty-three men from his own company, and twenty from + the crew of his new associate, captain Rause, he embarked with them, + in his pinnaces, and set sail for Nombre de Dios. +</p> +<p> + On July the 28th, at night, he approached the town, undiscovered, and + dropt his anchors under the shore, intending, after his men were + refreshed, to begin the attack; but finding that they were terrifying + each other with formidable accounts of the strength of the place, and + the multitude of the inhabitants, he determined to hinder the panick + from spreading further by leading them immediately to action; and, + therefore, ordering them to their pars, he landed without any + opposition, there being only one gunner upon the bay, though it was + secured with six brass cannons of the largest size, ready mounted. But + the gunner, while they were throwing the cannons from their carriages, + alarmed the town, as they soon discovered by the bell, the drums, and + the noise of the people. Drake, leaving twelve men to guard the + pinnaces, marched round the town, with no great opposition, the men + being more hurt by treading on the weapons, left on the ground by the + flying enemy, than by the resistance which they encountered. +</p> +<p> + At length, having taken some of the Spaniards, Drake commanded them to + show him the governour's house, where the mules that bring the silver + from Panama were unloaded; there they found the door open, and, + entering the room where the silver was reposited, found it heaped up + in bars, in such quantities as almost exceed belief, the pile being, + they conjectured, seventy feet in length, ten in breadth, and twelve + in height, each bar weighing between thirty and forty-five pounds. +</p> +<p> + It is easy to imagine, that, at the sight of this treasure, nothing + was thought on by the English, but by what means they might best + convey it to their boats; and, doubtless, it was not easy for Drake, + who, considering their distance from the shore and the number of their + enemies, was afraid of being intercepted in his retreat, to hinder his + men from encumbering themselves with so much silver as might have + retarded their march and obstructed the use of their weapons; however, + by promising to lead them to the king's treasurehouse, where there was + gold and jewels to a far greater value, and where the treasure was not + only more portable, but nearer the coast, he persuaded them to follow + him, and rejoin the main body of his men, then drawn up under the + command of his brother in the market-place. +</p> +<p> + Here he found his little troop much discouraged by the imagination, + that, if they stayed any longer, the enemy would gain possession of + their pinnaces, and that they should then, without any means of + safety, be left to stand alone against the whole power of that + country. Drake, not, indeed, easily terrified, but sufficiently + cautious, sent to the coast to inquire the truth, and see if the same + terrour had taken possession of the men whom he had left to guard his + boats; but, finding no foundation for these dreadful apprehensions, he + persisted in his first design, and led the troop forward to the + treasurehouse. In their way, there fell a violent shower of rain, + which wet some of their bowstrings, and extinguished many of their + matches; a misfortune which might soon have been repaired, and which, + perhaps, the enemy might suffer in common with them, but which, + however, on this occasion, very much embarrassed them, as the delay + produced by it repressed that ardour which, sometimes, is only to be + kept up by continued action, and gave time to the timorous and + slothful to spread their insinuations and propagate their cowardice. + Some, whose fear was their predominant passion, were continually + magnifying the numbers and courage of their enemies, and represented + whole nations as ready to rush upon them; others, whose avarice + mingled with their concern for their own safety, were more solicitous + to preserve what they had already gained, than to acquire more; and + others, brave in themselves and resolute, began to doubt of success in + an undertaking, in which they were associated with such cowardly + companions. So that scarcely any man appeared to proceed in their + enterprise with that spirit and alacrity which could give Drake a + prospect of success. +</p> +<p> + This he perceived, and, with some emotion, told them, that if, after + having had the chief treasure of the world within their reach, they + should go home and languish in poverty, they could blame nothing but + their own cowardice; that he had performed his part, and was still + desirous to lead them on to riches and to honour. +</p> +<p> + Then finding that either shame or conviction made them willing to + follow him, he ordered the treasurehouse to be forced, and commanding + his brother, and Oxenham, of Plymouth, a man known afterwards for his + bold adventures in the same parts, to take charge of the treasure, he + commanded the other body to follow him to the market-place, that he + might be ready to oppose any scattered troops of the Spaniards, and + hinder them from uniting into one body. +</p> +<p> + But, as he stepped forward, his strength failed him on a sudden, and + he fell down speechless. Then it was that his companions perceived a + wound in his leg, which he had received in the first encounter, but + hitherto concealed, lest his men, easily discouraged, should make + their concern for his life a pretence for returning to their boats. + Such had been his loss of blood, as was discovered upon nearer + observation, that it had filled the prints of his footsteps, and it + appeared scarce credible that, after such effusion of blood, life + should remain. +</p> +<p> + The bravest were now willing to retire: neither the desire of honour + nor of riches, was thought enough to prevail in any man over his + regard for his leader. Drake, whom cordials had now restored to his + speech, was the only man who could not be prevailed on to leave the + enterprise unfinished. It was to no purpose that they advised him to + submit to go on board to have his wound dressed, and promised to + return with him and complete their design; he well knew how + impracticable it was to regain the opportunity, when it was once lost; + and could easily foresee, that a respite, but of a few hours, would + enable the Spaniards to recover from their consternation, to assemble + their forces, refit their batteries, and remove their treasure. What + he had undergone so much danger to obtain was now in his hands, and + the thought of leaving it untouched was too mortifying to be patiently + borne. +</p> +<p> + However, as there was little time for consultation, and the same + danger attended their stay, in that perplexity and confusion, as their + return, they bound up his wound with his scarf, and partly by force, + partly by entreaty, carried him to the boats, in which they all + embarked by break of day. +</p> +<p> + Then taking with them, out of the harbour, a ship loaded with wines, + they went to the Bastimentes, an island about a league from the town, + where they stayed two days to repose the wounded men, and to regale + themselves with the fruits, which grew in great plenty in the gardens + of that island. +</p> +<p> + During their stay here, there came over, from the mainland, a Spanish + gentleman, sent by the governour, with instructions to inquire whether + the captain was that Drake who had been before on their coast; whether + the arrows with which many of their men were wounded were not + poisoned; and whether they wanted provisions or other necessaries. The + messenger, likewise, extolled their courage with the highest + encomiums, and expressed his admiration of their daring undertaking. + Drake, though he knew the civilities of an enemy are always to be + suspected, and that the messenger, amidst all his professions of + regard, was no other than a spy, yet knowing that he had nothing to + apprehend, treated him with the highest honours that his condition + admitted of. In answer to his inquiries, he assured him that he was + the same Drake with whose character they were before acquainted, that + he was a rigid observer of the laws of war, and never permitted his + arrows to be poisoned: he then dismissed him with considerable + presents, and told him that, though he had unfortunately failed in + this attempt, he would never desist from his design till he had shared + with Spain the treasures of America. +</p> +<p> + They then resolved to return to the isle of Pines, where they had left + their ships, and consult about the measures they were now to take; and + having arrived, August 1st, at their former station, they dismissed + captain Rause, who, judging it unsafe to stay any longer on the coast, + desired to be no longer engaged in their designs. +</p> +<p> + But Drake, not to be discouraged from his purpose by a single + disappointment, after having inquired of a negro, whom he took on + board at Nombre de Dios, the most wealthy settlements, and weakest + parts of the coast, resolved to attack Carthagena; and, setting sail + without loss of time, came to anchor, August 13th, between Charesha + and St. Barnards, two islands at a little distance from the harbour of + Carthagena; then passing with his boats round the island, he entered + the harbour, and, in the mouth of it, found a frigate with only an old + man in it, who voluntarily informed them, that about an hour before a + pinnace had passed by with sails and oars, and all the appearance of + expedition and importance; that, as she passed, the crew on board her + bid them take care of themselves; and that, as soon as she touched the + shore, they heard the noise of cannon fired as a warning, and saw the + shipping in the port drawn up under the guns of the castle. +</p> +<p> + The captain, who had himself heard the discharge of the artillery, was + soon convinced that he was discovered, and that, therefore, nothing + could be attempted with any probability of success. He, therefore, + contented himself with taking a ship of Seville, of two hundred and + forty tons, which the relater of this voyage mentions as a very large + ship, and two small frigates, in which he found letters of advice from + Nombre de Dios, intended to alarm that part of the coast. +</p> +<p> + Drake, now finding his pinnaces of great use, and not having a + sufficient number of sailors for all his vessels, was desirous of + destroying one of his ships, that his pinnaces might be better manned: + this, necessary as it was, could not easily be done without disgusting + his company, who, having made several prosperous voyages in that + vessel, would be unwilling to have it destroyed. Drake well knew that + nothing but the love of their leaders could animate his followers to + encounter such hardships as he was about to expose them to, and, + therefore, rather chose to bring his designs to pass by artifice than + authority. He sent for the carpenter of the Swan, took him into his + cabin, and, having first engaged him to secrecy, ordered him, in the + middle of the night, to go down into the well of the ship, and bore + three holes through the bottom, laying something against them that + might hinder the bubbling of the water from being heard. To this the + carpenter, after some expostulation, consented, and the next night + performed his promise. +</p> +<p> + In the morning, August 15, Drake, going out with his pinnace a + fishing, rowed up to the Swan, and having invited his brother to + partake of his diversions, inquired, with a negligent air, why their + bark was so deep in the water; upon which the steward going down, + returned immediately with an account that the ship was leaky, and in + danger of sinking in a little time. They had recourse immediately to + the pump; but, having laboured till three in the afternoon, and gained + very little upon the water, they willingly, according to Drake's + advice, set the vessel on fire, and went on board the pinnaces. +</p> +<p> + Finding it now necessary to lie concealed for some time, till the + Spaniards should forget their danger, and remit their vigilance, they + set sail for the sound of Darien, and without approaching the coast, + that their course might not be observed, they arrived there in six + days. +</p> +<p> + This being a convenient place for their reception, both on account of + privacy, as it was out of the road of all trade, and as it was well + supplied with wood, water, wild fowl, hogs, deer, and all kinds of + provisions, he stayed here fifteen days to clean his vessels, and + refresh his men, who worked interchangeably, on one day the one half, + and on the next the other. +</p> +<p> + On the 5th day of September, Drake left his brother with the ship at + Darien, and set out with two pinnaces towards the Rio Grande, which + they reached in three days, and, on the 9th, were discovered by a + Spaniard from the bank, who believing them to be his countrymen, made + a signal to them to come on shore, with which they very readily + complied; but he, soon finding his mistake, abandoned his plantation, + where they found great plenty of provisions, with which, having laden + their vessels, they departed. So great was the quantity of provisions + which they amassed here and in other places, that in different parts + of the coast they built four magazines or storehouses, which they + filled with necessaries for the prosecution of their voyage. These + they placed at such a distance from each other, that the enemy, if he + should surprise one, might yet not discover the rest. +</p> +<p> + In the mean time, his brother, captain John Drake, went, according to + the instructions that had been left him, in search of the Symerons, or + fugitive negroes, from whose assistance alone they had now any + prospect of a successful voyage; and touching upon the mainland, by + means of the negro whom they had taken from Nombre de Dios, engaged + two of them to come on board his pinnace, leaving two of their own men + as hostages for their returning. These men, having assured Drake of + the affection of their nation, appointed an interview between him and + their leaders. So leaving port Plenty, in the isle of Pines, so named + by the English from the great stores of provisions which they had + amassed at that place, they came, by the direction of the Symerons, + into a secret bay, among beautiful islands covered with trees, which + concealed their ship from observation, and where the channel was so + narrow and rocky, that it was impossible to enter it by night, so that + there was no danger of a sudden attack. +</p> +<p> + Here they met, and entered into engagements, which common enemies and + common dangers preserved from violation. But the first conversation + informed the English, that their expectations were not immediately to + be gratified; for, upon their inquiries after the most probable means + of gaining gold and silver, the Symerons told them, that had they + known sooner the chief end of their expedition, they could easily have + gratified them; but that during the rainy season, which was now begun, + and which continues six months, they could not recover the treasure, + which they had taken from the Spaniards, out of the rivers in which + they had concealed it. +</p> +<p> + Drake, therefore, proposing to wait in this place, till the rains were + past, built, with the assistance of the Symerons, a fort of earth and + timber, and leaving part of his company with the Symerons, set out + with three pinnaces towards Carthagena, being of a spirit too active + to lie still patiently, even in a state of plenty and security, and + with the most probable expectations of immense riches. +</p> +<p> + On the 16th of October, he anchored within sight of Carthagena, + without landing; and on the 17th, going out to sea, took a Spanish + bark, with which they entered the harbour, where they were accosted by + a Spanish gentleman, whom they had some time before taken and set at + liberty, who coming to them in a boat, as he pretended, without the + knowledge of the governour, made them great promises of refreshment + and professions of esteem; but Drake, having waited till the next + morning, without receiving the provisions he had been prevailed upon + to expect, found that all this pretended kindness was no more than a + stratagem to amuse him, while the governour was raising forces for his + destruction. +</p> +<p> + October 20, they took two frigates coming out of Carthagena, without + lading. Why the Spaniards, knowing Drake to lie at the mouth of the + harbour, sent out their vessels on purpose to be taken, does not + appear. Perhaps they thought that, in order to keep possession of his + prizes, he would divide his company, and by that division be more + easily destroyed. +</p> +<p> + In a few hours afterwards they sent out two frigates well manned, + which Drake soon forced to retire, and, having sunk one of his prizes, + and burnt the other in their sight, leaped afterwards ashore, single, + in defiance of their troops, which hovered at a distance in the woods + and on the hills, without ever venturing to approach within reach of + the shot from the pinnaces. +</p> +<p> + To leap upon an enemy's coast in sight of a superiour force, only to + show how little they were feared, was an act that would, in these + times, meet with little applause, nor can the general be seriously + commended, or rationally vindicated, who exposes his person to + destruction, and, by consequence, his expedition to miscarriage, only + for the pleasure of an idle insult, an insignificant bravado. All that + can be urged in his defence is, that, perhaps, it might contribute to + heighten the esteem of his followers, as few men, especially of that + class, are philosophical enough to state the exact limits of prudence + and bravery, or not to be dazzled with an intrepidity, how improperly + soever exerted. It may be added, that, perhaps, the Spaniards, whose + notions of courage are sufficiently romantick, might look upon him as + a more formidable enemy, and yield more easily to a hero, of whose + fortitude they had so high an idea. +</p> +<p> + However, finding the whole country advertised of his attempts, and in + arms to oppose him, he thought it not proper to stay longer, where + there was no probability of success, and where he might, in time, be + overpowered by multitudes, and, therefore, determined to go forward to + Rio de Heha. +</p> +<p> + This resolution, when it was known by his followers, threw them into + astonishment; and the company of one of his pinnaces remonstrated to + him, that, though they placed the highest confidence in his conduct, + they could not think of undertaking such a voyage without provisions, + having only a gammon of bacon and a small quantity of bread for + seventeen men. Drake answered them, that there was on board his vessel + even a greater scarcity; but yet, if they would adventure to share his + fortune, he did not doubt of extricating them from all their + difficulties. +</p> +<p> + Such was the heroick spirit of Drake, that he never suffered himself + to be diverted from his designs by any difficulties, nor ever thought + of relieving his exigencies, but at the expense of his enemies. +</p> +<p> + Resolution and success reciprocally produce each other. He had not + sailed more than three leagues, before they discovered a large ship, + which they attacked with all the intrepidity that necessity inspires, + and, happily, found it laden with excellent provisions. +</p> +<p> + But finding his crew growing faint and sickly, with their manner of + living in the pinnaces, which was less commodious than on board the + ships, he determined to go back to the Symerons, with whom he left his + brother and part of his force, and attempt, by their conduct, to make + his way over, and invade the Spaniards in the inland parts, where they + would, probably, never dream of an enemy. +</p> +<p> + When they arrived at port Diego, so named from the negro who had + procured them their intercourse with the Symerons, they found captain + John Drake, and one of his company, dead, being killed in attempting, + almost unarmed, to board a frigate well provided with all things + necessary for its defence. The captain was unwilling to attack it, and + represented to them the madness of their proposal; but, being + overborne by their clamours and importunities, to avoid the imputation + of cowardice, complied to his destruction. So dangerous is it for the + chief commander to be absent. +</p> +<p> + Nor was this their only misfortune, for, in a very short time, many of + them were attacked by the calenture, a malignant fever, very frequent + in the hot climates, which carried away, among several others, Joseph + Drake, another brother of the commander. +</p> +<p> + While Drake was employed in taking care of the sick men, the Symerons, + who ranged the country for intelligence, brought him an account, that + the Spanish fleet was arrived at Nombre de Dios; the truth of which + was confirmed by a pinnace, which he sent out to make observations. +</p> +<p> + This, therefore, was the time for their journey, when the treasures of + the American mines were to be transported from Panama over land to + Nombre de Dios. He, therefore, by the direction of the Symerons, + furnished himself with all things necessary, and, on February 3, set + out from port Diego. +</p> +<p> + Having lost, already, twenty-eight of his company, and being under the + necessity of leaving some to guard his ship, he took with him only + eighteen English, and thirty Symerons, who not only served as guides + to show the way, but as purveyors to procure provisions. +</p> +<p> + They carried not only arrows for war, but for hunting and fowling; the + heads of which are proportioned in size to the game which they are + pursuing: for oxen, stags, or wild boars, they have arrows or + javelins, with heads weighing a pound and half, which they discharge + near hand, and which scarcely ever fail of being mortal. The second + sort are about half as heavy as the other, and are generally shot from + their bows; these are intended for smaller beasts. With the third + sort, of which the heads are an ounce in weight, they kill birds. As + this nation is in a state that does not set them above continual cares + for the immediate necessaries of life, he that can temper iron best, + is, among them, most esteemed; and, perhaps, it would be happy for + every nation, if honours and applauses were as justly distributed, and + he were most distinguished whose abilities were most useful to + society. How many chimerical titles to precedence, how many false + pretences to respect, would this rule bring to the ground! +</p> +<p> + Every day, by sunrising, they began to march, and, having travelled + till ten, rested near some river till twelve, then travelling again + till four, they reposed all night in houses, which the Symerons had + either left standing in their former marches, or very readily erected + for them, by setting up three or four posts in the ground, and laying + poles from one to another in form of a roof, which they thatched with + palmetto boughs and plantain leaves. In the valleys, where they were + sheltered from the winds, they left three or four feet below open; but + on the hills, where they were more exposed to the chill blasts of the + night, they thatched them close to the ground, leaving only a door for + entrance, and a vent in the middle of the room for the smoke of three + fires, which they made in every house. +</p> +<p> + In their march they met not only with plenty of fruits upon the banks + of the rivers, but with wild swine in great abundance, of which the + Symerons, without difficulty, killed, for the most part, as much as + was wanted. One day, however, they found an otter, and were about to + dress it; at which Drake expressing his wonder, was asked by Pedro, + the chief Symeron: "Are you a man of war and in want, and yet doubt + whether this be meat that hath blood in it?" For which Drake in + private rebuked him, says the relater; whether justly or not, it is + not very important to determine. There seems to be in Drake's scruple + somewhat of superstition, perhaps, not easily to be justified; and the + negro's answer was, at least martial, and will, I believe, be + generally acknowledged to be rational. +</p> +<p> + On the third day of their march, Feb. 6, they came to a town of the + Symerons, situated on the side of a hill, and encompassed with a ditch + and a mudwall, to secure it from a sudden surprise: here they lived + with great neatness and plenty, and some observation of religion, + paying great reverence to the cross; a practice which Drake prevailed + upon them to change for the use of the Lord's prayer. Here they + importuned Drake to stay for a few days, promising to double his + strength; but he, either thinking greater numbers unnecessary, or, + fearing that, if any difference should arise, he should be overborne + by the number of Symerons; or that they would demand to share the + plunder that should be taken in common; or for some other reason that + might easily occur, refused any addition to his troop, endeavouring to + express his refusal in such terms as might heighten their opinion of + his bravery. +</p> +<p> + He then proceeded on his journey through cool shades and lofty woods, + which sheltered them so effectually from the sun, that their march was + less toilsome than if they had travelled in England during the heat of + the summer. Four of the Symerons, that were acquainted with the way, + went about a mile before the troop, and scattered branches to direct + them; then followed twelve Symerons, after whom came the English, with + the two leaders, and the other Symerons closed the rear. +</p> +<p> + On February 11, they arrived at the top of a very high hill, on the + summit of which grew a tree of wonderful greatness, in which they had + cut steps for the more easy ascent to the top, where there was a kind + of tower, to which they invited Drake, and from thence showed him not + only the north sea, from whence they came, but the great south sea, on + which no English vessel had ever sailed. This prospect exciting his + natural curiosity, and ardour for adventures and discoveries, he + lifted up his hands to God, and implored his blessing upon the + resolution, which he then formed, of sailing in an English ship on + that sea. +</p> +<p> + Then continuing their march, they came, after two days, into an open, + level country, where their passage was somewhat incommoded with the + grass, which is of a peculiar kind, consisting of a stalk like that of + wheat, and a blade on which the oxen and other cattle feed till it + grows too high for them to reach; then the inhabitants set it on fire, + and in three days it springs up again; this they are obliged to do + thrice a year, so great is the fertility of the soil. +</p> +<p> + At length, being within view of Panama, they left all frequented + roads, for fear of being discovered, and posted themselves in a grove + near the way between Panama and Nombre de Dios; then they sent a + Symeron in the habit of a negro of Panama, to inquire on what night + the recoes, or drivers of mules, by which the treasure is carried, + were to set forth. The messenger was so well qualified for his + undertaking, and so industrious in the prosecution of it, that he soon + returned, with an account that the treasurer of Lima, intending to + return to Europe, would pass that night, with eight mules laden with + gold, and one with jewels. +</p> +<p> + Having received this information, they immediately marched towards + Venta Cruz, the first town on the way to Nombre de Dios; sending, for + security, two Symerons before, who, as they went, perceived, by the + scent of a match, that some Spaniard was before them, and, going + silently forward, surprised a soldier asleep upon the ground. They + immediately bound him, and brought him to Drake, who, upon inquiry, + found that their spy had not deceived them in his intelligence. The + soldier, having informed himself of the captain's name, conceived such + a confidence in his well known clemency, that, after having made an + ample discovery of the treasure that was now at hand, he petitioned + not only that he would command the Symerons to spare his life, but + that, when the treasure should fall into his hands, he would allow him + as much as might maintain him and his mistress, since they were about + to gain more than their whole company could carry. Drake then ordered + his men to lie down in the long grass, about fifty paces from the + road, half on one side, with himself, and half on the other, with + Oxenham and the captain of the Symerons, so much behind, that one + company might seize the foremost recoe, and the other the hindermost; + for the mules of these recoes, or drivers, being tied together, travel + on a line, and are all guided by leading the first. +</p> +<p> + When they had lain about an hour in this place, they began to hear the + bells of the mules on each hand; upon which orders were given, that + the drove which came from Venta Cruz should pass unmolested, because + they carried nothing of great value, and those only be intercepted + which were travelling thither; and that none of the men should rise + up, till the signal should be given. But one Robert Pike, heated with + strong liquor, left his company, and prevailed upon one of the + Symerons to creep with him to the wayside, that they might signalize + themselves by seizing the first mule; and hearing the trampling of a + horse, as he lay, could not be restrained by the Symeron from rising + up to observe who was passing by. This he did so imprudently, that he + was discovered by the passenger; for, by Drake's order, the English + had put their shirts on over their coats, that the night and tumult + might not hinder them from knowing one another. +</p> +<p> + The gentleman was immediately observed by Drake to change his trot + into a gallop; but, the reason of it not appearing, it was imputed to + his fear of the robbers that usually infest that road, and the English + still continued to expect the treasure. +</p> +<p> + In a short time, one of the recoes, that were passing towards Venta + Cruz, came up, and was eagerly seized by the English, who expected + nothing less than half the revenue of the Indies; nor is it easy to + imagine their mortification and perplexity, when they found only two + mules laden with silver, the rest having no other burden than + provisions. +</p> +<p> + The driver was brought immediately to the captain, and informed him + that the horseman, whom he had observed pass by with so much + precipitation, had informed the treasurer of what he had observed, and + advised him to send back the mules that carried his gold and jewels, + and suffer only the rest to proceed, that he might, by that cheap + experiment, discover whether there was any ambush on the way. +</p> +<p> + That Drake was not less disgusted than his followers at the + disappointment, cannot be doubted; but there was now no time to be + spent in complaints. The whole country was alarmed, and all the force + of the Spaniards was summoned to overwhelm him. He had no fortress to + retire to; every man was his enemy; and every retreat better known to + the Spaniards than to himself. +</p> +<p> + This was an occasion that demanded all the qualities of an hero, an + intrepidity never to be shaken, and a judgment never to be perplexed. + He immediately considered all the circumstances of his present + situation, and found that it afforded him only the choice of marching + back the same way through which he came, or of forcing his passage to + Venta Cruz. +</p> +<p> + To march back, was to confess the superiority of his enemies, and to + animate them to the pursuit; the woods would afford opportunities of + ambush, and his followers must often disperse themselves in search of + provisions, who would become an easy prey, dispirited by their + disappointment, and fatigued by their march. On the way to Venta Cruz, + he should have nothing to fear but from open attacks, and expected + enemies. +</p> +<p> + Determining, therefore, to pass forward to Venta Cruz, he asked Pedro, + the leader of the Symerons, whether he was resolved to follow him; + and, having received from him the strongest assurances that nothing + should separate them, commanded his men to refresh themselves, and + prepare to set forward. +</p> +<p> + When they came within a mile of the town, they dismissed the mules, + which they had made use of for their more easy and speedy passage, and + continued their march along a road cut through thick woods, in which a + company of soldiers, who were quartered in the place to defend it + against the Symerons, had posted themselves, together with a convent + of friars headed by one of their brethren, whose zeal against the + northern heresy had incited him to hazard his person, and assume the + province of a general. +</p> +<p> + Drake, who was advertised by two Symerons, whom he sent before, of the + approach of the Spaniards, commanded his followers to receive the + first volley without firing. +</p> +<p> + In a short time, he heard himself summoned by the Spanish captain to + yield, with a promise of protection and kind treatment; to which he + answered with defiance, contempt, and the discharge of his pistol. +</p> +<p> + Immediately the Spaniards poured in their shot, by which only one man + was killed, and Drake, with some others, slightly wounded; upon which + the signal was given by Drake's whistle to fall upon them. The + English, after discharging their arrows and shot, pressed furiously + forward, and drove the Spaniards before them; which the Symerons, whom + the terrour of the shot had driven to some distance, observed, and + recalling their courage, animated each other with songs in their own + language, and rushed forward with such impetuosity, that they overtook + them near the town, and, supported by the English, dispersed them with + the loss of only one man, who, after he had received his wound, had + strength and resolution left to kill his assailant. +</p> +<p> + They pursued the enemy into the town, in which they met with some + plunder, which was given to the Symerons; and treated the inhabitants + with great clemency, Drake himself going to the Spanish ladies, to + assure them that no injuries should be offered them; so inseparable is + humanity from true courage. +</p> +<p> + Having thus broken the spirits, and scattered the forces of the + Spaniards, he pursued his march to his ship, without any apprehension + of danger, yet with great speed, being very solicitous about the state + of the crew; so that he allowed his men, harassed as they were, but + little time for sleep or refreshment, but by kind exhortations, gentle + authority, and a cheerful participation of all their hardships, + prevailed upon them to bear, without murmurs, not only the toil of + travelling, but, on some days, the pain of hunger. +</p> +<p> + In this march, he owed much of his expedition to the assistance of the + Symerons, who being accustomed to the climate, and naturally robust, + not only brought him intelligence, and showed the way, but carried + necessaries, provided victuals, and built lodgings, and, when any of + the English fainted in the way, two of them would carry him between + them for two miles together; nor was their valour less than their + industry, after they had learned from their English companions to + despise the firearms of the Spaniards. +</p> +<p> + When they were within five leagues of the ships, they found a town + built in their absence by the Symerons, at which Drake consented to + halt, sending a Symeron to the ship, with his gold toothpick, as a + token, which, though the master knew it, was not sufficient to gain + the messenger credit, till, upon examination, he found that the + captain, having ordered him to regard no messenger without his + handwriting, had engraven his name upon it with the point of his + knife. He then sent the pinnace up the river, which they met, and + afterwards sent to the town for those whose weariness had made them + unable to march further. On February 23, the whole company was + reunited; and Drake, whose good or ill success never prevailed over + his piety, celebrated their meeting with thanks to God. +</p> +<p> + Drake, not yet discouraged, now turned his thoughts to new prospects, + and, without languishing in melancholy reflections upon his past + miscarriages, employed himself in forming schemes for repairing them. + Eager of action, and acquainted with man's nature, he never suffered + idleness to infect his followers with cowardice, but kept them from + sinking under any disappointment, by diverting their attention to some + new enterprise. +</p> +<p> + Upon consultation with his own men and the Symerons, he found them + divided in their opinions; some declaring, that, before they engaged + in any new attempt, it was necessary to increase their stores of + provisions; and others urging, that the ships, in which the treasure + was conveyed, should be immediately attacked. The Symerons proposed a + third plan, and advised him to undertake another march over land to + the house of one Pezoro, near Veragua, whose slaves brought him, every + day, more than two hundred pounds sterling from the mines, which he + heaped together in a strong stone house, which might, by the help of + the English, be easily forced. +</p> +<p> + Drake, being unwilling to fatigue his followers with another journey, + determined to comply with both the other opinions; and, manning his + two pinnaces, the Bear and the Minion, he sent John Oxenham, in the + Bear, towards Tolu, to seize upon provisions; and went himself, in the + Minion, to the Cabezas, to intercept the treasure that was to be + transported from Veragua and that coast, to the fleet at Nombre de + Dios, first dismissing, with presents, those Symerons that desired to + return to their wives, and ordering those that chose to remain to be + entertained in the ship. +</p> +<p> + Drake took, at the Cabezas, a frigate of Nicaragua, the pilot of which + informed him that there was, in the harbour of Veragua, a ship + freighted with more than a million of gold, to which he offered to + conduct him, being well acquainted with the soundings, if he might be + allowed his share of the prize; so much was his avarice superiour to + his honesty. +</p> +<p> + Drake, after some deliberation, complying with the pilot's + importunities, sailed towards the harbour, but had no sooner entered + the mouth of it than he heard the report of artillery, which was + answered by others at a greater distance; upon which the pilot told + him, that they wero discovered, this being the signal appointed by the + governour to alarm the coast. +</p> +<p> + Drake now thought it convenient to return to the ship, that he might + inquire the success of the other pinnace, which he found, with a + frigate that she had taken, with twenty-eight fat hogs, two hundred + hens, and great store of maize or Indian corn. The vessel itself was + so strong and well built, that he fitted it out for war, determining + to attack the fleet at Nombre de Dios. +</p> +<p> + On March the 21st, he set sail, with the new frigate and the Bear, + towards the Cabezas, at which he arrived in about two days, and found + there Tètu, a Frenchman, with a ship of war, who, after having + received from him a supply of water and other necessaries, entreated + that he might join with him in his attempt; which Drake consenting to, + admitted him to accompany him with twenty of his men, stipulating to + allow them an equal share of whatever booty they should gain. Yet were + they not without some suspicions of danger from this new ally, he + having eighty men, and they being now reduced to thirty-one. +</p> +<p> + Then manning the frigate and two pinnaces, they set sail for the + Cabezas, where they left the frigate, which was too large for the + shallows over which they were to pass, and proceeded to Rio Francisco. + Here they landed, and, having ordered the pinnaces to return to the + same place on the fourth day following, travelled through the woods + towards Nombre de Dios, with such silence and regularity as surprised + the French, who did not imagine the Symerons so discreet or obedient + as they appeared, and were, therefore, in perpetual anxiety about the + fidelity of their guides, and the probability of their return. Nor did + the Symerons treat them with that submission and regard which they + paid to the English, whose bravery and conduct they had already tried. +</p> +<p> + At length, after a laborious march of more than seven leagues, they + began to hear the hammers of the carpenters in the bay, it being the + custom, in that hot season, to work in the night; and, in a short + time, they perceived the approach of the recoes, or droves of mules, + from Panama. They now no longer doubted that their labours would be + rewarded, and every man imagined himself secure from poverty and + labour for the remaining part of his life. They, therefore, when the + mules came up, rushed out and seized them, with an alacrity + proportioned to their expectations. The three droves consisted of one + hundred and nine mules, each of which carried three hundred pounds' + weight of silver. It was to little purpose that the soldiers, ordered + to guard the treasure, attempted resistance. After a short combat, in + which the French captain and one of the Symerons were wounded, it + appeared with how much greater ardour men are animated by interest + than fidelity. +</p> +<p> + As it was possible for them to carry away but a small part of this + treasure, after having wearied themselves with hiding it in holes and + shallow waters, they determined to return by the same way, and, + without being pursued, entered the woods, where the French captain, + being disabled by his wound, was obliged to stay, two of his company + continuing with him. +</p> +<p> + When they had gone forward about two leagues, the Frenchmen missed + another of their company, who, upon inquiry, was known to be + intoxicated with wine, and supposed to have lost himself in the woods, + by neglecting to observe the guides. +</p> +<p> + But common prudence not allowing them to hazard the whole company by + too much solicitude for a single life, they travelled on towards Rio + Francisco, at which they arrived, April the 3rd; but, looking out for + their pinnaces, were surprised with the sight of seven Spanish + shallops, and immediately concluded, that some intelligence of their + motions had been carried to Nombre de Dios, and that these vessels had + been fitted out to pursue them, which might, undoubtedly, have + overpowered the pinnaces and their feeble crew. Nor did their + suspicion stop here; but immediately it occurred to them, that their + men had been compelled, by torture, to discover where their frigate + and ship were stationed, which, being weakly manned, and without the + presence of the chief commander, would fall into their hands, almost + without resistance, and all possibility of escaping be entirely cut + off. +</p> +<p> + These reflections sunk the whole company into despair; and every one, + instead of endeavouring to break through the difficulties that + surrounded him, resigned up himself to his ill fortune; when Drake, + whose intrepidity was never to be shaken, and whose reason was never + to be surprised or embarrassed, represented to them that, though the + Spaniards should have made themselves masters of their pinnaces, they + might yet be hindered from discovering the ships. He put them in mind, + that the pinnaces could not be taken, the men examined, their + examinations compared, the resolutions formed, their vessels sent out, + and the ships taken in an instant. Some time must, necessarily, be + spent, before the last blow could be struck; and, if that time were + not negligently lost, it might be possible for some of them to reach + the ships before the enemy, and direct them to change their station. +</p> +<p> + They were animated with this discourse, by which they discovered that + their leader was not without hope; but when they came to look more + nearly into their situation, they were unable to conceive upon what it + was founded. To pass by land was impossible, as the way lay over high + mountains, through thick woods and deep rivers; and they had not a + single boat in their power, so that a passage by water seemed equally + impracticable. But Drake, whose penetration immediately discovered all + the circumstances and inconveniencies of every scheme, soon determined + upon the only means of success which their condition afforded them; + and ordering his men to make a raft out of the trees that were then + floating on the river, offered himself to put off to sea upon it, and + cheerfully asked who would accompany him. John Owen, John Smith, and + two Frenchmen, who were willing to share his fortune, embarked with + him on the raft, which was fitted out with a sail made of a + biscuit-sack, and an oar, to direct its course, instead of a rudder. +</p> +<p> + Then having comforted the rest, with assurances of his regard for + them, and resolution to leave nothing unattempted for their + deliverance, he put off, and after having, with much difficulty, + sailed three leagues, descried two pinnaces hasting towards him, + which, upon a nearer approach, he discovered to be his own, and + perceiving that they anchored behind a point that jutted out into the + sea, he put to shore, and, crossing the land on foot, was received, by + his company, with that satisfaction, which is only known to those that + have been acquainted with dangers and distresses. +</p> +<p> + The same night they rowed to Rio Francisco, where they took in the + rest, with what treasure they had been able to carry with them through + the woods; then sailing back with the utmost expedition, they returned + to their frigate, and soon after to their ship, where Drake divided + the gold and silver equally between the French and the English. +</p> +<p> + Here they spent about fourteen days in fitting out their frigate more + completely, and then dismissing the Spaniards with their ship, lay a + few days among the Cabezas; while twelve English and sixteen Symerons + travelled, once more, into the country, as well to recover the French + captain, whom they had left wounded, as to bring away the treasure + which they had hidden in the sands. Drake, whom his company would not + suffer to hazard his person in another land expedition, went with them + to Rio Francisco, where he found one of the Frenchmen, who had stayed + to attend their captain, and was informed by him, upon his inquiries + after his fortune, that, half an hour after their separation, the + Spaniards came upon them, and easily seized upon the wounded captain; + but that his companion might have escaped with him, had he not + preferred money to life; for, seeing him throw down a box of jewels + that retarded him, he could not forbear taking it up, and with that, + and the gold which he had already, was so loaded that he could not + escape. With regard to the bars of gold and silver, which they had + concealed in the ground, he informed them that two thousand men had + been employed in digging for them. +</p> +<p> + The men, however, either mistrusting the informer's veracity, or + confident that what they had hidden could not be found, pursued their + journey, but, upon their arrival at the place, found the ground turned + up for two miles round, and were able to recover no more than thirteen + bars' of silver, and a small quantity of gold. They discovered + afterwards, that the Frenchman who was left in the woods, falling + afterwards into the hands of the Spaniards, was tortured by them, till + he confessed where Drake had concealed his plunder. So fatal to + Drake's expedition was the drunkenness of his followers. +</p> +<p> + Then, dismissing the French, they passed by Carthagena with their + colours flying, and soon after took a frigate laden with provisions + and honey, which they valued as a great restorative, and then sailed + away to the Cabezas. +</p> +<p> + Here they stayed about a week to clean their vessels, and fit them for + a long voyage, determining to set sail for England; and, that the + faithful Symerons might not go away unrewarded, broke up their + pinnaces, and gave them the iron, the most valuable present in the + world, to a nation whose only employments were war and hunting, and + amongst whom show and luxury had no place. +</p> +<p> + Pedro, their captain, being desired by Drake to go through the ship, + and to choose what he most desired, fixed his eye upon a cimetar, set + with diamonds, which the French captain had presented to Drake; and, + being unwilling to ask for so valuable a present, offered for it four + large quoits, or thick plates of gold, which he had, hitherto, + concealed; but Drake, desirous to show him that fidelity is seldom + without a recompense, gave it him with the highest professions of + satisfaction and esteem. Pedro, receiving it with the utmost + gratitude, informed him, that, by bestowing it he had conferred + greatness and honour upon him; for, by presenting it to his king, he + doubted not of obtaining the highest rank amongst the Symerons. He + then persisted in his resolution of leaving the gold, which was + generously thrown by Drake into the common stock; for he said, that + those, at whose expenses he had been sent out, ought to share in all + the gain of the expedition, whatever pretence cavil and chicanery + might supply for the appropriation of any part of it. Thus was Drake's + character consistent with itself; he was equally superiour to avarice + and fear, and through whatever danger he might go in quest of gold, he + thought it not valuable enough to be obtained by artifice or + dishonesty. +</p> +<p> + They now forsook the coast of America, which for many months they had + kept in perpetual alarms, having taken more than two hundred ships, of + all sizes, between Carthagena and Nombre de Dios, of which they never + destroyed any, unless they were fitted out against them; nor ever + detained the prisoners longer than was necessary for their own + security or concealment, providing for them in the same manner as for + themselves, and protecting them from the malice of the Symerous; a + behaviour which humanity dictates, and which, perhaps, even policy + cannot disapprove. He must certainly meet with obstinate opposition, + who makes it equally dangerous to yield as to resist, and who leaves + his enemies no hopes but from victory. +</p> +<p> + What riches they acquired is not particularly related; but it is not + to be doubted, that the plunder of so many vessels, together with the + silver which they seized at Nombre de Dios, must amount to a very + large sum, though the part that was allotted to Drake was not + sufficient to lull him in effeminacy, or to repress his natural + inclination to adventures. +</p> +<p> + They arrived at Plymouth on the 9th of August, 1573, on Sunday, in the + afternoon; and so much were the people delighted with the news of + their arrival, that they left the preacher, and ran in crowds to the + quay, with shouts and congratulations. +</p> +<p> + Drake having, in his former expedition, had a view of the south sea, + and formed a resolution to sail upon it, did not suffer himself to be + diverted from his design by the prospect of any difficulties that + might obstruct the attempt, nor any dangers that might attend the + execution; obstacles which brave men often find it much more easy to + overcome, than secret envy and domestick treachery. +</p> +<p> + Drake's reputation was now sufficiently advanced to incite detraction + and opposition; and it is easy to imagine, that a man by nature + superiour to mean artifices, and bred, from his earliest years, to the + labour and hardships of a sea-life, was very little acquainted with + policy and intrigue, very little versed in the methods of application + to the powerful and great, and unable to obviate the practices of + those whom his merit had made his enemies. +</p> +<p> + Nor are such the only opponents of great enterprises: there are some + men, of narrow views and grovelling conceptions, who, without the + instigation of personal malice, treat every new attempt, as wild and + chimerical, and look upon every endeavour to depart from the beaten + track, as the rash effort of a warm imagination, or the glittering + speculation of an exalted mind, that may please and dazzle for a time, + but can produce no real or lasting advantage. +</p> +<p> + These men value themselves upon a perpetual skepticism, upon believing + nothing but their own senses, upon calling for demonstration where it + cannot possibly be obtained, and, sometimes, upon holding out against + it, when it is laid before them; upon inventing arguments against the + success of any new undertaking, and, where arguments cannot be found, + upon treating it with contempt and ridicule. +</p> +<p> + Such have been the most formidable enemies of the great benefactors to + mankind, and to these we can hardly doubt, but that much of the + opposition which Drake met with, is to be attributed; for their + notions and discourse are so agreeable to the lazy, the envious, and + the timorous, that they seldom fail of becoming popular, and directing + the opinions of mankind. +</p> +<p> + Whatsoever were his obstacles, and whatsoever the motives that + produced them, it was not till the year 1577, that he was able to + assemble a force proportioned to his design, and to obtain a + commission from the queen, by which he was constituted captain-general + of a fleet, consisting of five vessels, of which the Pelican, admiral, + of a hundred tons, was commanded by himself; the Elizabeth, + viceadmiral, of eighty tons, by John Winter; the Marigold, of thirty + tons, by John Thomas; the Swan, fifty tons, by John Chester; the + Christopher, of fifteen tons, by Thomas Moche, the same, as it seems, + who was carpenter in the former voyage, and destroyed one of the ships + by Drake's direction. +</p> +<p> + These ships, equipped partly by himself, and partly by other private + adventurers, he manned with one hundred and sixty-four stout sailors, + and furnished with such provisions as he judged necessary for the long + voyage in which he was engaged. Nor did he confine his concern to + naval stores, or military preparations; but carried with him whatever + he thought might contribute to raise in those nations, with which he + should have any intercourse, the highest ideas of the politeness and + magnificence of his native country. He, therefore, not only procured a + complete service of silver, for his own table, and furnished the + cook-room with many vessels of the same metal, but engaged several + musicians to accompany him; rightly judging, that nothing would more + excite the admiration of any savage and uncivilized people. +</p> +<p> + Having been driven back by a tempest in their first attempt, and + obliged to return to Plymouth, to repair the damages which they had + suffered, they set sail again from thence on the 13th of December, + 1577, and, on the 25th, had sight of cape Cantin, in Barbary, from + whence they coasted on southward to the island of Mogador, which Drake + had appointed for the first place of rendezvous, and on the 27th, + brought the whole fleet to anchor, in a harbour on the mainland. +</p> +<p> + They were, soon after their arrival, discovered by the Moors that + inhabited those coasts, who sent two of the principal men amongst them + on board Drake's ship, receiving, at the same time, two of his company + as hostages. These men he not only treated in the most splendid + manner, but presented with such things as they appeared most to + admire; it being with him an established maxim, to endeavour to + secure, in every country, a kind reception to such Englishmen as might + come after him, by treating the inhabitants with kindness and + generosity; a conduct, at once just and politick, to the neglect of + which may be attributed many of the injuries suffered by our sailors + in distant countries, which are generally ascribed, rather to the + effects of wickedness and folly of our own commanders, than the + barbarity of the natives, who seldom fall upon any, unless they have + been first plundered or insulted; and, in revenging the ravages of one + crew upon another of the same nation, are guilty of nothing but what + is countenanced by the example of the Europeans themselves. +</p> +<p> + But this friendly intercourse was, in appearance, soon broken; for, on + the next day, observing the Moors making signals from the land, they + sent out their boat, as before, to fetch them to the ship, and one + John Fry leaped ashore, intending to become a hostage, as on the + former day, when immediately he was seized by the Moors; and the crew, + observing great numbers to start up from behind the rock, with weapons + in their hands, found it madness to attempt his