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+Project Gutenberg's The Glands Regulating Personality, by Louis Berman, M.D.
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Glands Regulating Personality
+
+Author: Louis Berman, M.D.
+
+Release Date: November 25, 2003 [EBook #10266]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY
+
+A STUDY OF THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION IN RELATION TO THE TYPES
+OF HUMAN NATURE
+
+BY LOUIS BERMAN, M.D.
+
+ASSOCIATE IN BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+1922
+
+
+The passage from the miracles of nature to those of art is easy.
+
+--Francis Bacon, _Novum Organum_, 1620.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION: ATTITUDES TOWARD HUMAN NATURE
+  I.    HOW THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION WERE DISCOVERED
+  II.   THE GLANDS: THYROID AND PITUITARY
+  III.  THE ADRENAL GLANDS, GONADS, AND THYMUS
+  IV.   THE GLANDS AS AN INTERLOCKING DIRECTORATE
+  V.    HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE NORMAL BODY
+  VI.   THE MECHANICS OF THE MASCULINE AND FEMININE
+  VII.  THE RHYTHMS OF SEX
+  VIII. HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE MIND
+  IX.   THE BACKGROUNDS OF PERSONALITY
+  X.    THE TYPES OF PERSONALITY
+  XI.   SOME HISTORIC PERSONAGES
+  XII.  APPLICATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES
+  XIII. THE EFFECT UPON HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+
+
+THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+ATTITUDES TOWARD HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+THE CASE AGAINST HUMAN NATURE
+
+Man, know thyself, said the old Greek philosopher. Man perforce has
+taken that advice to heart. His life-long interest is his own species.
+In the cradle he begins to collect observations on the nature of
+the queer beings about him. As he grows, the research continues,
+amplifies, broadens. Wisdom he measures by the devastating accuracy
+of the data he accumulates. When he declares he knows human nature,
+consciously cynical maturity speaks. Doctor of human nature--every
+man feels himself entitled to that degree from the university
+of disillusioning experience. In defense of his claim, only the
+limitations of his articulate faculty will curb the vehemence of his
+indictment of his fellows.
+
+For all history provides the material, literature the critique,
+biology the inexorable logic of the case against human nature. The
+historical record is a spectacle of man destroying man, a collection
+of chapters on man's increasing cruelty to man. Limitations of time
+and space have been shortened and eliminated. Tools of production have
+been multiplied and complicated. The sources of energy and power have
+been systematically attacked and trapped. But the nature of man has
+remained so unchanged that clap trap about progress is easy target for
+the barrage of every cheap pamphleteer.
+
+The naturalist probes into codes of conduct, systems of morality,
+structures of societies, variations in the scales of value that
+individuals, races and nations have subjected themselves to as custom,
+law and religion. Again and again the portrait is presented of
+man preying upon man, of cunning a parasite upon stupidity and of
+predatory strength enslaving the weakling intellect. Until finally are
+evoked reactions and consequences that overtake in catastrophe and
+cataclysm preyer and preyed upon alike.
+
+Human nature is but part of the magnificent tree of beast nature. Man
+is linked by every tie of blood and bone and cell memories with his
+brethren of the sea, the jungle, the forest and the fields. The beast
+is a seeker of freedom, but a seeker for his own ego alone, and the
+satisfaction of his own instincts only. Thus he struggles to a sort of
+freedom which makes him the Ishmael of the Universe, everyone's hand
+against him, as his own hand is against everyone. The human animal has
+achieved no advance beyond the necessities of his ancestors, nor freed
+himself from his bondage to their instincts and automatic reflexes.
+And so the sociologist, the analyst of human associations, turns out
+to be simply the historian and accountant of slaveries.
+
+Yet the history of mankind is, too, a long research into the nature
+of the machinery of freedom. All recorded history, indeed, is but
+the documentation of that research. Viewed thus, customs, laws,
+institutions, sciences, arts, codes of morality and honor, systems
+of life, become inventions, come upon, tried out, standardized,
+established until scrapped in everlasting search for more and more
+perfect means of freeing body and soul from their congenital thralldom
+to a host of innumerable masters. Indeed, the history of all life,
+vegetable and animal, of bacillus, elephant, orchid, gorilla, as well
+as of man is the history of a searching for freedom.
+
+Freedom! What to a living creature is freedom? How completely has it
+dominated the life history of every creature that ever crawled upon
+the earth? Trace our cellular pedigree, descend our family tree to its
+rootlets, our amebic ancestors, and the craving for more freedom is
+manifest in the soul of even the lowest, buried in darkness and slime.
+When the first clever bit of colloidal ooze, protoplasm as the ameba,
+protruded a bit of itself as a pseudopod, it achieved a new freedom.
+For, accidentally or deliberately, it created for itself a new
+power--the ability to go directly for food in its environment, instead
+of waiting, patiently, passively, as the plant does, for food to just
+happen along. Therewith developed in place of the previous quietist
+pacifist, quaker attitude toward its surroundings, a new religion, a
+new tone: aggressive, predatory, careerist.
+
+That adventure was a great step forward for the ameba--a miracle that
+freed it forever from the danger of death by starvation. But latent
+in that move were all the terrible possibilities of the tiger, the
+alligator, the wolf and all the varieties of predaceous beast and
+plant, parasitism and slavery. The device that enabled the ameba to
+change its position in space of its own will, and so increased its
+freedom immeasureably, meant the generation of infinite evil, pain,
+suffering and degradation for billions in the womb of time.
+
+THE BREEDING OF INFERIORITY
+
+Human history, being a continuation of vertebrate history, is full of
+similar instances. The invention of the stock company, for example,
+furnished a certain relative freedom to hundreds, a certain amount of
+leisure to think and play, and independence to travel and record, and
+immunity from a daily routine and drudgery. In turn, it bore fruit in
+miseries and horrors multiplied for millions, like those of the child
+lacemakers of Mid-Victorian England, who were dragged from their beds
+at two or three o'clock in the morning to work until ten or eleven at
+night in the services of a stock company.
+
+A corporation is said to have no soul. The struggle for freedom of
+every living thing has no conscience. Throughout the living world,
+from ameba to man, parasitism and slavery together with their
+by-products, physical and spiritual degeneracy, appear as the after
+effects of the more vital individual's efforts to remain alive and
+free. The origins of slavery may be seen in the parasitisms of the
+infectious diseases which kill man. The change from parasitism to
+slavery was an inevitable step of creative intelligence. In the
+transition evolution made one of those breaks which it indulges in
+periodically as its mode of progress.
+
+The natural effect of slavery has been a selection of two sorts of
+individuals along the lines of the survival of the adapted. It has
+tended to perpetuate in the breed the qualities of the strong which
+would make them stronger, and certain qualities in the weak which
+would increase their weakness. For parasitism and likewise slavery
+infallibly entail the degradation of certain structures and an
+overgrowth of others by the law of use and disuse. The type of organ
+which would function normally, were not its possessor parasitic in
+that function, invariably degenerates or disappears. Parasitic insects
+lose their wings. An entire anatomical system may even be lost. So the
+tapeworm, which feeds upon the digested food present in the intestines
+of its host, has no alimentary canal of its own because it needs none.
+On the other hand, the organs of attack and combat grow by a constant
+use into the most remarkable of efficient weapons.
+
+In human society the process continues. Out of the tapeworm nature,
+the tiger nature, the wolf nature, the simian nature, human nature
+evolves. Repeated episodes of subjugation and suppression mixed with
+countless incidents of predaceous cupidity and rapacity have made
+Man what he is today. Indeed, by a sort of instinct, society has
+constructed its institutions upon empirical observations and
+assumptions agreeing with this principle. The deductions concerning
+human nature and human traits that an interplanetary visitor would
+draw from a study of our common law would be at least slightly
+humiliating to our incorrigible pride. Law courts, codes of civil
+contract and criminal procedure, the systems of subordination in
+armies and navies, castes and classes, men and women, employers and
+employees, teachers and pupils, parents and children, are based upon
+the fundamental, the conservative axiom that man, especially the
+common plain man (Lincoln's phrase), is a being incurably lazy,
+stupid, dishonest, muddled, cowardly, greedy, restless, obsessed with
+a low cunning and a selfish callousness and insensibility to the
+sufferings of his fellow creatures, animal and human.
+
+Why is it that Man, the noblest creature of creation, made in the
+image of God, capable of the flights of attainment that distinguish a
+Christ, a Caesar, a Plato, a Shakespeare, a Shelley, a Newton, is so
+described, not alone by hopeless pessimists like Koheleth, Swift, and
+Mark Twain, but by the common law, the common opinion, the common
+assumptions of mankind? Because the development of slavery and
+parasitism in human society, the subjection of the weak to the strong,
+the dull and base to the clever and headstrong, set up a vicious
+cycle: the liberation of more energy for the making of more and
+more slaves and the propagation of slaves and slave qualities in a
+geometrically increasing proportion.
+
+This might be called the _Malthusian law of slavery_. For the
+qualities that I have named as man's own characterization of himself
+are the qualities of the slave and the slave-soul. Nietzche took great
+pains to repeat ad nauseam that these qualities were the qualities of
+the slave. But by burdening himself with the hypothesis, evolved from
+his inner consciousness, that the slaves imposed from below a morality
+of weakness upon their masters, he missed the really obvious process
+by which slaves beget more slaves, slavery begets more slavery, and
+the slave-soul becomes universal. That process is the simple action
+of physical and spiritual reproduction of the slaves. The subnormal
+begets the subnormal, the inferior begets the inferior.
+
+Slavery appeared as an invention of the would-be-free. It was a
+brilliant flash of genius of a seeker after freedom. However, it
+became a boomerang. By multiplication and hereditary transmission, the
+inferiority and the number of the slaves created a new overwhelming
+problem for the superior few, the upper crust of the free. At last the
+problem grew into the problem of problems, the problem of government,
+that threatened all freedom, as an epidemic disease threatens even
+the most healthy. Government, at first organized for conquest and
+subjugation, had to change its character until it became more and more
+to consist of experiments in a new social machinery that would free
+somebody of the incubus. So through the centuries, one technique of
+liberty after another was tested in the laboratory of experience.
+
+But always the attempts are so muddled, because the problem is not
+grasped. Muddledom is the essence of the slave-soul. And the
+essence infiltrates and poisons the whole atmosphere in which the
+would-be-free think and act. Kings' heads are chopped off, a whole
+class is guillotined, reform movements come and go, the masters fight
+every inch of their retreat, and pile stratagem upon stratagem, device
+upon device, to retain their spoils.
+
+The democratic formula of freedom for all comes to the fore. So at
+last universal suffrage is introduced as the panacea. Freedom seems
+within grasp. Now it looks as if a method and an objective have been
+hit upon, that will lead both the free and the enslaved out of their
+mutual bondage, and release the handcuffs which have bound them
+together. All the trial and error tests to which history had subjected
+institutions appeared to culminate in the formula that would
+automatically yield Liberty. The French wanted a little more and added
+Equality and Fraternity. The Americans put it quite definitely as the
+formula that would assist the Pursuit of Life, Liberty, and Happiness.
+That formula is: the _democracy of the normals_.
+
+To be sure, a civilization might be organized for the breeding and the
+glorification of the supernormals. Such a civilization may yet have to
+be tried. But as the supernormals, as we know them today, are merely
+biologic sports, in a sense, simple accidents, no one can tell whether
+they will turn out true shots or just flashes in the pan. So it looks
+the better course to stick to the plan of nature, which seems to be
+the raising of the level of the normals, and the gradual increase of
+their faculties and powers.
+
+WHAT THE STATESMAN IS UP AGAINST
+
+Under the terms of the democratic formula the problems of the
+statesman seem to become enormously simplified. That is, if one
+assumes that he has worked out a perfectly clear idea of what
+a democracy means and what the normal means. Assuming these
+unassumables, his problem simplifies into the definite object of
+producing and developing the greatest possible number of normals--or
+if you will, the greatest happiness of the greatest number of normal
+lives.
+
+Furthermore you then begin to have the entirely novel possibility in
+the world: some sort of collective effort for a collective purpose,
+beyond the personal greeds and fears, factions and hatreds. So the
+state, instead of fulfilling its old function of serving as the tool
+of certain powerful individuals, latterly known as the Big Men, might
+be transformed into an instrument toward freedom. With the ideal of a
+democracy of the normals ever before him, the statesman could go on
+to construct and modify his social machinery. That would entail the
+satisfaction not alone of the animal needs, but also the highest
+aspirations and therefore the provision of the finest conditions of
+life for the normal: those most favorable, stimulative, and assistant
+to creative activity. For what else is the content of the idea of
+freedom?
+
+Without committing the intellectual sin which William James named
+Vicious Abstractionism, the goal of the clearest progressive and
+liberal thought and forces of the twentieth century might be summed
+up as this freedom in a democracy of normals. A good formula which
+coincides with the technique of nature in the evolution of species.
+A fair fight, a free-for-all who are unhandicapped, is the motto
+of natural selection. Where civilization shakes hands with natural
+instinct, what but the happiest of results can be expected?
+
+Unfortunately, the formula in human society possesses an Achilles'
+heel. Again it is slavery. Where slavery has become bred into the
+bone, the standard of the normal becomes reduced so tremendously that
+the average of normals, the majority, are hopelessly inferior. In
+effect, they are really subnormal. So the ideal of our ideal statesman
+is bound to be defeated because of the inadequacy of his material.
+
+No matter how interested in his main business: the promotion of
+freedom for creative activities in a democracy of the normals, he is
+bound to be beaten by the majority consisting of subnormals. There is
+nothing left for him but to cater to the minority of careerists, the
+one-eighth of the electorate representing superior intelligence. The
+intelligence tests employed in the War showed that and also that
+forty-five per cent of the examined, or about one half the total
+population, had a mental capacity, or natural ability that would never
+develop beyond the stage normal to a twelve-year-old child. They are
+doomed to remain forever subnormal.
+
+THE CAREERISTS AS THE ABNORMALS
+
+The careerists are those who practice the careerist religion. The
+careerist religion is the religion par excellence of modernity.
+Someone once said, with the perfect candor of the North American, that
+America is the land of opportunity. He meant that America is the land
+of the Careerist or, as it has also been put, it is the land of the
+man on the make. The careerist, or the man on the make, is of a
+thousand genera and species, varieties and subvarieties, with
+transition links between. One finds him at every level of society.
+
+Excepting a negligible minority, the feminine career of today (as of
+the last ten thousand years of the race's history) consists in the
+acquisition of a husband. After that she is so identified with him
+that her own life, as something distinct, individual and unique,
+becomes blurred and then completely erased. The feminine careerist,
+the careeristina, if you will, is a definite type. Consider the
+unimportance of a collective purpose to the woman whose career is the
+mate, and then the mate's career. All the kinks and twists of the
+feminine mind, resulting from the necessities of that fundamental
+primary problem, would form a multitudinous and interesting list. The
+most successful careeristinas are the absolutely unconscious ones
+because they are not passively besieged nor actively bombarded by any
+doubts as to what they want. They play their game exceedingly well as
+do not the quasi-rebels and faint-hearted revoltees that form no small
+percentage of the Newest Women. For a number of women the feminist
+movement has been an attempt to break away from the traditions of
+the wife-careerist, and to strike a line of auto-careerism. Can
+the careeristina instinct, the fruit of the practice of so many
+generations, be uprooted by the good intentions of a mere statesman?
+
+But the masculine careerist is a marvelous creature. He is a biologic
+sport, an abnormal variation. New York is the place to watch and
+study him in his thousands and tens of thousands. You can observe
+him climbing, climbing, climbing, precisely as an ant climbs a tree.
+Nothing can really discourage or sway him from his chosen path. If he
+is not getting on financially, he is getting on socially, or he is
+using the one method of advance to help him with the other. How the
+line of least resistance and greatest advantage is determined for and
+taken by him is a fascinating process.
+
+The careerist instinct, the inherited flair for a career, must not be
+confounded with the instincts of self-preservation, self-expansion
+or self-expression, because they are utterly different. Indeed, the
+careerist instinct is often their direct antagonist, clashing with and
+dominating them. The making of the career involves the distortion, the
+mutilation, degradation, degeneration or even the complete suppression
+of the true personality. But it is all instinctive. To consider the
+life of the careerist as an expression of instinct will explain too
+the success of so many who have no inner awareness of what they want.
+These go straight for the career, looking neither to the right nor
+to the left, without doubt or hesitation, just as they go for the
+respiration business as soon as they are born.
+
+Then there is the Super-Careerist. Ordinarily, the careerist is rather
+obvious, easily recognizable, with diaphanous motives and conduct. But
+there is another and rarer bird, the careerist of talent, even the
+careerist of genius, whom it is not so easy to see through. Clever and
+brainy, he may be a good all around trifler, or his specific gift for
+some line of achievement may make him more effective. There is nothing
+he may not call himself: conservative, liberal, progressive, or
+radical. Often he is an agnostic about social and political affairs
+and problems, which passes for the indecision of the open mind, and is
+quite handy to render him all things to all men. But perpetually, the
+underlying careerist instinct drives him to use all men and women, all
+ideas and movements and forces he comes in contact with for his own
+personal advancement, just as the slave making instinct guides the red
+ant in all its activities to procure its captives. Ideas do not make a
+hero out of him, but he makes heroes of ideas, because they serve him
+in his ascent.
+
+Because he is the most subtle, the most complex and the most deceptive
+type of careerist, he is the most dangerous to the adventure and
+speculation in intellect which mankind is. To say that he is a wolf in
+sheepskin is to be unjust to him, since he is most successful when he
+is most unaware of his own charlatanry. He is most sincere when he
+is most insincere, and most truthful when he lies best. A little
+self-consciousness of hypocrisy is a corrupting thing, much of it
+completely incompatible with the most successful careerism. Tartuffe
+is always applauded by the world when he plays Hamlet, if he really
+believes in himself as Hamlet. And, as all he has to do, if he is at
+all talented, is to look into his glass and see himself in the part,
+he carries it off very well.
+
+WHY THE STATESMAN FAILS
+
+Slaves and careerists, subnormals and abnormals, are the important
+elements of the constituency of every modern statesman. The financial
+and social careerists as business men, professionals, artists,
+publicists, presidents of countries, politicians, philosophers
+dominate his outlook, his plans, his horizon. The slaves, the
+inferiors, the subnormals exist merely to be exploited by them. No
+one questions the causes of the multiplicity of them. No one asks why
+there are so many little lives. For a fundamentally minded statesman
+the control of the production of the careerist, why he is produced,
+and how he may be prevented, becomes the primary problem of his art.
+
+Well, you say, what are you going to do about it? That is human
+nature. The Evils of Human Nature! There is the perpetual answer to be
+repeated by our clever editors unto Eternity. You cannot get away from
+human nature. It is human nature to be a careerist. It is human nature
+to put the immediate triumphs of the self and its pleasures above
+the more indirect, the more remote and distant benefits of a great,
+wonderful, free community. We are all careerists. In so far as
+democracy has succeeded as a form, it has persisted because there was
+in it for the common man the promise of his getting more out of life
+that way than any other way. For himself. And the devil take the
+others. The myopia of such crude selfishness continues to determine
+his politics to this very day. And so he proceeds to vote for favors
+bestowed and patronage past or potential. That is, when he does not
+throw his ballot away altogether into the fire of family habit,
+sectional inertia, or race prejudice.
+
+Again you say, that is human nature. It is human nature for us to
+be narrow, to be confined within the circle of personal thought and
+desire, without imagination for the beyond. So the calf is limited in
+its wanderings to the radius of the rope by which it is tethered. The
+servile soul will always be submissive and docile, greedy and stupid.
+What else could you expect from the descendant of the solitary beast
+who once lived for thousands of years in caves? Without servility of
+the soul, without chains for the spirit of the wild animal against
+the world, men could never have been driven to live together for
+twenty-four hours in communities.
+
+The conception of human quality out of which all social machinery has
+been devised and built is a conception of slave quality and careerist
+quality. As we are all caught in the net, as the unconscious memories
+of our slave and careerist ancestors flow in our blood and echo in our
+cells, all we can do is accept it and work with it. Human nature is an
+incurable disease. Like Jehovah's definition of Himself, it is, it has
+been, and ever will be. Everywhere the same, always the same, forever
+the same, there is no way out.
+
+POOR HUMAN NATURE
+
+All of these strictures upon poor human nature are exceedingly
+delightful to our careerists. Every unpleasant social fact, every
+outrage to our best instincts, every exhibition of incapacity,
+incompetency, inefficiency, indifference, every example of
+super-criminal negligence is pardoned as an effect of that universal
+sin, human nature. Take the case of the statesman and the diplomats
+who failed to prevent the Great War, though they saw it coming for
+years, and who should therefore all, Entente as well as German,
+American as well as Japanese, be indicted for their criminal
+negligence, precisely as a physician would be for failure to report
+and stop the spread of an epidemic disease. All these crimes of
+omission and commission are excused on the plea that it was all due to
+human nature, and that what can be blamed on human nature in general
+can be blamed on no one in particular.
+
+Poor human nature! Flagellated on every hand, what are we to do with
+it? Why is the careerist so numerous and ubiquitous? Why does the
+slave-soul infiltrate like a cancer the soul of society with its black
+fluid? Is freedom, the divine idea, nothing but the toy of an orator
+to the majority, a distant star in the night to a helpless minority?
+Yet the instinct to freedom, the appetite for freedom, flickers
+through the centuries as a fitful flame, though snuffed out by every
+gust of class passion, every wind of mob resentment, and every storm
+of national jealousy. Though the inferior subnormals multiply into
+great sheep majorities, and the careerists, like Napoleon, morbid
+variants, involve millions in their disease, the idea of freedom
+persists obstinately. Have we any reason for regarding it as other
+than an illusion?
+
+If freedom is an illusion, we must admit the doom of democracy. And no
+Wagnerian crashes of orchestration mitigate the tragedy of the scene
+as our eyes are opened to the twilight of our new gods. For what other
+social methods are there left to us? In the struggle against nature's
+barriers upon human aspiration for perfect satisfactions, it looks as
+though every other method has failed us.
+
+In the past, refined aristocracies and benevolent despotisms have
+failed as miserably as our democracies are now failing and as we are
+sure crude anarchism and communism would. Their inferiority has thrown
+them on the scrap heap. As for our present ways of government as a
+permanent method, the storage of power in the hands of the Clever Few.
+War burns in the lesson of how little the careerist regards either
+the subnormal or supernormal. He condemns them all sooner or later to
+wholesale slavery and carnage.
+
+Is man then never to be the architect of his own destiny? Are we to
+surrender our faith in the future of our kind to the spectacle of a
+miserable species sentenced by its own nature to self-destruction? We
+thought to rise upon the wings of knowledge and beauty, lured by
+the mysteries of color and the magic of design and the might of the
+intellect and its words, that have transfigured life into the greatest
+adventure ever attempted in time and space. But we find ourselves
+merely another experiment, intricate and rather long drawn out, to be
+sure, with marvelous pyrotechnics, magnificent effects here and there,
+but bound to eliminate itself in the end, to make stuff for the
+museums of the real conqueror of the stars yet to come. We are
+condemned to be classed with the dodo and the mammoth by the coming
+discoverer of an escape from the slave and careerist. And so let
+us resign ourselves to fate. Let us eat of the humble bread of the
+stoic's consolation in the face of the mocking laughter of the gods,
+let us admit that Mind in Man has unconsciously but irretrievably
+willed its own self-annihilation. What remains for us except to beat
+our breasts and proclaim: So be it, O Lord, so be it?
+
+MAN AS A TRANSIENT
+
+Yet, true as it is that the human animal has achieved no advance
+beyond the necessities of his ancestors, nor freed himself from his
+bondage to their instincts and automatic reflexes, is there no way out
+anywhere? Is there perhaps some ground for hope and consolation in the
+thought that we, of the twentieth century, no longer see ourselves,
+Man, as something final and fixed? Darwin changed Fate from a static
+sphinx into a chameleon flux. Just as certainly as man has arisen from
+something whose bones alone remain as reminders of his existence, we
+are persuaded man himself is to be the ancestor of another creature,
+differing as much from him as he from the Chimpanzi, and who, if he
+will not supplant and wipe him out, will probably segregate him and
+allow him to play out his existence in cage cities.
+
+The vision of this After-man or From-man is really about as helpful to
+us as the water of the oasis mirage is to the lost dying of thirst
+in the desert. The outcries of the wretched and miserable, the
+gray-and-dreary lived din an unmanageable tinnitus in our ears. Like
+God, it may be but a large, vague idea toward which we grope to
+snuggle up against. It seems implicit in the doctrines of evolution.
+But how do we know that in man the spiral of life has not reached its
+apex, and that now, even now, the vortices of its descent are not
+beginning? How do we know that the From-man is to be a Superman and
+not a Subman? How can we dare to hope that the slave-beast-brute is to
+give birth to an heir, fine and free and superior?
+
+We do not know and we have every indication and induction for the most
+oppositely contrary conclusions. Life has blundered supremely, in,
+while making brains its darling, forgetting or helplessly surrendering
+to the egoisms of alimentation. So it has spawned a conflict between
+its organs, and a consequent impasse in which the lower centres drive
+the higher pitilessly into devising means and instruments for the
+suicide of the whole.
+
+As War shows plainly to the most stupidly gross imagination, the germs
+of our own self-destruction as a species saturate our blood. The
+probability looms with almost the certainty of a syllogistic
+deduction, that such will be the outcome to our hundreds of thousands
+of years of pain upon earth. In the face of that, speculations upon
+a comet or gaseous emanations hitting the planet, or the sun growing
+cold, become babyish fancies. How clearly the possibility is pointed
+in the discussions about the use in the next War of bacterial bombs
+containing the bacilli of cholera, plague, dysentery and many others!
+What influenza did in destroying millions, they can repeat a thousand
+times and ten thousand times. What else the laboratories will bring
+forth, of which no man dreams, in the way of destructive agents acting
+at long distance, upon huge masses and over any extent of territory,
+is presaged in that single example. But besides thus willing, by an
+inner necessity, its own annihilation, Life, in the very structure
+and machinery of its being, seems caught into the entanglements of an
+inescapable net, an eternity-long bondage it can never rip, to flee
+and remake itself into the immortal image that is its God.
+
+And so there go by the board the last alleviations of those unbeatable
+optimists who would soothe their aching souls with at least the drop
+of comfort: that if man is a mortal species, with not the slightest
+prospect of a continuing immortality, not to mention a glorious future
+and destiny, there are others. Man, after all, may be simply a bad
+habit Life will succeed in shaking off. No philosophy or religion can
+afford to be anthropocentric merely. It must include all life and all
+living things to which we are blood-related. There are other species
+or latent species to take up the torch that burned poor homo sapiens
+and ascend the heights. The ant and bee may yet mutate along certain
+lines that would make them the masters of the universe.
+
+But no matter what species or variety gets the upper hand in the
+struggle for survival and power, the implications of the qualities
+necessary to victory in conflicts of individual separate pieces of
+protoplasm will be there. Besides, life is always begotten of life.
+That is why synthetic protoplasm is nothing but a phrase. It is
+impossible to conceive of something alive, possessed of the property
+of remembering, that is not possessed of a store of past experiences.
+You can no more think of getting rid of these unconscious memories of
+protoplasm than you can think of getting rid of the wetness of water.
+They are imbedded in the most intimate chemistry of the primeval ameba
+as well as in our most complex tissues.
+
+The memories of the cold lone fish and the hot predatory carnivor who
+were our begetters, may haunt us to the end of time. The bee and the
+ant, too, have woven inextricably into the woof of their cells the
+instincts that sooner or later would send their brain ganglia,
+even when evolved to the pitch of perfection, to elaborating the
+self-and-species murdering inventions and discoveries that are
+apparently destined to slay us. The powers of unconscious memory and
+unlearnable technique of reaction to experience, once grooved, thus
+prove the great gift and the eternal curse of protoplasm. Making it
+possible for it to be and become what it is and has, they have
+also made it forever impossible for it to be or become its own
+contradiction.
+
+Add to this unsloughable remembrance of the past, for better, for
+worse, the secretive consciousness of its present needs every living
+thing, as against every other living thing, is obsessed with. As a
+peregrinating, finite, spatially limited being, it is separated from
+all other living beings by inorganic, dead masses, and yet driven to
+contact with them by a fundamental impulse to assimilate them into
+itself, and make them part of itself. That assimilatory urge is
+present in every activity from coarse ingestion as food to the moral
+metabolism of the hermit-saint who would influence others to do as he.
+
+FATE AND ANTI-FATE
+
+In effect the history of Life resembles the life history of the
+smallest things we know of, the electrons, and the largest, the great
+suns and stars of space. The electron begins, perhaps, as a swirl in
+the primeval ether, joins other electrons, forms colonies, cities,
+empires, elements of an increasing complexity, through stages of a
+relative stability, like lead or gold. Until it reaches the stage of
+integration which wills its own disintegration, that we have been
+taught to look upon with proper awe and reverence as radium. And we
+are told that nebulae wander until they collide and give birth to
+stars, stars wander and collide and give birth to nebulae. Life begins
+as a quivering colloid, goes on painfully to build a brain, which
+automatically refines itself to the point of discovering and using
+the most efficient methods of destroying others, and by a boomerang
+effect, itself. Fate!
+
+The conception of Fate was a Greek idea. The classic formula for
+tragedy, the struggle of Man with the sequence of cause and effect
+within him and without, that is so utterly beyond his grasp and ken,
+or power to modify, originated with them. But they must also be given
+the credit for having conceived an idea and started a process which,
+at first slowly and gropingly, now slipping and falling, torn and
+bleeding among the thorns of the dark forest of human motives,
+presently goes on, with a firmer, more practiced, more confident step,
+to emerge into the light as the deliberate Conqueror of Fate. That
+idea-process, this Anti-Fate is Science.
+
+Science began with the adventures of free-thinking speculators, who
+revolted against religious cosmogonies and superstitions. Sceptics
+concerning the knowledge that was the accepted monopoly of the
+priesthood must have existed in the oldest civilization we know
+anything of, more than twenty-five thousand years ago, the
+Aurignacians. But it was to the Greeks that we owe that amalgamation
+of curiosity delivered of fear, that merger of systematic research
+and critical thinking untrammelled by social inhibitions which is the
+essence of modern science. Out of them has come the great Tree of
+Knowledge of our time, which is, too, the only Ygdrasil of Life,
+undying because it lives upon successive generations of human brain
+cells.
+
+Science, as the pursuit of the real, began with very small things by
+men with very small intentions. Inventories, collections of isolated
+data, something permanent for the mind out of the flux of transient
+sensations, little tracks and foot paths in the jungle of phenomena,
+were their goal. With no sense of themselves as the mightiest of
+master-builders, cultivating humility toward their material at any
+rate, the little men ploughed their little fields, striking the oil
+of a great generalization or classification or explanation with no
+fanfare of trumpets.
+
+First as freaks and cranks, then as scholars and pedants, then
+protected and perhaps stimulated under the competitive royal patronage
+as societies and academies, they prepared for the harvest. Comparing
+them to pioneer farmers sowing an undeveloped territory is really
+totally inadequate and inaccurate. For the most part, they were like
+coral makers, laboriously constructing, with no vision, certainly no
+sustained vision, of the whole. To the practical men of affairs, the
+shopkeepers and traders, the land-owners and ship-owners, the soldiers
+and sailors, the statesmen and politicians, the people who specialized
+in maneuvering human beings and materials, they were, for this
+futile devotion to abstract knowledge, marked ridiculous and absurd
+weaklings, mollycoddles, babies, not to be trusted with the demands
+and dangers of public life.
+
+But it so happened remarkably late in history that with the discovery
+of the possibilities of coal there was a great boom in the demand for
+industrial machinery. At the same time there were thrown up the most
+marvelous advances in physics and chemistry. Recurring War became not
+the clashes of mercenary armies, but the catapulting of whole nations
+at each other. New destructive devices out of the laboratories were
+raised into the commandants of the course of history. Then science
+acquired prestige.
+
+Science as King, science as power, looms as the great new figure, the
+overshadowing novel factor, in practical statesmanship. Unlike the
+factor X in the traditional equation, it is the known factor par
+excellence, the factor by which the value of all the other factors
+of human life will be ascertained and solved. As knowledge of the
+conditions determining all life, it stands as the courageous David of
+the race against the Goliath territory of the uncontrollable and the
+inevitable, even the unknowable. Human history resolves itself into
+the drama: Science contra Fate. Quite a change from the vaudeville
+show of the restless personal ambitions of vindictive fools and greedy
+scoundrels, the mischief and adventures of half-witted geniuses and
+licensed rogues that have been figures of the prologue.
+
+The future of science has become the future of the race. So much of
+an inkling of the truth is beginning to be appreciated. That is
+ordinarily taken to mean that the process by which the Wessex man
+became the New York and London man, the accumulation of accidental
+discoveries and inspired inventions of scattered individuals, will go
+on, providing a succession of marvels and miracles for the careerist
+and his retinue. Not only is he to be entertained and served by them,
+but any commercial value will also be exploited by him. The natural
+wonders of the laboratories have taken the place of the supernatural
+absurdities of the medieval mind as a fillip for the imagination of
+the man in the street. Even spiritualism apes the technique of the
+physicist. The credulity of reporters alone concerning developments
+in surgery, for example, is incredible. There is enough rot published
+daily for a brief to be made out against the idolatry of science.
+
+THE RELIGION OF SCIENCE
+
+Science also as a religion, as a faith to bind men together, as a
+substitute for the moribund old mythologies and theologies which kept
+them sundered, is commencing to be talked of in a more serious tone.
+The wonder-maker may have forced upon him, may welcome, the honors
+of the priest, though he pose as the humble slave of Nature and her
+secrets. Presently the foundations and institutes, which coexist with
+the cathedrals and churches, just as once the new Christian chapels
+and congregations stood side by side with pagan temples and heathen
+shrines, may oust their rivals, and assume the monopoly of ritual.
+Should its spirit remain fine and clear, should it maintain the
+glorious promise of its dawn, should its high priests realize the
+perpetually widening intimations of its universal triumph, and escape
+the ossification that has overtaken all young and hopeful things and
+institutions, the real foundation for a future of the species would be
+laid, and so its ultimate suicide prevented.
+
+The time has gone by, however, for any complacent assurance that the
+redemption of mankind is to be attained by a new religion of words.
+There is no doubt that the damnation or salvation of an individual has
+often been determined by a religious crisis, in which the magic of
+words have worked their witchery. There is plenty of evidence that a
+psychic conversion will effect an actual revolution in the whole way
+of living of the victim or patient, as you like it. William James,
+in his "Varieties of Religious Experience," established that pretty
+definitely. When it comes to groups, races, nations, the outlook is
+wholly different. There is a conflict of so many and diverse habits
+and interests, beliefs and prejudices, that hope for some common
+merely intellectual solvent for all of them is rather forlorn. If at
+all, the resolution of the conflict will come by a pooling of actual
+powers and interests, in which the religion of science will play
+the great part of the Liberator of mankind from the whole system of
+torments that have made the way of all flesh a path of rocks along
+which a manacled prisoner crawls to his doom.
+
+SCIENCE AND HUMAN NATURE
+
+Science has a future. The religion of science has a future. Can
+science assure us that human nature, in spite of its beast-brute-slave
+origins holds the possibility of a genuine transformation of its
+texture? Can Fate's stranglehold upon us be broken? There will be
+certainly a tremendous, an overwhelming increase in the general
+stock of informations we call physics and chemistry and biology. An
+abundance of new comforts, novel sensations, fresh experiences, and
+breath-bereaving devices that will thrill or heal, will follow of
+course in their wake. The religion of science will infiltrate
+and penetrate and permeate by its capillary action the barbaric
+superstitions, the ridiculous rites, the unsanitary insanities of our
+social systems.
+
+But what about the poor human soul itself, with its inherent vices
+and virtues, its fears and indulgences, audacities and nobilities,
+jealousies, shames, blunders, incurable likes, cravings and diseases?
+Can science change the texture of the slave and careerist, if they
+represent the subnormal and the abnormal? What about the Becky Sharps,
+the Mark Tapleys, and Tom Pinches, not to speak of the Nicholas
+Nicklebys and the Hamlets, the Micawbers and the Falstaffs? What
+future have they as they recur in the generations? Indeed, does not
+the very fact of their recurrence, of them and of the hundreds of
+other types and temperaments, point implacably to the conclusion to
+which the historian, the philosopher and the biologist have driven us:
+that in the grip of an endless chain of pasts the human soul has no
+future?
+
+That may appear an irrelevant, an immaterial, and an incompetent
+question to our men of business and affairs. Human nature, as fallen
+angel or ape parvenu, has always looked upon itself as fixed for
+eternity. "Human nature never changes, and is everywhere and always
+will be the same." "As a man is built." "Bred in the bone." These are
+the axioms of our social and economic Euclids. Indeed, Man, assuming
+that his nature is as uncontrollable as the course of the stars, has
+limited his research into the substance of freedom to a groping for an
+understanding of the adequate external conditions of liberty. Thus he
+set himself another of the insoluble problems he seems to delight
+in by neglecting the most important factor in the equation. Yet the
+invisible soul of man, ignored, as a variable, varying quantity, has
+upset all societies and constitutions, and all schemes of bondage as
+well as of freedom.
+
+For freedom, it becomes obvious as soon as it is clearly stated, is
+sheer impossibility until the internal conditions of his nature
+are ascertained, and the way paved for their control. A simple
+illustration of the working of this principle is supplied by our
+democracies, grossly pretenders. How can a democracy be possible
+without a knowledge of the control of the individually and socially
+subnormal, who, since they offer themselves to exploitation by
+the careerists, prove themselves the weak links in the chain of
+co-operation with an equal opportunity for all, that is the democratic
+ideal? In what does the equality or inequality of men consist? Just
+what are the qualities necessary for successful competition, or if you
+will, co-living, of man with his fellow-men, and how and why do they
+operate? No freedom, independent of the servile repetitions of
+history and heredity, is conceivable until these inquiries have been
+elaborately carried out toward a certain working finality.
+
+THE PROMISES OF EUGENICS
+
+There are, to be sure, the claims and assertions and negative
+achievements of the youngest of the sciences, eugenics. They are
+invincible optimists, the eugenists: it is perhaps a case of a virtue
+born of necessity. Thus Francis Galton, in the preface to the "Bible
+of Eugenics," his essays on Hereditary Genius, declares: "There is
+nothing either in the history of domestic animals or in that of
+evolution to make us doubt that a race of sane men may be formed
+who shall be as much superior, mentally and morally, to the Modern
+European, as the Modern European is to the lowest of the Negro races."
+High hopes beat in this declaration. But Galton could not have
+foreseen that the signing of a scrap of paper by one of the Modern
+Europeans would let loose all the other Modern Europeans in a
+pandemonium of horrors the lowest of the Negro races could not but
+envy as a masterpiece of its kind. It seemed to be suspiciously easy
+for him to accept an excuse to slide down the dizzy height he had
+climbed from the African level.
+
+The eugenists would put their trust in the encouraged breeding of the
+best and the compulsory sterility of the rest. But what is the best,
+and who are the best, and where will you find them when they are not
+inextricably emulsified with the worst? It's a long, long way to the
+day of a segregating out and in of Mendelian unit-characters. Besides,
+this is a strange world of choices. Nobody is to be considered worthy
+of parenthood until he has fallen in love properly. Nobody who would
+permit an outsider's decision as to when he was properly in love would
+be worth thirty cents as a parent. There is the ultimate dilemma
+of the eugenist--the dilemma which destroys forever the dream of a
+control of parenthood from the point of view of merely psychic values.
+
+NEW PSYCHOLOGY
+
+There are the claims and outcries and promises of the
+psychologists--the specialists in the probing of the human soul and
+human nature. In our time, the demand for a dynamic psychology of
+process and becoming, psychology with an energy in it, has split them
+into two schools--the emphasizers of instinct and the subconscious,
+the McDougallians, and the pleaders for sex and the unconscious, the
+Freudians. A synthesis between these two groups is latent, since their
+differences are those of horizon merely. For the McDougallians look
+upon the world with two eyes and see it whole and broad--the Freudians
+see through their telescope a circular field and exclaim that they
+behold the universe. It is true that they own a telescope.
+
+But what has either to offer our quest for light on the future of
+the species? Nothing very much. Thus, to turn to the disciples
+of McDougall. In a recent volume entitled, "Human Nature and its
+Remaking," Professor William Ernest Hocking of Harvard contends that
+Man, all axioms about his nature to the contrary, is but a creature
+of habit, and so the most plastic of living things, since habit is
+self-controlled and self-determined. By the self-determination of the
+habits of the race will the new freedom be reborn. It sounds old,
+very old. And pathetic because it recognizes original and permanent
+ingredients of our composition in the words pugnacity, greed, sex,
+fear, as elements to be accepted in any system of the principles of
+civilization. It is the bubble of education all over again. What in
+our cells is pugnacity? What in our bones is greed? What in our
+blood is sex? What in our nerves is fear? Until these inquiries are
+respected, conscious character building or even stock breeding must
+remain the laughing stock of the smoking rooms and the regimental
+barracks.
+
+Come the Freudians. To them we owe the aeroplanes to a new universe.
+They have opened up for us the geology of the soul. Layer upon layer,
+cross-section upon cross-section have been piled before us. And what
+a melodramatic cinema of thrills and shivers, villains and heroes,
+heroines and adventuresses have they not unfolded. Each motive, as
+the stiff psychologist of the nineteenth century, with his
+plaster-of-Paris categories and pigeon holes and classifications,
+labelled the teeming creatures of the mind, becomes anon a strutting
+actor upon a multitudinous stage, and an audience in a crowded
+playhouse. Scenes are enacted the febrile fancy of a Poe or a de
+Maupassant never could have conjured. The complex, the neurosis, the
+compulsion, the obsession, the slip of speech, the trick of manner,
+the devotion of a life-time, the culture of a nation all furnish bits
+for the Freudian mosaic. Attractions and inhibitions, repulsions and
+suppressions are held up as the ultimate pulling and pushing forces of
+human nature.