rescue, and, + therefore, provided for their own security by returning to the ship. +</p> +<p> + Fry was immediately carried to the king, who, being then in continual + expectation of an invasion from Portugal, suspected that these ships + were sent only to observe the coast, and discover a proper harbour for + the main fleet; but being informed who they were, and whither they + were bound, not only dismissed his captive, but made large offers of + friendship and assistance, which Drake, however, did not stay to + receive, but, being disgusted at this breach of the laws of commerce, + and afraid of further violence, after having spent some days in + searching for his man, in which he met with no resistance, left the + coast on December 31, some time before Fry's return, who, being + obliged by this accident to somewhat a longer residence among the + Moors, was afterwards sent home in a merchant's ship. +</p> +<p> + On January 16, they arrived at cape Blanc, having in their passage + taken several Spanish vessels. Here, while Drake was employing his men + in catching fish, of which this coast affords great plenty, and + various kinds, the inhabitants came down to the seaside with their + alisorges, or leather bottles, to traffick for water, which they were + willing to purchase with ambergris and other gums. But Drake, + compassionating the misery of their condition, gave them water, + whenever they asked for it, and left them their commodities to + traffick with, when they should be again reduced to the same distress, + without finding the same generosity to relieve them. +</p> +<p> + Here, having discharged some Spanish ships, which they had taken, they + set sail towards the isles of cape Verd, and, on January 28, came to + anchor before Mayo, hoping to furnish themselves with fresh water; but + having landed, they found the town by the waterside entirely deserted, + and, marching further up the country, saw the valleys extremely + fruitful, and abounding with ripe figs, cocoas, and plantains, but + could by no means prevail upon the inhabitants to converse or traffick + with them; however, they were suffered by them to range the country + without molestation, but found no water, except at such a distance + from the sea, that the labour of conveying it to the ships was greater + than it was, at that time, necessary for them to undergo. Salt, had + they wanted it, might have been obtained with less trouble, being left + by the sea upon the sand, and hardened by the sun during the ebb, in + such quantities, that the chief traffick of their island is carried on + with it. +</p> +<p> + January 31, they passed by St. Jago an island at that time divided + between the natives and the Portuguese, who, first entering these + islands under the show of traffick, by degrees established + themselves;—claimed a superiority over the original inhabitants; and + harassed them with such cruelty, that they obliged them either to fly + to the woods and mountains, and perish with hunger, or to take up arms + against their oppressors, and, under the insuperable disadvantages + with which they contended, to die, almost without a battle, in defence + of their natural rights and ancient possessions. +</p> +<p> + Such treatment had the natives of St. Jago received, which had driven + them into the rocky parts of the island, from whence they made + incursions into the plantations of the Portuguese, sometimes with + loss, but generally with that success which desperation naturally + procures; so that the Portuguese were in continual alarms, and, lived, + with the natural consequences of guilt, terrour, and anxiety. They + were wealthy, but not happy, and possessed the island, but not enjoyed + it. +</p> +<p> + They then sailed on within sight of Fuego, an island so called from a + mountain, about the middle of it, continually burning, and, like the + rest, inhabited by the Portuguese; two leagues to the south of which + lies Brava, which has received its name from its fertility, abounding, + though uninhabited, with all kinds of fruits, and watered with great + numbers of springs and brooks, which would easily invite the + possessours of the adjacent islands to settle in it, but that it + affords neither harbour nor anchorage. Drake, after having sent out + his boats with plummets, was not able to find any ground about it; and + it is reported, that many experiments have been made with the same + success; however, he took in water sufficient, and, on the 2nd of + February, set sail for the straits of Magellan. +</p> +<p> + On February 17, they passed the equator, and continued their voyage, + with sometimes calms, and sometimes contrary winds, but without any + memorable accident, to March 28, when one of their vessels, with + twenty-eight men, and the greatest part of their fresh water on board, + was, to their great discouragement, separated from them; but their + perplexity lasted not long, for on the next day they discovered and + rejoined their associates. +</p> +<p> + In their long course, which gave them opportunities of observing + several animals, both in the air and water, at that time very little + known, nothing entertained or surprised them more than the flying + fish, which is near of the same size with a herring, and has fins of + the length of his whole body, by the help of which, when he is pursued + by the bonito or great mackerel, as soon as he finds himself upon the + point of being taken, he springs up into the air, and flies forward, + as long as his wings continue wet, moisture being, as it seems, + necessary to make them pliant and moveable; and when they become dry + and stiff, he falls down into the water, unless some bark or ship + intercept him, and dips them again for a second flight. This unhappy + animal is not only pursued by fishes in his natural element, but + attacked in the air, where he hopes for security, by the don, or + sparkite, a great bird that preys upon fish; and their species must + surely be destroyed, were not their increase so great, that the young + fry, in one part of the year, covers the sea. +</p> +<p> + There is another fish, named the cuttle, of which whole shoals will + sometimes rise at once out of the water, and of which a great + multitude fell into their ship. +</p> +<p> + At length, having sailed without sight of land for sixty-three days, + they arrived, April 5, at the coast of Brasil, where, on the 7th, the + Christopher was separated again from them by a storm; after which they + sailed near the land to the southward, and, on the 14th, anchored + under a cape, which they afterwards called cape Joy, because in two + days the vessel which they had lost returned to them. +</p> +<p> + Having spent a fortnight in the river of Plata, to refresh his men, + after their long voyage, and then standing out to sea, he was again + surprised by a sudden storm, in which they lost sight of the Swan. + This accident determined Drake to contract the number of his fleet, + that he might not only avoid the inconvenience of such frequent + separations, but ease the labour of his men, by having more hands in + each vessel. +</p> +<p> + For this purpose he sailed along the coast, in quest of a commodious + harbour, and, on May 13, discovered a bay, which seemed not improper + for their purpose, but which they durst not enter, till it was + examined; an employment in which Drake never trusted any, whatever + might be his confidence in his followers on other occasions. He well + knew how fatal one moment's inattention might be, and how easily + almost every man suffers himself to be surprised by indolence and + security. He knew the same credulity, that might prevail upon him to + trust another, might induce another to commit the same office to a + third; and it must be, at length, that some of them would be deceived. + He, therefore, as at other times, ordered the boat to be hoisted out, + and, taking the line into his hand, went on sounding the passage, till + he was three leagues from his ship; when, on a sudden, the weather + changed, the skies blackened, the winds whistled, and all the usual + forerunners of a storm began to threaten them; nothing was now desired + but to return to the ship, but the thickness of the fog intercepting + it from their sight, made the attempt little other than desperate. By + so many unforeseen accidents is prudence itself liable to be + embarrassed! So difficult is it, sometimes, for the quickest sagacity, + and most enlightened experience, to judge what measures ought to be + taken! To trust another to sound an unknown coast, appeared to Drake + folly and presumption; to be absent from his fleet, though but for an + hour, proved nothing less than to hazard the success of all their + labours, hardships, and dangers. +</p> +<p> + In this perplexity, which Drake was not more sensible of than those + whom he had left in the ships, nothing was to be omitted, however + dangerous, that might contribute to extricate them from it, as they + could venture nothing of equal value with the life of their general. + Captain Thomas, therefore, having the lightest vessel, steered boldly + into the bay, and taking the general aboard, dropped anchor, and lay + out of danger, while the rest, that were in the open sea, suffered + much from the tempest, and the Mary, a Portuguese prize, was driven + away before the wind; the others, as soon as the tempest was over, + discovering, by the fires which were made on shore, where Drake was, + repaired to him. +</p> +<p> + Here, going on shore, they met with no inhabitants, though there were + several houses or huts standing, in which they found a good quantity + of dried fowls, and among them a great number of ostriches, of which + the thighs were as large as those of a sheep. These birds are too + heavy and unwieldy to rise from the ground, but with the help of their + wings run so swiftly, that the English could never come near enough to + shoot at them. The Indians, commonly, by holding a large plume of + feathers before them, and walking gently forward, drive the ostriches + into some narrow neck, or point of land, then, spreading a strong net + from one side to the other, to hinder them from returning back to the + open fields, set their dogs upon them, thus confined between the net + and the water, and when they are thrown on their backs, rush in and + take them. +</p> +<p> + Not finding this harbour convenient, or well stored with wood and + water, they left it on the 15th of May, and, on the 18th, entered + another much safer, and more commodious, which they no sooner arrived + at, than Drake, whose restless application never remitted, sent Winter + to the southward, in quest of those ships which were absent, and + immediately after sailed himself to the northward, and, happily + meeting with the Swan, conducted it to the rest of the fleet; after + which, in pursuance of his former resolution, he ordered it to be + broken up, reserving the iron-work for a future supply. The other + vessel, which they lost in the late storm, could not be discovered. +</p> +<p> + While they were thus employed upon an island about a mile from the + mainland, to which, at low water, there was a passage on foot, they + were discovered by the natives, who appeared upon a hill at a + distance, dancing and holding up their hands, as beckoning the English + to them; which Drake observing, sent out a boat, with knives, bells, + and bugles, and such things as, by their usefulness or novelty, he + imagined would be agreeable. As soon as the English landed, they + observed two men running towards them, as deputed by the company, who + came within a little distance, and then standing still could not be + prevailed upon to come nearer. The English, therefore, tied their + presents to a pole, which they fixed in the ground, and then retiring, + saw the Indians advance, who, taking what they found upon the pole, + left in return such feathers as they wear upon their heads, with a + small bone about six inches in length, carved round the top, and + burnished. +</p> +<p> + Drake, observing their inclination to friendship and traffick, + advanced, with some of his company, towards the hill, upon sight of + whom the Indians ranged themselves in a line from east to west, and + one of them running from one end of the rank to the other, backwards + and forwards, bowed himself towards the rising and setting of the sun, + holding his hands over his head, and frequently stopping in the middle + of the rank, leaping up towards the moon, which then shone directly + over their heads; thus calling the sun and moon, the deities they + worship, to witness the sincerity of their professions of peace and + friendship. While this ceremony was performed, Drake and his company + ascended the hill, to the apparent terrour of the Indians, whose + apprehensions, when the English perceived, they peaceably retired, + which gave the natives so much encouragement, that they came forward + immediately, and exchanged their arrows, feathers, and bones, for such + trifles as were offered them. +</p> +<p> + Thus they traded for some time; but, by frequent intercourse, finding + that no violence was intended, they became familiar, and mingled with + the English without the least distrust. +</p> +<p> + They go quite naked, except a skin of some animal, which they throw + over their shoulders when they lie in the open air. They knit up their + hair, which is very long, with a roll of ostrich feathers, and usually + carry their arrows wrapped up brit, that they may not encumber them, + they being made with reeds, headed with flint, and, therefore, not + heavy. Their bows are about an ell long. +</p> +<p> + Their chief ornament is paint, which they use of several kinds, + delineating generally upon their bodies, the figures of the sun and + moon, in honour of their deities. +</p> +<p> + It is observable, that most nations, amongst whom the use of clothes + is unknown, paint their bodies. Such was the practice of the first + inhabitants of our own country. From this custom did our earliest + enemies, the Picts, owe their denomination. As it is not probable that + caprice or fancy should be uniform, there must be, doubtless, some + reason for a practice so general and prevailing in distant parts of + the world, which have no communication with each other. The original + end of painting their bodies was, probably, to exclude the cold; an + end which, if we believe some relations, is so effectually produced by + it, that the men thus painted never shiver at the most piercing + blasts. But, doubtless, any people, so hardened by continual + severities, would, even without paint, be less sensible of the cold + than the civilized inhabitants of the same climate. However, this + practice may contribute, in some degree, to defend them from the + injuries of winter; and, in those climates where little evaporates by + the pores, may be used with no great inconvenience; but in hot + countries, where perspiration in greater degree is necessary, the + natives only use unction to preserve them from the other extreme of + weather: so well do either reason or experience supply the place of + science in savage countries. +</p> +<p> + They had no canoes, like the other Indians, nor any method of crossing + the water, which was, probably, the reason why the birds, in the + adjacent islands, were so tame that they might be taken with the hand, + having never been before frighted or molested. The great plenty of + fowls and seals, which crowded the shallows in such numbers that they + killed, at their first arrival, two hundred of them in an hour, + contributed much to the refreshment of the English, who named the + place Seal bay, from that animal. +</p> +<p> + These seals seem to be the chief food of the natives, for the English + often found raw pieces of their flesh half eaten, and left, as they + supposed, after a full meal, by the Indians, whom they never knew to + make use of fire, or any art, in dressing or preparing their victuals. +</p> +<p> + Nor were their other customs less wild or uncouth than their way of + feeding; one of them having received a cap off the general's head, and + being extremely pleased, as well with the honour as the gift, to + express his gratitude, and confirm the alliance between them, retired + to a little distance, and thrusting an arrow into his leg, let the + blood run upon the ground, testifying, as it is probable, that he + valued Drake's friendship above life. +</p> +<p> + Having stayed fifteen days among these friendly savages, in 47 deg. 30 + min. s. lat. on June 3 they set sail towards the south sea, and, six + days afterwards, stopped at another little bay, to break up the + Christopher. Then passing on, they cast anchor in another bay, not + more than twenty leagues distant from the straits of Magellan. +</p> +<p> + It was now time seriously to deliberate in what manner they should act + with regard to the Portuguese prize, which, having been separated from + them by the storm, had not yet rejoined them. To return in search of + it, was sufficiently mortifying; to proceed without it, was not only + to deprive themselves of a considerable part of their force, but to + expose their friends and companions, whom common hardships and dangers + had endeared to them, to certain death or captivity. This + consideration prevailed; and, therefore, on the 18th, after prayers to + God, with which Drake never forgot to begin an enterprise, he put to + sea, and, the next day, near port Julian, discovered their associates, + whose ship was now grown leaky, having suffered much, both in the + first storm, by which they were dispersed, and, afterwards, in + fruitless attempts to regain the fleet. +</p> +<p> + Drake, therefore, being desirous to relieve their fatigues, entered + port Julian, and, as it was his custom always to attend in person, + when any important business was in hand, went ashore, with some of the + chief of his company, to seek for water, where he was immediately + accosted by two natives, of whom Magellan left a very terrible + account, having described them, as a nation of giants and monsters; + nor is his narrative entirely without foundation, for they are of the + largest size, though not taller than some Englishmen; their strength + is proportioned to their bulk, and their voice loud, boisterous, and + terrible. What were their manners before the arrival of the Spaniards, + it is not possible to discover; but the slaughter made of their + countrymen, perhaps without provocation, by these cruel intruders, and + the general massacre with which that part of the world had been + depopulated, might have raised in them a suspicion of all strangers, + and, by consequence, made them inhospitable, treacherous, and bloody. +</p> +<p> + The two who associated themselves with the English appeared much + pleased with their new guests, received willingly what was given them, + and very exactly observed every thing that passed, seeming more + particularly delighted with seeing Oliver, the master-gunner, shoot an + English arrow. They shot themselves, likewise, in emulation, but their + arrows always fell to the ground far short of his. +</p> +<p> + Soon after this friendly contest came another, who, observing the + familiarity of his countrymen with the strangers, appeared much + displeased, and, as the Englishmen perceived, endeavoured to dissuade + them from such an intercourse. What effect his arguments had was soon + after apparent, for another of Drake's companions, being desirous to + show the third Indian a specimen of the English valour and dexterity, + attempted, likewise, to shoot an arrow, but drawing it with his full + force, burst the bowstring; upon which the Indians, who were + unacquainted with their other weapons, imagined him disarmed, followed + the company, as they were walking negligently down towards their boat, + and let fly their arrows, aiming particularly at Winter, who had the + bow in his hand. He, finding himself wounded in the shoulder, + endeavoured to refit his bow, and, turning about, was pierced with a + second arrow in the breast. Oliver, the gunner, immediately presented + his piece at the insidious assailants, which failing to take fire, + gave them time to level another flight of arrows by which he was + killed; nor, perhaps, had any of them escaped, surprised and perplexed + as they were, had not Drake, with his usual presence of mind, animated + their courage, and directed their motions, ordering them, by + perpetually changing their places, to elude, as much as they could, + the aim of their enemies, and to defend their bodies with their + targets; and instructing them, by his own example, to pick up, and + break the arrows as they fell; which they did with so much diligence, + that the Indians were soon in danger of being disarmed. Then Drake + himself taking the gun, which Oliver had so unsuccessfully attempted + to make use of, discharged it at the Indian that first began the fray + and had killed the gunner, aiming it so happily, that the hailshot, + with which it was loaded, tore open his belly, and forced him to such + terrible outcries, that the Indians, though their numbers increased, + and many of their countrymen showed themselves from different parts of + the adjoining wood, were too much terrified to renew the assault, and + suffered Drake, without molestation, to withdraw his wounded friend, + who, being hurt in his lungs, languished two days, and then dying, was + interred with his companion, with the usual ceremony of a military + funeral. +</p> +<p> + They stayed here two months afterwards, without receiving any other + injuries from the natives, who, finding the danger to which they + exposed themselves by open hostilities, and, not being able any more + to surprise the vigilance of Drake, preferred their safety to revenge. +</p> +<p> + But Drake had other enemies to conquer or escape far more formidable + than these barbarians, and insidious practices to obviate, more artful + and dangerous than the ambushes of the Indians; for in this place was + laid open a design formed by one of the gentlemen of the fleet, not + only to defeat the voyage, but to murder the general. +</p> +<p> + This transaction is related in so obscure and confused a manner, that + it is difficult to form any judgment upon it. The writer who gives the + largest account of it, has suppressed the name of the criminal, which + we learn, from a more succinct narrative, published in a collection of + travels near that time, to have been Thomas Doughtie. What were his + inducements to attempt the destruction of his leader, and the ruin of + the expedition, or what were his views, if his design had succeeded, + what measures he had hitherto taken, whom he had endeavoured to + corjupt, with what arts, or what success, we are nowhere told. +</p> +<p> + The plot, as the narrative assures us, was laid before their departure + from England, and discovered, in its whole extent, to Drake himself, + in his garden at Plymouth, who, nevertheless, not only entertained the + person so accused, as one of his company, but this writer very + particularly relates, treated him with remarkable kindness and regard, + setting him always at his own table, and lodged him in the same cabin + with himself. Nor did ever he discover the least suspicion of his + intentions, till they arrived at this place, but appeared, by the + authority with which he invested him, to consider him, as one to whom, + in his absence, he could most securely intrust the direction of his + affairs. At length, in this remote corner of the world, he found out a + design formed against his life, called together all his officers, laid + before them the evidence on which he grounded the accusation, and + summoned the criminal, who, full of all the horrours of guilt, and + confounded at so clear a detection of his whole scheme, immediately + confessed his crimes, and acknowledged himself unworthy of longer + life; upon which the whole assembly, consisting of thirty persons, + after having considered the affair with the attention which it + required, and heard all that could be urged in extenuation of his + offence, unanimously signed the sentence by which he was condemned to + suffer death. Drake, however, unwilling, as it seemed, to proceed to + extreme severities, offered him his choice, either of being executed + on the island, or set ashore on the mainland, or being sent to England + to be tried before the council; of which, after a day's consideration, + he chose the first, alleging the improbability of persuading any to + leave the expedition, for the sake of transporting a criminal to + England, and the danger of his future state among savages and + infidels. His choice, I believe, few will approve: to be set ashore on + the mainland, was, indeed, only to be executed in a different manner; + for what mercy could be expected from the natives so incensed, but the + most cruel and lingering death! But why he should not rather have + requested to be sent to England, it is not so easy to conceive. In so + long a voyage he might have found a thousand opportunities of + escaping, perhaps with the connivance of his keepers, whose resentment + must probably in time have given way to compassion, or, at least, by + their negligence, as it is easy to believe they would, in times of + ease and refreshment, have remitted their vigilance; at least he would + have gained longer life; and, to make death desirable, seems not one + of the effects of guilt. However, he was, as it is related, + obstinately deaf to all persuasions, and, adhering to his first + choice, after having received the communion, and dined cheerfully with + the general, was executed in the afternoon, with many proofs of + remorse, but none of fear. +</p> +<p> + How far it is probable that Drake, after having been acquainted with + this man's designs, should admit him into his fleet, and afterwards + caress, respect, and trust him; or that Doughtie, who is represented + as a man of eminent abilities, should engage in so long and hazardous + a voyage, with no other view than that of defeating it; is left to the + determination of the reader. What designs he could have formed, with + any hope of success, or to what actions, worthy of death, he could + have proceeded without accomplices, for none are mentioned, is equally + difficult to imagine. Nor, on the other hand, though the obscurity of + the account, and the remote place chosen for the discovery of this + wicked project, seem to give some reason for suspicion, does there + appear any temptation, from either hope, fear, or interest, that might + induce Drake, or any commander in his state, to put to death an + innocent man upon false pretences. +</p> +<p> + After the execution of this man, the whole company, either convinced + of the justice of the proceeding, or awed by the severity, applied + themselves, without any murmurs, or appearance of discontent, to the + prosecution of the voyage; and, having broken up another vessel, and + reduced the number of their ships to three, they left the port, and, + on August the 20th, entered the straits of Magellan, in which they + struggled with contrary winds, and the various dangers to which the + intricacy of that winding passage exposed them, till night, and then + entered a more open sea, in which they discovered an island with a + burning mountain. On the 24th they fell in with three more islands, to + which Drake gave names, and, landing to take possession of them in the + name of his sovereign, found in the largest so prodigious a number of + birds, that they killed three thousand of them in one day. This bird, + of which they knew not the name, was somewhat less than a wild goose, + without feathers, and covered with a kind of down, unable to fly or + rise from the ground, but capable of running and swimming with amazing + celerity; they feed on the sea, and come to land only to rest at + night, or lay their eggs, which they deposit in holes like those of + conies. +</p> +<p> + From these islands to the south sea, the strait becomes very crooked + and narrow, so that sometimes, by the interposition of headlands, the + passage seems shut up, and the voyage entirely stopped. To double + these capes is very difficult, on account of the frequent alterations + to be made in the course. There are, indeed, as Magellan observes, + many harbours, but in most of them no bottom is to be found. +</p> +<p> + The land, on both sides, rises into innumerable mountains; the tops of + them are encircled with clouds and vapours, which, being congealed, + fall down in snow, and increase their height by hardening into ice, + which is never dissolved; but the valleys are, nevertheless, green, + fruitful, and pleasant. +</p> +<p> + Here Drake, finding the strait, in appearance, shut up, went in his + boat to make further discoveries; and having found a passage towards + the north, was returning to his ships; but curiosity soon prevailed + upon him to stop, for the sake of observing a canoe or boat, with + several natives of the country in it. He could not, at a distance, + forbear admiring the form of this little vessel, which seemed + inclining to a semicircle, the stern and prow standing up, and the + body sinking inward; but much greater was his wonder, when, upon a + nearer inspection, he found it made only of the barks of trees, sewed + together with thongs of sealskin, so artificially, that scarcely any + water entered the seams. The people were well shaped and painted, like + those which have been already described. On the land they had a hut + built with poles, and covered with skins, in which they had + water-vessels, and other utensils, made likewise of the barks of + trees. +</p> +<p> + Among these people they had an opportunity of remarking, what is + frequently observable in savage countries, how natural sagacity and + unwearied industry may supply the want of such manufactures or natural + productions, as appear to us absolutely necessary for the support of + life. The inhabitants of these islands are wholly strangers to iron + and its use, but, instead of it, make use of the shell of a muscle of + prodigious size, found upon their coasts; this they grind upon a stone + to an edge, which is so firm and solid, that neither wood nor stone is + able to resist it. +</p> +<p> + September 6, they entered the great south sea, on which no English + vessel had ever been navigated before, and proposed to have directed + their course towards the line, that their men, who had suffered by the + severity of the climate, might recover their strength in a warmer + latitude. But their designs were scarce formed, before they were + frustrated; for, on Sept. 7, after an eclipse of the moon, a storm + arose, so violent, that it left them little hopes of surviving it; nor + was its fury so dreadful as its continuance; for it lasted, with + little intermission, till October 28, fifty-two days, during which + time they were tossed incessantly from one part of the ocean to + another, without any power of spreading their sails, or lying upon + their anchors, amidst shelving shores, scattered rocks, and unknown + islands, the tempest continually roaring, and the waves dashing over + them. +</p> +<p> + In this storm, on the 30th of September, the Marigold, commanded by + captain Thomas, was separated from them. On the 7th of October, having + entered a harbour, where they hoped for some intermission of their + fatigues, they were, in a few hours, forced out to sea by a violent + gust, which broke the cable, at which time they lost sight of the + Elizabeth, the viceadmiral, whose crew, as was afterwards discovered, + wearied with labour, and discouraged by the prospect of future + dangers, recovered the straits on the next day, and, returning by the + same passage through which they came, sailed along the coast of + Brasil, and on the 2nd of June, in the year following, arrived at + England. +</p> +<p> + From this bay they were driven southward to fifty-five degrees, where, + among some islands, they stayed two days, to the great refreshment of + the crew; but, being again forced into the main sea, they were tossed + about with perpetual expectation of perishing, till, soon after, they + again came to anchor near the same place, where they found the + natives, whom the continuance of the storm had probably reduced to + equal distress, rowing from one island to another, and providing the + necessaries of life. +</p> +<p> + It is, perhaps, a just observation, that, with regard to outward + circumstances, happiness and misery are equally diffused through all + states of human life. In civilized countries, where regular policies + have secured the necessaries of life, ambition, avarice, and luxury, + find the mind at leisure for their reception, and soon engage it in + new pursuits; pursuits that are to be carried on by incessant labour, + and, whether vain or successful, produce anxiety and contention. Among + savage nations, imaginary wants find, indeed, no place; but their + strength is exhausted by necessary toils, and their passions agitated + not by contests about superiority, affluence, or precedence, but by + perpetual care for the present day, and by fear of perishing for want + of food. +</p> +<p> + But for such reflections as these they had no time; for, having spent + three days in supplying themselves with wood and water, they were, by + a new storm, driven to the latitude of fifty-six degrees, where they + beheld the extremities of the American coast, and the confluence of + the Atlantick and southern ocean. +</p> +<p> + Here they arrived on the 28th of October, and, at last, were blessed + with the sight of a calm sea, having, for almost two months, endured + such a storm as no traveller has given an account of, and such as, in + that part of the world, though accustomed to hurricanes, they were + before unacquainted with. +</p> +<p> + On the 30th of October, they steered away towards the place appointed + for the rendezvous of the fleet, which was in thirty degrees; and, on + the next day, discovered two islands, so well stocked with fowls, that + they victualled their ships with them, and then sailed forward along + the coast of Peru, till they came to thirty-seven degrees, where, + finding neither of their ships, nor any convenient port, they came to + anchor, November the 25th, at Mucho, an island inhabited by such + Indians, as the cruelty of the Spanish conquerors had driven from the + continent, to whom they applied for water and provisions, offering + them, in return, such things as they imagined most likely to please + them. The Indians seemed willing to traffick, and having presented + them with fruits, and two fat sheep, would have showed them a place + whither they should come for water. +</p> +<p> + The next morning, according to agreement, the English landed with + their water-vessels, and sent two men forward towards the place + appointed, who, about the middle of the way, were suddenly attacked by + the Indians, and immediately slain. Nor were the rest of the company + out of danger; for behind the rocks was lodged an ambush of five + hundred men, who, starting up from their retreat, discharged their + arrows into the boat with such dexterity, that every one of the crew + was wounded by them, the sea being then high, and hindering them from + either retiring or making use of their weapons. Drake himself received + an arrow under his eye, which pierced him almost to the brain, and + another in his head. The danger of these wounds was much increased by + the absence of their surgeon, who was in the viceadmiral, so that they + had none to assist them but a boy, whose age did not admit of much + experience or skill; yet so much were they favoured by providence, + that they all recovered. +</p> +<p> + No reason could be assigned for which the Indians should attack them + with so furious a spirit of malignity, but that they mistook them for + Spaniards, whose cruelties might very reasonably incite them to + revenge, whom they had driven by incessant persecution from their + country, wasting immense tracts of land by massacre and devastation. +</p> +<p> + On the afternoon of the same day, they set sail, and, on the 30th of + November, dropped anchor in Philips bay, where their boat, having been + sent out to discover the country, returned with an Indian in his + canoe, whom they had intercepted. He was of a graceful stature, + dressed in a white coat or gown, reaching almost to his knees, very + mild, humble, and docile, such as, perhaps, were all the Indians, till + the Spaniards taught them revenge, treachery, and cruelty. +</p> +<p> + This Indian, having been kindly treated, was dismissed with presents, + and informed, as far as the English could make him understand, what + they chiefly wanted, and what they were willing to give in return, + Drake ordering his boat to attend him in his canoe, and to set him + safe on the land. +</p> +<p> + When he was ashore, he directed them to wait till his return, and + meeting some of his countrymen, gave them such an account of his + reception, that, within a few hours, several of them repaired with him + to the boat with fowls, eggs, and a hog, and with them one of their + captains, who willingly came into the boat, and desired to be conveyed + by the English to the ship. +</p> +<p> + By this man Drake was informed, that no supplies were to be expected + here, but that southward, in a place to which he offered to be his + pilot, there was great plenty. This proposal was accepted, and, on + the 5th of December, under the direction of the good-natured Indian, + they came to anchor in the harbour called, by the Spaniards, + Valparaiso, near the town of St. James of Chiuli, where they met not + only with sufficient stores of provision, and with storehouses full of + the wines of Chili, but with a ship called the Captain of Morial, + richly laden, having, together with large quantities of the same + wines, some of the fine gold of Baldivia, and a great cross of gold + set with emeralds. +</p> +<p> + Having spent three days in storing their ships with all kinds of + provision in the utmost plenty, they departed, and landed their Indian + pilot where they first received him, after having rewarded him much + above his expectations or desires. +</p> +<p> + They had now little other anxiety than for their friends who had been + separated from them, and whom they now determined to seek; but + considering that, by entering every creek and harbour with their ship, + they exposed themselves to unnecessary dangers, and that their boat + would not contain such a number as might defend themselves against, + the Spaniards, they determined to station their ship at some place, + where they might commodiously build a pinnace, which, being of light + burden, might easily sail where the ship was in danger of being + stranded, and, at the same time, might carry a sufficient force to + resist the enemy, and afford better accommodation than could be + expected in the boat. +</p> +<p> + To this end, on the 19th of December, they entered a bay near Cippo, a + town inhabited by Spaniards, who, discovering them, immediately issued + out, to the number of a hundred horsemen, with about two hundred naked + Indians running by their sides. The English, observing their approach, + retired to their boat, without any loss, except of one man, whom no + persuasions or entreaties could move to retire with the rest, and who, + therefore, was shot by the Spaniards, who, exulting at the victory, + commanded the Indians to draw the dead carcass from the rock on which + he fell, and, in the sight of the English, beheaded it, then cut off + the right hand, and tore out the heart, which they carried away, + having first commanded the Indians to shoot their arrows all over the + body. The arrows of the Indians were made of green wood, for the + immediate service of the day; the Spaniards, with the fear that always + harasses oppressors, forbidding them to have any weapons, when they do + not want their present assistance. +</p> +<p> + Leaving this place, they soon found a harbour more secure and + convenient, where they built their pinnace, in which Drake went to + seek his companions; but, finding the wind contrary, he was obliged to + return in two days. +</p> +<p> + Leaving this place soon after, they sailed along the coast in search + of fresh water, and landing at Turapaca, they found a Spaniard asleep, + with silver bars lying by him, to the value of three thousand ducats: + not all the insults which they had received from his countrymen could + provoke them to offer any violence to his person, and, therefore, they + carried away his treasure, without doing him any further harm. +</p> +<p> + Landing in another place, they found a Spaniard driving eight Peruvian + sheep, which are the beasts of burden in that country, each laden with + a hundred pounds weight of silver, which they seized, likewise, and + drove to their boats. +</p> +<p> + Further along the coast lay some Indian towns, from which the + inhabitants repaired to the ship, on floats made of sealskins, blown + full of wind, two of which they fasten together, and, sitting between + them, row with great swiftness, and carry considerable burdens. They + very readily traded for glass and such trifles, with which the old and + the young seemed equally delighted. +</p> +<p> + Arriving at Mormorena, on the 26th of January, Drake invited the + Spaniards to traffick with him, which they agreed to, and supplied him + with necessaries, selling to him, among other provisions, some of + those sheep which have been mentioned, whose bulk is equal to that of + a cow, and whose strength is such, that one of them can carry three + tall men upon his back; their necks are like a camel's, and their + heads like those of our sheep. They are the most useful animals of + this country, not only affording excellent fleeces and wholesome + flesh, but serving as carriages over rocks and mountains, where no + other beast can travel, for their foot is of a peculiar form, which + enables them to tread firm in the most steep and slippery places. +</p> +<p> + On all this coast, the whole soil is so impregnated with silver, that + five ounces may be separated from a hundred pound weight of common + earth. +</p> +<p> + Still coasting, in hopes of meeting their friends, they anchored, on + the 7th of February, before Aria, where they took two barks, with + about eight hundred pound weight of silver, and, pursuing their + course, seized another vessel, laden with linens. +</p> +<p> + On the 15th of February, 1578, they arrived at Lima, and entered the + harbour without resistance, though thirty ships were stationed there, + of which seventeen were equipped for their voyage, and many of them + are represented in the narrative as vessels of considerable force; so + that their security seems to have consisted, not in their strength, + but in their reputation, which had so intimidated the Spaniards, that + the sight of their own superiority could not rouse them to opposition. + Instances of such panick terrours are to be met with in other + relations; but as they are, for the most part, quickly dissipated by + reason and reflection, a wise commander will rarely found his hopes of + success on them; and, perhaps, on this occasion, the Spaniards + scarcely deserve a severer censure for their cowardice, than Drake for + his temerity. +</p> +<p> + In one of these ships they found fifteen hundred bars of silver; in + another a chest of money; and very rich lading in many of the rest, of + which the Spaniards tamely suffered them to carry the most valuable + part away, and would have permitted them no less peaceably to burn + their ships; but Drake never made war with a spirit of cruelty or + revenge, or carried hostilities further than was necessary for his own + advantage or defence. +</p> +<p> + They set sail the next morning towards Panama, in quest of the Caca + Fuego, a very rich ship, which had sailed fourteen days before, bound + thither from Lima, which they overtook, on the 1st of March, near cape + Francisco, and, boarding it, found not only a quantity of jewels, and + twelve chests of ryals of plate, but eighty pounds weight of gold, and + twenty-six tons of uncoined silver, with pieces of wrought plate to a + great value. In unlading this prize they spent six days, and then, + dismissing the Spaniards, Stood off to sea. +</p> +<p> + Being now sufficiently enriched, and having lost all hopes of finding + their associates, and, perhaps, beginning to be infected with that + desire of ease and pleasure, which is the natural consequence of + wealth obtained by dangers and fatigues, they began to consult about + their return home, and, in pursuance of Drake's advice, resolved first + to find out some convenient harbour, where they might supply + themselves with wood and water, and then endeavour to discover a + passage from the south sea into the Atlantick ocean; a discovery, + which would not only enable them to return home with less danger, and + in a shorter time, but would much facilitate the navigation in those + parts of the world. +</p> +<p> + For this purpose they had recourse to a port in the island of Caines, + where they met with fish, wood, and fresh water; and, in their course, + took a ship, laden with silk and linen, which was the last that they + met with on the coast of America. +</p> +<p> + But being desirous of storing themselves for a long course, they + touched, April the 15th, at Guatulco, a Spanish island, where they + supplied themselves with provisions, and seized a bushel of ryals of + silver. +</p> +<p> + From Guatulco, which lies in 15 deg. 40 min. they stood out to sea, + and, without approaching any land, sailed forward, till, on the night + following, the 3rd of June, being then in the latitude of thirty-eight + degrees, they were suddenly benumbed with such cold blasts, that they + were scarcely able to handle the ropes. This cold increased upon them, + as they proceeded, to such a degree, that the sailors were discouraged + from mounting upon the deck; nor were the effects of the climate to be + imputed to the warmth of the regions to which they had been lately + accustomed, for the ropes were stiff with frost, and the meat could + scarcely be conveyed warm to the table. +</p> +<p> + On June 17th, they came to anchor in 38 deg. 30 min. when they saw the + land naked, and the trees without leaves, and in a short time had + opportunities of observing, that the natives of that country were not + less sensible of the cold than themselves; for the next day came a man + rowing in his canoe towards the ship, and at a distance from it made a + long oration, with very extraordinary gesticulations, and great + appearance of vehemence, and, a little time afterwards, made a second + visit, in the same manner, and then returning a third time, he + presented them, after his harangue was finished, with a kind of crown + of black feathers, such as their kings wear upon their heads, and a + basket of rushes, filled with a particular herb, both which he + fastened to a short stick, and threw into the boat; nor could he be + prevailed upon to receive any thing in return, though pushed towards + him upon a board; only he took up a hat, which was flung into the + water. +</p> +<p> + Three days afterwards, their ship, having received some damage at sea, + was brought nearer to land, that the lading might be taken out. In + order to which, the English, who had now learned not too negligently + to commit their lives to the mercy of savage nations, raised a kind of + fortification with stones, and built their tents within it. All this + was not beheld by the inhabitants without the utmost astonishment, + which incited them to come down in crowds to the coast, with no other + view, as it appeared, than to worship the new divinities that had + condescended to touch upon their country. +</p> +<p> + Drake was far from countenancing their errours, or taking advantage of + their weakness, to injure or molest them; and, therefore, having + directed them to lay aside their bows and arrows, he presented them + with linen, and other necessaries, of which he showed them the use. + They then returned to their habitations, about three quarters of a + mile from the English camp, where they made such loud and violent + outcries, that they were heard by the English, who found that they + still persisted in their first notions, and were paying them their + kind of melancholy adoration. +</p> +<p> + Two days afterwards they perceived the approach of a far more numerous + company, who stopped at the top of a hill, which overlooked the + English settlement, while one of them made a long oration, at the end + of which all the assembly bowed their bodies, and pronounced the + syllable <i>oh</i>, with a solemn tone, as by way of confirmation of + what had been said by the orator. Then the men, laying down their + bows, and leaving the women and children on the top of the hill, came + down towards the tents, and seemed transported, in the highest degree, + at the kindness of the general, who received their gifts, and admitted + them to his presence. The women at a distance appeared seized with a + kind of phrensy, such as that of old among the pagans in some of their + religious ceremonies, and in honour, as it seemed, of their guests, + tore their cheeks and bosoms with their nails, and threw themselves + upon the stones with their naked bodies, till they were covered with + blood. +</p> +<p> + These cruel rites, and mistaken honours, were by no means agreeable to + Drake, whose predominant sentiments were notions of piety, and, + therefore, not to make that criminal in himself by his concurrence, + which, perhaps, ignorance might make guiltless in them, he ordered his + whole company to fall upon their knees, and, with their eyes lifted up + to heaven, that the savages might observe that their worship was + addressed to a being residing there, they all joined in praying that + this harmless and deluded people might be brought to the knowledge of + the true religion, and the doctrines of our blessed Saviour; after + which they sung psalms, a performance so pleasing to their wild + audience, that, in all their visits, they generally first accosted + them with a request that they would sing. They then returned all the + presents which they had received, and retired. +</p> +<p> + Three days after this, on June 25, 1579, our general received two + ambassadours from the hioh, or king of the country, who, intending to + visit the camp, required that some token might be sent him of + friendship and peace; this request was readily complied with, and soon + after came the king, attended by a guard of about a hundred tall men, + and preceded by an officer of state, who carried a sceptre made of + black wood, adorned with chains of a kind of bone or horn, which are + marks of the highest honour among them, and having two crowns, made as + before, with feathers fastened to it, with a bag of the same herb, + which was presented to Drake at his first arrival. +</p> +<p> + Behind him was the king himself, dressed in a coat of cony-skins, with + a caul, woven with feathers, upon his head, an ornament so much in + estimation there, that none but the domesticks of the king are allowed + to wear it; his attendants followed him, adorned nearly in the same + manner; and after them came the common people, with baskets plaited so + artificially that they held water, in which, by way of sacrifice, they + brought roots and fish. +</p> +<p> + Drake, not lulled into security, ranged his men in order of battle, + and waited their approach, who, coming nearer, stood still, while the + sceptre-bearer made an oration, at the conclusion of which they again + came forward to the foot of the hill, and then the sceptre-bearer + began a song, which he accompanied with a dance, in both which the men + joined, but the women danced without singing. +</p> +<p> + Drake now, distrusting them no longer, admitted them into his + fortification, where they continued their song and dance a short time; + and then both the king, and some others of the company, made long + harangues, in which it appeared, by the rest of their behaviour, that + they entreated him to accept of their country, and to take the + government of it into his own hands; for the king, with the apparent + concurrence of the rest, placed the crown upon his head, graced him + with the chains and other signs of authority, and saluted him with the + title of hioh. +</p> +<p> + The kingdom thus offered, though of no further value to him than as it + furnished him with present necessaries, Drake thought it not prudent + to refuse; and, therefore, took possession of it in the name of queen + Elizabeth, not without ardent wishes, that this acquisition might have + been of use to his native country, and that so mild and innocent a + people might have been united to the church of Christ. +</p> +<p> + The kingdom being thus consigned, and the grand affair at an end, the + common people left their king and his domesticks with Drake, and + dispersed themselves over the camp; and when they saw any one that + pleased them by his appearance more than the rest, they tore their + flesh, and vented their outcries as before, in token of reverence and + admiration. +</p> +<p> + They then proceeded to show them their wounds and diseases, in hopes + of a miraculous and instantaneous cure; to which the English, to + benefit and undeceive them at the same time, applied such remedies as + they used on the like occasions. +</p> +<p> + They were now grown confident and familiar, and came down to the camp + every day, repeating their ceremonies and sacrifices, till they were + more fully informed how disagreeable they were to those whose favour + they were so studious of obtaining: they then visited them without + adoration, indeed, but with a curiosity so ardent, that it left them + no leisure to provide the necessaries of life, with which the English + were, therefore, obliged to supply them. +</p> +<p> + They had then sufficient opportunity to remark the customs and + dispositions of these new allies, whom they found tractable and + benevolent, strong of body, far beyond the English, yet unfurnished + with weapons, either for assault or defence, their bows being too weak + for any thing but sport. Their dexterity in taking fish was such, + that, if they saw them so near the shore that they could come to them + without swimming, they never missed them. +</p> +<p> + The same curiosity that had brought them in such crowds to the shore, + now induced Drake, and some of his company, to travel up into the + country, which they found, at some distance from the coast, very + fruitful, filled with large deer, and abounding with a peculiar kind + of conies, smaller than ours, with tails like that of a rat, and paws + such as those of a mole; they have bags under their chin, in which + they carry provisions to their young. +</p> +<p> + The houses of the inhabitants are round holes dug in the ground, from + the brink of which they raise rafters, or piles, shelving towards the + middle, where they all meet, and are crammed together; they lie upon + rushes, with the fire in the midst, and let the smoke fly out at the + door. +</p> +<p> + The men are generally naked; but the women make a kind of petticoat of + bulrushes, which they comb like hemp, and throw the skin of a deer + over their shoulders. They are very modest, tractable, and obedient to + their husbands. +</p> +<p> + Such is the condition of this people; and not very different is, + perhaps, the state of the greatest part of mankind. Whether more + enlightened nations ought to look upon them with pity, as less happy + than themselves, some skepticks have made, very unnecessarily, a + difficulty of determining. More, they say, is lost by the perplexities + than gained by the instruction of science; we enlarge our vices with + our knowledge, and multiply our wants with our attainments, and the + happiness of life is better secured by the ignorance of vice, than by + the knowledge of virtue. +</p> +<p> + The fallacy by which such reasoners have imposed upon themselves, + seems to arise from the comparison which they make, not between two + men equally inclined to apply the means of happiness in their power to + the end for which providence conferred them, but furnished in unequal + proportions with the means of happiness, which is the true state of + savage and polished nations; but between two men, of which he to whom + providence has been most bountiful, destroys the blessings by + negligence or obstinate misuse; while the other, steady, diligent, and + virtuous, employs his abilities and conveniences to their proper end. + The question is not, whether a good Indian or bad Englishman be most + happy; but, which state is most desirable, supposing virtue and reason + the same in both. +</p> +<p> + Nor is this the only mistake which is generally admitted in this + controversy, for these reasoners frequently confound innocence with + the mere incapacity of guilt. He that never saw, or heard, or thought + of strong liquors, cannot be proposed as a pattern of sobriety. +</p> +<p> + This land was named, by Drake, Albion, from its white cliffs, in which + it bore some resemblance to his native country; and the whole history + of the resignation of it to the English was engraven on a piece of + brass, then nailed on a post, and fixed up before their departure, + which being now discovered by the people to be near at hand, they + could not forbear perpetual lamentations. When the English, on the + 23rd of July, weighed anchor, they saw them climbing to the tops of + hills, that they might keep them in sight, and observed fires lighted + up in many parts of the country, on which, as they supposed, + sacrifices were offered. +</p> +<p> + Near this harbour they touched at some islands, where they found great + numbers of seals; and, despairing now to find any passage through the + northern parts, he, after a general consultation, determined to steer + away to the Moluccas, and setting sail July 25th, he sailed for + sixty-eight days without sight of land; and, on September 30th, + arrived within view of some islands, situate about eight degrees + northward from the line, from whence the inhabitants resorted to them + in canoes, hollowed out of the solid trunk of a tree, and raised at + both ends so high above the water, that they seemed almost a + semicircle; they were burnished in such a manner that they shone like + ebony, and were kept steady by a piece of timber, fixed on each side + of them, with strong canes, that were fastened at one end to the boat, + and at the other to the end of the timber. +</p> +<p> + The first company that came brought fruits, potatoes, and other things + of no great value, with an appearance of traffick, and exchanged their + lading for other commodities, with great show of honesty and + friendship; but having, as they imagined, laid all suspicion asleep, + they soon sent another fleet of canoes, of which the crews behaved + with all the insolence of tyrants, and all the rapacity of thieves; + for, whatever was suffered to come into their hands, they seemed to + consider as their own, and would neither pay for it, nor restore it; + and, at length, finding the English resolved to admit them no longer, + they discharged a shower of stones from their boats, which insult + Drake prudently and generously returned, by ordering a piece of + ordnance to be fired without hurting them, at which they were so + terrified, that they leaped into the water, and hid themselves under + the canoes. +</p> +<p> + Having, for some time, but little wind, they did not arrive at the + Moluccas till the 3rd of November, and then, designing to touch at + Tidore, they were visited, as they sailed by a little island belonging + to the king of Ternate, by the viceroy of the place, who informed + them, that it would be more advantageous for them to have recourse to + his master, for supplies and assistance, than to the king of Ternate, + who was, in some degree, dependent on the Portuguese, and that he + would himself carry the news of their arrival, and prepare for their + reception. +</p> +<p> + Drake was, by the arguments of the viceroy, prevailed upon to alter + his resolution, and, on November 5, cast anchor before Ternate; and + scarce was he arrived, before the viceroy, with others of the chief + nobles, came out in three large boats, rowed by forty men on each + side, to conduct the ship into a safe harbour; and soon after the king + himself, having received a velvet cloak by a messenger from Drake, as + a token of peace, came with such a retinue and dignity of appearance, + as was not expected in those remote parts of the world. He was + received with discharges of cannons and every kind of musick, with + which he was so much delighted, that, desiring the musicians to come + down into the boat, he was towed along in it at the stern of the ship. +</p> +<p> + The king was of a graceful stature, and regal carriage, of a mild + aspect, and low voice; his attendants were dressed in white cotton or + calico, of whom some, whose age gave them a venerable appearance, + seemed his counsellors, and the rest officers or nobles; his guards + were not ignorant of firearms, but had not many among them, being + equipped, for the most part, with bows and darts. +</p> +<p> + The king, having spent some time in admiring the multitude of new + objects that presented themselves, retired as soon as the ship was + brought to anchor, and promised to return on the day following; and, + in the mean time, the inhabitants, having leave to traffick, brought + down provisions in great abundance. +</p> +<p> + At the time when the king was expected, his brother came on board, to + request of Drake that he would come to the castle, proposing to stay + himself as a hostage for his return. Drake refused to go, but sent + some gentlemen, detaining the king's brother in the mean time. +</p> +<p> + These gentlemen were received by another of the king's brothers, who + conducted them to the council-house, near the castle, in which they + were directed to walk: there they found threescore old men, privy + counsellors to the king, and on each side of the door without stood + four old men of foreign countries, who served as interpreters in + commerce. +</p> +<p> + In a short time the king came from the castle, dressed in cloth of + gold, with his hair woven into gold rings, a chain of gold upon his + neck, and on his hands rings very artificially set with diamonds and + jewels of great value; over his head was borne a rich canopy; and by + his chair of state, on which he sat down when he had entered the + house, stood a page with a fan set with sapphires, to moderate the + excess of the heat. Here he received the compliments of the English, + and then honourably dismissed them. +</p> +<p> + The castle, which they had some opportunity of observing, seemed of no + great force; it was built by the Portuguese, who, attempting to reduce + this kingdom into an absolute subjection, murdered the king, and + intended to pursue their scheme by the destruction of all his sons; + but the general abhorrence which cruelty and perfidy naturally excite, + armed all the nation against them, and procured their total expulsion + from all the dominions of Ternate, which, from that time, increasing + in power, continued to make new conquests, and to deprive them of + other acquisitions. +</p> +<p> + While they lay before Ternate, a gentleman came on board, attended by + his interpreter. He was dressed somewhat in the European manner, and + soon distinguished himself from the natives of Ternate, or any other + country that they had seen, by his civility and apprehension. Such a + visitant may easily be imagined to excite their curiosity, which he + gratified by informing them, that he was a native of China, of the + family of the king then reigning; and that being accused of a capital + crime, of which, though he was innocent, he had not evidence to clear + himself, he had petitioned the king that he might not be exposed to a + trial, but that his cause might be referred to divine providence, and + that he might be allowed to leave his country, with a prohibition + against returning, unless heaven, in attestation of his innocence, + should enable him to bring back to the king some intelligence that + might be to the honour and advantage of the empire of China. In search + of such information he had now spent three years, and had left Tidore + for the sake of conversing with the English general, from whom he + hoped to receive such accounts as would enable him to return with + honour and safety. +</p> +<p> + Drake willingly recounted all his adventures and observations, to + which the Chinese exile listened with the utmost attention and + delight, and, having fixed them in his mind, thanked God for the + knowledge he had gained. He then proposed to the English general to + conduct him to China, recounting, by way of invitation, the wealth, + extent, and felicity of that empire; but Drake could not be induced to + prolong his voyage. +</p> +<p> + He, therefore, set sail on the 9th of November, in quest of some + convenient harbour, in a desert island, to refit his ship, not being + willing, as it seems, to trust to the generosity of the king of + Ternate. Five days afterwards he found a very commodious harbour, in + an island overgrown with wood, where he repaired his vessel and + refreshed his men, without danger or interruption. +</p> +<p> + Leaving this place the 12th of December, they sailed towards the + Celebes; but, having a wind not very favourable, they were detained + among a multitude of islands, mingled with dangerous shallows, till + January 9, 1580. When they thought themselves clear, and were sailing + forward with a strong gale, they were, at the beginning of the night, + surprised in their course by a sudden shock, of which the cause was + easily discovered, for they were thrown upon a shoal, and, by the + speed of their course, fixed too fast for any hope of escaping. Here + even the intrepidity of Drake was shaken, and his dexterity baffled; + but his piety, however, remained still the same, and what he could not + now promise himself from his own ability, he hoped from the assistance + of providence. The pump was plied, and the ship found free from new + leaks. +</p> +<p> + The next attempt was to discover towards the sea some place where they + might fix their boat, and from thence drag the ship into deep water; + but, upon examination, it appeared that the rock, on which they had + struck, rose perpendicularly from the water, and that there was no + anchorage, nor any bottom to be found a boat's length from the ship. + But this discovery, with its consequences, was, by Drake, wisely + concealed from the common sailors, lest they should abandon themselves + to despair, for which there was indeed cause; there being no prospect + left, but that they must there sink with the ship, which must, + undoubtedly, be soon dashed to pieces, or perish in attempting to + reach the shore in their boat, or be cut in pieces by barbarians, if + they should arrive at land. +</p> +<p> + In the midst of this perplexity and distress, Drake directed that the + sacrament should be administered, and his men fortified with all the + consolation which religion affords; then persuaded them to lighten the + vessel, by throwing into the sea part of their lading, which was + cheerfully complied with, but without effect. At length, when their + hopes had forsaken them, and no new struggles could be made, they were + on a sudden relieved by a remission of the wind, which, having + hitherto blown strongly against the side of the ship which lay towards + the sea, held it upright against the rock; but when the blast + slackened, being then low water, the ship lying higher with that part + which rested on the rock than with the other, and being borne up no + longer by the wind, reeled into the deep water, to the surprise and + joy of Drake and his companions. +</p> +<p> + This was the greatest and most inextricable distress which they had + ever suffered, and made such an impression upon their minds, that, for + some time afterwards, they durst not adventure to spread their sails, + but went slowly forward with the utmost circumspection. +</p> +<p> + They thus continued their course without any observable occurrence, + till, on the 11th of March, they came to an anchor, before the island + of Java, and sending to the king a present of cloth and silks, + received from him, in return, a large quantity of provisions; and, the + day following, Drake went himself on shore, and entertained the king + with his musick, and obtained leave to store his ship with provisions. +</p> +<p> + The island is governed by a great number of petty kings, or raias, + subordinate to one chief; of these princes three came on board + together, a few days after their arrival; and having, upon their + return, recounted the wonders which they had seen, and the civility + with which they had been treated, incited others to satisfy their + curiosity in the same manner; and raia Donan, the chief king, came + himself to view the ship, with the warlike armaments and instruments + of navigation. +</p> +<p> + This intercourse of civilities somewhat retarded the business for + which they came; but, at length, they not only victualled their ship, + but cleansed the bottom, which, in the long course, was overgrown with + a kind of shellfish that impeded her passage. +</p> +<p> + Leaving Java, on March 26 they sailed homewards by the cape of Good + Hope, which they saw on June the 5th; on the 15th of August passed the + tropick; and on the 26th of September arrived at Plymouth, where they + found that, by passing through so many different climates, they had + lost a day in their account of time, it being Sunday by their journal, + but Monday by the general computation. +</p> +<p> + In this hazardous voyage they had spent two years, ten months, and + some odd days; but were recompensed for their toils by great riches, + and the universal applause of their countrymen. Drake afterwards + brought his ship up to Deptford, where queen Elizabeth visited him on + board his ship, and conferred the honour of knighthood upon him; an + honour, in that illustrious reign, not made cheap by prostitution, nor + even bestowed without uncommon merit. +</p> +<p> + It is not necessary to give an account, equally particular, of the + remaining part of his life, as he was no longer a private man, but + engaged in publick affairs, and associated in his expeditions with + other generals, whose attempts, and the success of them, are related + in the histories of those times. +</p> +<p> + In 1585, on the 12th of September, sir Francis Drake set sail from + Plymouth with a fleet of five-and-twenty ships and pinnaces, of which + himself was admiral, captain Martiu Forbisher, viceadmiral, and + captain Francis Knollis, rearadmiral; they were fitted out to cruise + upon the Spaniards; and having touched at the isle of Bayonne, and + plundered Vigo, put to sea again, and on the 16th of November arrived + before St. Jago, which they entered without resistance, and rested + there fourteen days, visiting, in the mean time, San Domingo, a town + within the land, which they found likewise deserted; and, carrying off + what they pleased of the produce of the island, they, at their + departure, destroyed the town and villages, in revenge of the murder + of one of their boys, whose body they found mangled in a most inhuman + manner. +</p> +<p> + From this island they pursued their voyage to the West Indies, + determining to attack St. Domingo in Hispaniola, as the richest place + in that part of the world; they, therefore, landed a thousand men, and + with small loss entered the town, of which they kept possession for a + month without interruption or alarm; during which time a remarkable + accident happened, which deserves to be related. +</p> +<p> + Drake, having some intention of treating with the Spaniards, sent to + them a negro boy with a flag of truce, which one of the Spaniards so + little regarded, that he stabbed him through the body with a lance. + The boy, notwithstanding his wound, came back to the general, related + the treatment which he had found, and died in his sight. Drake was so + incensed at this outrage, that he ordered two friars, then his + prisoners, to be conveyed with a guard to the place where the crime + was committed, and hanged up in the sight of the Spaniards, declaring + that two Spanish prisoners should undergo the same death every day, + till the offender should be delivered up by them: they were too well + acquainted with the character of Drake not to bring him on the day + following, when, to impress the shame of such actions more effectually + upon them, he compelled them to execute him with their own hands. Of + this town, at their departure, they demolished part, and admitted the + rest to be ransomed for five and twenty thousand ducats. +</p> +<p> + From thence they sailed to Carthagena, where the enemy having received + intelligence of the fate of St. Domingo, had strengthened their + fortifications, and prepared to defend themselves with great + obstinacy; but the English, landing in the night, came upon them by a + way which they did not suspect, and being better armed, partly by + surprise, and partly by superiority of order and valour, became + masters of the place, where they stayed without fear or danger six + weeks, and, at their departure, received a hundred and ten thousand + ducats, for the ransome of the town. +</p> +<p> + They afterwards took St. Augustin, and, touching at Virginia, took on + board the governour, Mr. Lane, with the English that had been left + there, the year before, by sir Walter Raleigh, and arrived at + Portsmouth on July 28, 1586, having lost in the voyage seven hundred + and fifty men. The gain of this expedition amounted to sixty thousand + pounds, of which forty were the share of the adventurers who fitted + out the ships, and the rest, distributed among the several crews, + amounted to six pounds each man. So cheaply is life sometimes + hazarded. +</p> +<p> + The transactions against the armada, 1588, are, in themselves, far + more memorable, but less necessary to be recited in this succinct + narrative; only let it be remembered, that the post of viceadmiral of + England, to which sir Francis Drake was then raised, is a sufficient + proof, that no obscurity of birth, or meanness of fortune, is + unsurmountable to bravery and diligence. +</p> +<p> + In 1595, sir Francis Drake and sir John Hawkins were sent with a fleet + to the West Indies, which expedition was only memorable for the + destruction of Nombre de Dios, and the death of the two commanders, of + whom sir Francis Drake died January 9, 1597, and was thrown into the + sea in a leaden coffin, with all the pomp of naval obsequies. It is + reported by some, that the ill success of this voyage hastened his + death. Upon what this conjecture is grounded does not appear; and we + may be allowed to hope, for the honour of so great a man, that it is + without foundation; and that he, whom no series of success could ever + betray to vanity or negligence, could have supported a change of + fortune without impatience or dejection. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_34"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + BARRETIER <a href="#note-45">[45]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Having not been able to procure materials for a complete life of Mr. + Barretier, and being, nevertheless, willing to gratify the curiosity + justly raised in the publick by his uncommon attainments, we think the + following extracts of letters written by his father, proper to be + inserted in our collection, as they contain many remarkable passages, + and exhibit a general view of his genius and learning. +</p> +<p> + John Philip Barretier was born at Schwabach, January 19, 1720-21. His + father was a calvinist minister of that place, who took upon himself + the care of his education. What arts of instruction he used, or by + what method he regulated the studies of his son, we are not able to + inform the publick; but take this opportunity of intreating those, who + have received more complete intelligence, not to deny mankind so great + a benefit as the improvement of education. If Mr. le Fêvre thought the + method in which he taught his children, worthy to be communicated to + the learned world, how justly may Mr. Barretier claim the universal + attention of mankind to a scheme of education that has produced such a + stupendous progress! The authors, who have endeavoured to teach + certain and unfailing rules for obtaining a long life, however they + have failed in their attempts, are universally confessed to have, at + least, the merit of a great and noble design, and to have deserved + gratitude and honour. How much more then is due to Mr. Barretier, who + has succeeded in what they have only attempted? for to prolong life, + and improve it, are nearly the same. If to have all that riches can + purchase, is to be rich; if to do all that can be done in a long time, + is to live long; he is equally a benefactor to mankind, who teaches + them to protract the duration, or shorten the business of life. +</p> +<p> + That there are few things more worthy our curiosity than this method, + by which the father assisted the genius of the son, every man will be + convinced, that considers the early proficiency at which it enabled + him to arrive; such a proficiency as no one has yet reached at the + same age, and to which it is, therefore, probable, that every + advantageous circumstance concurred. +</p> +<p> + <i>At the age of nine years he not only was master of five + languages</i>, an attainment in itself almost incredible, but + understood, says his father, the holy writers, better in their + original tongues, than in his own. If he means, by this assertion, + that he knew the sense of many passages in the original, which were + obscure in the translation, the account, however wonderful, may be + admitted; but if he intends to tell his correspondent, that his son + was better acquainted with the two languages of the Bible than with + his own, he must be allowed to speak hyperbolically, or to admit, that + his son had somewhat neglected the study of his native language; or we + must own, that the fondness of a parent has transported him into some + natural exaggerations. +</p> + +<p> + Part of this letter I am tempted to suppress, being unwilling to + demand the belief of others to that which appears incredible to + myself; but as my incredulity may, perhaps, be the product rather of + prejudice than reason, as envy may beget a disinclination to admit so + immense a superiority, and as an account is not to be immediately + censured as false, merely because it is wonderful, I shall proceed to + give the rest of his father's relation, from his letter of the 3rd of + March, 1729-30. He speaks, continues he, German, Latin, and French, + equally well. He can, by laying before him a translation, read any of + the books of the Old or New Testament, in its original language, + without hesitation or perplexity. <i>He is no stranger to biblical + criticism</i> or philosophy, nor unacquainted with ancient and modern + geography, and is qualified to support a conversation with learned + men, who frequently visit and correspond with him. +</p> +<p> + In his eleventh year, he not only published a learned letter in Latin, + but translated the travels of rabbi Benjamin from the Hebrew into + French, which he illustrated with notes, and accompanied with + dissertations; a work in which his father, as he himself declares, + could give him little assistance, as he did not understand the + rabbinical dialect. +</p> +<p> + The reason for which his father engaged him in this work, was only to + prevail upon him to write a fairer hand than he had hitherto + accustomed himself to do, by giving him hopes, that, if he should + translate some little author, and offer a fair copy of his version to + some bookseller, he might, in return for it, have other books which he + wanted and could not afford to purchase. +</p> +<p> + Incited by this expectation, he fixed upon the travels of rabbi + Benjamin, as most proper for his purpose, being a book neither bulky + nor common, and in one month completed his translation, applying only + one or two hours a day to that particular task. In another month, he + drew up the principal notes; and, in the third, wrote some + dissertations upon particular passages which seemed to require a + larger examination. +</p> +<p> + These notes contain so many curious remarks and inquiries, out of the + common road of learning, and afford so many instances of penetration, + judgment, and accuracy, that the reader finds, in every page, some + reason to persuade him that they cannot possibly be the work of a + child, but of a man long accustomed to these studies, enlightened by + reflection, and dextrous, by long practice, in the use of books. Yet, + that it is the performance of a boy thus young, is not only proved by + the testimony of his father, but by the concurrent evidence of Mr. le + Maître, his associate in the church of Schwabach, who not only asserts + his claim to this work, but affirms, that he heard him, at six years + of age, explain the Hebrew text, as if it had been his native + language; so that the fact is not to be doubted without, a degree of + incredulity, which it will not be very easy to defend. +</p> +<p> + This copy was, however, far from being written with the neatness which + his father desired; nor did the booksellers, to whom it was offered, + make proposals very agreeable to the expectations of the young + translator; but, after having examined the performance in their + manner, and determined to print it upon conditions not very + advantageous, returned it to be transcribed, that the printers might + not be embarrassed with a copy so difficult to read. +</p> +<p> + Barretier was now advanced to the latter end of his twelfth year, and + had made great advances in his studies, notwithstanding an obstinate + tumour in his left hand, which gave him great pain, and obliged him to + a tedious and troublesome method of cure; and reading over his + performance, was so far from contenting himself with barely + transcribing it, that he altered the greatest part of the notes, + new-modelled the dissertations, and augmented the book to twice its + former bulk. +</p> +<p> + The few touches which his father bestowed upon the revisal of the + book, though they are minutely set down by him in the preface, are so + inconsiderable, that it is not necessary to mention them; and it may + be much more agreeable, as well as useful, to exhibit the short + account which he there gives of the method by which he enabled his son + to show, so early, how easy an attainment is the knowledge of the + languages, a knowledge which some men spend their lives in + cultivating, to the neglect of more valuable studies, and which they + seem to regard as the highest perfection of human nature. +</p> +<p> + What applauses are due to an old age, wasted in a scrupulous attention + to particular accents and etymologies, may appear, says his father, by + seeing how little time is required to arrive at such an eminence in + these studies as many, even of these venerable doctors, have not + attained, for want of rational methods and regular application. +</p> +<p> + This censure is, doubtless, just, upon those who spend too much of + their lives upon useless niceties, or who appear to labour without + making any progress; but, as the knowledge of language is necessary, + and a minute accuracy sometimes requisite, they are by no means to be + blamed, who, in compliance with the particular bent of their own + minds, make the difficulties of dead languages their chief study, and + arrive at excellence proportionate to their application, since it was + to the labour of such men that his son was indebted for his own + learning. +</p> +<p> + The first languages which Barretier learned were the French, German, + and Latin, which he was taught, not in the common way, by a multitude + of definitions, rules, and exceptions, which fatigue the attention and + burden the memory, without any use proportionate to the time which + they require, and the disgust which they create. The method by which + he was instructed was easy and expeditious, and, therefore, pleasing. + He learned them all in the same manner, and almost at the same time, + by conversing in them indifferently with his father. +</p> +<p> + The other languages, of which he was master, he learned by a method + yet more uncommon. The only book which he made use of was the Bible, + which his father laid before him in the language that he then proposed + to learn, accompanied with a translation, being taught, by degrees, + the inflections of nouns and verbs. This method, says his father, made + the Latin more familiar to him, in his fourth year, than any other + language. +</p> +<p> + When he was near the end of his sixth year, he entered upon the study + of the Old Testament, in its original language, beginning with the + book of Genesis, to which his father confined him for six months; + after which he read cursorily over the rest of the historical books, + in which he found very little difficulty, and then applied himself to + the study of the poetical writers, and the prophets, which he read + over so often, with so close an attention, and so happy a memory, that + he could not only translate them, without a moment's hesitation, into + Latin or French, but turn, with the same facility, the translations + into the original language in his tenth year. +</p> +<p> + Growing, at length, weary of being confined to a book which he could + almost entirely repeat, he deviated, by stealth, into other studies, + and, as his translation of Benjamin is a sufficient evidence, he read + a multitude of writers, of various kinds. <i>In his twelfth year he + applied more particularly to the study of the fathers</i>, and + councils of the six first centuries, and began to make a regular + collection of their canons. He read every author in the original, + having discovered so much negligence or ignorance in most + translations, that he paid no regard to their authority. +</p> +<p> + Thus he continued his studies, neither drawn aside by pleasures nor + discouraged by difficulties. The greatest obstacle to his improvement + was want of books, with which his narrow fortune could not liberally + supply him; so that he was obliged to borrow the greatest part of + those which his studies required, and to return them when he had read + them, without being able to consult them occasionally, or to recur to + them when his memory should fail him. +</p> +<p> + It is observable, that neither his diligence, unintermitted as it was, + nor his want of books, a want of which he was, in the highest degree, + sensible, ever produced in him that asperity, which a long and recluse + life, without any circumstance of disquiet, frequently creates. He was + always gay, lively, and facetious; a temper which contributed much to + recommend his learning, and which some students, much superiour in + age, would consult their ease, their reputation, and their interest, + by copying from him. +</p> +<p> + In the year 1735 he published Anti-Artemonius; sive, initium evangelii + S. Joannis adversus Artemonium vindicatum; and attained such a degree + of reputation, that not only the publick, but <i>princes, who are + commonly the last</i> by whom merit is distinguished, began to + interest themselves in his success; for, the same year, the king of + Prussia, who had heard of his early advances in literature, on account + of a scheme for discovering the longitude, which had been sent to the + Royal society of Berlin, and which was transmitted afterwards by him + to Paris and London, engaged to take care of his fortune, having + received further proofs of his abilities at his own court. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Barretier, being promoted to the cure of the church of Stetin, was + obliged to travel with his son thither, from Schwabach, through + Leipsic and Berlin, a journey very agreeable to his son, as it would + furnish him with new opportunities of improving his knowledge, and + extending his acquaintance among men of letters. For this purpose they + stayed some time at Leipsic, and then travelled to Halle, where young + Barretier so distinguished himself in his conversation with the + professors of the university, that they offered him his degree of + doctor in philosophy, a dignity correspondent to that of master of + arts among us. Barretier drew up, that night, some positions in + philosophy, and the mathematicks, which he sent immediately to the + press, and defended, the next day, in a crowded auditory, with so much + wit, spirit, presence of thought, and strength of reason, that the + whole university was delighted and amazed; he was then admitted to his + degree, and attended by the whole concourse to his lodgings, with + compliments and acclamations. +</p> +<p> + His theses, or philosophical positions, which he printed in compliance + with the practice of that university, ran through several editions in + a few weeks, and no testimony of regard was wanting, that could + contribute to animate him in his progress. +</p> +<p> + When they arrived at Berlin, the king ordered him to be brought into + his presence, and was so much pleased with his conversation, that he + sent for him almost every day during his stay at Berlin; and diverted + himself with engaging him in conversations upon a multitude of + subjects, and in disputes with learned men; on all which occasions he + acquitted himself so happily, that the king formed the highest ideas + of his capacity, and future eminence. And thinking, perhaps with + reason, that active life was the noblest sphere of a great genius, he + recommended to him the study of modern history, the customs of + nations, and those parts of learning, that are of use in publick + transactions and civil employments, declaring, that such abilities, + properly cultivated, might exalt him, in ten years, to be the greatest + minister of state in Europe. +</p> +<p> + Barretier, whether we attribute it to his moderation or inexperience, + was not dazzled by the prospect of such high promotion, but answered, + that <i>he was too much pleased with science and quiet</i>, to leave + them for such inextricable studies, or such harassing fatigues. A + resolution so unpleasing to the king, that his father attributes to it + the delay of those favours which they had hopes of receiving, the king + having, as he observes, determined to employ him in the ministry. +</p> +<p> + It is not impossible that paternal affection might suggest to Mr. + Barretier some false conceptions of the king's design; for he infers, + from the introduction of his son to the young princes, and the + caresses which he received from them, that the king intended him for + their preceptor; a scheme, says he, which some other resolution + happily destroyed. +</p> +<p> + Whatever was originally intended, and by whatever means these + intentions were frustrated, Barretier, after having been treated with + the highest regard by the whole royal family, was dismissed with a + present of two hundred crowns; and his father, instead of being fixed + at Stetin, was made pastor of the French church at Halle; a place more + commodious for study, to which they retired; Barretier being first + admitted into the Royal society at Berlin, and recommended, by the + king, to the university at Halle. +</p> +<p> + <i>At Halle he continued his studies</i> with his usual application + and success, and, either by his own reflections, or the persuasions of + his father, was prevailed upon to give up his own inclinations to + those of the king, and direct his inquiries to those subjects that had + been recommended by him. +</p> +<p> + He continued to add new acquisitions to his learning, and to increase + his reputation by new performances, till, in the beginning of his + nineteenth year, his health began to decline, and his indisposition, + which, being not alarming or violent, was, perhaps, not at first + sufficiently regarded, increased by slow degrees for eighteen months, + during which he spent days among his books, and neither neglected his + studies, nor left his gaiety, till his distemper, ten days before his + death, deprived him of the use of his limbs: he then prepared himself + for his end, without fear or emotion, and, on the 5th of October, + 1740, resigned his soul into the hands of his saviour, with + <i>confidence and tranquillity</i>. +</p> + +<p> + In the Magazine for 1742 appeared the following +</p> +<p> + ADDITIONAL ACCOUNT of the LIFE OF JOHN PHILIP BARRETIER <a href="#note-46">[46]</a>. +</p> +<p> + "As the nature of our collections requires that our accounts of + remarkable persons and transactions should be early, our readers must + necessarily pardon us, if they are often not complete, and allow us to + be sufficiently studious of their satisfaction, if we correct our + errours, and supply our defects from subsequent intelligence, where + the importance of the subject merits an extraordinary attention, or + when we have any peculiar opportunities of procuring information. The + particulars here inserted we thought proper to annex, by way of note, + to the following passages, quoted from the magazine for December, + 1740, and for February, 1741." +</p> +<p> + P. 377. <i>At the age of nine years he not only was master of five + languages.</i> +</p> +<p> + French, which was the native language of his mother, was that which he + learned first, mixed, by living in Germany, with some words of the + language of the country. After some time, his father took care to + introduce, in his conversation with him, some words of Latin, in such + a manner that he might discover the meaning of them by the connexion + of the sentence, or the occasion on which they were used, without + discovering that he had any intention of instructing him, or that any + new attainment was proposed. +</p> +<p> + By this method of conversation, in which new words were every day + introduced, his ear had been somewhat accustomed to the inflections + and variations of the Latin tongue, he began to attempt to speak like + his father, and was in a short time drawn on, by imperceptible + degrees, to speak Latin, intermixed with other languages. +</p> +<p> + Thus, when he was but four years old, he spoke every day French to his + mother, Latin to his father, and high Dutch to the maid, without any + perplexity to himself, or any confusion of one language with another. +</p> +<p> + P. 377. <i>He is no stranger to biblical criticism.</i> +</p> +<p> + Having now gained such a degree of skill in the Hebrew language, as to + be able to compose in it, both in prose and verse, he was extremely + desirous of reading the rabbins; and having borrowed of the + neighbouring clergy, and the jews of Schwabach, all the books which + they could supply him, he prevailed on his father to buy him the great + rabbinical Bible, published at Amsterdam, in four tomes, folio, 1728, + and read it with that accuracy and attention which appears, by the + account of it written by him to his favourite M. le Maitre, inserted + in the beginning of the twenty-sixth volume of the Bibliothéque + germanique. +</p> +<p> + These writers were read by him, as other young persons peruse romances + or novels, only from a puerile desire of amusement; for he had so + little veneration for them, even while he studied them with most + eagerness, that he often diverted his parents with recounting their + fables and chimeras. +</p> +<p> + P. 381. <i>In his twelfth year he applied more particularly to the + study of the fathers.</i> +</p> +<p> + His father being somewhat uneasy to observe so much time spent by him + on rabbinical trifles, thought it necessary now to recall him to the + study of the Greek language, which he had of late neglected, but to + which he returned with so much ardour, that, in a short time, he was + able to read Greek with the same facility as French or Latin. +</p> +<p> + He then engaged in the perusal of the Greek fathers, and councils of + the first three or four centuries; and undertook, at his father's + desire, to confute a treatise of Samuel Crellius, in which, under the + name of Artemonius, he has endeavoured to substitute, in the beginning + of St. John's gospel, a reading different from that which is at + present received, and less favourable to the orthodox doctrine of the + divinity of our Saviour. +</p> +<p> + This task was undertaken by Barretier with great ardour, and + prosecuted by him with suitable application, for he not only drew up a + formal confutation of Artemonius, but made large collections from the + earliest writers, relating to the history of heresies, which he + proposed at first to have published as preliminaries to his book, but, + finding the introduction grew at last to a greater bulk than the book + itself, he determined to publish it apart. +</p> +<p> + While he was engrossed by these inquiries, accident threw a pair of + globes into his hands, in October, 1734, by which his curiosity was so + much exalted, that he laid aside his Artemonius, and applied himself + to geography and astronomy. In ten days he was able to solve all the + problems in the doctrine of the globes, and had attained ideas so + clear and strong of all the systems, as well ancient as modern, that + he began to think of making new discoveries; and for that purpose, + laying aside, for a time, all searches into antiquity, he employed his + utmost interest to procure books of astronomy and of mathematicks, and + made such a progress in three or four months, that he seemed to have + spent his whole life upon that study; for he not only made an + astrolabe, and drew up astronomical tables, but invented new methods + of calculation, or such at least as appeared new to him, because they + were not mentioned in the books which he had then an opportunity of + reading; and it is a sufficient proof, both of the rapidity of his + progress, and the extent of his views, that in three months after his + first sight of a pair of globes, he formed schemes for finding the + longitude, which he sent, in January, 1735, to the Royal society at + London. +</p> +<p> + His scheme, being recommended to the society by the queen, was + considered by them with a degree of attention which, perhaps, would + not have been bestowed upon the attempt of a mathematician so young, + had he not been dignified with so illustrious a patronage. But it was + soon found, that, for want of books, he had imagined himself the + inventor of methods already in common use, and that he proposed no + means of discovering the longitude, but such as had been already tried + and found insufficient. Such will be very frequently the fate of + those, whose fortune either condemns them to study without the + necessary assistance from libraries, or who, in too much haste, + publish their discoveries. +</p> +<p> + This attempt exhibited, however, such a specimen of his capacity for + mathematical learning, and such a proof of an early proficiency, that + the Royal society of Berlin admitted him as one of their members in +</p> +<center> + 1735. +</center> +<p> + P. 381. <i>Princes, who are commonly the last</i>. +</p> +<p> + Barretier, had been distinguished much more early by the margravin of + Anspach, who, in 1726, sent for his father and mother to the court, + where their son, whom they carried with them, presented her with a + letter in French, and addressed another in Latin to the young prince; + who afterwards, in 1734, granted him the privilege of borrowing books + from the libraries of Anspach, together with an annual pension of + fifty florins, which he enjoyed for four years. +</p> +<p> + In this place it may not be improper to recount some honours conferred + upon him, which, if distinctions are to be rated by the knowledge of + those who bestow them, may be considered as more valuable than those + which he received from princes. +</p> +<p> + In June, 1731, he was initiated in the university of Altdorft, and at + the end of the year 1732, the synod of the reformed churches, held at + Christian Erlang, admitted him to be present at their consultations, + and to preserve the memory of so extraordinary a transaction, as the + reception of a boy of eleven years into an ecclesiastical council, + recorded it in a particular article of the acts of the synod. +</p> +<p> + P. 383. <i>He was too much pleased with science and quiet</i>. +</p> +<p> + Astronomy was always Barretier's favourite study, and so much + engrossed his thoughts, that he did not willingly converse on any + other subject; nor was he so well pleased with the civilities of the + greatest persons, as with the conversation of the mathematicians. An + astronomical observation was sufficient to withhold him from court, or + to call him away abruptly from the most illustrious assemblies; nor + was there any hope of enjoying his company, without inviting some + professor to keep him in temper, and engage him in discourse; nor was + it possible, without this expedient, to prevail upon him to sit for + his picture. +</p> +<p> + Ibid. <i>At Halle he continued his studies.</i> +</p> +<p> + Mr. Barretier returned, on the 28th of April, 1735, to Halle, where he + continued the remaining part of his life, of which it may not be + improper to give a more particular account. +</p> +<p> + At his settlement in the university, he determined to exert his + privileges as master of arts, and to read publick lectures to the + students; a design from which his father could not dissuade him, + though he did not approve it; so certainly do honours or preferments, + too soon conferred, infatuate the greatest capacities. He published an + invitation to three lectures; one critical on the book of Job, another + on astronomy, and a third upon ancient ecclesiastical history. But of + this employment he was soon made weary by the petulance of his + auditors, the fatigue which it occasioned, and the interruption of his + studies which it produced, and, therefore, in a fortnight, he desisted + wholly from his lectures, and never afterwards resumed them. +</p> +<p> + He then applied himself to the study of the law, almost against his + own inclination, which, however, he conquered so far as to become a + regular attendant on the lectures on that science, but spent all his + other time upon different studies. +</p> +<p> + The first year of his residence at Halle was spent upon natural + philosophy and mathematicks; and scarcely any author, ancient or + modern, that has treated on those parts of learning was neglected by + him, nor was he satisfied with the knowledge of what had been + discovered by others, but made new observations, and drew up immense + calculations for his own use. +</p> +<p> + He then returned to ecclesiastical history, and began to retouch his + Account of Heresies, which he had begun at Schwabach: on this occasion + he read the primitive writers with great accuracy, and formed a + project of regulating the chronology of those ages; which produced a + Chrono-logical Dissertation on the succession of the Bishops of Rome, + from St. Peter to Victor, printed in Latin at Utrecht, 1740. +</p> +<p> + He afterwards was wholly absorbed in application to polite literature, + and read not only a multitude of writers in the Greek and Latin, but + in the German, Dutch, French, Italian, English, and Arabick languages, + and, in the last year of his life, he was engrossed by the study of + inscriptions, medals, and antiquities of all nations. +</p> +<p> + In 1737 he resumed his design of finding a certain method of + discovering the longitude, which he imagined himself to have attained + by exact observations of the declination and inclination of the + needle, and sent to the academy of sciences, and to the Royal society + of London, at the same time, an account of his schemes; to which it + was first answered by the Royal society, that it appeared the same + with one which Mr. Whiston had laid before them; and afterwards by the + academy of sciences, that his method was but very little different + from one that had been proposed by M. de la Croix, and which was + ingenious, but ineffectual. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Barretier, finding his invention already in the possession of two + men eminent for mathematical knowledge, desisted from all inquiries + after the longitude, and engaged in an examination of the Egyptian + antiquities, which he proposed to free from their present obscurity, + by deciphering the hieroglyphicks, and explaining their astronomy; but + this design was interrupted by his death. +</p> +<p> + P. 384. <i>Confidence and tranquillity</i>. +</p> +<p> + Thus died Barretier, in the 20th year of his age, having given a proof + how much may be performed in so short a time by indefatigable + diligence. He was not only master of many languages, but skilled + almost in every science, and capable of distinguishing himself in + every profession, except that of physick, from which he had been + discouraged by remarking the diversity of opinions among those who had + been consulted concerning his own disorders. +</p> +<p> + His learning, however vast, had not depressed or overburdened his + natural faculties, for his genius always appeared predominant; and + when he inquired into the various opinions of the writers of all ages, + he reasoned and determined for himself, having a mind at once + comprehensive and delicate, active and attentive. He was able to + reason with the metaphysicians on the most abstruse questions, or to + enliven the most unpleasing subjects by the gaiety of his fancy. He + wrote with great elegance and dignity of style, and had the peculiar + felicity of readiness and facility in every thing that he undertook, + being able, without premeditation, to translate one language into + another. He was no imitator, but struck out new tracks, and formed + original systems. He had a quickness of apprehension, and firmness of + memory, which enabled him to read with incredible rapidity, and, at + the same time, to retain what he read, so as to be able to recollect + and apply it. He turned over volumes in an instant, and selected what + was useful for his purpose. He seldom made extracts, except of books + which he could not procure when he might want them a second time, + being always able to find in any author, with great expedition, what + he had once read. He read over, in one winter, twenty vast folios; and + the catalogue of books which he had borrowed, comprised forty-one + pages in quarto, the writing close, and the titles abridged. He was a + constant reader of literary journals. +</p> +<p> + With regard to common life he had some peculiarities. He could not + bear musick, and if he was ever engaged at play could not attend to + it. He neither loved wine nor entertainments, nor dancing, nor the + sports of the field, nor relieved his studies with any other diversion + than that of walking and conversation. He eat little flesh, and lived + almost wholly upon milk, tea, bread, fruits, and sweetmeats. +</p> +<p> + He had great vivacity in his imagination, and ardour in his desires, + which the easy method of his education had never repressed; he, + therefore, conversed among those who had gained his confidence with + great freedom, but his favourites were not numerous, and to others he + was always reserved and silent, without the least inclination to + discover his sentiments, or display his learning. He never fixed his + choice upon any employment, nor confined his views to any profession, + being desirous of nothing but knowledge, and entirely untainted with + avarice or ambition. He preserved himself always independent, and was + never known to be guilty of a lie. His constant application to + learning suppressed those passions which betray others of his age to + irregularities, and excluded all those temptations to which men are + exposed by idleness or common amusements. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_37"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + MORIN <a href="#note-47">[47]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Lewis Morin was born at Mans, on the 11th of July, 1635, of parents + eminent for their piety. He was the eldest of sixteen children; a + family to which their estate bore no proportion, and which, in persons + less resigned to providence, would have caused great uneasiness and + anxiety. +</p> +<p> + His parents omitted nothing in his education, which religion requires, + and which their fortune could supply. Botany was the study that + appeared to have taken possession of his inclination, as soon as the + bent of his genius could be discovered. A countryman, who supplied the + apothecaries of the place, was his first master, and was paid by him + for his instructions with the little money that he could procure, or + that which was given him to buy something to eat after dinner. Thus + abstinence and generosity discovered themselves with his passion for + botany, and the gratification of a desire indifferent in itself, was + procured by the exercise of two virtues. +</p> +<p> + He was soon master of all his instructer's knowledge, and was obliged + to enlarge his acquaintance with plants, by observing them himself in + the neighbourhood of Mans. Having finished his grammatical studies, he + was sent to learn philosophy at Paris, whither he travelled on foot + like a student in botany, and was careful not to lose such an + opportunity of improvement. +</p> +<p> + When his course of philosophy was completed, he was determined, by his + love of botany, to the profession of physick, and, from that time, + engaged in a course of life, which was never exceeded, either by the + ostentation of a philosopher, or the severity of an anchoret; for he + confined himself to bread and water, and, at most, allowed himself no + indulgence beyond fruits. By this method, he preserved a constant + freedom and serenity of spirits, always equally proper for study; for + his soul had no pretences to complain of being overwhelmed with + matter. This regimen, extraordinary as it was, had many advantages; + for it preserved his health, an advantage which very few sufficiently + regard; it gave him an authority to preach diet and abstinence to his + patients; and it made him rich without the assistance of fortune; + rich, not for himself, but for the poor, who were the only persons + benefited by that artificial affluence, which, of all others, is most + difficult to acquire. It is easy to imagine, that, while he practised + in the midst of Paris the severe temperance of a hermit, Paris + differed no otherwise, with regard to him, from a hermitage, than as + it supplied him with books and the conversation of learned men. +</p> +<p> + In 1662, he was admitted doctor of physick. About that time Dr. Fagon, + Dr. Longuet, and Dr. Galois, all eminent for their skill in botany, + were employed in drawing up a catalogue of the plants in the Royal + garden, which was published in 1665, under the name of Dr. Vallot, + then first physician: during the prosecution of this work, Dr. Morin + was often consulted, and from those conversations it was that Dr. + Fagon conceived a particular esteem of him, which he always continued + to retain. +</p> +<p> + After having practised physick some years, he was admitted + <i>expectant</i> at the Hôtel-Dieu, where he was regularly to have + been made pensionary physician upon the first vacancy; but mere + unassisted merit advances slowly, if, what is not very common, it + advances at all. Morin had no acquaintance with the arts necessary to + carry on schemes of preferment; the moderation of his desires + preserved him from the necessity of studying them, and the privacy of + his life debarred him from any opportunity. At last, however, justice + was done him, in spite of artifice and partiality; but his advancement + added nothing to his condition, except the power of more extensive + charity; for all the money which he received, as a salary, he put into + the chest of the hospital, always, as he imagined, without being + observed. Not content with serving the poor for nothing, he paid them + for being served. +</p> +<p> + His reputation rose so high in Paris, that mademoiselle de Guise was + desirous to make him her physician; but it was not without difficulty + that he was prevailed upon by his friend, Dr. Dodart, to accept the + place. He was by this new advancement laid under the necessity of + keeping a chariot, an equipage very unsuitable to his temper; but + while he complied with those exterior appearances, which the publick + had a right to demand from him, he remitted nothing of his former + austerity, in the more private and essential parts of his life, which + he had always the power of regulating according to his own + disposition. +</p> +<p> + In two years and a half the princess fell sick, and was despaired of + by Morin, who was a great master of prognosticks. At the time when she + thought herself in no danger he pronounced her death inevitable; a + declaration to the highest degree disagreeable, but which was made + more easy to him than to any other, by his piety and artless + simplicity. Nor did his sincerity produce any ill consequences to + himself; for the princess, affected by his zeal, taking a ring from + her finger, gave it him, as the last pledge of her affection, and + rewarded him still more to his satisfaction, by preparing for death + with a true Christian piety. She left him, by will, a yearly pension + of two thousand livres, which was always regularly paid him. +</p> +<p> + No sooner was the princess dead, but he freed himself from the + encumbrance of his chariot, and retired to St. Victor, without a + servant; having, however, augmented his daily allowance with a little + rice, boiled in water. Dodart, who had undertaken the charge of being + ambitious on his account, procured him, at the restoration of the + academy, in 1699, to be nominated associate botanist; not knowing, + what he would doubtless have been pleased with the knowledge of, that + he introduced into that assembly the man that was to succeed him in + his place of <i>pensionary</i>. +</p> +<p> + Dr. Morin was not one who had upon his hands the labour of adapting + himself to the duties of his condition, but always found himself + naturally adapted to them. He had, therefore, no difficulty in being + constant at the assemblies of the academy, notwithstanding the + distance of places, while he had strength enough to support the + journey. But his regimen was not equally effectual to produce vigour + as to prevent distempers; and, being sixty-four years old at his + admission, he could not continue his assiduity more than a year after + the death of Dodart, whom he succeeded in 1707. +</p> +<p> + When Mr. Tournefort went to pursue his botanical inquiries in the + Levant, he desired Dr. Morin to supply his place of demonstrator of + the plants in the Royal garden, and rewarded him for the trouble, by + inscribing to him a new plant, which he brought from the east, by the + name of Morina orientalis, as he named others the Do-darto, the + Fagonne, the Bignonne, the Phelipée. These are compliments proper to + be made by the botanists, not only to those of their own rank, but to + the greatest persons; for a plant is a monument of a more durable + nature than a medal or an obelisk; and yet, as a proof that even these + vehicles are not always sufficient to transmit to futurity the name + conjoined with them, the Nicotiana is now scarcely known by any other + name than that of tobacco. +</p> +<p> + Dr. Morin, advancing far in age, was now forced to take a servant, + and, what was yet a more essential alteration, prevailed upon himself + to take an ounce of wine a day, which he measured with the same + exactness as a medicine bordering upon poison. He quitted, at the same + time, all his practice in the city, and confined it to the poor of his + neighbourhood, and his visits to the Hôtel-Dieu; but his weakness + increasing, he was forced to increase his quantity of wine, which yet + he always continued to adjust by weight <a href="#note-48">[48]</a>. +</p> +<p> + At seventy-eight his legs could carry him no longer, and he scarcely + left his bed; but his intellects continued unimpaired, except in the + last six months of his life. He expired, or, to use a more proper + term, went out, on the 1st of March, 1714, at the age of eighty years, + without any distemper, and merely for want of strength, having + enjoyed, by the benefit of his regimen, a long and healthy life, and a + gentle and easy death. +</p> +<p> + This extraordinary regimen was but part of the daily regulation of his + life, of which all the offices were carried on with a regularity and + exactness nearly approaching to that of the planetary motions. +</p> +<p> + He went to bed at seven, and rose at two, throughout the year. He + spent, in the morning, three hours at his devotions, and went to the + Hôtel-Dieu, in the summer, between five and six, and, in the winter, + between six and seven, hearing mass, for the most part, at Notre Dame. + After his return he read the holy scripture, dined at eleven, and, + when it was fair weather, walked till two in the Royal garden, where + he examined the new plants, and gratified his earliest and strongest + passion. For the remaining part of the day, if he had no poor to + visit, he shut himself up, and read books of literature or physick, + but chiefly physick, as the duty of his profession required. This, + likewise, was the time he received visits, if any were paid him. He + often used this expression: "Those that come to see me, do me honour; + those that stay away, do me a favour." It is easy to conceive, that a + man of this temper was not crowded with salutations: there was only + now and then an Antony that would pay Paul a visit. +</p> +<p> + Among his papers was found a Greek and Latin index to Hippocrates, + more copious and exact than that of Pini, which he had finished only a + year before his death. Such a work required the assiduity and patience + of a hermit <a href="#note-49">[49]</a>. There is, likewise, a journal of the weather, kept + without interruption, for more than forty years, in which he has + accurately set down the state of the barometer and thermometer, the + dryness and moisture of the air, the variations of the wind in the + course of the day, the rain, the thunders, and even the sudden storms, + in a very commodious and concise method, which exhibits, in a little + room, a great train of different observations. What numbers of such + remarks had escaped a man less uniform in his life, and whose + attention had been extended to common objects! +</p> +<p> + All the estate which he left is a collection of medals, another of + herbs, and a library rated at two thousand crowns; which make it + evident that he spent much more upon his mind than upon his body. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_38"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + BURMAN <a href="#note-50">[50]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Peter Burman was born at Utrecht, on the 26th day of June, 1668. The + family from which he descended has, for several generations, produced + men of great eminence for piety and learning; and his father, who was + professor of divinity in the university, and pastor of the city of + Utrech't, was equally celebrated for the strictness of his life, the + efficacy and orthodoxy of his sermons, and the learning and + perspicuity of his academical lectures. +</p> +<p> + From the assistance and instruction which such a father would + doubtless have been encouraged by the genius of this son not to have + omitted, he was unhappily cut off at eleven years of age, being at + that time, by his father's death, thrown entirely under the care of + his mother, by whose diligence, piety, and prudence, his education was + so regulated, that he had scarcely any reason, but filial tenderness, + to regret the loss of his father. +</p> +<p> + He was, about this time, sent to the publick school of Utrecht, to be + instructed in the learned languages; and it will convey no common idea + of his capacity and industry to relate, that he had passed through the + classes, and was admitted into the university in his thirteenth year. +</p> +<p> + This account of the rapidity of his progress in the first part of his + studies is so stupendous, that, though it is attested by his friend, + Dr. Osterdyke, of whom it cannot be reasonably suspected that he is + himself deceived, or that he can desire to deceive others, it must be + allowed far to exceed the limits of probability, if it be considered, + with regard to the methods of education practised in our country, + where it is not uncommon for the highest genius, and most + comprehensive capacity, to be entangled for ten years, in those thorny + paths of literature, which Burman is represented to have passed in + less than two; and we must, doubtless, confess the most skilful of our + masters much excelled by the address of the Dutch teachers, or the + abilities of our greatest scholars far surpassed by those of Burinan. +</p> +<p> + But, to reduce this narrative to credibility, it is necessary that + admiration should give place to inquiry, and that it be discovered + what proficiency in literature is expected from a student, requesting + to be admitted into a Dutch university. It is to be observed, that in + the universities of foreign countries, they have professors of + philology, or humanity, whose employment is to instruct the younger + classes in grammar, rhetorick, and languages; nor do they engage in + the study of philosophy, till they have passed through a course of + philological lectures and exercises, to which, in some places, two + years are commonly allotted. +</p> +<p> + The English scheme of education, which, with regard to academical + studies, is more rigorous, and sets literary honours at a higher price + than that of any other country, exacts from the youth, who are + initiated in our colleges, a degree of philological knowledge + sufficient to qualify them for lectures in philosophy, which are read + to them in Latin, and to enable them to proceed in other studies + without assistance; so that it may be conjectured, that Burman, at his + entrance into the university, had no such skill in languages, nor such + ability of composition, as are frequently to be met with in the higher + classes of an English school; nor was, perhaps, more than moderately + skilled in Latin, and taught the first rudiments of Greek. +</p> +<p> + In the university he was committed to the care of the learned Grævius, + whose regard for his father inclined him to superintend his studies + with more than common attention, which was soon confirmed and + increased by his discoveries of the genius of his pupil, and his + observation of his diligence. +</p> +<p> + One of the qualities which contributed eminently to qualify Grævius + for an instructor of youth, was the sagacity by which he readily + discovered the predominant faculty of each pupil, and the peculiar + designation by which nature had allotted him to any species of + literature, and by which he was soon able to determine, that Burman + was remarkably adapted to classical studies, and predict the great + advances that he would make, by industriously pursuing the direction + of his genius. +</p> +<p> + Animated by the encouragement of a tutor so celebrated, he continued + the vigour of his application, and, for several years, not only + attended the lectures of Grævius, but made use of every other + opportunity of improvement, with such diligence as might justly be + expected to produce an uncommon proficiency. +</p> +<p> + Having thus attained a sufficient degree of classical knowledge to + qualify him for inquiries into other sciences, he applied himself to + the study of the law, and published a dissertation, de Vicesima + Hæreditatum, which he publickly defended, under the professor Van + Muyden, with such learning and eloquence, as procured him great + applause. +</p> +<p> + Imagining, then, that the conversation of other men of learning might + be of use towards his further improvement, and rightly judging that + notions formed in any single seminary are, for the greatest part, + contracted and partial, he went to Leyden, where he studied philosophy + for a year, under M. de Volder, whose celebrity was so great, that the + schools assigned to the sciences, which it was his province to teach, + were not sufficient, though very spacious, to contain the audience + that crowded his lectures from all parts of Europe. +</p> +<p> + Yet he did not suffer himself to be engrossed by philosophical + disquisitions, to the neglect of those studies in which he was more + early engaged, and to which he was, perhaps, by nature better adapted; + for he attended at the same time Ryckius's explanations of Tacitus, + and James Gronovius's lectures on the Greek writers, and has often + been heard to acknowledge, at an advanced age, the assistance which he + received from them. +</p> +<p> + Having thus passed a year at Leyden with great advantage, he returned + to Utrecht, and once more applied himself to philological studies, by + the assistance of Grævius, whose early hopes of his genius were now + raised to a full confidence of that excellence, at which he afterwards + arrived. +</p> +<p> + At Utrecht, in March, 1688, in the twentieth year of his age, he was + advanced to the degree of doctor of laws; on which occasion he + published a learned dissertation, de Transactionibus, and defended it + with his usual eloquence, learning, and success. +</p> +<p> + The attainment of this honour was far from having upon Burman that + effect which has been too often observed to be produced in others, + who, having in their own opinion no higher object of ambition, have + relapsed into idleness and security, and spent the rest of their lives + in a lazy enjoyment of their academical dignities. Burman aspired to + further improvements, and, not satisfied with the opportunities of + literary conversation which Utrecht afforded, travelled into + Switzerland and Germany, where he gained an increase both of fame and + learning. +</p> +<p> + At his return from this excursion, he engaged in the practice of the + law, and pleaded several causes with such reputation, as might be + hoped by a man who had joined to his knowledge of the law, the + embellishments of polite literature, and the strict ratiocination of + true philosophy; and who was able to employ, on every occasion, the + graces of eloquence and the power of argumentation. +</p> +<p> + While Burman was hastening to high reputation in the courts of + justice, and to those riches and honours which always follow it, he + was summoned, in 1691, by the magistrates of Utrecht, to undertake the + charge of collector of the tenths, an office, in that place, of great + honour, and which he accepted, therefore, as a proof of their + confidence and esteem. +</p> +<p> + While he was engaged in this employment, he married Eve Clotterboke, a + young lady of a good family, and uncommon genius and beauty, by whom + he had ten children, of which eight died young; and only two sons, + Francis and Caspar, lived to console their mother for their father's + death. +</p> +<p> + Neither publick business nor domestick cares detained Burman from the + prosecution of his literary inquiries; by which he so much endeared + himself to Grævius, that he Was recommended by him to the regard of + the university of Utrecht, and, accordingly, in 1696, was chosen + professor of eloquence and history, to which was added, after some + time, the professorship of the Greek language, and afterwards that of + politicks; so various did they conceive his abilities, and so + extensive his knowledge. +</p> +<p> + At his entrance upon this new province, he pronounced an oration upon + eloquence and poetry. +</p> +<p> + Having now more frequent opportunities of displaying his learning, he + arose, in a short time, to a high reputation, of which the great + number of his auditors was a sufficient proof, and which the + proficiency of his pupils showed not to be accidental or undeserved. +</p> +<p> + In 1714, he formed a resolution of visiting Paris, not only for the + sake of conferring, in person, upon questions of literature, with the + learned men of that place, and of gratifying his curiosity with a more + familiar knowledge of those writers whose works he admired, but with a + view more important, of visiting the libraries, and making those + inquiries which might be of advantage to his darling study. +</p> +<p> + The vacation of the university allowed him to stay at Paris but six + weeks, which he employed with so much dexterity and industry, that he + had searched the principal libraries, collated a great number of + manuscripts and printed copies, and brought back a great treasure of + curious observations. +</p> +<p> + In this visit to Paris he contracted an acquaintance, among other + learned men, with the celebrated father Montfaucon; with whom he + conversed, at his first interview, with no other character but that of + a traveller; but, their discourse turning upon ancient learning, the + stranger soon gave such proofs of his attainments, that Montfaucon + declared him a very uncommon traveller, and confessed his curiosity to + know his name; which he no sooner heard, than he rose from his seat, + and, embracing him with the utmost ardour, expressed his satisfaction + at having seen the man whose productions of various kinds he had so + often praised; and, as a real proof of his regard, offered not only to + procure him an immediate admission to all the libraries of Paris, but + to those in remoter provinces, which are not generally open to + strangers, and undertook to ease the expenses of his journey, by + procuring him entertainment in all the monasteries of his order. +</p> +<p> + This favour Burman was hindered from accepting, by the necessity of + returning to Utrecht at the usual time of beginning a new course of + lectures, to which there was always so great a concourse of students, + as much increased the dignity and fame of the university in which he + taught. +</p> +<p> + He had already extended to distant parts his reputation for knowledge + of ancient history, by a treatise, de Vectigalibus Populi Romani, on + the revenues of the Romans; and for his skill in Greek learning, and + in ancient coins, by a tract called Jupiter Fulgurator; and after his + return from Paris, he published Plædrus, first with the notes of + various commentators, and afterwards with his own. He printed many + poems, made many orations upon different subjects, and procured an + impression of the epistles of Gudius and Sanavius. +</p> +<p> + While he was thus employed, the professorships of history, eloquence, + and the Greek language, became vacant at Leyden, by the death of + Perizonius, which Burman's reputation incited the curators of the + university to offer him upon very generous terms, and which, after + some struggles with his fondness for his native place, his friends, + and his colleagues, he was prevailed on to accept, finding the + solicitations from Leyden warm and urgent, and his friends at Utrecht, + though unwilling to be deprived of him, yet not zealous enough for the + honour and advantage of their university, to endeavour to detain him + by great liberality. +</p> +<p> + At his entrance upon this new professorship, which was conferred upon + him in 1715, he pronounced an oration upon the duty and office of a + professor of polite literature; de publici humanioris disciplinæ + professoris proprio officio et munere; and showed, by the usefulness + and perspicuity of his lectures, that he was not confined to + speculative notions on that subject, having a very happy method of + accommodating his instructions to the different abilities and + attainments of his pupils. +</p> +<p> + Nor did he suffer the publick duties of this station to hinder him + from promoting learning by labours of a different kind; for, besides + many poems and orations, which he recited on different occasions, he + wrote several prefaces to the works of others, and published many + useful editions of the best Latin writers, with large collections of + notes from various commentators. +</p> +<p> + He was twice rector, or chief governour of the university, and + discharged that important office with equal equity and ability, and + gained, by his conduct in every station, so much esteem, that when the + professorship of history of the United Provinces became vacant, it was + conferred on him, as an addition to his honours and revenues, which he + might justly claim; and afterwards, as a proof of the continuance of + their regard, and a testimony that his reputation was still + increasing, they made him chief librarian, an office which was the + more acceptable to him, as it united his business with his pleasure, + and gave him an opportunity, at the same time, of superintending the + library, and carrying on his studies. +</p> +<p> + Such was the course of his life, till, in his old age, leaving off his + practice of walking, and other exercises, he began to be afflicted + with the scurvy, which discovered itself by very tormenting symptoms + of various kinds; sometimes disturbing his head with vertigos, + sometimes causing faintness in his limbs, and sometimes attacking his + legs with anguish so excruciating, that all his vigour was destroyed, + and the power of walking entirely taken away, till, at length, his + left foot became motionless. The violence of his pain produced + irregular fevers, deprived him of rest, and entirely debilitated his + whole frame. +</p> +<p> + This tormenting disease he bore, though not without some degree of + impatience, yet without any unbecoming or irrational despondency, and + applied himself in the intermission of his pains to seek for comfort + in the duties of religion. +</p> +<p> + While he lay in this state of misery he received an account of the + promotion of two of his grandsons, and a catalogue of the king of + France's library, presented to him by the command of the king himself, + and expressed some satisfaction on all these occasions; but soon + diverted his thoughts to the more important consideration of his + eternal state, into which he passed on the 31st of March, 1741, in the + seventy-third year of his age. +</p> +<p> + He was a man of moderate stature, of great strength and activity, + which he preserved by temperate diet, without medical exactness, and + by allotting proportions of his time to relaxation and amusement, not + suffering his studies to exhaust his strength, but relieving them by + frequent intermissions; a practice consistent with the most exemplary + diligence, and which he that omits will find at last, that time may be + lost, like money, by unseasonable avarice. +</p> +<p> + In his hours of relaxation he was gay, and sometimes gave way so far + to his temper, naturally satirical, that he drew upon himself the + ill-will of those who had been unfortunately the subjects of his + mirth; but enemies so provoked, he thought it beneath him to regard or + to pacify; for he was fiery, but not malicious, disdained + dissimulation, and in his gay or serious hours, preserved a settled + detestation of falsehood. So that he was an open and undisguised + friend or enemy, entirely unacquainted with the artifices of + flatterers, but so judicious in the choice of friends, and so constant + in his affection to them, that those with whom he had contracted + familiarity in his youth, had, for the greatest part, his confidence + in his old age. +</p> +<p> + His abilities, which would probably have enabled him to have excelled + in any kind of learning, were chiefly employed, as his station + required, on polite literature, in which he arrived at very uncommon + knowledge; which, however, appears rather from judicious compilations, + than original productions. His style is lively and masculine, but not + without harshness and constraint, nor, perhaps, always polished to + that purity, which some writers have attained. He was at least + instrumental to the instruction of mankind, by the publication of many + valuable performances, which lay neglected by the greatest part of the + learned world; and, if reputation be estimated by usefulness, he may + claim a higher degree in the ranks of learning, than some others of + happier elocution, or more vigorous imagination. +</p> +<p> + The malice or suspicion of those who either did not know, or did not + love him, had given rise to some doubts about his religion, which he + took an opportunity of removing on his death-bed, by a voluntary + declaration of his faith, his hope of everlasting salvation from the + revealed promises of God, and his confidence in the merits of our + Redeemer, of the sincerity of which declaration his whole behaviour in + his long illness was an incontestable proof; and he concluded his + life, which had been illustrious for many virtues, by exhibiting an + example of true piety. +</p> +<p> + Of his works we have not been able to procure a complete catalogue: he + published, Quintilianus, 2 vols. 4to; Valerius Flaccus; Ovidius, 4 + vols. 4to; Poetæ Latini Minores, 2 vols. 4to; cum notis variorum. + Buchanani Opera, 2 vols. 4to <a href="#note-51">[51]</a>. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_39"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + SYDENHAM <a href="#note-52">[52]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Thomas Sydenham was born in the year 1624, at Windford Eagle, in + Dorsetshire, where his father, William Sydenham, esq. had a large + fortune. Under whose care he was educated, or in what manner he passed + his childhood, whether he made any early discoveries of a genius + peculiarly adapted to the study of nature, or gave any presages of his + future eminence in medicine, no information is to be obtained. We + must, therefore, repress that curiosity, which would naturally incline + us to watch the first attempts of so vigorous a mind, to pursue it in + its childish inquiries, and see it struggling with rustick prejudices, + breaking, on trifling occasions, the shackles of credulity, and giving + proofs, in its casual excursions, that it was formed to shake off the + yoke of prescription, and dispel the phantoms of hypothesis. +</p> +<p> + That the strength of Sydenham's understanding, the accuracy of his + discernment, and ardour of his curiosity, might have been remarked + from his infancy by a diligent observer, there is no reason to doubt; + for there is no instance of any man, whose history has been minutely + related, that did not, in every part of life, discover the same + proportion of intellectual vigour; but it has been the lot of the + greatest part of those who have excelled in science, to be known only + by their own writings, and to have left behind them no remembrance of + their domestick life, or private transactions, or only such memorials + of particular passages as are, on certain occasions, necessarily + recorded in publick registers. +</p> +<p> + From these it is discovered, that, at the age of eighteen, in 1642, he + commenced a commoner of Magdalen hall, in Oxford, where it is not + probable that he continued long; for he informs us himself, that he + was withheld from the university by the commencement of the war; nor + is it known in what state of life he engaged, or where he resided + during that long series of publick commotion. It is, indeed, reported, + that he had a commission in the king's army, but no particular account + is given of his military conduct; nor are we told what rank he + obtained, when he entered into the army, or when, or on what occasion, + he retired from it. +</p> +<p> + It is, however, certain, that if ever he took upon him the profession + of arms, he spent but few years in the camp; for, in 1648, he + obtained, at Oxford, the degree of bachelor of physick, for which, as + some medicinal knowledge is necessary, it may be imagined that he + spent some time in qualifying himself. +</p> +<p> + His application to the study of physick was, as he himself relates, + produced by an accidental acquaintance with Dr. Cox, a physician, + eminent at that time in London, who in some sickness prescribed to his + brother, and attending him frequently on that occasion, inquired of + him what profession he designed to follow. The young man answering + that he was undetermined, the doctor recommended physick to him, on + what account, or with what arguments, it is not related; but his + persuasions were so effectual, that Sydenham determined to follow his + advice, and retired to Oxford for leisure and opportunity to pursue + his studies. +</p> +<p> + It is evident that this conversation must have happened before his + promotion to any degree in physick, because he himself fixes it in the + interval of his absence from the university, a circumstance which will + enable us to confute many false reports relating to Dr. Sydenham, + which have been confidently inculcated, and implicitly believed. It is + the general opinion, that he was made a physician by accident and + necessity, and sir Richard Blackmore reports, in plain terms, [preface + to his Treatise on the Small Pox,] that he engaged in practice, + without any preparatory study, or previous knowledge, of the medicinal + sciences; and affirms, that when he was consulted by him what books he + should read to qualify him for the same profession, he recommended Don + Quixote. +</p> +<p> + That he recommended Don Quixote to Blackmore, we are not allowed to + doubt; but the relater is hindered by that self-love, which dazzles + all mankind, from discovering that he might intend a satire very + different from a general censure of all the ancient and modern writers + on medicine, since he might, perhaps, mean, either seriously or in + jest, to insinuate, that Blackmore was not adapted by nature to the + study of physick, and that, whether he should read Cervantes or + Hippocrates, he would be equally unqualified for practice, and equally + unsuccessful in it. +</p> +<p> + Whatsoever was his meaning, nothing is more evident, than that it was + a transient sally of an imagination warmed with gaiety, or the + negligent effusion of a mind intent upon some other employment, and in + haste to dismiss a troublesome intruder; for it is certain that + Sydenham did not think it impossible to write usefully on medicine, + because he has himself written upon it; and it is not probable that he + carried his vanity so far, as to imagine that no man had ever acquired + the same qualifications besides himself. He could not but know that he + rather restored, than invented most of his principles, and, therefore, + could not but acknowledge the value of those writers whose doctrines + he adopted and enforced. +</p> +<p> + That he engaged in the practice of physick without any acquaintance + with the theory, or knowledge of the opinions or precepts of former + writers, is undoubtedly false; for he declares, that, after he had, in + pursuance of his conversation with Dr. Cox, determined upon the + profession of physick, he "applied himself in earnest to it, and spent + several years in the university," (aliquot annos in academica + palæstra,) before he began to practise in London. +</p> +<p> + Nor was he satisfied with the opportunities of knowledge which Oxford + afforded, but travelled to Montpellier, as Désault relates, + [Dissertation on Consumptions,] in quest of further information; + Montpellier, being at that time, the most celebrated school of + physick: so far was Sydenham from any contempt of academical + institutions, and so far from thinking it reasonable to learn physick + by experiments alone, which must necessarily be made at the hazard of + life. +</p> +<p> + What can be demanded beyond this by the most zealous advocate for + regular education? What can be expected from the most cautious and + most industrious student, than that he should dedicate several years + to the rudiments of his art, and travel for further instructions from + one university to another? +</p> +<p> + It is likewise a common opinion, that Sydenham was thirty years old, + before he formed his resolution of studying physick, for which I can + discover no other foundation than one expression in his dedication to + Dr. Mapletoft, which seems to have given rise to it, by a gross + misinterpretation; for he only observes, that from his conversation + with Dr. Cox to the publication of that treatise, thirty years had + intervened. +</p> +<p> + Whatever may have produced this notion, or how long soever it may have + prevailed, it is now proved, beyond controversy, to be false; since it + appears that Sydenham, having been for some time absent from the + university, returned to it, in order to pursue his physical inquiries, + before he was twenty-four years old; for, in 1648, he was admitted to + the degree of bachelor of physick. +</p> +<p> + That such reports should be confidently spread, even among the + contemporaries of the author to whom they relate, and obtain, in a few + years, such credit as to require a regular confutation; that it should + be imagined that the greatest physician of the age arrived at so high + a degree of skill, without any assistance from his predecessors; and + that a man, eminent for integrity, practised medicine by chance, and + grew wise only by murder; is not to be considered without + astonishment. +</p> +<p> + But if it be, on the other part, remembered, how much this opinion + favours the laziness of some, and the pride of others; how readily + some men confide in natural sagacity; and how willingly most would + spare themselves the labour of accurate reading and tedious inquiry; + it will be easily discovered, how much the interest of multitudes was + engaged in the production and continuance of this opinion, and how + cheaply those, of whom it was known that they practised physick before + they studied it, might satisfy themselves and others with the example + of the illustrious Sydenham. +</p> +<p> + It is, therefore, in an uncommon degree useful to publish a true + account of this memorable man, that pride, temerity, and idleness, may + be deprived of that patronage which they have enjoyed too long; that + life may be secured from the dangerous experiments of the ignorant and + presumptuous; and that those, who shall, hereafter, assume the + important province of superintending the health of others, may learn, + from this great master of the art, that the only means of arriving at + eminence and success are labour and study. +</p> +<p> + From these false reports it is probable that another arose, to which, + though it cannot be with equal certainty confuted, it does not appear + that entire credit ought to be given. The acquisition of a Latin style + did not seem consistent with the manner of life imputed to him; nor + was it probable, that he, who had so diligently cultivated the + ornamental parts of general literature, would have neglected the + essential studies of his own profession. Those, therefore, who were + determined, at whatever price, to retain him in their own party, and + represent him equally ignorant and daring with themselves, denied him + the credit of writing his own works in the language in which they were + published, and asserted, but without proof, that they were composed by + him in English, and translated into Latin by Dr. Mapletoft. +</p> +<p> + Whether Dr. Mapletoft lived and was familiar with him, during the + whole time in which these several treatises were printed, treatises + written on particular occasions, and printed at periods considerably + distant from each other, we have had no opportunity of inquiring, and, + therefore, cannot demonstrate the falsehood of this report; but if it + be considered how unlikely it is, that any man should engage in a work + so laborious and so little necessary, only to advance the reputation + of another, or that he should have leisure to continue the same office + upon all following occasions; if it be remembered how seldom such + literary combinations are formed, and how soon they are, for the + greatest part, dissolved, there will appear no reason for not allowing + Dr. Sydenham the laurel of eloquence, as well as physick <a href="#note-53">[53]</a>. +</p> +<p> + It is observable, that his Processus Integri, published after his + death, discovers alone more skill in the Latin language than is + commonly ascribed to him; and it surely will not be suspected, that + the officiousness of his friends was continued after his death, or + that he procured the book to be translated, only that, by leaving it + behind him, he might secure his claim to his other writings. +</p> +<p> + It is asserted by sir Hans Sloane, that Dr. Sydenham, with whom he was + familiarly acquainted, was particularly versed in the writings of the + great Roman orator and philosopher; and there is evidently such a + luxuriance in his style, as may discover the author which gave him + most pleasure, and most engaged his imitation. +</p> +<p> + About the same time that he became bachelor of physick, he obtained, + by the interest of a relation, a fellowship of All Souls' college, + having submitted, by the subscription required, to the authority of + the visitors appointed by the parliament, upon what principles, or how + consistently with his former conduct, it is now impossible to + discover. +</p> +<p> + When he thought himself qualified for practice, he fixed his residence + in Westminster, became doctor of physick at Cambridge, received a + license from the college of physicians, and lived in the first degree + of reputation, and the greatest affluence of practice, for many years, + without any other enemies than those which he raised by the superiour + merit of his conduct, the brighter lustre of his abilities, or his + improvements of his science, and his contempt of pernicious methods, + supported only by authority, in opposition to sound reason and + indubitable experience. These men are indebted to him for concealing + their names, when he records their malice, since they have, thereby, + escaped the contempt and detestation of posterity. +</p> +<p> + It is a melancholy reflection, that they who have obtained the highest + reputation, by preserving or restoring the health of others, have + often been hurried away before the natural decline of life, or have + passed many of their years under the torments of those distempers + which they profess to relieve. In this number was Sydenham, whose + health began to fail in the fifty-second year of his age, by the + frequent attacks of the gout, to which he was subject for a great part + of his life, and which was afterwards accompanied with the stone in + the kidneys, and, its natural consequence, bloody urine. +</p> +<p> + These were distempers which even the art of Sydenham could only + palliate, without hope of a perfect cure, but which, if he has not + been able by his precepts to instruct us to remove, he has, at least, + by his example, taught us to bear; for he never betrayed any indecent + impatience, or unmanly dejection, under his torments, but supported + himself by the reflections of philosophy, and the consolations of + religion; and in every interval of ease applied himself to the + assistance of others with his usual assiduity. +</p> +<p> + After a life thus usefully employed, he died at his house in + Pall-mall, on the 29th of December, 1689, and was buried in the aisle, + near the south door of the church of St. James, in Westminster. +</p> +<p> + What was his character, as a physician, appears from the treatises + which he has left, which it is not necessary to epitomise or + transcribe; and from them it may likewise be collected, that his skill + in physick was not his highest excellence; that his whole character + was amiable; that his chief view was the benefit of mankind, and the + chief motive of his actions, the will of God, whom he mentions with + reverence, well becoming the most enlightened and most penetrating + mind. He was benevolent, candid, and communicative, sincere, and + religious; qualities, which it were happy, if they could copy from + him, who emulate his knowledge, and imitate his methods. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_40"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + CHEYNEL <a href="#note-54">[54]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + There is always this advantage in contending with illustrious + adversaries, that the combatant is equally immortalized by conquest or + defeat. He that dies by the sword of a hero will always be mentioned, + when the acts of his enemy are mentioned. The man, of whose life the + following account is offered to the publick, was, indeed, eminent + among his own party, and had qualities, which, employed in a good + cause, would have given him some claim to distinction; but no one is + now so much blinded with bigotry, as to imagine him equal either to + Hammond or Chillingworth; nor would his memory, perhaps, have been + preserved, had he not, by being conjoined with illustrious names, + become the object of publick curiosity. +</p> +<p> + Francis Cheynel was born in 1608, at Oxford <a href="#note-55">[55]</a>, where his father, + Dr. John Cheynel, who had been fellow of Corpus Christi college, + practised physick with great reputation. He was educated in one of the + grammar schools of his native city, and, in the beginning of the year + 1623, became a member of the university. +</p> +<p> + It is probable, that he lost his father when he was very young; for it + appears, that before 1629, his mother had married Dr. Abbot, bishop of + Salisbury, whom she had likewise buried. From this marriage he + received great advantage; for his mother, being now allied to Dr. + Brent, then warden of Merton college, exerted her interest so + vigorously, that he was admitted there a probationer, and afterwards + obtained a fellowship <a href="#note-56">[56]</a>. +</p> +<p> + Having taken the degree of master of arts, he was admitted to orders, + according to the rites of the church of England, and held a curacy + near Oxford, together with his fellowship. He continued in his + college, till he was qualified, by his years of residence, for the + degree of bachelor of divinity, which he attempted to take in 1641, + but was denied his grace <a href="#note-57">[57]</a>, for disputing concerning + predestination, contrary to the king's injunctions. +</p> +<p> + This refusal of his degree he mentions in his dedication to his + account of Mr. Chillingworth: "Do not conceive that I snatch up my pen + in an angry mood, that I might vent my dangerous wit, and ease my + overburdened spleen; no, no, I have almost forgotten the visitation of + Merton college, and the denial of my grace, the plundering of my + house, and little library: I know when, and where, and of whom, to + demand satisfaction for all these injuries and indignities. I have + learnt 'centum plagas Spartana nobilitate concoquere.' I have not + learnt how to plunder others of goods, or living, and make myself + amends by force of arms. I will not take a living which belonged to + any civil, studious, learned delinquent; unless it be the + much-neglected <i>commendam</i> of some lordly prelate, condemned by + the known laws of the land, and the highest court of the kingdom, for + some offence of the first magnitude." +</p> +<p> + It is observable, that he declares himself to have almost forgot his + injuries and indignities, though he recounts them with an appearance + of acrimony, which is no proof that the impression is much weakened; + and insinuates his design of demanding, at a proper time, satisfaction + for them. +</p> +<p> + These vexations were the consequence rather of the abuse of learning, + than the want of it; no one that reads his works can doubt that he was + turbulent, obstinate, and petulant; and ready to instruct his + superiours, when he most needed instruction from them. Whatever he + believed (and the warmth of his imagination naturally made him + precipitate in forming his opinions) he thought himself obliged to + profess; and what he professed he was ready to defend, without that + modesty which is always prudent, and generally necessary, and which, + though it was not agreeable to Mr. Cheynel's temper, and, therefore, + readily condemned by him, is a very useful associate to truth, and + often introduces her, by degrees, where she never could have forced + her way by argument or declamation. +</p> +<p> + A temper of this kind is generally inconvenient and offensive in any + society, but in a place of education is least to be tolerated; for, as + authority is necessary to instruction, whoever endeavours to destroy + subordination, by weakening that reverence which is claimed by those + to whom the guardianship of youth is committed by their country, + defeats, at once, the institution; and may be justly driven from a + society, by which he thinks himself too wise to be governed, and in + which he is too young to teach, and too opinionative to learn. +</p> +<p> + This may be readily supposed to have been the case of Cheynel; and I + know not how those can be blamed for censuring his conduct, or + punishing his disobedience, who had a right to govern him, and who + might certainly act with equal sincerity, and with greater knowledge. +</p> +<p> + With regard to the visitation of Merton college, the account is + equally obscure. Visitors are well known to be generally called to + regulate the affairs of colleges, when the members disagree with their + head, or with one another; and the temper that Dr. Cheynel discovers + will easily incline his readers to suspect, that he could not long + live in any place, without finding some occasion for debate; nor + debate any question, without carrying opposition to such a length as + might make a moderator necessary. Whether this was his conduct at + Merton, or whether an appeal to the visiter's authority was made by + him, or his adversaries, or any other member of the college, is not to + be known; it appears only, that there was a visitation, that he + suffered by it, and resented his punishment. +</p> +<p> + He was afterwards presented to a living of great value, near Banbury, + where he had some dispute with archbishop Laud. Of this dispute I have + found no particular account. Calamy only says, he had a ruffle with + bishop Laud, while at his height. +</p> +<p> + Had Cheynel been equal to his adversary in greatness and learning, it + had not been easy to have found either a more proper opposite; for + they were both, to the last degree, zealous, active, and pertinacious, + and would have afforded mankind a spectacle of resolution and boldness + not often to be seen. But the amusement of beholding the struggle + would hardly have been without danger, as they were too fiery not to + have communicated their heat, though it should have produced a + conflagration of their country. +</p> +<p> + About the year 1641, when the whole nation was engaged in the + controversy about the rights of the church, and necessity of + episcopacy, he declared himself a presbyterian, and an enemy to + bishops, liturgies, ceremonies; and was considered, as one of the most + learned and acute of his party; for, having spent much of his life in + a college, it cannot be doubted that he had a considerable knowledge + of books, which the vehemence of his temper enabled him often to + display, when a more timorous man would have been silent, though in + learning not his inferiour. +</p> +<p> + When the war broke out, Mr. Cheynel, in consequence of his principles, + declared himself for the parliament; and, as he appears to have held + it as a first principle, that all great and noble spirits abhor + neutrality, there is no doubt but that he exerted himself to gain + proselytes, and to promote the interest of that party, which he had + thought it his duty to espouse. These endeavours were so much regarded + by the parliament, that, having taken the covenant, he was nominated + one of the assembly of divines, who were to meet at Westminster for + the settlement of the new discipline. +</p> +<p> + This distinction drew, necessarily, upon him the hatred of the + cavaliers; and his living being not far distant from the king's + head-quarters, he received a visit from some of the troops, who, as he + affirms, plundered his house, and drove him from it. His living, which + was, I suppose, considered as forfeited by his absence, though he was + not suffered to continue upon it, was given to a clergyman, of whom he + says, that he would become a stage better than a pulpit; a censure + which I can neither confute nor admit, because I have not discovered + who was his successour. He then retired into Sussex, to exercise his + ministry among his friends, in a place where, as he observes, there + had been little of the power of religion either known or practised. As + no reason can be given why the inhabitants of Sussex should have less + knowledge or virtue than those of other places, it may be suspected + that he means nothing more than a place where the presbyterian + discipline or principles had never been received. We now observe, that + the methodists, where they scatter their opinions, represent + themselves, as preaching the gospel to unconverted nations; and + enthusiasts of all kinds have been inclined to disguise their + particular tenets with pompous appellations, and to imagine themselves + the great instruments of salvation; yet it must be confessed, that all + places are not equally enlightened; that in the most civilized nations + there are many corners which may be called barbarous, where neither + politeness, nor religion, nor the common arts of life, have yet been + cultivated; and it is likewise certain, that the inhabitants of Sussex + huve been sometimes mentioned as remarkable for brutality. +</p> +<p> + From Sussex he went often to London, where, in 1643, he preached three + times before the parliament; and, returning in November to Colchester, + to keep the monthly fast there, as was his custom, he obtained a + convoy of sixteen soldiers, whose bravery or good fortune was such, + that they faced, and put to flight, more than two hundred of the + king's forces. +</p> +<p> + In this journey he found Mr. Chillingworth in the hands of the + parliament's troops, of whose sickness and death he gave the account, + which has been sufficiently made known to the learned world by Mr. + Maizeaux, in his Life of Chillingworth. +</p> +<p> + With regard to this relation, it may be observed, that it is written + with an air of fearless veracity, and with the spirit of a man who + thinks his cause just, and his behaviour without reproach; nor does + there appear any reason for doubting that Cheynel spoke and acted as + he relates; for he does not publish an apology, but a challenge, and + writes not so much to obviate calumnies, as to gain from others that + applause which he seems to have bestowed very liberally upon himself, + for his behaviour on that occasion. +</p> +<p> + Since, therefore, this relation is credible, a great part of it being + supported by evidence which cannot be refuted, Mr. Maizeaux seems very + justly, in his Life of Mr. Chillingworth, to oppose the common report, + that his life was shortened by the inhumanity of those to whom he was + a prisoner; for Cheynel appears to have preserved, amidst all his + detestation of the opinions which he imputed to him, a great kindness + to his person, and veneration for his capacity; nor does he appear to + have been cruel to him, otherwise than by that incessant importunity + of disputation, to which he was doubtless incited by a sincere belief + of the danger of his soul, if he should die without renouncing some of + his opinions. +</p> +<p> + The same kindness which made him desirous to convert him before his + death, would incline him to preserve him from dying before he was + converted; and accordingly we find, that, when the castle was yielded, + he took care to procure him a commodious lodging; when he was to have + been unseasonably removed, he attempted to shorten his journey, which + he knew would be dangerous; when the physician was disgusted by + Chillingworth's distrust, he prevailed upon him, as the symptoms grew + more dangerous, to renew his visits; and when death left no other act + of kindness to be practised, procured him the rites of burial, which + some would have denied him. +</p> +<p> + Having done thus far justice to the humanity of Cheynel, it is proper + to inquire, how far he deserves blame. He appears to have extended + none of that kindness to the opinions of Chillingworth, which he + showed to his person; for he interprets every word in the worst sense, + and seems industrious to discover, in every line, heresies, which + might have escaped for ever any other apprehension: he appears always + suspicious of some latent malignity, and ready to persecute what he + only suspects, with the same violence, as if it had been openly + avowed: in all his procedure he shows himself sincere, but without + candour. +</p> +<p> + About this time Cheynel, in pursuance of his natural ardour, attended + the army under the command of the earl of Essex, and added the praise + of valour to that of learning; for he distinguished himself so much by + his personal bravery, and obtained so much skill in the science of + war, that his commands were obeyed by the colonels with as much + respect as those of the general. He seems, indeed, to have been born a + soldier; for he had an intrepidity which was never to be shaken by any + danger, and a spirit of enterprise not to be discouraged by + difficulty, which were supported by an unusual degree of bodily + strength. His services of all kinds were thought of so much importance + ty the parliament, that they bestowed upon him the living of Petworth, + in Sussex. This living was of the value of seven hundred pounds per + annum, from which they had ejected a man remarkable for his loyalty, + and, therefore, in their opinion, not worthy of such revenues. And it + may be inquired, whether, in accepting this preferment, Cheynel did + not violate the protestation which he makes in the passage already + recited, and whether he did not suffer his resolutions to be overborne + by the temptations of wealth. +</p> +<p> + In 1646, when Oxford was taken by the forces of the parliament, and + the reformation of the university was resolved, Mr. Cheynel was sent, + with six others, to prepare the way for a visitation; being authorized + by the parliament to preach in any of the churches, without regard to + the right of the members of the university, that their doctrine might + prepare their hearers for the changes which were intended. +</p> +<p> + When they arrived at Oxford, they began to execute their commission, + by possessing themselves of the pulpits; but, if the relation of Wood + <a href="#note-58">[58]</a> is to be regarded, were heard with very little veneration. Those + who had been accustomed to the preachers of Oxford, and the liturgy of + the church of England, were offended at the emptiness of their + discourses, which were noisy and unmeaning; at the unusual gestures, + the wild distortions, and the uncouth tone with which they were + delivered; at the coldness of their prayers for the king, and the + vehemence and exuberance of those which they did not fail to utter for + <i>the blessed councils</i> and actions of the parliament and army; + and at, what was surely not to be remarked without indignation, their + omission of the Lord's prayer. +</p> +<p> + But power easily supplied the want of reverence, and they proceeded in + their plan of reformation; and thinking sermons not so efficacious to + conversion as private interrogatories and exhortations, they + established a weekly meeting for <i>freeing tender consciences from + scruple</i>, at a house that, from the business to which it was + appropriated, was called the <i>scruple-shop</i>. +</p> +<p> + With this project they were so well pleased, that they sent to the + parliament an account of it, which was afterwards printed, and is + ascribed, by Wood, to Mr. Cheynel. They continued for some weeks to + hold their meetings regularly, and to admit great numbers, whom + curiosity, or a desire of conviction, or a compliance with the + prevailing party, brought thither. But their tranquillity was quickly + disturbed by the turbulence of the independents, whose opinions then + prevailed among the soldiers, and were very industriously propagated + by the discourses of William Earbury, a preacher of great reputation + among them, who one day gathering a considerable number of his most + zealous followers, went to the house appointed for the resolution of + scruples, on a day which was set apart for the disquisition of the + dignity and office of a minister, and began to dispute, with great + vehemence, against the presbyterians, whom he denied to have any true + ministers among them, and whose assemblies he affirmed not to be the + true church. He was opposed with equal heat by the presbyterians, and, + at length, they agreed to examine the point another day, in a regular + disputation. Accordingly, they appointed the 12th of November for an + inquiry: "Whether, in the christian church, the office of minister is + committed to any particular persons?" +</p> +<p> + On the day fixed, the antagonists appeared, each attended by great + numbers; but, when the question was proposed, they began to wrangle, + not about the doctrine which they had engaged to examine, but about + the terms of the proposition, which the independents alleged to be + changed since their agreement; and, at length, the soldiers insisted + that the question should be, "Whether those who call themselves + ministers, have more right or power to preach the gospel, than any + other man that is a christian?" This question was debated, for some + time, with great vehemence and confusion, but without any prospect of + a conclusion. At length, one of the soldiers, who thought they had an + equal right with the rest to engage in the controversy, demanded of + the presbyterians, whence they themselves received their orders, + whether from bishops, or any other persons. This unexpected + interrogatory put them to great difficulties; for it happened that + they were all ordained by the bishops, which they durst not + acknowledge, for fear of exposing themselves to a general censure, and + being convicted from their own declarations, in which they had + frequently condemned episcopacy, as contrary to Christianity; nor + durst they deny it, because they might have been confuted, and must, + at once, have sunk into contempt. The soldiers, seeing their + perplexity, insulted them; and went away, boasting of their victory; + nor did the presbyterians, for some time, recover spirit enough to + renew their meetings, or to proceed in the work of easing consciences. +</p> +<p> + Earbury, exulting at the victory, which, not his own abilities, but + the subtlety of the soldier had procured him, began to vent his + notions of every kind, without scruple, and, at length, asserted, that + "the saints had an equal measure of the divine nature with our + Saviour, though not equally manifest." At the same time he took upon + him the dignity of a prophet, and began to utter predictions relating + to the affairs of England and Ireland. +</p> +<p> + His prophecies were not much regarded, but his doctrine was censured + by the presbyterians in their pulpits; and Mr. Cheynel challenged him + to a disputation, to which he agreed, and, at his first appearance in + St. Mary's church, addressed his audience in the following manner: +</p> +<p> + "Christian friends, kind fellow-soldiers, and worthy students, I, the + humble servant of all mankind, am this day drawn, against my will, out + of my cell into this publick assembly, by the double chain of + accusation and a challenge from the pulpit. I have been charged with + heresy; I have been challenged to come hither, in a letter written by + Mr. Francis Cheynel. Here, then, I stand in defence of myself and my + doctrine, which I shall introduce with only this declaration, that I + claim not the office of a minister on account of any outward call, + though I formerly received ordination, nor do I boast of illumination, + or the knowledge of our Saviour, though I have been held in esteem by + others, and formerly by myself; for I now declare, that I know + nothing, and am nothing, nor would I be thought of otherwise than as + an inquirer and seeker." +</p> +<p> + He then advanced his former position in stronger terms, and with + additions equally detestable, which Cheynel attacked with the + vehemence which, in so warm a temper, such horrid assertions might + naturally excite. The dispute, frequently interrupted by the clamours + of the audience, and tumults raised to disconcert Cheynel, who was + very unpopular, continued about four hours, and then both the + controvertists grew weary, and retired. The presbyterians afterwards + thought they should more speedily put an end to the heresies of + Earbury by power than by argument; and, by soliciting general Fairfax, + procured his removal. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Cheynel published an account of this dispute, under the title of, + Faith triumphing over Errour and Heresy, in a Revelation, &c.; nor can + it be doubted but he had the victory, where his cause gave him so + great superiority. +</p> +<p> + Somewhat before this, his captious and petulant disposition engaged + him in a controversy, from which he could not expect to gain equal + reputation. Dr. Hammond had, not long before, published his Practical + Catechism, in which Mr. Cheynel, according to his custom, found many + errours implied, if not asserted; and, therefore, as it was much read, + thought it convenient to censure it in the pulpit. Of this Dr. Hammond + being informed, desired him, in a letter, to communicate his + objections; to which Mr. Cheynel returned an answer, written with his + usual temper, and, therefore, somewhat perverse. The controversy was + drawn out to a considerable length; and the papers, on both sides, + were afterwards made publick by Dr. Hammond. +</p> +<p> + In 1647, it was determined by parliament, that the reformation of + Oxford should be more vigorously carried on; and Mr. Cheynel was + nominated one of the visiters. The general process of the visitation, + the firmness and fidelity of the students, the address by which the + inquiry was delayed, and the steadiness with which it was opposed, + which are very particularly related by Wood, and after him by Walker, + it is not necessary to mention here, as they relate not more to Mr. + Cheynel's life than to those of his associates. +</p> +<p> + There is, indeed, some reason to believe that he was more active and + virulent than the rest, because he appears to have been charged, in a + particular manner, with some of their most unjustifiable measures. He + was accused of proposing, that the members of the university should be + denied the assistance of counsel, and was lampooned by name, as a + madman, in a satire written on the visitation. +</p> +<p> + One action, which shows the violence of his temper, and his disregard, + both of humanity and decency, when they came in competition with his + passions, must not be forgotten. The visiters, being offended at the + obstinacy of Dr. Fell, dean of Christchurch, and vicechancellor of the + university, having first deprived him of his vicechancellorship, + determined afterwards to dispossess him of his deanery; and, in the + course of their proceedings, thought it proper to seize upon his + chambers in the college. This was an act which most men would + willingly have referred to the officers to whom the law assigned it; + but Cheynel's fury prompted him to a different conduct. He, and three + more of the visiters, went and demanded admission; which, being + steadily refused them, they obtained by the assistance of a file of + soldiers, who forced the doors with pick-axes. Then entering, they saw + Mrs. Fell in the lodgings, Dr. Fell being in prison at London, and + ordered her to quit them, but found her not more obsequious than her + husband. They repeated their orders with menaces, but were not able to + prevail upon her to remove. They then retired, and left her exposed to + the brutality of the soldiers, whom they commanded to keep possession, + which Mrs. Fell, however, did not leave. About nine days afterwards, + she received another visit of the same kind from the new chancellor, + the earl of Pembroke; who having, like the others, ordered her to + depart without effect, treated her with reproachful language, and, at + last, commanded the soldiers to take her up in her chair, and carry + her out of doors. Her daughters, and some other gentlewomen that were + with her, were afterwards treated in the same manner; one of whom + predicted, without dejection, that she should enter the house again + with less difficulty, at some other time; nor was she mistaken in her + conjecture, for Dr. Fell lived to be restored to his deanery. +</p> +<p> + At the reception of the chancellor, Cheynel, as the most accomplished + of the visiters, had the province of presenting him with the ensigns + of his office, some of which were counterfeit, and addressing him with + a proper oration. Of this speech, which Wood has preserved, I shall + give some passages, by which a judgment may be made of his oratory. +</p> +<p> + Of the staves of the beadles he observes, that "some are stained with + double guilt, that some are pale with fear, and that others have been + made use of as crutches, for the support of bad causes and desperate + fortunes;" and he remarks of the book of statutes which he delivers, + that "the ignorant may, perhaps, admire the splendour of the cover, + but the learned know that the real treasure is within." Of these two + sentences it is easily discovered, that the first is forced and + unnatural, and the second trivial and low. +</p> +<p> + Soon afterwards Mr. Cheynel was admitted to the degree of bachelor of + divinity, for which his grace had been denied him in 1641, and, as he + then suffered for an ill-timed assertion of the presbyterian + doctrines, he obtained that his degree should be dated from the time + at which he was refused it; an honour which, however, did not secure + him from being soon after publickly reproached as a madman. +</p> +<p> + But the vigour of Cheynel was thought, by his companions, to deserve + profit, as well as honour; and Dr. Bailey, the president of St. John's + college, being not more obedient to the authority of the parliament + than the rest, was deprived of his revenues and authority, with which + Mr. Cheynel was immediately invested; who, with his usual coolness and + modesty, took possession of the lodgings soon after by breaking open + the doors. +</p> +<p> + This preferment being not thought adequate to the deserts or abilities + of Mr. Cheynel, it was, therefore, desired, by the committee of + parliament, that the visiters would recommend him to the lectureship + of divinity, founded by the lady Margaret. To recommend him, and to + choose, was, at that time, the same; and he had now the pleasure of + propagating his darling doctrine of predestination, without + interruption, and without danger. +</p> +<p> + Being thus flushed with power and success, there is little reason for + doubting that he gave way to his natural vehemence, and indulged + himself in the utmost excesses of raging zeal, by which he was, + indeed, so much distinguished, that, in a satire mentioned by Wood, he + is dignified by the title of archvisiter; an appellation which he + seems to have been industrious to deserve by severity and + inflexibility; for, not contented with the commission which he and his + colleagues had already received, he procured six or seven of the + members of parliament to meet privately in Mr. Rouse's lodgings, and + assume the style and authority of a committee, and from them obtained + a more extensive and tyrannical power, by which the visitors were + enabled to force the <i>solemn league and covenant</i>, and the + <i>negative oath</i> upon all the members of the university, and to + prosecute those for a contempt who did not appear to a citation, at + whatever distance they might be, and whatever reasons they might + assign for their absence. +</p> +<p> + By this method he easily drove great numbers from the university, + whose places he supplied with men of his own opinion, whom he was very + industrious to draw from other parts, with promises of making a + liberal provision for them out of the spoils of hereticks and + malignants. +</p> +<p> + Having, in time, almost extirpated those opinions which he found so + prevalent at his arrival, or, at least, obliged those, who would not + recant, to an appearance of conformity, he was at leisure for + employments which deserve to be recorded with greater commendation. + About this time, many socinian writers began to publish their notions + with great boldness, which the presbyterians, considering as heretical + and impious, thought it necessary to confute; and, therefore, Cheynel, + who had now obtained his doctor's degree, was desired, in 1649, to + write a vindication of the doctrine of the Trinity, which he + performed, and published the next year. +</p> +<p> + He drew up, likewise, a confutation of some socinian tenets advanced + by John Fry, a man who spent great part of his life in ranging from + one religion to another, and who sat as one of the judges on the king, + but was expelled afterwards from the house of commons, and disabled + from sitting in parliament. Dr. Cheynel is said to have shown himself + evidently superiour to him in the controversy, and was answered by him + only with an opprobrious book against the presbyterian clergy. +</p> +<p> + Of the remaining part of his life, there is found only an obscure and + confused account. He quitted the presidentship of St. John's, and the + professorship, in 1650, as Calamy relates, because he would not take + the engagement; and gave a proof that he could suffer, as well as act, + in a cause which he believed just. We have, indeed, no reason to + question his resolution, whatever occasion might be given to exert it; + nor is it probable that he feared affliction more than danger, or that + he would not have borne persecution himself for those opinions which + inclined him to persecute others. +</p> +<p> + He did not suffer much upon this occasion; for he retained the living + of Petworth, to which he, thenceforward, confined his labours, and + where he was very assiduous, and, as Calamy affirms, very successful + in the exercise of his ministry, it being his peculiar character to be + warm and zealous in all his undertakings. +</p> +<p> + This heat of his disposition, increased by the uncommon turbulence of + the times in which he lived, and by the opposition to which the + unpopular nature of some of his employments exposed him, was, at last, + heightened to distraction, so that he was, for some years, disordered + in his understanding, as both Wood and Calamy relate, but with such + difference as might be expected from their opposite principles. Wood + appears to think, that a tendency to madness was discoverable in a + great part of his life; Calamy, that it was only transient and + accidental, though, in his additions to his first narrative, he pleads + it, as an extenuation of that fury with which his kindest friends + confess him to have acted on some occasions. Wood declares, that he + died little better than distracted; Calamy, that he was perfectly + recovered to a sound mind, before the restoration, at which time he + retired to Preston, a small village in Sussex, being turned out of his + living at Petworth. +</p> +<p> + It does not appear that he kept his living till the general ejection + of the nonconformists; and it is not unlikely that the asperity of his + carriage, and the known virulence of his temper, might have raised him + enemies, who were willing to make him feel the effects of persecution, + which he had so furiously incited against others; but of this incident + of his life there is no particular account. +</p> +<p> + After his deprivation, he lived, till his death, which happened in + 1665, at a small village near Chichester, upon a paternal estate, not + augmented by the large preferments wasted upon him in the triumphs of + his party; having been remarkable, throughout his life, for + hospitality and contempt of money. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_41"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + CAVE <a href="#note-59">[59]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + The curiosity of the publick seems to demand the history of every man + who has, by whatever means, risen to eminence; and few lives would + have more readers than that of the compiler of the Gentleman's + Magazine, if all those who received improvement or entertainment from + him should retain so much kindness for their benefactor, as to inquire + after his conduct and character. +</p> +<p> + Edward Cave was born at Newton, in Warwickshire, Feb. 29, 1691. His + father (Joseph) was the younger son of Mr. Edward Cave, of + Cave's-in-the-Hole, a lone house, on the Street road, in the same + county, which took its name from the occupier; but having concurred + with his elder brother in cutting off the entail of a small hereditary + estate, by which act it was lost from the family, he was reduced to + follow, in Rugby, the trade of a shoemaker. He was a man of good + reputation in his narrow circle, and remarkable for strength and + rustick intrepidity. He lived to a great age, and was, in his latter + years, supported by his son. +</p> +<p> + It was fortunate for Edward Cave, that, having a disposition to + literary attainments, he was not cut off by the poverty of his parents + from opportunities of cultivating his faculties. The school of Rugby, + in which he had, by the rules of its foundation, a right to be + instructed, was then in high reputation under the reverend Mr. + Holyock, to whose care most of the neighbouring families, even of the + highest rank, intrusted their sons. He had judgment to discover, and, + for some time, generosity to encourage, the genius of young Cave; and + was so well pleased with his quick progress in the school, that he + declared his resolution to breed him for the university, and + recommended him, as a servitor, to some of his scholars of high rank. + But prosperity which depends upon the caprice of others, is of short + duration. Cave's superiority in literature exalted him to an invidious + familiarity with boys who were far above him in rank and expectations; + and, as in unequal associations it always happens, whatever unlucky + prank was played was imputed to Cave. When any mischief, great or + small, was done, though, perhaps, others boasted of the stratagem, + when it was successful, yet, upon detection, or miscarriage the fault + was sure to fall upon poor Cave. +</p> +<p> + At last, his mistress, by some invisible means, lost a favourite cock. + Cave was, with little examination, stigmatised as the thief and + murderer; not because he was more apparently criminal than others, but + because he was more easily reached by vindictive justice. From that + time, Mr. Holyock withdrew his kindness visibly from him, and treated + him with harshness, which the crime, in its utmost aggravation, could + scarcely deserve; and which, surely, he would have forborne, had he + considered how hardly the habitual influence of birth and fortune is + resisted; and how frequently men, not wholly without sense of virtue, + are betrayed to acts more atrocious than the robbery of a hen-roost, + by a desire of pleasing their superiours. +</p> +<p> + Those reflections his master never made, or made without effect; for, + under pretence that Cave obstructed the discipline of the school, by + selling clandestine assistance, and supplying exercises to idlers, he + was oppressed with unreasonable tasks, that there might be an + opportunity of quarrelling with his failure; and when his diligence + had surmounted them, no regard was paid to the performance. Cave bore + this persecution awhile, and then left the school, and the hope of a + literary education, to seek some other means of gaining a livelihood. +</p> +<p> + He was first placed with a collector of the excise. He used to + recount, with some pleasure, a journey or two which he rode with him + as his clerk, and relate the victories that he gained over the + excisemen in grammatical disputations. But the insolence of his + mistress, who employed him in servile drudgery, quickly disgusted him, + and he went up to London in quest of more suitable employment. +</p> +<p> + He was recommended to a timber-merchant at the Bankside, and, while he + was there on liking, is said to have given hopes of great mercantile + abilities; but this place he soon left, I know not for what reason, + and was bound apprentice to Mr. Collins, a printer of some reputation, + and deputy alderman. +</p> +<p> + This was a trade for which men were formerly qualified by a literary + education, and which was pleasing to Cave, because it furnished some + employment for his scholastick attainments. Here, therefore, he + resolved to settle, though his master and mistress lived in perpetual + discord, and their house was, therefore, no comfortable habitation. + From the inconveniencies of these domestick tumults he was soon + released, having, in only two years, attained so much skill in his + art, and gained so much the confidence of his master, that he was + sent, without any superintendant, to conduct a printing-office at + Norwich, and publish a weekly paper. In this undertaking he met with + some opposition, which produced a publick controversy, and procured + young Cave the reputation of a writer. +</p> +<p> + His master died before his apprenticeship was expired, and he was not + able to bear the perverseness of his mistress. He, therefore, quitted + her house upon a stipulated allowance, and married a young widow, with + whom he lived at Bow. When his apprenticeship was over, he worked, as + a journeyman, at the printing-house of Mr. Barber, a man much + distinguished, and employed by the tories, whose principles had, at + that time, so much prevalence with Cave, that he was, for some years, + a writer in Mist's Journal; which, though he afterwards obtained, by + his wife's interest, a small place in the post-office, he for some + time continued. But, as interest is powerful, and conversation, + however mean, in time persuasive, he, by degrees, inclined to another + party; in which, however, he was always moderate, though steady and + determined. +</p> +<p> + When he was admitted into the post-office, he still continued, at his + intervals of attendance, to exercise his trade, or to employ himself + with some typographical business. He corrected the Gradus ad + Parnassum; and was liberally rewarded by the company of stationers. He + wrote an account of the criminals, which had, for some time, a + considerable sale; and published many little pamphlets, that accident + brought into his hands, of which it would be very difficult to recover + the memory. By the correspondence which his place in the post-office + facilitated, he procured country newspapers, and sold their + intelligence to a journalist in London, for a guinea a week. +</p> +<p> + He was afterwards raised to the office of clerk of the franks, in + which he acted with great spirit and firmness; and often stopped + franks, which were given by members of parliament to their friends, + because he thought such extension of a peculiar right illegal. This + raised many complaints, and having stopped, among others, a frank + given to the old dutchess of Marlborough by Mr. Walter Plummer, he was + cited before the house, as for a breach of privilege, and accused, I + suppose very unjustly, of opening letters to detect them. He was + treated with great harshness and severity, but, declining their + questions, by pleading his oath of secrecy, was at last dismissed. And + it must be recorded to his honour, that, when he was ejected from his + office, he did not think himself discharged from his trust, but + continued to refuse, to his nearest friends, any information about the + management of the office. +</p> +<p> + By this constancy of diligence and diversification of employment, he + in time collected a sum sufficient for the purchase of a small + printing-office, and began the Gentleman's Magazine, a periodical + pamphlet, of which the scheme is known wherever the English language + is spoken. To this undertaking he owed the affluence in which he + passed the last twenty years of his life, and the fortune which he + left behind him, which, though large, had been yet larger, had he not + rashly and wantonly impaired it, by innumerable projects, of which I + know not that ever one succeeded. +</p> +<p> + The Gentleman's Magazine, which has now subsisted fifty years, and + still continues to enjoy the favour of the world <a href="#note-60">[60]</a>, is one of the + most successful and lucrative pamphlets which literary history has + upon record, and therefore deserves, in this narrative, particular + notice. +</p> +<p> + Mr. Cave, when he formed the project, was far from expecting the + success which he found; and others had so little prospect of its + consequence, that though he had, for several years, talked of his plan + among printers and booksellers, none of them thought it worth the + trial. That they were not restrained by virtue from the execution of + another man's design, was sufficiently apparent, as soon as that + design began to be gainful; for, in a few years, a multitude of + magazines arose and perished: only the London Magazine, supported by a + powerful association of booksellers, and circulated with all the art + and all the cunning of trade, exempted itself from the general fate of + Cave's invaders, and obtained, though not an equal, yet a considerable + sale <a href="#note-61">[61]</a>. +</p> +<p> + Cave now began to aspire to popularity; and being a greater lover of + poetry than any other art, he sometimes offered subjects for poems, + and proposed prizes for the best performers. The first prize was fifty + pounds, for which, being but newly acquainted with wealth, and + thinking the influence of fifty pounds extremely great, he expected + the first authors of the kingdom to appear as competitors; and offered + the allotment of the prize to the universities. But, when the time + came, no name was seen among the writers that had ever been seen + before; the universities and several private men rejected the province + of assigning the prize. At all this Mr. Cave wondered for awhile; but + his natural judgment, and a wider acquaintance with the world, soon + cured him of his astonishment, as of many other prejudices and + errours. Nor have many men been seen raised by accident or industry to + sudden riches, that retained less of the meanness of their former + state. +</p> +<p> + He continued to improve his magazine, and had the satisfaction of + seeing its success proportionate to his diligence, till, in 1751, his + wife died of an asthma. He seemed not at first much affected by her + death, but in a few days lost his sleep and his appetite, which he + never recovered; but, after having lingered about two years, with many + vicissitudes of amendment and relapse, fell, by drinking acid liquors, + into a diarrhoea, and afterwards into a kind of lethargick + insensibility, in which one of the last acts of reason, which he + exerted, was fondly to press the hand that is now writing this little + narrative. He died on the 10th of January, 1754, having just concluded + the twenty-third annual collection <a href="#note-62">[62]</a>. +</p> +<p> + He was a man of a large stature, not only tall but bulky, and was, + when young, of remarkable strength and activity. He was, generally, + healthful, and capable of much labour and long application; but in the + latter years of his life was afflicted with the gout, which he + endeavoured to cure or alleviate by a total abstinence both from + strong liquors and animal food. From animal food he abstained about + four years, and from strong liquors much longer; but the gout + continued unconquered, perhaps unabated. +</p> +<p> + His resolution and perseverance were very uncommon; in whatever he + undertook, neither expense nor fatigue were able to repress him; but + his constancy was calm, and to those who did not know him appeared + faint and languid; but he always went forward, though he moved slowly. + The same chilness of mind was observable in his conversation; he was + watching the minutest accent of those +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Assisted only by a classical education, + Which he received at the Grammar school + Of this Town, + Planned, executed, and established + A literary work, called + THE + GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE, + Whereby he acquired an ample fortune, + The whole of which devolved to his family, + Here also lies + The body of WILLIAM CAVE, + Second son of the said JOSEPH CAVE, + Who died May 2, 1757, aged 62 years; + And who, having survived his elder brother, + EDWARD CAVE, + Inherited from him a competent estate; + And, in gratitude to his benefactor, + Ordered this monument to perpetuate his memory. + + He liv'd a patriarch in his numerous race, + And show'd in charity a Christian's grace: + Whate'er a friend or parent feels, he knew; + His hand was open, and his heart was true; + In what he gain'd and gave, he taught mankind, + A grateful always is a generous mind. + Here rest his clay! his soul must ever rest; + Who bless'd when living, dying must be blest. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + whom he disgusted by seeming inattention; and his visitant was + surprised when he came a second time, by preparations to execute the + scheme which he supposed never to have been heard. +</p> +<p> + He was, consistently with this general tranquillity of mind, a + tenacious maintainer, though not a clamorous demander, of his right. + In his youth, having summoned his fellow-journeymen to concert + measures against the oppression of their masters, he mounted a kind of + rostrum, and harangued them so efficaciously, that they determined to + resist all future invasions; and when the stamp-offices demanded to + stamp the last half-sheet of the magazines, Mr. Cave alone defeated + their claim, to which the proprietors of the rival magazines would + meanly have submitted. +</p> +<p> + He was a friend rather easy and constant, than zealous an'd active; + yet many instances might be given, where both his money and his + diligence were employed liberally for others. His enmity was, in like + manner, cool and deliberate; but though cool, it was not insidious, + and though deliberate, not pertinacious. +</p> +<p> + His mental faculties were slow. He saw little at a time, but that + little he saw with great exactness. He was long in finding the right, + but seldom failed to find it at last. His affections were not easily + gained, and his opinions not quickly discovered. His reserve, as it + might hide his faults, concealed his virtues; but such he was, as they + who best knew him have most lamented. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_42"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + KING OF PRUSSIA <a href="#note-63">[63]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + Charles Frederick, the present king of Prussia, whose actions and + designs now keep Europe in attention, is the eldest son of Frederick + William, by Sophia Dorothea, daughter of George the first, king of + England. He was born January 24, 1711-12. Of his early years nothing + remarkable has been transmitted to us. As he advanced towards manhood, + he became remarkable by his disagreement with his father. +</p> +<p> + The late king of Prussia was of a disposition violent and arbitrary, + of narrow views, and vehement passions, earnestly engaged in little + pursuits, or in schemes terminating in some speedy consequence, + without any plan of lasting advantage to himself or his subjects, or + any prospect of distant events. He was, therefore, always busy, though + no effects of his activity ever appeared, and always eager, though he + had nothing to gain. His behaviour was, to the last degree, rough and + savage. The least provocation, whether designed or accidental, was + returned by blows, which he did not always forbear to the queen and + princesses. +</p> +<p> + From such a king and such a father it was not any enormous violation + of duty in the immediate heir of a kingdom, sometimes to differ in + opinion, and to maintain that difference with decent pertinacity. A + prince of a quick sagacity and comprehensive knowledge, must find many + practices in the conduct of affairs which he could not approve, and + some which he could scarcely forbear to oppose. +</p> +<p> + The chief pride of the old king was to be master of the tallest + regiment in Europe. He, therefore, brought together, from all parts, + men above the common military standard. To exceed the height of six + feet, was a certain recommendation to notice, and to approach that of + seven, a claim to distinction. Men will readily go where they are sure + to be caressed; and he had, therefore, such a collection of giants, + as, perhaps, was never seen in the world before. +</p> +<p> + To review this towering regiment was his daily pleasure, and to + perpetuate it was so much his care, that when he met a tall woman, he + immediately commanded one of his Titanian retinue to marry her, that + they might propagate procerity, and produce heirs to the father's + habiliments. +</p> +<p> + In all this there was apparent folly, but there was no crime. The tall + regiment made a fine show at an expense not much greater, when once it + was collected, than would have been bestowed upon common men. But the + king's military pastimes were sometimes more pernicious. He maintained + a numerous army, of which he made no other use than to review and to + talk of it; and when he, or perhaps his emissaries, saw a boy, whose + form and sprightliness promised a future soldier, he ordered a kind of + badge to be put about his neck, by which he was marked out for the + service, like the sons of Christian captives in Turkey; and his + parents were forbidden to destine him to any other mode of life. +</p> +<p> + This was sufficiently oppressive, but this was not the utmost of his + tyranny. He had learned, though otherwise perhaps no very great + politician, that to be rich was to be powerful; but that the riches of + a king ought to be seen in the opulence of his subjects, he wanted + either ability or benevolence to understand. He, therefore, raised + exorbitant taxes from every kind of commodity and possession, and + piled up the money in his treasury, from which it issued no more. How + the land which had paid taxes once, was to pay them a second time, how + imposts could be levied without commerce, or commerce continued + without money, it was not his custom to inquire. Eager to snatch at + money, and delighted to count it, he felt new joy at every receipt, + and thought himself enriched by the impoverishment of his dominions. +</p> +<p> + By which of these freaks of royalty the prince was offended, or + whether, as perhaps more frequently happens, the offences of which he + complains were of a domestick and personal kind, it is not easy to + discover. But his resentment, whatever was its cause, rose so high, + that he resolved not only to leave his father's court, but his + territories, and to seek a refuge among the neighbouring or kindred + princes. It is generally believed that his intention was to come to + England, and live under the protection of his uncle, till his father's + death, or change of conduct, should give him liberty to return. +</p> +<p> + His design, whatever it was, he concerted with an officer in the army, + whose name was Kat, a man in whom he placed great confidence, and + whom, having chosen him for the companion of his flight, he + necessarily trusted with the preparatory measures. A prince cannot + leave his country with the speed of a meaner fugitive. Something was + to be provided, and something to be adjusted. And, whether Kat found + the agency of others necessary, and, therefore, was constrained to + admit some partners of the secret; whether levity or vanity incited + him to disburden himself of a trust that swelled in his bosom, or to + show to a friend or mistress his own importance; or whether it be in + itself difficult for princes to transact any thing in secret; so it + was, that the king was informed of the intended flight, and the + prince, and his favourite, a little before the time settled for their + departure, were arrested, and confined in different places. +</p> +<p> + The life of princes is seldom in danger, the hazard of their + irregularities falls only on those whom ambition or affection combines + with them. The king, after an imprisonment of some time, set his son + at liberty; but poor Kat was ordered to be tried for a capital crime. + The court examined the cause, and acquitted him: the king remanded him + to a second trial, and obliged his judges to condemn him. In + consequence of the sentence thus tyrannically extorted, he was + publickly beheaded, leaving behind him some papers of reflections made + in the prison, which were afterwards printed, and among others an + admonition to the prince, for whose sake he suffered, not to foster in + himself the opinion of destiny, for that a providence is discoverable + in every thing round us. +</p> +<p> + This cruel prosecution of a man who had committed no crime, but by + compliance with influence not easily to be resisted, was not the only + act by which the old king irritated his son. A lady with whom the + prince was suspected of intimacy, perhaps more than virtue allowed, + was seized, I know not upon what accusation, and, by the king's order, + notwithstanding all the reasons of decency and tenderness that operate + in other countries, and other judicatures, was publickly whipped in + the streets of Berlin. +</p> +<p> + At last, that the prince might feel the power of a king and a father + in its utmost rigour, he was, in 1733, married against his will to the + princess Elizabetha Christina of Brunswick Luneburg Beveren. He + married her indeed at his father's command, but without professing for + her either esteem or affection, and considering the claim of parental + authority fully satisfied by the external ceremony, obstinately and + perpetually, during the life of his father, refrained from her bed. + The poor princess lived about seven years in the court of Berlin, in a + state which the world has not often seen, a wife without a husband, + married so far as to engage her person to a man who did not desire her + affection, and of whom it was doubtful, whether he thought himself + restrained from the power of repudiation by an act performed under + evident compulsion. +</p> +<p> + Thus he lived secluded from publick business, in contention with his + father, in alienation from his wife. This state of uneasiness he found + the only means of softening. He diverted his mind from the scenes + about him, by studies and liberal amusements. The studies of princes + seldom produce great effects, for princes draw with meaner mortals the + lot of understanding; and since of many students not more than one can + be hoped to advance far towards perfection, it is scarcely to be + expected that we should find that one a prince; that the desire of + science should overpower in any mind the love of pleasure, when it is + always present, or always within call; that laborious meditation + should be preferred in the days of youth to amusements and festivity; + or that perseverance should press forward in contempt of flattery; and + that he, in whom moderate acquisitions would be extolled as prodigies, + should exact from himself that excellence of which the whole world + conspires to spare him the necessity. +</p> +<p> + In every great performance, perhaps in every great character, part is + the gift of nature, part the contribution of accident, and part, very + often not the greatest part, the effect of voluntary election, and + regular design. The king of Prussia was undoubtedly born with more + than common abilities; but that he has cultivated them with more than + common diligence, was probably the effect of his peculiar condition, + of that which he then considered as cruelty and misfortune. +</p> +<p> + In this long interval of unhappiness and obscurity, he acquired skill + in the mathematical sciences, such as is said to have put him on the + level with those who have made them the business of their lives. This + is, probably, to say too much: the acquisitions of kings are always + magnified. His skill in poetry and in the French language has been + loudly praised by Voltaire, a judge without exception, if his honesty + were equal to his knowledge. Musick he not only understands, but + practises on the German flute, in the highest perfection; so that, + according to the regal censure of Philip of Macedon, he may be ashamed + to play so well. +</p> +<p> + He may be said to owe to the difficulties of his youth an advantage + less frequently obtained by princes than literature and mathematicks. + The necessity of passing his time without pomp, and of partaking of + the pleasures and labours of a lower station, made him acquainted with + the various forms of life, and with the genuine passions, interests, + desires, and distresses, of mankind. Kings, without this help from + temporary infelicity, see the world in a mist, which magnifies every + thing near them, and bounds their view to a narrow compass, which few + are able to extend by the mere force of curiosity. I have always + thought that what Cromwell had more than our lawful kings, he owed to + the private condition in which he first entered the world, and in + which he long continued: in that state he learned his art of secret + transaction, and the knowledge by which he was able to oppose zeal to + zeal, and make one enthusiast destroy another. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia gained the same arts, and, being born to fairer + opportunities of using them, brought to the throne the knowledge of a + private man, without the guilt of usurpation. Of this general + acquaintance with the world there may be found some traces in his + whole life. His conversation is like that of other men upon common + topicks, his letters have an air of familiar elegance, and his whole + conduct is that of a man who has to do with men, and who is not + ignorant what motives will prevail over friends or enemies. +</p> +<p> + In 1740, the old king fell sick, and spoke and acted in his illness + with his usual turbulence and roughness, reproaching his physicians, + in the grossest terms, with their unskilfulness and impotence, and + imputing to their ignorance or wickedness the pain which their + prescriptions failed to relieve. These insults they bore with the + submission which is commonly paid to despotick monarchs; till at last + the celebrated Hoffman was consulted, who failing, like the rest, to + give ease to his majesty, was, like the rest, treated with injurious + language. Hoffman, conscious of his own merit, replied, that he could + not bear reproaches which he did not deserve; that he had tried all + the remedies that art could supply, or nature could admit; that he + was, indeed, a professor by his majesty's bounty; but that, if his + abilities or integrity were doubted, he was willing to leave, not only + the university, but the kingdom; and that he could not be driven into + any place where the name of Hoffman would want respect. The king, + however unaccustomed to such returns, was struck with conviction of + his own indecency, told Hoffman, that he had spoken well, and + requested him to continue his attendance. +</p> +<p> + The king, finding his distemper gaining upon his strength, grew at + last sensible that his end was approaching, and, ordering the prince + to be called to his bed, laid several injunctions upon him, of which + one was to perpetuate the tall regiment by continual recruits, and + another, to receive his espoused wife. The prince gave him a + respectful answer, but wisely avoided to diminish his own right or + power by an absolute promise; and the king died uncertain of the fate + of the tall regiment. +</p> +<p> + The young king began his reign with great expectations, which he has + yet surpassed. His father's faults produced many advantages to the + first years of his reign. He had an army of seventy thousand men well + disciplined, without any imputation of severity to himself, and was + master of a vast treasure without the crime or reproach of raising it. + It was publickly said in our house of commons, that he had eight + millions sterling of our money; but, I believe, he that said it had + not considered how difficultly eight millions would be found in all + the Prussian dominions. Men judge of what they do not see by that + which they see. We are used to talk in England of millions with great + familiarity, and imagine that there is the same affluence of money in + other countries, in countries whose manufactures are few, and commerce + little. +</p> +<p> + Every man's first cares are necessarily domestick. The king, being now + no longer under influence, or its appearance, determined how to act + towards the unhappy lady who had possessed, for seven years, the empty + title of the princess of Prussia. The papers of those times exhibited + the conversation of their first interview; as if the king, who plans + campaigns in silence, would not accommodate a difference with his + wife, but with writers of news admitted as witnesses. It is certain + that he received her as queen, but whether he treats her as a wife is + yet in dispute. +</p> +<p> + In a few days his resolution was known with regard to the tall + regiment; for some recruits being offered him, he rejected them; and + this body of giants, by continued disregard, mouldered away. +</p> +<p> + He treated his mother with great respect, ordered that she should bear + the title of <i>queen mother</i>, and that, instead of addressing him + as <i>his majesty</i>, she should only call him <i>son</i>. +</p> +<p> + As he was passing soon after between Berlin and Potsdam, a thousand + boys, who had been marked out for military service, surrounded his + coach, and cried out: "merciful king! deliver us from our slavery." He + promised them their liberty, and ordered, the next day, that the badge + should be taken off. +</p> +<p> + He still continued that correspondence with learned men which he began + when he was prince; and the eyes of all scholars, a race of mortals + formed for dependence, were upon him, as a man likely to renew the + times of patronage, and to emulate the bounties of Lewis the + fourteenth. +</p> +<p> + It soon appeared that he was resolved to govern with very little + ministerial assistance: he took cognizance of every thing with his own + eyes; declared, that in all contrarieties of interest between him and + his subjects, the publick good should have the preference; and, in one + of the first exertions of regal power, banished the prime minister and + favourite of his father, as one that had "betrayed his master, and + abused his trust." +</p> +<p> + He then declared his resolution to grant a general toleration of + religion, and, among other liberalities of concession, allowed the + profession of free-masonry. It is the great taint of his character, + that he has given reason to doubt, whether this toleration is the + effect of charity or indifference, whether he means to support good + men of every religion, or considers all religions as equally good. + There had subsisted, for some time, in Prussia, an order called the + "order for favour," which, according to its denomination, had been + conferred with very little distinction. The king instituted the "order + for merit," with which he honoured those whom he considered as + deserving. There were some who thought their merit not sufficiently + recompensed by this new title; but he was not very ready to grant + pecuniary rewards. Those who were most in his favour he sometimes + presented with snuffboxes, on which was inscribed, "Amitié augmente le + prix." +</p> +<p> + He was, however, charitable, if not liberal, for he ordered the + magistrates of the several districts to be very attentive to the + relief of the poor; and, if the funds established for that use were + not sufficient, permitted that the deficiency should be supplied out + of the revenues of the town. +</p> +<p> + One of his first cares was the advancement of learning. Immediately + upon his accession, he wrote to Rollin and Voltaire, that he desired + the continuance of their friendship; and sent for Mr. Maupertuis, the + principal of the French academicians, who passed a winter in Lapland, + to verify, by the mensuration of a degree near the pole, the Newtonian + doctrine of the form of the earth. He requested of Maupertuis to come + to Berlin, to settle an academy, in terms of great ardour and great + condescension. +</p> +<p> + At the same time, he showed the world that literary amusements were + not likely, as has more than once happened to royal students, to + withdraw him from the care of the kingdom, or make him forget his + interest. He began by reviving a claim to Herstal and Hermal, two + districts in the possession of the bishop of Liege. When he sent his + commissary to demand the homage of the inhabitants, they refused him + admission, declaring that they acknowledged no sovereign but the + bishop. The king then wrote a letter to the bishop, in which he + complained of the violation of his right, and the contempt of his + authority, charged the prelate with countenancing the late act of + disobedience, and required an answer in two days. +</p> +<p> + In three days the answer was sent, in which the bishop founds his + claim to the two lordships, upon a grant of Charles the fifth, + guaranteed by France and Spain; alleges that his predecessors had + enjoyed this grant above a century, and that he never intended to + infringe the rights of Prussia; but as the house of Brandenburgh had + always made some pretensions to that territory, he was willing to do + what other bishops had offered, to purchase that claim for a hundred + thousand crowns. +</p> +<p> + To every man that knows the state of the feudal countries, the + intricacy of their pedigrees, the confusion of their alliances, and + the different rules of inheritance that prevail in different places, + it will appear evident, that of reviving antiquated claims there can + be no end, and that the possession of a century is a better title than + can commonly be produced. So long a prescription supposes an + acquiescence in the other claimants; and that acquiescence supposes + also some reason, perhaps now unknown, for which the claim was + forborne. Whether this rule could be considered as valid in the + controversy between these sovereigns, may, however, be doubted, for + the bishop's answer seems to imply, that the title of the house of + Brandenburg had been kept alive by repeated claims, though the seizure + of the territory had been hitherto forborne. +</p> +<p> + The king did not suffer his claim to be subjected to any altercations, + but, having published a declaration, in which he charged the bishop + with violence and injustice, and remarked that the feudal laws allowed + every man, whose possession was withheld from him, to enter it with an + armed force, he immediately despatched two thousand soldiers into the + controverted countries, where they lived without control, exercising + every kind of military tyranny, till the cries of the inhabitants + forced the bishop to relinquish them to the quiet government of + Prussia. +</p> +<p> + This was but a petty acquisition; the time was now come when the king + of Prussia was to form and execute greater designs. On the 9th of + October, 1740, half Europe was thrown into confusion by the death of + Charles the sixth, emperour of Germany, by whose death all the + hereditary dominions of the house of Austria descended, according to + the pragmatick sanction, to his eldest daughter, who was married to + the duke of Lorrain, at the time of the emperour's death, duke of + Tuscany. +</p> +<p> + By how many securities the pragmatick sanction was fortified, and how + little it was regarded when those securities became necessary; how + many claimants started up at once to the several dominions of the + house of Austria; how vehemently their pretensions were enforced, and + how many invasions were threatened or attempted; the distresses of the + emperour's daughter, known for several years by the title only of the + queen of Hungary, because Hungary was the only country to which her + claim had not been disputed: the firmness with which she struggled + with her difficulties, and the good fortune by which she surmounted + them; the narrow plan of this essay will not suffer me to relate. Let + them be told by some other writer of more leisure and wider + intelligence. +</p> +<p> + Upon the emperour's death, many of the German princes fell upon the + Austrian territories, as upon a dead carcass, to be dismembered among + them without resistance. Among these, with whatever justice, certainly + with very little generosity, was the king of Prussia, who, having + assembled his troops, as was imagined, to support the pragmatick + sanction, on a sudden entered Silesia with thirty thousand men, + publishing a declaration, in which he disclaims any design of injuring + the rights of the house of Austria, but urges his claim to Silesia, as + rising "from ancient conventions of family and confraternity between + the house of Brandenburg and the princes of Silesia, and other + honourable titles." He says, the fear of being defeated by other + pretenders to the Austrian dominions, obliged him to enter Silesia + without any previous expostulation with the queen, and that he shall + "strenuously espouse the interests of the house of Austria." +</p> +<p> + Such a declaration was, I believe, in the opinion of all Europe, + nothing less than the aggravation of hostility by insult, and was + received by the Austrians with suitable indignation. The king pursued + his purpose, marched forward, and in the frontiers of Silesia made a + speech to his followers, in which he told them, that he considered + them rather "as friends than subjects, that the troops of Brandenburg + had been always eminent for their bravery, that they would always + fight in his presence, and that he would recompense those who should + distinguish themselves in his service, rather as a father than as a + king." +</p> +<p> + The civilities of the great are never thrown away. The soldiers would + naturally follow such a leader with alacrity; especially because they + expected no opposition: but human expectations are frequently + deceived. +</p> +<p> + Entering thus suddenly into a country which he was supposed rather + likely to protect than to invade, he acted for some time with absolute + authority; but, supposing that this submission would not always last, + he endeavoured to persuade the queen to a cession of Silesia, + imagining that she would easily be persuaded to yield what was already + lost. He, therefore, ordered his minister to declare, at Vienna, "that + he was ready to guarantee all the German dominions of the house of + Austria; that he would conclude a treaty with Austria, Russia, and the + maritime powers; that he would endeavour that the duke of Lorrain + should be elected emperour, and believed that he could accomplish it; + that he would immediately advance to the queen two millions of + florins; that, in recompense for all this, he required Silesia to be + yielded to him." +</p> +<p> + These seem not to be the offers of a prince very much convinced of his + own right. He afterwards moderated his claim, and ordered his minister + to hint at Vienna, that half of Silesia would content him. +</p> +<p> + The queen answered, that though the king alleged, as his reason for + entering Silesia, the danger of the Austrian territories from other + pretenders, and endeavoured to persuade her to give up part of her + possessions for the preservation of the rest, it was evident that he + was the first and only invader, and that, till he entered in a hostile + manner, all her estates were unmolested. +</p> +<p> + To his promises of assistance she replied, "that she set a high value + on the king of Prussia's friendship; but that he was already obliged + to assist her against her invaders, both by the golden bull, and the + pragmatick sanction, of which he was a guarantee, and that, if these + ties were of no force she knew not what to hope from other + engagements." +</p> +<p> + Of his offers of alliances with Russia and the maritime powers, she + observed, that it could be never fit to alienate her dominions for the + consolidation of an alliance formed only to keep them entire. +</p> +<p> + With regard to his interest in the election of an emperour, she + expressed her gratitude in strong terms; but added, that the election + ought to be free, and that it must be necessarily embarrassed by + contentions thus raised in the heart of the empire. Of the pecuniary + assistance proposed, she remarks, that no prince ever made war to + oblige another to take money, and that the contributions already + levied in Silesia exceed the two millions, offered as its purchase. +</p> +<p> + She concluded, that as she values the king's friendship, she was + willing to purchase it by any compliance but the diminution of her + dominions, and exhorted him to perform his part in support of the + pragmatick sanction. +</p> +<p> + The king, finding negotiation thus ineffectual, pushed forward his + inroads, and now began to show how secretly he could take his + measures. When he called a council of war, he proposed the question in + a few words: all his generals wrote their opinions in his presence + upon separate papers, which he carried away, and, examining them in + private, formed his resolution, without imparting it otherwise than by + his orders. +</p> +<p> + He began not without policy, to seize first upon the estates of the + clergy, an order every where necessary, and every where envied. He + plundered the convents of their stores of provision; and told them, + that he never had heard of any magazines erected by the apostles. +</p> +<p> + This insult was mean, because it was unjust; but those who could not + resist were obliged to bear it. He proceeded in his expedition; and a + detachment of his troops took Jablunca, one of the strong places of + Silesia, which was soon after abandoned, for want of provisions, which + the Austrian hussars, who were now in motion, were busy to interrupt. +</p> +<p> + One of the most remarkable events of the Silesia war, was the conquest + of great Glogau, which was taken by an assault in the dark, headed by + prince Leopold of Anhalt Dessau. They arrived at the foot of the + fortifications about twelve at night, and in two hours were masters of + the place. In attempts of this kind many accidents happen which cannot + be heard without surprise. Four Prussian grenadiers, who had climbed + the ramparts, missing their own company, met an Austrian captain with + fifty-two men: they were at first frighted, and were about to retreat; + but, gathering courage, commanded the Austrians to lay down their + arms, and in the terrour of darkness and confusion were unexpectedly + obeyed. +</p> +<p> + At the same time a conspiracy to kill or carry away the king of + Prussia, was said to be discovered. The Prussians published a + memorial, in which the Austrian court was accused of employing + emissaries and assassins against the king; and it was alleged, in + direct terms, that one of them had confessed himself obliged, by oath, + to destroy him, which oath had been given him in an Aulick council, in + the presence of the duke of Lorrain. +</p> +<p> + To this the Austrians answered, "that the character of the queen and + duke was too well known not to destroy the force of such an + accusation; that the tale of the confession was an imposture, and that + no such attempt was ever made." +</p> +<p> + Each party was now inflamed, and orders were given to the Austrian + general to hazard a battle. The two armies met at Molwitz, and parted + without a complete victory on either side. The Austrians quitted the + field in good order; and the king of Prussia rode away upon the first + disorder of his troops, without waiting for the last event. This + attention to his personal safety has not yet been forgotten. +</p> +<p> + After this, there was no action of much importance. But the king of + Prussia, irritated by opposition, transferred his interest in the + election to the duke of Bavaria; and the queen of Hungary, now + attacked by France, Spain, and Bavaria, was obliged to make peace with + him at the expense of half Silesia, without procuring those advantages + which were once offered her. +</p> +<p> + To enlarge dominions has been the boast of many princes; to diffuse + happiness and security through wide regions has been granted to few. + The king of Prussia has aspired to both these honours, and endeavoured + to join the praise of legislator to that of conqueror. +</p> +<p> + To settle property, to suppress false claims, and to regulate the + administration of civil and criminal justice are attempts so difficult + and so useful, that I shall willingly suspend or contract the history + of battles and sieges, to give a larger account of this pacifick + enterprise. +</p> +<p> + That the king of Prussia has considered the nature and the reasons of + laws, with more attention than is common to princes, appears from his + dissertation on the Reasons for enacting and repealing Laws: a piece + which yet deserves notice, rather as a proof of good inclination than + of great ability; for there is nothing to be found in it more than the + most obvious books may supply, or the weakest intellect discover. Some + of his observations are just and useful; but upon such a subject who + can think without often thinking right? It is, however, not to be + omitted, that he appears always propense towards the side of mercy. + "If a poor man," says he, "steals in his want a watch, or a few + pieces, from one to whom the loss is inconsiderable, is this a reason + for condemning him to death?" +</p> +<p> + He regrets that the laws against duels have been ineffectual; and is + of opinion, that they can never attain their end, unless the princes + of Europe shall agree not to afford an asylum to duellists, and to + punish all who shall insult their equals, either by word, deed, or + writing. He seems to suspect this scheme of being chimerical. "Yet + why," says he, "should not personal quarrels be submitted to judges, + as well as questions of possession? and why should not a congress be + appointed for the general good of mankind, as well as for so many + purposes of less importance?" +</p> +<p> + He declares himself with great ardour against the use of torture, and + by some misinformation charges the English that they still retain it. +</p> +<p> + It is, perhaps, impossible to review the laws of any country without + discovering many defects and many superfluities. Laws often continue, + when their reasons have ceased. Laws made for the first state of the + society continue unabolished, when the general form of life is + changed. Parts of the judicial procedure, which were, at first, only + accidental, become, in time, essential; and formalities are + accumulated on each other, till the art of litigation requires more + study than the discovery of right. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia, examining the institutions of his own country, + thought them such as could only be amended by a general abrogation, + and the establishment of a new body of law, to which he gave the name + of the Code Frédérique, which is comprised in one volume of no great + bulk, and must, therefore, unavoidably contain general positions to be + accommodated to particular cases by the wisdom and integrity of the + courts. To embarrass justice by multiplicity of laws, or to hazard it + by confidence in judges, seem to be the opposite rocks on which all + civil institutions have been wrecked, and between which legislative + wisdom has never yet found an open passage. +</p> +<p> + Of this new system of laws, contracted as it is, a full account cannot + be expected in these memoirs; but, that curiosity may not be dismissed + without some gratification, it has been thought proper to epitomise + the king's plan for the reformation of his courts. +</p> +<p> + "The differences which arise between members of the same society, may + be terminated by a voluntary agreement between the parties, by + arbitration, or by a judicial process. +</p> +<p> + "The two first methods produce, more frequently, a temporary + suspension of disputes than a final termination. Courts of justice + are, therefore, necessary, with a settled method of procedure, of + which the most simple is to cite the parties, to hear their pleas, and + dismiss them with immediate decision. +</p> +<p> + "This, however, is, in many cases, impracticable, and in others is so + seldom practised, that it is frequent rather to incur loss than to + seek for legal reparation, by entering a labyrinth of which there is + no end. +</p> +<p> + "This tediousness of suits keeps the parties in disquiet and + perturbation, rouses and perpetuates animosities, exhausts the + litigants by expense, retards the progress of their fortune, and + discourages strangers from settling. +</p> +<p> + "These inconveniencies, with which the best-regulated polities of + Europe are embarrassed, must be removed, not by the total prohibition + of suits, which is impossible, but by contraction of processes; by + opening an easy way for the appearance of truth, and removing all + obstructions by which it is concealed. +</p> +<p> + "The ordonnance of 1667, by which Lewis the fourteenth established an + uniformity of procedure through all his courts, has been considered as + one of the greatest benefits of his reign. +</p> +<p> + "The king of Prussia, observing that each of his provinces had a + different method of judicial procedure, proposed to reduce them all to + one form; which being tried with success in Pomerania, a province + remarkable for contention, he afterwards extended to all his + dominions, ordering the judges to inform him of any difficulties which + arose from it. +</p> +<p> + "Some settled method is necessary in judicial procedures. Small and + simple causes might be decided upon the oral pleas of the two parties + appearing before the judge; but many cases are so entangled and + perplexed as to require all the skill and abilities of those who + devote their lives to the study of the law. +</p> +<p> + "Advocates, or men who can understand and explain the question to be + discussed, are, therefore, necessary. But these men, instead of + endeavouring to promote justice and discover truth, have exerted their + wits in the defence of bad causes, by forgeries of facts, and + fallacies of argument. +</p> +<p> + "To remedy this evil, the king has ordered an inquiry into the + qualifications of the advocate. All those who practise without a + regular admission, or who can be convicted of disingenuous practice, + are discarded. And the judges are commanded to examine which of the + causes now depending have been protracted by the crimes and ignorance + of the advocates, and to dismiss those who shall appear culpable. +</p> +<p> + "When advocates are too numerous to live by honest practice, they busy + themselves in exciting disputes, and disturbing the community: the + number of these to be employed in each court is, therefore, fixed. +</p> +<p> + "The reward of the advocates is fixed with due regard to the nature of + the cause, and the labour required; but not a penny is received by + them till the suit is ended, that it may be their interest, as well as + that of the clients, to shorten the process. +</p> +<p> + "No advocate is admitted in petty courts, small towns, or villages; + where the poverty of the people, and, for the most part, the low value + of the matter contested, make despatch absolutely necessary. In those + places the parties shall appear in person, and the judge make a + summary decision. +</p> +<p> + "There must, likewise, be allowed a subordination of tribunals, and a + power of appeal. No judge is so skilful and attentive as not sometimes + to err. Few are so honest as not sometimes to be partial. Petty judges + would become insupportably tyrannical if they were not restrained by + the fear of a superiour judicature; and their decisions would be + negligent or arbitrary if they were not in danger of seeing them + examined and cancelled. +</p> +<p> + "The right of appeal must be restrained, that causes may not be + transferred without end from court to court; and a peremptory decision + must, at last, be made. +</p> +<p> + "When an appeal is made to a higher court, the appellant is allowed + only four weeks to frame his bill, the judge of the lower court being + to transmit to the higher all the evidences and informations. If, upon + the first view of the cause thus opened, it shall appear that the + appeal was made without just cause, the first sentence shall be + confirmed without citation of the defendant. If any new evidence shall + appear, or any doubts arise, both the parties shall be heard. +</p> +<p> + "In the discussion of causes altercation must be allowed; yet to + altercation some limits must be put. There are, therefore, allowed a + bill, an answer, a reply, and a rejoinder, to be delivered in writing. +</p> +<p> + "No cause is allowed to be heard in more than three different courts. + To further the first decision, every advocate is enjoined, under + severe penalties, not to begin a suit till he has collected all the + necessary evidence. If the first court has decided in an + unsatisfactory manner, an appeal may be made to the second, and from + the second to the third. The process in each appeal is limited to six + months. The third court may, indeed, pass an erroneous judgment; and + then the injury is without redress. But this objection is without end, + and, therefore, without force. No method can be found of preserving + humanity from errour; but of contest there must sometime be an end; + and he, who thinks himself injured for want of an appeal to a fourth + court, must consider himself as suffering for the publick. +</p> +<p> + "There is a special advocate appointed for the poor. +</p> +<p> + "The attorneys, who had formerly the care of collecting evidence, and + of adjusting all the preliminaries of a suit, are now totally + dismissed; the whole affair is put into the hands of the advocates, + and the office of an attorney is annulled for ever. +</p> +<p> + "If any man is hindered by some lawful impediment from attending his + suit, time will be granted him upon the representation of his case." +</p> +<p> + Such is the order according to which civil justice is administered + through the extensive dominions of the king of Prussia; which, if it + exhibits nothing very subtle or profound, affords one proof more that + the right is easily discovered, and that men do not so often want + ability to find, as willingness to practise it. +</p> +<p> + We now return to the war. +</p> +<p> + The time at which the queen of Hungary was willing to purchase peace + by the resignation of Silesia, though it came at last, was not come + yet. She had all the spirit, though not all the power of her + ancestors, and could not bear the thought of losing any part of her + patrimonial dominions to the enemies which the opinion of her weakness + raised every where against her. +</p> +<p> + In the beginning of the year 1742, the elector of Bavaria was invested + with the imperial dignity, supported by the arms of France, master of + the kingdom of Bohemia; and confederated with the elector Palatine, + and the elector of Saxony, who claimed Moravia; and with the king of + Prussia, who was in possession of Silesia. +</p> +<p> + Such was the state of the queen of Hungary, pressed on every side, and + on every side preparing for resistance: she yet refused all offers of + accommodation, for every prince set peace at a price which she was not + yet so far humbled as to pay. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia was among the most zealous and forward in the + confederacy against her. He promised to secure Bohemia to the + emperour, and Moravia to the elector of Saxony; and, finding no enemy + in the field able to resist him, he returned to Berlin, and left + Schwerin, his general, to prosecute the conquest. +</p> +<p> + The Prussians, in the midst of winter, took Olmutz, the capital of + Moravia, and laid the whole country under contribution. The cold then + hindered them from action, and they only blocked up the fortresses of + Brinn, and Spielberg. +</p> +<p> + In the spring, the king of Prussia came again into the field, and + undertook the siege of Brinn; but, upon the approach of prince Charles + of Lorrain, retired from before it, and quitted Moravia, leaving only + a garrison in the capital. +</p> +<p> + The condition of the queen of Hungary was now changed. She was, a few + months before, without money, without troops, encircled with enemies. + The Bavarians had entered Austria, Vienna was threatened with a siege, + and the queen left it to the fate of war, and retired into Hungary, + where she was received with zeal and affection, not unmingled, + however, with that neglect which must always be borne by greatness in + distress. She bore the disrespect of her subjects with the same + firmness as the outrages of her enemies; and, at last, persuaded the + English not to despair of her preservation, by not despairing herself. +</p> +<p> + Voltaire, in his late history, has asserted, that a large sum was + raised for her succour, by voluntary subscriptions of the English + ladies. It is the great failing of a strong imagination to catch + greedily at wonders. He was misinformed, and was, perhaps, unwilling + to learn, by a second inquiry, a truth less splendid and amusing. A + contribution was, by news-writers, upon their own authority, + fruitlessly, and, I think, illegally proposed. It ended in nothing. + The parliament voted a supply, and five hundred thousand pounds were + remitted to her. +</p> +<p> + It has been always the weakness of the Austrian family to spend in the + magnificence of empire, those revenues which should be kept for its + defence. The court is splendid, but the treasury is empty; and, at the + beginning of every war, advantages are gained against them, before + their armies can be assembled and equipped. +</p> +<p> + The English money was to the Austrians, as a shower to a field, where + all the vegetative powers are kept unactive by a long continuance of + drought. The armies, which had hitherto been hid in mountains and + forests, started out of their retreats; and, wherever the queen's + standard was erected, nations scarcely known by their names, swarmed + immediately about it. An army, especially a defensive army, multiplies + itself. The contagion of enterprise spreads from one heart to another. + Zeal for a native, or detestation of a foreign sovereign, hope of + sudden greatness or riches, friendship or emulation between particular + men, or, what are perhaps more general and powerful, desire of novelty + and impatience of inactivity, fill a camp with adventurers, add rank + to rank, and squadron to squadron. +</p> +<p> + The queen had still enemies on every part, but she now, on every part, + had armies ready to oppose them. Austria was immediately recovered; + the plains of Bohemia were filled with her troops, though the + fortresses were garrisoned by the French. The Bavarians were recalled + to the defence of their own country, now wasted by the incursions of + troops that were called barbarians, greedy enough of plunder, and + daring, perhaps, beyond the rules of war, but otherwise not more cruel + than those whom they attacked. Prince Lobkowitz, with one army, + observed the motions of Broglio, the French general, in Bohemia; and + prince Charles with another, put a stop to the advances of the king of + Prussia. +</p> +<p> + It was now the turn of the Prussians to retire. They abandoned Olmutz, + and left behind them part of their cannon and their magazines. And the + king, finding that Broglio could not long oppose prince Lobkowitz, + hastened into Bohemia to his assistance; and having received a + reinforcement of twenty-three thousand men, and taken the castle of + Glatz, which, being built upon a rock scarcely accessible, would have + defied all his power, had the garrison been furnished with provisions, + he purposed to join his allies, and prosecute his conquests. +</p> +<p> + Prince Charles, seeing Moravia thus evacuated by the Prussians, + determined to garrison the towns which he had just recovered, and + pursue the enemy, who, by the assistance of the French, would have + been too powerful for prince Lobkowitz. +</p> +<p> + Success had now given confidence to the Austrians, and had + proportionably abated the spirit of their enemies. The Saxons, who had + cooperated with the king of Prussia in the conquest of Moravia, of + which they expected the perpetual possession, seeing all hopes of + sudden acquisition defeated, and the province left again to its former + masters, grew weary of following a prince, whom they considered as no + longer acting the part of their confederate; and when they approached + the confines of Bohemia took a different road, and left the Prussians + to their own fortune. +</p> +<p> + The king continued his march, and Charles his pursuit. At Czaslau the + two armies came in sight of one another, and the Austrians resolved on + a decisive day. On the 6th of May, about seven in the morning, the + Austrians began the attack: their impetuosity was matched by the + firmness of the Prussians. The animosity of the two armies was much + inflamed: the Austrians were fighting for their country, and the + Prussians were in a place, where defeat must inevitably end in death + or captivity. The fury of the battle continued four hours: the + Prussian horse were, at length, broken, and the Austrians forced their + way to the camp, where the wild troops, who had fought with so much + vigour and constancy, at the sight of plunder forgot their obedience, + nor had any man the least thought but how to load himself with the + richest spoils. +</p> +<p> + While the right wing of the Austrians was thus employed, the main body + was left naked: the Prussians recovered from their confusion, and + regained the day. Charles was, at last, forced to retire, and carried + with him the standards of his enemies, the proofs of a victory, which, + though so nearly gained, he had not been able to keep. +</p> +<p> + The victory, however, was dearly bought; the Prussian army was much + weakened, and the cavalry almost totally destroyed. Peace is easily + made when it is necessary to both parties; and the king of Prussia had + now reason to believe that the Austrians were not his only enemies. + When he found Charles advancing, he sent to Broglio for assistance, + and was answered, that "he must have orders from Versailles." Such a + desertion of his most powerful ally disconcerted him, but the battle + was unavoidable. +</p> +<p> + When the Prussians were returned to the camp, the king, hearing that + an Austrian officer was brought in mortally wounded, had the + condescension to visit him. The officer, struck with this act of + humanity, said, after a short conversation: "I should die, sir, + contentedly after this honour, if I might first show my gratitude to + your majesty by informing you with what allies you are now united, + allies that have no intention but to deceive you." The king appearing + to suspect this intelligence; "Sir," said the Austrian, "if you will + permit me to send a messenger to Vienna, I believe the queen will not + refuse to transmit an intercepted letter now in her hands, which will + put my report beyond all doubt." +</p> +<p> + The messenger was sent, and the letter transmitted, which contained + the order sent to Broglio, who was, first, forbidden to mix his troops + on any occasion with the Prussians. Secondly, he was ordered to act + always at a distance from the king. Thirdly, to keep always a body of + twenty thousand men to observe the Prussian army. Fourthly, to observe + very closely the motions of the king, for important reasons. Fifthly, + to hazard nothing; but to pretend want of reinforcements, or the + absence of Bellisle. +</p> +<p> + The king now, with great reason, considered himself as disengaged from + the confederacy, being deserted by the Saxons, and betrayed by the + French; he, therefore, accepted the mediation of king George, and, in + three weeks after the battle of Czaslaw, made peace with the queen of + Hungary, who granted to him the whole province of Silesia, a country + of such extent and opulence, that he is said to receive from it one + third part of his revenues. By one of the articles of this treaty it + is stipulated, "that neither should assist the enemies of the other." +</p> +<p> + The queen of Hungary, thus disentangled on one side, and set free from + the most formidable of her enemies, soon persuaded the Saxons to + peace; took possession of Bavaria; drove the emperour, after all his + imaginary conquests, to the shelter of a neutral town, where he was + treated as a fugitive; and besieged the French in Prague, in the city + which they had taken from her. +</p> +<p> + Having thus obtained Silesia, the king of Prussia returned to his own + capital, where he reformed his laws, forbade the torture of criminals, + concluded a defensive alliance with England, and applied himself to + the augmentation of his army. +</p> +<p> + This treaty of peace with the queen of Hungary was one of the first + proofs given by the king of Prussia, of the secrecy of his counsels. + Bellisle, the French general, was with him in the camp, as a friend + and coadjutor in appearance, but in truth a spy, and a writer of + intelligence. Men who have great confidence in their own penetration + are often by that confidence deceived; they imagine that they can + pierce through all the involutions of intrigue, without the diligence + necessary to weaker minds, and, therefore, sit idle and secure; they + believe that none can hope to deceive them, and, therefore, that none + will try. Bellisle, with all his reputation of sagacity, though he was + in the Prussian camp, gave, every day, fresh assurances of the king's + adherence to his allies; while Broglio, who commanded the army at a + distance, discovered sufficient reason to suspect his desertion. + Broglio was slighted, and Bellisle believed, till, on the 11th of + June, the treaty was signed, and the king declared his resolution to + keep a neutrality. +</p> +<p> + This is one of the great performances of polity which mankind seem + agreed to celebrate and admire; yet, to all this nothing was necessary + but the determination of a very few men to be silent. +</p> +<p> + From this time the queen of Hungary proceeded with an uninterrupted + torrent of success. The French, driven from station to station, and + deprived of fortress after fortress, were, at last, enclosed with + their two generals, Bellisle and Broglio, in the walls of Prague, + which they had stored with all provisions necessary to a town + besieged, and where they defended themselves three months before any + prospect appeared of relief. +</p> +<p> + The Austrians, having been engaged chiefly in the field, and in sudden + and tumultuary excursions, rather than a regular war, had no great + degree of skill in attacking or defending towns. They, likewise, would + naturally consider all the mischiefs done to the city, as falling, + ultimately, upon themselves; and, therefore, were willing to gain it + by time rather than by force. +</p> +<p> + It was apparent that, how long soever Prague might be defended, it + must be yielded at last, and, therefore, all arts were tried to obtain + an honourable capitulation. The messengers from the city were sent + back, sometimes unheard, but always with this answer: "That no terms + would be allowed, but that they should yield themselves prisoners of + war." +</p> +<p> + The condition of the garrison was, in the eyes of all Europe, + desperate; but the French, to whom the praise of spirit and activity + cannot be denied, resolved to make an effort for the honour of their + arms. Maillebois was at that time encamped with his army in + Westphalia. Orders were sent him to relieve Prague. The enterprise was + considered as romantick. Maillebois was a march of forty days distant + from Bohemia, the passes were narrow, and the ways foul; and it was + likely that Prague would be taken before he could reach it. The march + was, however, begun: the army, being joined by that of count Saxe, + consisted of fifty thousand men, who, notwithstanding all the + difficulties which two Austrian armies could put in their way, at last + entered Bohemia. The siege of Prague, though not raised, was remitted, + and a communication was now opened to it with the country. But the + Austrians, by perpetual intervention, hindered the garrison from + joining their friends. The officers of Maillebois incited him to a + battle, because the army was hourly lessening by the want of + provisions; but, instead of pressing on to Prague, he retired into + Bavaria, and completed the ruin of the emperour's territories. +</p> +<p> + The court of France, disappointed and offended, conferred the chief + command upon Broglio, who escaped from the besiegers with very little + difficulty, and kept the Austrians employed till Bellisle, by a sudden + sally, quitted Prague, and without any great loss joined the main + army. Broglio then retired over the Rhine into the French dominions, + wasting, in his retreat, the country which he had undertaken to + protect, and burning towns, and destroying magazines of corn, with + such wantonness, as gave reason to believe that he expected + commendation from his court for any mischiefs done, by whatever means. +</p> +<p> + The Austrians pursued their advantages, recovered all their strong + places, in some of which French garrisons had been left, and made + themselves masters of Bavaria, by taking not only Munich, the capital, + but Ingolstadt, the strongest fortification in the elector's + dominions, where they found a great number of cannon and a quantity of + ammunition, intended, in the dreams of projected greatness, for the + siege of Vienna, all the archives of the state, the plate and + ornaments of the electoral palace, and what had been considered as + most worthy of preservation. Nothing but the warlike stores were taken + away. An oath of allegiance to the queen was required of the + Bavarians, but without any explanation, whether temporary or + perpetual. +</p> +<p> + The emperour lived at Frankfort, in the security that was allowed to + neutral places, but without much respect from the German princes, + except that, upon some objections made by the queen to the validity of + his election, the king of Prussia declared himself determined to + support him in the imperial dignity, with all his power. +</p> +<p> + This may be considered as a token of no great affection to the queen + of Hungary, but it seems not to have raised much alarm. The German + princes were afraid of new broils. To contest the election of an + emperour, once invested and acknowledged, would be to overthrow the + whole Germanick constitution. Perhaps no election by plurality of + suffrages was ever made among human beings, to which it might not be + objected, that voices were procured by illicit influence. +</p> +<p> + Some suspicions, however, were raised by the king's declaration, which + he endeavoured to obviate by ordering his ministers to declare at + London and at Vienna, that he was resolved not to violate the treaty + of Breslaw. This declaration was sufficiently ambiguous, and could not + satisfy those whom it might silence. But this was not a time for nice + disquisitions; to distrust the king of Prussia might have provoked + him, and it was most convenient to consider him as a friend, till he + appeared openly as an enemy. +</p> +<p> + About the middle of the year 1744, he raised new alarms by collecting + his troops and putting them in motion. The earl of Hindford about this + time demanded the troops stipulated for the protection of Hanover; + not, perhaps, because they were thought necessary, but that the king's + designs might be guessed from his answer, which was, that troops were + not granted for the defence of any country till that country was in + danger, and that he could not believe the elector of Hanover to be in + much dread of an invasion, since he had withdrawn the native troops, + and put them into the pay of England. +</p> +<p> + He had, undoubtedly, now formed designs which made it necessary that + his troops should be kept together, and the time soon came when the + scene was to be opened. Prince Charles of Lorrain, having chased the + French out of Bavaria, lay, for some months, encamped on the Rhine, + endeavouring to gain a passage into Alsace. His attempts had long been + evaded by the skill and vigilance of the French general, till, at + last, June 21, 1744, he executed his design, and lodged his army in + the French dominions, to the surprise and joy of a great part of + Europe. It was now expected that the territories of France would, in + their turn, feel the miseries of war; and the nation, which so long + kept the world in alarm, be taught, at last, the value of peace. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia now saw the Austrian troops at a great distance + from him, engaged in a foreign country against the most powerful of + all their enemies. Now, therefore, was the time to discover that he + had lately made a treaty at Frankfort with the emperour, by which he + had engaged, "that as the court of Vienna and its allies appeared + backward to reestablish the tranquillity of the empire, and more + cogent methods appeared necessary; he, being animated with a desire of + cooperating towards the pacification of Germany, should make an + expedition for the conquest of Bohemia, and to put it into the + possession of the emperour, his heirs and successours, for ever; in + gratitude for which the emperour should resign to him and his + successours a certain number of lordships, which are now part of the + kingdom of Bohemia. His imperial majesty likewise guaranties to the + king of Prussia the perpetual possession of upper Silesia; and the + king guaranties to the emperour the perpetual possession of upper + Austria, as soon as he shall have occupied it by conquest." +</p> +<p> + It is easy to discover that the king began the war upon other motives + than zeal for peace; and that, whatever respect he was willing to show + to the emperour, he did not purpose to assist him without reward. In + prosecution of this treaty he put his troops in motion; and, according + to his promise, while the Austrians were invading France, he invaded + Bohemia. +</p> +<p> + Princes have this remaining of humanity, that they think themselves + obliged not to make war without a reason. Their reasons are, indeed, + not always very satisfactory. +</p> +<p> + Lewis the fourteenth seemed to think his own glory a sufficient motive + for the invasion of Holland. The czar attacked Charles of Sweden, + because he had not been treated with sufficient respect when he made a + journey in disguise. The king of Prussia, having an opportunity of + attacking his neighbour, was not long without his reasons. On July + 30th, he published his declaration, in which he declares: +</p> +<p> + "That he can no longer stand an idle spectator of the troubles in + Germany, but finds himself obliged to make use of force to restore the + power of the laws, and the authority of the emperour. +</p> +<p> + "That the queen of Hungary has treated the emperour's hereditary + dominions with inexpressible cruelty. +</p> +<p> + "That Germany has been overrun with foreign troops which have marched + through neutral countries without the customary requisitions. +</p> +<p> + "That the emperour's troops have been attacked under neutral + fortresses, and obliged to abandon the empire, of which their master + is the head. +</p> +<p> + "That the imperial dignity has been treated with indecency by the + Hungarian troops. +</p> +<p> + "The queen, declaring the election of the emperour void, and the diet + of Frankfort illegal, had not only violated the imperial dignity, but + injured all the princes who have the right of election. +</p> +<p> + "That he had no particular quarrel with the queen of Hungary; and that + he desires nothing for himself, and only enters as an auxiliary into a + war for the liberties of Germany. +</p> +<p> + "That the emperour had offered to quit his pretension to the dominions + of Austria, on condition that his hereditary countries be restored to + him. +</p> +<p> + "That this proposal had been made to the king of England at Hanau, and + rejected in such a manner as showed, that the king of England had no + intention to restore peace, but rather to make his advantage of the + troubles. +</p> +<p> + "That the mediation of the Dutch had been desired; but that they + declined to interpose, knowing the inflexibility of the English and + Austrian courts. +</p> +<p> + "That the same terms were again offered at Vienna, and again rejected; + that, therefore, the queen must impute it to her own councils, that + her enemies find new allies. +</p> +<p> + "That he is not fighting for any interest of his own, that he demands + nothing for himself; but is determined to exert all his powers in + defence of the emperour, in vindication of the right of election, and + in support of the liberties of Germany, which the queen of Hungary + would enslave." +</p> +<p> + When this declaration was sent to the Prussian minister in England, it + was accompanied with a remonstrance to the king, in which many of the + foregoing positions were repeated; the emperour's candour and + disinterestedness were magnified; the dangerous designs of the + Austrians were displayed; it was imputed to them, as the most flagrant + violation of the Germanick constitution, that they had driven the + emperour's troops out of the empire; the publick spirit and generosity + of his Prussian majesty were again heartily declared; and it was said, + that this quarrel having no connexion with English interests, the + English ought not to interpose. +</p> +<p> + Austria and all her allies were put into amazement by this + declaration, which, at once, dismounted them from the summit of + success, and obliged them to fight through the war a second time. What + succours, or what promises, Prussia received from France, was never + publickly known; but it is not to be doubted that a prince, so + watchful of opportunity, sold assistance, when it was so much wanted, + at the highest rate; nor can it be supposed that he exposed himself to + so much hazard only for the freedom of Germany, and a few petty + districts in Bohemia. +</p> +<p> + The French, who, from ravaging the empire at discretion, and wasting + whatever they found either among enemies or friends, were now driven + into their own dominions, and, in their own dominions, were insulted + and pursued, were, on a sudden, by this new auxiliary, restored to + their former superiority, at least were disburdened of their invaders, + and delivered from their terrours. And all the enemies of the house of + Bourbon saw, with indignation and amazement, the recovery of that + power which they had, with so much cost and bloodshed, brought low, + and which their animosity and elation had disposed them to imagine yet + lower than it was. +</p> +<p> + The queen of Hungary still retained her firmness. The Prussian + declaration was not long without an answer, which was transmitted to + the European princes, with some observations on the Prussian + minister's remonstrance to the court of Vienna, which he was ordered + by his master to read to the Austrian council, but not to deliver. The + same caution was practised before, when the Prussians, after the + emperour's death, invaded Silesia. This artifice of political debate + may, perhaps, be numbered by the admirers of greatness among the + refinements of conduct; but, as it is a method of proceeding not very + difficult to be contrived or practised, as it can be of very rare use + to honesty or wisdom, and as it has been long known to that class of + men whose safety depends upon secrecy, though hitherto applied chiefly + in petty cheats and slight transactions; I do not see that it can much + advance the reputation of regal understanding, or, indeed, that it can + add more to the safety, than it takes away from the honour of him that + shall adopt it. +</p> +<p> + The queen, in her answer, after charging the king of Prussia with + breach of the treaty of Breslaw, and observing how much her enemies + will exult to see the peace now the third time broken by him, + declares: +</p> +<p> + "That she had no intention to injure the rights of the electors, and + that she calls in question not the event, but the manner of the + election. +</p> +<p> + "That she had spared the emperour's troops with great tenderness, and + that they were driven out of the empire, only because they were in the + service of France. +</p> +<p> + "That she is so far from disturbing the peace of the empire, that the + only commotions now raised in it are the effect of the armaments of + the king of Prussia." +</p> +<p> + Nothing is more tedious than publick records, when they relate to + affairs which, by distance of time or place, lose their power to + interest the reader. Every thing grows little, as it grows remote; and + of things thus diminished, it is sufficient to survey the aggregate + without a minute examination of the parts. +</p> +<p> + It is easy to perceive, that, if the king of Prussia's reasons be + sufficient, ambition or animosity can never want a plea for violence + and invasion. What he charges upon the queen of Hungary, the waste of + country, the expulsion of the Bavarians, and the employment of foreign + troops, is the unavoidable consequence of a war inflamed on either + side to the utmost violence. All these grievances subsisted when he + made the peace, and, therefore, they could very little justify its + breach. +</p> +<p> + It is true, that every prince of the empire is obliged to support the + imperial dignity, and assist the emperour, when his rights are + violated. And every subsequent contract must be understood in a sense + consistent with former obligations. Nor had the king power to make a + peace on terms contrary to that constitution by which he held a place + among the Germanick electors. But he could have easily discovered, + that not the emperour, but the duke of Bavaria, was the queen's enemy; + not the administrator of the imperial power, but the claimant of the + Austrian dominions. Nor did his allegiance to the emperour, supposing + the emperour injured, oblige him to more than a succour of ten + thousand men. But ten thousand men could not conquer Bohemia, and + without the conquest of Bohemia he could receive no reward for the + zeal and fidelity which he so loudly professed. +</p> +<p> + The success of this enterprise he had taken all possible precaution to + secure. He was to invade a country guarded only by the faith of + treaties, and, therefore, left unarmed, and unprovided of all defence. + He had engaged the French to attack prince Charles, before he should + repass the Rhine, by which the Austrians would, at least, have been + hindered from a speedy march into Bohemia: they were, likewise, to + yield him such other assistance as he might want. +</p> +<p> + Relying, therefore, upon the promises of the French, he resolved to + attempt the ruin of the house of Austria, and, in August, 1744, broke + into Bohemia, at the head of a hundred and four thousand men. When he + entered the country, he published a proclamation, promising, that his + army should observe the strictest discipline, and that those who made + no resistance should be suffered to remain in quiet in their + habitations. He required that all arms, in the custody of whomsoever + they might be placed, should be given up, and put into the hands of + publick officers. He still declared himself to act only as an + auxiliary to the emperour, and with no other design than to establish + peace and tranquillity throughout Germany, his dear country. +</p> +<p> + In this proclamation there is one paragraph, of which I do not + remember any precedent. He threatens, that, if any peasant should be + found with arms, he shall be hanged without further inquiry; and that, + if any lord shall connive at his vassals keeping arms in their + custody, his village shall be reduced to ashes. +</p> +<p> + It is hard to find upon what pretence the king of Prussia could treat + the Bohemians as criminals, for preparing to defend their native + country, or maintaining their allegiance to their lawful sovereign + against an invader, whether he appears principal or auxiliary, whether + he professes to intend tranquillity or confusion. +</p> +<p> + His progress was such as gave great hopes to the enemies of Austria: + like Caesar, he conquered as he advanced, and met with no opposition, + till he reached the walls of Prague. The indignation and resentment of + the queen of Hungary may be easily conceived; the alliance of + Frankfort was now laid open to all Europe; and the partition of the + Austrian dominions was again publickly projected. They were to be + shared among the emperour, the king of Prussia, the elector Palatine, + and the landgrave of Hesse. All the powers of Europe who had dreamed + of controlling France, were awakened to their former terrours; all + that had been done was now to be done again; and every court, from the + straits of Gibraltar to the Frozen sea, was filled with exultation or + terrour, with schemes of conquest, or precautions for defence. +</p> +<p> + The king, delighted with his progress, and expecting, like other + mortals elated with success, that his prosperity could not be + interrupted, continued his march, and began, in the latter end of + September, the siege of Prague. He had gained several of the outer + posts, when he was informed that the convoy, which attended his + artillery, was attacked by an unexpected party of the Austrians. The + king went immediately to their assistance, with the third part of his + army, and found his troops put to flight, and the Austrians hasting + away with his cannons: such a loss would have disabled him at once. He + fell upon the Austrians, whose number would not enable them to + withstand him, recovered his artillery, and, having also defeated + Bathiani, raised his batteries; and, there being no artillery to be + placed against him, he destroyed a great part of the city. He then + ordered four attacks to be made at once, and reduced the besieged to + such extremities, that in fourteen days the governour was obliged to + yield the place. +</p> +<p> + At the attack, commanded by Schwerin, a grenadier is reported to have + mounted the bastion alone, and to have defended himself, for some + time, with his sword, till his followers mounted after him; for this + act of bravery, the king made him a lieutenant, and gave him a patent + of nobility. +</p> +<p> + Nothing now remained but that the Austrians should lay aside all + thought of invading France, and apply their whole power to their own + defence. Prince Charles, at the first news of the Prussian invasion, + prepared to repass the Rhine. This the French, according to their + contract with the king of Prussia, should have attempted to hinder; + but they knew, by experience, the Austrians would not be beaten + without resistance, and that resistance always incommodes an + assailant. As the king of Prussia rejoiced in the distance of the + Austrians, whom he considered as entangled in the French territories; + the French rejoiced in the necessity of their return, and pleased + themselves with the prospect of easy conquests, while powers, whom + they considered with equal malevolence, should be employed in + massacring each other. +</p> +<p> + Prince Charles took the opportunity of bright moonshine to repass the + Rhine; and Noailles, who had early intelligence of his motions, gave + him very little disturbance, but contented himself with attacking the + rearguard, and, when they retired to the main body, ceased his + pursuit. +</p> +<p> + The king, upon the reduction of Prague, struck a medal, which had on + one side a plan of the town, with this inscription: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "Prague taken by the king of Prussia, + September 16, 1744; + For the third time in three years." +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + On the other side were two verses, in which he prayed, "that his + conquests might produce peace." He then marched forward with the + rapidity which constitutes his military character; took possession of + almost all Bohemia, and began to talk of entering Austria and + besieging Vienna. +</p> +<p> + The queen was not yet wholly without resource. The elector of Saxony, + whether invited or not, was not comprised in the union of Frankfort; + and, as every sovereign is growing less as his next neighbour is + growing greater, he could not heartily wish success to a confederacy + which was to aggrandize the other powers of Germany. The Prussians + gave him, likewise, a particular and immediate provocation to oppose + them; for, when they departed to the conquest of Bohemia, with all the + elation of imaginary success, they passed through his dominions with + unlicensed and contemptuous disdain of his authority. As the approach + of prince Charles gave a new prospect of events, he was easily + persuaded to enter into an alliance with the queen, whom he furnished + with a very large body of troops. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia having left a garrison in Prague, which he + commanded to put the burghers to death, if they left their houses in + the night, went forward to take the other towns and fortresses, + expecting, perhaps, that prince Charles would be interrupted in his + march; but the French, though they appeared to follow him, either + could not, or would not, overtake him. +</p> +<p> + In a short time, by marches pressed on with the utmost eagerness, + Charles reached Bohemia, leaving the Bavarians to regain the + possession of the wasted plains of their country, which their enemies, + who still kept the strong places, might again seize at will. At the + approach of the Austrian army, the courage of the king of Prussia + seemed to have failed him. He retired from post to post, and evacuated + town after town, and fortress after fortress, without resistance, or + appearance of resistance, as if he was resigning them to the rightful + owners. +</p> +<p> + It might have been expected, that he should have made some effort to + rescue Prague; but, after a faint attempt to dispute the passage of + the Elbe, he ordered his garrison of eleven thousand men to quit the + place. They left behind them their magazines and heavy artillery, + among which were seven pieces of remarkable excellence, called "the + seven electors." But they took with them their field cannon, and a + great number of carriages, laden with stores and plunder, which they + were forced to leave, in their way, to the Saxons and Austrians that + harassed their march. They, at last, entered Silesia, with the loss of + about a third part. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia suffered much in his retreat; for, besides the + military stores, which he left every where behind him, even to the + clothes of his troops, there was a want of provisions in his army, + and, consequently, frequent desertions and many diseases; and a + soldier sick or killed was equally lost to a flying army. +</p> +<p> + At last he reentered his own territories, and, having stationed his + troops in places of security, returned, for a time, to Berlin, where + he forbade all to speak either ill or well of the campaign. +</p> +<p> + To what end such a prohibition could conduce, it is difficult to + discover: there is no country in which men can be forbidden to know + what they know, and what is universally known may as well be spoken. + It is true, that in popular governments seditious discourses may + inflame the vulgar; but in such governments they cannot be restrained, + and in absolute monarchies they are of little effect. +</p> +<p> + When the Prussians invaded Bohemia, and this whole nation was fired + with resentment, the king of England gave orders in his palace, that + none should mention his nephew with disrespect; by this command he + maintained the decency necessary between princes, without enforcing, + and, probably, without expecting obedience, but in his own presence. +</p> +<p> + The king of Prussia's edict regarded only himself, and, therefore, it + is difficult to tell what was his motive, unless he intended to spare + himself the mortification of absurd and illiberal flattery, which, to + a mind stung with disgrace, must have been in the highest degree + painful and disgusting. +</p> +<p> + Moderation in prosperity is a virtue very difficult to all mortals; + forbearance of revenge, when revenge is within reach, is scarcely ever + to be found among princes. Now was the time when the queen of Hungary + might, perhaps, have made peace on her own terms; but keenness of + resentment, and arrogance of success, withheld her from the due use of + the present opportunity. It is said, that the king of Prussia, in his + retreat, sent letters to prince Charles, which were supposed to + contain ample concessions, but were sent back unopened. The king of + England offered, likewise, to mediate between them; but his + propositions were rejected at Vienna, where a resolution was taken, + not only to revenge the interruption of their success on the Rhine, by + the recovery of Silesia, but to reward the Saxons for their seasonable + help, by giving them part of the Prussian dominions. +</p> +<p> + In the beginning of the year 1745, died the emperour Charles of + Bavaria; the treaty of Frankfort was consequently at an end; and the + king of Prussia, being no longer able to maintain the character of + auxiliary to the emperour, and having avowed no other reason for the + war, might have honourably withdrawn his forces, and, on his own + principles, have complied with terms of peace; but no terms were + offered him; the queen pursued him with the utmost ardour of + hostility, and the French left him to his own conduct and his own + destiny. +</p> +<p> + His Bohemian conquests were already lost; and he was now chased back + into Silesia, where, at the beginning of the year, the war continued + in an equilibration by alternate losses and advantages. In April, the + elector of Bavaria, seeing his dominions overrun by the Austrians, and + receiving very little succour from the French, made a peace with the + queen of Hungary upon easy conditions, and the Austrians had more + troops to employ against Prussia. +</p> +<p> + But the revolutions of war will not suffer human presumption to remain + long unchecked. The peace with Bavaria was scarcely concluded when, + the battle of Fontenoy was lost, and all the allies of Austria called + upon her to exert her utmost power for the preservation of the Low + Countries; and, a few days after the loss at Fontenoy, the first + battle between the Prussians and the combined army of Austrians and + Saxons, was fought at Niedburg in Silesia. +</p> +<p> + The particulars of this battle were variously reported by the + different parties, and published in the journals of that time; to + transcribe them would be tedious and useless, because accounts of + battles are not easily understood, and because there are no means of + determining to which of the relations credit should be given. It is + sufficient that they all end in claiming or allowing a complete + victory to the king of Prussia, who gained all the Austrian artillery, + killed four thousand, took seven thousand prisoners, with the loss, + according to the Prussian narrative, of only sixteen hundred men. +</p> +<p> + He now advanced again into Bohemia, where, however, he made no great + progress. The queen of Hungary, though defeated, was not subdued. She + poured in her troops from all parts to the reinforcement of prince + Charles, and determined to continue the struggle with all her power. + The king saw that Bohemia was an unpleasing and inconvenient theatre + of war, in which he should be ruined by a miscarriage, and should get + little by a victory. Saxony was left defenceless, and, if it was + conquered, might be plundered. +</p> +<p> + He, therefore, published a declaration against the elector of Saxony, + and, without waiting for reply, invaded his dominions. This invasion + produced another battle at Standentz, which ended, as the former, to + the advantage of the Prussians. The Austrians had some advantage in + the beginning; and their irregular troops, who are always daring, and + are always ravenous, broke into the Prussian camp, and carried away + the military chest. But this was easily repaired by the spoils of + Saxony. +</p> +<p> + The queen of Hungary was still inflexible, and hoped that fortune + would, at last, change. She recruited once more her army, and prepared + to invade the territories of Brandenburg; but the king of Prussia's + activity prevented all her designs. One part of his forces seized + Leipsic, and the other once more defeated the Saxons; the king of + Poland fled from his dominions; prince Charles retired into Bohemia. + The king of Prussia entered Dresden as a conqueror, exacted very + severe contributions from the whole country, and the Austrians and + Saxons were, at last, compelled to receive from him such a peace as he + would grant. He imposed no severe conditions, except the payment of + the contributions, made no new claim of dominions, and, with the + elector Palatine, acknowledged the duke of Tuscany for emperour. +</p> +<p> + The lives of princes, like the histories of nations, have their + periods. We shall here suspend our narrative of the king of Prussia, + who was now at the height of human greatness, giving laws to his + enemies, and courted by all the powers of Europe. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_43"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + BROWNE. +</h2> +<p> + Though the writer of the following essays <a href="#note-64">[64]</a> seems to have had the + fortune, common among men of letters, of raising little curiosity + after his private life, and has, therefore, few memorials preserved of + his felicities and misfortunes; yet, because an edition of a + posthumous work appears imperfect and neglected, without some account + of the author, it was thought necessary to attempt the gratification + of that curiosity which naturally inquires by what peculiarities of + nature or fortune eminent men have been distinguished, how uncommon + attainments have been gained, and what influence learning had on its + possessours, or virtue on its teachers. +</p> +<p> + Sir Thomas Browne was born at London, in the parish of St. Michael in + Cheapside, on the 19th of October, 1605 <a href="#note-65">[65]</a>. His father was a + merchant, of an ancient family at Upton, in Cheshire. Of the name or + family of his mother I find no account. +</p> +<p> + Of his childhood or youth there is little known, except that he lost + his father very early; that he was, according to the common fate of + orphans <a href="#note-66">[66]</a>, defrauded by one of his guardians; and that he was + placed, for his education, at the school of Winchester. +</p> +<p> + His mother, having taken three thousand pounds <a href="#note-67">[67]</a>, as the third part + of her husband's property, left her son, by consequence, six thousand, + a large fortune for a man destined to learning, at that time, when + commerce had not yet filled the nation with nominal riches. But it + happened to him, as to many others, to be made poorer by opulence; for + his mother soon married sir Thomas Dutton, probably by the inducement + of her fortune; and he was left to the rapacity of his guardian, + deprived now of both his parents, and, therefore, helpless, and + unprotected. +</p> +<p> + He was removed in the beginning of the year 1623, from Winchester to + Oxford <a href="#note-68">[68]</a>, and entered a gentleman-commoner of Broadgate hall, which + was soon afterwards endowed, and took the name of Pembroke college, + from the earl of Pembroke, then chancellor of the university. He was + admitted to the degree of bachelor of arts, January 31, 1626-7; being, + as Wood remarks, the first man of eminence graduated from the new + college, to which the zeal or gratitude of those that love it most, + can wish little better than that it may long proceed as it began. +</p> +<p> + Having afterwards taken his degree of master of arts, he turned his + studies to physick <a href="#note-69">[69]</a>, and practised it for some time in + Oxfordshire; but soon afterwards, either induced by curiosity, or + invited by promises, he quitted his settlement, and accompanied his + father-in-law <a href="#note-70">[70]</a>, who had some employment in Ireland, in a + visitation of the forts and castles, which the state of Ireland then + made necessary. +</p> +<p> + He that has once prevailed on himself to break his connexions of + acquaintance, and begin a wandering life, very easily continues it. + Ireland had, at that time, very little to offer to the observation of + a man of letters; he, therefore, passed into France and Italy <a href="#note-71">[71]</a>; + made some stay at Montpellier and Padua, which were then the + celebrated schools of physick; and, returning home through Holland, + procured himself to be created doctor of physick at Leyden. +</p> +<p> + When he began his travels, or when be concluded them, there is no + certain account; nor do there remain any observations made by him in + his passage through those countries which he visited. To consider, + therefore, what pleasure or instruction might have been received from + the remarks of a man so curious and diligent, would be voluntarily to + indulge a painful reflection, and load the imagination with a wish, + which, while it is formed, is known to be vain. It is, however, to be + lamented, that those who are most capable of improving mankind, very + frequently neglect to communicate their knowledge; either because it + is more pleasing to gather ideas than to impart them, or because, to + minds naturally great, few things appear of so much importance as to + deserve the notice of the publick. +</p> +<p> + About the year 1634 <a href="#note-72">[72]</a>, he is supposed to have returned to London; + and the next year to have written his celebrated treatise, called + Religio Medici, "the religion of a physician <a href="#note-73">[73]</a>," which he declares + himself never to have intended for the press, having composed it only + for his own exercise and entertainment. It, indeed, contains many + passages, which, relating merely to his own person, can be of no great + importance to the publick; but when it was written, it happened to him + as to others, he was too much pleased with his performance, not to + think that it might please others as much; he, therefore, communicated + it to his friends, and receiving, I suppose, that exuberant applause + with which every man repays the grant of perusing a manuscript, he was + not very diligent to obstruct his own praise by recalling his papers, + but suffered them to wander from hand to hand, till, at last, without + his own consent, they were, in 1642, given to a printer. +</p> +<p> + This has, perhaps, sometimes befallen others; and this, I am willing + to believe, did really happen to Dr. Browne: but there is, surely, + some reason to doubt the truth of the complaint so frequently made of + surreptitious editions. A song, or an epigram, may be easily printed + without the author's knowledge; because it may be learned when it is + repeated, or may be written out with very little trouble; but a long + treatise, however elegant, is not often copied by mere zeal or + curiosity, but may be worn out in passing from hand to hand, before it + is multiplied by a transcript. It is easy to convey an imperfect book, + by a distant hand, to the press, and plead the circulation of a false + copy, as an excuse for publishing the true, or to correct what is + found faulty or offensive, and charge the errours on the transcriber's + depravations. +</p> +<p> + This is a stratagem, by which an author, panting for fame, and yet + afraid of seeming to challenge it, may at once gratify his vanity, and + preserve the appearance of modesty; may enter the lists, and secure a + retreat; and this candour might suffer to pass undetected, as an + innocent fraud, but that, indeed, no fraud is innocent; for the + confidence which makes the happiness of society is, in some degree, + diminished by every man whose practice is at variance with his words. +</p> +<p> + The Religio Medici was no sooner published than it excited the + attention of the publick, by the novelty of paradoxes, the dignity of + sentiment, the quick succession of images, the multitude of abstruse + allusions, the subtilty of disquisition, and the strength of language. +</p> +<p> + What is much read will be much criticised. The earl of Dorset + recommended this book to the perusal of sir Kenelm Digby, who returned + his judgment upon it, not in a letter, but a book; in which, though + mingled with some positions fabulous and uncertain, there are acute + remarks, just censures, and profound speculations; yet its principal + claim to admiration is, that it was written in twenty-four hours <a href="#note-74">[74]</a>, + of which part was spent in procuring Browne's book, and part in + reading it. +</p> +<p> + Of these animadversions, when they were yet not all printed, either + officiousness or malice informed Dr. Browne; who wrote to sir Kenelm, + with much softness and ceremony, declaring the unworthiness of his + work to engage such notice, the intended privacy of the composition, + and the corruptions of the impression; and received an answer equally + genteel and respectful, containing high commendations of the piece, + pompous professions of reverence, meek acknowledgments of inability, + and anxious apologies for the hastiness of his remarks. +</p> +<p> + The reciprocal civility of authors is one of the most risible scenes + in the farce of life. Who would not have thought, that these two + luminaries of their age had ceased to endeavour to grow bright by the + obscuration of each other? yet the animadversions thus weak, thus + precipitate, upon a book thus injured in the transcription, quickly + passed the press; and Religio Medici was more accurately published, + with an admonition prefixed, "to those who have or shall peruse the + observations upon a former corrupt copy;" in which there is a severe + censure, not upon Digby, who was to be used with ceremony, but upon + the observator who had usurped his name; nor was this invective + written by Dr. Browne, who was supposed to be satisfied with his + opponent's apology; but by some officious friend, zealous for his + honour, without his consent. +</p> +<p> + Browne has, indeed, in his own preface, endeavoured to secure himself + from rigorous examination, by alleging, that "many things are + delivered rhetorically, many expressions merely tropical, and, + therefore, many things to be taken in a soft and flexible sense, and + not to be called unto the rigid test of reason." The first glance upon + his book will, indeed, discover examples of this liberty of thought + and expression: "I could be content," says he, "to be nothing almost + to eternity, if I might enjoy my Saviour at the last." He has little + acquaintance with the acuteness of Browne, who suspects him of a + serious opinion, that any thing can be "almost eternal," or that any + time beginning and ending is not infinitely less than infinite + duration. +</p> +<p> + In this book he speaks much, and, in the opinion of Digby, too much of + himself; but with such generality and conciseness, as affords very + little light to his biographer: he declares, that, besides the + dialects of different provinces, he understood six languages; that he + was no stranger to astronomy; and that he had seen several countries; + but what most awakens curiosity is, his solemn assertion, that "his + life has been a miracle of thirty years; which to relate were not + history, but a piece of poetry, and would sound like a fable." +</p> +<p> + There is, undoubtedly, a sense in which all life is miraculous; as it + is an union of powers of which we can image no connexion, a succession + of motions, of which the first cause must be supernatural; but life, + thus explained, whatever it may have of miracle, will have nothing of + fable; and, therefore, the author undoubtedly had regard to something, + by which he imagined himself distinguished from the rest of mankind. +</p> +<p> + Of these wonders, however, the view that can be now taken of his life + offers no appearance. The course of his education was like that of + others, such as put him little in the way of extraordinary casualties. + A scholastick and academical life is very uniform; and has, indeed, + more safety than pleasure. A traveller has greater opportunities of + adventure; but Browne traversed no unknown seas, or Arabian deserts; + and, surely, a man may visit France and Italy, reside at Montpellier + and Padua, and, at last, take his degree at Leyden, without any thing + miraculous. What it was that would, if it was related, sound so + poetical and fabulous, we are left to guess; I believe without hope of + guessing rightly. The wonders, probably, were transacted in his own + mind; self-love, cooperating with an imagination vigorous and fertile + as that of Browne, will find or make objects of astonishment in every + man's life; and, perhaps, there is no human being, however bid in the + crowd from the observation of his fellow-mortals, who, if he has + leisure and disposition to recollect his own thoughts and actions, + will not conclude his life in some sort a miracle, and imagine himself + distinguished from all the rest of his species by many discriminations + of nature or of fortune. +</p> +<p> + The success of this performance was such as might naturally encourage + the author to new undertakings. A gentleman of Cambridge <a href="#note-75">[75]</a>, whose + name was Merryweather, turned it not inelegantly into Latin; and from + his version it was again translated into Italian, German, Dutch, and + French; and, at Strasburg, the Latin translation was published with + large notes, by Levinus Nicolaus Moltkenius. Of the English + annotations, which in all the editions, from 1644, accompany the book, + the author is unknown. +</p> +<p> + Of Merryweather, to whose zeal Browne was so much indebted for the + sudden extension of his renown, I know nothing, but that he published + a small treatise for the instruction of young-persons in the + attainment of a Latin style. He printed his translation in Holland + with some difficulty <a href="#note-76">[76]</a>. The first printer to whom he offered it, + carried it to Salmasius, "who laid it by," says he, "in state for + three months," and then discouraged its publication: it was afterwards + rejected by two other printers, and, at last, was received by Hackius. +</p> +<p> + The peculiarities of this book raised the author, as is usual, many + admirers and many enemies; but we know not of more than one professed + answer, written under the title of Medicus Medicatus <a href="#note-77">[77]</a>, by + Alexander Ross, which was universally neglected by the world. +</p> +<p> + At the time when this book was published, Dr. Browne resided at + Norwich, where he had settled in 1636, by the persuasion of Dr. + Lushington <a href="#note-78">[78]</a>, his tutor, who was then rector of Barnham Westgate, + in the neighbourhood. It is recorded by Wood, that his practice was + very extensive, and that many patients resorted to him. In 1637 he was + incorporated doctor of physick in Oxfordf <a href="#note-79">[79]</a>. +</p> +<p> + He married, in 1641, Mrs. Mileham <a href="#note-80">[80]</a>, of a good family in Norfolk; + "a lady," says Whitefoot, "of such symmetrical proportion to her + worthy husband, both in the graces of her body and mind, that they + seemed to come together by a kind of natural magnetism." +</p> +<p> + This marriage could not but draw the raillery of contemporary wits + <a href="#note-81">[81]</a> upon a man who had just been wishing, in his new book, "that we + might procreate, like trees, without conjunction," and had lately + declared <a href="#note-82">[82]</a>, that "the whole world was made for man, but only the + twelfth part of man for woman;" and, that "man is the whole world, but + woman only the rib or crooked part of man." +</p> +<p> + Whether the lady had been yet informed of these contemptuous + positions, or whether she was pleased with the conquest of so + formidable a rebel, and considered it as a double triumph, to attract + so much merit, and overcome so powerful prejudices; or whether, like + most others, she married upon mingled motives, between convenience and + inclination; she had, however, no reason to repent, for she lived + happily with him one-and-forty years, and bore him ten children, of + whom one son and three daughters outlived their parents: she survived + him two years, and passed her widowhood in plenty, if not in opulence. +</p> +<p> + Browne having now entered the world as an author, and experienced the + delights of praise and molestations of censure, probably found his + dread of the publick eye diminished; and, therefore, was not long + before he trusted his name to the criticks a second time; for, in 1646 + <a href="#note-83">[83]</a>, he printed Inquiries into vulgar and common Errours; a work, + which, as it arose not from fancy and invention, but from observation + and books, and contained not a single discourse of one continued + tenour, of which the latter part arose from the former, but an + enumeration of many unconnected particulars, must have been the + collection of years, and the effect of a design early formed and long + pursued, to which his remarks had been continually referred, and which + arose gradually to its present bulk by the daily aggregation of new + particles of knowledge. It is, indeed, to be wished, that he had + longer delayed the publication, and added what the remaining part of + his life might have furnished: the thirty-six years which he spent + afterwards in study and experience, would, doubtless, have made large + additions to an inquiry into vulgar errours. He published, in 1673, + the sixth edition, with some improvements; but I think rather with + explication of what he had already written, than any new heads of + disquisition. But with the work, such as the author, whether hindered + from continuing it by eagerness of praise, or weariness of labour, + thought fit to give, we must be content; and remember, that in all + sublunary things there is something to be wished which we must wish in + vain. +</p> +<p> + This book, like his former, was received with great applause, was + answered by Alexander Ross, and translated into Dutch and German, and, + not many years ago, into French. It might now be proper, had not the + favour with which it was at first received filled the kingdom with + copies, to reprint it with notes, partly supplemental, and partly + emendatory, to subjoin those discoveries which the industry of the + last age has made, and correct those mistakes which the author has + committed, not by idleness or negligence, but for want of Boyle's and + Newton's philosophy. +</p> +<p> + He appears, indeed, to have been willing to pay labour for truth. + Having heard a flying rumour of sympathetick needles, by which, + suspended over a circular alphabet, distant friends or lovers might + correspond, he procured two such alphabets to be made, touched his + needles with the same magnet, and placed them upon proper spindles: + the result was, that when he moved one of his needles, the other, + instead of taking, by sympathy, the same direction, "stood like the + pillars of Hercules." That it continued motionless, will be easily + believed; and most men would have been content to believe it, without + the labour of so hopeless an experiment. Browne might himself have + obtained the same conviction by a method less operose, if he had + thrust his needles through corks, and set them afloat in two basins of + water. +</p> +<p> + Notwithstanding his zeal to detect old errours, he seems not very easy + to admit new positions, for he never mentions the motion of the earth + but with contempt and ridicule, though the opinion which admits it was + then growing popular, and was surely plausible, even before it was + confirmed by later observations. +</p> +<p> + The reputation of Browne encouraged some low writer to publish, under + his name, a book called <a href="#note-84">[84]</a> Nature's Cabinet unlocked,—translated, + according to Wood, from the physicks of Magirus; of which Browne took + care to clear himself, by modestly advertising, that "if any man had + been benefited by it, he was not so ambitious as to challenge the + honour thereof, as having no hand in that work <a href="#note-85">[85]</a>." +</p> +<p> + In 1658, the discovery of some ancient urns in Norfolk gave him + occasion to write Hydriotaphia, Urn-Burial, or a Discourse of + sepulchral Urns; in which he treats, with his usual learning, on the + funeral rites of the ancient nations; exhibits their various treatment + of the dead; and examines the substances found in his Norfolcian urns. + There is, perhaps, none of his works which better exemplifies his + reading or memory. It is scarcely to be imagined, how many particulars + he has amassed together, in a treatise which seems to have been + occasionally written; and for which, therefore, no materials could + have been previously collected. It is, indeed, like other treatises of + antiquity, rather for curiosity than use; for it is of small + importance to know which nation buried their dead in the ground, which + threw them into the sea, or which gave them to birds and beasts; when + the practice of cremation began, or when it was disused; whether the + bones of different persons were mingled in the same urn; what + oblations were thrown into the pyre; or how the ashes of the body were + distinguished from those of other substances. Of the uselessness of + these inquiries, Browne seems not to have been ignorant; and, + therefore, concludes them with an observation which can never be too + frequently recollected: +</p> +<p> + "All, or most apprehensions, rested in opinions of some future being, + which, ignorantly or coldly believed, begat those perverted + conceptions, ceremonies, sayings, which christians pity or laugh at. + Happy are they, which live not in that disadvantage of time, when men + could say little for futurity, but from reason; whereby the noblest + mind fell often upon doubtful deaths, and melancholy dissolutions: + with these hopes Socrates warmed his doubtful spirits against the cold + potion; and Cato, before he durst give the fatal stroke, spent part of + the night in reading the immortality of Plato, thereby confirming his + wavering hand unto the animosity of that attempt. +</p> +<p> + "It is the heaviest stone that melancholy can throw at a man, to tell + him he is at the end of his nature; or that there is no further state + to come, unto which this seems progressional, and otherwise made in + vain: without this accomplishment, the natural expectation and desire + of such a state were but a fallacy in nature: unsatisfied + considerators would quarrel at the justness of the constitution, and + rest content that Adam had fallen lower, whereby, by knowing no other + original, and deeper ignorance of themselves, they might have enjoyed + the happiness of inferiour creatures, who in tranquillity possess + their constitutions, as having not the apprehension to deplore their + own natures; and being framed below the circumference of these hopes + of cognition of better things, the wisdom of God hath necessitated + their contentment. But the superiour ingredient and obscured part of + ourselves, whereto all present felicities afford no resting + contentment, will be able, at last, to tell us we are more than our + present selves; and evacuate such hopes in the fruition of their own + accomplishments." +</p> +<p> + To his treatise on urn-burial, was added the Garden of Cyrus, or the + quincunxial Lozenge, or network Plantation of the Ancients, + artificially, naturally, mystically, considered. This discourse he + begins with the Sacred Garden, in which the first man was placed; and + deduces the practice of horticulture, from the earliest accounts of + antiquity to the time of the Persian Cyrus, the first man whom we + actually know to have planted a quincunx; which, however, our author + is inclined to believe of longer date, and not only discovers it in + the description of the hanging gardens of Babylon, but seems willing + to believe, and to persuade his reader, that it was practised by the + feeders on vegetables before the flood. +</p> +<p> + Some of the most pleasing performances have been produced by learning + and genius, exercised upon subjects of little importance. It seems to + have been, in all ages, the pride of wit, to show how it could exalt + the low, and amplify the little. To speak not inadequately of things + really and naturally great, is a task not only diflicult but + disagreeable; because the writer is degraded in his own eyes, by + standing in comparison with his subject, to which he can hope to add + nothing from his imagination: but it is a perpetual triumph of fancy + to expand a scanty theme, to raise glittering ideas from obscure + properties, and to produce to the world an object of wonder, to which + nature had contributed little. To this ambition, perhaps, we owe the + frogs of Homer, the gnat and the bees of Virgil, the butterfly of + Spenser, the shadow of Wowerus, and the quincunx of Browne. +</p> +<p> + In the prosecution of this sport of fancy, he considers every + production of art and nature, in which he could find any decussation + or approaches to the form of a quincunx; and, as a man once resolved + upon ideal discoveries seldom searches long in vain, he finds his + favourite figure in almost every thing, whether natural or invented, + ancient or modern, rude or artificial, sacred or civil; so that a + reader, not watchful against the power of his infusions, would imagine + that decussation was the great business of the world, and that nature + and art had no other purpose than to exemplify and imitate a quincunx. +</p> +<p> + To show the excellence of this figure, he enumerates all its + properties; and finds it in almost every thing of use or pleasure: and + to show how readily he supplies what he cannot find, one instance may + be sufficient: "though therein," says he, "we meet not with right + angles, yet every rhombus containing four angles equal unto two right, + it virtually contains two right in every one." +</p> +<p> + The fanciful sports of great minds are never without some advantage to + knowledge. Browne has interspersed many curious observations on the + form of plants, and the laws of vegetation; and appears to have been a + very accurate observer of the modes of germination, and to have + watched, with great nicety, the evolution of the parts of plants from + their seminal principles. +</p> +<p> + He is then naturally led to treat of the number five; and finds, that + by this number many things are circumscribed; that there are five + kinds of vegetable productions, five sections of a cone, five orders + of architecture, and five acts of a play. And observing that five was + the ancient conjugal, or wedding number, he proceeds to a speculation, + which I shall give in his own words: "the ancient numerists made out + the conjugal number by two and three, the first parity and imparity, + the active and passive digits, the material and formal principles in + generative societies." +</p> +<p> + These are all the tracts which he published. But many papers were + found in his closet: "some of them," says Whitefoot, "designed for the + press, were often transcribed and corrected by his own hand, after the + fashion of great and curious writers." +</p> +<p> + Of these, two collections have been published; one by Dr. Tenison, the + other, in 1722, by a nameless editor. Whether the one or the other + selected those pieces, which the author would have preferred, cannot + be known; but they have both the merit of giving to mankind what was + too valuable to be suppressed; and what might, without their + interposition, have, perhaps, perished among other innumerable labours + of learned men, or have been burnt in a scarcity of fuel, like the + papers of Pierescius. +</p> +<p> + The first of these posthumous treatises contains Observations upon + several Plants mentioned in Scripture: these remarks, though they do + not immediately either rectify the faith, or refine the morals of the + reader, yet are by no means to be censured as superfluous niceties, or + useless speculations; for they often show some propriety of + description, or elegance of allusion, utterly undiscoverable to + readers not skilled in oriental botany; and are often of more + important use, as they remove some difficulty from narratives, or some + obscurity from precepts. +</p> +<p> + The next is, of Garlands, or coronary and garland Plants; a subject + merely of learned curiosity, without any other end than the pleasure + of reflecting on ancient customs, or on the industry with which + studious men have endeavoured to recover them. +</p> +<p> + The next is a letter, on the Fishes eaten by our Saviour with his + Disciples, after his Resurrection from the Dead: which contains no + determinate resolution of the question, what they were, for, indeed, + it cannot be determined. All the information that diligence or + learning could supply, consists in an enumeration of the fishes + produced in the waters of Judea. +</p> +<p> + Then follow, Answers to certain Queries about Fishes, Birds, Insects; + and a Letter of Hawks and Falconry, ancient and modern; in the first + of which he gives the proper interpretation of some ancient names of + animals, commonly mistaken; and in the other, has some curious + observations on the art of hawking, which he considers as a practice + unknown to the ancients. I believe all our sports of the field are of + Gothick original; the ancients neither hunted by the scent, nor seemed + much to have practised horsemanship, as an exercise; and though in + their works there is mention of <i>aucupium</i> and <i>piscatio</i>, + they seemed no more to have been considered as diversions, than + agriculture, or any other manual labour. +</p> +<p> + In two more letters, he speaks of the cymbals of the Hebrews, but + without any satisfactory determination; and of <i>rhopalick</i>, or + gradual verses, that is, of verses beginning with a word of one + syllable, and proceeding by words of which each has a syllable more + than the former; as, +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + "O deus, aeterne stationis conciliator." AUSONIUS. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + And after this manner pursuing the hint, he mentions many other + restrained methods of versifying, to which industrious ignorance has + sometimes voluntarily subjected itself. +</p> +<p> + His next attempt is, on Languages, and particularly the Saxon Tongue. + He discourses with great learning, and generally with great justness, + of the derivation and changes of languages; but, like other men of + multifarious learning, he receives some notions without examination. + Thus he observes, according to the popular opinion, that the Spaniards + have retained so much Latin as to be able to compose sentences that + shall be, at once, grammatically Latin and Castilian: this will appear + very unlikely to a man that considers the Spanish terminations; and + Howell, who was eminently skilful in the three provincial languages, + declares, that, after many essays, he never could effect it <a href="#note-86">[86]</a>. +</p> +<p> + The principal design of this letter, is to show the affinity between + the modern English, and the ancient Saxon; and he observes, very + rightly, that "though we have borrowed many substantives, adjectives, + and some verbs, from the French; yet the great body of numerals, + auxiliary verbs, articles, pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, and + prepositions, which are the distinguishing and lasting parts of a + language, remain with us from the Saxon." +</p> +<p> + To prove this position more evidently, he has drawn up a short + discourse of six paragraphs, in Saxon and English; of which every word + is the same in both languages, excepting the terminations and + orthography. The words are, indeed, Saxon, but the phraseology is + English; and, I think, would not have been understood by Bede or + Elfric, notwithstanding the confidence of our author. He has, however, + sufficiently proved his position, that the English resembles its + paternal language more than any modern European dialect. +</p> +<p> + There remain five tracts of this collection yet unmentioned; one, of + artificial Hills, Mounts, or Barrows, in England; in reply to an + interrogatory letter of E. D. whom the writers of the Biographia + Britannica suppose to be, if rightly printed, W. D. or sir William + Dugdale, one of Browne's correspondents. These are declared by Browne, + in concurrence, I think, with all other antiquaries, to be, for the + most part, funeral monuments. He proves, that both the Danes and + Saxons buried their men of eminence under piles of earth, "which + admitting," says he "neither ornament, epitaph, nor inscription, may, + if earthquakes spare them, outlast other monuments: obelisks have + their term, and pyramids will tumble; but these mountainous monuments + may stand, and are like to have the same period with the earth." +</p> +<p> + In the next, he answers two geographical questions; one concerning + Troas, mentioned in the acts and epistles of St. Paul, which he + determines to be the city built near the ancient Ilium; and the other + concerning the Dead sea, of which he gives the same account with other + writers. +</p> +<p> + Another letter treats of the Answers of the Oracle of Apollo, at + Delphos, to Croesus, king of Lydia. In this tract nothing deserves + notice, more than that Browne considers the oracles as evidently and + indubitably supernatural, and founds all his disquisition upon that + postulate. He wonders why the physiologists of old, having such means + of instruction, did not inquire into the secrets of nature: but + judiciously concludes, that such questions would probably have been + vain; "for in matters cognoscible, and formed for our disquisition, + our industry must be our oracle, and reason our Apollo." +</p> +<p> + The pieces that remain are, a Prophecy concerning the future State of + several Nations; in which Browne plainly discovers his expectation to + be the same with that entertained lately, with more confidence, by Dr. + Berkeley, "that America will be the seat of the fifth empire;" and, + Museum clausum, sive Bibliotheca abscondita: in which the author + amuses himself with imagining the existence of books and curiosities, + either never in being or irrecoverably lost. +</p> +<p> + These pieces I have recounted, as they are ranged in Tenison's + collection, because the editor has given no account of the time at + which any of them were written. +</p> +<p> + Some of them are of little value, more than as they gratify the mind + with the picture of a great scholar, turning his learning into + amusement; or show upon how great a variety of inquiries, the same + mind has been successfully employed. +</p> +<p> + The other collection of his posthumous pieces, published in octavo, + London, 1722, contains Repertorium; or some account of the Tombs and + Monuments in the Cathedral of Norwich; where, as Tenison observes, + there is not matter proportionate to the skill of the antiquary. +</p> +<p> + The other pieces are, Answers to sir William Dugdale's Inquiries about + the Fens; a letter concerning Ireland; another relating to urns newly + discovered; some short strictures on different subjects; and a Letter + to a Friend on the Death of his intimate Friend, published singly by + the author's son, in 1690. +</p> +<p> + There is inserted in the Biographia Britannica, a Letter containing + Instructions for the Study of Physick: which, with the essays here + offered to the publick, completes the works of Dr. Browne. +</p> +<p> + To the life of this learned man, there remains little to be added, but + that, in 1665, he was chosen honorary fellow of the college of + physicians, as a man, "virtute et literis ornatissimus," eminently + embellished with literature and virtue; and in 1671, received, at + Norwich, the honour of knighthood from Charles the second, a prince, + who, with many frailties and vices, had yet skill to discover + excellence, and virtue to reward it with such honorary distinctions, + at least, as cost him nothing, yet, conferred by a king so judicious + and so much beloved, had the power of giving merit new lustre and + greater popularity. +</p> +<p> + Thus he lived in high reputation, till, in his seventy-sixth year, he + was seized with a colick, which, after having tortured him about a + week, put an end to his life at Norwich, on his birthday, October, 19, + 1682 <a href="#note-87">[87]</a>. Some of his last words were expressions of submission to + the will of God, and fearlessness of death. +</p> +<p> + He lies buried in the church of St. Peter Mancroft, in Norwich, with + this inscription on a mural monument, placed on the south pillar of + the altar: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + M. S. + Hic situs est THOMAS BROWNE, M.D. + Et miles. + Anno 1605, Londini natus; + Generosa familia apud Upton + In agro Cestriensi oriundus. + Schola pritnum Wintoniensi, postea + In Coll. Pembr. + Apud Oxonienses bonis literis + Haud leviter imbutus; + In urbe hac Nordovicensi medicinam + Arte egregia, et foelici successu professus; + Scriptis quibus tituli, RELIGIO MEDICI + Et PSEUDODOXIA EPIDEMICA, aliisque + Per orbem notissimus. + Vir prudentissimus, integerrimus, doctissimus; + Obijt Octob. 19, 1682. + Pie posuit moestissima conjux + Da. Doroth. Br. + + Near the foot of this pillar + Lies Sir Thomas Browne, knt. and doctor in physick, + Author of Religio Medici, and other learned books, + Who practised physick in this city 46 years, + And died Oct. 1682, in the 77th year of his age. + In memory of whom, + Dame Dorothy Browne, who had been his affectionate + Wife 47 years, caused this monument to be + Erected. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + Besides this lady, who died in 1685, he left a son and three + daughters. Of the daughters nothing very remarkable is known; but his + son, Edward Browne, requires a particular mention. +</p> +<p> + He was born about the year 1642; and, after having passed through the + classes of the school at Norwich, became bachelor of physick at + Cambridge; and afterwards removing to Merton college in Oxford, was + admitted there to the same degree, and afterwards made a doctor. In + 1668 he visited part of Germany; and in the year following made a + wider excursion into Austria, Hungary, and Thessaly; where the Turkish + sultan then kept his court at Larissa. He afterwards passed through + Italy. His skill in natural history made him particularly attentive to + mines and metallurgy. Upon his return, he published an account of the + countries through which he had passed; which I have heard commended by + a learned traveller, who has visited many places after him, as written + with scrupulous and exact veracity, such as is scarcely to be found in + any other book of the same kind. But whatever it may contribute to the + instruction of a naturalist, I cannot recommend it, as likely to give + much pleasure to common readers; for, whether it be that the world is + very uniform, and, therefore, he who is resolved to adhere to truth + will have few novelties to relate; or, that Dr. Browne was, by the + train of his studies, led to inquire most after those things by which + the greatest part of mankind is little affected; a great part of his + book seems to contain very unimportant accounts of his passage from + one place where he saw little, to another where he saw no more. +</p> +<p> + Upon his return, he practised physick in London; was made physician + first to Charles the second, and afterwards, in 1682, to St. + Bartholomew's hospital. About the same time, he joined his name to + those of many other eminent men, in a translation of Plutarch's lives. + He was first censor, then elect, and treasurer of the college of + physicians; of which, in 1705, he was chosen president, and held his + office till, in 1708, he died, in a degree of estimation suitable to a + man so variously accomplished, that king Charles had honoured him with + this panegyrick, that "he was as learned as any of the college, and as + well bred as any of the court." +</p> +<p> + Of every great and eminent character, part breaks forth into publick + view, and part lies hid in domestick privacy. Those qualities, which + have been exerted in any known and lasting performances, may, at any + distance of time, be traced and estimated; but silent excellencies are + soon forgotten; and those minute peculiarities which discriminate + every man from all others, if they are not recorded by those whom + personal knowledge enables to observe them, are irrecoverably lost. + This mutilation of character must have happened, among many others, to + sir Thomas Browne, had it not been delineated by his friend Mr. + Whitefoot, "who esteemed it an especial favour of providence, to have + had a particular acquaintance with him for two-thirds of his life." + Part of his observations I shall therefore copy. +</p> +<p> + "For a character of his person, his complexion and hair was answerable + to his name; his stature was moderate, and a habit of body neither fat + nor lean, but [Greek: eusarkos]. +</p> +<p> + "In his habit of clothing, he had an aversion to all finery, and + affected plainness, both in the fashion and ornaments. He ever wore a + cloak, or boots, when few others did. He kept himself always very + warm, and thought it most safe so to do, though he never loaded + himself with such a multitude of garments, as Suetonius reports of + Augustus, enough to clothe a good family. +</p> +<p> + "The horizon of his understanding was much larger than the hemisphere + of the world: all that was visible in the heavens he comprehended so + well, that few that are under them knew so much: he could tell the + number of the visible stars in his horizon, and call them all by their + names that had any; and of the earth he had such a minute and exact + geographical knowledge, as if he had been by divine providence + ordained surveyor-general of the whole terrestrial orb, and its + products, minerals, plants, and animals. He was so curious a botanist, + that, besides the specifical distinctions, he made nice and elaborate + observations, equally useful as entertaining. +</p> +<p> + "His memory, though not so eminent as that of Seneca or Scaliger, was + capacious and tenacious, insomuch as he remembered all that was + remarkable in any book that he had read; and not only knew all + person's again that he had ever seen, at any distance of time, but + remembered the circumstances of their bodies, and their particular + discourses and speeches. +</p> +<p> + "In the Latin poets he remembered every thing that was acute and + pungent; he had read most of the historians, ancient and modern, + wherein his observations were singular, not taken notice of by common + readers; he was excellent company when he was at leisure, and + expressed more light than heat in the temper of his brain. +</p> +<p> + "He had no despotical power over his affections and passions, (that + was a privilege of original perfection, forfeited by the neglect of + the use of it,) but as large a political power over them, as any + stoick, or man of his time; whereof he gave so great experiment, that + he hath very rarely been known to have been overcome with any of them. + The strongest that were found in him, both of the irascible and + concupiscible, were under the control of his reason. Of admiration, + which is one of them, being the only product either of ignorance or + uncommon knowledge, he had more and less than other men, upon the same + account of his knowing more than others; so that though he met with + many rarities, he admired them not so much as others do. +</p> +<p> + "He was never seen to be transported with mirth, or dejected with + sadness; always cheerful, but rarely merry, at any sensible rate; + seldom heard to break a jest; and when he did, he would be apt to + blush at the levity of it: his gravity was natural, without + affectation. +</p> +<p> + "His modesty was visible in a natural habitual blush, which was + increased upon the least occasion, and oft discovered without any + observable cause. +</p> +<p> + "They that knew no more of him than by the briskness of his writings, + found themselves deceived in their expectation, when they came in his + company, noting the gravity and sobriety of his aspect and + conversation; so free from loquacity or much talkativeness, that he + was sometimes difficult to be engaged in any discourse; though when he + was so, it was always singular, and never trite or vulgar. + Parsimonious in nothing but his time, whereof he made as much + improvement, with as little loss as any man in it: when he had any to + spare from his drudging practice, he was scarce patient of any + diversion from his study; so impatient of sloth and idleness, that he + would say, he could not do nothing. +</p> +<p> + "Sir Thomas understood most of the European languages; viz. all that + are in Hutter's Bible, which he made use of. The Latin and Greek he + understood critically; the oriental languages, which never were + vernacular in this part of the world, he thought the use of them would + not answer the time and pains of learning them; yet had so great a + veneration for the matrix of them, viz. the Hebrew, consecrated to the + oracles of God, that he was not content to be totally ignorant of it; + though very little of his science is to be found in any books of that + primitive language. And though much is said to be written in the + derivative idioms of that tongue, especially the Arabick, yet he was + satisfied with the translations, wherein he found nothing admirable. +</p> +<p> + "In his religion he continued in the same mind which he had declared + in his first book, written when he was but thirty years old, his + Religio Medici, wherein he fully assented to that of the church of + England, preferring it before any in the world, as did the learned + Grotius. He attended the publick service very constantly, when he was + not withheld by his practice; never missed the sacrament in his + parish, if he were in town; read the best English sermons he could + hear of, with liberal applause; and delighted not in controversies. In + his last sickness, wherein he continued about a week's time, enduring + great pain of the colick, besides a continual fever, with as much + patience as hath been seen in any man, without any pretence of stoical + apathy, animosity, or vanity of not being concerned thereat, or + suffering no impeachment of happiness: 'Nihil agis, dolor.' +</p> +<p> + "His patience was founded upon the Christian philosophy, and a sound + faith of God's providence, and a meek and holy submission thereunto, + which he expressed in few words. I visited him near his end, when he + had not strength to hear or speak much; the last words which I heard + from him were, besides some expressions of dearness, that he did + freely submit to the will of God, being without fear; he had often + triumphed over the king of terrours in others, and given many repulses + in the defence of patients; but, when his own turn came, he submitted + with a meek, rational, and religious courage. +</p> +<p> + "He might have made good the old saying of 'dat Galenus opes,' had he + lived in a place that could have afforded it. But his indulgence and + liberality to his children, especially in their travels, two of his + sons in divers countries, and two of his daughters in France, spent + him more than a little. He was liberal in his house entertainments and + in his charity: he left a comfortable, but no great estate, both to + his lady and children, gained by his own industry. +</p> +<p> + "Such was his sagacity and knowledge of all history, ancient and + modern, and his observations thereupon so singular, that, it hath been + said, by them that knew him best, that, if his profession, and place + of abode, would have suited, his ability, he would have made an + extraordinary man for the privy council, not much inferiour to the + famous Padre Paulo, the late oracle of the Venetian state. +</p> +<p> + "Though he were no prophet, nor son of a prophet, yet in that faculty + which comes nearest it, he excelled, i.e. the stochastick, wherein he + was seldom mistaken, as to future events, as well publick as private; + but not apt to discover any presages or superstition." +</p> +<p> + It is observable, that he, who, in his earlier years, had read all the + books against religion, was, in the latter part of his life, averse + from controversies. To play with important truths, to disturb the + repose of established tenets, to subtilize objections, and elude + proof, is too often the sport of youthful vanity, of which maturer + experience commonly repents. There is a time when every man is weary + of raising difficulties only to task himself with the solution, and + desires to enjoy truth without the labour or hazard of contest. There + is, perhaps, no better method of encountering these troublesome + irruptions of skepticism, with which inquisitive minds are frequently + harassed, than that which Browne declares himself to have taken: "If + there arise any doubts in my way, I do forget them; or, at least, + defer them, till my better settled judgment, and more manly reason, be + able to resolve them: for I perceive every man's reason is his best + Oedipus, and will, upon a reasonable truce, find a way to loose those + bonds, wherewith the subtilties of errour have enchained our more + flexible and tender judgments." +</p> +<p> + The foregoing character may be confirmed and enlarged by many passages + in the Religio Medici; in which it appears, from Whitefoot's + testimony, that the author, though no very sparing panegyrist of + himself, had not exceeded the truth, with respect to his attainments + or visible qualities. +</p> +<p> + There are, indeed, some interiour and secret virtues, which a man may, + sometimes, have without the knowledge of others; and may, sometimes, + assume to himself, without sufficient reasons for his opinion. It is + charged upon Browne, by Dr. Watts, as an instance of arrogant + temerity, that, after a long detail of his attainments, he declares + himself to have escaped "the first and father-sin of pride." A perusal + of the Religio Medici will not much contribute to produce a belief of + the author's exemption from this father-sin; pride is a vice, which + pride itself inclines every man to find in others, and to overlook in + himself. +</p> +<p> + As easily may we be mistaken in estimating our own courage, as our own + humility; and, therefore, when Browne shows himself persuaded, that + "he could lose an arm without a tear, or, with a few groans, be + quartered to pieces," I am not sure that he felt in himself any + uncommon powers of endurance; or, indeed, any thing more than a sudden + effervescence of imagination, which, uncertain and involuntary as it + is, he mistook for settled resolution. +</p> +<p> + "That there were not many extant, that, in a noble way, feared the + face of death less than himself," he might, likewise, believe at a + very easy expense, while death was yet at a distance; but the time + will come, to every human being, when it must be known how well he can + bear to die; and it has appeared that our author's fortitude did not + desert him in the great hour of trial. +</p> +<p> + It was observed, by some of the remarkers on the Religio Medici, that + "the author was yet alive, and might grow worse as well as better:" it + is, therefore, happy, that this suspicion can be obviated by a + testimony given to the continuance of his virtue, at a time when death + had set him free from danger of change, and his panegyrist from + temptation to flattery. +</p> +<p> + But it is not on the praises of others, but on his own writings, that + he is to depend for the esteem of posterity; of which he will not + easily be deprived, while learning shall have any reverence among men; + for there is no science in which he does not discover some skill; and + scarce any kind of knowledge, profane or sacred, abstruse or elegant, + which he does not appear to have cultivated with success. +</p> +<p> + His exuberance of knowledge, and plenitude of ideas, sometimes + obstruct the tendency of his reasoning and the clearness of his + decisions: on whatever subject he employed his mind, there started up + immediately so many images before him, that he lost one by grasping + another. His memory supplied him with so many illustrations, parallel + or dependent notions, that he was always starting into collateral + considerations; but the spirit and vigour of his pursuit always gives + delight; and the reader follows him, without reluctance, through his + mazes, in themselves flowery and pleasing, and ending at the point + originally in view. +</p> +<p> + "To have great excellencies and great faults, 'magnae; virtutes nee + minora vitia,' is the poesy," says our author, "of the best natures." + This poesy may be properly applied to the style of Browne; it is + vigorous, but rugged; it is learned, but pedantick; it is deep, but + obscure; it strikes, but does not please; it commands, but does not + allure; his tropes are harsh, and his combinations uncouth. +</p> +<p> + He fell into an age in which our language began to lose the stability + which it had obtained in the time of Elizabeth; and was considered by + every writer as a subject on which he might try his plastick skill, by + moulding it according to his own fancy. Milton, in consequence of this + encroaching license, began to introduce the Latin idiom: and Browne, + though he gave less disturbance to our structures in phraseology, yet + poured in a multitude of exotick words; many, indeed, useful and + significant, which, if rejected, must be supplied by circumlocution, + such as <i>commensality</i>, for the state of many living at the same + table; but many superfluous, as a <i>paralogical</i>, for an unreasonable + doubt; and some so obscure, that they conceal his meaning rather than + explain it, as <i>arthritical analogies</i>, for parts that serve some + animals in the place of joints. +</p> +<p> + His style is, indeed, a tissue of many languages; a mixture of + heterogeneous words, brought together from distant regions, with terms + originally appropriated to one art, and drawn by violence into the + service of another. He must, however, be confessed to have augmented + our philosophical diction; and, in defence of his uncommon words and + expressions, we must consider, that he had uncommon sentiments, and + was not content to express, in many words, that idea for which any + language could supply a single term. +</p> +<p> + But his innovations are sometimes pleasing, and his temerities happy: + he has many "verba ardentia" forcible expressions, which he would + never have found, but by venturing to the utmost verge of propriety; + and flights which would never have been reached, but by one who had + very little fear of the shame of falling. +</p> +<p> + There remains yet an objection against the writings of Browne, more + formidable than the animadversions of criticism. There are passages + from which some have taken occasion to rank him among deists, and + others among atheists. It would be difficult to guess how any such + conclusion should be formed, had not experience shown that there are + two sorts of men willing to enlarge the catalogue of infidels. +</p> +<p> + It has been long observed, that an atheist has no just reason for + endeavouring conversions; and yet none harass those minds which they + can influence, with more importunity of solicitation to adopt their + opinions. In proportion as they doubt the truth of their own + doctrines, they are desirous to gain the attestation of another + understanding: and industriously labour to win a proselyte, and + eagerly catch at the slightest pretence to dignify their sect with a + celebrated name <a href="#note-88">[88]</a>. +</p> +<p> + The others become friends to infidelity only by unskilful hostility; + men of rigid orthodoxy, cautious conversation, and religious asperity. + Among these, it is, too frequently, the practice to make in their heat + concessions to atheism or deism, which their most confident advocates + had never dared to claim, or to hope. A sally of levity, an idle + paradox, an indecent jest, an unreasonable objection, are sufficient, + in the opinion of these men, to efface a name from the lists of + christianity, to exclude a soul from everlasting life. Such men are so + watchful to censure, that they have seldom much care to look for + favourable interpretations of ambiguities, to set the general tenour + of life against single failures, or to know how soon any slip of + inadvertency has been expiated by sorrow and retraction; but let fly + their fulminations, without mercy or prudence, against slight offences + or casual temerities, against crimes never committed, or immediately + repented. +</p> +<p> + The infidel knows well what he is doing. He is endeavouring to supply, + by authority, the deficiency of his arguments, and to make his cause + less invidious, by showing numbers on his side; he will, therefore, + not change his conduct, till he reforms his principles. But the zealot + should recollect, that he is labouring by this frequency of + excommunication, against his own cause, and voluntarily adding + strength to the enemies of truth. It must always be the condition of a + great part of mankind, to reject and embrace tenets upon the authority + of those whom they think wiser than themselves; and, therefore, the + addition of every name to infidelity, in some degree, invalidates that + argument upon which the religion of multitudes is necessarily founded. +</p> +<p> + Men may differ from each other in many religious opinions, and yet all + may retain the essentials of christianity; men may sometimes eagerly + dispute, and yet not differ much from one another: the rigorous + persecutors of errour should, therefore, enlighten their zeal with + knowledge, and temper their orthodoxy with charity; that charity, + without which orthodoxy is vain; charity that "thinketh no evil," but + "hopeth all things," and "endureth all things." +</p> +<p> + Whether Browne has been numbered among the contemners of religion, by + the fury of its friends, or the artifice of its enemies, it is no + difficult task to replace him among the most zealous professors of + christianity. He may, perhaps, in the ardour of his imagination, have + hazarded an expression, which a mind intent upon faults may interpret + into heresy, if considered apart from the rest of his discourse; but a + phrase is not to be opposed to volumes; there is scarcely a writer to + be found, whose profession was not divinity, that has so frequently + testified his belief of the sacred writings, has appealed to them with + such unlimited submission, or mentioned them with such unvaried + reverence. +</p> +<p> + It is, indeed, somewhat wonderful, that he should be placed without + the pale of christianity, who declares, "that he assumes the + honourable style of a christian," not because it is "the religion of + his country," but because "having in his riper years and confirmed + judgment seen" and examined all, he finds himself obliged, by the + principles of grace, and the law of his own reason, to embrace "no + other name but this;" who, to specify his persuasion yet more, tells + us, that "he is of the reformed religion; of the same belief our + Saviour taught, the apostles disseminated, the fathers authorized, and + the martyrs confirmed;" who, though "paradoxical in philosophy, loves + in divinity to keep the beaten road; and pleases himself that he has + no taint of heresy, schism, or errour:" to whom, "where the scripture + is silent, the church is a text; where that speaks, 'tis but a + comment;" and who uses not "the dictates of his own reason, but where + there is a joint silence of both: who blesses himself, that he lived + not in the days of miracles, when faith had been thrust upon him; but + enjoys that greater blessing, pronounced to all that believe and saw + not." He cannot surely be charged with a defect of faith, who + "believes that our Saviour was dead, and buried, and rose again, and + desires to see him in his glory:" and who affirms that "this is not + much to believe;" that "we have reason to