+
+But is the problem solved? Is not human nature primarily animal
+nature? And do we so thoroughly understand this animal nature? Does
+not all this material of Freudianism consist of variations upon social
+burdens imposed on the original human nature? To be sure, at every
+moment of life, choices have to be made, and choice involves the
+clashing of instincts and motives, with victory for one or some, and
+defeat for the others. But the Freudian material per se--the sex
+material--is it not merely the by-product of a certain state of
+society? A sane society would eliminate nearly all of Freudian
+disease, but still have original human nature upon its hands. Why is
+it that of two individuals exposed to the same situation, one will
+develop a complex, the other will remain immune? The only soil we know
+of, the real foundation stones of our being and living, are the cells
+we are made of. Tell me the cellular basis of a complex, and I will
+grant that you have arrived at some real knowledge.
+
+WAY FOR THE PHYSIOLOGIST
+
+There has grown up, contemporaneously with the teachings of Freud,
+a body of discoveries and knowledge in physiology, concerning
+these factors, which is like a long sword of light illuminating a
+pitch-black spot in the night. The dark places in human nature seem to
+have become the sole monopoly of the Freudians and their psychology.
+But only seemingly. For all this time the physiologist has been
+working. Beginning with a candle and now holding in his hands the most
+powerful arc-lights, he has explored two regions, the sympathetic
+nervous system and the glands of internal secretion, and has come upon
+data which in due course will render a good many of the Freudian
+dicta obsolete. Not that the Freudian fundamentals will be scrapped
+completely. But they will have to fit into the great synthesis which
+must form the basis of any control of the future of human nature. That
+future belongs to the physiologist. Already his achievements provide
+the foundations. I propose in the following chapters to sketch the
+history and outline the elements of this new knowledge, and then to
+glimpse some of the larger human reactions to it. A good deal of this
+new knowledge is not altogether new. A number of the isolated facts
+have been known and talked about for more than two generations. But
+the newer additions, and the light they have thrown upon old problems
+present the opportunity for a synthesis, which must sooner or later be
+made.
+
+THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOUL
+
+Besides, it is time that the secrets of the laboratories stepped out
+into the market place, unashamed. Imaginative man has played for ages
+immemorial with wondrous fairy tales and fancies of what he would
+achieve. The sciences of physics and chemistry have made everyday
+commonplace realities out of his radiant dreams. One need not repeat
+the clichés of our editors. But the analogy is there nevertheless. No
+control over heat and light and electricity, today our slaves, was
+possible until physics and chemistry took them in hand. No control of
+the human soul is possible until it too will be taken in hand by them.
+We may now look forward to a real future for mankind because we have
+before us the beginnings of a chemistry of human nature. The internal
+secretions, with their influence upon brain and nervous system as
+well as every other part of the body corporation, as essentially
+blood-circulating chemical substances, have been discovered the real
+governors and arbiters of instincts and dispositions, emotions and
+reactions, characters and temperaments, good and bad. A huge complex
+of evidence, as various, complicated and obscure as human nature
+itself, supports that fundamental law.
+
+The chemistry of the soul! Magnificent phrase! It's a long, long way
+to that goal. The exact formula is as yet far beyond our reach. But we
+have started upon the long journey and we shall get there. Then will
+Man truly become the experimental animal of the future, experimenting
+not only with the external conditions of his life, but with the
+constituents of his very nature and soul. The chemical conditions of
+his being, including the internal secretions, are the steps of the
+ladder by which he will climb to those dizzy heights where he will
+stretch out his hands and find himself a God. Modern knowledge of
+these chemical substances, circulating in the blood, and affecting
+every cell of the body, dates back scarce half a century. But already
+the paths blazed by the pioneers have led to the exploration of great
+countries. The thyroid gland, the pituitary gland, the adrenal glands,
+the thymus, the pineal, the sex glands, have yielded secrets. And
+certain great postulates have been established. The life of every
+individual, normal or abnormal, his physical appearance, and his
+psychic traits, are dominated largely by his internal secretions. All
+normal as well as abnormal individuals are classifiable according to
+the internal secretions which rule in their make-up. Individuals,
+families, nations and races show definite internal secretion traits,
+which stamp them with the quality of difference. The internal
+secretion formula of an individual may, in the future, constitute his
+measurement which will place him accurately in the social system.
+
+"More and more we are forced to realize that the general form and
+external appearance of the human body depends, to a large extent,
+upon the functioning, during the early developmental period, of the
+endocrine glands. Our stature, the kinds of faces we have, the
+length of our arms and legs, the shape of the pelvis, the color and
+consistency of the integument, the quantity and regional location
+of our subcutaneous fat, the amount and distribution of hair on our
+bodies, the tonicity of our muscles, the sound of the voice, and
+the size of the larynx, the emotions to which our exterior gives
+expression. All are to a certain extent conditioned by the
+productivity of our glands of internal secretion." (Llewellys F.
+Barker, Johns Hopkins University, 1st President of Association for
+Study of Internal Secretions.)
+
+The implications for the statesman, the educator, the vocational
+expert, the student of the neurotic and of genius, of delinquents,
+deficients and criminals, the explorers of the exceptional and the
+commonplace, the understanding of the poetic and kinetic, base and
+dull types, as well as of those two master interests of mankind, Sex
+and War, are manifest. The mystery of the individual, in all his
+distinct uniqueness, begins to be penetrated. And so every phase
+of social life, in which the individual is at bottom the final
+determinant, must be reviewed in the light of the new knowledge.
+History may be examined from an entirely new angle. The biographies
+of our Heroes of the Past, in the Carlylean sense, will bear
+reinspection. Even Utopias will have to be revised.
+
+The internal secretions constitute and determine much of the inherited
+powers of the individual and their development They control physical
+and mental growth and all the metabolic processes of fundamental
+importance. They dominate all the vital functions during the three
+cycles of life. They co-operate in an intimate relationship which may
+be compared to an interlocking directorate. A derangement of their
+function, causing an insufficiency of them, an excess, or an
+abnormality, upsets the entire equilibrium of the body, with
+transforming effects upon the mind and the organs. In short, they
+control human nature, and whoever controls them, controls human
+nature.
+
+The control of the glands of internal secretion waits upon our
+knowledge of them, the nature and precise composition of the
+substances manufactured by them, and just what they do to the cells.
+Envisaging the future, that knowledge today is meagre. Looking back
+fifty years, it becomes an amazing achievement and revelation. It is
+worth our while to survey the accomplished, and to trace its general
+human significance. For a certain tangible degree of knowledge and
+control has been attained and should be part of the average citizen's
+equipment in dealing with the everyday problems of his life.
+
+THE ATTITUDE OF THE LABORATORY
+
+A certain number of so-called experimental physiologists, that is,
+the physiologists of the animal laboratory, who will have nothing but
+syllogistic deductions and quantitative determinations based upon
+animal experiments as the data of their science, will be apt to look
+askance upon the preceding paragraphs, and those which will follow. To
+them, any man who relates the internal secretions to anything, outside
+of the routineer's paths, puts his reputation at stake, if he has
+any reputation at all to start in with. They would have us deliver
+a Scotch verdict upon all the questions which arise as soon as one
+attempts to take in the more general significance of the glands of
+internal secretion. This, even though the more general implications
+concerning the effects of their products, the relations of them to
+growth and development, nutrition and energy, environmental
+reactions and resistance to disease, as well as the grand complex of
+intelligence, are admittedly well ascertained in some directions.
+
+The method of absolute measurement in science has yielded miracles.
+For some thousands of years, an isolated individual, here and there
+or an isolated institution have devoted themselves to the task,
+struggling not only with their own weaknesses, but with religious and
+political dogmas which spoiled and vitiated even the beginnings of
+their efforts. When, in the seventeenth century, men associated
+themselves in research, for free communication and discussion of their
+findings, a great invention came alive. Close on its heels was born
+the exact experimental method. Amazing triumphs were born of that
+marriage which swept away before it ignorance and superstition and
+prejudice. Its children and grandchildren have flourished and grown
+strong and mighty. They have transmuted the material conditions of
+life. Certainly all the laurels belong to the method of absolute,
+measured observations.
+
+Yet all this time the old method of inductive observation has not gone
+dead. Most magnificent triumph of nineteenth century science, the
+evolution theory of Charles Darwin, remains the most conspicuous
+instance of clarification of thought in human history. That work was
+the outcome of an attempt to relate and interpret a collection of
+observations on species and their variations, that had long lain to
+hand, a mixture without a solvent. Darwin saw certain generalizations
+as solvents, and behold! a clear solution out of the mud. But it was
+by piling evidence upon evidence, co-ordinating isolated facts not
+directly associated, that the towering structure was erected. There is
+no prettier sample extant of the powers of the inductive method.
+
+Not that there are no triumphs of the quantitative method in store for
+the biologist. Already, the materials of the Mendelians have become
+basic parts of his structure. And today, in pursuit of the solutions
+of hundreds of the problems of living matter, chemists and
+physiologists are employing the most precise standards, units, and
+measures of the physical sciences. Blood chemistry of our time is a
+marvel, undreamed of a generation ago. Also, these achievements are
+a perfect example of the accomplished fact contradicting a priori
+prediction and criticism. For it was one of the accepted dogmas of the
+nineteenth century that the phenomena of the living could never be
+subjected to accurate quantitative analysis.
+
+However desirable the purely quantitative experimental methods may be,
+they naturally need always to be preceded by the qualitative studies
+of direct observations. Inevitably there will be numberless errors,
+apparent and real inconsistencies and contradictions, and ideas that
+will have to be discarded. Just the same there is no other method of
+progress. Every bit of evidence points towards the internal secretions
+as the holders of the secrets of our inmost being. They are the well
+springs of life, the dynamos of the organism. In trailing their scent
+we appear to be upon the track not only of the chemistry of our
+bodies, but of the chemistry of our very souls. An increasing host of
+factors and studies marshal themselves solidly for that declaration.
+Endeavor to conceive the consequences and possibilities for the
+future. A synthesis of the known in the field provides even now a
+means of understanding and control of the perplexities of human nature
+and life that are like a vista seen from a mountain top after the
+lifting of a fog.
+
+The most precious bit of knowledge we possess today about Man is that
+he is the creature of his glands of internal secretion. That is, Man
+as a distinctive organism is the product, the by-product, of a number
+of cell factories which control the parts of his make-up. Much as the
+different divisions of an automobile concern produce the different
+parts of a car. These chemical factories consist of cells, manufacture
+special substances, which act upon the other cells of the body and so
+start and determine the countless processes we call Life. Life, body
+and soul emerge from the activities of the magic ooze of their silent
+chemistry precisely as a tree of tin crystals arises from the chemical
+reactions started in a solution of tin salts by an electric current.
+
+Man is regulated by his Glands of Internal Secretion. At the beginning
+of the third decade of the twentieth century, after he had struggled,
+for we know at least fifty thousand years, to define and know himself,
+that summary may be accepted as the truth about himself. It is
+a far-reaching induction, but a valid induction, supported by a
+multitude of detailed facts.
+
+Amazingly enough, the incontestable evidence, that first pointed to,
+and then proved up to the hilt, this answer to the question: What is
+Man? has been gathered in less than the last fifty years. Darwin and
+Huxley, and Spencer, who first opened men's eyes to their origins,
+were ignorant of the very existence of some of them, and had not the
+faintest notion or suspicion of the real importance or function of any
+of them.
+
+THE PREJUDICES OF PHILOSOPHERS
+
+Now, there are certain prejudices and problems which appear to be
+rudely brushed away by the dogmatic arrogance of the principle stated.
+What, you say, is Man but an affair of his peculiar gland chemistry?
+But what of mind, soul, consciousness? Still another of these
+pathetically one-sided and superficial theories of man as a machine
+pure and simple which would make him the most complicated of
+mechanisms, a marvel of intricate parts, but would deprive him of his
+essence as self-conscious unique in the universe. Man, thinking man,
+at any rate, dreads to lose the cherished impregnable conviction that
+he is something apart, inherently, and therefore infinitely different
+from every other phenomenon in the range of his cosmos.
+
+A thorough dissection of the relation and attitude toward psychic
+material of the consistent physiologist, who refuses to deal in
+contradictory terms, would lead us a little too far. So would the
+reconciliation between the claims of mind and the concept of the
+organism as a system of chemical reactions. The most fundamental
+aspects of that herculean task, warned by the sign, No Trespassing,
+we shall leave to the metaphysicians. The influence of the glands of
+internal secretion upon the mind we must consider, but at present
+postpone. Yet the hot-headed contenders on both sides may be reminded
+of certain facts.
+
+We live in the most iconoclastic of ages. There are sane people alive
+today going quietly about their business who deny the very existence
+of consciousness. These heretics of course pooh-pooh absolutely the
+lions of metaphysics. On the other hand, it may be pointed out to our
+mechanists who believe in mechanism to the bitter end, that even if
+man can be described entirely as a mere transformer of energy, there
+is no reason why he cannot also be described as a transformer of
+energy plus someone who makes use of the transformer and of the
+energy transformed. The stone wall before the honest mechanist is the
+abolition of purpose, and design, an old insoluble problem upon
+his premises. Preach, until you are blue in the face, behaviorist
+tropisms, in which man is pushed and pulled about in his environment
+as are iron filings in a magnetic field. Think up objective
+physiologies in which your life and mine become a series of
+concatenated influences and compound reflexes. Play with words like
+the concentration reflex when you mean idea, and the symbolic reflex
+when you mean language. But your most rigid nomenclature will never
+abolish the mystic personal purpose in the equation, no matter how low
+the step in the animal series to which you descend. The declaration
+that a man is dominated by certain glands within his body should not
+be taken to give aid and comfort to those who would banish mind from
+the universe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION WERE DISCOVERED
+
+
+Just what are the glands of internal secretion? And how have we become
+possessed of whatever information about them we have? A brief review
+of how the idea of a gland of internal secretion came into the human
+mind and of the contributions that have converged into a single body
+of knowledge is worth while.
+
+A gland is a collection of cells (those viscous globules which are the
+units of all tissues and organs). It manufactures substances intended
+for a particular effect upon the body economy. The effect may be
+either local or upon the body as a whole.
+
+Originally, a gland meant something in the body which was seen to make
+something else, generally a juice or a liquid mixture of some sort.
+A classical example is the salivary glands elaborating saliva. The
+microscope has shown us that every gland is a chemical factory in
+which the cells are the workers. The product of the gland work is its
+secretion. Thus the sweat glands of the skin secrete the perspiration
+as their secretion, the lachrymal glands of the eyes the tears as
+theirs. The collectivism of management and control is the only
+essential difference between them and the modern soap factory or
+T.N.T. plant.
+
+Man as a carnivor, and as a consequent anatomist, has been acquainted
+with these more superficially placed glands for some thousands of
+years. During all this time and during the epoch of the achievements
+of gross anatomy, it was believed that the secretions of all glands
+were poured out upon some surface of the body. Either an exterior
+surface like the skin, or some interior surface, the various mucous
+membranes. This was supported by the discovery of canal-like passage
+ways leading from the gland to the particular surface where its
+secretion was to act. These corridors, the secretory or excretory
+ducts, are present, for example, in the liver, conducting the bile
+to the small intestine. Devices of transportation fit happily into
+a comparison of a gland to a chemical factory, corresponding thus
+closely to the tramways and railroads of our industrial centers.
+
+Little more than a hundred years ago, it was observed that certain
+organs, like the thyroid body in the neck, and the adrenal capsules in
+the abdomen, hitherto neglected because their function was hopelessly
+obscure, had a glandular structure. As in so much scientific advance,
+the discovery or improvement of a new instrument or method, a fresh
+tool of research, was responsible. The perfection of the microscope
+was the reason this time.
+
+If one wishes to trace the idea of internal secretion by cells to an
+individual, it is convenient, if not pedantic, to give the credit to
+Theophile de Bordeu, a famous physician of Paris in the eighteenth
+century. Bordeu came to Paris as a brilliant provincial in his early
+twenties and by the charm of his manner and daring therapy fought
+his way to the most exclusive aristocratic practice of the court.
+Naturally a courtier, taking to the intrigues of the royal court like
+a duck to water, making enemies on every hand as well as friends, and
+with a fastidious and impatient clientele, he yet found time to dabble
+in the wonders of the newly perfected microscope and to speculate upon
+the meaning of the novelties revealed by it in the tissues. _He coined
+the thought of a gland secretion into the blood_.
+
+It was in the year 1749 that he came to Paris from the Pyrenees,
+a young medical graduate, destined to become the most fashionable
+practitioner of his time. At the age of twenty-three he was holding
+the professorship of anatomy at his alma mater, Montpelier, where
+his father was a successful physician. At twenty-five he was elected
+corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. A handsome
+presence and a Tartarin de Tarascon disposition assured his success
+from the start. The medical world was then composed of the emulsion of
+charlatanry and science Molière ridiculed. Success stimulated envy and
+jealousy. One of the richest of the older medical men set himself the
+job of procuring his scalp. On a trumped-up charge of stealing jewels
+from a dead patient--a favorite accusation against the doctors of the
+eighteenth century--he had Bordeu's license taken away from him. The
+good graces of certain women to whom Bordeu had always appealed, and
+who indeed supplied the funds to get him started in Paris, rammed
+through two acts of Parliament to reinstate him. Nothing daunted, he
+returned to his quest for a court clientele, and was rewarded finally
+by having the moribund Louis XV as a patient.
+
+This was the man with whom the modern history of the internal
+secretions begins. Not content with adventures among the courtiers and
+desperadoes of the most corrupt court in the most corrupt city of the
+world, he went in for research. The high power microscope that came
+into vogue when he was studying, revealed vague wonders which he
+described in a monograph, "Researches into the mucous tissues or
+cellular organs." But what makes him interesting is a slender volume
+on the "Medical Analysis of the Blood," published in the year of the
+American Declaration of Independence. The sexual side of men and women
+aroused Bordeu's most ardent enthusiasms. Starting with observations
+on the characters of eunuchs and capons, as well as spayed female
+animals, he formulated a conception of sexual secretions absorbed
+into the blood, settling the male or female tint of the organism and
+setting the seal upon the destiny of the individual. Thus he must be
+donated the credit of anticipating the most modern doctrine on the
+subject.
+
+The generation after him witnessed the triumph of the cell as the
+recognized unit of structure of the tissues, the brick of the organs.
+It was soon found that the cells of the more familiar glands, like
+the sweat or tear glands, resembled the cells of the more mysterious
+structures named the thyroid in the neck, or adrenal in the abdomen,
+of which the function was unknown. What had hitherto prevented
+classification of the latter as glands was the fact that they
+possessed no visible pathways for the removal of their secretion. So
+now they were set apart as the _ductless_ glands, the glands without
+ducts, as contrasted with the glands normally equipped with ducts.
+Since, too, they were observed to have an exceedingly rich supply of
+blood, the blood presented itself as the only conceivable mode of
+egress for the secretions packed within the cells. So they were also
+called the blood or vascular glands.
+
+The names which became most popular were those which represented a
+contrast of the glands with the ducts, conveying their secretion to
+the exterior, as the glands of EXTERNAL SECRETION and the glands
+without the ducts, the secretions of which were kept within the body,
+absorbed by the blood and lymph to be used by the other cells, as
+the glands of INTERNAL SECRETION. How different these two classes
+of glands are may be realized by imagining the existence of great
+factories manufacturing food products, which would diffuse through
+their walls into the atmosphere, to be absorbed by our bodies.
+
+There are certain terms for the glands of internal secretion which
+are used interchangeably. They are spoken of often as the _endocrine_
+glands and as the _hormone_ producing glands. Endocrine is most
+convenient for it stands for both the gland and its secretion. Hormone
+is employed a good deal in the literature of the subject. But it
+applies specifically to the internal secretion, and not to the gland.
+
+THE EXPERIMENTAL PIONEER
+
+All this clarification of the concept of the glands of internal
+secretion occurred in the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
+However, no inkling of their real importance to the body, of which
+quantitatively they form so insignificant a part, was apparently
+revealed to anyone. Not even the most daring speculation or brilliant
+guess work in physiology engaged them as material. Thus Henle, the
+great anatomist, calmly affirmed that these glands "have no influence
+on animal life: they may be extirpated or they degenerate without
+sensation or motion suffering in the least." Johann Müller, the most
+celebrated physiologist of his day and contemporary of Henle, wrote
+in 1844 and coolly stated, "The ductless glands are alike in one
+particular--they either produce a different change in the blood which
+circulates through them or the lymph which they elaborate plays a
+special rôle in the formation of blood or of chyle." In other words,
+they were dismissed as curious nonentities, of no real significance
+to the running of the body. Laennec, the French founder of the Art of
+Diagnosis in Medicine, once said that nothing about a science is more
+interesting than the progress of that science itself. He might have
+added that nothing either was more interesting than the contradictions
+in that progress. For while these grand moguls of their sciences were
+enunciating their dogmas, pioneers here and there were already setting
+the mines that were to explode them.
+
+The experimental method, to the value of which biologists were
+just beginning to awaken, was destined to be the vehicle of Time's
+revenges. An application of it to the mysteries of sex was the
+immediate occasion. Sex and sex differences have always more or less
+obsessed the imagination of mankind. The volumes of theories about
+them would constitute a respectable museum. Certain gross facts,
+however, were known. The effects of loss of the sex glands upon the
+configuration of the body and the predominating constitution in
+animals and eunuchs have always attracted attention. The proverbs and
+stories of all nations are full of references to them. But up to the
+nineteenth century no controlled experimental work was ever carried
+out regarding them. It was in 1849, that A.A. Berthold of Göttingen, a
+quiet, sedate lecturer, carried out the pioneer experiment of removing
+the testes of four roosters and transplanting them under the skin. It
+was Berthold's idea to test whether a gland with a definite external
+secretion, and a duct through which that secretion was expelled,
+but which yet had powers over the body as a whole that were to be
+attributed only to an internal secretion, could not be shown, by
+a clean-cut experiment, to possess such an internal secretion. He
+succeeded perfectly. For he found that, though, in thus separating the
+gland from its duct and so cutting off its external secretion, the
+action of the cells manufacturing that secretion was destroyed, the
+general effects upon the body were not those of castration. The
+animals retained their male characteristics as regards voice,
+reproductive instinct, fighting spirit and growth of comb and wattles.
+Whereas if the glands were entirely removed, these male traits,
+peculiar to the rooster, were completely lost. The inference was the
+existence of an internal secretion.
+
+To Berthold belongs the honor of being the first experimental
+demonstrator who proved the reality of a gland with a true internal
+secretion and the power it exercised through the blood upon the
+entire organism. Besides, he showed that a typical gland of external
+secretion could also have an internal secretion, a possibility never
+before considered. That two kinds of cells could live within the same
+gland: one set usually recognized as producing the external secretion,
+the other evolving the internal secretion, was an astounding original
+conception.
+
+ENTER CLAUDE BERNARD
+
+Science is supposed to be immune to the personal prejudices and
+emotional habits of the vulgar. It is the tradition that a new
+contribution to knowledge emerging from no matter how obscure the
+source, should be hailed as a gift from the gods. But the sad truth of
+the matter is that a new finding in science requires as much backing
+as a new project in high finance or social climbing. Berthold, like
+Mendel, the founder of genetics, was a great pioneer. But there was no
+personage, no person of consequence, with no patronage by anyone of
+consequence, no wife or kin, to push him, and no audience to stimulate
+him. His poor four little pages of a report, published ten years
+before Darwin's "Origin of Species," attracted not the slightest
+notice. Buried in the print of a journal with a subscription list of
+possibly two or three hundred, of whom perhaps two dozen may have been
+interested enough to read it, but without any recorded reaction on the
+part of any of them, it was a flash in the pan. Though it was good,
+original, conclusive stuff, it was cut dead, absolutely, by the
+scientific world. As a result, forty years elapsed before the
+implications of his studies were rediscovered by the Columbus of the
+modern approach to the internal secretions, the American Frenchman,
+Brown-Séquard.
+
+It took a first class man of genius in his field, in Paris, with a
+respected position in the whirl of its medical planetary system and
+a university appointment, to boom and advertise the doctrine of the
+internal secretions, so that people began to sit up and listen and
+take sides--on the wrong grounds. This Frenchman was Claude Bernard.
+At a series of lectures on experimental physiology delivered at the
+College of France, in 1855, he coined the terms internal secretion and
+external secretion and emphasized the opposition between them, on the
+basis of an incorrect example, the function of the liver in the supply
+of sugar to the blood.
+
+Just as Columbus reached America, carried on a series of logical
+syllogisms, built upon unreal pictures of a straight path to the East,
+Claude Bernard opened up the continent of the internal secretions to
+the experimental enthusiasts of his time by a discovery which today
+is not grouped among the phenomena of internal secretion at all. In
+attempting to throw light upon the disease diabetes, in which there
+is a loss of the normal ability of the cells to burn up sugar, he
+examined the sugar content of the blood in different regions of the
+body. He found that the blood of the veins, in general, contained less
+sugar than the blood of the arteries, which meant that sugar was taken
+from the blood in passing through the tissues. But the venous blood of
+the right side of the heart contained as much sugar as the arterial
+blood. Evidently, somewhere, sugar was added to the blood in the veins
+before it got to the heart. The blood of the vein which goes from
+the liver to the right side of the heart was then found to contain a
+higher percentage of sugar than is present in the arteries. The vein
+which transmits the blood from the intestines to the liver had
+the usual lower percentage of sugar corresponding to the analysis
+established for the other veins. The liver, therefore, must add sugar
+to the blood on its way to the heart. Extraction of the liver then
+revealed the presence in it of a form of starch, an animal starch,
+which Bernard called glycogen, the sugar-maker. The origin of the
+sugar added to the blood on its way from the liver to the heart was
+thus settled. Bernard went on to hail glycogen and the sugar derivable
+as the internal secretions of the liver, and to erect, and then drive
+home, a theory of internal secretions and their importance in the body
+economy.
+
+The case he had hit upon was exquisitely fortunate, as the liver had
+hitherto been regarded purely a gland of external secretion, the bile.
+Nowadays, glycogen and the blood sugar are not considered internal
+secretions, because they are classified as elementary reserve food,
+while the concept of the internal secretions has become narrowed down
+to substances acting as starters or inhibitors of different processes.
+Moreover, the process of liberation of sugar from glycogen itself in
+the liver, upon demand, is today set down to the action of an internal
+secretion, adrenalin. Claude Bernard's conception, like a novelist's
+characters, has turned upon its creator, taken on a life of its own,
+and evolved into something he never intended. He looked upon an
+internal secretion as simply maintaining the normal composition of the
+blood, which bathed alike and treated alike the democracy of cells.
+Today, the blood is believed merely the transporting medium for the
+internal secretion, destined for a particular group of cells.
+
+ADDISON'S AS THE FIRST ENGLISH CONTRIBUTION
+
+The years 1855-56 are red-letter years in the history of the glands of
+internal secretion. They witnessed, not only the publication of
+Claude Bernard's "Lectures on Experimental Physiology," but also the
+appearance of a monograph by Thomas Addison, an English physician,
+entitled "On the constitutional and local effects of disease of the
+suprarenal bodies." In this, he described a fatal disease during which
+the individual affected became languid and weak, and developed a dingy
+or smoky discoloration of the whole surface of the body, a browning
+or bronzing of the skin, caused generally by destructive tuberculous
+disease of the suprarenal or adrenal bodies. Addison promptly put down
+these constitutional effects of loss of the adrenal bodies to loss
+of something produced by them of constitutional importance. He was
+particularly struck by the change in the pigmentation of the skin, so
+much so that his own designation for the affection was "bronzed
+skin." Since then, however, the condition has been universally styled
+Addison's Disease.
+
+There is something spectacularly mysterious and picturesque about most
+of the malign, insidious effects of the disease which appealed at once
+to a number of investigators. The most adventurous, the most daring,
+the most imbued with enthusiasm for the experimental method, was the
+American Frenchman, Brown-Séquard, who is acknowledged the father of
+modern knowledge of the glands of internal secretion, though to Claude
+Bernard belong the honors of the grandfather.
+
+BROWN-SÉQUARD THE GREAT
+
+Brown-Séquard, as the outstanding figure in the history of the glands
+of internal secretion, deserves some notice as a personality. In the
+words of the note-makers for novels and plays, he was a card. He was
+born in 1817 at Port-Louis, on the island of Mauritius, off Africa,
+then French property. His father was a Mr. Brown, an American sea
+captain; his mother a Mme. Séquard, a Frenchwoman. Early in childhood,
+the father sailed away on one of his voyages and never came back. The
+mother thereafter supported herself and her son sewing embroideries.
+At fifteen, Brown-Séquard, with the physical appearance of an Indian
+Creole, was clerking in a colonial store by day, and composing poetry,
+romances and plays by night. The call of Paris was in his blood, which
+was indeed a supersaturated solution of wanderlust.
+
+Soon he was landed there to make his fortune in literature, only too
+speedily to be disillusioned. Exhibition of manuscripts to a leading
+literary light merely evoked curt advice to learn a trade or go into
+business. He would have none of either and studied medicine instead,
+earning his way by teaching as he learned. In the laboratories, he
+made the acquaintance of people who more than once were to be his
+salvation in the ups and downs of his career. In 1848 he was one of
+the secretaries of the Society of Biology, newly founded by Claude
+Bernard.
+
+Some trouble, perhaps some effect upon his health of cholera which
+then swept Paris, caused him to return to his native Mauritius, to
+encounter an epidemic of cholera. There he slaved manfully, for which
+a gold medal was afterward struck for him. That over with, he embarked
+in 1852 for New York, without a word of American, learning English on
+board. This was the first of a series of voyages. As he often boasted,
+he crossed the ocean sixty times, not a bad record for the days when
+the _Mauretania_ was still in the womb of time. He made a hopeless
+failure out of practice in New York, became so poor as to practice
+obstetrics at five dollars a case, and married a niece of Daniel
+Webster. Then he went back to Paris. Back to America next as Professor
+of Physiology at the University of Richmond, Virginia, a job occupied
+for a few months only because of his opinions on slavery, ostensibly
+anyhow.
+
+To Paris then the rolling stone meandered again. So that soon after he
+was offered and accepted the charge of a great newly opened hospital
+for epileptics in London. That proved merely an interlude and in
+1863 we find him back in his fatherland (if we may hold France his
+motherland) as Professor of Neuropathology at Harvard. In New York
+fame preceded him now with a thousand trumpets, so that on the day of
+his arrival, he was kept busy seeing patients until night, when he
+had to desist because of exhaustion. But still he did not prosper. An
+unfortunate second marriage almost broke his heart, and an attempt
+to found in New York a new medical periodical, the _Archives of
+Scientific and Practical Medicine and Surgery_, got him into hot
+water. Not until the death of Claude Bernard in 1878 left vacant the
+chair of physiology in the College of France, did he find peace and
+rest. He hastened to Paris, was appointed, and lived, in spite of the
+most erratic of existences, to the ripe old age of 78, working up to
+the last minute.
+
+Addison's monograph stimulated Brown-Séquard, in the year after its
+printing, to reproduce the fatal disease experimentally by excising
+the suprarenal capsules in animals. Addison was very modest in his
+monograph. He stated that the first case of the malady had been
+reported by his great predecessor at Guy's Hospital, London, Richard
+Bright, the describer of Bright's Disease. Then he talks about the
+"curious facts" he had "stumbled upon" and refers to an "ill-defined
+impression" that these suprarenal bodies, in common with the spleen
+and other organs, "in some way or other minister to the elaboration of
+the blood." In the preface to his work he had spoken more confidently
+of the fact that Nature, as an experimenter and a vivisector, can
+beat the physiologist to a frazzle. Indeed, he begins like this: "If
+Pathology be to disease what Physiology is to health, it appears
+reasonable to conclude that, in any given structure or organ, the laws
+of the former will be as fixed and significant as those of the latter:
+and that the peculiar characters of any structure or organ may be as
+certainly recognized in the phenomena of disease as in the phenomena
+of health. Although pathology, therefore, as a branch of medical
+science, is necessarily founded on physiology, questions may
+nevertheless arise regarding the true character of a structure or
+organ, to which occasionally the pathologist may be able to return a
+more satisfactory and decisive reply than the physiologist--these two
+branches of medical knowledge being thus found mutually to advance and
+illustrate each other. Indeed, as regards the functions of individual
+organs, the mutual aids of these two branches of knowledge are
+probably much more nearly balanced than many may be disposed to admit:
+for in estimating them we are very apt to forget how large an amount
+of our present physiological knowledge respecting the functions of
+these organs has been the immediate result of casual observations made
+on the effects of disease." William James expressed the same thought
+some decades later, when he emphasized that the abnormal was but the
+normal exaggerated and magnified, played upon by the limelight, and
+therefore the best teacher and indicator of the exact definition and
+limitations of the normal.
+
+Addison, speaking before the South London Medical Society in 1849,
+declared that in all of three afflicted individuals there was found a
+diseased condition of the suprarenal capsules, and that in spite of
+the consciousness "of the bias and prejudice inseparable from the hope
+or vanity of an original discovery ... he could not help entertaining
+a very strong impression that these hitherto mysterious organs--the
+suprarenal capsules--may be either directly or indirectly concerned
+in sanguification (the making of the blood): and that a diseased
+condition of them, functional or structural, may interfere with the
+proper elaboration of the body generally, or of the red particles more
+especially...." A modern, acquainted with after developments, would
+say that Addison was very hot upon the trail indeed. But withal,
+though he must have been well aware of John Hunter's advice to Jenner
+on vaccination, "Don't think, make some observations," his training in
+the indirect reasoning and deductions of the clinician prevented him
+from going right on to a direct experimental test of his theories.
+
+This Brown-Séquard proceeded to do. Removing the adrenal glands in
+several species of animals, he found, meant a terrible weakness in
+twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and death shortly after. If only one
+were removed, there was no change apparent in the normal animal, but
+death occurred rapidly upon removal of the other, even after a long
+interval. Furthermore, transfusion of blood from a normal into
+one deprived of its suprarenals prevented death for a long time,
+indicating that the suprarenals normally secreted something into the
+blood necessary to life.
+
+The years 1855-1856 beheld two other important glands of internal
+secretion, the thyroid, the gland in the neck astride the windpipe,
+and the thymus, in the chest above the heart, make their debut.
+
+The thymus was introduced by the great classic monograph of Friedleben
+on the "Physiology of the Thymus," in which he mentioned the usual
+forgotten pioneers: Felix Plater, a Swiss physician, who in 1614 had
+found an enlarged thymus in an infant dying suddenly, and Restelli,
+an Italian, who interested himself in the effects of removal of the
+thymus more than ten years before. Friedleben believed that in the
+young without a thymus, there occurred a softening of the bones, and
+general physical and mental deterioration. He started the ball rolling
+for a number of researches.
+
+Moritz Schiff, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, showed that excision of the
+thyroid gland in dogs is invariably fatal. A number of physicians in
+the first half of the century had reported certain remarkable symptoms
+associated with enlargement of the thyroid gland, as goitre. In 1825
+the collected posthumous writings of Caleb Perry, an eminent physician
+of Bath, England, recorded eight cases, in which, together with
+enlargement of the gland, there developed enlargement and palpitation
+of the heart, a distinct protrusion of the eyes from their sockets and
+an appearance of agitation and distress. Schiff's paper was the first
+to throw any light on the subject. But for some reason, probably the
+same as in Berthold's forlorn experiments with the sex glands, the
+work of a person of no importance was ignored, or perhaps the more
+charitable view is that it was forgotten. Yet the tide of observation
+kept sweeping in relevant data.
+
+In 1850, Curling, an English pathologist, studying the cretinous
+idiots of Salzburg, written about centuries before by Paracelsus,
+discovered that with their defective brain and mentality there
+was associated an absence of the thyroid body, and accompanying
+symmetrical swellings of fat tissue at the sides of the neck. Then
+Sir William Gull in 1873 painted the singular details of a cretinous
+condition developing in adult women, a condition to which another
+Englishman, William Ord, of London, five years later donated the title
+of myxedema, because of a characteristic thickening and infiltration
+of the skin that is one of its features.
+
+Surgery then enters upon the scene. The great Swiss surgeon. Theodore
+Kocher, performed the first excision of the thyroid gland in human
+beings for goitre, in the same year. In 1882, J.L. Reverdin, another
+surgeon of Geneva, noticed that in man complete removal of the thyroid
+was followed by symptoms identical with those collected under the name
+of myxedema, and used the phrase "operative myxedema" to emphasize
+his conviction of the connection between them. Then Schiff, in
+1884, neglected twenty-five years, came back, with an array of
+demonstrations, proving that the various symptoms, tremors, spasms and
+convulsions, following removal of the thyroid, could be prevented by
+a previous graft of a piece of the gland under the skin, or by the
+injection of thyroid juice into a vein or under the skin, or by the
+ingestion of thyroid juice or the raw thyroid by mouth.
+
+A crystallization of ideas about the true function of the thyroid was
+now inevitable. In 1884, Sir Victor Horsley produced an experimental
+myxedema by removal of the thyroid in monkeys, resembling closely in
+its symptom-picture the disease as it occurs in human beings. Möbius,
+a German neurologist, came out boldly for the conception that a number
+of ailments could be due to qualitative and quantitative changes in
+the secretion of the thyroid, and that just as myxedema and cretinism
+were due to an insufficiency of the secretion, Parry's disease was
+to be ascribed to an excessive outpouring of it. The next steps
+were easy. In 1888, Sir Felix Semon, as an outcome of a collective
+investigation, established for all time that cretinism, myxedema and
+post-operative myxedema were one and the same.
+
+It was bound to occur to someone that if human myxedema and animal
+experimental myxedema were one and the same, Schiff's procedure of
+prevention and cure by feeding thyroid gland by mouth in the latter
+could be applied to the former. The idea occurred to two men, Murray
+and Howitz, in 1891. Murray's patient, a Mrs. H., was shown before the
+Northcumberland and Durham Medical Society, an English country medical
+organization, in February, 1891. She was forty-two years old and had
+borne nine children. The illness attacking her had begun insidiously,
+with a gradual enlargement and thickening of her face and hands.
+She had become very slow in speech and gait, sensitive to cold, and
+languid and depressed in spirit to the point of inability to go about
+alone. Murray, employing the glycerin extract of the thyroid gland of
+a freshly killed sheep, injected twenty-four drops hypodermically,
+twice a week. There was an immediate and marvelous improvement, which
+continued steadily, Murray finding that it could be maintained by
+feeding the gland by mouth. The features and skin returned to the
+normal, speech quickened and she became able to walk about and live
+her life without hesitation or assistance. She lived to the age of
+seventy-four, dying in 1919. In the twenty-eight years, during which
+it was always necessary to administer the thyroid, she consumed over
+nine pints of thyroid, comprising the glands of 870 sheep.
+
+Giants and dwarfs and fat people have always interested people as
+freaks, departures from the usual and the normal, and have formed the
+stock of popular museum, circus and country fair. Every mythology has
+concerned itself with them. The Titans among the Greeks, Og, Gog
+and Magog among the Hebrews, are examples of the fascination of the
+superlarge. John Hunter, the founder of experimental surgery, spent a
+fortune in chasing after the skeleton of a famous Irish Giant in 1783.
+Dwarfs have also fascinated--witness the short-limbed satyrs of the
+Greeks and the dwarf gods (Ptah and Bes) of Egypt, as well as the
+vogue of the court dwarf-buffoons, of whom Velasquez has left us some
+portraits. Fat people, obesity as a manifestation of personality, have
+aroused wonder and amusement the world over. The Fat Boy has always
+furnished good sport to the Sam Wellers.
+
+All these characters, tall or short, fat or lean, are related to the
+activity of a gland of internal secretion in the head, the pituitary,
+which became a centre of interest in the late eighties. Because of its
+situation, the opinion of the ancients was that it was the source of
+the mucus of the nose, an opinion reinforced by the greatest anatomist
+of the Dark Ages, Galen, and held up to the seventeenth century. In
+other words, it was considered simply a gland of external secretion.
+Experimental removal of the pituitary was essayed by Horsley in 1886,
+the same man who two years before had reproduced myxedema successfully
+in monkeys. Others succeeded his attempt. But the conclusions drawn
+were uncertain or contradictory, resulting from the difficulties of
+the operative technique of getting at a gland placed at the base
+of the brain. Not until 1908 was the problem solved by Paulesco of
+Bucharest, who devised a way of reaching it by trepanning the skull.
+He was thus able to prove beyond a doubt that the pituitary gland was
+essential to life, and that without it no animal could continue to
+live for any length of time. Soon after, Harvey Gushing and his
+associates at Johns Hopkins Hospital discovered that removal of part
+of the gland was followed by a pronounced obesity and sluggishness.
+A basis for the understanding of obesity and growth was then
+established.
+
+In the eighties, there came to the clinic of Pierre Marie in Paris,
+a pupil of the great Charcot, various women complaining of headache.
+They also told him about an enlargement of their hands and feet, and
+an alarming change in the bones of the face. He differentiated the
+affection from its imitators, and created its present designation of
+"acromegaly" (enlargement of the extremities). Also he correlated
+their relationship to the giants who have been mentioned. Acromegalics
+have been also likened to the Neanderthal Man, who had probably, as
+the gorillas may have, an excess of the pituitary in their systems.
+For four years he studied the morbid phenomena in the tissues of these
+sufferers at last consigned to their end. First one, and then another,
+and then a third and a fourth exhibited a striking hypertrophy of the
+pituitary body and a consequent widening of the portion of the base
+of the skull which cradles the gland. He proceeded to say so in
+the graduating thesis of his pupil, Souza Leite. The inference
+was inevitable that the entire process was to be put down to an
+overactivity of the pituitary. Ever since, too, the growth of the
+skeleton has been accepted as controlled by that gland.
+
+About this time another set of old observations came to life again,
+related to those of Docent Berthold on the auto-grafting of the testes
+of a cock, with complete retention of its sexual characters, which he
+said, must be due "to the productive action of the testes, i.e., to
+its effect upon the blood, and thence to the corresponding effect of
+such blood upon the entire organism." Of course, stock raisers and
+poultry fanciers have noted the interesting outcome of castration for
+about as long as their professions have existed. And for ages the
+diminution of sexual activity as a predecessor to the decadence of
+senility has been harped upon. Rejuvenation, especially in connection
+with sexual activity, as well as with tissue and spiritual elasticity,
+has been one of the haunting phantoms of the imagination for as long
+as we have records of articulate humanity. Together with El Dorado,
+the Elixir of Youth has shared the honors with the Philosopher's
+Stone. The idea of employing the chemical materials of the sex glands,
+the testes or the ovaries, to bring back youth, to restore juvenility,
+had not, as far as we know, occurred to anyone who at any rate put
+himself on record, by word or deed, until 1889. The hero of the new
+departure was the hero of so many daring adventures among speculative
+experiments, Brown-Séquard.
+
+At this time the wanderer was an aged sage, seventy-two years old,
+fit, as custom goes, only for retirement and resignation to the fate
+of all flesh. The old passion of experimenting upon himself as well as
+upon the guinea-pigs, dogs, cats and monkeys, by which he was always
+surrounded, was as alive and kicking as ever. I suppose he had been
+thinking for years concerning some method for the resumption of youth,
+for we find him exclaiming, when the opportunity loomed of a great
+laboratory on Agassiz Island, Long Island, on one of his recurrent
+flights to New York: "Would that I were thirty!" And other passages in
+his personal communications refer again and again to his consciousness
+of growing old. The miracles that were being performed by injecting
+thyroid and feeding thyroid in animals probably acted as the spark to
+an inflammable mass of ideas long smouldering in the subcellars of his
+mind. The effects were reported to the Society of Biology in Paris,
+one memorable evening, June 1, 1889, in two notes on the results of
+the hypodermic injection in man of the testis juice of monkeys and
+dogs, and certain generalizations deduced therefrom. Such juices, he
+stated, had a definite energy-mobilizing or, as he put it, dynamogenic
+action upon the subject himself, stimulating amazingly his general
+health, muscular power and mental activity.
+
+These experiments, their nature, the manner in which they were
+conducted, the character and age of the experimenter, and the results
+claimed, were exquisitely good stuff for ridicule. Cartoonists and
+reporters leaped upon the theme with the avidity of the true-blue
+interviewer. Paris, where to be ridiculed is to be killed in public
+with the most ignominious of deaths, reacted as only the French
+temperament can react. The wits of the salons crackled, the
+bourgeoisie chortled, the proletariat roared. The Elixir of Life had
+been discovered and it was excellent sport.
+
+But Brown-Séquard remained unshaken. He had all the roués of Paris
+running to him, and consequent charges of quackery and charlatanism.
+How much of these unsavory epithets really applied to him will not be
+determined until we have a better acquaintance with his more intimate
+life. A biography and collection of his letters is needed. But it is
+certain that the general principles he arrived at, aided as much by
+the wings of intuition as by the clues of incomplete and incompletely
+controlled experiments, survive as the foundations of whatever we know
+about the internal secretions, and all our present viewpoints. He
+summed these up in 1891 as follows:
+
+"All the tissues, in our view, are modifiers of the blood by means of
+an internal secretion taken from them by the venous blood. From this
+we are forced to the conclusion that, if subcutaneous injections of
+the liquids drawn from these parts are ineffectual, then we should
+inject some of the venous blood supplying these parts.... We admit
+that each tissue, and, more generally, each cell of the organism,
+secretes on its own account, certain products or special ferments,
+which, through this medium (the blood), influence all other cells of
+the body, a definite solidarity being thus established among all the
+cells through a mechanism other than the nervous system.... All
+the tissues (glands and other organs) have thus a special internal
+secretion, and so give to the blood something more than the waste
+products of metabolism. The internal secretions, whether by direct
+favorable influence, or whether through the obstacles they oppose to
+deleterious processes, seem to be of great utility in maintaining the
+organism in its normal state."
+
+The only part of this statement not conceded today is that relating to
+the formation of internal secretions by tissues other than those of
+which the cells are definitely glandular, that is secretory: as can be
+determined under the microscope. Brown-Séquard added to the concept
+of internal secretions, fathered by Claude Bernard, the idea of a
+correlation, a mutual influencing of them and of the different organs
+of the body through them. The nervous system had hitherto been
+regarded as the sole means of communication between cells, by its
+telegraphic arrangements of nerve filaments reaching out everywhere,
+interweaving with each other and the cells. The Brown-Séquard
+conception inferred the existence of a postal system between cells,
+the blood supplying the highway for travel and transmission of the
+post, the post consisting of the chemical substances secreted by
+the glands. To be sure, the doctrine was only an inference, though
+well-founded, of which the direct experimental proof was not to
+be obtained until the researches of Bayliss and Starling. Yet to
+Brown-Séquard belongs the immortal credit, if not of the originator,
+at any rate of the resurrector of the idea of using gland extracts to
+influence the body. The unwarranted hopes aroused by his enthusiastic
+reports of rejuvenating miracles have long since been dissipated.
+Moreover, they smeared the whole subject with a disrepute which clings
+to certain narrow and unreasonable minds to this day. But as every
+physiologist since has acknowledged, he was and remains the great
+path-breaker in the conquest of the internal secretions.
+
+THE HORMONES
+
+The problem of the internal secretions was now attacked from another
+angle. A great Russian physiologist, Pawlow, called attention to the
+fact that the introduction of a dilute mineral acid, such as the
+hydrochloric acid, normally a constituent of the stomach digestive
+fluid, into the upper part of the intestine, provoked a secretion
+of the pancreas, which is so important for intestinal digestion. He
+explained the phenomenon as a reflex, a matter of the nerves going
+from the intestine to the pancreas.
+
+His pupil, Popielski, threw doubt upon so easy an explanation, by
+proving that the same reaction could be elicited even after all the
+nerve connections between the gut and the spinal cord were severed. If
+the relation was a reflex, it would have to be classed now as one of
+those local nerve circuits, which are pretty common among the viscera,
+a local call and reply as it were, without mediation of the great long
+distance trunk lines in the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata.
+
+The work of Bayliss and Starling, two English physiologists, was
+commenced then to test the hypothesis. They soon found that the
+experiment could be so devised as to exclude any influence whatever on
+the part of the nervous tissues, and yet result positively. Thus, if a
+loop of intestine was so prepared as to be attached to the rest of the
+body only by means of its blood vessels, all the nerves being cut,
+putting some acid into it was still followed by a flow of pancreatic
+juice, no less marked than when none of the parts about the piece
+of gut had been disturbed. It was evident that the stimulus to the
+pancreas was carried by way of the blood stream. That the stimulating
+substance was not the acid itself, was shown by the failure of the
+reaction to occur when the acid was injected directly into the blood
+stream. Since there was this difference in the effects between acid in
+the intestine and acid in the blood, it was manifest that the active
+substance must be some material elaborated in the intestinal mucous
+membrane under the influence of the acid. So they scraped some of the
+lining of the bowel, rubbed it up with acid, and injected the filtered
+mixture into the blood. They were rewarded by a flow of pancreatic
+juice greater in amount than any obtained in their other experiments.
+From the filtered mixture they isolated in an impure form, a solid
+substance which, when introduced into the circulation, has a similar
+action. To this, of which the exact chemical make-up is as yet an
+unknown, they gave the name secretin.
+
+Secretin and its properties they used to generalize as a perfectly
+direct and amply demonstrable example of an internal secretion.
+Metaphors are no less valuable in physiology than in poetry. They
+declared that the internal secretions appeared to them to be chemical
+messengers, telegraph boys sent from one organ to another through the
+public highways, the blood (really more like a moving platform). So
+they christened them all hormones, deriving the word from the Greek
+verb meaning to rouse or set in motion. As a science is a well-made
+language, a new word is an event. It sums up details, economizes
+brain-work and so is cherished by the intellect. The study of the
+internal secretions has advanced by leaps and bounds since it became
+convenient to speak of them as hormones. Withal, the brilliant work of
+Bayliss and Starling stands as the third great foundation stone,
+the first Claude Bernard's and the second Brown-Séquard's, in the
+architecture of the modern concepts of the internal secretions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE GLANDS: THYROID AND PITUITARY
+
+
+The glands of internal secretion, the history of which, as tools of
+thought, I reviewed in the previous chapter, have each an interesting
+evolutionary story. Without some acquaintance with that story, the
+rough outline of their physical architecture, and the particular work
+they are called upon to perform in the body, no adequate understanding
+of their influence upon types of human nature and personality is
+possible.
+
+THE THYROID GLAND
+
+This gland consists of two maroon colored masses astride the neck,
+above the windpipe, close to the larynx. These are bridged by a narrow
+isthmus of the same tissue. They remind one of the flaps of a purse
+opened up. The gland has always attracted much attention because its
+enlargement constitutes the prominent deformity known as goitre.
+
+To begin with, the thyroid was once a sex gland, pure and simple. In
+the lowest vertebrates and in the homologous tissues of the higher
+invertebrates, the fractions of the thyroid are intimately connected
+with the ducts of the sexual organs. They are indeed accessory sexual
+organs, uterine glands, satellites of the sex process. From Petromyzon
+upward that relationship is lost, the thyroid migrates more and more
+to the head region, to become the great link between sex and brain.
+How alive that function still is, is grossly shown by the swelling of
+the gland with sexual excitement, menstruation and pregnancy.
+
+Relative to the body weight it is largest in the mammalia, and
+smallest in the fishes. It therefore grows larger as the vertebrate
+ascends in the scale. It has, in fact, developed in direct proportion
+to and side by side with the fundamental, differentiating vertebrate
+characteristics. Of these, the possession of a dry hairy skin instead
+of a moist or mucus bearing, chitinous skin, the ownership of
+an internal bony skeleton and a large skull, and a complicated
+development of brain, are the diagnostic signs. Thyroid internal
+secretion has a very definite controlling relation to all of them: to
+skin, its hairiness, moisture and amount of mucus, to the growth and
+size of the bones, especially the bones of the extremities and the
+skull, and to intelligence and the complexity of the convolutions of
+the brain. Injury to the thyroid, especially in growing animals, is
+followed by profound retrogression or arrest of development in skin,
+skeleton and brain.
+
+In the fishes and the cyclostomes the thyroid is represented only by
+some small scrubby patches, little larger than the heads of pins,
+scattered along the aorta, the great blood vessels from the heart, and
+out a little way along each gill. It becomes larger and more compact
+among the amphibians and reptiles, but still remains quite small.
+Large and prominent among the birds and mammalia, it is largest and
+most prominent among the primates and man. It is hence permissible to
+think of the thyroid as a dictator of evolution, to crown it as the
+vertebrate gland par excellence, and to call the typical vertebrate
+brand marks secondary _thyroid_ characteristics in precisely the
+sense of Darwin classing the horns of cattle as secondary _sexual_
+characteristics.
+
+In such enthusiasm for the thyroid as a determinant of evolution, its
+pillar of cloud by day and column of fire by night, one should not
+forget the other glands of internal secretion. In them all, we may
+suppose, Life, tired of inventing merely prehensile, destructive and
+reproductive organs, hit upon the happy thought of contrivances which
+are in essence chemical factories to speed up the rate of variation
+and so of a higher evolution.
+
+CREATOR OF THE LAND ANIMAL
+
+According to this conception the thyroid played a fundamental part in
+the change of sea creatures into land animals. Experimentally, thyroid
+has been used to transform one into the other. Thus the occasional
+change of a Mexican axolotl, a purely aquatic newt, breathing through
+gills, into the amblystoma, a terrestrial salamander, with spotted
+skin, breathing by means of lungs, has long been known. Feeding the
+axolotl on thyroid gland produces the metamorphosis very quickly, even
+if the axolotl is kept in water. In the reptile house at the London
+Zoological Gardens full-grown examples of the common black axolotl and
+the pretty white variety are exhibited. Some are nearly three inches
+long. Alongside are shown several examples of the amblystoma stage,
+produced in one of the laboratories of Oxford University and at
+the gardens by thyroid feeding. A variation of the thyroid in the
+direction of increased secretion was probably responsible for the
+first land animals.
+
+THYROXIN, SECRETION OF THE THYROID
+
+Under the microscope, as in the test tube, the thyroid shows
+remarkable and unique features. Closed spherules lined by a single
+layer of cells enclosing a gelatinous material known as colloid, which
+stains deeply with acid dyes, comprise the units of its architecture.
+Essentially, it may be pictured as a series of jelly bubbles secreted
+by outlying cells.
+
+A relatively high percentage of iodine is the unique distinctive fact
+in its chemistry. Discovered by Baumann in 1895, the presence of the
+element has focused the intelligence of chemists upon the gland,
+with the consequent demonstration of arsenic also in it. It was soon
+manifest that the secretion of the gland was dependent upon the
+iodine content for its activity. Active extracts of the thyroid like
+thyreoglobulin and iodothyrin were proven to contain iodine, and to
+become inactive when the iodine was removed. Efforts to isolate the
+iodine containing active principle in pure form were fruitless until
+the work of Kendall at the Mayo Foundation. He obtained it as a white,
+finely crystalline, odorless and tasteless substance, heat stable,
+and analyzable. The free form separates as a sheaf of fine needles.
+Kendall at first called it the a-iodine compound, then named it
+thyroxin.
+
+There are other internal secretions of the thyroid, with a function of
+their own, that have no iodine. But they are secondary, and obscure.
+Thyroxin is accepted today as the purified internal secretion of the
+thyroid because all the effects of the whole gland may be elicited
+with it. Thyroxin produces results with doses amazingly minute
+compared with the quantity of whole gland necessary. Moreover, a dose
+of thyroxin appears to last an organism in need of it over a period of
+time; the other has to be administered continuously.
+
+Studies with thyroxin carried on in recent years have rounded out the
+whole concept of the business of the thyroid in the body economy.
+One may sum it up by saying that the thyroid secretion is the _great
+controller of the speed of living_. The more thyroid one has, the
+faster one lives; the less one has, the more slowly one lives.
+
+That is not to imply any direct proportion between the amount of
+thyroid secretion in an individual, and the length of life to which he
+is destined. The speed of living, in the chemical sense (which is the
+fundamental sense), and the rate at which the chemical reactions go on
+that constitute the process of life, are dependent upon the thyroid.
+When the reactions go faster, more oxygen and food material are burned
+up or oxidized, more energy is liberated, the metabolic wheel rotates
+more quickly, the individual senses, feels, thinks and acts more
+quickly.
+
+Likening one energy machine to another, the thyroid may be compared
+to the accelerator of an automobile. That is a rough and superficial
+comparison because an accelerator lets in more of the fuel to be
+burned up, while the thyroid makes the fuel more combustible. It thus
+resembles more the primer, for a rich mixture of gasoline and air
+burns at a greater velocity than a poor one. But the action of thyroid
+could really be simulated only by some substance that could be
+introduced into the best possible of gasoline mixtures, to increase
+its combustibility by a hundred per cent or more. For that is what
+thyroid will do to our food. Nor has it only this destructive or
+combustion side. Withal there is at the same time a constructive
+action, for the process frees energy to be used for heat, motion or
+other need. The thyroid, therefore, in addition to its rôle as an
+accelerator, acts, too, as the efficient lubricator for energy
+transformations. So we see it as accelerator, lubricator and
+transformer of our energies.
+
+THE GLAND OF ENERGY PRODUCTION
+
+The isolation of thyroxin has made possible the determination of the
+influence of the thyroid hormone upon the evolution of energy in any
+higher animal organism. There is, for every individual, a constant,
+known as the metabolic rate, or the combustion rate, a reading of the
+rate at which his cells are consuming material for heat. The metabolic
+rate is thus a gauge of the energy pressure within the organism.
+It may be calculated by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide gas
+exhaled during a unit of time, and the number of calories of heat
+radiated by the skin simultaneously. A simplified device has lately
+rendered it practicable to make actual determinations by a few
+five-minute readings of the rate of oxygen absorption by the lungs.
+Plummer, also connected with the Mayo Foundation, has shown that what
+would amount to less than a grain of the thyroxin would more than
+double the amount of energy produced in a unit of time. To be exact,
+one milligram of thyroxin increases the metabolic rate two per cent.
+That illustrates some of the power of the internal secretion of the
+thyroid and its importance to normal life.
+
+THE MOBILIZATION OF ENERGY
+
+But not only is the height of pressure of energy in the cells
+controlled by the thyroid. The mobility of that energy is also
+controlled. Without it, rapid and large fluctuations of energy output,
+and elasticity and flexibility of energy mobilization for any sudden
+mental or muscular act, let alone an emergency, become impossible. A
+woman suffering with myxedema, the condition described by the English
+physician Gull as a cretinoid state supervening in the adult life
+of woman, has an insufficient amount of thyroxin in her blood and
+tissues. She is clumsy and awkward and will stumble when endeavoring
+to walk upstairs. Any effort is almost paralyzed because the range
+of fluctuation of energy, the ability to mobilize energy, in turn
+dependent upon an ability to increase the metabolic rate, is limited.
+In slang phrase, she cannot step on it. Her existence is set to go at
+a rate in the neighborhood of forty per cent below the normal. By the
+administration of thyroxin, her metabolic rate can be raised to any
+desired figure, the spark can be adjusted, so to speak, to any point
+we like, and it can be so maintained for years.
+
+In the normal animal, to be sure, the internal secretion of the
+thyroid is not absolutely essential to life. So it contrasts with the
+hormone of the minute parathyroids placed so closely to it, a minimum
+dose of which is absolutely a prerequisite for continued life. The
+fundamental chemical reactions within the cells occur in the complete
+absense of thyroxin. But they go on in a relatively fixed, rigid and
+unvarying way, confined within the narrow limits of a constant figure.
+Under such conditions, the level of energy production is bound to be
+low, and to remain low, and the modus of its mobilization slow and
+unwieldy. With thyroid is introduced the trick of _catalysis_, or the
+speeding up of the vital chemical reactions, through the agency of an
+_intermediate_ which accelerates the process. It is par excellence the
+great catalyst of energy in the body. (A catalyst is an intermediary
+like the trace of water, which will bring about an explosion between
+dry oxygen and hydrogen that without it have stayed inert with the
+strongest currents of electricity.) Thus it supplies a mechanism not
+only for quantity output of that subtle reality we label energy, but
+also an apparatus for varying the available amount of it, and for
+permitting the maximum range in ease and rapidity of its utilization.
+The thyroid is still another device of life for procuring more and
+more variation and differentiation, its goal, as far as we can peer
+through the opalescent screen upon which its manifestations quiver.
+
+From another point of view, the thyroid may be looked upon as the
+organ evolved for maintaining the same amount of iodine in the blood
+as there is in sea water. Sea water was our original habitat, since,
+like Venus, we have all come up out of the sea.
+
+The more intimate study of the composition of the blood has revealed
+the most astonishing parallelism between it and the compounds of sea
+water. The blood is sea water, to which has been added hemoglobin as
+a pigment for carrying oxygen to the cells not in direct contact with
+the atmosphere, nutrients to take the place of the prey our marine
+ancestors gobbled up frankly and directly, and white cells to act as
+the first line of defense. To keep the concentration of iodine in the
+blood a constant, the thyroid evolved, since there is no iodine in
+most foods and very little in those which do contain it.
+
+That a minimum amount of iodine in the food is necessary to health is
+shown by the existence of goitre regions. Around some of the Great
+Lakes in the United States, for instance, the water does not contain
+enough iodine. As a result, numerous cases of goitre occur. Iodine in
+the form of sodium iodide in small doses will act as a prophylactic.
+The amount of iodine in the blood is about one or two parts to ten
+millions, and that of the liver is about three or four parts to ten
+millions. Since the liver is the most complex and active chemical
+factory in the body, its appropriation of a greater amount of iodine
+for itself is understandable.
+
+When thyroxin is administered in a single dose, there is a distinct
+lag in the absorption of it by the tissues. A single dose does not
+generate its maximum effect until the tenth day. This effect continues
+for about ten days. Then there is a gradual decrease in the intensity
+of reaction for another ten days. So that the length of time a single
+administration of thyroxin functions within the body is about three
+weeks. Again we have occasion to notice a protective device of the
+cells. Since the presence of thyroxin in the tissues determines the
+rate at which they burn themselves up, it is obvious that if there
+were no mechanism for retarding its action, and at need varying it,
+they really would set fire to themselves. That is to say, if the
+tissues held a maximum of the thyroid internal secretion, and had to
+take up more and more as it was fed out to them by the thyroid through
+the blood, the pressure of energy production would attain the state of
+a boiler without a safety valve. Even if self-destruction were avoided
+by the ingestion of the largest quantities of energy-bearing foods,
+rest for the cells would be difficult, if not impossible.
+
+The thyroxin in the tissues diminishes after a period of great
+exertion, the thyroxin probably being carried back to the thyroid
+gland and kept there as reserve until further demand. So it has been
+discovered that during the winter months, the thyroid glands of beef,
+sheep and hogs all contain much less iodine than during the summer
+months. During the winter months, manifestly, more energy is required
+to maintain body temperature, hence the gland surrenders more of its
+secretion to the tissues and so keeps less of it itself. There must
+be, too, a certain wearing out of the potency of the iodine with time.
+Even dead inorganic catalysts, made of simple elements, wear out after
+having been used time and time again.
+
+Though the thyroid is the supreme energizer, life is incompatible with
+a certain excess of it. Death can be produced by successive daily
+injections of its internal secretion. But it has, besides the
+energizing effect, certain formative and nervous influences equally
+marvelous. As illustrations, there are the cases of thyroid
+deprivation in human beings, cretinism and myxedema, as well as
+those in which it is believed there occurs an excess of the
+thyroid secretion in the blood and tissues, the condition of
+_hyper_thyroidism.
+
+CRETINISM AS THYROID DEFICIENCY
+
+Not that there is any arresting contrast of startling difference
+between the phenomena presented by different species. The younger the
+animal, the grosser the morbid symptoms witnessed. The animal fails to
+grow. The bones and cartilage, except of the skull, fail to develop.
+The abdomen projects and becomes large and flabby. The sex organs
+atrophy. There is sterility. Pregnant rabbits abort, hens produce
+very small eggs or none at all. These are the results of removing the
+thyroid in animals.
+
+Apathetic, indifferent, dirty, awkward, apparently idiotic, describe
+the human cretins. Their skin is rough and coarse, peeling in sheets.
+In some it is considerably knarled and creased as in the aged, and in
+others swollen, hard and resistant. The hair becomes shaggy and rough,
+losing all luster, and tends to grow irregularly and fall out. The
+temperature becomes subnormal and an anemia supervenes. There is a
+distinct reduction in the resistance to infections and intoxications.
+
+Cretinism in the human is a condition in which the burning taper we
+call Life flickers and smoulders and smokes. Thirty years ago it
+was an example of the most hopeless idiocy. Whole populations were
+afflicted with it. But neither man of science, nor bigot-fanatic,
+assured by the Divine Confidence of its meaning as a visitation,
+believed it could be modified an iota. Today, that inept word "cure"
+may be applied to our power of attack upon it, provided it is
+permitted to attack early enough. Modification, in the direction of
+the most surprising betterment, is the miracle that has been wrought.
+
+The history of a cretin runs somewhat as follows: A baby is born,
+which in all appearances seems normal. Perhaps the nose is a trifle
+squatter than even the average new-born's flat nose. There may also be
+abnormal sleepiness, greater even than that of the normal baby in the
+first month or two in that there is no spontaneous awakening from
+the coma for food. But in most cases this is put down to normal
+variability, or maybe to that limbo of all a baby's troubles:
+weakness. After some months, it is noticed that the infant is failing
+to grow at the normal rate, either physically or mentally. Examination
+at this time reveals a curious thickening of the dental ridges. Then
+the tongue takes the centre of the scene, by becoming unusually thick
+and prominent, to the point of projecting beyond the mouth at all
+times, and interfering with breathing, when the infant is in a
+recumbent position.
+
+More and more of the characteristics of the affection turn up. The
+queer, repulsive, pitiful face of the cretins, which makes them all
+seem brothers or twins, shapes itself. A yellowish, white or waxy
+pallor; rough, dry, scaly, bloated skin; swollen, often wrinkled brow;
+watery eyes, often almost concealed by the thickened eyelids; the
+depressed pug nose with its wide, thick nostrils; large, erect ears;
+the wobbly, drooling tongue, sticking out at one, yet not in derision;
+the hair thin, and like tow in texture rather than human; eyebrows
+and eyelashes are scant, and often absent; the nails short, thin and
+brittle; the teeth, very late in coming, may be represented by a few
+sharp points, irregular, decaying quickly, sometimes not succeeded at
+all by those of the second dentition.
+
+Whatever growth occurs is irregular and disproportionate. The trunk,
+though small compared with the head, appears massive against the
+background of the diminutive extremities. The back is somewhat humped,
+arching at the waist-line, while the abdomen protrudes like a balloon,
+with a hernia, often, at the navel. The extremities are short, bowed,
+cold, and livid, covered with rolls of the infiltrated skin, rolls
+which cannot be smoothed out. Hands and feet are broad, pudgy, and
+floppy, the fingers stiff, square and spade-like, the toes spread
+apart, like a duck's, by the solid skin. Above the collar bones there
+are frequently great pads of fat which sometimes encircle the narrow
+bull neck.
+
+The mental state varies with the degree of deprivation of the internal
+secretion of the thyroid. In the worst cases it is repulsively
+vegetable. Even the intelligence common to the higher animals is
+wanting. The cretins of the "human plant" kind, as they have been
+nicknamed, will not recognize mother or father or any person about
+them, or even a person from an object, and manifest no interest in
+anything or anybody, not even toys. Hunger and thirst they manifest by
+grunts and inarticulate sounds, or by screaming. They neither smile,
+cough, nor laugh, but sit like sphinxes, breathing, but not reacting.
+
+There are, of course, all grades and varieties. There are those who
+recognize parents and familiar faces, and exhibit some evidence of
+affection for them, acquire a limited vocabulary, and then cease, no
+progress possible even with the alphabet. They attain the size and age
+of two or three years and there stop altogether, as if a permanent
+brake were applied to the wheels of their growth. Some higher types
+may even come to speak connected sentences, and exhibit a certain
+mild spontaneity, though stupid and slow and abnormally deliberate,
+resembling the acquired form of thyroid deprivation or insufficiency,
+for which Ord invented the name myxedema.
+
+I have filled in with some detail this thumbnail sketch of thyroid
+deprivation as it occurs in infancy to illustrate how wide a sweep the
+gland's lariat embraces. Skin, hair, bones, muscle and fat, brain and
+intelligence, growth and development, are modified precisely as the
+size and shape of certain crystals are modified by the presence or
+absence of ingredients in an apparently homogeneous solution. A
+fertilized ovum, in which the predecessor of the thyroid gland is
+present, that is to say, in which there is the seed and soil for its
+sprouting, looks the same as one without that formative material. Yet,
+when the time comes for the internal secretion of the thyroid to put
+in its oar in the metabolic game, its presence or absence makes all
+the difference in the world to the individual.
+
+In the middle of the nineteenth century, when the concentration of
+phosphorus in the brain was established as significant, the cry for
+the emphasis of that fact was--without phosphorus no thought is
+possible. We can much more relevantly declare that without thyroid,
+no thought, no growth, no distinctive humanity or even animality is
+possible. For the epigram about phosphorus was bombast, since it can
+be declaimed with equal truth that without oxygen, without carbon,
+without nitrogen, without any of the food elements that go to make
+up the chemical composition of brain matter, no thought is possible.
+Indeed, if one were set upon the indictment of a single chemical
+element as the begetter of consciousness, the prisoner at the bar
+would have to be copper. There is more copper in the brain by a
+considerable degree than in any other organ of the body. Which perhaps
+will be exceedingly regretted by the patrons of the aristocracy of the
+soul who would have it as an emanation of a deposit in the brain of
+silver at least, if not gold. They are like the old lady who would
+never permit herself to be cured of her ailments except by gold plated
+pills. Copper, however, is not necessary to intelligence. Without
+thyroid there can be no complexity of thought, no learning, no
+education, no habit-formation, no responsive energy for situations,
+as well as no physical unfolding of faculty and function, and no
+reproduction of kind, with no sign of adolescence at the expected age,
+and no exhibition of sex tendencies thereafter.
+
+EFFECTS OF FEEDING THYROID
+
+How subtly the internal secretion affects every phase and aspect of
+child as well as adult, by doing something to the speed of activities
+in their cells, is told straightway by the effects of it when eaten
+or introduced into the skin or blood of various people. A cretin,
+idiotic, dwarfish, deformed, hopeless, an incessantly prodding burden
+of sorrow to the mother, who looks upon the masterpiece she had
+labored to bring forth, and beholds a terrible gargoyle, becomes
+transformed when fed thyroid.
+
+In a few days the cretin will get warmer, and require much less
+wrapping and bed-clothing. With the improvement in circulation, the
+color becomes better and the extremities lose their coldness. In a
+week or so, irritability and resentment at disturbance appear. He will
+begin to recognize and know his parents, smile and play. There is
+a gradual return to the normal of the facial appearance, and a
+resumption of growth. All kinds of marvelous growth effects occur.
+Twenty teeth may be cut in six months. Coarse, rough dry, shaggy hair
+becomes fine, silken, long and curly. The skin becomes soft, moist and
+roseate. Inches in height may be added every month. Bright, active,
+even talkative, are the descriptive terms an observer would apply
+after a few months. A complete remaking of body and soul is apparently
+affected.
+
+Yet, should the administration of the thyroid cease, an almost
+immediate reversion to the original vegetative condition is
+inevitable. After a few days, reactiveness slows down, the child will
+speak only when spoken to, will sit quietly in a chair all day and
+act semi-anesthetized. Gradually hair and skin return to the previous
+cold-blooded animal state, and the whole picture of the cretin is in
+full bloom. Supplying the internal secretion of the gland promptly
+repeats the transformation.
+
+One wonders what is to be the ultimate fate of these reformed cretins.
+Since the tale of the opening of life to them, once considered
+hopeless idiots, is scarce a generation old, we have no data, as
+yet, as to the character of their children or grandchildren, their
+adventures and vicissitudes, in short, their life history. Those of
+whom we have any record are normal and healthy school children or
+workers, alive to the interests of childhood or their occupation
+and social circles. No one outside their family knows that they are
+cretins, and the most acute observer would be hard put to it to
+suspect. What a theme for the reflections upon appearances the eminent
+Victorians loved!
+
+There are possibilities the imagination may envisage. One may suppose
+such a cretin, with all his other ductless glands intact, grown
+successfully to manhood under careful medical guidance. No one but
+himself is aware of his affliction, outside of his medical advisers.
+Luck aids him to rise in the world, or perhaps he has been born with
+a spoon of the precious metals in his mouth. Adolescence, love and
+marriage dance their sequence. Our hero of course keeps his dread
+secret to himself. Whether such an omission of confidence would
+entitle his wife to a divorce is something courts will be called upon
+to decide sooner or later. But, without anticipating, the honeymoon
+involves a trip to the South Seas. A storm and a wreck throws them
+alone on an island, tropical, easy to live on, and rescue in the
+course of a few months certain. The man, to his horror, discovers that
+he has saved of his medicaments only a pill box containing half a
+dozen of thyroid tablets, his requirement being one a day. He sees
+them go day by day. Finally they are all gone. He feels his faculties
+slipping hour by hour. Shall he tell her? Indecision grips him, and he
+delays until the day when his consciousness sinks to the point where
+his mind no longer grasps his problem. The wife must endure the
+spectacle of the enchantment of her husband, and his change from
+gallant lover to dull animal ogre. A new version of Beauty and the
+Beast!
+
+Cretinism as one manifestation of a soul without thyroid or without
+enough thyroid is not all. The first great successes with thyroid were
+achieved in adults, particularly adult women, exhibiting a peculiar
+obesity, coldness, loss of hair and teeth and a remarkable lassitude
+and torpor that might be summed up as a chronic drowsiness, like a
+saturation of the blood with some narcotic drug. Or there may be a
+melancholia, or a lack of ability to seize the finer points of a
+mental process, or an argument treated in the abstract. Children
+are said to be lazy, slow or dull. They experience an irritating
+difficulty in understanding questions and expressing their wants and
+desires, and so are declared to be vicious, or stupid.
+
+All these are grades of the degeneration which Ord, the Englishman,
+named myxedema. At its worst it is a sort of bloating and drying of
+the body and the mind. Then there is infantilism, which is helped by
+the giving of thyroid extract. It differs from the ordinary cretinism
+in that, while one is reminded of the latter by the physical stunting
+and the other stigmata, there is a certain amount of intelligence
+which enables the individual to hold his own while he is a child. He
+becomes a grown-up baby: at twenty prefers the company of children of
+ten, and passes under the evil influence of designing so-called normal
+persons. So dominated he will lie, steal, start fires, commit almost
+any crime, with no inherent flair for criminality, but because of a
+lack of independent judgment and inability to resist suggestion, and
+a desire to please friends. He is simply an overgrown child who still
+loves to play with toys, laughs and cries, becomes angry or afraid,
+unreasonably and ridiculously, and yells for mamma when thwarted or
+scared.
+
+So much for what happens when there is not sufficient of the thyroid
+secretion in the blood and tissues. Now to consider the effects of
+an excess of it, the condition called hyperthyroidism, as the
+insufficiency of it is labelled subthyroidism. Too much thyroxin can
+be introduced into the system of a normal individual, or even a cretin
+by the simple administration of too large doses or over too long
+a time. Also a train of symptoms similar to those evoked by an
+oversecretion of the thyroid may be mobilized by the taking of too
+much iodine. Great sorrow, great joy, a sudden severe jolt to the
+nervous equilibrium, sexual excitement, an overwhelming anger or grief
+may leave in their wake a permanent hyperthyroidism. The symptoms are
+the reverse of cretinism and myxedema. There is an over-excitability
+of the nerves in place of sluggishness, and an over-reactivity of the
+whole organism to its environment. The heart's action is too fast, and
+under the slightest stimulus gets faster to the point of obtruding
+itself into the conscious mind as a palpitation. Instead of the
+lowered temperature and coldness of the cretin, there is a heightened
+temperature, one or two degrees above the normal, and a feeling of
+heat. The individual has a high warm color, does not sleep well,
+becomes or remains thin no matter how much he or she eats, is
+abnormally susceptible sexually, may suffer from a definite insomnia,
+is emotional, and perspires freely. Alert, neurotic or high-strung,
+magnetic, and imaginative are some of the descriptive adjectives
+applicable. The eyes are bright and prominent, large and beautiful,
+when they have not reached the stage entitled "pop-eyed." Or they may
+even become so protuberant and bulging as to develop the expression of
+one staring aghast at some ineffable horror. The latter is the feature
+of only the severest types, when there is an associated goitre, the
+combination designated as exopthalmic goitre.
+
+There are, too, individuals in whom hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism
+are mixed, or rather alternate. At one time they present the phenomena
+of the one, at another of the other. They are the people who complain
+of the cyclic quality of their moods and purposes. Their mood will
+be a heaven of exaltation and exhilaration, and then descend into a
+slough of despond from which they feel themselves inextricable. They
+are always talking about the ups and downs of their mental states.
+Headache and languor and fatigability, dry skin and lack of appetite
+for food or exertion on one day or for one week, give way on the next
+day, or for the next week, to an energetic gayety, and sweaty, flushed
+skin, a prominent appetite for food and every sort of activity. Driven
+to be forever on the go, for one period, in the next they feel like
+lying down most of the day, with no inclination for any life whatever.
+The stage of depression may go as far as a melancholia, the stage of
+stimulation as far as mania. They may simulate manic-depressive or
+cyclic insanity. Something restrains them, and holds them bound as in
+a vise in the one cycle. And then they are driven on beyond themselves
+by some invisible whip in the next.
+
+THYROID AS DIFFERENTIATOR
+
+Besides the action of the thyroid as energizer, lubricator, and growth
+catalyzer, it has a remarkable power as a differentiator of tissues.
+It determines the embryonic etchings of the different organs which in
+their totality comprise the unique individual. Every multicellular
+animal must first have existed as a single cell, the impregnated ovum.
+With the body and personality of the ovum, the creature is one and
+continuous, literally something the single cell has made of itself by
+sub-dividing and differentiating. In the process, the cell mass often
+goes through stages which stand out as individualities in themselves,
+that appear on the surface absolutely unrelated. So the caterpillar
+and the butterfly, to the naïve child, seem as far apart as worm and
+bird. In the case of the frog, the tadpole as a first sketch seems
+completely an impossible and wild absurdity. Yet we know that there is
+an orderly progression of events, a propagation of cells, a forward
+going arrangement of chemical reactions, that results in expansion and
+intricate complication of the organism. Just what the forces at work
+in this most mysterious of all natural processes are, has been an
+intellectual mystery that the best minds of the race have attempted
+to get rid of with words like pangenesis (Darwin). Words of Black
+(Mediterranean or Greek and Latin) origin, as Allen Upward has named
+them, always cover a multitude of ignorances. The glands of internal
+secretion, here, as in so many other dark places, provide the open
+sesame to certain long closed doors of biology. They offer themselves
+to us as the first definitely tangible agents which are known to keep
+the process of growth going, and undoubtedly initiate the marvelous
+unfolding of tissues and functions, organs and faculties summed up as
+development or differentiation.
+
+Thus by the direct feeding of thyroid at particular points in the
+differentiating history most curious effects have been elicited. If
+the gland is made part of the nutriment, the bathing environment, of
+the tadpole, a hastening of its metamorphosis is attained. The tadpole
+lives not out its day as a tadpole, but precociously turns into a
+frog. But such a frog! It is a miniature frog, a dwarf frog, a frog
+seen by looking through the wrong end of the telescope, a frog not
+magnified, but micrified. Frogs have been so created the size of
+flies. There has occurred a splitting of the two reactions which
+ordinarily go hand in hand: the reaction of growth which is just brute
+increase of total mass or weight and volume, and the reaction of
+differentiation which is the finer process. The picture is a frog, but
+a frog the size of a tadpole, a frog which has missed its childhood,
+adolescence and youth, skipping over these transition stages into the
+adult age, as a pigmy.
+
+It is all as if a baby were suddenly to grow a beard and moustache,
+evolve and shed teeth, and acquire the manner of an earnest citizen,
+and yet retain the height and weight of a baby. That the spectacle
+of such a superbaby is not quite the most fantastic of all
+improbabilities is shown by the condition of progeria, first recorded
+by the Briton, Hastings Guilford. A queer spectacle in which a child
+incontinently grows old without having lived--in the course of a few
+weeks or months. You look upon him and see senility on a small scale,
+but with all its peculiarities: wrinkled skin, apathy, gray hair and
+all the rest of it. All we can say about it is that it is probably due
+to a paralysis of all the glands of internal secretion, a removal
+of their influence upon the cells. Contrariwise to the feeding of
+thyroid, removal of the thyroid of tadpoles will prevent their
+development into frogs. If iodine is then fed to them, say mixed with
+flour, normal metamorphosis will occur. If Body is the tool chest
+which we carry about with us, as Samuel Butler said, then to the
+thyroid belongs the name of tool-maker.
+
+Another function of thyroid that must be taken into consideration is
+what has been spoken of as its antitoxic function--in plainer English,
+its power to prevent poisoning, or to increase resistance against
+poisons, including the bacteria and other living agents which
+cause the infectious diseases. Each molecule of food, ingested for
+assimilation into our substance, accumulates a history of wanderings
+and pilgrimages, attachments and transformations beside which the
+gross trampings of a Marco Polo become the rambling steps of a
+seven-league booted giant. In the course of its peregrinations, it
+becomes a potential poison, potential because it is never allowed to
+grow in concentration to the danger point. The thyroid plays its rôle
+of protector like all the internal secretory machines. In an animal
+deprived of a thyroid the feeding of meat shortens life--a single
+sample of how it works to guard against intoxication from within. The
+feeding of thyroid will also raise the ability of the cells to stand
+poisons introduced from without--intoxications of all sorts. Alcohol
+and morphine will affect in much smaller doses the subthyroid person
+than the normal or the hyperthyroid. As regards the infections, which
+directly or indirectly kill most of us, the injection of thyroid will
+increase the content in the blood of the protective antibodies which
+preserve us, temporarily at any rate, against malignant invaders. The
+opsonins, for example, those substances which butter the bacteria so
+that the appetite of the white cells for them is properly roused, are
+mobilized by thyroid feeding or injection. Other substances in the
+blood which destroy and dissolve bacteria are also increased. The
+thyroid probably performs these functions by sending its secretion
+to the cells directly responsible for the immunity reactions, and
+stimulating them to activity.
+
+A sketch of the thyroid like the foregoing shows it as the wondrous
+controller of vitality and growth, and indefatigable protector against
+intoxicants and injuries. When it is sufficiently active, life is
+worth while; when it is defective, life is a difficult threatening
+blackness. That would make it out as the gland of glands. It is
+tremendously important, without a doubt, in normal everyday life. But
+no more so than the other members of the cast. The position of star it
+may claim, but in vain. The other glands of internal secretion to
+be sketched will each, when the marvels of its business in the
+cell-corporation are considered, present itself as candidate for the
+honors of the president. Justice should give fair credit to all
+the organs which fabricate the reagents of individuality, and the
+regulators of personality.