owe this faith unto + history;" and that "they only had the advantage of a bold and noble + faith, who lived before his coming; and, upon obscure prophecies, and + mystical types, could raise a belief." Nor can contempt of the + positive and ritual parts of religion be imputed to him, who doubts, + whether a good man would refuse a poisoned eucharist; and "who would + violate his own arm, rather than a church." +</p> +<p> + The opinions of every man must be learned from himself: concerning his + practice, it is safest to trust the evidence of others. Where these + testimonies concur, no higher degree of historical certainty can be + obtained; and they apparently concur to prove, that Browne was a + zealous adherent to the faith of Christ; that he lived in obedience to + his laws, and died in confidence of his mercy. +</p> +<a name="2H_4_44"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<h2> + ASCHAM <a href="#note-89">[89]</a>. +</h2> +<p> + It often happens to writers, that they are known only by their works; + the incidents of a literary life are seldom observed, and, therefore, + seldom recounted: but Ascham has escaped the common fate by the + friendship of Edward Grauut, the learned master of Westminster school, + who devoted an oration to his memory, and has marked the various + vicissitudes of his fortune. Graunt either avoided the labour of + minute inquiry, or thought domestick occurrences unworthy of his + notice; or, preferring the character of an orator to that of an + historian, selected only such particulars as he could best express or + most happily embellish. His narrative is, therefore, scanty, and I + know not by what materials it can now be amplified. +</p> +<p> + Roger Ascham was born in the year 1515, at Kirby Wiske, (or Kirby + Wicke,) a village near Northallerton, in Yorkshire, of a family above + the vulgar. His father, John Ascham, was house-steward in the family + of Scroop; and, in that age, when the different orders of men were at + a greater distance from each other, and the manners of gentlemen were + regularly formed by menial services in great houses, lived with a very + conspicuous reputation. Margaret Ascham, his wife, is said to have + been allied to many considerable families, but her maiden name is not + recorded. She had three sons, of whom Roger was the youngest, and some + daughters; but who can hope, that of any progeny more than one shall + deserve to be mentioned? They lived married sixty-seven years, and, at + last, died together almost on the same hour of the same day. +</p> +<p> + Roger, having passed his first years under the care of his parents, + was adopted into the family of Antony Wingfield, who maintained him, + and committed his education, with that of his own sons, to the care of + one Bond, a domestick tutor. He very early discovered an unusual + fondness for literature by an eager perusal of English books; and, + having passed happily through the scholastick rudiments, was put, in + 1530, by his patron Wingfield, to St. John's college in Cambridge. +</p> +<p> + Ascham entered Cambridge at a time when the last great revolution of + the intellectual world was filling every academical mind with ardour + or anxiety. The destruction of the Constantinopolitan empire had + driven the Greeks, with their language, into the interiour parts of + Europe, the art of printing had made the books easily attainable, and + Greek now began to be taught in England. The doctrines of Luther had + already filled all the nations of the Romish communion with + controversy and dissension. New studies of literature, and new tenets + of religion, found employment for all who were desirous of truth, or + ambitious of fame. Learning was, at that time, prosecuted with that + eagerness and perseverance, which, in this age of indifference and + dissipation, it is not easy to conceive. To teach or to learn, was, at + once, the business and the pleasure of the academical life; and an + emulation of study was raised by Cheke and Smith, to which even the + present age, perhaps, owes many advantages, without remembering, or + knowing, its benefactors. +</p> +<p> + Ascham soon resolved to unite himself to those who were enlarging the + bounds of knowledge, and, immediately upon his admission into the + college, applied himself to the study of Greek. Those who were zealous + for the new learning, were often no great friends to the old religion; + and Ascham, as he became a Grecian, became a protestant. The + reformation was not yet begun; disaffection to popery was considered + as a crime justly punished by exclusion from favour and preferment, + and was not yet openly professed, though superstition was gradually + losing its hold upon the publick. The study of Greek was reputable + enough, and Ascham pursued it with diligence and success, equally + conspicuous. He thought a language might be most easily learned by + teaching it; and, when he had obtained some proficiency in Greek, read + lectures, while he was yet a boy, to other boys, who were desirous of + instruction. His industry was much encouraged by Pember, a man of + great eminence at that time, though I know not that he has left any + monuments behind him, but what the gratitude of his friends and + scholars has bestowed. He was one of the great encouragers of Greek + learning, and particularly applauded Ascham's lectures, assuring him + in a letter, of which Graunt has preserved an extract, that he would + gain more knowledge by explaining one of Æsop's fables to a boy, than + by hearing one of Homer's poems explained by another. +</p> +<p> + Ascham took his bachelor's degree in 1534, February 18, in the + eighteenth year of his age; a time of life at which it is more common + now to enter the universities, than to take degrees, but which, + according to the modes of education then in use, had nothing of + remarkable prematurity. On the 23rd of March following, he was chosen + fellow of the college, which election he considered as a second birth. + Dr. Metcalf, the master of the college, a man, as Ascham tells us, + "meanly learned himself, but no mean encourager of learning in + others," clandestinely promoted his election, though he openly seemed + first to oppose it, and afterwards to censure it, because Ascham was + known to favour the new opinions; and the master himself was accused + of giving an unjust preference to the northern men, one of the + factions into which this nation was divided, before we could find any + more important reason of dissension, than that some were born on the + northern, and some on the southern side of Trent. Any cause is + sufficient for a quarrel; and the zealots of the north and south lived + long in such animosity, that it was thought necessary at Oxford to + keep them quiet, by choosing one proctor every year from each. +</p> +<p> + He seems to have been, hitherto, supported by the bounty of Wingfield, + which his attainment of a fellowship now freed him from the necessity + of receiving. Dependance, though in those days it was more common and + less irksome, than in the present state of things, can never have been + free from discontent; and, therefore, he that was released from it + must always have rejoiced. The danger is, lest the joy of escaping + from the patron may not leave sufficient memory of the benefactor. Of + this forgetfulness, Ascham cannot be accused; for he is recorded to + have preserved the most grateful and affectionate reverence for + Wingfield, and to have never grown weary of recounting his benefits. +</p> +<p> + His reputation still increased, and many resorted to his chamber to + hear the Greek writers explained. He was, likewise, eminent for other + accomplishments. By the advice of Pember, he had learned to play on + musical instruments, and he was one of the few who excelled in the + mechanical art of writing, which then began to be cultivated among us, + and in which we now surpass all other nations. He not only wrote his + pages with neatness, but embellished them with elegant draughts and + illuminations; an art at that time so highly valued, that it + contributed much both to his fame and his fortune. +</p> +<p> + He became master of arts in March, 1537, in his twenty-first year, and + then, if not before, commenced tutor, and publickly undertook the + education of young men. A tutor of one-and-tweuty, however + accomplished with learning, however exalted by genius, would now gain + little reverence or obedience; but in those days of discipline and + regularity, the authority of the statutes easily supplied that of the + teacher; all power that was lawful was reverenced. Besides, young + tutors had still younger pupils. +</p> +<p> + Ascham is said to have courted his scholars to study by every + incitement, to have treated them with great kindness, and to have + taken care, at once, to instil learning and piety, to enlighten their + minds, and to form their manners. Many of his scholars rose to great + eminence; and among them William Grindal was so much distinguished, + that, by Cheke's recommendation, he was called to court, as a proper + master of languages for the lady Elizabeth. +</p> +<p> + There was yet no established lecturer of Greek; the university, + therefore, appointed Ascham to read in the open schools, and paid him + out of the publick purse an honorary stipend, such as was then + reckoned sufficiently liberal. A lecture was afterwards founded by + king Henry, and he then quitted the schools, but continued to explain + Greek authors in his own college. +</p> +<p> + He was at first an opponent of the new pronunciation introduced, or + rather of the ancient restored, about this time, by Cheke and Smith, + and made some cautious struggles for the common practice, which the + credit and dignity of his antagonists did not permit him to defend + very publickly, or with much vehemence: nor were they long his + antagonists; for either his affection for their merit, or his + conviction of the cogency of their arguments, soon changed his opinion + and his practice, and he adhered ever after to their method of + utterance. +</p> +<p> + Of this controversy it is not necessary to give a circumstantial + account; something of it may be found in Strype's Life of Smith, and + something in Baker's Reflections upon Learning; it is sufficient to + remark here, that Cheke's pronunciation was that which now prevails in + the schools of England. Disquisitions not only verbal, but merely + literal, are too minute for popular narration. +</p> +<p> + He was not less eminent, as a writer of Latin, than as a teacher of + Greek. All the publick letters of the university were of his + composition; and, as little qualifications must often bring great + abilities into notice, he was recommended to this honourable + employment, not less by the neatness of his hand, than the elegance of + his style. +</p> +<p> + However great was his learning, he was not always immured in his + chamber; but, being valetudinary, and weak of body, thought it + necessary to spend many hours in such exercises as might best relieve + him after the fatigue of study. His favourite amusement was archery, + in which he spent, or, in the opinion of others, lost so much time, + that those whom either his faults or virtues made his enemies, and, + perhaps, some whose kindness wished him always worthily employed, did + not scruple to censure his practice, as unsuitable to a man professing + learning, and, perhaps, of bad example in a place of education. +</p> +<p> + To free himself from this censure was one of the reasons for which he + published, in 1544, his Toxophilus, or the Schole or Partitions of + Shooting, in which he joins the praise with the precepts of archery. + He designed not only to teach the art of shooting, but to give an + example of diction more natural and more truly English than was used + by the common writers of that age, whom he censures for mingling + exotick terms with their native language, and of whom he complains, + that they were made authors, not by skill or education, but by + arrogance and temerity. +</p> +<p> + He has not failed in either of his purposes. He has sufficiently + vindicated archery as an innocent, salutary, useful, and liberal + diversion; and if his precepts are of no great use, he has only shown, + by one example among many, how little the hand can derive from the + mind, how little intelligence can conduce to dexterity. In every art, + practice is much; in arts manual, practice is almost the whole: + precept can, at most, but warn against errour; it can never bestow + excellence. +</p> +<p> + The bow has been so long disused, that most English readers have + forgotten its importance, though it was the weapon by which we gained + the battle of Agincourt; a weapon which, when handled by English + yeomen, no foreign troops were able to resist. We were not only abler + of body than the French, and, therefore, superiour in the use of arms, + which are forcible only in proportion to the strength with which they + are handled, but the national practice of shooting for pleasure or for + prizes, by which every man was inured to archery from his infancy, + gave us insuperable advantage, the bow requiring more practice to + skilful use than any other instrument of offence. +</p> +<p> + Firearms were then in their infancy; and though battering-pieces had + been some time in use, I know not whether any soldiers were armed with + hand-guns when the Toxophilus was first published. They were soon + after used by the Spanish troops, whom other nations made haste to + imitate; but how little they could yet effect, will be understood from + the account given by the ingenious author of the Exercise for the + Norfolk Militia. +</p> +<p> + "The first muskets were very heavy, and could not be fired without a + rest; they had matchlocks, and barrels of a wide bore, that carried a + large ball and charge of powder, and did execution at a greater + distance. +</p> +<p> + "The musketeers on a march carried only their rests and ammunition, + and had boys to bear their muskets after them, for which they were + allowed great additional pay. +</p> +<p> + "They were very slow in loading, not only by reason of the + unwieldiness of the pieces, and because they carried the powder and + balls separate, but from the time it took to prepare and adjust the + match; so that their fire was not near so brisk as ours is now. + Afterwards a lighter kind of matchlock musket came into use, and they + carried their ammunition in bandeliers, which were broad belts that + came over the shoulder, to which were hung several little cases of + wood covered with leather, each containing a charge of powder; the + balls they carried loose in a pouch; and they had also a priming-horn + hanging by their side. +</p> +<p> + "The old English writers call those large muskets calivers; the + harquebuss was a lighter piece, that could be fired without a rest. + The matchlock was fired by a match fixed by a kind of tongs in the + serpentine or cock, which, by pulling the trigger, was brought down + with great quickness upon the priming in the pan, over which there was + a sliding cover, which was drawn back by the hand just at the time of + firing. There was a great deal of nicety and care required to fit the + match properly to the cock, so as to come down exactly true on the + priming, to blow the ashes from the coal, and to guard the pan from + the sparks that fell from it. A great deal of time was also lost in + taking it out of the cock, and returning it between the fingers of the + left hand every time that the piece was fired; and wet weather often + rendered the matches useless." +</p> +<p> + While this was the state of firearms, and this state continued among + us to the civil war, with very little improvement, it is no wonder + that the long-bow was preferred by sir Thomas Smith, who wrote of the + choice of weapons in the reign of queen Elizabeth, when the use of the + bow still continued, though the musket was gradually prevailing. Sir + John Haward, a writer yet later, has, in his History of the Norman + Kings, endeavoured to evince the superiority of the archer to the + musketeer: however, in the long peace of king James, the bow was + wholly forgotten. Guns have from that time been the weapons of the + English, as of other nations, and, as they are now improved, are + certainly more efficacious. +</p> +<p> + Ascham had yet another reason, if not for writing his book, at least + for presenting it to king Henry. England was not then, what it may be + now justly termed, the capital of literature; and, therefore, those + who aspired to superiour degrees of excellence, thought it necessary + to travel into other countries. The purse of Ascham was not equal to + the expense of peregrination; and, therefore, he hoped to have it + augmented by a pension. Nor was he wholly disappointed; for the king + rewarded him with a yearly payment of ten pounds. +</p> +<p> + A pension of ten pounds granted by a king of England to a man of + letters, appears, to modern readers, so contemptible a benefaction, + that it is not unworthy of inquiry what might be its value at that + time, and how much Ascham might be enriched by it. Nothing is more + uncertain than the estimation of wealth by denominated money; the + precious metals never retain long the same proportion to real + commodities, and the same names in different ages do not imply the + same quantity of metal; so that it is equally difficult to know how + much money was contained in any nominal sum, and to find what any + supposed quantity of gold or silver would purchase; both which are + necessary to the commensuration of money, or the adjustment of + proportion between the same sums at different periods of time. +</p> +<p> + A numeral pound, in king Henry's time, contained, as now, twenty + shillings; and, therefore, it must be inquired what twenty shillings + could perform. Bread-corn is the most certain standard of the + necessaries of life. Wheat was generally sold, at that time for one + shilling, the bushel; if, therefore, we take five shillings the bushel + for the current price, ten pounds were equivalent to fifty. But here + is danger of a fallacy. It may be doubted whether wheat was the + general bread-corn of that age; and if rye, barley, or oats, were the + common food, and wheat, as I suspect, only a delicacy, the value of + wheat will not regulate the price of other things. This doubt, + however, is in favour of Ascham; for if we raise the worth of wheat, + we raise that of his pension. +</p> +<p> + But the value of money has another variation, which we are still less + able to ascertain: the rules of custom, or the different needs of + artificial life, make that revenue little at one time which is great + at another. Men are rich and poor, not only in proportion to what they + have, but to what they want. In some ages, not only necessaries are + cheaper, but fewer things are necessary. In the age of Ascham, most of + the elegancies and expenses of our present fashions were unknown: + commerce had not yet distributed superfluity through the lower classes + of the people, and the character of a student implied frugality, and + required no splendour to support it. His pension, therefore, reckoning + together the wants which he could supply, and the wants from which he + was exempt, may be estimated, in my opinion, at more than one hundred + pounds a year; which, added to the income of his fellowship, put him + far enough above distress. +</p> +<p> + This was a year of good fortune to Ascham. He was chosen orator to the + university on the removal of sir John Cheke to court, where he was + made tutor to prince Edward. A man once distinguished soon gains + admirers. Ascham was now received to notice by many of the nobility, + and by great ladies, among whom it was then the fashion to study the + ancient languages. Lee, archbishop of York, allowed him a yearly + pension; how much we are not told. He was, probably, about this time, + employed in teaching many illustrious persons to write a fine hand; + and, among others, Henry and Charles, dukes of Suffolk, the princess + Elizabeth, and prince Edward. +</p> +<p> + Henry the eighth died two years after, and a reformation of religion + being now openly prosecuted by king Edward and his council, Ascham, + who was known to favour it, had a new grant of his pension, and + continued at Cambridge, where he lived in great familiarity with + Bucer, who had been called from Germany to the professorship of + divinity. But his retirement was soon at an end; for, in 1548, his + pupil Grindal, the master of the princess Elizabeth, died, and the + princess, who had already some acquaintance with Ascham, called him + from his college to direct her studies. +</p> +<p> + He obeyed the summons, as we may easily believe, with readiness, and, + for two years, instructed her with great diligence; but then, being + disgusted either at her, or her domesticks, perhaps eager for another + change of life, he left her, without her consent, and returned to the + university. Of this precipitation he long repented; and, as those who + are not accustomed to disrespect cannot easily forgive it, he probably + felt the effects of his imprudence to his death. +</p> +<p> + After having visited Cambridge, he took a journey into Yorkshire, to + see his native place, and his old acquaintance, and there received a + letter from the court, informing him, that he was appointed secretary + to sir Richard Morisine, who was to be despatched as ambassadour into + Germany. In his return to London he paid that memorable visit to lady + Jane Gray, in which he found her reading the Phasdo in Greek, as he + has related in his Schoolmaster. +</p> +<p> + In September, 1550, he attended Morisine to Germany, and wandered over + great part of the country, making observations upon all that appeared + worthy of his curiosity, and contracting acquaintance with men of + learning. To his correspondent, Sturmius, he paid a visit, but + Sturmius was not at home, and those two illustrious friends never saw + each other. During the course of this embassy, Ascham undertook to + improve Morisine in Greek, and, for four days in the week, explained + some passages in Herodotus every morning, and more than two hundred + verses of Sophocles, or Euripides, every afternoon. He read with him, + likewise, some of the orations of Demosthenes. On the other days he + compiled the letters of business, and in the night filled up his + diary, digested his remarks, and wrote private letters to his friends + in England, and particularly to those of his college, whom he + continually exhorted to perseverance in study. Amidst all the + pleasures of novelty which his travels supplied, and in the dignity of + his publick station, he preferred the tranquillity of private study, + and the quiet of academical retirement. The reasonableness of this + choice has been always disputed; and in the contrariety of human + interests and dispositions, the controversy will not easily be + decided. +</p> +<p> + He made a short excursion into Italy, and mentions in his + Schoolmaster, with great severity, the vices of Venice. He was + desirous of visiting Trent, while the council were sitting; but the + scantiness of his purse defeated his curiosity. +</p> +<p> + In this journey he wrote his Report and Discourse of the Affairs in + Germany, in which he describes the dispositions and interests of the + German princes, like a man inquisitive and judicious, and recounts + many particularities, which are lost in the mass of general history, + in a style, which, to the ears of that age, was undoubtedly + mellifluous, and which is now a very valuable specimen of genuine + English. +</p> +<p> + By the death of king Edward, in 1553, the reformation was stopped, + Morisine was recalled, and Ascham's pension and hopes were at an end. + He, therefore, retired to his fellowship in a state of disappointment + and despair, which his biographer has endeavoured to express in the + deepest strain of plaintive declamation. "He was deprived of all his + support," says Graunt, "stripped of his pension, and cut off from the + assistance of his friends, who had now lost their influence: so that + he had nec praemia nec praedia, neither pension nor estate to support + him at Cambridge." There is no credit due to a rhetorician's account + either of good or evil. The truth is, that Ascham still had, in his + fellowship, all that in the early part of his life had given him + plenty, and might have lived like the other inhabitants of the + college, with the advantage of more knowledge and higher reputation. + But, notwithstanding his love of academical retirement, he had now too + long enjoyed the pleasures and festivities of publick life, to return + with a good will to academical poverty. +</p> +<p> + He had, however, better fortune than he expected; and, if he lamented + his condition, like his historian, better than he deserved. He had, + during his absence in Germany, been appointed Latin secretary to king + Edward; and, by the interest of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, he was + instated in the same office under Philip and Mary, with a salary of + twenty pounds a year. +</p> +<p> + Soon after his admission to his new employment, he gave an + extraordinary specimen of his abilities and diligence, by composing + and transcribing, with his usual elegance, in three days, forty-seven + letters to princes and personages, of whom cardinals were the lowest. +</p> +<p> + How Ascham, who was known to be a protestant, could preserve the + favour of Gardiner, and hold a place of honour and profit in queen + Mary's court, it must be very natural to inquire. Cheke, as is well + known, was compelled to a recantation; and why Ascham was spared, + cannot now be discovered. Graunt, at a time when the transactions of + queen Mary's reign must have been well enough remembered, declares, + that Ascham always made open profession of the reformed religion, and + that Englesfield and others often endeavoured to incite Gardiner + against him, but found their accusations rejected with contempt: yet + he allows, that suspicions and charges of temporization and + compliance, had somewhat sullied his reputation. The author of the + Biographia Britannica conjectures, that he owed his safety to his + innocence and usefulness; that it would have been unpopular to attack + a man so little liable to censure, and that the loss of his pen could + not have been easily supplied. But the truth is, that morality was + never suffered, in the days of persecution, to protect heresy: nor are + we sure that Ascham was more clear from common failings than those who + suffered more; and, whatever might be his abilities, they were not so + necessary, but Gardiner could have easily filled his place with + another secretary. Nothing is more vain, than, at a distant time, to + examine the motives of discrimination and partiality; for the + inquirer, having considered interest and policy, is obliged, at last, + to admit more frequent and more active motives of human conduct, + caprice, accident, and private affections. +</p> +<p> + At that time, if some were punished, many were forborne; and of many + why should not Ascham happen to be one? He seems to have been calm and + prudent, and content with that peace which he was suffered to enjoy: a + mode of behaviour that seldom fails to produce security. He had been + abroad in the last years of king Edward, and had, at least, given no + recent offence. He was certainly, according to his own opinion, not + much in danger; for in the next year he resigned his fellowship, + which, by Gardiner's favour, he had continued to hold, though not + resident; and married Margaret Howe, a young gentle-woman of a good + family. +</p> +<p> + He was distinguished in this reign by the notice of cardinal Pole, a + man of great candour, learning, and gentleness of manners, and + particularly eminent for his skill in Latin, who thought highly of + Ascham's style; of which it is no inconsiderable proof, that when Pole + was desirous of communicating a speech made by himself as legate, in + parliament, to the pope, he employed Ascham to translate it. +</p> +<p> + He is said to have been not only protected by the officers of state, + but favoured and countenanced by the queen herself, so that he had no + reason of complaint in that reign of turbulence and persecution: nor + was his fortune much mended, when, in 1558, his pupil, Elizabeth, + mounted the throne. He was continued in his former employment, with + the same stipend; but though he was daily admitted to the presence of + the queen, assisted her private studies, and partook of her + diversions; sometimes read to her in the learned languages, and + sometimes played with her at draughts and chess; he added nothing to + his twenty pounds a year but the prebend of Westwang, in the church of + York, which was given him the year following. His fortune was, + therefore, not proportionate to the rank which his offices and + reputation gave him, or to the favour in which he seemed to stand with + his mistress. Of this parsimonious allotment it is again a hopeless + search to inquire the reason. The queen was not naturally bountiful, + and, perhaps, did not think it necessary to distinguish, by any + prodigality of kindness, a man who had formerly deserted her, and whom + she might still suspect of serving rather for interest than affection. + Graunt exerts his rhetorical powers in praise of Ascham's + disinterestedness and contempt of money; and declares, that, though he + was often reproached by his friends with neglect of his own interest, + he never would ask any thing, and inflexibly refused all presents + which his office or imagined interest induced any to offer him. + Camden, however, imputes the narrowness of his condition to his love + of dice and cockfights: and Graunt, forgetting himself, allows that + Ascham was sometimes thrown into agonies by disappointed expectations. + It may be easily discovered, from his Schoolmaster, that he felt his + wants, though he might neglect to supply them; and we are left to + suspect, that he showed his contempt of money only by losing at play. + If this was his practice, we may excuse Elizabeth, who knew the + domestick character of her servants, if she did not give much to him + who was lavish of a little. +</p> +<p> + However he might fail in his economy, it were indecent to treat with + wanton levity the memory of a man who shared his frailties with all, + but whose learning or virtues few can attain, and by whose + excellencies many may be improved, while himself only suffered by his + faults. +</p> +<p> + In the reign of Elizabeth, nothing remarkable is known to have + befallen him, except that, in 1563, he was invited, by sir Edward + Sackville, to write the Schoolmaster, a treatise on education, upon an + occasion which he relates in the beginning of the book. +</p> +<p> + This work, though begun with alacrity, in hopes of a considerable + reward, was interrupted by the death of the patron, and afterwards + sorrowfully and slowly finished, in the gloom of disappointment, under + the pressure of distress. But of the author's disinclination or + dejection there can be found no tokens in the work, which is conceived + with great vigour, and finished with great accuracy; and, perhaps, + contains the best advice that was ever given for the study of + languages. +</p> +<p> + This treatise he completed, but did not publish; for that poverty + which, in our days, drives authors so hastily in such numbers to the + press, in the time of Ascham, I believe, debarred them from it. The + printers gave little for a copy, and, if we may believe the tale of + Raleigh's history, were not forward to print what was offered them for + nothing. Ascham's book, therefore, lay unseen in his study, and was, + at last, dedicated to lord Cecil by his widow. +</p> +<p> + Ascham never had a robust or vigorous body, and his excuse for so many + hours of diversion was his inability to endure a long continuance of + sedentary thought. In the latter part of his life he found it + necessary to forbear any intense application of the mind from dinner + to bedtime, and rose to read and write early in the morning. He was, + for some years, hectically feverish; and, though he found some + alleviation of his distemper, never obtained a perfect recovery of his + health. The immediate cause of his last sickness was too close + application to the composition of a poem, which he purposed to present + to the queen, on the day of her accession. To finish this, he forbore + to sleep at his accustomed hours, till, in December, 1568, he fell + sick of a kind of lingering disease, which Graunt has not named, nor + accurately described. The most afflictive symptom was want of sleep, + which he endeavoured to obtain by the motion of a cradle. Growing + every day weaker, he found it vain to contend with his distemper, and + prepared to die with the resignation and piety of a true Christian. + He was attended on his death-bed by Gravet, vicar of St. Sepulchre, + and Dr. Nowel, the learned dean of St. Paul's, who gave ample + testimony to the decency and devotion of his concluding life. He + frequently testified his desire of that dissolution which he soon + obtained. His funeral sermon was preached by Dr. Nowel. +</p> +<p> + Roger Ascham died in the fifty-third year of his age, at a time when, + according to the general course of life, much might yet have been + expected from him, and when he might have hoped for much from others: + but his abilities and his wants were at an end together; and who can + determine, whether he was cut off from advantages, or rescued from + calamities? He appears to have been not much qualified for the + improvement of his fortune. His disposition was kind and social; he + delighted in the pleasures of conversation, and was probably not much + inclined to business. This may be suspected from the paucity of his + writings. He has left little behind him; and of that little, nothing + was published by himself but the Toxophilus, and the account of + Germany. The Schoolmaster was printed by his widow; and the epistles + were collected by Graunt, who dedicated them to queen Elizabeth, that + he might have an opportunity of recommending his son, Giles Ascham, to + her patronage. The dedication was not lost: the young man was made, by + the queen's mandate, fellow of a college in Cambridge, where he + obtained considerable reputation. What was the effect of his widow's + dedication to Cecil, is not known: it may be hoped that Ascham's works + obtained for his family, after his decease, that support which he did + not, in his life, very plenteously procure them. +</p> +<p> + Whether he was poor by his own fault, or the fault of others, cannot + now be decided; but it is certain that many have been rich with less + merit. His philological learning would have gained him honour in any + country; and, among us, it may justly call for that reverence which + all nations owe to those who first rouse them from ignorance, and + kindle among them the light of literature. Of his manners, nothing can + be said but from his own testimony, and that of his contemporaries. + Those who mention him allow him many virtues. His courtesy, + benevolence, and liberality, are celebrated; and of his piety, we have + not only the testimony of his friends, but the evidence of his + writings. +</p> +<p> + That his English works have been so long neglected, is a proof of the + uncertainty of literary fame. He was scarcely known, as an author, in + his own language, till Mr. Upton published his Schoolmaster, with + learned notes. His other pieces were read only by those few who + delight in obsolete books; but as they are now collected into one + volume, with the addition of some letters never printed before, the + publick has an opportunity of recompensing the injury, and allotting + Ascham the reputation due to his knowledge and his eloquence. +</p> + + + + + + +<a name="2H_4_45"><!-- H2 anchor --></a> +<p> </p> + + +<a name="footnotes"></a> +<p> </p> +<h1>FOOTNOTES</h1> +<br> + +<p> + <a name="note-1">[1]</a> From the Gentleman's Magazine, 1742. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-2">[2]</a> Literary Magazine, vol. i. p. 41. 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-3">[3]</a> The first part of this review closed here. What follows did not + appear until seven months after. To which delay the writer alludes + with provoking severity. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-4">[4]</a> Literary Magazine, vol. i. p, 89. 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-5">[5]</a> From the Literary Magazine, vol. ii. p. 253. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-6">[6]</a> And of such a man, it is to be regretted, that Dr. Johnson was, by + whatever motive, induced to speak with acrimony; but, it is probable, + that he took up the subject, at first, merely to give play to his + fancy. This answer, however, to Mr. Hanway's letter, is, as Mr. Boswell + has remarked, the only instance, in the whole course of his life, when + he condescended to oppose any thing that was written against him. C. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-7">[7]</a> From the Literary Magazine, 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-8">[8]</a> In all the papers and criticisms Dr. Johnson wrote for the + Literary Magazine, he frequently departs from the customary we of + anonymous writers. This, with his inimitable style, soon pointed him + out, as the principal person concerned in that publication. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-9">[9]</a> The second volume of Dr. Warton's Essay was not published until + the year 1782. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-10">[10]</a> This Enquiry, published in 1757, was the production of Soame + Jenyns, esq. who never forgave the author of the review. It is painful + to relate, that, after he had suppressed his resentment during Dr. + Johnson's life, he gave it vent, in a petulant and illiberal + mock-epitaph, which would not have deserved notice, had it not been + admitted into the edition of his works, published by Mr. Cole. When + this epitaph first appeared in the newspapers, Mr. Boswell answered it + by another upon Mr. Jenyns, equal, at least, in illiberality. +</p> +<p> + This review is justly reckoned one of the finest specimens of + criticism in our language, and was read with such eagerness, when + published in the Literary Magazine, that the author was induced to + reprint it in a small volume by itself; a circumstance which appears + to have escaped Mr. Boswell's research. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-11">[11]</a> New Practice of Physick. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-12">[12]</a> From the Literary Magazine, 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-13">[13]</a> From the Literary Magazine, 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-14">[14]</a> From the Literary Magazine, 1756.—There are other reviews of + books by Dr. Johnson, in this magazine, but, in general, very short, + and consisting chiefly of a few introductory remarks, and an extract. + That on Mrs. Harrison's Miscellanies maybe accounted somewhat + interesting, from the notice of Dr. Watts. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-15">[15]</a> Written by Mr. Tytler, of Edinburgh. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-16">[16]</a> Printed in the Gentleman's Magazine, October, 1760. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-17">[17]</a> First printed in the year 1739. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-18">[18]</a> See his Remains, 1614, p. 337, "Riming verses, which are called + <i>versus leonini</i>, I know not wherefore, (for a lyon's taile doth + not answer to the middle parts as these verses doe,) began in the time + of Carolus Magnus, and were only in request then, and in many ages + following, which delighted in nothing more than in this minstrelsie of + meeters." +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-19">[19]</a> Dr. Edward Young. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-20">[20]</a> Ambrose Philips, author of the Distrest Mother, &c. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-21">[21]</a> Edward Ward. See Dunciad, and Biographia Dramatica. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-22">[22]</a> Joseph Mitchell. See Biographia Dramatica. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-23">[23]</a> Published first in the Literary Magazine, No. iv. from July 15, + to Aug. 15, 1756. This periodical work was published by Richardson, in + Paternoster row, but was discontinued about two years after. Dr. Johnson + wrote many articles, which have been enumerated by Mr. Boswell, and + there are others which I should be inclined to attribute to him, from + internal evidence. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-24">[24]</a> In the magazine, this article is promised "to be continued;" but + the author was, by whatever means, diverted from it, and no + continuation appears. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-25">[25]</a> This was the introductory article to the Literary Magazine, No. i. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-26">[26]</a> From the Literary Magazine, for July, 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-27">[27]</a> See Literary Magazine, No. ii. p. 63. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-28">[28]</a> This short paper was added to some editions of the Idler, when + collected into volumes, but not by Dr. Johnson, as Mr. Boswell + asserts, nor to the early editions of that work. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-29">[29]</a> In the first edition, this passage stood thus: "Let him not, + however, be depreciated in his grave. He had powers not universally + possessed; could he have enforced payment of the Manilla ransome, + <i>he could have counted it</i>." There were some other alterations + suggested, it would appear, by lord North. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-30">[30]</a> The Patriot is of the same cast with Johnson's other political + writings. It endeavours to justify the outrages of the house of + commons, in the case of the Middlesex election, and to vindicate the + harsh measures then in agitation against America: it can only, + therefore, be admired as a clever, sophistical composition.—Ed. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-31">[31]</a> For arguments on the opposite side of this question, see the Abbé + Raynal's Revolution of America, and Edin. Rev. xl. p. 451.—Ed. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-32">[32]</a> Of this reasoning I owe part to a conversation with sir John + Hawkins. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-33">[33]</a> Written for the Gentleman's Magazine, for 1738. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-34">[34]</a> "Erat Hermanni genitor Latine, Græce, Hebraice sciens: peritus + valde historiarum et gentium. Vir apertus, candidus, simplex; + paterfamilias optimus amore, cura, diligentia, frugalitate, prudentia. + Qui non magna in re, sed plenus virtutis, novem liberis educandis + exemplum praebuit singulare, quid exacta parsimonia polleat, et + frugalitas." <i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-35">[35]</a> "Jungebat his exercitiis quotidianam patrum lectionem, secundum + chronologiam, a Clemente Romano exorsus, et juxta seriem seculorum + descendens: ut Jesu Christi doctrinam in N. T. traditam, primis + patribus interpretantibus, addisceret. +</p> +<p> + "Horum simplicitatem sincerae doctrinae, disciplinae sanctitatem, + vitae Deo Jicatae integritatem adorabat. Subtilitatem scholarum divina + postmodum inquinasse dolebat. Aegerrime tulit sacrorum interpretationem + ex sectis sophistarum peti; et Platonis, Aristotelis, Thomas + Aquinatis, Scoti; suoque tempore Cartesii, cogitata metaphysica + adhiberi pro legibus, ad quas eastigarentur sacrorum scriptorum de Deo + sentential. Experiebatur acerba dissidia, ingeniorumque subtilissimorum + acerrima certamina, odia, ambitiones, inde cieri, foveri; adeo + contraria paci cum Deo et homine. Nihil hic magis illi obstabat; quam + quod omnes asserant sacram scripturam [Greek: anthropopathos] + loquentem, [Greek: theoprepos] explicandam; et [Greek: theoprepouan] + singuli definiant ex placitis suae metaphysices. Horrebat inde + dominantis sectae praevalentem opinionem, orthodoxiae modum, et + regulas, unice dare juxta dictata metaphysicorum, non sacrarum + literarum; unde tam variae; sententiae de doctrina simplicissima." + —<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-36">[36]</a> "Circa hoc tempus, lautis conditionibus, lautioribus promissis, + invitatus, plus vice simplici, a viro primariae dignationis, qui + gratia flagrantissima florebat regis Gulielmi III. ut Hagamcomitum + sedem caperet fortunarum, declinavit constans. Contentus videlicet + vita libera, remota a turbis, studiisque porro percolendis unice + impensa, ubi non cogeretur alia dicere et simulare, alia sentire et + dissimulare: affectuum studiis rapi, regi. Sic turn vita erat, aegros + visere, mox domi in musaeo se condere, officinam Vulcaniam exercere; + omnes medicinae partes acerrime persequi; mathematica etiam aliis + tradere; sacra legere, et auctores qui profitentur docere rationem + certam amandi Deum."—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-37">[37]</a> "Succos pressos bibit noster herbarum cichoreæ, endiviæ; + fumariæ; nasturtii aquatici, veronicæ aquatics latifoliæ; copia + ingenti; simul deglutiens abundantissime gummi ferulacea + Asiatica."—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-38">[38]</a> "Aetas, labor, corporisque opima pinguetudo, effecerant, ante + annum, ut inertibus refertum, grave, hebes, plenitudine turgens + corpus, anhelum ad motus minimos, cum sensu suffocationis, pulsu + mirifice anomalo, ineptum evaderet ad ullum motum. Urgebat praecipue + subsistens prorsus et intercepta respiratio ad prima somni initia; + unde somnus prorsus prohibebatur, cum formidabili strangulationis + molestia. Hinc hydrops pedum, crurum, femorum, scroti, praeputii, et + abdominis. Quae tamen omnia sublata. Sed dolor manet in abdomine, cum + anxietate summa, anhelitu suffocante, et debilitate incredibili; somno + pauco, eoque vago, per somnia turbatissimo; animus vero rebus agendis + impar. Cum his luctor fessus nec emergo; patienter expectans Dei + jussa, quibus resigno data, quae sola amo, et honoro unice."—<i>Orig. + Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-39">[39]</a> Doctrinam sacris literis Hebraice et Graece traditarn, solam + animae salutarem et agnovit et sensit. Omni opportunitate profitebatur + disciplinam, quam Jesus Christus ore et vita expressit, unice + tranquillitatem dare menti. Semperque dixit amicis, pacem animi baud + reperiundam, nisi in magno Mosis praecepto de sincere amore Dei et + hominis bene observato. Neque extra sacra monumenta uspiam inveniri, + quod mentem serenet. Deum pius adoravit, qui est. Intelligere de Deo, + unice, volebat id, quod Deus de se intelligit. Eo contentus ultra + nihil requisivit, ne idolatria erraret. In voluntate Dei sic + requiescebat, ut illius nullam omnino rationem indagandam putaret. + Hanc unice supremam omnium legem esse contendebat; deliberata + constautia perfectissime colendam. De aliis et seipso sentiebat: ut + quoties criminis reos ad poenas letales damnatos audiret, semper + cogitaret, saspe diceret: "Quis dixerat annon me sint melioresi + Utique, si ipse melior, id non mihi auctori tribuendum esse, palam + aio, confiteor; sed ita largienti Deo."—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-40">[40]</a> This life first appeared in the Gentleman's Magazine, 1739, vol. + ix. p. 176. It, throughout, exhibits that ardent fondness for + chemistry, which Johnson cherished, and that respect for physicians, + which his numerous memoirs of members of that profession, and his + attachment to Dr. Bathurst and the amiable and single-hearted Level, + evinced.—ED. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-41">[41]</a> This life was first printed in the Gentleman's Magazine for the + year 1740. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-42">[42]</a> The name of sir Henry Savil does not occur in the list of the + wardens of Wadham college. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-43">[43]</a> From H. Norhone, B.D. his contemporary there. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-44">[44]</a> This life was first printed in the Gent. Mag. for 1740, and + Johnson's unceasing abhorrence of Spanish encroachment and oppression + is remarkable throughout. See his London, and Idler, 81.—Ed. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-45">[45]</a> This article was first printed in the Gentleman's Magazine for + 1740. The proper spelling is Baratier. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-46">[46]</a> The passages referred to in the preceding pages we have printed + in italics, for the more easy reference. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-47">[47]</a> Translated from an éloge by Fontenelle, and first printed in the + Gentleman's Magazine for 1741. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-48">[48]</a> The practice of Dr. Morin is forbidden, I believe, by every + writer that has left rules for the preservation of health, and is + directly opposite to that of Cornaro, who, by his regimen, repaired a + broken constitution, and protracted his life, without any painful + infirmities, or any decay of his intellectual abilities, to more than + a hundred years; it is generally agreed that, as men advance in years, + they ought to take lighter sustenance, and in less quantities; and + reason seems easily to discover, that as the concoctive powers grow + weaker, they ought to labour less.—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-49">[49]</a> This is an instance of the disposition generally found in writers + of lives, to exalt every common occurrence and action into wonder. Are + not indexes daily written by men, who neither receive nor expect any + loud applauses for their labours?—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-50">[50]</a> First printed in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1742. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-51">[51]</a> A more full list is given in the last edition of the Biographical + Dictionary, vol. vii. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-52">[52]</a> Originally prefixed to the new translation of Dr. Sydenham's + works, by John Swan, M.D. of Newcastle, in Staffordshire, 1742. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-53">[53]</a> Since the foregoing was written, we have seen Mr. Ward's Lives of + the Professors of Gresham college; who, in the life of Dr. Mapletoft, + says, that, in 1676, Dr. Sydenham published his Observationes medicæ + circa morborum acutorum historiam et curationem, which he dedicated to + Dr. Mapletoft, who, at the desire of the author, had translated them + into Latin; and that the other pieces of that excellent physician were + translated into that language by Mr. Gilbert Havers, of Trinity + college, Cambridge, a student in physick, and friend of Dr. Mapletolt. + But, as Mr. Ward, like others, neglects to bring any proof of his + assertion, the question cannot fairly be decided by his authority.— + <i>Orig. Edit</i>. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-54">[54]</a> First printed in The Student, 1751. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-55">[55]</a> Vide Wood's Ath. Ox.—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-56">[56]</a> Vide Wood's Ath. Ox.—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-57">[57]</a> Vide Wood's Hist. Univ. Ox.—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-58">[58]</a> Vide Wood's Hist. Antiq. Oxon.—<i>Orig. Edit.</i> +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-59">[59]</a> This life first appeared in the Gentleman's magazine for 1754, + and is now printed from a copy revised by the author, at my request, + in 1781. N.—It was, in the magazine, introduced by a general remark, + which we have again prefixed. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-60">[60]</a> This was said in the beginning of the year 1781; and may with + truth be now repeated. N. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-61">[61]</a> The London Magazine ceased to exist in 1785. N. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-62">[62]</a> Mr. Cave was buried in the church of St. James, Clerkenwell, + without an epitaph; but the following inscription at Rugby, from the + pen of Dr. Hawkesworth, is here transcribed from the Anecdotes of Mr. + Bowyer, p. 88. +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Near this place lies + The body of + JOSEPH CAVE, + Late of this parish: + Who departed this Life, Nov. 18, 1747, + Aged 79 years. + Me was placed by Providence in a humble station; + But + Industry abundantly supplied the wants of Nature, + And + Temperance blest him with + Content and Wealth. + As he was an affectionate Father, + He was made happy in the decline of life + By the deserved eminence of his eldest Son, + EDWARD CAVE, + Who, without interest, fortune, or connexion, + By the native force of his own genius, +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + <a name="note-63">[63]</a> First printed in the Literary Magazine for 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-64">[64]</a> Christian Morals, first printed in 1756. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-65">[65]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne, prefixed to the Antiquities of + Norwich. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-66">[66]</a> Whitefoot's character of sir Thomas Browne, in a marginal note. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-67">[67]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-68">[68]</a> Wood's Athenæ Oxonienses. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-69">[69]</a> Wood. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-70">[70]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-71">[71]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-72">[72]</a> Biographia Britannica. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-73">[73]</a> Letter to sir Kenelm Digby, prefixed to the Religio Medici, fol. + edit. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-74">[74]</a> Digby's Letter to Browne, prefixed to the Religio Medici, fol. + edit. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-75">[75]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-76">[76]</a> Merryweather's letter, inserted in the Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-77">[77]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-78">[78]</a> Wood's Athenae Oxonienses. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-79">[79]</a> Wood. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-80">[80]</a> Whitefoot. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-81">[81]</a> Howell's Letters. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-82">[82]</a> Religio Medici. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-83">[83]</a> Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-84">[84]</a> Wood, and Life of sir Thomas Browne. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-85">[85]</a> the end of Hydriotaphia. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-86">[86]</a> Johnson, by trusting; to his memory, has here fallen into an + error. Howell, in his instructions for Foreign Travell, has said + directly the reverse of what is ascribed to him: "I have beaten my + brains," he tells us, "to make one sentence good Italian and congruous + Latin, but could never do it; but in Spanish it is very feasible, as, + for example, in this stanza: +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Infausta Graecia, tu paris gentes + Lubricas, sed amicitias dolosas, + Machinando fraudes cautilosas, + Ruinando animas innocentes: +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> +<p> + which is good Latin enough; and yet is vulgar Spanish, intelligible to + every plebeian."—J. B. +</p> +<p> + <a name="note-87">[87]</a> Browne's Remains.—Whitefoot. +</p> +<br> +<p> +<a name="note-88"><small>88</small></a> +</p> +<center> +<table summary=""> +<tr><td> +<pre> + Therefore no hereticks desire to spread Their wild opinions like + these epicures. For so their staggering thoughts are computed, + And other men's assent their doubt assures. + + DAVIES. +</pre> +</td></tr> +</table> +</center> + +<p> + <a name="note-89">[89]</a> First printed before his Works in 4to. published by Bennet, 1763. +</p> +<center> + END OF VOL. VI. +</center> +<p> + [Transcriber's Note: Footnotes have been numbered and relocated to the + end of the work.] +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> +<p> </p> + +<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10350 ***</div> +</body> +</html> |