+
+THE PITUITARY
+
+In the human skull, the pituitary is a lump of tissue about the size
+of a pea lying at the base of the brain, a short distance behind the
+root of the nose. It is of a grayish-yellow color, unpretentious and
+insignificant enough in appearance, and so long neglected by the
+scientists who boast their immunity to the glamor of the spectacular.
+Guesses at its nature date back to Aristotle.
+
+Like most of its colleagues among the glands of internal secretion,
+it is really two glands in one, two glands with but a single name. At
+least it consists of two different parts, distinct in their origin,
+history, function and secretions, but juxtaposed and fused into what
+is apparently a homogeneous entity. They are conveniently spoken of as
+the anterior gland and the posterior gland.
+
+In the embryo, the anterior gland is derived by a proliferation of
+cells from the mouth area. The posterior gland represents an outgrowth
+of the oldest part of the nervous system. When it is traced back along
+the tree of the vertebrate species, it is found to be present in all
+of them. An ancient invention, its precursor has been identified in
+worms and molluscs and even among the starfish. "The pituitary
+is practically the same, from myxine to man." A trusted veteran,
+therefore, among the internal secretory organs, its importance can be
+surmised.
+
+To understand the story of the pituitary, variously acquired bits of
+information concerning it have been assembled and fitted together like
+the fragments of a picture puzzle, as Cushing has so well put it. Here
+and there pieces stick out, obviously out of place. The relations of
+some of them to one another or to the whole design are not at all
+clear. Parts appear to have been irrevocably lost, or not yet to have
+turned up. Chance bystanders will select odd figures and articulate
+them into a new harmony. Yet out of the jumble of fragments, a fairly
+respectable insight has been gained in less than a half century.
+
+The pituitary is cradled in a niche at the base of the skull which,
+because of its form, is known as the Sella Turcica or Turkish saddle.
+So situated, an operative approach to it is overwhelmingly difficult.
+On the other hand, X-ray studies are favored. "Nature's darling
+treasure" it might be called, since there has been provided a skull
+within the skull to shelter it.
+
+Under the most highly magnifying lenses of the microscope, three kinds
+of cells have been distinguished. The anterior gland is a collection
+of solid columns of cells, surrounded by blood spaces into which their
+secretion is undoubtedly directly poured. A gelatinous material,
+presumed to be the internal secretion of the gland, has, in fact, been
+observed emerging from the cells into the blood spaces. The posterior
+lobe, or gland, consists of secreting cells producing a glassy
+substance which finds its way into the spinal fluid that bathes the
+nervous system. The spinal fluid itself is a secretion of another
+gland at the base of the brain, the choroid. Nerves and internal
+secretion are associated here with a closeness symbolic of their
+general relations.
+
+From each portion of the gland (to stick to the accepted nomenclature
+of speaking of the two glands as one) an active substance has been
+isolated. Robertson, an American chemist, separated from the anterior
+lobe a substance soluble in the fat solvents, like ether and gasoline,
+which he christened tethelin. But P.E. Smith has shown that the active
+material is soluble neither in boiling water nor in boiling alcohol,
+the typical fat solvent. A number of facts favor the idea of the
+anterior lobe cells as stimulants of growth of bone and connecting
+and supporting tissues generally. From the posterior lobe, pituitrin,
+believed its internal secretion, has been obtained in solution.
+
+Pituitrin is a substance of many marvelous functions. In general, it
+controls the _tone_ of the tissues, of involuntary or smooth muscle
+fibres of the blood vessels and the contractile organs of the body
+like the intestines, the bladder and uterus. When injected, it will
+slowly raise the blood pressure and keep it raised for some time, and
+will increase the flow of urine from the kidneys and of milk from the
+breasts. It will also cause an intense continued contraction of the
+bladder and the uterus. It is also said to control the salt content of
+the blood upon which its electrical conductivity and other properties
+depend. Normally, there is a certain fixed ratio of the salts in the
+blood, which keeps them like the ratio in sea-water. Again, we have
+an example of the curious atavism of the internal secretions. The
+thyroid, remember, keeps the iodine concentration of the blood like
+that of the ocean, our original habitat. Pituitrin likewise does its
+part to maintain our internal environment as near as possible to what
+was once the surrounding medium. A substance somewhat similar has been
+found in the skin glands of toads.
+
+The extraordinarily well protected position of the pituitary, its
+persistence throughout life, and its abundant blood supply, emphasize
+its vital importance. No other gland of internal secretion can
+adequately substitute for it. Complete expiration means death, in two
+or three days, with a peculiar lethargy, unsteadiness of gait and loss
+of appetite, emaciation, and a fall of temperature, so that the
+animal becomes cold-blooded, its temperature the same as that of the
+atmosphere it occupies. If only part of the anterior lobe is taken
+away, there occurs a remarkable degeneration of the individual. The
+degeneration is not a mucinous infiltration of the skin and the
+internal organs which occurs with thyroid deprivation, but a fatty
+degeneration, with a tendency to inversion of sex. A singular
+somnolence, a dry skin, loss of hair, a dull mentality, sometimes
+epilepsy, and a noticeable craving for and tolerance of sweets appear.
+These are but a few of the observations obtained in experimental
+sub-pituitarism, that is, underaction or insufficient secretion of the
+pituitary, produced by removing part of the anterior gland.
+
+If such an experimental sub-pituitarism is started in infancy, for
+instance in puppies, there is a cessation, or marked hindering and
+slowing of growth. That is, dwarfs are artificially created. Apropos,
+pathologists have shown that in several true human dwarfs the gland
+is rudimentary or inadequate. All of which goes hand in hand with the
+evidence that the skeleton stands directly under the domination of the
+pituitary.
+
+REGULATOR OF ORGANIC RHYTHMS
+
+There are certain other singular by-effects of the gland in its
+relation to the periodic phenomena of the organism like hibernation,
+sleep, and the critical sex epochs of both sexes. In hibernation, or
+winter sleep, the animal in cold weather passes into a cataleptic
+state in which it continues to breathe, more deeply but more slowly
+than when awake, but shows no other signs of consciousness or life.
+A lowered blood pressure and a marked insensitivity to painful and
+emotional stimuli go with it. There is a preliminary storage of starch
+in the liver, and of fat throughout the fat depots of the body. These
+are so like what happens after part of the pituitary is removed, that
+a comparison of the two becomes inevitable. Common to both conditions
+is a drop in the rate of tissue combustion or metabolism, which can
+be relieved by injection of an extract of the pituitary, a rise of
+temperature occuring simultaneously. Moreover, examination of the
+glands of internal secretion of hibernating species, like the
+woodchuck, during the period of hibernation, shows changes in all of
+them, but most marked in the pituitary, the shrunken cells staining
+as if they too were asleep, or in a resting stage. The characteristic
+alive qualities of these cells return, without relation to food
+or climate, when the animal comes to in the spring, at the vernal
+equinox. Hibernation may, perhaps, be put down to a seasonal wave of
+inactivity of the pituitary gland.
+
+Now winter sleep may be looked upon as an exaggeration of ordinary
+night sleep, the latter differing from the former only in its brevity.
+In the natural sleep of non-hibernating species there occurs, too,
+a fall in temperature. Moreover, they all, even man, have a certain
+capacity for winter sleep, as the experiences of travellers and
+explorers in the arctic regions indicate. In certain parts of Russia,
+where there is a scarcity of food during the winter months, the
+peasants pass weeks at a time in a somnolent state, arousing once a
+day for a scant meal. Just as the sex glands influence the body and
+mind profoundly with a certain cyclic periodicity of activity and
+inactivity (rut, heat, menstrual period and so on), which has been
+demonstrated to have a very close functional relationship with the
+pituitary, so sleep and hibernation will bear interpretation as
+products of a temporary dormancy of the same gland. We have, then,
+to set up in the place of Morpheus and Apollo, the new gods of the
+internal secretion of a chemical-making bit of the brain, as an
+explanation of the rhythms of sleep and wakefulness.
+
+There are individuals who go about outside of hospital walls,
+quasi-normally, who are semi-hibernators or partial hibernators, and
+who are really in a state of subpituitarism. They are people who may
+have something wrong or inferior with their pituitary, but not to the
+extent of interference with their daily life. They go about with their
+type stamped upon them for the seeing eye. The classical type is
+obese, with fat distributed everywhere, but more so in the lower
+abdomen and the lower extremities. They are slow and dull, and
+sexually inactive, often impotent. They are sometimes tall, but most
+often dwarfish, and may be subject to epileptic seizures. They recall
+the picture of what happens to young dogs partially deprived of the
+pituitary. Dickens delivered a perfect likeness of an extreme degree
+of the condition in the Fat Boy of the "Pickwick Papers," whose
+employment with Mr. Wardle consisted in alternate sleeping and eating.
+
+WHEN THE PITUITARY OVERACTS
+
+All grades of overaction of the pituitary exist. Then its peculiar
+power to act as a stimulant to the growth of bone and the soft
+supporting and connecting tissues like tendons and ligaments comes
+into play. If the overaction or excess of secretion begins in
+childhood or adolescence, that is, before puberty, there results a
+great elongation of the bones, so that a giant is the consequence. Now
+giants have always appealed to the imagination of the little man, and
+have had all kinds of wonderful abilities ascribed to them by him. The
+giants and ogres of folk-lore and fairy tales are favored with the
+most extraordinary mental advantages. Direct and analytic acquaintance
+with the giants of our own day, as well as a probing of their conduct
+in the past, has shown that normal giants--persons of exceptional size
+free from physical or mental deformities--are rare. There are people
+with _hyper_-pituitarism who exhibit the highest mental powers. In
+them is an increased activity of the posterior lobe in association
+with enlargement and hyperfunction of the anterior, overgrowth is not
+so marked, and the individual is lean and mentally acute. But the
+ordinary giant is one in whom there is degeneration of the pituitary
+after too much action of the anterior and too little of the posterior
+glands. A tumor or disease process in the gland is most often
+responsible.
+
+If the overaction of the anterior happens after puberty, when the
+long bones have set, and can not grow longer, a peculiar diffuse
+enlargement of the individual occurs, especially of his hands and feet
+and head. The nose, ears, lips and eyes get larger and coarser.
+As these people are rather big and tall to begin with, the effect
+produced is that of a heavy-jawed, burly, bulking person, with bushy
+overhanging eyebrows, and an aggressive manner. For there is, too,
+something distinctive about their mentality which has been as often
+portrayed as those of the pathologic giant. Rabelais' most famous
+character, Gargantua, belongs to the group. We recruit more
+drum-majors than prime ministers from among these people. They
+often suffer much from torturing boring headaches, and a consequent
+despondency and feeling of hopelessness which colors gray the entire
+spiritual spectrum. Up to a certain point these sufferers have a
+remarkable alertness and capacity. When conscious of the malady, they
+often meet it with a doggedly courageous optimism, which is another
+characteristic, although women occasionally commit suicide.
+
+In both the semi-hibernators who remind one of cattle, and in the
+giant or acromegalic types who remind one of the anthropoid ape, there
+develops a distinct diminution of sexual life. An abnormal process in
+the anterior gland, whether of oversecretion or of undersecretion,
+may interfere with the proper functioning of the posterior gland, the
+secretion of which is tonic not only to the brain cells, but also to
+the sex cells. Thus, young animals deprived of the pituitary will not,
+if male, grow spermatozoa, nor ripe ova in the female. Moreover, the
+feeding of pituitary increases sexual activity. In the case of hens,
+this has been demonstrated to be about thirty per cent by a pretty
+experiment. At a time of the year when eggs diminish, six hundred
+and fifty-five hens laid two hundred and seventy-three eggs upon an
+ordinary diet. When pituitary was added to their food for four days,
+the number of eggs rose to three hundred and fifty-two, an increase of
+seventy-nine. In addition, the fertility of the chicks born of these
+eggs was augmented, especially if both parents had been fed on
+pituitary. There are other aspects of the relation of the pituitary to
+sex, which will be treated in another chapter.
+
+THE BONY CRADLE OF THE PITUITARY
+
+Always, in attempting to understand the pituitary, it is necessary to
+remember that it is tightly packed in the bony cradle, the Turkish
+Saddle or Sella Turcica. Should some stimulus, local, or in the blood,
+arouse the gland to growth, a good deal will depend upon whether it
+has room to grow in, or it will make room by eroding the bone. With
+space for the formation of a large anterior and posterior pituitary
+gland, there will be created the long, lean individual, with a
+tendency to high blood pressure and sexual trends, great mental
+activity, initiative, irritability and endurance. An outstanding trait
+of these favorites of fortune is that they remain thin no matter how
+much food they consume, and they have the best of appetites. They
+often are subject to severe headaches because of intermittent swelling
+of the gland against the bone of its container.
+
+If the bony container is or becomes too small for its contents, it
+is interesting that along with the other signs of pituitary
+insufficiency, such as undersize, obesity, and asymmetry, there
+developes conspicuous moral and intellectual inferiority. The
+unfortunates suffer from compulsions and obsessions and lack
+inhibitions. They are the pathological liars with little or no
+initiative or conscience--amoral, not merely theoretically, but
+instinctively and unconsciously, with all the certitude and perfection
+of the unconscious accomplishment.
+
+THYROID AND PITUITARY
+
+The thyroid and the pituitary have often been compared. The anterior
+gland and the thyroid arise from almost the same spot in the embryonic
+oesophagus, the thyroid being an outgrowth in front, the anterior
+pituitary an outgrowth behind of the same soil. They both control
+growth marvelously, also the differentiation, the mass and intricacy
+of the tissues. But they differ in the site of their control. The
+thyroid bears more directly upon the inner and outer coverings of the
+body, the skin, the skin glands and the hair, the mucous membranes,
+and the irritability and the preparedness for response of the nerves.
+The pituitary acts more upon the framework of the body, the skeleton
+and the mechanical supports and movers. Bone and ligament, muscle
+and tendon seem to be within its immediate sway. The secretion or
+secretions of the pituitary diffuse directly into the fluid bathing
+the nervous system, supplying beneficent stimulants and aiding in the
+abstraction of harmful waste. So while the thyroid raises the energy
+level of the brain, and the whole nervous system, as a byproduct of
+its general awakening effect upon all the cells of the body, the
+pituitary probably stimulates the brain cells more directly, perhaps
+in the manner of caffeine or cocaine.
+
+The difference between the thyroid and the pituitary might be put this
+way: that while the thyroid increases energy evolution and so makes
+available a greater supply of crude energy, by speeding up cellular
+processes, the pituitary assists in energy transformation, in energy
+expenditure and conversion, especially of the brain, and of the sexual
+system. In short, the thyroid facilitates energy production, the
+pituitary its consumption. The pituitary appears therefore as the
+gland of continued effort. Hence fatigability, an inability to
+maintain effort, is one of the prominent complaints when there is
+destruction or an insufficiency of it for one reason or another. As
+such, it contrasts with the glands of emergency effort, known as the
+adrenals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE ADRENAL GLANDS, THE GONADS, AND THYMUS
+
+
+Like the pituitary, each adrenal gland is a double gland, that is,
+consists of two distinct portions, united together, one might say, by
+the accident of birth. It would be confusing, however, to speak of
+each as two glands, because there are, as a matter of fact, two
+separate adrenal glands, one in the right side of the abdomen, and the
+other in the left. Each gland is composite, or duplex. How the two
+parts came to be united is a long story, interesting but too long to
+be recounted here. In fishes they are apart and independent.
+
+Each adrenal is a cocked hat shaped affair, astride the kidneys,
+easily recognized because of its yellowish fatty color. Indeed, for
+centuries the glands were not given a separate status as organs, but
+were passed up as part of the fat ensheathing the kidney. In childhood
+and youth, in common with the other glands, they are relatively larger
+and more prominent than in the adult. Also, at every age, the amount
+of blood passing through them is very large compared to their size.
+Their tremendous importance in the body economy accounts for their
+being so favored.
+
+The two parts of which each gland is composed, are known as the cortex
+or outer portion (literally the bark) and the medulla or inner portion
+(literally the core). No clean-cut boundary sharply delimits the two,
+as strands and peninsulas of tissue of one portion penetrate the
+other. In the history of their development in the species and the
+individual, and in their chemistry and function, a sharp difference
+contrasts them.
+
+In the embryo, the cortex is derived from the same patch that gives
+rise to the sex organs, the ovaries in the female, and the testes in
+the male, described as the germinal epithelium. How intimately the
+two sets of glands are connected is neatly pointed by this fact of a
+common ancestor. All vertebrates possess adrenal glands. In the lowest
+of the vertebrates, Petromyzon, the two parts are distinct, the cells
+of the cortex-to-be are situated in the walls of the kidney blood
+vessels, projecting as peninsulas in the blood stream, the blood
+sweeping over and past them. The medulla-to-be consists of cells
+accompanying the vegetative nerves. Among reptiles, the two become
+adjacent for the first time, and among birds one part occupies the
+meshes of the other. The size of the cortex varies directly with the
+sexuality and the pugnacity of the animal. The charging buffalo, for
+example, owns a strikingly wide adrenal cortex. The fleeing rabbit,
+on the other hand, is conspicuous for a narrow strip of cortex in its
+adrenal. Human beings possess a cortex larger than that of any other
+animal.
+
+No definite chemical substance has as yet been isolated from the
+cortex. That remains a problem for the investigator of the future. But
+certain observations, especially concerning the relation between
+the development and behaviour of the so-called secondary sex
+characteristics, those qualities of skin, hair and fat distribution,
+physical configuration and mental attitudes, which distinguish the
+sexes, and the condition of the gland, indicate clearly that an
+internal secretion will be isolated, and that it will in its activity
+furnish certain predictable features.
+
+Three different layers of cells, arranged in strings, that
+interpenetrate to form a network directly bathed by blood, that breaks
+in upon them from _open_ blood vessels, compose the cortex. Most
+remarkable is this method of blood supply for it is exceedingly common
+among the invertebrates and rare among the vertebrates.
+
+In certain disturbances of these glands, especially when there are
+tumors, which supply a massive dose of the secretion to the blood
+presumably, peculiar sex phenomena and general developmental anomalies
+and irregularities are produced. If the disease be present in the
+fetus, taking hold before birth, and so brought into the world with
+the child, there evolves the condition of pseudo-hermaphroditism. The
+individual, if a female, presents to a greater or less extent the
+external habits and character of the other sex. So that she is
+actually taken for a man, although the primary sex organs are ovaries,
+often not discovered to be such except when examined after an
+operation or death. How closely such an occurrence touches upon the
+problems of sex inversion and perversion comes at once to mind.
+
+If the process involving the adrenal cortex attacks it after birth,
+the symmetrical correspondence and harmony of the primary sex organs
+and the secondary sex characters are not affected. But there follows
+a curious hastening of the ripening of body and mind summed up in the
+word puberty, a precocious puberty, with the most startling effects.
+A little girl of 2, 3, or 4 years of age perhaps will come to exhibit
+the growth and appearance of a girl of 14. She begins to menstruate,
+her breasts swell, she shoots up in height and weight, sprouts the
+hair distribution of the adult, and the mentality of the adolescent,
+restless, acquiring, doubting, emerge. A tot bewitched into puberty!
+A boy of six or seven may suddenly, in the course of a few weeks or
+months, become a little man, robust, rather short and stocky, but
+moustached, with the muscular strength and sexual powers of a man and
+thinking as a man. It is all as if into some fermentable medium or
+solution a little yeast were dropped that changed the quiet calm of
+its surface into a bubbling, effervescing revolution. It suggests at
+once that maturation, the transformation of the child into the man or
+woman, must be due to the pouring into the blood and the body fluids
+of some substance which acts like the yeast in the fermentable
+solution. The adrenal cortex is one source of the maturity-producing
+internal secretions.
+
+If trouble in the adrenal cortex starts after puberty, phenomena of
+the same type, but of a different order, exhibit themselves. A woman,
+say in the thirties, becomes thus afflicted. Slowly or quickly her
+body will be covered by an abundant growth of hair, more or less of a
+beard and moustache appear upon the face, her voice will become deep
+and penetrating, her muscles will harden, and she will show a capacity
+for hard physical labor. Sexually she appears to be made over,
+masculinity now predominates in her make-up. Virilism is the name by
+which the French in particular have popularized the knowledge of the
+condition. Virilists have to shave or be shaved regularly and are not
+bothered in the least by the cares, responsibilities, jealousies and
+anxieties of personal beauty, for the change in their spirituality
+makes them immune to the preoccupations of the feminine. The cause of
+such a transformation in a previously entirely normal woman has been
+found to be a tumor of the adrenal cortex.
+
+But not only is sexuality, and the conduct of the secondary sex
+characters, connected with the adventures of the adrenal cortex. The
+development of the master tissues of the body, the brain, the pride
+and darling of evolution, is in some subtle way correlated with
+it. The adrenal cortex contains more of the phosphorus-containing
+substances of the general nature of those found in the central nervous
+system than any other gland or non-nervous tissues in the body. During
+human intrauterine life the adrenal glands are large and conspicuous,
+in the first half of the second month being twice as large as the
+kidneys. Most of this relatively huge size, which happens in the human
+alone, and not in other animals, is due to enlargement of the cortex.
+Should this preponderance of the cortex over the medullary portion not
+occur in the human, that is, if the proportions remain like those of
+other animals, the brain fails to develop properly, or an entirely
+brainless monster is generated. The human brain, therefore, probably
+owes its superiority over the animal brain, to the adrenal cortex, in
+development anyhow. The growth of the brain cells, their number and
+complexity is thus controlled by the adrenal cortex.
+
+Besides its action upon the sex cells and the brain cells, the
+internal secretion of the adrenal cortex acts upon the pigment cells
+of the skin, blunting their sensitiveness to light. In degeneration
+of the interior of the gland, which destroys the medulla, but not the
+cortex, the color of the skin is left unmodified. If, however, the
+cortex is invaded, as happens most often in the classical tuberculosis
+of the adrenals which drew the attention of the Englishman Addison
+to them, then a darkening of the skin, which may go on to a negroid
+bronzing, follows. That means an increased sensitiveness of the
+pigment cells of the skin to light. Skin color control may therefore
+be looked upon as an adrenal cortex function.
+
+So much is known about the adrenal cortex. Upon the medulla, the
+interior gland of the gland, there has been lavished an amount of
+attention beside which the cortex is to be classed as a neglected
+wall-flower. Nearly everything that possibly could be determined
+about an internal secretion has in its case been settled or plausibly
+guessed at. The cells manufacturing the secretion, its exact chemistry
+and function, its action upon the blood, the liver and spleen, the
+heart and lungs, the brain and nervous system, have been minutely
+investigated, studied and charted. Its source in the food, its fate in
+the body, its place in the history of the individual and the species,
+its importance as a weapon in the struggle for existence, and the
+survival of the fittest have been made the subject of an astonishing
+number of researches, considering the short period of scarce three
+decades that intensive science has centered its barrage upon it.
+
+In the first place, the medulla contains numerous nerve cells,
+belonging to the vegetative, also called the sympathetic nervous
+system. But these nerve cells are merely minor notes of the symphony.
+The motif is settled by a majority of large, granular cells, which
+stain a distinctive yellowish-brown when the gland is fixed in a
+solution of bichromate of potash. All chromium salts, in fact, stain
+the therefore labelled chromaffin cells. The characteristic staining
+power appears to be dependent upon, or correlated with, the presence
+of the internal secretion of the medulla of the adrenal, adrenalin.
+For the content of adrenalin, as calculated chemically, and the
+depth of stain as seen under the microscope, rise and fall together.
+Chromaffin reaction and adrenalin content go together. The poisonous
+skin glands of the toad have been found to give a marked chromaffin
+reaction, and to contain a large amount of adrenalin. Other masses
+of cells in the human body, especially along the course of the
+sympathetic nervous system, have been shown to give the reaction and
+to contain adrenalin.
+
+The erratic Brown-Séquard pounded and hammered away for more than
+thirty years on the importance to life of the adrenal glands, since
+death occurred so quickly after their removal. But it was not until
+Schaefer, the Scotch physiologist, (who has done more than any other
+living man to stimulate study of the internal secretions) found that
+an extract of them, when injected into a vein, produced a remarkable
+though temporary rise of the blood pressure, that a real enthusiasm
+for its investigation was generated. As the upshot, a number of other
+significant properties besides the first of blood-pressure raising,
+have been put down to its credit. Chemical tests demonstrated that
+it originated in the medulla. The exact amount of it present in the
+medulla, in the blood issuing from the adrenals and in the circulation
+in general have been determined. The concentration in the blood is
+about one part in twenty million, while there is about a hundred
+thousand times as much stored in the gland as reserve. In infections
+and intoxications, after muscular exertion, and with profound
+emotions, there is a decrease of it in the gland and an increase in
+the blood. Pain and excitement, especially fear and rage, will bring
+about its discharge from the gland. With its entry into the blood,
+there is a tremendous heightening of the tone, a _tensing_, of the
+nervous system. The nerve cells become more sensitive to stimuli,
+more sugar is poured into the blood from the liver, more red blood
+corpuscles are squeezed into the circulation from the blood lakes of
+the liver and spleen. There is a redistribution of the whole blood
+mass, a good deal of it being withdrawn from the internal viscera, and
+hurried to the skeleton muscles and the brain. The heart beats more
+strongly, the eye sees more clearly, the ear hears more distinctly,
+and the breathing is more rapid. The temperature rises, the hair of
+the head and the body becomes erect, the skin gets moist and greasy.
+It will help a fatigued muscle to regain its normal tone. In short, it
+has a reinforcing action upon the nutritive properties of the blood,
+the tone of the muscles, and the activity of the brain and the
+vegetative nerves.
+
+Chemists set themselves the task of discovering just what was the
+substance possessed of such extraordinary and hitherto unimagined
+properties. The pure adrenalin was isolated, capable of evoking all
+the reactions of the impure adrenal extract mixtures. The final
+triumph was the preparation of it artificially in the laboratory,
+its synthesis. When a substance can be synthesized in the chemist's
+laboratory, it means that its composition has become thoroughly
+understood. Here at last was an example of those mysterious internal
+secretions, the existence of which had indeed been postulated and
+proven, but which had never actually been inspected by the eye of
+mortal man. To have it in a test-tube, indeed to possess it in large
+quantities in bottles, to be able to manipulate and examine it without
+fear of the co-action of admixed impurities, to see it with the eye,
+and to taste it with the tongue, was truly a marvel. The miracle
+aroused at once scores of researches.
+
+THE GLAND OF COMBAT AND FIGHT
+
+Considering its effects, one is reminded at once of the similarity
+to the expression of a primitive emotion like anger or fear. So, by
+turning a relation upside down, it was argued that if artificial
+adrenalin could produce all these effects of an emotion like fear, the
+emotion itself should produce an increase of the natural adrenalin in
+the blood. This was found to be the case. Cannon of Harvard has built
+up an entire theory of the adrenal as the gland of emergencies upon
+the basis of these effects. In the facing of crises the adrenal
+functions as the gland of combat. And indeed, as I have mentioned,
+the more combative and pugnacious an animal, the more adrenal it has,
+while the timid and meek and weak have less.
+
+The Glands of Combat, the glands of emergency energy, the glands
+of preparedness,--such are the adrenal glands when viewed from the
+adrenalin standpoint. A picture of its activity in the evolutionary
+scheme of struggle and survival is something like the following:
+meeting an enemy, the animal is put in danger. It must fight or flee
+for its life. In either case, certain conditions must be fulfilled, if
+the body of the animal endangered is to be saved. To prevent injury to
+itself, and to do as much injury as possible to the foe--that becomes
+its immediate urge and necessity. Of the two animals, if in one the
+heart should begin to beat more strongly, the blood pressure to rise,
+the blood to flow more rapidly through the attacking instruments, the
+muscles, the teeth and claws, the brain and its eyes, while the other
+animal experiences none of these, the former will be the victor in
+fight or flight. Adrenalin may be looked upon as the invention for the
+mobilization at a moment's notice, or as we say, after generations of
+use, by instinct, of all these visceral and blood advantages in the
+struggle of combat or flight.
+
+The nature of instinct, in its relation to the glands of internal
+secretion, is a problem for another chapter. But we may note that the
+James-Lange theory of an emotion regards it as a consciousness of the
+very changes in the organism adrenalin causes. Since adrenalin is the
+starter of the whole process, and since McDougal has defined emotion
+as the feeling aspect of an instinct, just as an instinct may
+be defined as the motor aspect of an emotion, the adrenals as
+emotion-genetic, and instinct-genetic, play a part in the most
+profound processes of the subconscious and unconscious.
+
+THE MECHANISM OF FEAR
+
+We may therefore visualize a mechanism of fear. An instant excess of
+adrenalin occurs in the blood of, say, a cat when it is alarmed by the
+sight of a dog. In that cat, at the image of its hereditary enemy,
+certain brain cells vibrate. A nerve tract, in use as the line for
+that particular message in a hundred thousand generations of cats,
+whirrs its yell to the medulla of the adrenal gland. Through the tiny,
+solitary veins of the glands, an infinitesimal quantity of the reserve
+adrenalin responds. And with what an effect! The blood, that primary
+medium of life, the precious fluid that is everything, must all, or
+nearly all, be sent to the firing line, the battle trenches, the
+brain and muscles, now or never. So the blood is drafted from the
+non-essential industries--from the skin where it serves normally to
+regulate the heat of the body--from the digestive organs, the stomach
+and intestine, which must forsooth stop now, since if the organism
+will die, their last effort of digestion has been done--from the liver
+and spleen, great chemical factories in normal times, but now of no
+moment. Besides, should they be wounded, it is better they should
+be bloodless, and so run the least chance of bleeding to death, or
+getting infected, for the more tissue there is around, the greater the
+danger of infection. So, like the skin, the liver which usually holds
+in its great lakes and vessels about a quarter of all the blood in
+the body, is almost drained and blanched. At the same time, its great
+storehouses of sugar open their sluices and pour into the blood,
+increasing its sugar content by about a third because the combustion
+of sugar is the easiest way of getting energy free in the cells, sugar
+being the most quickly burned up of all the foods, and so the great
+food of the muscles and the heart. The poisons of fatigue, acid
+products of the contraction of muscles, are antagonized and
+neutralized by substances formed in the course of the oxidation of the
+sugar. Adrenalin, too, is directly fatigue antagonist. It causes the
+blood to clot faster than under ordinary circumstances. It erects the
+hair of the animal, and dilates the pupils of the eyes. There is an
+increase of the apparent size, all of which are to intimidate the
+enemy, like an Indian's painting of his face blue and green. It
+also--but what else does it not do?
+
+The story of adrenalin would have delighted the heart of Samuel
+Butler. His "Note Books," opulent as they are, would have been the
+richer in pages and pages with his comments on it. Contending as he
+did with the pompous, dogmatic mechanism worship of the new scientific
+clique of his time on the one hand, and the superstitions of the old
+theological caste on the other, he had to fight the hardest kind of
+guerrilla warfare in defense of the Purpose of Life. Adrenalin, that
+weapon of a gland tracing its ancestry back to the begetter of the
+brain itself, for brain and adrenal gland both have evolved from the
+small nerve ganglia of the invertebrates, would have backed up to the
+hilt his argument, which he had to elaborate on the indirect grounds
+of analogy and induction. Essential for defense, and for protection,--
+an organ in which everything necessary for the stratagems of retreat,
+or the offensives of attack, are supplied ad libitum, while everything
+non-essential or detrimental to the matter of the moment is inhibited,
+arrested and suppressed--no more perfect sample of the design with
+which Life is drenched could be imagined by the most closeted of
+passionate idealists.
+
+FAILURE OF THE ADRENALS
+
+As the gland of acute stress and strain, the adrenals in modern life
+are called upon to function more heavily and frequently than in the
+past. As a matter of fact, the life of the beast of jungle and field,
+as well as of savage and barbarian, is just as full of emergencies and
+shocks as that of the average city man or woman. In the case of the
+latter, however, inhibitions, education, and the conditions of modern
+living, improper food, sedentary indoor confinement, and universal
+rack and noise, have undoubtedly made greater and greater demands upon
+the adrenal glands. Chemical quantitative studies have shown that by
+repeated stimulation, the adrenal glands may be exhausted of their
+reserve supply of secretion, which returns only insufficiently if not
+enough time is given for recuperation. There results a condition of
+temporary or chronic adrenal insufficiency, supposedly an insufficient
+functioning of the gland as a whole. In persons so afflicted there
+appears a fatigability, a sensitiveness to cold, cold hands and feet,
+which are sometimes mottled bluish-red, a loss of appetite and zest in
+life, and a mental instability characterized by an indecision, and a
+tendency to worry, a weepishness upon the slightest provocation.
+
+A certain number of the temporary breakdowns or nervous prostrations,
+which seem to be growing more common or fashionable, may be sometimes
+traced to such a deficiency of normal response to the needs of
+everyday conflict by the adrenal gland. In some, mental and physical
+elasticity are totally lost, and even the slightest exertion in
+either field often causes so much weariness and exhaustion as to be
+prohibited. Depression and even melancholia are associated with the
+fear of not being able to accomplish good work hitherto easy and
+enjoyed. Sometimes they are obsessed with the thought that they have
+lost their nerve completely, and so dread to commit themselves in even
+the most trivial of situations. The vacillating frame of mind is so
+distressing at times as to arouse thoughts of suicide. When these
+symptoms concur in the type of personality whom I shall describe
+as the unstable adrenal-centered individual, there is evidence for
+explaining the process as the effect of an insufficiency of secretion
+by the adrenal gland.
+
+Shock, collapse, heart failure and sudden death following abnormal
+emotion, like an attack of rage, or the terrors of a railroad
+accident, or bad news, or excessive exertion like running a long race
+or climbing a high mountain when in poor general health, as the phrase
+goes, or in the terminal stages of infections like epidemic influenza
+or Asiatic cholera, have been put down to an acute insufficiency of
+the adrenal gland. A lowered temperature, blood pressure, and blood
+vessel tone, exhibited in tests of the response of the skin to
+stroking, are present in all of these and point the same moral.
+
+In the second half of the 19th century, an American physician, Beard,
+described Neurasthenia, a general disturbance of the body and mind,
+not properly classifiable as a disease, but serious enough to
+incapacitate or at least greatly limit the sufferer. The neurasthenic
+is to be recognized by the fact that the most painstaking objective
+examination of his organs reveals nothing the matter with them. Yet,
+according to his complaint, everything is the matter with him. He
+cannot sleep when he lies down, he cannot keep awake when he stands
+up. He cannot concentrate, but still he is pitifully worried about his
+life. The slightest irritant causes him to go off the handle. As
+he works himself up into his hysterical state as a reaction to a
+disagreeable person or problem, irregular blotches may appear on
+his face and neck. Generally, his hands and feet are clammy and
+perspiring, his face is abnormally flushed or pallid, the eyes are
+worried or starey, unwonted wandering sensations involving now this
+area of the body, or now that obsess him. As the blood pressure is
+too low for the age, the circulation is nearly always inadequate and
+palpitation of the heart is a frequent complaint. So frequent, that
+attention is often centered upon the heart, a diagnosis of heart
+disease is made, and the unfortunate is doomed for life--to brood
+over horrible possibilities. The brooding over themselves and their
+troubles is one of the distinctive features of the whole complex.
+Neurasthenia may masquerade as any organic disease. An individual with
+a soil for a neurasthenic reaction to life will become neurasthenic
+when confronted by any stone wall, including a serious ailment within
+himself.
+
+Beard's Neurasthenia leaped at once into the limelight. It was seized
+upon and applauded in Europe as a good new name for an old condition,
+observed particularly in Americans abroad to rest from the fatigues of
+the get-rich-quick games of industrial speculators. In fact, the name
+of the American Disease was given to it. Various theories about the
+effects of climate, sunlight per square inch and unit of time, oxygen
+content of the air, and so on, were offered up upon the altar of
+scientific explanation. Sir Arbuthnot Lane, famous protagonist of
+Lane's intestinal kink, said that all Americans were neurasthenic.
+Neurasthenia became one of the most popular of diagnoses, and remains
+so today.
+
+Neurasthenia, regarded as a reaction of people to the stress and
+strain of life, has without a doubt increased. The most casual of
+observers will tell you that the generation of the Great War is a
+neurasthenic generation. It takes its pleasures too intensely,
+its pains too seriously, its troubles too flippantly. But what is
+neurasthenia? Beard himself regarded it as a chronic fatigue and loss
+of tone of the nervous system, a literal interpretation of his term.
+That the conception, as far as it goes, is valid is proved by the fact
+that it is the neurasthenics who furnish the majority of the clientele
+of the cults, the Christian Scientists, the osteopaths and the
+chiropractors, and who are the subjects of the faith and miracle
+cures, like those of Lourdes. That is because their particular
+disease, or what appears to them to be their very own disease--and
+they certainly cherish their ailments--is but an expression of, a
+compensation for, indeed a consolation for, the underlying feelings of
+insufficiency or inferiority. Were there no moral code, were there
+no social system, nor the consequent inculcated conscience to be
+responsible to, there would be no such disguising symptom as
+the disease which preoccupies the consciousness. The feeling of
+insufficiency would be there, and would be recognized as in itself
+the disease. To the physiologist and the psychologist, the feeling of
+insufficiency is the disease, no matter how spectacular the overlaying
+phenomena--a cripple on crutches or a man blind and speechless. Shell
+shock is now acknowledged to belong to this group.
+
+Now one of the outstanding effects of disease of the adrenal glands is
+the feelings of muscular and mental inefficiency. And as a matter
+of fact, a good number of observations conspire for the idea that a
+certain number of neurasthenics are suffering from insufficiency of
+the adrenal gland. The chronic state of the acute phenomenon, known as
+the nervous breakdown, really represents in them a breakdown of the
+reserves of the adrenals, and an elimination of their factor
+of safety. In the light of that conception, the great American
+disease--dementia americana--is seen to be adrenal disease--and the
+American life to be the adrenal life, often making too great demands
+upon that life, and so breaking down with it.
+
+ADRENAL EXCESS
+
+The converse of adrenal insufficiency, that of adrenal excess, also
+exists. In certain types of the middle-aged, a high blood pressure,
+accompanied by a great capacity for work, has been shown to be
+associated with hypertrophy of the cortex. In women, there is a
+degree of masculinity, as the adrenal in women makes for masculinity,
+neutralising more or less the specifically feminine influences of
+the internal secretions of the ovary. Such women possess a vigor and
+energy above the normal, and command responsible positions in society,
+not only among their own sex, but also among men. They are the ones
+who, in the present overturn of the traditional sex relationships,
+will become the professional politicians, bankers, captains of
+industry, and directors of affairs in general.
+
+THE GONADS
+
+(_Sexual, Puberty or Interstitial Glands_)
+
+The gonads is the name applied to the generative or reproductive
+glands considered collectively. In the male, they are the testes; in
+the female, the ovaries. They are, therefore, sometimes called the
+sexual glands. As they possess definite canals for the removal of
+their gross secretion, the specific reproductive cells, ova or
+spermatozoa, to a surface of the body, they are first of all glands of
+external secretion. But they have been also found to hold secretory
+cells not concerned with the making of the reproductive corpuscles,
+but, as all the evidence indicates, with the manufacture of an
+internal secretion. These interstitial cells form the interstitial
+gland. A classic example of a gland of internal secretion lodged in
+the interstices of a gland of external secretion is thus furnished by
+the gonads.
+
+ORIGIN OF SEX TRAITS
+
+The history of sex goes back far in the scheme of life. The
+immortality of the ameba was at one time one of the indisputables of
+biology. Then some observations were made which threw doubt upon a
+long accepted fact, now declared a dogma. Lately, opinion has veered
+back to immortality. But in the case of a close relative of the ameba,
+the one-celled animal known as the paramecium, union with another
+paramecium, true conjugation, has been proved necessary to prevent
+death sooner or later. Sex here appears in its most primitive form, on
+the basis of exchange of necessary materials, between individuals to
+prevent death, their own having been, so to speak, worn out, in the
+course of metabolism.
+
+Specifically different sexes come later, when mortality is a universal
+fate, as a means of rebirth and escape from death. Then the sexes
+develop their latest function, most prominent among the younger
+vertebrates, of acting as nature's most potent method of variation and
+differentiation. In the pursuit of the different, nature has exalted
+sex, and the intensity of the sex life. As far as the preservation of
+a species is concerned, and the reproduction of the individual, the
+asexual methods, budding, for example, would have done well enough.
+But when it comes to enacting a different individual apart from the
+effects of environment, sex stands out as the favored method of Life.
+
+The development of the sexes and the sexual life brought a new element
+of conflict into the living world. Before the advent of the sexes the
+conflict was essentially for the means of existence, food alone. But
+with the sexual life came a conflict for sex pleasure, a competition
+among members of the same species for the same individual as their sex
+partners. The result was the introduction of a factor in evolution
+which Darwin examined so closely in the "Descent of Man."
+
+The sex conflict has been the cause for the origin and the survival
+of certain physical and mental traits, helpful in sex attraction, sex
+combat, the growth of the embryo, and the nutrition and safety of the
+young of a species,--in short, the whole process of sexual selection.
+The proportions of the skeleton, the distribution of hair and fat, the
+construction of organs of attack and defense, the color of the skin,
+the cyclic processes of preparation for impregnation, the oestrus or
+heat period in animals, the menstrual period in the human being, the
+psychic reactions to danger and combat have all been thus determined.
+That man is bearded while woman is not,--that woman has potentially
+functional breasts while man has not,--the aggressive pugnacity of
+man contrasted with the more passive timidity of woman, have all been
+evolved in the sex struggle, surviving because most effective in that
+struggle. These so-called secondary sexual characteristics are an
+expression of the influence of the internal secretion of the gonads,
+or the interstitial glands. Some call them puberty glands, because
+their ripening initiates puberty.
+
+We know that these interstitial glands, to stick to that name, (rather
+than to the name of the puberty glands, since they serve not only
+to induce puberty but to maintain maturity) are the actual primary
+dictators of the process by which male and female are distinguished,
+if not created. Castration was probably the first surgical operation
+carried out for experimental purposes, suggested no doubt by a
+curiosity concerning its effects. Trepanning of the skull, the
+geologic record indicates, was done even by the cave man. But as an
+experimental operation, castration seems to hold the primary position
+in the annals of surgery.
+
+Its effects noted, the satisfaction of one of the lower human
+instincts, jealousy, popularised it. From the days of Semiramis,
+eunuchs have been commonplace figures of the East, their function
+definite: to guard the harems of the powerful. The age of Abdul Hamid
+witnessed no diminution of the barbaric tortures by which children are
+prepared for the profession. It is to the credit of England that in
+its dominions in the Orient the practice has been abolished. But it
+goes on even today. According to the best authorities, four out of
+five of these victims at the auto-da-fe of a vicious human instinct
+die immediately or soon after from exhaustion due to pain and
+infection. Not all of the ancient nations countenanced the brutal
+horror. The Hebrews placarded castration an unpardonable sin, making
+it a sin to castrate even animals. Nor was any man so mutilated
+permitted to worship in the house of the Lord (Deuteronomy xxiii, 11).
+Yet we have evidence that the latter Jewish kings employed foreign
+eunuchs in their harems, who often held the most important positions
+as ministers of the court.
+
+Besides the eunuchs, another group of people have presented material
+for the study of the interstitial glands. These are the Skoptzi of
+Russia and the Lipowaner of Roumania. Among them castration is a
+religious ritual. Mankind has always been most brutal to itself in the
+name of the ideal. These sects were founded because in the eighteenth
+century an antipode of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young discovered this
+passage in Matthew xix, 12.
+
+"For there are some eunuchs which were so born from their mother's
+womb, and there are some eunuchs which were made eunuchs of men: and
+there be eunuchs _which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom
+of heaven's sake_. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it."
+
+He decided that he was inspired to spread the gospel of castration. A
+sect was founded who thought that surgery was the easiest way to enter
+the gates of Paradise, and they multiplied and fructified. The sect
+exists today, and some of the most interesting studies of the internal
+secretion of the interstitial glands have been made among them.
+
+Related to acquired eunuchism is the condition of eunuchoidism, the
+eunuchs which were so born from their mother's womb. Baron Larey, the
+great surgeon of Napoleon's armies, was their first painter. He was
+the only altruist Bonaparte said he had ever met in his life. He
+portrayed a group of soldiers with peculiarly high-pitched voices,
+smooth and hairless skins, and atrophied generative organs. A somewhat
+similar picture is evolved in certain types of insufficiency of
+the pituitary gland. Features of the picture are exhibited with
+disturbances of the other internal secretory glands also, like the
+thymus.
+
+But a host of experiments and data prove the interstitial glands to be
+the direct controllers of elementary sexuality and the specific sex
+traits of male and female. Beginning with Berthold back in the first
+half of the nineteenth century, who studied the fowl, a number of
+observations have been made on the effects of excision, translocation
+and transplantation of these glands.
+
+The results of the experiments and observations can be summed up as
+follows: if the male individual is castrated before puberty, that is,
+before the advent of the sexual life, secondary sex qualities do not
+develop. In males, the generative organs do not grow, hair on the face
+does not appear, hair elsewhere on the body remains generally scanty,
+the voice continues as high-pitched as the child's, there is more
+or less muscle weakness, obesity, and mental sluggishness. In other
+words, we have an effeminate man, technically a eunuch. In the
+castrated female, the pelvis does not grow to the normal feminine
+size, the breasts do not swell as they should, more or less hair comes
+out on the face, the voice is low-pitched, and tends to be rather
+husky, the legs are longer, and again, the mentality is dulled. That
+is, a masculine sort of woman is produced.
+
+In short, the castrated male takes on a feminine type, and the
+castrated female, a male type. In either case there is also an
+infantilism, a retention of the infantile mental traits, a lack of
+development of the adult mental attitudes and reactions. Now, if
+in the castrated male is transplanted an ovary, the positive
+characteristics of the female are evoked, such as enlarged mammary
+glands, and a tendency to secretion of milk. Experiments have also
+been reported in which a uterus was also placed in such an animal,
+with a means of entry, and pregnancy followed. If in the castrated
+female a testicle is planted, the masculine traits become much more
+marked and striking. A direct exchange of the male and female
+rôles can thus be achieved. Castration after puberty cannot modify
+profoundly structures like the skeleton which are already completed.
+Yet it may unquestionably bring about definite retrogressive changes
+in the secondary sex characters: reduction or loss of virility,
+diminution of facial and body hair, and a general presenility or
+hastening of senility.
+
+How remarkably these interstitial cells influence the entire structure
+and vitality of the organism is indicated by these facts. How much
+they have to do with sexual impulses, sexual excitement, and sexual
+desire, what the Freudians have popularized as the libido, and how
+subtly they act upon the coming and duration of adolescence and
+maturity, as well as sexual precocity and peversions, we shall
+consider in a later chapter. But it is enough now to remember that
+these interstitial glands are the primary dictators of the genital
+sense and flair of the individual. In any attempt at measurement of
+men and women, the quality and quantity of the internal secretion
+of the interstitial cells must be respected as a fundamental
+consideration. The womanly woman and the manly man, those ideals of
+the Victorians, which crumbled before the attack of the Ibsenites,
+Strindbergians and Shavians in the nineties, but which must be
+recognized as quite valid biologically, are the masterpieces of these
+interstitial cells when in their perfection. They are such solely
+because of the right concentration in the blood of the substances
+manufactured not only by these cells, but by all the glands of
+internal secretion. For it cannot be repeated and emphasized too often
+that the interstitial cells of the sex glands are most sensitive to
+all kinds of other influences, and, in particular, the other internal
+secretory organs. They may indeed be watched as an index scale or
+barometer of the general tone of the whole internal secretion system.
+Sex variations offer a variety of clues to variations, disturbances,
+predominances and abnormalities in all the components of the ductless
+gland association.
+
+To take a single instance, the development of the long bones is
+dependent upon the handling of food lime by the body. Eunuchs and
+eunuchoids, that is, individuals with insufficient internal secretion
+of the interstitial cells, have longer bones and more fragile bones
+than the normal. Vice versa, those with an excess of the secretion
+have shorter and thicker bones. The earlier the onset of menstruation,
+which means puberty, the shorter the extremities, as the action of the
+internal secretion of the ovaries closes the story of the growth of
+the long bones.
+
+The ovaries are a most important factor in the regulation of the power
+of the organism to keep lime in the bones. If they over-secrete in an
+excess which cannot be taken care of by the other glands of internal
+secretion, the body loses lime, a softening and curving of the bones
+occurs, and the most horrible deformities and tortures for the
+sufferer. Taking out the ovaries has cured some of the afflicted.
+Administration of the antagonizing gland extracts has helped others.
+An Italian, Bossi, in 1907, used adrenal gland curatively. More
+recently, a British student of the subject, Blair Bell, was given the
+direction of the treatment, at long range, of a number of cases in
+India, the land of chronic pregnancy with insufficient food, and
+consequent oversecretion of the ovaries, with the typical softening of
+the bones. At his suggestion pituitary was used successfully.
+
+Some of the glands of internal secretion act as accelerators to the
+sex glands. Others act as retarding antagonists. Among the most
+important of the latter is
+
+THE THYMUS
+
+The thymus is the gland which dominates childhood. It appears to do so
+by inhibiting the activity of the testes or ovaries. Castration causes
+a persistent growth and retarded atrophy of the thymus. Removal of the
+thymus hastens the development of the gonads.
+
+Situated in the chest, astride the windpipe, it descends and covers
+over the upper portion of the heart, overlapping the great vessels
+at the base of the heart. It is a brownish red mass, which when cut
+presents the spongy effect of a sweetbread. The more intimate view
+of detail revealed by the higher powers of the microscope shows
+conglomerations of the white cells of the blood known as lymphocytes.
+But scattered through the substance of the gland, between these
+lymphocytes, like the interstitial cells of the sex glands placed
+between the sex cells, are peculiarly staining cells in whorls.
+Of which there are many more in the thymus of embryonic and early
+postnatal life, known after their discoverer as Hassal's Corpuscles.
+They are believed by some to elaborate the specific internal secretion
+of the thymus. Present in all vertebrates, there seems to be more of
+it in the carnivora than in the herbivora, like the thyroid.
+
+Concerning the exact function of the thymus, we are a good deal at
+sea. The latest opinion about the results of extirpation even in young
+and growing animals is that they are nil. Yet there is a certain
+justification for proclaiming the thymus the gland of childhood, the
+gland which keeps children childish and sometimes makes children out
+of grown-ups. There is a quantity of data for that proposition. In
+the first place, the curve of rise of growth of the gland seems to
+coincide with the period of childhood, the curve of its decline with
+the period of adolescence and the rise of the sex glands. In the
+past, it was accepted, that with puberty the thymus atrophied and
+was replaced by some sort of fatty tissue. Nowadays, it is held that
+secretion cells persist throughout life. When the extent of this
+persistence is too great, the gland being from five to ten times as
+large as the normal, a number of other features become prominent to
+make the extraordinary individual, the status lymphaticus, who amid
+the hazards of life will react in an extraordinary way. He will be
+taken up in the consideration of internal secretion personalities.
+
+Then there are the varied and remarkable phenomena of thymus
+enlargement and hyperactivity in childhood itself. When an enlarged
+thymus is present in an infant, the initiation of breathing in the
+new-born, the introduction of the newcomer to the oxygen of the air,
+may be an exceedingly prolonged, difficult, matter. Such a baby is
+said to be born blue, and the breathing may be stridorous for days,
+becoming normal for a time, to be followed later by spells of trouble
+in breathing, breathlessness or breathlessness with blueness, and
+threatened extinction. Sometimes these spells come out of a clear
+sky in an apparently healthy child. That some poison, probably an
+oversecretion of the thymus, is responsible is shown by the relief
+obtainable by X-ray shrinkage of the gland, or the surgical removal of
+a part of it.
+
+Moreover, the gland is influenced by and influences the factors
+of body weight and growth with an extreme readiness and lability.
+Deficient general undernutrition leads to rapid decline in its weight.
+Back in 1858, the pioneer student of the thymus, Friedleben, declared
+that the size and condition of the thymus is an index to be the state
+of nutrition of the body. Underfeeding for four weeks will reduce it
+to one thirtieth the normal. It seems to act as a storage and reserve
+organ, affording some protection against the limitation of growth by
+lack of food material. In exhausting or wasting disease, the weight
+of the gland sinks much more quickly than other glands. Scattered
+instances have been reported of children growing, putting on inches in
+height and expanding mentally, when thymus was fed to them, in whom
+every other measure previously tried had failed. A French study of
+over four hundred idiotic children with normal thyroids reported that
+over three fourths had no thymus at all. Everything points to the most
+direct and close relation between the gland and nutrition and growth,
+but with nothing tangibly definite like our knowledge of the thyroid
+and the pituitary.
+
+There is evidence that the thymus is involved in the health and
+efficiency of muscle cells and muscularity. Certain tumors of the
+thymus, presumably destructive of the gland substance proper, and
+thus cutting off its secretion, are accompanied by a singular muscle
+weakness and atrophy of the muscle cells, entirely out of proportion
+to the general damage suffered by the other cells of the body when
+affected by the poison of a malignant growth. Also, the thymus has
+been discovered diseased in certain mysterious progressive muscular
+wastings. A remarkable fatigability of muscles, which appears after
+the slightest exertion, is a feature. The feeding of thymus has caused
+muscle cramps which apparently depends upon an increased excitability
+of the muscle nerve endings.
+
+Feeding of thymus to some of the lower creatures of the animal kingdom
+will completely hold up differentiation. Take the unfolding of the
+specialized tissues and organs which transform the tadpole into the
+frog and the chrysalis into the butterfly. A tadpole kept supplied
+with enough thymus in a nutrient medium will swell into an
+extraordinary giant tadpole, but will not change into a frog.
+Recently, this experiment has been contradicted. Yet this effect
+corresponds to the conception of its importance in childhood as a
+retardant of precocity, physical and mental. Clinical observations
+emphasize that in childhood it is the chief brake upon the other
+glands of internal secretion which would hasten development and
+differentiation, checking them perhaps for a given time and so
+profoundly influencing growth.
+
+THE PINEAL
+
+The pineal is another gland which has been credited with similar
+abilities and a like holding-the-reins-tight-in-childhood function
+among the cells. Like the thymus, it has been supposed one of the
+distinctive organs of childhood and to die with it. Generations of
+anatomists solemnly asserted, repeating each other's mistakes with the
+aplomb of the historians who declare that history repeats itself, that
+the pineal body was a useless, wastefully space consuming vestige of a
+once important structure. That was the view in that century of grandly
+inaccurate assertions, the nineteenth. Not that they relegated it with
+that statement to the limbo of the dull and the uninteresting. Quite
+the contrary. They conferred upon it a distinguished romance and
+mystery by identifying it as the last heir and vestigial remnant of
+a third eye, situated in the back of the head, which may still be
+observed in certain reptiles. Imagine it! Somewhere, stuck away in a
+cranny of the floor of your head and mine, is this descendant of an
+organ that once sparkled and shone, wept and glared, took in the stars
+and hawks and eagles, and now is condemned to eternal darkness and an
+ineffectual sandiness. Today, we have not discarded that view of its
+history, but we know a little more regarding its composition and
+function.
+
+What and where is the romantic object? It is a cone-shaped bit of
+tissue hidden away at the base of the brain in a tiny cave behind
+and above its larger colleague, the pituitary. Microscopic scrutiny
+reveals that it is made up in part of nerve cells containing a pigment
+similar to that present in the cells of the retina, thus clinching the
+argument for its ancient function as an eye. But the outstanding and
+specifically glandular cells are large secreting affairs, which too
+reach back to the tidewater days of our vertebrate ancestors, when
+Eurypterus and other Crustaceans were engrossed with the fundamental
+problems of brain versus belly. Besides these, there are the singular
+masses upon which has been fastened the unnecessarily opprobious
+epithet of brain sand. These, noted and commented upon from the
+earliest times, consist of collections of crystals of lime salts,
+sometimes small, lying about in discrete irregular masses, and
+sometimes grouped into larger mulberry-like concretions, varying
+much in size. These brain sand particles have become of practical
+importance in the detection of pineal disease because they, like all
+lime salts, will stop the X-rays, and so can be photographed.
+
+For a long time, indeed up to scarcely more than a few decades or so
+ago, the pineal was believed to have no present function at all, or at
+least no ascertainable or accessible duty in the body economy. That
+it might perhaps be, in a sense, a gland of internal secretion was
+a despised theory. Then a classic case, the most extraordinary and
+curiosity-piquing sort of case, with symptoms involving the pineal
+gland, in a boy, was reported by the German neurologist, Von Hochwart.
+That boy provoked a little army of researches. He came to the clinic
+complaining about his eyes and other troubles which pointed pretty
+definitely to a brain tumor as the diagnosis to pigeon-hole him.
+Nothing extraordinary about him in that respect. But the story told by
+his parents was quite extraordinary, even to the jaded palate of the
+clinic professor and his assistants. They said that he was a little
+over five years old, a statement conclusively proved correct at his
+death. Up to the time at which his illness began, he had been quite
+normal in size, intelligence and interests. But with the onset of his
+misfortune, he had begun to grow, and rapidly until now he looked
+and corresponded in all measurements to a normal boy of twelve or
+thirteen. Hair developed all over his skin, most prominently and
+abundantly in the typically hairy places of adults. His voice became
+low-pitched, and most remarkable of all, his sexuality and mentality
+precocious. He became capable of true sexual life and is said to have
+asked many questions about the fate and condition of the soul after
+death. On one occasion he remarked reflectively: "It is odd how much
+better I feel when I let other children play with my toys than when I
+play with them myself." Other statements attributed to him imply the
+most astounding maturity of thought and mental process. Headaches
+finally came, and he died about four weeks later. The cause of the
+whole bizarre tragedy was found to be a tumor of the pineal gland.
+
+As has happened before in medical history, no sooner was the one
+prodigy reported, than a score of others of the same ilk sprang into
+the limelight. Cases of precocious genital development, especially,
+some of them occurring as early as the second year of life, were
+linked with them. It is an interesting point to be noted that in
+these, as in those started by an overaction of the adrenal cortex, it
+is premature masculinity that is stimulated. The adrenal cortex must
+be classed as a gland of masculinity. The pineal possibly acts as a
+brake upon the adrenal cortex.
+
+Very soon after the report of Von Hochwart's prodigy appeared, an
+experimental research on the pineal was begun in New York. The pineal
+glands of a number of young bullocks were obtained and used for
+feeding, to see whether an overaction of the internal secretion
+could be produced. Guinea pigs, kittens and rabbits were used. The
+experiments covered about two years in time. Of a dozen small
+kittens, the subjects outgrew the controls rapidly in activity, size,
+intelligence, and resistance to intercurrent disease. Of ten small
+rabbits, the controls weighed about a third less than the subjects,
+which were strikingly clean, active, fat and salacious.
+
+Feeding of the gland was then extended to a particular class of
+defective children, children with well-shaped heads, normal eyes,
+symmetrically functioning limbs, excellent digestion, strong muscles
+and generally, normal, sometimes rapid growth. It is to them,
+particularly when mental normality has progressed up to the eighth,
+tenth or twelfth year and stopped, that the term "moron" has been
+applied. They have been a hopeless lot, belonging to the limbo of the
+incurables. Moreover, they, emphatically the physically normal ones,
+differ from one another enormously in the extent to which mental
+operations are possible. As all transitions and degrees exist, no
+definite classification and subdivision of them has been made. Yet
+ever since the cretin, once looked upon as an eternally damned
+defective, was transformed by thyroid feeding into an apparently
+normal being, there has been no dearth of effort to find the right
+kind of internal secretion to fit their desperate situations, but in
+vain. In defectives with definitely, organically damaged brains,
+no result of course was to be expected. In those of any class over
+fifteen, no response has been elicited by feeding pineal gland. In the
+others the results have been contradictory.
+
+A set of observations have related the pineal to muscle function,
+inviting comparison of it with the thymus. There is a singular muscle
+shrinking and deforming disease, known as progressive muscular
+dystrophy, hitherto a complete and unsolved mystery. Newer studies
+of the pineal in this disease during life by means of the X-ray have
+shown it calcified, that is, buried in lime salts, which signifies put
+out of business. Recently thus another hint as to its function has
+been ferreted out.
+
+The tadpole as a reagent to test out the growth effects of different
+glands of internal secretion has also been employed for the pineal.
+Ten-day-old tadpoles fed on pineal present a marked translucency of
+the skin due to a retraction of the skin pigment cells. Now without a
+doubt a number of as yet unknown growth and metabolic effects follow
+exposure of the body to the complete gamut of light rays. The
+interesting suggestion follows that the pineal influences the body by
+varying the degree of light ray reaction.
+
+The pineal, the ghost of a once important third eye at the back of
+our heads, still harks back in its function to a regulation of our
+susceptibility to light, and its effect upon sex and brain. So it
+becomes one of the significant regulators of development, with an
+indirect hastening or retardation of puberty and maturity according
+as it works in excess, or too indolently. It appears thus the blood
+brother of the adrenal cortex which also influences the skin pigment
+and so susceptibility of the organism to light, brain growth and sex
+ripening. It is interesting that Descartes, in 1628, considered the
+pineal the seat of the soul.
+
+THE PARATHYROIDS
+
+Sometimes imbedded within the substance of the thyroid in the neck,
+sometimes placed directly behind it upon the windpipe, are four tiny
+glands, each about the size of a wheat seed, the parathyroids. For
+long they were swamped in the nearness of their great neighbor, and
+considered merely a variable part of it. There are some who contend
+that even today. But it has been proven that they are separate,
+individual glands, with a structure and function of their own, and a
+definite importance to the body economy.
+
+On the animal family tree they appear early, contemporaneously with
+the thyroids. In the embryo they develop from about the same sites.
+And very often they look very much alike under the microscope,
+especially when the cells are in certain quiescent stage of secretion.
+Yet they are wholly independent in nature, activity and business.
+
+First experimenters upon the effects of removal of the thyroid were
+confused by contradictory findings with different animals because in
+some they would take out the parathyroids at the same time without
+knowing it, and in others they would not. That possibility suggested,
+more careful dissectors accomplished the job of extirpating the
+thyroid while leaving the parathyroids intact and vice versa. In
+consequence some definite information about the parathyroids is
+available, even though their internal secretion has never been
+isolated, or its existence established as more than an inference.
+
+When the parathyroids are removed, an astounding increase in the
+excitability of the nerves follow. It is as if the animal were
+thoroughly poisoned with strychnine. The slightest stimulus will make
+him jump, or throw him into a spasm. When the excitability of the
+nerves is measured by an electrical instrument it is found augmented
+by from five hundred to one thousand per cent. The reflexes, those
+automatic responses of brain and spinal cord to certain stimuli and
+situations, become enormously sensitive, so that merely letting the
+light into a darkened room will make the subject of the experiment go
+into a series of convulsions.
+
+On the chemical side, an explanation for these nervous phenomena has
+been advanced. Lime in the blood and cells appears to be necessary in
+a number of ways. In the making of bone and teeth, in the coagulation
+of the blood, in the keeping of fluid within the blood vessels, and
+in maintaining the tone of the nerves, it plays a major rôle. Now the
+parathyroids, among all the glands of internal secretion, seem to act
+as the prime regulators of the amount of lime held within the blood
+and cells. For when the parathyroids have been completely and
+aseptically excised, without injuring any other organ, immediately the
+body begins to lose lime. Something has gone out of it that helped
+it to bind lime, and without that essential something, the internal
+secretion presumably of the parathyroids, the lime departs. As
+a conspicuous consequence the teeth fail to develop properly,
+particularly as to their enamel, for which lime is an essential
+constituent. Hair is lost, there is a general wasting, the nails get
+brittle, and the bones soften, and the animal dies. Supplying lime
+directly, particularly by direct injection into the blood, will
+relieve the symptoms.
+
+In man, a condition of nervous over-excitability has been described
+as tetany. It occurs most often in the young, the pregnant, or in
+vomiting after operations. All sorts of tests have related the malady
+to the phenomena succeeding parathyroid deprivation, and they are now
+looked upon as aspects of it. Individuals have been reported suffering
+from an insufficiency of the internal secretion of parathyroids,
+with a sudden extreme depression, nervousness and restlessness, an
+inability to sleep or sit still, and a tremulous handwriting. Such
+reports round out the evidence for the importance of the parathyroids
+in an understanding of the factors which control growth, especially
+as regards lime utilization, for without lime properly handled no
+building of cells is possible. Also the parathyroids are necessary to
+a steadiness of muscle and nerve.
+
+THE PANCREAS
+
+The business of the parathyroids concerns the keeping of lime in the
+body. Another gland, the pancreas or sweetbreads, this time within the
+abdomen, a close neighbor of the solar plexus, alias the abdominal
+brain, is occupied with holding and hoarding sugar in the body,
+particularly in the liver, the great sugar warehouse. This matter
+of retaining sugar and controlling its output is one of the utmost
+significance for growth and metabolism, the resistance to infections,
+the response to emergency situations, and in general to the
+mobilization of energy for physical and mental purposes. For without
+sugar sufficiently at hand for the cells, no muscle work or nerve
+work, the essentials of the struggle for existence, are possible.
+
+The pancreas is an organ with both an internal and external secretion.
+The external secretion, long known, evolved by the major portion of
+the gland, is poured into the small intestine to play the star in
+digestion. Scattered here and there among the definitely glandular
+cell groups creating the external secretion are smaller collections of
+cells, called the islets of Langerhans, which have been demonstrated
+to elaborate the internal secretion. There are about a million of
+these islands in each gland. The hormone has been called insuline.
+Unlike most of the glands with a double secretion in which the
+internal is absolutely independent, and so to speak, unconscious of
+the external, these two of the pancreas are often disturbed together,
+perhaps because trouble easily hits them both together.
+
+Quite the most well-known disease due to disturbed internal secretory
+function of the pancreas is diabetes. An enormous amount of work has
+been spent upon the various aspects of it as a mystery. Hundreds of
+papers in a dozen languages upon the subject are in existence. In a
+nutshell, they have established pretty well that diabetes is a disease
+in which there is an excess of sugar in the blood and urine because of
+an insufficient amount of the secretion of the islands of Langerhans
+in the pancreas. Removal of the pancreas makes the body, essentially
+the liver, unable to retain sugar, as well as unable to burn up sugar
+for energy. The situation is comparable to a locomotive with its coal
+bins leaking, and the coal itself acting as if made of slate or some
+equally uncombustible or only partially combustible material.
+
+The control of sugar mobilization from the liver, where it is stored
+as glycogen or animal starch, is divided between the pancreas and
+the adrenals, the pancreas acting as the brake, the adrenals as the
+accelerator of the mechanism. Adrenal and pancreas are therefore
+direct antagonists, the pans of the scale which represents sugar
+equilibrium in the organism. Diabetes may be regarded as a disturbance
+of the adrenal-pancreas balance, assisted by events which produce
+adrenal overwork like great or prolonged emotion, or by strain of the
+pancreas, effected by over-eating for example.
+
+There are other minor glands of internal secretions. But those
+considered are by far the most important and the most recently
+explored. In a summary, one would classify them as follows:
+
+   _Name        Secretion            Function_
+  1. Thyroid       Thyroxin          Gland of energy production
+                                     Controller of growth
+                                       of specialized organs
+                                       and tissues--brain
+                                       and sex
+
+  2. Pituitary--                     Gland of energy consumption
+                                       and utilization--continued
+                                       effort
+       anterior    Unknown           Growth of skeleton and
+                                       supporting tissues
+       posterior   Pituitrin         Nerve cell and involuntary
+                                       muscle cell, brain and sex tone
+
+  3. Adrenals                        The Gland of Combat
+       cortex      Unknown            a. Brain growth--tone
+                                         development of
+                                         sex glands
+       medulla     Adrenalin          b. Energy for emergency
+                                         situations
+
+  4. Pineal        Unknown            a. Brain and sex development
+                                      b. Adolescence and puberty
+                                      c. Light and maturity
+
+  5. Thymus        Unknown            Gland of Childhood
+
+  6. Interstitial  Testes in male     Glands of secondary
+       glands of   Ovaries in female   Sex traits
+
+  7. Parathyroids  Unknown            a. Controllers of lime
+                                         metabolism
+                                      b. Excitability of
+                                         muscle and nerve
+
+  8. Pancreas      Insuline           Controller of sugar
+                                         metabolism
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE GLANDS AS AN INTERLOCKING DIRECTORATE
+
+
+Now in considering each gland of internal secretion as a separate
+entity, and labelling it with certain properties and actions, we of
+course commit the usual sin of the intellect: the sin of abstraction
+and isolation of its material. This crime of analysis the intellect
+commits every day in the search for truth. Before its dissection, it
+seems to have to dip the elusive article in a fixative, and bottle it
+in a vacuum.
+
+Yet nothing in reality is more of a changing flux than the body in all
+of its parts and tissues and organs. And of all these, the glands of
+internal secretion stand out as the most susceptible to change. Made
+to react to stimuli of offense and defense, instantaneously responsive
+to situations involving energy exchanges and protective reflexes,
+they are never for any minute the same or alone. They never function
+separately. Each influences the other in a communicating chain. Let
+one be disturbed, and all the others will feel the impact of the
+disturbance and vibrate with it.
+
+Any break in the somatic or psychic equilibrium, a blow or an
+infection, or a startling thing seen, or a worrisome thought felt,
+will start a process going. This will only wind up when every gland
+has been somehow touched, and a final equilibrium reestablished. The
+thyroid, maybe, was first excited, and then in turn the adrenals, with
+a boomerang reinforcing effect upon the thyroid, and at the same time
+a stimulating effect upon the pituitary. Each gland is thus influenced
+and influencing, agent and reagent in the complex adjustments of the
+organism.
+
+ENDOCRINE CO-OPERATIONS
+
+The body-mind is a perfect corporation. Not quite perfect, for
+continually there arise little insurgencies, inadequacies and
+frictions to which in time it will succumb. Yet, in the efficiency of
+its co-operations, and in the co-ordination of the needs and supplies
+of producer, middle man, and consumer, there is no one of the great
+organizations of the captains of industry which can for a moment
+approach it.
+
+Of this corporation the glands of internal secretion are the
+directors. But the huge corporation, not to topple over with its own
+unwieldy size, must be composed of smaller units, each within itself
+a corporation, and governed by a directorate. There are, in the
+corporation-organism, different departments and bureaus, subdivisions
+of function, which constitute the smaller corporations within the
+larger corporation. These subsidiary companies have their own glands
+of internal secretion as their directors.
+
+Thus, the growth of the brain is presided over by the adrenal cortex,
+the thyroid, the thymus and the pituitary. They determine the size of
+the brain, the number of its cells, the complexity of its convolutions
+and the speed of its chemistry, which means the speed of thought and
+memory and imagination. As its directorate, therefore, they may be
+entitled. The disturbance of one of them means the disturbance of all
+of them, and a consequent deleterious effect upon the brain. Now take
+the burning up of sugar in the organism, the great material source
+of energy, which is controlled by the pancreas, the adrenals and
+the liver, the thyroid and the pituitary. Together they form the
+directorate of sugar metabolism. But, as is evident from a glance at
+the membership of the growth directorate, and comparing it with the
+directorate of sugar metabolism, there are some members who are
+present on both boards. An infection, an illness, an ailment, an
+exaltation or intoxication of such members will produce reverberations
+in both directorates. A disturbance of sugar metabolism might then
+cause a disturbance of growth. The advantages and disadvantages
+are before us of having, in the glands of internal secretion, an
+interlocking directorate, rulers over all the varied and manifold
+activities of the organism.
+
+Behind the body, and behind the mind is this board of governors.
+Indeed, from the administrative and legislative points of view, the
+body-mind may be said to be governed by the House of Glands. It is the
+invisible committee behind the throne. Upon the throne is what? Man,
+the most baffling of complexities. Man who is not a mind, but owns a
+mind--Man who is not a body, but possesses a body, just as he might
+have a motor car, a fortune or a calamity. Back of all his daily
+activities, behind the life of body-mind is the mysterious unique
+individuality, the Ego, the Psyche or the Soul. Lately, a competitor
+with these ancient and honorable terms has come upon the scene as the
+Subconscious. In that darkened No Man's Land is determined a man's
+destiny. The endocrine association stands out as at least the most
+important physical determinant of the states and processes of the
+subconscious.
+
+ANTAGONISMS AND CO-OPERATIONS
+
+As within a corporation there are factions and cliques, influences
+that always work together, and forces that are always pulling in
+opposite directions, so within the interlocking directorate of the
+ductless glands there are antagonisms and inhibitions, co-operations
+and compensations. One gland will assist the action of another's
+secretion with its own, or will in turn be stimulated to secrete by
+it. Another will throw out its secretion in order to neutralize the
+effects produced. Or its own activity will be depressed or completely
+inhibited by it. Thus the pituitary arouses the interstitial glands
+and vice versa, whereas the pancreas and the thyroid are mutually
+inhibitory. Indeed, whole systems of glands may work in unison, or be
+pitted against each other in certain situations, especially when
+the organism is subjected to conflicting impulses with the clash
+of opposing instincts, like fear and anger. In general there is
+reciprocity and team work among the internal secretions.
+
+A certain minimum amount of each must be present if life is to
+continue along the normal lines. Whether there is to be an excess
+of any one secretion above this minimum, or a deficiency below it,
+decides the fate of the individual. If there is deficiency of one, the
+other members of the directorate attempt to make up for what has been
+lost, and to carry on its work by an extra effort, to substitute. Or,
+released from the discipline of the deficient member, or the necessity
+for antagonizing it, they may be released from its stimulus to
+secrete, and produce less of their own specific secretion. A general
+reaction all along the line will accompany overaction, oversecretion,
+of one gland. Due to consequent stimulations and depressions of
+other glands, some may be excited by the event to overwork--some to
+assist--others, to act as antidote for--the excess secretion, while
+still others, relieved of a burden, do not have to supply as much of
+their quota under the circumstances and so shut down, or limit their
+output.
+
+It is important to get clearly in mind these subtle inter-reactions of
+the different ductless glands. They may be antagonistic in their end
+effects because of the opposed functions of the nerves or organs
+stimulated. There are inhibitions and restraints produced when a gland
+will send out its secretions to stop another gland secreting. There
+are compensations resulting when because of insufficiency of a gland,
+others will endeavour, by manufacturing more of their own secretion,
+to compensate for the loss. There are mutual co-operations,
+partnerships, when a gland will oversecrete to assist another, or in
+response to another which is also oversecreting. There are losses
+of balance, so that when one gland ceases secreting, another will
+simultaneously or soon after. Normal secretion, oversecretion or
+undersecretion are thus adjusted, but leave a train of after effects.
+
+So with loss or insufficiency of the thyroid, there may be pituitary
+overgrowth, because the pituitary may act as vicar for the thyroid.
+The thyroid and thymus are antagonistic, for the thyroid hastens
+differentiation, puberty and the coming of sexual maturity, while the
+thymus delays and retards them and prolongs the period of childhood.
+The thyroid and the pancreas are antagonists, for when the thyroid
+has been excised, the pancreas appear no longer necessary to act as a
+break upon the mechanism of sugar liberation into the blood from
+the liver. The thyroid stimulates the interstitial glands, for
+menstruation and pregnancy are impossible with no thyroid or an
+insufficient thyroid. Removal of the pituitary makes the thymus shrink
+because the restraining influence of the latter is no longer needed.
+But there is an enlargement of the thyroid to compensate. In castrates
+there is an increase in the size and number of the cells of the
+anterior pituitary, again a compensation or substitution effect. The
+pituitary and the adrenal cortex are mutually assistant, alike in
+their influence upon the tone of the brain and sex cells.
+
+THE KINETIC SYSTEM
+
+So there are combinations of glands to assist or restrain others, or
+to control a body function, or to determine the domination or abeyance
+of an instinct. One such has been named the kinetic system because it
+comes into play in situations which demand prompt adaptation without
+hesitancy, and a consequent immediate transformation of static or
+stored energy into kinetic or active energy. According to this
+conception the brain, the adrenals, the liver, the thyroid and the
+muscles together constitute a machine very much like an automobile.
+The self-starter of the machine is the brain, with storage battery
+(composed of stored past memories) and ignition combined. The thing
+seen without, or the idea felt within, act as the initial sparks,
+while the adrenals, as the carburetors, permit the freer flow of fuel,
+sugar, from the liver. The thyroid works as the accelerator, the
+original impulse finally landing upon muscles keyed up and supplied
+with food to meet the situation, be it that of removing a poison,
+removing an aggressor (attack) or removing the individual himself
+(running away). When one is exhausted by exertion and emotion, injury,
+intoxication or infection, it is these members of the kinetic system,
+the brain, the adrenals, thyroid and liver, which are exhausted.
+Exhaustion diminishes when the activity of the brain is diminished by
+anesthetics, and cured when it is abolished by sleep.
+
+If the adrenal gland may be called the Gland of Emergency energy, the
+Kinetic System is entitled to the name of Council of Emergency Defense
+for the organism. The Kinetic Drive is the name that has been given to
+the whole system at work. It is one of the best examples we have of
+inter-glandular co-operations and reactions in reply to the threat of
+danger or the hint of pleasure.
+
+THE CHECK AND DRIVE SYSTEM
+
+Another instance of the complexity of these inter-glandular reactions
+is furnished by the thyroid and the adrenals. The thyroid and the
+adrenals are mutually stimulating--when the thyroid oversecretes, the
+adrenal dittos, and vice versa. Yet they have directly opposed effects
+upon the economy--because they act upon antagonistic portions of
+the involuntary or vegetative nervous system, the system which is
+independent of the will. Before proceeding further, it is worth while
+sketching this division of the nervous system.
+
+In the construction of a motor car from the point of view of absolute
+control of it at every moment, the first thought of the mechanic is an
+adequate _brake_ and an efficient _regulator_ of speed, instruments
+antagonistic, but necessary to work simultaneously or alternately.
+The involuntary or vegetative nervous system is built upon the same
+principle. It supplies every organ in the body beyond the control of
+the will (that is to say, the brain) with two sets of filaments which
+have opposing functions. One group of filaments in general increases
+or activates the function of the organ to which it is distributed. The
+other group of filaments, when tingling, inhibits or prohibits that
+function. They are like the two buttons on the wall which regulate
+the supply of electricity to incandescent bulbs, one switching on the
+current, the other switching it off. It has been agreed to call the
+stimulative or activating portion the autonomic or drive system. To
+its antagonist has been left the older name of the sympathetic or
+check system. It is because they do not both act upon these two
+components of the vegetative nervous system, but only upon one, that
+the thyroid and adrenal though in themselves complementary, come to
+exert opposite effects. For the internal secretion of the thyroid has
+a selective affinity for the autonomic or activating system, while
+that of the adrenals has a selective affinity for the sympathetic or
+inhibiting system.
+
+In the stomach, for instance, extracts of the adrenal glands have been
+proved to intensify the function of the sympathetic or check system
+in different degrees, so that there is a lessening of the amount and
+acidity of the gastric fluid. On the other hand, thyroid extracts will
+intensify the action of the autonomic or drive system, so that the
+amount and acidity of the digestive juice is increased.
+
+The stomach cell may, therefore, be regarded as a test-reagent for
+the different internal secretions, as they affect the check and drive
+systems.
+
+These constitute an automatic device for regulating the activities of
+every organ. Three factors enter into the mechanism. One is the amount
+of the circulating internal secretions. Another is the organic and
+functional integrity of the nerve filaments comprising the check and
+drive systems. The third consists of the number and vitality and
+limitations of the terminal receiving cells acted upon by the nerve
+filaments, which in their turn have been acted upon by the internal
+secretions. Upon every organ, including the mind, through the brain, a
+stimulus from without or within will act according to its ability to
+influence one or others of these factors.
+
+Normally, the check and drive systems are properly balanced. But under
+stress and strain the balance is upset. Indeed, the Kinetic Drive may
+be defined as a mechanism contrived in the course of evolution as the
+normal, healthy mode for meeting stress and strain. The Kinetic chain
+of organs, brain, adrenals, liver, thyroid and muscles, began working
+together in desperate situations for their possessor ages ago.
+Successful in helping him to survive, they have survived as a
+functional unit.
+
+It was probably evolved in the Post-Tertiary Era, about twenty million
+years ago, when the coming of the carnivores introduced direct
+body-to-body conflicts, and their concomitants, a quick and versatile
+nervous system. During the Tertiary epoch the earth basked in the heat
+of a tropical sun nearly everywhere on its surface. The luxuriant
+vegetation of the torrid zone flourished and swarmed, for the
+temperature all over was what it is today at the equator. Gigantic
+vegetarians were the animals, creatures like the dinosaurs, enormous,
+gargoylean monsters, of an incredible size and strength, but clumsy
+and grotesque, with small brains and little intelligence. For what
+need was there for brain and intelligence when food lay about so
+abundantly at hand for them to gorge themselves. As there was no
+competition for food, there were no enemies.
+
+Then as the earth evolved and grew cooler, vegetation failed, the
+ancestors of the present carnivora appeared, the fathers of the
+wolf and tiger, light, lithe and pugnacious, with senses acute and
+ferocious weapons of attack, who set out to destroy everybody. They
+destroyed pretty nearly all of the huge leaf-eating species, and only
+the more plastic and smaller ones, who were more keen-sensed and
+swift-footed (of whom the deer and antelope, horse and ox are the
+descendants), escaped. The smallest either took to the air to become
+the bat, or, like the forerunners of the squirrel and ape, took to the
+trees.
+
+It was the coming of the carnivores, therefore, that accelerated the
+development of brain matter, and started the process which created
+man. But in the millions and millions of years of conflicts, instincts
+grew into being that sank deep into bone and marrow. The most
+fundamental reflexes, those immediate responses to irritation or
+danger, were laid down, and among them the drive and check system.
+When the animal had decided to fight its enemy or was forced to fight,
+or determined to prey, then was the time for the drive system to do
+its utmost to speed up everything that would help in the fight, while
+the check system came into play to hinder whatever would interfere or
+burden in the fray. First the drive mechanism must have been hit upon,
+and then the value of the check devices must have been found in fear
+and flight, and especially in hiding and simulation of death, when
+even breathing had to be inhibited. Until finally there developed, for
+everyday use, a complete check and drive nerve machinery for every
+organ, to be used according to the exigencies of the moment, with the
+thyroid as the primary stimulant and controller of the drive system
+and the adrenal as the primary dictator over the check system.
+
+THE HARMONY OF THE HORMONES
+
+All the glands, in fact, work in unison, with a distribution of the
+balance of power that diplomatists might envy. In the co-ordinating
+synchronism, the vegetative nervous system plays the part of an agent
+that acts as well as is acted upon. The chemical interaction of the
+internal secretions is not the only way in which they influence each
+other. For, as the case of the thyroid and the adrenal so well shows,
+secretions which, when directly interacting, are mutually reinforcing,
+when affecting nerves, may become clashing opponents.
+
+The Kinetic Chain is about as good a case as there is of the glands of
+internal secretion co-operating. The Check and Drive systems, with the
+adrenals and thyroid opposed, are one of the best instances of their
+antagonisms. Besides, there are a number of other relationships
+between them that might be cited. They all bear with more or less
+pressure, positive or negative, upon the sex glands which will be
+considered in its place. If one wished to consider all the glands in
+their pro and anti relations, a separate volume would be required.
+
+THE VEGETATIVE APPARATUS
+
+The combination of the internal secretions and the vegetative system
+has been spoken of as the vegetative or autonomic apparatus. The
+vegetative apparatus is the oldest part of the nervous system.
+And some acquaintance with its constitution is necessary to any
+understanding of the possibilities of control of human nature.
+
+For modern thought does not regard the brain as the organ of mind at
+all, but as one unit of a complex synthesis, of which mind is the
+product, and the vegetative apparatus is the major component. That
+involves the blasting of the last current superstition of the
+traditional psychology, the dogma that the brain is the exclusive seat
+of mind.
+
+That an animal is a vast concourse of cells is one of the accepted
+fundamentals of biology. What is not so generally taken into
+consideration is that the assemblage is formed by the agglutinations
+of millions of years, and that it is hence composed of parts of
+different ages and pedigrees, some exceedingly ancient and hoary, some
+middle-aged, and some relatively new and recent. In the invertebrates,
+who date further back in the history of the planet than any
+vertebrate, the nervous system consists of discrete patches of nerve
+cells, the ganglions composing the ganglionic system of which the
+vegetative or autonomic nervous system of man is the direct descendant
+and representative. The brain and central nervous system are
+definitely later acquisitions, imposed upon the original stratum of
+the check and drive machine.
+
+The primitive chassis of the mechanism, so to speak, is the so-called
+vegetative nervous system. Grouped with that system are the primeval
+breathing, feeding and reproducing inventions, the viscera boxed up
+in the chest and abdomen. The third partner is the glands of internal
+secretion, which act upon the viscera both directly and indirectly
+through the check and drive effect upon the vegetative nerves.
+The glands are like tuning keys, by which certain strings in the
+instrument may be tightened, so that its vibratory activity is
+increased, or they may be loosened, the vibrations decreased, the
+activity lessened. Tuning up the motors is a constant process in the
+organism. Finally, there are the large nerve masses at the base of the
+brain known as the basal ganglia, which contain the nerve centers for
+the co-ordination of the other three. All these together constitute
+the oldest family of the corporate organism. Beside them, the brain
+and the face and the prehensile organs are mere parvenus.
+
+THE OLDEST PART OF THE MIND
+
+Granted, then, that this vegetative apparatus is the most deeply
+rooted core of our being. What warrant is there for the grandiloquence
+of the phrase: the Oldest part of the Mind? There is, indeed, room for
+rhetoric, even poetry, here. For all the evidence points to it as the
+rightful occupant of the throne upon which Shelley placed his Brownie
+as the Soul of the Soul. Or to put it in another way, we think and
+feel primarily with the vegetative apparatus, with our muscles,
+especially the involuntary, with our viscera, and particularly with
+our internal secretions. Whenever there is thought and feeling, there
+is movement, commotion, precedent and concomitant, among these. They
+are the oldest seats of feeling, thought and will and continue to
+function as such.
+
+Just what evidence is there for this conception? In the first place,
+there is the fascinating story of the origin of vertebrates from
+invertebrates of the sea scorpion or spider type. Then there is a
+whole group of data which demonstrate that the primitive wishes which
+make up the content of a baby consciousness are determined, settled by
+states of relaxation or tension in different segments or areas of the
+vegetative apparatus. According to this, the brain enters as only one
+of the characters in the play of consciousness. It is just the organ
+of awareness by the organism of itself as an integer which must adjust
+itself to the specific condition within the disturbed vegetative
+apparatus. Consequently the brain emerges not as the master tissue,
+but as merely the servant of the vegetative apparatus.
+
+Consciousness is a circuit. Swinging around in it are the
+wish-feelings generated by the vegetative dynamo. From each viscus,
+from the stomach and intestine, from the kidneys and bladder, from
+the liver and spleen, from the blood-vessels, from all the glands
+of external and internal secretion, there flow along the vegetative
+nerves, to and from the brain, energies of various qualities and
+intensities. All the members of the vegetative apparatus are more or
+less active, and so all our wishes are all more or less active. All
+our working hours we are aware of hunger, satiety or indifference, of
+a desire to empty the intestine or bladder, or of a lack of necessity
+of doing so, of a state of tranquillity of the blood-vessels and sweat
+glands, or of a perturbation of them, of a varying tensity of even the
+muscles that are, as we say, under the control of the will, of the
+state, in fact, of all the elements of the vegetative complex. The
+stream of feeling which constitutes the undertow of consciousness
+originates outside of the brain altogether, and is composed of
+currents arising from viscera, muscles, blood-vessels and glands.
+
+Now the component currents are of different sizes and positions and
+variable degrees of warmth. That is another way of saying that whether
+or not a current is to become the center of the stream, or to approach
+it, or whether it is to be hot, cold, or tepid, depends upon the
+degree of activity of the various parts of the vegetative apparatus.
+A convenient name for this is _tonus_. Tonus can be experimentally
+watched and measured. Thus hunger, the most primitive of the
+wish-feelings, has been found to be simultaneous with certain
+characteristic contractions of the stomach. Stop those contractions,
+and you stop the hunger. The contractions begin slowly and weakly,
+and no awareness of them occurs in the mind. As they grow stronger,
+consciousness becomes a sensation rather like an itch somewhere in
+the upper abdomen, and accompanied sometimes by a sense of general
+weakness. The vegetative activity going on as a current almost on the
+outside of the stream of feeling has swelled and warmed, and so forced
+itself, in a manner of speaking, into the center of the stream. Or if
+you will, the rest of the stream has to arrange itself around it as
+the center. A similar mechanism for the tonus of the other members
+of the vegetative system, and how they determine consciousness and
+behaviour is understandable. It has been shown that when the bladder
+tone and the intestinal tone are of a definitely measurable size, one
+has the desire to empty them. The same applies to the sex glands.
+The pressure within a viscus is dependent upon the ratio between the
+amount of contraction of the involuntary muscle in its walls, the
+external pressure, and the quantity of its distending contents, the
+internal pressure. The resultant quotient, the internal pressure
+divided by the external pressure, measures the intravisceral pressure.
+The primitive wish-feelings are the direct expressions of the various
+intravisceral pressures, or tones. The primitive soul is an awareness
+of the fused primitive wish-feelings of themselves as a whole, and of
+the struggle between them for recognition, isolation, and, as we say,
+satisfaction. This satisfaction consists in a degradation of the
+highest intravisceral pressure to a point at which some other
+intravisceral pressure becomes higher and therefore predominant.
+
+PHYSICS OF THE WISH
+
+Mind, consciousness, may then be portrayed as an ocean comprised of
+mobile current layers, complexes built up around the awareness of
+different intravisceral pressures. A shifting hierarchy of such
+pressures form the points of focusing of consciousness that result in
+conduct. Behaviour may be defined as the resultant of the organism's
+pressure against the environment's counter pressure until there is
+a sufficient reduction of the specifically exciting intravisceral
+pressure. Just as water flows to its own level, so will conduct flow
+to reduce intravisceral pressure to its own level. A physics of the
+soul comes into prospect, in which a mathematical analysis will state
+the process quantitatively in terms of some common unit of pressure.
+
+Not only conduct, but also character, because it is past conduct
+repeated, associated, and fixed, will be so statable. For
+intravisceral tonus or pressure is not simply or only an acute or
+passing affair. There is for it a persistent or average figure,
+the so-called normal for it, below which or above which the acute
+situation will bring it. _Character_ is a _matter then of standards
+in the vegetative system_. Character, indeed, is an alloy of the
+different standard intravisceral pressures of the organism, a fusion
+created by the resistance or counter pressure of the obstacles in the
+environment. Character, in short, is the grand intravisceral barometer
+of a personality.
+
+Thus the comfortable, healthy, happy, well-balanced, progressive,
+constructive, virile personality is one in whom there is a
+continuously harmonious reduction of the intravisceral pressures in
+the environment called society. For in a gregarious creature, like
+man, fellow beings are the most powerful determinants of negative and
+positive vegetative pressures. Not so well rounded are other types
+existing because of inferiorities or excesses of the standard visceral
+tone. There is, for instance, the sexually cold type, comfortable by
+creating for itself an anaphrodisiac environment composed of pressures
+that can be fitted into its own. Or there may be an insufficiency of
+standard pressure in the alimentary tract, and we have the ascetic,
+mal-nourished, striving, uplifting type. Different types will be made
+by the permutations and combinations of factors that determine the
+intravisceral pressure and the environmental, i.e., social resistances
+or counter pressures.
+
+INTERNAL SECRETIONS DETERMINANTS OF VEGETATIVE PRESSURES
+
+Now of all the different factors which determine the tones, that is to
+say, the internal pressures, of the various parts of the vegetative
+apparatus (including all structures not controlled by the will in
+the term), the internal secretions or hormones are by far the most
+important. This significance is conferred upon them because it is
+by their activities primarily that these pressures are produced,
+regulated, lowered and heightened; in short, controlled. We have seen
+how the thyroid and adrenal hold the reins of the drive or check
+systems in the vegetative apparatus. Together with the other ductless
+glands, they decide the advance or halt, forward or retreat, tension
+or relaxation, charge and discharge, of the visceral--involuntary
+muscle--blood vessel combination which is at the core of life. Here
+again they emerge as the directorate.
+
+Carlson, the Chicago physiologist, who probably knows more about being
+hungry than any other man on the planet, once demonstrated that the
+injection of an ounce or two of the blood, which means the internal
+secretion mixture, of a starving animal, into one not starving
+increased the signs of hunger and the accompanying hunger contractions
+of the stomach. There can be no doubt that hunger is the expression of
+a certain specific concentration of internal secretion or secretions
+in the blood. When the quantity, in the cycles of metabolism, becomes
+sufficiently great, it stimulates the stomach to contract in a way
+which augments the pressure within it to a point at which the feeling
+of hungriness, and the wish to satisfy it, or to get rid of it,
+becomes imperative, and the dominant of consciousness.
+
+Without doubt the sexual cravings are likewise so determined. Sex
+libido is an expression of a certain concentration, a definite amount
+peculiar to the individual, of the substance manufactured by the
+interstitial cells, circulating in the blood. It arouses its effects
+probably by (1) increasing the amount of reproductive material in
+the sex glands in a direct chemically stimulating effect upon the
+germinative cells, and so raising the internal pressure within them,
+(2) stimulating the involuntary muscles within the walls and the
+canals of the sex glands, and so, by augmenting the tenseness of the
+muscles, elevating the total intravisceral pressure, (3) by a direct
+chemical and indirect nervous effect upon the brain, the muscles, the
+heart, as well as the other glands of internal secretion stimulating
+the organism as a whole. Though the isolation in pure form of the
+substance or substances involved has never been scientifically
+achieved, their inference is entirely justified. It is indeed the only
+comprehensible mechanism conceivable that will fit all the known facts
+about the matter. And even though the assertions of Brown-Séquard were
+only the exaggerations of a semi-charlatan, it is certain that some
+day in the near future the particular substance, that he claimed he
+had discovered, will be handed about in bottles for the inspection of
+the curious.
+
+Besides thyroxin, adrenalin, and the libido-producing secretion of the
+interstitial cells, the substance produced by the paired glandlets,
+situated behind the thyroid, the parathyroids, have a profound
+influence upon the vegetative apparatus and the vegetative nervous
+system. These direct the lime exchanges within the cells of the
+organisms, including the nerve cells. It has been shown that lime is,
+relatively, a sedative to cells. It raises the threshold or strength
+of stimulus necessary to evoke a reaction. Removing the parathyroids
+means removing the lime barrier, for with their deficiency there is a
+change in, and then an escape, from the blood, of the lime, by way
+of the kidneys. The result is sometimes an enormous increase in the
+excitability of all the cells, and especially of the vegetative
+apparatus. What that means for the individual whose comfort depends
+upon a stability of the intravisceral tones and pressures may be
+readily imagined.
+
+The pancreas likewise acts as a sedative to the vegetative apparatus.
+In particular, this applies to the sugar mechanism in the liver under
+the discipline of the check and drive organization. The adrenal and
+the pancreas are the direct antagonists in the struggle for control of
+sugar. Removal of the adrenals will cause a decrease in the amount
+of sugar in the blood, while removal of the pancreas will produce an
+increase. Excess of sugar in the blood may thus be concomitant with
+changes of character considered incorrigible.
+
+In different locales of the vegetative apparatus, as indeed of
+the body in general, the directorate seems to be handed over to a
+committee of control, generally made up of two members working
+in opposing directions. Such a division of power in the general
+directorate is analogous to the small holding corporations which
+divide functions in, for example, the United States Steel Corporation.
+The relative ratios of tonus in these smaller internal secretion
+balances are of the utmost significance as causes of differences
+in the vegetative apparatus, which are the basis of differences in
+structure, power, and character between individuals.
+
+THE GENERAL LAWS OF THE DIRECTORATE
+
+Our knowledge of the glands of internal secretions as an interlocking
+directorate presiding over all the functions of the organism is still
+exceedingly meagre. As yet, we seem to be knocking at the portals
+of the chemistry of the imponderable. There are holes in the bronze
+doors, and we glimpse the unfathomable distances of unexplored
+regions. But we do see something, and we do glimpse a beginning.
+Already the outlines of a differential anatomy, and a different
+physiology and a differential psychology, which will explain to us
+the unique in the constitution, the temperament and character of
+an individual, emerge. It is worth while, before proceeding to the
+details, so valuable to a society which would become rational, to
+summarize the general principles emerging, expressing the directing
+powers of the ductless glands over the individual. _They may be
+regarded as the present postulates of a new science of the whys and
+wherefores separating and setting apart, as so recognizably distinct,
+those peregrinating chemical mixtures: men and women_.
+
+1. The life of every individual, in every stage, is dominated largely
+by his glands of internal secretion. That is, they, as a complex
+internal messenger and director system, control organ and function,
+conduct and character. The orderliness of human life, in the
+sequential march of its episodes, crises, successes and failures,
+depends, to a large extent, upon their interactions with each other
+and with the environment.
+
+2. One or several of the glands possesses a controlling or superior
+influence above that of the others in the physiology of the individual
+and so becomes the central gland of his life, its dominant, indeed, so
+far as it casts a deciding vote or veto, in its everyday existence and
+incidents as well as in its high points, the climaxes and emergencies.
+
+3. These glandular preponderances are at the basis of personality,
+creating genius and dullard, weakling and giant, Cavalier and Puritan.
+All human traits may be analyzed in terms of them because they are
+expressions of them.
+
+4. Specific types of personality may be directly associated with
+particular glandular prominences, so that we have the thyroid-centered
+types, the pituitary-centered types, the adrenal-centered types, etc.
+These are the classic Three, the prototypes in their purity most
+easily described and recognized.
+
+5. Combinations of these, as well as of other glands--with joint
+predominance--occur and indeed form the majority of populations. The
+phenomena of varieties in species are thus explained.
+
+6. Internal secretion traits are inherited, and variations in heredity
+are essentially the structural representation of the resultant of a
+parallelogram of forces exerted by each of the parental prepotent
+glands. If they are of the same type, they may reinforce each other:
+if not, inhibitions and compensations will come into play. Mendelian
+laws may apply.
+
+7. The process of evolution, as the play of natural selection upon
+these variations, becomes comprehensible from a new standpoint.
+
+8. Certain diseases, and disease tendencies, both acute and
+constitutional, as well as traits of temperament and character, and
+predetermined reactions to certain recurring situations in life,
+are rooted in the glandular soils that compose the stuff of the
+individual.
+
+9. The subconscious, of which the vegetative apparatus is the physical
+basis, leads back to the internal secretions for the profoundest
+springs of its secrets. We shall see how and why.
+
+10. Given the internal secretory composition, so to speak, of an
+individual--his endocrine formula--and so his intravisceral pressures,
+one may predict, within limits, his physical and psychic make-up,
+the general lines of his life, diseases, tastes, idiosyncrasies and
+habits.
+
+11. Within limits, if the previous history of an individual is known,
+his physical appearance may be approximately described, and his future
+outlined.
+
+12. Conversely, given the physical and psychic composition of an
+individual, and his past history, one may deduce the internal
+secretion type to which he belongs.
+
+Examples:
+
+  A. One Thyroid-centered Type has
+    Bright eyes
+    Good clean teeth
+    Symmetrical features
+    Moist flushed skin
+    Temperamental attitude toward life
+    Tendency to heart, intestinal and nervous disease
+
+  B. One Pituitary-centered Type
+    Abnormally large or small size
+    Musical--acute sense of rhythm
+    Asymmetrical features
+    Tendency to cyclic or periodic diseases
+
+  C. One Adrenal-centered Type
+    Hairy
+    Dark
+    Masculinity marked
+    Tendency to diphtheria and hernia
+
+These are some of the master types. They have their variants depending
+upon the influences of the other glands, especially the interstitial
+cells of the sex glands.
+
+ANTE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+In their ensemble, the glands of internal secretion wield a
+determining influence upon the development of the individual from
+his very inception. If his various powers may be conceived of as an
+orchestra, they may be said to conduct it from the very beginning of
+its movements, and to cease only with its termination. From the moment
+when the spermatozoon penetrates and fecundates the ovum, the fate
+of the future being is settled by their disposition. The seal of his
+destiny is soaked with their substance.
+
+POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+Every particle of protoplasm, every granule of the impregnated ovum
+carries the representatives of the parental ductless glands. As a
+consequence, they transmit chemically, with no figure of speech
+involved, the peculiar familial, racial and national characters from
+progenitors to offspring. They confer upon the child a number of the
+properties commonly recognized as inherited. All those features which
+distinguish Caucasian from Mongolian, Scandinavian from Italian,
+Italian from Jew are determined by them.
+
+In short, at every step of his life, in every relation and
+association, in every expression of the inner forces that control his
+being, the normal individual is influenced by his internal secretions.
+Let us now see how.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE NORMAL BODY
+
+
+The origin of the remarkable differences between individuals that
+distinguish species, varieties and families, has long been one of the
+chief puzzles of biology. It may indeed be called the leading puzzle,
+which led Darwin on to the collection of the data that culminated in
+the "Origin of Species." The why of the Unique is the fundamental
+problem of those who would understand life.
+
+An explanation is an attempt at a consistent and persistent, sometimes
+an obstinate clarity of mind. A vast number of observations gathered
+by laboratory experimentalists as well as by those naturalists of the
+abnormal, physicians in active practice, prove that the construction
+of the individual both during development before maturity, and
+maintenance during maturity, his constitution, in short, is directed
+by the endocrine glands. It is possible now to present an explanation
+of the individuality of the individual.
+
+To assert that variation is responsible for the individual, that it
+is the mechanism which isolates him as a being like none other of his
+fellows, not even his parents, brothers, and sisters, is merely to beg
+the question. What is variation? The internal secretion theory of the
+process offers, for the first time, an explanation that is coherent
+and comprehensive, based upon concrete and detailed observations.
+It provides an adequate interpretation of the numberless hereditary
+gradations and transitions, blendings and mixtures. It suggests a
+control of heredity in the future.
+
+THE PURE TYPES
+
+In the pure types, only one gland, either by being present in great
+excess above the average, or by being pretty well below the average,
+comes to exercise the dominating influence upon the traits of the
+organism. As the strongest link in the chain, or as the weakest, it
+rules. The others must accommodate themselves to it. Among them as
+commanders of growth, development and normal function, it holds the
+balance of power. In every emergency it stands out by its strength or
+by its weakness. It thus creates its own type of man or woman, with
+attributes and characteristics peculiar to itself. These pure types,
+as we have seen, are mainly the thyroid, the pituitary, and the
+adrenal-centered.
+
+Each with the signs peculiar to it can be identified among the faces
+that pass one in the street. And they differ so markedly among
+themselves that they provide a new and accurate means of classifying
+varieties among the races of the species: man. The thyroid type
+differs as much from the adrenal type as does a greyhound from a
+bull-dog. The greyhound has a certain size, form, character and
+capacity. The bull-dog has similar qualities which are yet quite
+different. Each is built for a particular career. Among human beings,
+the pure thyroid type is easily distinguished from the pure adrenal
+type, and both of these from the pure pituitary type. Each is stamped
+with a significant figure, height, skin, hair, temperament, ambition,
+social reactions and predisposition to certain diseases.
+
+THE MIXED TYPES
+
+Among the mixed types, the lines of distinction are less clear, and so
+they are more difficult to classify. The mixed types may be said to
+be hyphenated. In them, two or even three of the internal secretory
+glands conflict for predominance. The combined action makes for a
+resultant modification in the primary glandular markings and effects.
+A hyphenated classification thus becomes inevitable. Especially is
+this so if the two glands are mutually antagonistic and inhibitory.
+A compromise effect is then necessitated. Or an individual may be
+dominated by one gland at one period of his life and by another at a
+later period. One of the glands, the thyroid, for example, will show,
+by the traces it has left upon the earliest developing features, that
+it was in control at the very earliest dates of his history, while
+other signs will disclose the more recent influence of the adrenal
+or of the pituitary. The combination becomes classifiable as the
+thyroid-pituitary type, or as the thyroid-adrenal type.
+
+That the external features as well as the chronic diseases of human
+beings are controlled by some common factor has long been suspected.
+Inquiries into morbid phenomena with a hereditary trend yielded
+information that has paved the way for the internal secretion theory.
+It has long been known that certain diseases effect only certain
+individuals of a definite constitution. Apoplexy, diabetes,
+arteriosclerosis, Bright's disease, are met with almost exclusively in
+what the older clinicians talked about as the apopleptic type. On the
+other hand, they said, anemias, tuberculosis, hemophilias, scrofulas
+occurred more among the lymphatic type. But they had no idea whatever
+of the true functional basis of the two different types. The truth
+as we of today view it is that these two types represent different
+textures of human beings, fabricated of different internal secretions.
+They are really two different breeds of the species Homo Sapiens. The
+materials being different, the color and feel of them is different,
+and the resistance to wear and tear is different.
+
+ENDOCRINE ANALYSIS
+
+The modes of classification glimpsed at are certainly exceedingly
+broad and sweeping. It is well enough to establish types and classes.
+But beneath them are sheltered the infinite possibilities of
+permutations and combinations, which explain the countless variety
+and complexity of form and function. Every individual born among the
+vertebrates, for example, must have a certain definite amount and
+percentage of pituitary gland, anterior and posterior, pineal,
+thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, interstitial and
+so on. Now if, to state it in terms of percentages, for the sake of
+argument, the pituitary is 25, the pineal 10, the thyroid 36, the
+parathyroids 15, the thymus 29, the adrenals 60, the pancreas 49, the
+interstitials 72 (the gland when acting maximally to be graded as
+100), we see at once how different such an individual must be from one
+who has, say, pituitary 84, pineal 39, thyroid 26, parathyroid 42,
+adrenals 96, pancreas 22 and interstitials 89. One obtains at once
+from the contrasts of such figures some idea of the possibilities. As
+each point plus or minus must count to produce some difference in the
+individual, the results are manifest. Varying within the numerical
+limits imposed by genus, species, variety and family (which limits
+are probably responsible for the persistence of the particular genus,
+species, variety, or family) the individual becomes an individual
+because of the relative values of the percentages in his blood and
+tissues of these different internal secretions. We thus begin to gain
+an insight into the patterns according to which men, women and animals
+are woven.
+
+We are, as yet, far from an exact endocrine analysis of the
+individual. But we know that the endocrines rule over growth and
+nutrition, a vast dominion which incorporates every organ and every
+tissue. By enhancing or retarding the nutritional changes, the growth
+of the organ or tissue is favored or restricted. The size and shape of
+an individual, as a whole, as well as of the specialized cell masses
+composing him, as hands and feet, the nose and ears, and so on, are
+therefore controlled by them. Whether an organism is to be tall or
+short, lean or corpulent, graceful or awkward, is decided by their
+interactions. These, like human covenants, vary with the different
+reactions of the parties to the contract. And so a great deal depends
+upon whether they work harmoniously or discordantly, and upon which
+does the most work and which the least.
+
+Undersecretion and Oversecretion
+
+It is when a gland, either in the course of development, or because of
+the influence of starvation, shock, injury, poisoning or infection,
+begins to undersecrete or oversecrete that its effects upon growth and
+nutrition become grossly manifest. A veritable transfiguration of the
+individual may occur, the black magic of which may perplex him for
+a lifetime. A man, made eunuchoid by an accident or by mumps, will
+observe in himself astonishing changes in his constitutional make-up,
+mentality and sexuality. He would be more astounded to learn that
+beneath the appearances, the changes, so alarming him, there are
+profound alterations in the rate at which he is taking in oxygen,
+burning up sugar, accumulating carbon dioxide and excreting waste
+byproducts through the kidneys, which are responsible for them.
+
+The differences between the normal and abnormal are only a matter of
+degree. And so, to be sure, are differences between types. But it is
+hard to realize that the striking distinctions between the thyroid
+type and the pituitary, comparable, as said, to the differences
+between a greyhound and a bull-dog, are dependent solely upon
+quantitative variations in the general and local speeds of metabolism,
+among the cells.
+
+DIVISION OF LABOR
+
+Besides the antagonisms and co-operations between them, there are
+certain lines along which the glands, in their effects, specialize.
+The thyroid, for instance, is concerned specially with the regulation
+of the shape, form and finish of an organ. The pituitary shines at the
+periods of developmental crises, determining them and modifying them.
+It exerts the greatest influence upon the time of eruption of the
+teeth, both the temporary and the permanent, the onset of puberty, the
+recurrence of menstruation in women, and the time of occurrence of
+labor. The interstitial glands distribute the basis of the powers and
+limitations of masculinity and femininity. Abnormalities of these
+glands also affect the individual all along the line, in all of his
+aspects. So affected he may apparently change into a wholly different
+being. He may change in size, in the shape of his head, feet and
+hands, as well as in his habits, aptitudes and dispositions. So he may
+find it necessary to purchase an entirely different size of hat, more
+commodious clothes, and newly fitting gloves and shoes. At the same
+time, his family, relatives and friends, discover that the erstwhile
+generous, frank, neat and punctual and liked, has become stingy and
+suspicious and slovenly and hated. And all because a gland has begun
+to undersecrete or to oversecrete. The transformation will be slight
+or marked, depending entirely upon the extent of impairment, positive
+or negative, of the gland involved.
+
+But it is not only in the shaping of the normal individual's
+architecture that the internal secretions dominate. Over that subtle
+something known in all languages as vitality, expressive of the
+intensity of feeling, thought and reactions in cells, they rule
+supreme. Gay vivacity and grim determination, the temperament of a
+Louis XIV, and the soul of a Cromwell, are the crystallizations of
+these chemical substances acting upon the brain.
+
+INTERNAL SECRETION VARIETIES
+
+There is no better way of illustrating the influence of the internal
+secretions upon the normal than the analysis of the variation of
+traits with variations in glandular predominances. The general build
+of an individual, his skeletal type, the proportion between the size
+of his arms and that of his legs, as well as that between his trunk
+and his lower extremities, whether he is to be tall, lanky and
+loutish, or short, squat and dumpy, are to be considered. Different
+facial types are the expressions of underlying endocrine differences.
+The head and skull offer a number of clues to the controlling
+secretions in the blood and tissues. Whether the forehead is to be
+broad or narrow, the distance between the eyes, the character of the
+eyebrows, the shape and size and appearance of the eyes themselves,
+the mould of the nose and jaws and the peculiarities of the teeth, are
+all so determined. The skin, in its color, texture, the quantity
+and distribution of its fatty and other constituents, eruptions and
+weather reactions, is influenced. Also the mucous membranes, the
+color and lustre and structure of the hair, as well as its general
+distribution and development, are hieroglyphics of the endocrine
+processes below the surface. Whether the muscles are massive or
+sparse, atrophied or hypertrophied, soft or hard, easily fatigable
+or not, bespeak conditions in the glandular chain. In short, we must
+regard the individual as an immensely complicated pattern of designs
+traced by the hormones as the primary etchers of his development.
+Though it must be admitted that the number of unknown and unsolved
+relations in the pattern are still enormously great, enough has
+been established to make possible a rough working analysis of the
+particular, unique organism placed before us for examination as Mr.
+Smith, Mrs. Jones, or Miss Smith-Jones.
+
+WHAT IS THE NORMAL?
+
+Anthropologists, from the beginning of anthropology, have battled
+in vain for a satisfactory inclusive definition, or, at least,
+description of the normal. With the introduction of the biometric
+method, the goal at last appeared within sight. A cocked hat curve
+expressing the distribution and range of the normal looks formidable.
+The attainable turned out a mirage, for the curves constructable by
+the measurement of traits of a population only proved the truth of the
+old axiom that all transitions and variations between extremes exist.
+The Problem of the Normal seemed more elusive than ever. And the best
+that could be done for the elucidation of its mystery, was to apply
+and observe the law of averages.
+
+From the endocrine standpoint, the reason for this becomes clear. The
+biometric method concerned itself with externals, with, as it were,
+symptoms. Since these external signs are but manifestations of the
+inner chemical reactions, of which the internal secretions are the
+determining reagents, or factors, with permutations and combinations
+possible in all directions, the diversity and variability of each
+individual and his traits stands explained and understandable. The
+normal, as the perfect or nearly perfect balance of forces in the
+organism, at any given moment, emerges as a more definite and real
+concept than that which would abstract it from a curve of variations.
+Moreover, since the directive forces within the organism are
+pre-eminently the internal secretions, the normal becomes definable as
+their harmonious balancing or equilibrium, a state which tends not to
+undo (as the abnormal does) but to prolong itself.
+
+The potential combinations and compensations, antagonisms and
+counteractions, attainable within the endocrine glands as an
+interlocking directorate, point the cause for the elusive quality of
+the normal. Tall men and short men, blonde women and dumpy women,
+lanky hatchet-faced people, stout moon-faced people, Falstaff and
+Queen Elizabeth, George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, Disraeli and
+Walt Whitman, Caesar and Alexander, as well as Mr. Smith and Miss
+Jones come within the range of the normal. There are all kinds and
+conditions and sorts of men and women, and all kinds and sorts and
+conditions of the normal, because an incalculable number of harmonious
+relations and interactions between the endocrines are possible, and
+do actually occur. The standard of the normal must obviously not be
+a single standard, but a series of standards, depending upon which
+glands predominate, and how the others adapt themselves to its
+predominance. Adrenal-centered types, thyroid-centered types,
+pituitary-centered types, thymus-centered types, as well as hyphenated
+compounds of these, such as the pituitary-adrenal types, exist as
+normals. They can be conceived of as normal types because they exist
+as normal types.
+
+THE SKELETAL TYPES
+
+Now men, for as long as we have any knowledge of their thoughts and
+classifications and attitudes, have been accustomed to first think
+of one another, to classify and size one another as tall or short,
+slender or broad, thin or corpulent. The biological necessity, indeed,
+instinct of the one animal to relate the other animal to aggressive or
+harmless agencies in his surroundings, accounts for this. Relatively,
+of course, for all these modes of description imply offensive or
+defensive possibilities of the stimulus for the recorder in relation
+to himself. The interest in stature is fundamental, and has persisted
+in the most civilized, nations. The relationship of height and weight,
+as well as of length and breadth, to other physical traits, have
+formed the subject of scientific study. There is, for instance, the
+classification of Bean, who divided mankind generally into two types,
+those of a medium size, stocky long legs and arms, large hands and
+feet, short trunk, and face large in comparison to the head (the
+meso-onto-morphs) and those who were either tall and slender, or small
+and delicate, with the smaller face, eyes close together, long, high,
+narrow nose, and trunk longer as compared with the extremities (the
+hyper-onto-morphs). Bean showed, too, that the hypers (to use a short
+word to contrast with the mesos) were present to the extent of almost
+a hundred per cent in a series of tuberculosis, and about ninety per
+cent in a series of central nervous system disease. All of which is
+exceedingly interesting and suggestive, but throws no light upon the
+underlying mechanisms of statures.
+
+STATURE AND GROWTH
+
+Stature is essentially determined by the growth of the long bones.
+They are the pace-makers, and the muscles and soft tissues follow the
+pace they set. Now the primary determinant, catalyst or sensitizer of
+the growth of the long bones is the anterior pituitary. All statures
+should therefore be first scrutinized from the point of view of the
+pituitary. Individuals over six feet tall or under five feet five
+inches should be looked upon as having a pituitary trend. This
+pituitary trend may be primary, due to its own undergrowth or
+overgrowth, or it may be due to lack of inhibition from the sex glands
+such as occurs in eunuchs and eunuchoids, or excessive or premature
+inhibition from them as happens in certain salacious dwarfs.
+
+The long bones grow at a point of junction between the bone proper
+and an overlying layer of gristle or cartilage, known as the zone of
+ossification. It is upon this zone of ossification that the various
+growth influences appear to focus and concentrate their efforts, among
+them the internal secretions. After growth has been finished, that is,
+after adolescence, these zones of ossification close, so that growth
+is no longer possible unless they become reactivated. Upon the zone of
+ossification must act the pituitary, and indirectly the thyroid, the
+interstitial cells, the thymus and the adrenals. Individuals oversized
+or undersized either belong to the pituitary type, or if hyphenated,
+have the pituitary as one of the dominants in their composition. The
+necessities of child-bearing determine a greater angle between trunk
+and lower extremities in the female. Underactivity of the pituitary,
+for instance, will prevent the development of the normal angle. The
+ratio in length of the upper limbs to the lower is a fairly constant
+relationship for each sex normally Deviations occur with a break
+somewhere in the chain of cooperation of the internal secretions
+controlling the growth of bone.
+
+HANDS, FINGERS AND TOES
+
+The size and shape and general configuration of the hands, fingers
+and toes are details that tell an endocrine tale. Students of hands
+naturally have grouped them as the long slender and the short, broad,
+the bony and the well-filled out, the tapering fingers and the stumpy.
+The character of a hand is determined anatomically by the length and
+breadth of the bones, the amount and distribution of fat, and the
+thickness and elasticity of the skin. Over these, the essential
+control lies in the pituitary and the thyroid. So we find that
+pituitary types have, when there is oversecretion, large bony, gross
+hands, spade-shaped, or when there is undersecretion, hands that are
+plump, with peculiarly tapering fleshy fingers. The hyperthyroid has
+long slender fingers, the subthyroid pudgy, coarse, ugly foreshortened
+hands, often cold, and bluish.
+
+FACIAL TYPES
+
+An artist will see in a face the past history of generations, a
+narrative of the adventures of the blood, a record of tears and
+smiles, wrinkles and dimples, the victories and defeats of buried
+drudgery and romance. These signatures which the Faculty of Life have
+scribbled or engraved over it as upon a diploma, bespeak for him
+spiritual moments. To the student of the internal secretions the
+lines, expressions, attitudes are important for they tell of the state
+of tensions and strains in the vegetative apparatus with which they
+are inseparably connected. It is when one comes to the consideration
+of the face as a complex of brows, eyes, nose, lips and jaws that he
+becomes most interested. For in the modeling and tone of every one of
+the features each of the endocrine glands has something to say. In
+consequence there has been described the hyperpituitary face, and the
+hyperthyroid face, the subthyroid face and the subpituitary face, the
+adrenal face, the eunuchoid face and the ovarian face and also the
+thymic.
+
+To bring to mind an immediate complete image of the hyperthyroid face,
+one should think of Shelley. The oval shape of it, with the delicate
+modeling of all the features, the wide, high brow, the large,
+vivacious, prominent eyes with the glint of a divine fire in them and
+the sensitive lips all belong to the classical picture. Generally
+flushed over the cheek-bones, there is undoubtedly a certain
+effeminate effect associated with it. At least, it is the least animal
+and brutish of the faces of man.
+
+On the other hand, the subthyroid face is that of the cretin and
+cretinoid idiot, in a mild degree. So characteristic that we recognize
+the portrait in the descriptions of Pliny in early Roman tunes and of
+Marco Polo in his Asiatic travels. Coarseness, dullness, pudginess are
+its keynotes. Irregular features, tendency to wide separation of the
+eyes and pug nose, sallow, puffy complexion, waxy thickened nose and
+eyelids, deep-set, listless, lacklustre eyebrows, and thick prominent
+lips comprise the catalogue of the physiognomy. On the whole, the sort
+of face one passes in the street as stupid and common. But there are
+a number of fascinating and marvelous varieties of the stupid and
+common.
+
+The adrenal face is most often dark or freckled. It tends to be
+irregularly broadish. It is hairy, one is struck forcibly. There is a
+low hair line, which makes the brow appear rather low, and there is
+a good deal of hair over the cheek bones. The adrenal type is round
+headed.
+
+The face of the hyperpituitary is striking and pretty sharply defined.
+It is long and narrow, with a tendency to prominence of the bony
+parts. Square, protruding jaw, high, thin, straight nose, emphasized
+eyebrows, and marked cheek-bones, comprise the leading points in its
+composition. On the other hand, the subpituitary is more rounded and
+trends toward the full moon effect, the chin recedes, the cheek-bones
+are buried under fat, the nose spreads more and is flatter. In its
+general expression, there is a complacence and tranquillity which is
+often mistaken for sleepiness, and often actually is dullness.
+
+The eunuchoid face is usually fat with puffy eyelids. The skin is
+smooth and cool, marble-like often, poor in pigment and color.
+Sometimes it is sallow, wrinkled and senile in a man in his early
+twenties. At others, it is distinctly feminine in its hairlessness,
+and the delicate texture of the skin, as well as in the clean-cut
+patterning of the features. Every gradient between premature senility
+and sex inversion is encountered.
+
+The thymic face frequently stamps its possessor at sight. Its owner
+has a smooth, soft skin, with little or no hair, and a dead white or
+"peaches-and-cream" complexion. One wonders, when unacquainted with
+the type, who the man's barber is, or where he learned to shave
+himself so well. It may be curiously velvety to the touch and swept by
+a faint sheen. Among children occur the most exquisite samples of the
+kind designated as the angelic child. The face is finely moulded and
+beautifully proportioned, features artistically chiselled, eyes blue
+or brown with long lashes, cheeks transparent with rapid, fleeting
+variations in coloring, thin lips, and oval chin. In the adult, the
+chin is receding, and the mouth seems underdeveloped in one variety.
+
+THE TEETH
+
+As closely connected with the internal secretions as are the bones of
+the face and the skull are the teeth. Tooth formation is essentially a
+modified bone formation. And as the bones of the face are influenced,
+so are the teeth influenced. But as each tooth is a miniature organ,
+inspectable by the eye as a unit, the action of the ductless glands
+is more obviously reflected for the observer to read. By their teeth
+shall ye know them. Upon the whole history of the evolution of each
+tooth, in the growth of the dental follicle and its walls, the
+fruition of the dentinal germ, the making of the enamel organ, the
+dental pulp, the cementum and the peridental membrane, the endocrines
+leave their mark.
+
+There are certain general statements about the teeth and the internal
+secretions that can be made. The teeth of the thyroid types are
+pearly, glistening, small and regular; in other words, the teeth to
+which poets have devoted sonnets. The pituitary types have teeth that
+are large and square and irregular, with prominence of the middle
+incisors, and a marked separation or crowding of them. The
+interstitial types have small irregular upper teeth, with turned,
+stumpy or missing lateral incisors. The thymus types have youthful,
+milky white teeth that are thin and translucent, and scalloped or
+crescentic at the grinding edge. The teeth of the adrenal type are all
+well-developed, tend to have a yellowish color, with a reddish tinge
+to the grinding surfaces.
+
+The degree and regularity of development of the middle upper cutting,
+biting teeth, as distinguished from the grinding molars, the middle
+and lateral incisors, and the canines offer further guides to the
+endocrine constitution analysis. The size of the central incisors
+seems to be directly proportional to the degree of pituitary
+predominance. On the other hand, the size and regularity of
+the lateral incisors seem proportional to the influence of the
+interstitial cells. When these are inferior in the make-up of an
+individual, the lateral incisors are nearly always distorted. The
+size of the canines appears to be a measure of adrenal activity. Long
+sharply pointed canines mean well-functioning adrenal gland equipment
+to start in with, inherited from a bellicose progenitor.
+
+No individual peculiarities of the teeth are accidental. Just as the
+absence of hair on the face in a man or a moustache effect in a
+woman stand for some definite stress or strain in the mechanics of
+interaction of the internal secretions, so likewise do variations in
+dentition, as to the time of eruption of the teeth, their position and
+quality, and their resistance to decay.
+
+Proper balance between the thymus and pituitary will permit the
+eruption of the teeth within the normal time limits, both the milk
+teeth and the permanent teeth. When there is equilibrium between the
+pituitary and the gonads, the teeth will be regular in shape and
+position. Carious teeth, in children and adults, sometimes indicate
+endocrine imbalance. Thyroid and adrenal balance determines the
+resistance to decay of the molars. Early decay of the molars in
+children is significant of insufficiency of the thyroid. When the
+first permanent molar, which should appear in the upper arch in its
+usual position between the sixth or eighth years, does not, there has
+been a prenatal disturbance of the pituitary, according to Chayes
+and others. Rapid decay of the teeth in childhood should always call
+attention to the parathyroids.
+
+In pregnancy, the teeth suffer particularly because of disturbances of
+the endocrines. The saying, "A tooth for every child," is said to have
+its equivalent in every language. The bicuspids and second permanent
+molars erupt around puberty, when profound readjustments are going on
+among the glands of internal secretion. They consequently suffer with
+their abnormalities or divergences from type. The teeth thus furnish a
+good deal of information concerning the distribution of the balance of
+power among the hormones.
+
+THE SKIN
+
+The skin is influenced in its color, moisture, hairiness, texture, fat
+content and disease vulnerability by the endocrines. The question of
+color is very interesting, for it is probably the expression of the
+blending action of the different internal secretions. Davenport, the
+American student of heredity and eugenics, has shown that neither
+white nor black skins are either perfectly white or perfectly black,
+but are mixtures in various proportions of black, yellow, red and
+white. The exact percentages of the pigments in each particular skin,
+can be determined by means of a rotating disc. Thus a white person's
+skin may have the following composition:
+
+Black 8% Red 50%
+
+Yellow 9% White 33%
+
+The composition of the skin of a very black negro may be:
+
+Black 68% Red 26%
+
+Yellow 2% White 7%
+
+Now the fact that in Addison's disease in which the adrenals are
+destroyed there occurs a coincident increase in the black in the
+skin, and other evidence pointing to adrenal implication in dark
+complexioned white people, as well as in those possessing pigmented
+spots, seems to indicate the adrenals as controllers of the black
+and white factors. Davenport has concluded that there are two double
+factors for black pigmentation in the full-blooded negro which are
+separately inheritable. The determinants of the red and yellow have
+still to be worked out.
+
+The moistness of the skin, as perspiration, depends upon the number
+and activity of the sweat glands. It varies with the water content of
+the body, the state of the vegetative nervous system, and the body
+temperature. Thus the skin of the hyperthyroid and the subadrenal
+is soft and moist, because of their antagonistic effects upon the
+sympathetic system. The subthyroid and the hyperadrenal have dry
+and harsh skins for the same reason, if no other glands intervene.
+However, in both of the latter, if there is a persistent thymus, the
+skin will retain the bland quality of adolescence.
+
+There is a curious variation among the different internal secretion
+types in the reaction of the skin to stroking. When the skin,
+especially the skin over the shoulders, the breasts and the abdomen,
+is stroked with some blunt object, the blood vessels react either by a
+greater filling up or emptying of themselves. The latter occurs most
+regularly in the subadrenal types, the former in the hyperthyroid.
+Both forms of reaction run parallel to the different check or drive
+effects of the vegetative apparatus. With too much drive, that is, too
+much thyroid, there is the flushing reaction; with too little check,
+that is, with too little adrenal, there is the whitening. These
+differences probably explain the emotional reactions of the face. In
+anger, for example, some people become a dead white, others a fiery
+red. Whether one will do one or the other may depend upon the relative
+predominance of the thyroid or of adrenal in the individual.
+
+In the distribution of fat beneath and throughout the skin all of the
+endocrine glands appear to have a voice. The typically hyperthyroid
+and hyperpituitary individuals tend to be thin, as well also as those
+who have well-functioning or excessively functional interstitial
+cells. In all of these the administration of the respective internal
+secretions increases the burning up of material in the body, and all
+of them have a higher rate of tissue combustion than their confreres,
+with a subthyroid or subpituitary keynote in their cell chemistry, or
+with insufficient interstitial cell action. Generally the latter have
+a very dry skin, the former a moist skin. With delayed involution of
+the pineal, obesity results.
+
+The elasticity of the skin is another quality that varies with the
+concentration in the blood of the internal secretions. Elasticity of
+the skin, its recoil upon being stretched like a rubber band, may be
+taken as a measure of the activity of all the endocrine glands. For,
+as can be noticed especially upon the back of the hand, the older a
+man grows, the less elastic becomes the skin. In older people, raising
+the skin upon the back of the hand will cause it to stand up as a
+ridge for a few seconds and then slowly to return to the level of the
+surrounding skin. Whereas in a youthful person it will quickly snap
+back into place. This quality of elasticity of the skin is due to the
+presence in it of the so-called yellow elastic fibres, cell products,
+with a resilience greater than anything devised by man. The
+preservation of the resilience is a function of the internal
+secretions. Thus, after loss of the thyroid, the ridging effect
+characteristic of senility can be produced in one young as measured by
+his years. It has been said that a man is as old as his arteries, and
+also that as he is as old as his skin. It might better be said that he
+is as old as his elastic tissue, young when he is rich in it, old when
+poor and losing it. And as elastic tissue and internal secretions
+stand in the relation of created and creators, or at least preserved
+and preservers, a man may be said to be as old, that is as young,
+fresh and active as his ductless glands.
+
+THE HAIR
+
+There is no characteristic of the human body, except perhaps
+the teeth, more influenced in its quality, texture, amount and
+distribution than the hair. And again, each of the glands of internal
+secretion plays a part, but most importantly the thyroid, the
+suprarenal cortex and the interstitial sex glands. All contribute
+their specific effect, and the blend, the sum of the additions and
+subtractions constituting their influences, appears as a specific
+trait of the individual, a trait so significant as to be used by the
+professionals absorbed in the study of man, the anthropologists, as a
+criterion of racial classifications.
+
+Some acquaintance with the history of the normal growth of hair is
+necessary to its understanding. There develops during the life of the
+fetus within the womb a curious sort of wooly hair everywhere over
+the entire body (excepting the palms and soles which remain hairless
+throughout life), remarkably soft and fluttery--the lanugo. At about
+the eighth month of intra-uterine existence, a good deal of this
+lanugo is lost, to be replaced on the head and eyebrows by a crop of
+thick, coarse, pigmented real hair. So it happens that at birth the
+infant's hair is a queerly irregular growth, a mixture of what is left
+of the general lanugo development, and the localized patches of the
+more human hair. Until puberty this children's hair remains the same,
+although at times, particularly after dentition, and after infectious
+diseases which undoubtedly alter the relations of the internal
+secretions, changes of color and texture occur. Then, with sexual
+ripening, there appear in males the so-called terminal hairs, over the
+cheeks and lips and chin, and, in both sexes, in the folds under
+the shoulders and over the lower abdomen, the hair which might be
+distinguished as the sex hair in contradistinction to the juvenile
+hair of the head, the extremities and the back.
+
+Now the smoothness of the face in children is connected with the
+activity of the thymus and pineal glands. Among individuals in whom
+the juvenile thymus persists after puberty, no growth of hair occurs
+on the face, and in precocious involution or destruction of the
+pineal, hair appears on the face and in other terminal regions in
+children of six or less, a symptom classical in the child who suffered
+from a tumor of the pineal, and discussed immortality with his
+physicians. It is probable that these thymus and pineal effects are
+indirect through their action upon the sex glands. For in the types
+with persistent juvenile thymus there occurs a maldevelopment of the
+sex glands, while in those with early pineal recession the sex glands
+bloom simultanously with the appearance of adolescent hair and mental
+traits. The hastening of sexual hair by tumors of the adrenal gland
+may also be put down to a release from restraint of the interstitial
+sex cells.
+
+There are certain spheres in the hair geography of the body, over
+which particular glands may be said to rule or to possess a mandate.
+The hair of the head seems to be primarily under the control of
+the thyroid. Thus in cretins reconstructed by thyroid feeding, the
+straight, rather animal hair becomes lustrous and fine, silken and
+curly. In the thyroid deficiency of adults, a prominent phenomenon
+often is the falling out of the hair in handfuls. Baldness is
+frequently associated with a progressive decrease of the concentration
+of thyroid in the blood. At the same time, there tends to be a
+thinning of the eyebrows, especially of the outer third.
+
+The hair of the face in males, and the other terminal hairs in both
+males and females, is regulated by the sex glands primarily. In the
+female, the ovary, that is to say, the interstitial cells of the
+ovary, inhibit the growth of hair upon the face. In destructive
+disease of the ovaries, as well as in other affections of it, hair in
+the form of moustache, beard and whiskers may appear in female. That
+is why in women after the grand sex change of life, the menopause,
+hair often grows in the typically male regions because of loss of the
+inhibiting influence of the ovarian internal secretion upon them.
+After castration of the ovaries, the same may result. Removal of the
+male sex glands, or disturbances of them, will interfere with the
+proper development of the normal facial hair. Of the hair of the
+chest, the abdomen and the back, the adrenals seem to be the
+controllers. Adrenal types have hairy chests in males, and hair on the
+back in females. They have also a good deal of hair upon the abdomen.
+The hair on the extremities varies a good deal with the pituitary.
+People with hair upon hands, arms and legs, alone, are generally
+pituitary, or have a striking pituitary streak in their make-up.
+
+When the adrenals increase in size in childhood, a remarkable triad
+follows--general hairiness, adiposity and sexual precocity. One fact
+should be noted. When the adrenals evoke precocity, and an early
+awakening of the secondary sex characteristics, it is a masculine
+precocity, and an approximation to the masculine even in females.
+There is a definite trend toward an increase of the male in the
+individual's composition at the expense of the female. We shall have
+to consider this in greater detail when we analyze the internal
+secretion basis of masculinity and femininity. In general, the degree
+of general hairiness is an index to the amount of adrenal influence
+upon the organism. All the endocrines which affect the hair growth
+also act upon the sebaceous glands which oil the skin.
+
+THE EYES
+
+Eyes present clues to internal secretion constitutions dependent upon
+influences of architecture and function. The thyroid eye is typical.
+It is large, brilliant and protruding. The individual is "pop-eyed."
+On the other hand, subthyroidized eyes tend to be sunken and
+lustreless. The eyes of a pituitary type are either set markedly
+apart, or close together, with the hair at the root of the nose so
+prominent as to constitute a separate bridge known as the nasal brow.
+The size of the pupil, and its humidity, which have so much to do with
+the expression of the eye, vary directly with the activities of the
+driving and checking divisions of the vegetative system, and are
+a pretty good index as to which, at the time of observation, is
+predominant. When the check system is in control, the pupils are large
+and dilated. When its antagonist and rival, the drive system, is on
+top, the pupils are small and contracted. The reactions of the pupils
+when charged by strong emotion, like fear or anger, likewise turn upon
+the status of check or drive internal secretions in the economy of the
+organism at the time the exciting agent presents itself.
+
+MUSCLES
+
+It would seem, at first sight, that organs like muscles, mechanical
+instruments for the manipulation of the organism in space, would
+be more or less independent of the subtler processes of internal
+chemistry of the blood and tissues. But no assumption would be more
+beside the mark. Just as much as the bones and viscera, the teeth and
+the hair, they show grossly how they are being influenced by all the
+endocrine glands. So thyroid types generally have a skeleton
+sparsely covered with a muscular mantle. Pituitary types have large
+well-developed muscles. The pineal gland has some definite relation to
+muscle chemistry not yet probed. Thus, it has been shown that when the
+pineal has been completely destroyed prematurely by lime deposits in
+it, there is concomitant a wasting of muscles in places. This waste is
+sometimes replaced by fat. Pictures and images in wood and stone
+of these muscle freaks dating from the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+seventeenth century are in existence. Then there is the extraordinary
+fatigability of the muscles which occurs in the thymus types,
+who nevertheless have large well-rounded muscles, a paradox of
+contradiction between anatomy and physiology. Such a type, for
+instance, may be picked out by a football coach for an important
+position in a line-up, simply on the tremendous impressiveness of
+the muscle make-up, only to see him bowled over and out in the first
+scrimmage. The tone of muscles, the quality of resisting firmness or
+yielding softness, is essentially determined by the adrenal glands,
+especially in time of stress and strain.
+
+Brown-Séquard was the first to show that extracts of sex glands could
+increase the capacity for muscular work. Whether this was a direct
+effect upon the muscles, or indirect through the nerves or other
+endocrines, no one can say. Certainly the carriage of an individual,
+outer symptom of the inner tonus among his muscles and tendons, may be
+said to be as distinctively an endocrine affair as the color of his
+skin. And like its variations, variations of their tone, development,
+reactivity, fatigability, and endurance may be traced to corresponding
+states of overaction, or underaction, and odd combinations of the
+different hormones. Much remains to be learned about them and the
+manner of their control. Such an affliction as flatfoot, dependent
+upon a laxity of the ligaments in one who seems perfectly healthy and
+strong, may lead the analyst back to a thymus-centered personality.
+That is but one example.
+
+Since, too, muscle attitudes, muscle tensions and muscle relaxations
+play so large a part in the production of fundamental mental states:
+the attitudes, moods, memories and will reactions, the vegetative
+apparatus enters, to play its part as a determinant.
+
+SEX
+
+Over no domain of the body have the endocrines a more absolute
+mandatory than over that of the whole complex of sex. Both as regards
+the primary reproductive organs, their size and shape, and the
+character of their implantation, malformations and anomalies, as well
+as the physical and mental traits lumped as the secondary sexual,
+puberty, maturity, and senility, voice changes and erotic trends,
+virility and femininity, the internal secretions are dictators at
+every step. So significant are these, that even a rough summary of the
+discoveries and the outlook in the field involves some consideration
+of the details.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE MECHANICS OF THE MASCULINE AND THE FEMININE
+
+
+It needs a poet to chant the epic of sex. The mystery of it puzzled
+the minds of the earliest Sumerian thinkers. As a source of deepest
+excitement, it generated the most revolting ceremonies, bizarre
+customs, astounding cruelties and incomprehensible stupidities of
+the race. Men and women, as soon as they have done with their usual
+business of keeping themselves free of disagreeable sensations,
+hunger, cold, fear of enemies, betake themselves to it as a primary
+interest all over the world. The most advanced psychologists of the
+day link the sex impulse with the windings and twistings of all human
+activity.
+
+Yet the Homer of sex through the ages is still to come. But at all
+times the mystery evoked speculation and attempt at explanation.
+Acting upon their theories as to the nature and function of sex, men
+have, ever since the passing of the primeval matriarchates, segregated
+women, equalized them, worshipped them, or enslaved them. Opinions
+have varied from ancient national aphorisms to the effect that
+women have no souls to the most ultramodern utterances of
+biologist-publicists that the differences between men and women are
+the differences between two species. There are other epigrams, vast
+sweeping generalities, extant concerning the nature of sex, and women
+particularly. All partake of the complexity of truth and therefore own
+a certain validity. Still, since as a matter of fact, these items have
+been based upon superficial observations colored by the tradition and
+verbiage of the milieu, they are valuable more as human documents, as
+material for the psychologist, than as scientifically obtained data,
+able to stand unblinking before the rays of the critical searchlights.
+
+SCIENCE VS. ART
+
+Not that all the vast accumulation needs to be thrown pell-mell,
+higgledy-piggledy into the discard. The love lyrics of the poet, the
+magic of the emotions of Shelley and Poe, for instance, with their
+marvelous music and exquisite intonings of feeling, furnish us with
+important information. They are the facts of the sex life, as much as
+the song of the nightingale, or the mocking laughter of the cuckoo
+pursued by its mate. So Sappho and Elizabeth Browning, to take only
+two samples, have contributed some of the feminine reaction. The
+erotic motive in literature has but paralleled the erotic motive in
+life, with all of its vagaries, delusions, confusions, ecstasies and
+suffering.
+
+We have had concerning sex not knowledge, but a series of attitudes,
+the attitude of virtue, the attitude of pruriency, the attitude of
+good taste, the attitude of the theoretic libertine, the attitude of
+the satyr's vulgarity. All these poses, of course, have supplied not
+an iota to an understanding of the foundations of the problems of sex,
+biologically considered. Thus, a masculine master has coined that
+immortal phrase, the Eternal Feminine. And in a matriarchate we
+should undoubtedly hear of the Eternal Masculine. Each leaves one as
+unenlightened as the other. A rough and ready code of life attributes
+certain grossly characteristic qualities of mind and body to each
+sex. This is supposed to be enough for common sense. Beyond that the
+mystery has been wrapped in cotton wool. That perhaps explains the
+enormous popularity of contemporary pornographic and so-called sex
+literature.
+
+There are bound up with sex feeling and sex knowledge many customs,
+beliefs and habits, many legal statutes and social institutions, in
+the complex that is called sentiment, to which science looms as the
+sacrilegious ogre who devours romance. Without spending space upon the
+ravages of the sentimental idealist, certainly responsible for as much
+human disaster as the brutal realist, it is manifest that a revolution
+in sex standards and relations is inevitable as soon as the new
+doctrines filter down as matters of fact to the levels of the common
+intelligence. And surely, nothing else could be wished for in the
+world desired by all of us, the world ruled by intelligence, and
+intelligent good will.
+
+SEX CHEMISTRY
+
+A few general statements may be put down outright as material to go
+upon before we proceed to details.
+
+1. Femininity and masculinity have a definite chemical basis in the
+reactions of the internal secretions of which they are the expression.
+That is to say, that just as a precipitate of chalk is formed when one
+throws some carbonate of soda into lime water, so the masculine
+and the feminine are to be looked upon as precipitates and
+crystallizations of a long series of linked chemical reactions in
+the fluids of the body, in which the internal secretions play a
+determining part.
+
+2. Femininity and masculinity are expressions of the interplay of all
+the internal secretions. It used to be said by smart cats and accepted
+by the tabby cats, that a woman was a woman because of her ovaries
+alone. It is being said by some great discoverers of the day that man
+is a man because of his testes alone. Neither of these dogmas is true.
+There are individuals with ovaries who show every deviation from the
+feminine and there are individuals with testes who exhibit every
+variation from the masculine. The other endocrine glands are of equal
+importance.
+
+3. There is no absolute masculine or absolute feminine. The ideals
+of the Manly Man and the Womanly Woman were erected by the blind
+ignorance of the nineteenth century illusionists, and a line drawn to
+cleave them. But indeed biologically there exists every transition
+between the masculine and the feminine. The explanation of these
+different sex types consists in the different admixtures of the
+internal secretions possible and actual. When we speak of the feminine
+we really mean the predominantly feminine. And when we speak of
+the masculine, we mean the mainly masculine. Between, all sorts of
+transitions are possible and occur.
+
+Man in relation to the internal secretions we have considered in
+reviewing the interstitial cells. To him, we shall return later. Let
+us turn now to that fascinating subject of the ages, Woman. What
+produces and maintains the Feminine?
+
+THE CAUSE OF SEX
+
+To all appearances, that inscrutable simplest of living things, the
+fertilized ovum, beginning of the human, starts bisexual, double
+sexed, both masculine and feminine, or perhaps neither masculine nor
+feminine. Then a form develops. Then within that form a patch of cells
+arise which the microscopist recognizes as the forerunners of the male
+or the female reproductive cells. Then some more development. And at
+birth, sex is definitely settled, as far as the reproductive organs
+are concerned.
+
+Our knowledge here, as everywhere, is still fragmentary. Statistical
+reviews seem to show that in times of stress, war, famine, pestilence,
+more boys are born than girls. But that is neither here nor there. It
+sheds no further light on the subject. Monosexuality is a distinction
+of the human species: the sexes are pretty clearly differentiated.
+In some animals, such as some worms, there is a bisexuality of the
+individual. There are present the reproductive organs of both sexes,
+capable of impregnating other individuals as well as of being
+impregnated. In some of these, even self-impregnation may occur. This
+is the condition of hermaphroditism.
+
+But the higher up one goes in the scale of evolution, the greater
+becomes the distinction between the sexes. Anatomic hermaphroditism
+becomes a rare anomaly. Life appears to have perfected this trick of
+separate sexes, sex specialization, in short, for the sake of the
+efficiency which goes with specialization.
+
+When a germ cell divides, its nuclear material breaks up into segments
+known as chromosomes. Now it has been found, for example in the case
+of the common squash bug, anasa tristis, that there are 22 chromosomes
+in the female, and 21 in the male. In the female two of these are
+visibly different from the rest, while in the male there is one odd
+one, the remaining 20 being like the corresponding 20 of the female.
+Before the germ cell becomes fit to mix with a germ cell of opposite
+sex, in the process of fertilization, it must lose one half of these.
+So the number of chromosomes for the species is kept the same or
+constant. This is the process of maturation. In the process, when the
+chromosome number is halved among the females, 11 go into each mature
+egg. But among the males, the odd chromosome, also known as the
+X-chromosome, can perforce go only into half of the sperm cells,
+leaving the others without it. So the sperm are formed in equal
+numbers of 10 and 11 chromosomes respectively.
+
+When fertilization occurs, and the sperm cell fuses with the egg, the
+following may take place: (1) a ten chromosome sperm may unite with
+the eleven chromosome egg, and produce a twenty-one chromosome
+individual or (2) an eleven chromosome sperm may unite with an eleven
+chromosome egg producing a twenty-two chromosome individual. It has
+been found that the twenty-two chromosome individual invariably
+develops into a female, and the twenty-one into a male. Therefore,
+femaleness is a positive quality, dependent upon the action of the
+X-chromosome, and maleness an absence of femaleness, due to lack
+of the extra, odd chromosome. In man, two X-chromosomes have been
+discovered, half the sperm containing 12, and the other half
+containing only 10 chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in human
+cells consequently is 22 in the male and 24 in the female.
+
+The X-chromosome is the bearer of sex destiny. There still remains the
+work to be done on the actual control of sex by man, apart from its
+natural determination. For the time being, let the feminists glory in
+the fact that they have two more chromosomes to each cell than
+their opponents. Certainly there can be no talk here of a natural
+inferiority of women.
+
+THE SECONDARY OR ENDOCRINE SEX TRAITS
+
+Yet the matter is after all not so simple as this would make it out
+to be. All that can be safely laid down is that the character of the
+reproductive organs is determined by the extra chromosomes. And though
+these reproductive organs have a good deal to do with the masculine or
+feminine quality of the organism as a whole, through their internal
+secretions, they are not alone. All the other internal secretions have
+their say in the final outcome, determining what may be called the
+dominant sex quality, but leaving inherent the latent soil of the
+other sex. This may become active and dominant in its turn, under
+certain conditions of stimulation, abnormality, or disease, dependent
+upon a rearrangement of status and influence among the ductless
+glands. Bisexuality preceded monosexuality in the animal pedigree, and
+co-exists with it even at the highest points of the genealogical tree.
+
+While from the standpoint of the species, the criterion of the sex
+classification of its members will depend upon their capacity to
+fertilize or to be fertilized, a quality that may, therefore, be
+spoken of as the primary sex character, a number of other traits have
+been evolved by sexual selection, the secondary sex traits. They have
+come to be just as important, to the individual, as far as his or her
+consciousness of sex attitudes and reactions to it are concerned. The
+terms primary and secondary sex characteristics, though inapt, must be
+allowed to stand.
+
+These accessory sex-serving traits undoubtedly survived because of
+their usefulness in external adornment for attracting attention in
+courtship, in the metabolic requirements of sex combat and the sex
+act, and in the necessities of caring for the young, until well-grown.
+The rooster's comb and spurs, the male frog's claspers, the stag's
+antlers, and so on, are familiarly and obviously so useful. Besides
+there are fundamental differences in inner physiology. The human male
+consumes more oxygen than the female per minute, since he has more red
+corpuscles in his blood. In some caterpillars the blood is yellow in
+the males and green in the females. W.I. Thomas has devoted an essay
+of some fifty pages to a review of the organic differences between man
+and woman. The ordinary criteria, employed every day by the man in the
+street to distinguish man from woman may be arranged as follows:
+
+     _Man_                      _Woman_
+
+  Hair on face                Hairless face
+  Skin coarse and lean        Skin fine and plump
+  Muscles powerful            Relatively weak
+  Bones heavy                 Bones light
+  Aggressive--bass voice      Reserved--treble voice
+
+THE RÔLE OF THE OVARIES
+
+While the primary sex characters, as such, are present and
+distinguishable from birth, quite the opposite holds for the secondary
+sex traits. During childhood they are in abeyance or at least pretty
+sharply suppressed. Girls and boys who are permitted to dress alike,
+to play the same games and among whom no consciousness of sex is
+encouraged are often difficult to tell apart. The boys will be boys,
+and most of the girls tom-boys.
+
+With puberty comes a marked change of attitude toward the other sex.
+Puberty is the time of ripening of the specific germ cells. It is
+then the ovaries begin to secrete ova ripe for fertilization, and the
+testes begin to secrete sperm ready to fertilize. Before this can
+happen an event announced in the female by the onset of menstruation,
+two conditions must be fulfilled in the endocrine history of the
+individual. There must be a certain atrophy and retrogression of
+the thymus gland, and there must likewise be a similar atrophy and
+retirement of the pineal gland. Both of these involutions of the
+glands of childhood must occur before the normal hypertrophy and
+development of the sex glands and their secretions can start. Besides,
+there must be a minimum activity of the thyroid, adrenal and pituitary
+glands. Without them, below a certain minimum, the reproductive organs
+and their secretions will remain infantile, causing a persistent
+infantilism or delay of puberty.
+
+Formerly there was ascribed to the ovaries, in a lump and without
+qualification, an absolute despotism over the specifically feminine
+functions of menstruation, gestation, parturition, and lactation.
+Nowadays, we see its domain as a limited monarchy, if not indeed as
+one sovereign state of a republic, a member equal but not superior to
+the others of a board of directors. Its true business comes down to
+two particular rôles: first, the production of ova, and, second, the
+secretion of a hormone or hormones. Over the other functions once
+supposed its monopoly, all the ductless glands rule.
+
+What concerns us now is its internal secretion or secretions. One of
+them is known as lutein and it has never been chemically isolated
+in its pure form. The existence of lutein, like the existence of
+electricity, is an inference, something we are sure is there because
+of its effects. It originates in a remarkable part of the ovary, the
+corpus luteum. Besides, there are the products of the interstitial
+cells, the creations of a special layer of cells around the ovum, the
+membrana granulosa. They produce a substance tonic to the uterus.
+
+When the ovaries are removed, there occurs an atrophy of the womb
+muscle, due to loss of this tonic substance. This atrophy, accompanied
+by an abolition of the normal periodic uterine contraction, makes
+conditions unfavorable to pregnancy. It has been claimed that the
+secretion of the corpus luteum is necessary for the complete progress
+of a pregnancy. Cases are on record, however, of ovaries taken out
+soon after the onset of pregnancy, without interference with the
+gestation.
+
+Castration is comparable in every way with the menopause or the
+time of cessation of sexual life, a process that might be called
+self-castration. It produces certain general constitutional effects.
+Adiposity often develops, undoubtedly associated with underfunction of
+the thyroid and pituitary glands. The woman breathes less oxygen per
+minute and burns up less food and tissue. There is some disturbance
+of the lime balance with an increased excitability of the vegetative
+nervous system. Concomitant is the release of some brake upon the
+blood pressure mechanisms, so that a family tendency to high blood
+pressure will flare up. Some women are rendered unstable by the
+process, others are completely transformed, and still others adapt
+themselves, with little or no discomfort, to the new situation. The
+response to the revolution in the cell-republic of the castrate by
+the other endocrines, the thyroid, the pituitary, and the adrenals,
+determines which it is to be.
+
+For normally, with feminine puberty, there is an increased activity of
+the thyroid, the posterior pituitary and the adrenal medulla. These
+changes indeed constitute the formula of normal feminization. In the
+male, the ripening of the testes is accompanied or perhaps preceded by
+augmented function of the adrenal cortex and the anterior pituitary.
+This difference in biochemistry accounts for the contrast between the
+sexes in the skin, hair, fat, cartilage (voice) and bone changes.
+Ovary and adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary and thyroid
+predominance constitute the feminine formula. Testis and adrenal
+cortex and anterior pituitary predominance comprise the masculine
+endocrine directorate.
+
+THE REACTIONS OF THE OTHER GLANDS
+
+As in so many other aspects, the facts about the various influences
+exerted by the endocrine glands upon the reproductive system are
+complicated and disjointed. A chink of light has been let in upon a
+dark cave, and slowly the chink will widen. But the gross effects are
+clear.
+
+Around the ovary and the uterus, the endocrines gyrate as the planets
+around the sun. The ovary is the organ for the preservation and
+maturation of the germ plasm, that treasure which the body is built
+but to cherish and hand on as a sacred heirloom. The ova, the female
+egg cells, are the fundamental concern of the ovary. Secondarily, it
+secretes its messengers to keep the rest of the body, and particularly
+the other endocrines, in touch with the necessities of the adventures
+of these ova. It is thus enabled to bend every force and power at its
+command to the service of the reproductive instinct.
+
+In learning their rôle so well in the course of evolution, the
+thyroid, the pituitary and the suprarenal have become indispensable
+stimulants (in various degrees peculiar to the individual), to the
+primary function of the ovary. As a consequence, to hold the sex
+stimulating glands in check, there had to appear others, restraining
+them and so preventing sex precocity. These are the thymus and pineal.
+So closely are they all related that insufficient action of the
+thyroid, pituitary or adrenals may cause atrophy of the ovaries
+and uterus, with abolition of genital function. If the sex glands
+themselves fail, as occurs usually in most women sometime in the
+forties, the thyroid-pituitary-adrenal association must readjust
+itself to the new development. The adaptation evokes the phenomena of
+the transition to a new life, the climacteric.
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBERTY
+
+Tracing the development of sex life there is a certain order of events
+in a normal history. Before puberty, the ova have lain asleep, as it
+were, in a cocoon state. Now with puberty they awaken. And with them
+all those profound mechanisms and inventions that have to do with
+their nutrition up to ripening. Then revolve the cycles that are
+translated as menstruation, the propulsion, fertilization and
+implantation of the ova in the uterus,--the full development of the
+fetus,--its birth, and feeding after birth--all of which are ductless
+gland controlled.
+
+Samuel Butler once noted that:
+
+"All our limbs and sensual organs, in fact, our whole body and life,
+are but an accretion round and a fostering of the spermatozoa. They
+are the real "He." A man's eyes, ears, tongue, nose, legs and arms
+are but so many organs and tools that minister to the protection,
+education, increased intelligence and multiplication of the
+spermatozoa, so that our whole life is in reality a series of complex
+efforts in respect of these, conscious or unconscious according
+to their comparative commonness. They are the central fact in our
+existence, the point towards which all effort is directed."
+
+Nothing could be said more truly of Woman, and the ova she carries.
+All that transpires during pubescence is symptomatic of the underlying
+tidal stir in the cells. The uterus becomes gorged with blood
+periodically, to provide an enriched soil for the perhaps to be
+fertilized ovum to plant itself. The breasts grow, and fat is
+deposited in particular places as reserve material for the making of
+milk. The qualities which are to appeal to the eye and ear and even
+nostrils of the male appear. Instincts dawn, an independence of spirit
+germinates, emulsified with a curious shyness and coyness and a
+desperate loneliness and secrecy. And all because there have been let
+loose in the blood from the glands of internal secretion the chemical
+substances that set going the clockwork of sequential incidents
+elaborated and repeated through countless aeons of time.
+
+FEMININE PRECOCITY
+
+Ordinarily, in the north temperate climate, puberty begins about
+the fourteenth year, but may begin anywhere from the tenth to the
+sixteenth. Feeding and environment indirectly, the state of the
+internal secretions as a whole directly, determine this. In girls,
+those definite signs, menstruation and the growth of the breasts,
+before the age of ten, mean premature awakening of the ovaries and a
+concomitant co-reaction of the other endocrines, creating the ensemble
+of maturity.
+
+In females, the primary stimulus, the initial spark of femininity,
+must originate in the ovary. There are other forms of precocity in the
+female, dependent upon stimulations of other glands, but these forms
+are masculinisms, a masculinization of the personality, and not a
+true awakening of the feminine constitution. So one must distinguish
+sharply between a precocity by masculinization and precocity of
+premature feminization. The latter always implies the touch of the
+fairy's wand upon the sleeping ovaries. Sexual precocity in boys may
+be produced by a premature overactivity not only of the specific
+reproductive organs: the testes, but also by an early excess of
+secretion on the part of the cortex of the adrenal gland or the
+pituitary gland, or by a too early involution of the pineal or thymus.
+When such abnormalities of adrenal, pituitary, thymus or pineal occur
+in girls, it is the masculine streak in the hastening of growth that
+is made manifest. All this emphasizes the relative bisexuality of
+every normal, no matter how pronounced, when superficially viewed, his
+or her form of predominating sex may be. Under the right conditions
+recession of the most marked virility or femininity becomes
+conceivable, and occurs.
+
+THE SECRET OF THE MASCULINE
+
+Masculinization having entered upon the scene, one may well ask: what
+truly (which means chemically) lies behind all these differences
+and divergences between male and female? What is the secret of the
+variable internal secretion admixtures? You can tell us that the
+recipes are different, the ingredients different, the results
+different as a Nesselrode pudding is from, say, a rice pudding. But
+what is the inner mechanism of the process? Since the masculine and
+the feminine are but expressions of certain relative capacities and
+potentialities, some single principle must run through the making of
+both.
+
+Recognizing of course the qualifications inherent in so broad a
+statement the answer is: the handling of the lime salts. Life
+originated, or at least lived and worked for long ages in sea water.
+During these eras the salts of the sea have come to play a dominant
+rôle in its being. The lime salts, because of their peculiar
+properties of dissolving or precipitating themselves according to
+electrical conditions in their medium, have come to occupy a
+central position in all the processes of growth, metabolism and sex
+differentiation. So it is that masculinity may be described as a
+stable, constant state in the organism of lime salts, and the feminine
+as an unstable, variable state of lime salts. The male skeleton
+contrasts with the female as the stronger, larger, heavier and
+straighter because it is an expression of a greater capacity to
+utilize, store and keep lime in the system. Women throughout their
+reproductive period are liable to rapid and pendulum-like fluctuations
+of their lime content.
+
+Menstruation, pregnancy, lactation, all draw upon the stores of lime,
+sometimes depleting them to the point of softening of the bones and
+wrecking the whole skeleton. The endocrines control the transport,
+and course, combinations and permutations in the history of lime's
+progress among the cells, and are in turn themselves affected by it.
+Man is relatively free of these liabilities, and so remains man by
+his freedom from the recurrent crises involving the lime salt reserve
+which constitute the essence of the life story of woman.
+
+THE SEX INDEX
+
+It follows from these considerations that when it becomes necessary
+to size the sex composition of a man or woman, a measurement becomes
+establishable which may be spoken of as the sex index. To be able to
+say of Mr. Llewylln Jones that he is sixty per cent masculine and
+forty per cent feminine, or of Mrs. Worthington that she is seventy
+per cent feminine and thirty per cent masculine would be of the utmost
+value under all kinds of circumstances. Unfortunately, lacking as we
+do the exact figures of an advanced blood chemistry (yet in its most
+infantile infancy) a direct indexing of the sort is impossible. But it
+is certainly conceivable, along the lines of measurement suggested
+by the Binet tests and others, that a scale of evaluation of the
+secondary sex traits may be elaborated, which would turn out as
+valuable in understanding the frictions of the individual, and more
+concretely, that aspect of it to which pathologists of the mind are
+tracing so much needless misery and suffering: maladjusted sexuality,
+expressed and suppressed. Nothing will contribute more to harmonious
+adjustment for these sufferers than recognition of the fact that we
+are all, more or less, partial hermaphrodites.
+
+THE FUNCTIONAL HERMAPHRODITE
+
+The complete or total hermaphrodite we define as the individual who
+possesses the reproductive organs of the male and the female, both
+testes and ovaries. So rare is such a combination in man that for a
+long time its occurrence was doubted, descriptions of it regarded as
+myth. However, undoubted cases are on record, examined by the most
+careful of observers, of ovo-testis or mixed reproductive organs.
+Strangely enough, the history of these cases, shows that at one time
+the masculine set, and at another the feminine set, will hold sway
+over the sex traits and functions. Blending does not happen.
+
+Rare though the true hermaphrodite may be, the partial hermaphrodite
+is relatively frequent. The mixed ensemble of the directly contrasting
+type, such as the concomitance of testes with feminine secondary sex
+traits, or of ovaries with masculine sex traits, have been described
+from time immemorial as freaks. Occurring even more frequently is the
+mixed sex ensemble, in which the type of reproductive organs and of
+secondary sex traits run roughly parallel, emulsified with certain
+traits of the opposite sex. Physical features of one sex, instincts
+and mental attitudes of the other co-exist in the same individual by
+reason of an excess in one direction or a deficiency in another of the
+internal secretions. The degree of masculine trend in a woman is a
+crude measure of adrenal domination, the degree of feminine deviation
+in a man is roughly proportional to the amount of pituitary influences
+in his make-up.
+
+Whether one or the other sex tendency will dominate depends upon the
+quantity of sex hormone divergence from the ideal normal. But also
+determinant are the environment stimuli provoking excessive or
+deficient secretory reactions from the other endocrines involved,
+through the vegetative nervous system. Such especially are the
+associates of the mixed sex individual. Ordinarily the combative male
+and the submissive female are differentiated by contrasts of skin
+and hair, fat and bone structure. The combative male is built as a
+fighting machine, the submissive female as an organism of attractive
+grace and beauty for impregnation and parturition. When one sees the
+fragile woman aggressive, the masculinoid woman submissive, one
+may infer an education of experience that has brought the usually
+recessive glands into the foreground, and by their hyperactivity
+imposed a bisexuality of function upon a unisexual anatomic structure.
+A man apparently as formidable as a tyrannosaurus, may be ruled by
+his wife for the same reason. These combinations of a single organic
+sexuality with a functional bisexuality, based upon internal secretion
+disturbances, are frequent, and merit the name of functional
+hermaphrodites or mixed sex types.
+
+MIXED SEX AND THE FAMILY
+
+The psychology of the family in its relation to the endocrine traits
+of its members is something that still remains to be thoroughly worked
+out as a problem of tremendous importance. Particularly are the
+reactions of the mixed sex types to be carefully considered. For,
+since the family is fundamentally a sex institution, devised to
+satisfy the sex needs, all the way from companionship to parenthood,
+it is apparent that the mixed sex types will be tried the hardest by
+its inexorable conditions. It is in relation to the mother (or nurse)
+first, the father next, and other associates in proportion to their
+proximity, that the primary endocrine-vegetative mechanisms, the germs
+of the growing soul, become established. These are superimposed upon
+the hereditary instinct apparatus.
+
+Fear, rage and love reactions develop first in association with the
+suckling reflex, and the accompaniments, the mother's smile and voice,
+the color of her hair, eyes and skin, her breasts and odors. Each time
+the babe reacts to a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus, there is an
+outpouring of certain internal secretions, a cessation of others, a
+tingling of certain vegetative nerves and organs, a hushing of others.
+The ensemble of reactions tends to be repeated around the same
+stimulus, until the whole becomes automatic. One may observe the same
+process in the lower animals. Offer a piece of meat to a dog and his
+mouth waters. Ring a bell before offering the meat. Repeat this a
+number of times, and after a while the mere ringing of the bell,
+without the presence of the meat, will cause his mouth to water. This
+associated vegetative secretion reflex is the most fundamental to
+grasp in an understanding of the deepest strata of personality.
+
+Now there are, besides the associated vegetative-endocrine reactions,
+certain inborn automatic processes in the vegetative system and in
+the internal secretion system, which work automatically to produce
+increased intravisceral pressures. The reduction of these pressures
+below the point of their intrusion upon consciousness, their relief,
+as we say, also form the centers of constellations around feelings
+of satisfaction or love. Such, for example, are the voiding of
+excretions. Sooner or later, these automatic reactions, and the
+associated reflexes formed around the mother, father and other
+associates, come into conflict. Inhibitions or prohibitions of the
+automatic act at certain times or moments are imposed by somebody.
+And so there occurs a pitting of the automatic mechanism against the
+associated reflex. Conflict with adjustment by suppression must occur.
+Thus a sense of self as active wisher (for the automatically pleasant
+experience), and punishable suppressor (of the same in favor of the
+acquired associated reflex) develops.
+
+So far, so good. Compromise by regulation from above, from the
+brain, of the automatic reactions follows, as training. No absolute
+repression is forced, no absolute encouragement is indorsed.
+Harmonious equilibrium, or normality, continues. But now there come
+upon the scene the unconscious fears.
+
+In the paleontology of character, these fears are the deepest strata,
+the eocene era, so to speak, of the soul. They are the hardest to get
+at and the most silent, as well as the most dominant of the influences
+which guide conduct. In Sir Walter Raleigh's words:
+
+  "Passions are best likened to streams and floods.
+  The shallows murmur, the deeps are dumb."
+
+During the first period of childhood, up to five or six, the primary
+fears group themselves around the taboos and secrets of its life.
+
+Though we have every reason for believing that the sex glands are
+acting in some way upon the organism during this time, nothing
+definite is known. Yet, as the numerous studies of the subconscious
+recently made prove, sex curiosity like the other curiosities,
+flowers. More than about the automatic visceral reactions, these
+curiosities evoke the repressive imperatives of the associates, the
+mother and father especially. These repressive influences may be
+and often are the effects of ignorance, prudishness, vulgarity, or
+homosexuality, or the sex perversions that are known as sadism and
+masochism. But by the necessities of the case, the sex wishes become
+overlayed by reflexes associated with the mother and father and close
+associates as love. This might be termed the oligocene. As the circle
+of acquaintance widens, other loved objects usher in the miocene
+phases of the development. With these become interspersed various
+hates and detestations, deliberately cultivated and accepted by the
+consciousness. So we have a cross-slice of the personality in the
+first five or six years of childhood.
+
+But now, with the onset of the second dentition, a subtle change
+begins in the endocrine equations of the body. The second dentition
+itself is an expression of a certain internal secretion wave passing
+through the cells, an increase of action of some hormones, a decrease
+of others. And a consciousness of physical sexuality appears, while
+the outlines of character, hitherto mere tracings, become firmer,
+heavier, quasi-indelible lines. That there is some activity on the
+part of the internal secretions of the sex glands, the ovaries and
+testes, can be demonstrated by accurately charting the behaviour of a
+boy or girl after this time. It will be found that there is a cyclic
+variation of health and conduct, more or less marked of course in each
+case. A cold may appear periodically at the end of each month, an
+increase of irritability and waywardness may be observed, or, on the
+contrary, a decrease of the regular restless playfulness. The ghost of
+sex begins to haunt the scene.
+
+Now all kinds of possibilities of conflict emerge. The child is still
+a bisexual, growing into a mixed sex type, depending upon the nature
+and amount of its internal secretions. The influencing adult of the
+family, the most important of the external factors encouraging or
+depressing the tendencies of the child, possesses a fairly fixed ideal
+of monosexuality which he or she, generally quite unconsciously, seeks
+to impose upon it. A doting feminine mother will make her son as much
+as possible like her husband: if she dislikes her husband, as much as
+possible like her father or grandfather. A masculinized mother will
+tend to make a sex object out of the son, however, which means his
+feminization. But, on the internal secretion side, the boy may be
+definitely masculine. That is, after adolescence he would be strongly
+masculine, _if the vegetative-endocrine mechanisms created by the
+mother's personality had not slipped into the inside track_, so to
+speak. As a consequence, continual subconscious conflict between the
+two sets of sex reaction will, sooner or later, disturb, perhaps
+disrupt and ruin his life.
+
+So an infant may start life with a fairly balanced endocrine
+equipment, with its wake of a normal life (barring accidents and
+infections), and yet he may end as an inferior, insane, criminal, or
+failure directly because of establishment of conflict between himself
+as one sort of sex type, and his obligatory associates of another
+sort of mixed sex type. This applies also to the mother-daughter, the
+father-son, and the father-daughter relationship.
+
+Male and female created He them, is a bald misstatement of the facts.
+Male and female emerge as final by-products of endocrine heredity,
+environmental treatment and adaptation. Often the male-female,
+the female-male, persist anatomically, or are forced to persist
+functionally. Society, constructed upon the Biblical dogmas of man as
+a fallen angel, and absolute sex, is responsible for much misery and
+suffering meted out to the functional hermaphrodite, as we shall see
+later in an analysis of the endocrine character of Oscar Wilde. The
+privileges and powers of sex relationship, marriage and parenthood,
+should be safeguarded for the mixed sex type, the man or woman with
+the variable sex index. For there are no tragedies in life more
+pitiful than those in which an aggressive masculinely built type is
+forced to assume a submissive, receptive, passive, feminine rôle and
+vice versa, the tragedy of compelled homosexuality, because of wrong
+associates.
+
+MASOCHISM AND SADISM
+
+The functional hermaphrodite enables us, too, to understand the
+phenomena of masochism and sadism, to a certain extent, on the
+chemical side. The masculine personality, the combination of
+masculine, e.g., adrenal cortex and gonad internal secretion
+predominance, is built for aggression. The feminine personality,
+the union of feminine, e.g. thyroid and ovarian superiority, is
+constructed for submission. Reverse the possibilities, or confuse
+them, as occurs in the functional hermaphrodite, and the attitudes
+become reversed or perverted. So a masculinoid personality in woman
+will make for sadism, a feminoid personality in a man for masochism.
+Variants and refinements of these perversions will often be found
+in the functional hermaphrodite who must satisfy two doubly flowing
+streams of visceral pressure within himself. Persistence of the thymus
+or pineal gland tends to a prolongation of the infantile and child
+types, that will be taken advantage of.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE RHYTHMS OF SEX
+
+
+If one permits a drop of ink to fall into a glass of water, amazing
+figures and shapes, bizarre and chameleon, are born as the blue swirls
+and whirls through the resisting medium. Unseen forces and currents,
+tides and pressures, set up a seething and flowing, pulling and
+twisting of the drop of ink until it becomes a strange wraith created
+out of the molecules. A temporary individuality lives in the water.
+
+So likewise the forces of sex, essentially the forces of the internal
+secretions, mould and sculpt and mould again the woman out of
+the flesh and blood. Adolescence--puberty--menstruation: the
+maid,--pregnancy--labor--lactation: the matron, thirty years of ups
+and downs of these processes around the idea of love or suppressed
+love, against an aesthetic background of some sort--and finally the
+loss of the stress and strain of sex, the menopause. All the landmarks
+of the life of woman, in their entirety, are erected and dominated by
+the tides and currents, the phases of concentration and dilution, of
+the different internal secretions in the endocrine mixture which is
+the blood.
+
+Marvelous are all the manifestations of the reproductive necessity.
+Considering that reproduction was at first merely a form of growth, a
+discontinuous kind of growth, that seized upon sex as a splendid means
+to escape death, the chemical methods evolved arouse a sense of awe.
+A baby is born with her or his glands practically as fixed for her or
+him as the color of the eyes. Thymus and pineal keep him a child, keep
+him unsexed. Then at puberty, a new current is added to the calmly
+flowing river, and behold! a turmoil. Ovaries or testes actively
+functioning erupt upon the calm spectacle, and the girl is
+transfigured into the maid, the boy into the youth. After the ovaries,
+the corpus luteum: after the corpus luteum, the placenta: after the
+placenta, the mammary glands: after that the cycle begins again until
+the ovaries are exhausted and the chain is broken. Besides, all the
+other glands of internal secretion beat in rhythm, fluctuate in their
+activities, may divide prematurely the tides or dam them completely.
+
+Innumerable varieties and combinations of interglandular action supply
+us with the limitless types of adolescent girls. Some endocrine
+cooperatives that make one girl stable and settled, will make others
+unstable and unsettled. Alicia may be hyperthyroid, and so excitable,
+nervous, restless, and subject to palpitation of heart and
+sleeplessness. Bettina may have too much post-pituitary, and so will
+menstruate early, tend to be short, blush easily, be sentimentally
+suggestive and sexually accessible. Christina may be adrenal cortex
+centred and so masculinoid: courageous, sporty, mannish in her tastes,
+aggressive toward her companions. Dorothea may have a balanced thyroid
+and pituitary and so lead the class as good-looking, studious, bright,
+serene and mature. Florence, who has rather more thyroid than her
+pituitary can balance, will be bright but flighty, gay but moody,
+energetic, but not as persevering. And so on and so on.
+
+Environment, habit-formation, training, education serve only to bring
+out the internal secretion make-up of the girl, or to suppress
+and distort and so spoil her. Adolescence will be peaceful, calm,
+semi-conscious, or disturbing, revolutionary and obsessive according
+to the reaction of the other endocrines to the rise of the ovaries.
+Harmony, and so continued happiness of the mind and body, means
+that they have been welcomed into the fold. Disharmony, ailments,
+unhappiness, difficulties, mean that they are being treated as
+intruders, or are acting as marauders. The after life, sexually the
+period of maturity, barring accidents, diseases, and shocks, will bear
+the same character. The kind of adolescence provides the clue to the
+kind of maturity, for both are effects of the same endocrine factors.
+
+THE SEX GLAND CHAIN
+
+Furthermore, the activities of a normal woman involve a series of sex
+glands. Since there function, in addition to the ovaries, the glands
+of the uterus, the breasts or mammary glands, and the placental
+gland (the secreting cells of the tissue which comes out as the
+after-birth). Each of these contributes directly to the reproductive
+life of the individual. To call the ova the sex glands is to confer
+upon them a name which really belongs to a chain of glands.
+
+All of the members of the sex chain, including those of the thyroid,
+the adrenal and the pituitary, are necessary to the functions of
+menstruation, impregnation, settlement of fertilized ovum in the wall
+of the uterus, labor and lactation. A disturbance of one of them will
+set up disturbances all along the line, and a resonance of distress
+or compensation upon the part of all of them. As an interlocking
+directorate over the sexual functions of the female, they are members
+one of the other. So what helps or hurts one, helps or hurts all.
+
+THE CYCLE OF MENSTRUATION
+
+Essentially, the ovary is a collection of follicles, nests of
+cells, acting as safe deposit vaults for the ova that are to become
+candidates for fertilization. At birth, there are some 30,000 to
+200,000 of these, of which a good many atrophy during childhood so
+that there are no more than about 30,000 left at puberty. Of the
+30,000, only an élite 400 actually mature between the ages of fifteen
+and forty-five. About every twenty-eight days, one of the follicles
+swells, becomes filled with liquid, pushes or is pushed to the surface
+of the ovary, there to rupture and expel into the abdominal cavity the
+tiny ripe ovum. The rest of the torn follicle makes itself over into
+a peculiar yellowish body, the true corpus luteum, should pregnancy
+occur. If pregnancy and the consequent placenta do not occur, it
+shrinks and turns into a scar, the false corpus luteum. The true
+corpus luteum resembles closely the adrenal cortex in make-up and
+staining reactions. It seems as if, once successful impregnation has
+been achieved, the feminine organism adrenalizes itself, makes itself
+more masculine and less feminine, inhibiting the posterior pituitary
+and the adrenal medulla, as well as the ovaries. Besides, the corpus
+luteum stimulates the thyroid to prepare for the heavy demands to be
+made upon it during pregnancy.
+
+Before menstruation, there is a stage of preparation, a stir and
+twittering of the endocrines, the premenstrual state. Currents of
+communication flow between the different glands, messages and replies
+pass to and fro. When these are properly balanced, so that all goes
+well, the consciousness of the woman will be disturbed by no knowledge
+of them. In some women abnormal sensations appear, a sense of fullness
+in the breasts, or of weight in the back or pelvis, or pain in the
+head. The last is probably due to swelling of the pituitary beyond
+the capacity of its bony container. In a good many women, nervous
+and mental phenomena herald the expected menstruation because of a
+complete upset of the balance between the internal secretions, with
+resulting disturbance of the nervous system. Irritability, depression,
+excitability, melancholia, exaltations, restlessness, hysteria, loss
+of self-control, or even more marked mental aberrations may appear.
+Following them, and roughly paralleling them, may come various
+abnormalities of menstruation itself. The character, extent and
+duration of these furnish us the best clues to the endocrine stability
+or instability of the particular feminine organism.
+
+Menstruation is simply the uterus saying: well, not this time. As the
+destined ovum within its nest, the follicle, grows, its fluid affects
+the interstitial cells to send their specific stuff into the blood.
+There it circulates, hits this gland and that, makes some more active,
+others less, transforms the chemistry of the cells, and engorges the
+mucous membranes, most of all those of the nose and of the uterus. It
+is all to welcome the mature ovum and its possible impregnation, to
+prepare a site for its landing and settlement, blood and food for its
+nutrition, safety for its development. But it is not to be. No sperm
+at hand, or effective enough to penetrate that wandering ovum. Love's
+labour's lost. All must return to the so-called normal, really the
+intermenstrual state. The womb must surrender some of that blood,
+the glands return to their routine, and a sex diastole of the whole
+organism succeeds. Until again, another follicle swells, another ovum
+matures, and the premenstrual state of sex high tide cycles back.
+
+Seven to ten days before menstruation we know that sex high tide is
+beginning for that is when the blood pressure goes up. As this rise of
+blood pressure is probably controlled by the posterior pituitary, we
+have a clue to the reason for the rhythmic variations in the rate of
+production of its secretion by the ovary. For, since menstruation is
+so closely connected with the phases of the moon and the tides, the
+rhythmicity of the posterior pituitary may be traced to the days when
+the pineal was an eye at the top of the head, and in direct relation
+with the pituitary.
+
+Menstruation has been said to be a miniature labor. It is not that
+as much as it is a miniature abortion. It is an effort of nature
+still-born. But nature is quite used to its disappointments and
+returns placidly to the daily grind. The four phases of a woman's
+twenty-eight day cycle succeed each other as the premenstrual,
+the menstrual, the postmenstrual and the intermenstrual, with the
+precision of pistons moving in a motor, when no interfering factor
+as disease, profound emotion or climate disturbances are present,
+affecting the endocrines.
+
+The sequence of events appears to be about as follows: The amount of
+post-pituitary secretion reaches a certain concentration. This in turn
+stimulates the thyroid and adrenal medulla. They in turn activate the
+ovarian cells, which congest the uterine glands and lining membrane.
+The follicle bursts, the ovum is discharged and wanders, the uterus
+waits and wonders. Nothing happens, the curtain is lowered, the
+scenery is removed, the actors revert to civilian clothes. That is the
+story of menstruation, the central phenomenon of woman's pre-pregnancy
+life. One sees it clearly as a play of an internal secretion
+syndicate.
+
+THE PREMENSTRUAL MOLIMINA
+
+The premenstrual molimina is the traditional title accorded symptoms,
+sensations, feelings, observations of women in the premenstrual phase.
+In the light of endocrine analysis, they become exceedingly important
+indicators of the underlying constitution of the individual concerned.
+Indeed, the premenstrual period furnishes a direct clue to the
+dominating internal secretion in a woman. Moreover, these premenstrual
+phenomena are the shadows cast by coming events. For they mimic and
+prophesy the events of the last crisis of feminine sex life,
+the cessation of ovulation which goes by the name of menopause,
+gonadopause, or change of sex life. The premenstrual phenomena provide
+a positive film, so to speak, of the latent negative picture of the
+endocrine system of the girl or woman.
+
+Thus, there is the sub-pituitary or pituitary insufficient type, in
+whom the excessive swelling of the gland causes headache, and a dull,
+heavy, tired feeling, a definite depression. Drowsiness, sleepishness,
+indifference to surroundings, general sluggishness of thought, feeling
+and reaction, a phlegmatic frilosity, all go with it. It is due to
+an overweighing of the pituitary, controller of good brain tone, and
+alive wakefulness, by the demands of the organism.
+
+On the other hand, the hyperthyroid type of woman reacts with an
+exaggeration of her tendency. When the posterior pituitary begins to
+secrete more in her its stimulation of the thyroid is enough to tip it
+over the normal line. Such a woman in the premenstrual phase becomes
+irritable and restless, does not know what to do with herself, cannot
+concentrate on conversation, occupation or any single activity, may
+become excited to the point of mania. Hot, tremulous, sleepless, or
+sleeping badly, she has a much harder time of it than her pituitary
+sister.
+
+These samples of premenstrual internal secretion reaction are the
+extremes of a vast number and variety of types. There are women in an
+unstable quasi-premenstrual state for the greater part of their lives.
+Sometimes an infectious disease or a psychic blow will put a woman
+into this class. The significance of these cyclic changes has been
+tremendously increased by the recent formal admission of women to
+participation in public activities on a plane of equality with men.
+
+Evidence exists that in man, too, there is some cyclic rhythmicity of
+his endocrines, which sets up a fluctuation in his physical and mental
+efficiency. The curves of these variations have still to be plotted,
+and will doubtless contribute no little to our knowledge of the
+control of human nature. One unexpurgated fact stands out: the
+reproductive mechanism of woman has rendered her whole internal
+secretion system, and so her nervous system, all her organs, her mind,
+definitely and sharply more tidal in their currents, more zigzag in
+their phases, more angular in their ups and downs of function, and so
+less predictable, reliable and dependable.
+
+THE MASCULINOID WOMAN
+
+The masculinoid woman, as a functional hermaphrodite, exists first
+as a congenital entity, with an inborn distribution of endocrine
+predominances that make for masculinity. There are also numerous
+acquired forms. The infections of childhood, measles, scarlet fever,
+diphtheria, and above all mumps, may so damage the hormone system
+that an inversion of sex type follows. However, the stimulative and
+depressive effects of environment are even more significant. The
+effects of environment in producing changes in an organism, the
+changes the biologist sums up as adaptation, can be tracked in many
+instances to responsive reactions of the glands of internal secretion
+to demands made upon them by changed external conditions. So a cold
+climate, which necessitates a more voluminous hair covering for an
+animal, will evoke a hypertrophy of the adrenal cortex. Secondarily
+other effects appear as by-products of the adaptation. The adrenal
+cortex makes for pugnacity, temper, animal courage, irritability and
+anger reactions. So a hairy animal will, in general (unless other
+endocrines come in to defeat the primary effect), be more pugnacious,
+courageous, irritable and combative. The same applies to woman. An
+environment which tends to encourage the masculine traits in her, to
+arouse repeatedly her pugnacity and combative decisions in the more
+rapid give and take of the masculine world, will rouse the adrenal
+cortex to greater activity, and so make her face hirsute, her
+attitudes aggressive, and perhaps render her sterile. Concomitantly
+there may be a disturbance of menstruation.
+
+The presence or absence of sterility, natural or enforced, always
+present, or say appearing after the birth of one child, must all be
+donated a prominent place in studying the endocrine make-up of a
+woman. When there is not enough ovarian secretion, the ovum may not be
+able to burst through the ovary, a necessity before it may begin its
+travels to the uterus. Next, the propulsive action of the genital
+ducts may be insufficient because of defective corpus luteum. Or the
+uterus may not have received enough posterior pituitary or thyroid to
+make it fit soil for the ovum to plant itself in. Or there may be
+too much of these, which cause the uterus to massage itself daily by
+gentle contractions and so keep it well-toned. Excessive massage will
+throw the ovum out. All these are factors in the sterility problem,
+with its psychic resonances affecting the maternal instinct.
+
+THE MATERNAL INSTINCT
+
+There have been created high odes to an unknown god, sensuous lyrics
+of love, apostrophes and addresses to every human passion. But no
+poet, to my knowledge, has risen to the heights of the maternal
+instinct. Some contemporary clap-trap about sentimentalism will
+perhaps decry and ridicule the demand for an apotheosis of it. There
+are some who deny its existence, and assert that maternity is forced
+upon every woman. Reduced to its elements, such nonsense turns out the
+absurd pose of the theorist desperate to épater le bourgeois or to
+cover up hidden defects in his or her make-up.
+
+Without the maternal instinct, without the hope of immortality through
+somatic or spiritual posterity, we should all, who were sane enough,
+have to condemn ourselves to the futilities of hedonism. So that the
+criminal who was condemned to roll a huge boulder up a hill, only to
+see it roll down again, would have to thank his lucky stars for his
+lighter punishment. The future, tomorrow, the Kingdom of Heaven on
+Earth, or if you will, the Republic of Supermen, means to all of us
+what the child means to the madonna. The cynical epicurean careerists
+and careeristinas, and the depraved degenerates of a comfort-lusting
+civilization may have suffered an absolute atrophy and castration of
+that instinct. But they are pathologic specimens, and we are not for
+the moment concerned with them.
+
+The Freudians have set up a great hullaballoo about creative
+activities as sublimations of the sex instinct, or as they would have
+it, the libido. That is their obsession, the confusion of the sex
+instinct, the instinct for sex life and satisfaction in the relation
+of the male to the female, with the maternal instinct. The paternal
+instinct bears the same relation to the maternal, as the breasts of
+the male do to those of the female, i.e., a functional hermaphrodite
+trait. The maternal instinct is the instinct to create, provide and
+care for offspring.
+
+The mother expresses the deep craving of protoplasm for immortality.
+What drives her is the instinct of Life to preserve itself unto
+eternity in infinite space and time. That separates it sharply from
+the temporary needs of the sex instinct. The artist, the man of
+science or letters, the statesman, craftsman and maker of every
+sort is instigated by the maternal instinct. He creates for his own
+pleasure, to be sure. But it is in its essence the pleasure of the
+bird making its nest.
+
+It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between the sex instinct
+and the maternal instinct. For different glands of internal secretion
+have been found responsible for them. A distinct difference in the
+quality and amount of the two instincts may be observed in the same
+person. A strong maternal instinct may be seen again and again to
+dominate a woman with but little or no sex urge or passion. Numerous
+physiologically frigid women have lived successful and happy married
+lives because of contented maternity. Other women, with normal or
+exaggerated sex instinct who welcome and stimulate the sex life, may
+have no wish for children, no functioning maternal instinct at all,
+and if sterile, will accept their fate with indifference or even
+exultation. These variations occur because of a difference in chemical
+source and determination of the two instincts. While the ovary,
+stimulated by the thyroid and the adrenal medulla, is the chief
+determinant of the sex instinct, to the posterior pituitary must be
+credited the chief hormone of the maternal instinct. The interactions
+of the two glands, the ovary and the posterior pituitary, modified
+by accessory influences, determine the relative intensity of the two
+instincts. In a sense, the two glands may be said to be antagonistic
+and yet one stimulates and complements the other.
+
+THE TRANSFIGURATIONS OF CHILD-BEARING
+
+Though what happens at puberty, what happens all through life through
+the agencies of the endocrines is amazing enough, what occurs during
+the period of child-bearing is perhaps the most amazing of all. As
+emphasized, pregnancy is the time, among the internal secretions, of a
+great uprooting and stirring, of fundamental and cataclysmic changes
+in the most intimate chemistry of the cells. It is as if a dictator,
+inspired by his country's danger, its enemies at the gates of its
+capitol, were to draft and mobilize everyone, man woman and child from
+everyday activities to the necessities of defense. Or rather it is
+as if there appeared within the heart of our civilization a common
+purpose and intelligence, now so palpably lacking, which magnetized
+and drew to itself all the streams of individual self-aggrandizing
+effort. Imagine that possibility and how it would change the face of
+the earth and the entire basic constitution of human life and society.
+So do the profound tides of the hormones, centering around the new
+creature being made in the womb, transfigure the face and constitution
+of the child-bearing woman.
+
+During pregnancy, in consequence, the integrity of every structure
+of the body is tested. A stern, relentless accountant goes over the
+cells, counts up their reserves, establishes a balance, credits and
+debits according to the demands of the growing parasite within them.
+Follow changes in the skin, the bones, the nervous system and the
+mind. That is, all the glands, subtle recorders, transmitters,
+producers of the vibrations of change are influenced. But the most
+influential are the most affected, as the most dominant personalities
+in a community are most disturbed by a revolution.
+
+In Sinclair Lewis' "Main Street," the best novel ever made about
+America as a nation of villagers, the heroine, Carol Kennicott, has
+this to say to someone sentimentalizing about maternity.
+
+"I do not look lovely, Mrs. Bogar. My complexion is rotten, and my
+hair is coming out, and I look like a potato bag, and I think my
+arches are falling,... and the whole business is a confounded nuisance
+of a biological process."
+
+The exploration of the internal secretions has brought us an
+explanation and an understanding of why child-bearing is a nuisance.
+We know now that if Carol Kennicott's complexion became rotten and
+her hair fell out, it was because her thyroid was not adequate to the
+demands of pregnancy, and that if her arches were falling, and her
+figure acquiring a potato bag dumpiness, it was because her pituitary
+was insufficient. In all probability she was a thymus-centered type,
+which accounts for much of the material that goes to make up the
+novel.
+
+Different endocrine types react characteristically toward the
+situations of pregnancy. The adrenal type may not be able to respond
+with the necessary enlargement of its cortex which is normal for the
+needs of gestation. So pigmentations, darkenings and discolorations of
+the skin, especially of the face, the traditional chloasma develops.
+The hyperthyroid type may become sharply exaggerated, almost to the
+point of mania and psychosis. The subthyroid will suffer an emphasis
+of her defect, and pass on, because of pregnancy, to the truly
+diseased state of myxedema, the state of dull, slow, stupid,
+semi-animal semi-idiocy. The pituitary type becomes more masculinized.
+The face becomes more triangular and coarser, the chin and cheek-bones
+more pronounced, and there is a growth of all the bones, so that she
+is seen to grow visibly in height and breadth, and in the size of the
+hands and feet. Concomitantly, there is a changed, a more matured and
+steadier outlook upon life, all due to stimulation of the anterior
+pituitary, controller of growth, physical and mental.
+
+In general, the major endocrines, the pituitary, the adrenals, and the
+thyroid should hypertrophy and hyperfunction during pregnancy.
+Should they not, should adverse mechanical circumstances or chemical
+malfunction prevent, dire effects may follow. A woman with the
+closed-in type of pituitary, shut up in a small non-expansile sella
+turcica, will suffer the most violent headaches, will become fat, will
+frequently abort. One whose thyroid cannot rise to the demands of
+gestation, because of previous disease (like typhoid or measles) which
+injured her thyroid excessively, may be poisoned by the new elements
+introduced into the blood by the growing fetus, as it is the job
+par excellence of the thyroid to render innocuous these poisons.
+Of adrenal insufficiency, failure of the adrenals to hypertrophy
+sufficiently in pregnancy, little is known. Possibly the corpus
+luteum, the endocrine formed of the torn egg nest in the ovary, makes
+up for any deficiency in this respect. For there is the most curious
+resemblance imaginable between the cells of the adrenal cortex and
+those of the corpus luteum, some day to be completely explained.
+
+THE PLACENTAL GLAND
+
+The placenta, an organ and gland of internal secretion newly formed in
+the uterus, when the fertilized ovum successfully imbeds itself within
+it, must be considered in any analysis of the transfigurations of
+child-bearing. Born with the pregnancy, its life is terminated with
+the pregnancy, for it is expelled in labor as the after-birth. Its
+importance and function as a gland of internal secretion has become
+known only recently. Many still doubt and question the accordance of
+that rank to it. But feeding experiments with it, in various endocrine
+disturbances in human beings, have proved its right to the title.
+
+The placenta is created by the fusion of the topmost enlarged cells
+of the uterine surface and the most advanced cells constituting
+the vanguard of the growing and multiplying ovum. These front line
+invaders interact with the cells in contact with them to make a new
+organ which serves as lung, stomach and kidney for the embryo, since
+it is the medium of exchange of oxygen, foodstuffs and waste products
+between the blood of the mother and the blood of the embryo.
+Ultimately it acts, too, as a gland of internal secretion, influencing
+the internal secretions of the mother, and also those of the embryo.
+
+Settlement of the fertilized ovum in the womb introduces into the
+system new secretions, new substances which are partly male in origin,
+since the ovum contains within it the substance of the male sperm
+which has penetrated it. This masculine element causes a rearrangement
+of the balance of power between the endocrines towards the side of
+masculinity. They push down the pan of the scale to inhibit the
+post-pituitary. So menstruation, the menstrual wave which follows the
+increasing tide of post-pituitary secretion, is postponed. For ten
+lunar months, not another ovum breaks through the covering of the
+ovary, and the uterus is left undisturbed. The placental secretion
+plays a most important rôle as brake upon the post-pituitary, the most
+active of the feminizing uterus-disturbing endocrines. Until at last
+something happens that puts the placenta out of commission in this
+function of restraint, and the long bottled up post-pituitary
+secretion explodes the crisis apparent as the process of labor.
+
+A condition of self-poisoning often occurs in pregnancy, with symptoms
+orchestrating from mild notes like nausea and vomiting to the high
+keys of convulsions and insanities. They represent what happens when
+an unbalanced endocrine system is attacked by the placenta. Depending
+upon where in the internal secretion chain the weak point, the
+Achilles' heel spot, will be found, the nature of the reaction will
+vary. And even after labor, after the explosive crisis, so much of the
+reserve endocrine materials may be consumed, that an actual mania or a
+chronic weakness may come in its wake.
+
+Yet the placental secretion must not be looked upon as something
+wholly evil in its potentialities. Without enough of it to hold the
+uterus stimulating endocrines, particularly the post-pituitary, in
+check, still-birth results. If there is enough, and not too much of
+it, the woman will not feel ill at all, or perhaps only transiently,
+but will be possessed of a curious feeling of drowsy content and
+passive, relaxed happiness. Let there be relatively too much of it,
+too little of the other glands, and the grosser transfigurations and
+ailments of the child-bearing period follow.
+
+THE MAMMARY GLANDS
+
+Once pregnancy is terminated by labor, the placenta is expelled from
+the body as the after-birth. The placenta removed, a new arrangement
+of the balance of power among the endocrines becomes necessary. But a
+new-comer appears upon the scene to take up the function left vacant
+by the absent placenta. This new-comer is the secretion of the
+activated breasts, the mammary glands. They make for a persistence
+of the state of equilibrium among the endocrines attained during
+pregnancy.
+
+The mammary glands are typical glands of external secretion. They make
+the milk and pour it out of the breasts through little canals into the
+mouth of the suckling. Yet evidence forces us to conclude that they
+are also glands of internal secretion, that their internal secretion
+substitutes to a certain extent for the loss of that of the placenta
+but not quite.
+
+What seems to happen in fact, is this: the corpus luteum secretion
+stimulates the dormant cells of the mammary glands, formed during
+puberty, but latent until the advent of pregnancy. We know that
+injection of corpus luteum will cause an hypertrophy of the breasts.
+The same effect is produced regularly during the menstrual period,
+with a consciousness of swelling of the breasts. Their atrophy at the
+menopause coincides with the shrinkage of the ovaries that takes place
+at that period. Activity of the breasts parallels indeed more or less
+the activity of the corpus luteum.
+
+With the prolonged activity of the corpus luteum during pregnancy,
+prolonged stimulation of the breasts occurs. The secretion of the
+post-pituitary would now cause the change from the internal cell
+secretion to milk. But it is inhibited from so doing by the placenta.
+When the placenta is removed, after labor, the post-pituitary can act,
+and a free flow of milk is established. However, to counterbalance
+this, and to prevent the post-pituitary from overacting, the breasts
+secrete a hormone with an action like that of placenta, but not so
+strong, which tends to inhibit the ovary. So is put off the imposition
+of a pregnancy upon a period of lactation, obviously bad for mother,
+infant, and embryo. We have here an exquisite sample of the checks and
+compensations which make for a self-balancing of the whole endocrine
+system.
+
+CRITICAL AGES
+
+The Dangerous Age is a phrase coined by a Scandinavian writer as a
+more dramatic euphemism for the time of life when sex function ceases,
+the climacteric. As a matter of fact, the age of adolescence is just
+as much of a dangerous age as the age of deliquescence. The only
+difference between them is that the dangers of the one have been
+hushed up, the dangers of the other well boomed and advertised.
+Both are dangerous to the individual, because both are periods of
+instability and readjustment of the cells, particularly the brain
+cells, to a deranged endocrine system and blood chemistry.
+
+Moral attitudes differ at the two ages, not so much as an effect of
+experience, as expressions of different visceral pressures produced
+by newly dominant internal secretions. So in Eugene O'Neil's play,
+"Diff'rent," we see the woman Emma Crosby as she is in her youth, when
+her ovaries have budded and bloomed for only a few years, and her
+other endocrine influences are still dormant. She breaks off her
+engagement to Captain Caleb Williams on the eve of her wedding because
+she is informed of the episodes of a sex affair he was involved in on
+his last voyage, under circumstances not discreditable to him. The
+next act shows her thirty years later when, as an elderly spinster,
+she is passing through the climacteric, and is in the state of sexual
+hyperesthesia some women are afflicted with before the menopause. It
+is as if the ovaries and the accessory sex internal secretions erupt
+into a sort of final geyser before they are exhausted. So the captain,
+ever faithful, finds her, and discovers to his horror that she is a
+thousand times more like other women than he has ever been like other
+men. Because of his ignorance of the underlying chemical basis for
+the transfiguration, tragedy follows. Critics may cackle about a sex
+starved woman, who has repressed her natural desires, and hail the
+play as a contribution to the Freudian clinics. As a matter of fact,
+it is a study of libido variation, with endocrine variation, at two
+stages of the inner chemical life of a woman.
+
+The chain of events at the menopause, the acme and then ebb of the sex
+tide, may be summed up something like this:
+
+The ovaries cease producing their eggs and so shrivel as a storage
+battery atrophies when it dries up. An important member of the
+endocrine board of directors thus drops out, and so a rearrangement
+of gland activities, a new régime, becomes necessary. If a balance
+of power is established quickly and equitably, very little happens.
+Quickly the woman passes on to the next plane of her existence. But
+if some endocrine proves recalcitrant, and takes advantage of the
+situation to make itself dominant, trouble and maladjustment, and
+their psychic echoes, come. Anterior pituitary control will mean
+a relative masculinization, with hair on the face and aggressive
+attitudes. Post-pituitary most often refuses to settle down, and
+expressing its ambition as headaches, flushes, obesity and hysteria,
+may cause extreme misery and unhappiness to its possessor. Sooner
+or later, if the harmonious equilibrium of the normal life is to be
+revived, all the glands must regress, thyroid, pituitary and adrenals.
+
+With the waning of the ovarian function, the thyroid type will also
+exhibit its particular flare. If there is thyroid excess the woman
+will be excitable and irritable, the thyroid deficient will be
+depressed and dull, the thyroid unstable (that is swinging between
+excess and deficiency) will have a cyclic up and down alternation of
+mood and temperament. The adrenal centered will have a high blood
+pressure and masculinoid traits, the adrenal inferior will have a low
+blood pressure and suffer from a constant weakness and fatigability.
+So each form of reaction to the critical ages is individualized
+according to the predominating glandular influence in the constitution
+of the woman. When the womb has atrophied, and the breasts have
+shrunk, the typical tan complexion, and the angular masculinoid
+figure, face and psyche follow, and the transfiguration has been
+completed.
+
+Man has his critical age of sex cell deterioration as well as woman.
+The age period swings between forty-five and fifty-five. Here enters
+upon the scene that organ of external and internal secretion, the
+prostate, the most important of the accessory sex glands in the male.
+Experiments with its extract upon growing tadpoles have demonstrated
+it to have the same differentiating effects as thyroid, but without
+the poisoning effects. Furthermore, the microscope reveals cyclic
+changes in its cells comparable to the menstrual phenomena of the
+uterus. Indeed it is accepted as the homologue or male representative
+of the uterus. Small and undeveloped during childhood, its growth at
+puberty parallels that of the other reproductive organs. Its secretion
+has been shown to be necessary to the vitality of the sperm cells.
+The regression of the prostate, its retirement from the field of
+sex competition, is the central episode of the male climacteric.
+Accompanying its shrinking are prominent an irritable weakness,
+despondency, and melancholia, which may emerge at any time if there is
+disease or disturbance of it. The influence of the prostate upon man's
+mental condition, and its contribution to the sex index, still remains
+to be investigated in detail.
+
+SEX CRISES
+
+At the periods of interstitial cell hyperactivity, when a wave
+of radicalism in the blood sweeps through the tissues, the other
+endocrines are tested, and their latent stability or instability is
+made manifest. Even before puberty, cyclic variations of health and
+conduct may be observed in boys and girls which undoubtedly depend
+upon currents among the internal secretions. Children, who, in the
+best of circumstances, habitually are attacked by a wanderlust and run
+away from home, or suffer from fits of naughtiness, are samples of
+such endocrine lability. Children specialists have found that at about
+the end of the second year their charges begin to individuate. In a
+certain percentage, sex traits appear pretty early. But the fact
+of the matter is that it is rather the minority of girls who
+spontaneously exhibit the traditional stigmata of the natural girl.
+The doll-cherishing, housekeeping imitator of mother is another story.
+
+At puberty arise the most exquisite cases of life crisis dependent
+upon hormonic crisis. The boy becomes restless, irritable and
+quick-tempered when his thyroid and adrenals respond to the call of
+the interstitial cells. If they do not, he will become dull, heavy,
+lazy and listless. The girl correspondingly is transformed into a
+vivacious, gay, nervous and apprehensive butterfly, or a sedate,
+dreamy, bashful, or even morose moth. It is interesting to note that
+poise, mental equilibrium, is not established until physical growth
+ceases, marked by a cessation of growth of the long bones known as
+ossification of the epiphyses. Poise seems to be controlled by the
+ante-pituitary. The growth of the long bones is also dominated by the
+ante-pituitary. It would seem as if, its secretion dedicated to the
+one function, could not be available for the other. So it happens that
+those in whom growth ceases early (probably because of an earlier
+and more vigorous invasion of the internal secretion system by the
+interstitial cell product), develop mental maturity more rapidly and
+possess more of it than those in whom growth continues. The acumen and
+salacity of certain dwarfs is proverbial. The puberty phenomena
+teach that sex crises of every sort are dependent fundamentally upon
+fluctuations, periodic or aperiodic, of the sex index, as we have
+defined it.
+
+THE DETERMINING FACTORS OF SEX LIFE
+
+The material summarized in the preceding paragraphs furnish some
+slight inkling of the vast dominion of Sex, in all its relations,
+somatic and spiritual, over which the glands of internal secretions
+rule. The founder of modern pathology, Virchow, said that woman is
+woman because of her ovaries. He meant that woman is a woman, the sort
+of woman she specifically is, because of her internal secretions. But
+no divine decree has laid down a line of cleavage between man and
+woman. There are fundamental constitutional differences between man
+and woman. But it is just as true that man is man because of _his_
+internal secretions.
+
+We have seen that the concepts of Man and Woman are the end-points of
+a curve including variations of every possible combination that are
+embraced in the construction of a sex index. This sex index is not an
+absolute constant, although its range of fluctuation is pretty well
+fixed at birth. It varies from day to day, year to year, depending
+upon the influences that have been brought to bear upon it. But it
+determines the character of the three planes of sex: the endocrine,
+the vegetative, and the psychic. The endocrine is concerned with the
+fundamental chemistry of sex, the internal secretions, which determine
+the chemical reactions that provide the free energy for the sex
+process. Upon the vegetative plane occur those transformations,
+tensions, and relaxations, in the viscera, which are controlled
+in part by the endocrines and in part by the experiences of the
+individual as registered in his subconscious. Upon the psychic,
+conscious planes appear the echoes and reflections of the occurrences
+upon the other two planes, as well as reactions arising in the brain
+from the necessity of the organism reacting as a whole to isolated
+episodes. Accompanying is a self-awareness of the organism as a unit.
+The three planes are not like separate plates of glass one raised
+above the other, the usual idea picture of planes. They are
+nebulae, swirling into each other, influencing and being influenced
+continually. The reactions among these three complexes of sex create
+the milieu for the variations and aberrations of tendency, character
+and conduct which stamp his unique quality upon the individual. Sex
+morale is likewise so influenced. The fundamentals of sex ethics will,
+in due time, be revised in accordance with these conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE MIND
+
+
+It is impossible to review here in detail all the facts accumulated
+concerning the influence of the internal secretions upon all the
+processes of mind, intellectual and emotional. A volume would not
+suffice for their adequate consideration. Reflexes, instincts,
+habits, tendencies and emotions are involved in their machinery. The
+development and normal functioning of the intellect, the pure reason
+as Kant called it, are controlled by them. Brain, without them in
+solution, without enough of them in that wonderful solution, the
+blood, sleeps or remains dormant like the butterfly in the cocoon.
+The cretin, who has not enough thyroid or no thyroid, is an imbecile
+because of his deficiency. Supply him with thyroid from outside
+sources, feed him animal thyroid, be it of the sheep, the pig, or the
+goat, and behold a miracle! he is restored to the level of at least
+the relatively normal intelligence.
+
+Acuteness of perception, memory, logical thought, imagination,
+conception, emotional expression or inhibition and the entire content
+of consciousness are influenced by the internal secretions. The most
+ultramicroscopic activities of the molecules and atoms in the highest
+nerve cells and nerve tissues are dominated. The speed of their
+chemistry and their associations, and thus the speed of thought, are
+regulated. Iodine has been shown to increase the electric conductivity
+of the brain that is, the rate at which electrons will fly through it.
+The thyroid may then be regarded as manipulating the amount of iodine
+brought to play upon the brain cells at a particular moment of danger
+or exaltation. Adrenalin increases the electric conductivity of the
+brain. Nerve impulses, and with them sensations and ideas, travel
+faster or flow more quickly through iodinized or adrenalinized brain
+cells. In dangerous situations we think more rapidly and keenly, for
+in emergencies the blood floods the brain with extra thyroid and
+adrenal secretions.
+
+THE BODY-MIND COMPLEX
+
+Mind, still regarded by most of mankind as something distinct and
+apart from the body, is thus exhibited as but part and parcel of it. A
+deaf, dumb, and blind animal, deprived of tongue, and olfactory mucous
+membrane, without sensations from the outside world can grow no mind,
+in the sense of intelligence. The sense organs of the body mediate
+the primary mind stuff. Without internal secretions and a vegetative
+system there could be no soul, in the sense of complex emotion. Nor
+those combinations of thought and emotion which synthesize attitudes,
+sentiments and character. The internal secretions and the vegetative
+system mediate the primary soul stuff. Mind is thus emulsified with
+body as a matter of cold literal fact. The soul was once a subtlety
+of metaphysics. Now when mind appears soaked in matter saturated with
+chemicals like the hormones, therefore woven out of material threads,
+the independent entity created out of intangible spirit flies like a
+ghost at dawn.
+
+View the outlook. Mind, the slippery phantom, now becomes controllable
+for the purposes of everyday life, because we can put our fingers
+upon, touch, handle and change these material factors, the internal
+secretions and the vegetative system. Through them we may affect the
+very quality of the nerve tissue. The future of the race, the future
+of human nature, depends upon the knowledge to be born of the
+researches into the vast possibilities of this idea. Man, the
+Adventurer, the prey of Chance and Luck, will then become, indeed now
+becomes, the Captain of Fate and Destiny.
+
+It is, of itself, a revolution in the intellect, to conceive of
+instincts and emotions, suggestibility and contra-suggestibility,
+initiative and imitation, volitions and inhibitions as chemical
+matters. In all their relations, mutually reacting effects and
+defects, excesses and deficiencies, the internal secretions set up
+psychic echoes and reflections. When morbid and their equilibrium
+dislocated, we may even have phobias and neuroses.
+
+A man's nature is essentially his endocrine nature. Primarily, when he
+is born, he represents a particular inherited combination of different
+glands of internal secretion. They, constituting the inventory of his
+vital stock in trade, start him in life. Afterwards, food, the routine
+of his existence, the accidents of experience, education, disease and
+misfortune, in short, environment, modify him because they modify his
+ductless glands and his vegetative apparatus, as well as his brain,
+depressing some parts, and stimulating others, and so rearranging the
+system. In particular will he be transformed as the gland is affected
+which is the centre of the system to which the others adapt and
+accommodate themselves. The inertia of the system is very great,
+almost absolute, and always tends to return. If he has children, he
+hands on his constellation of endocrines, in spite of mishaps, not at
+all or only slightly transformed. Sometimes, however, the experiential
+transformation has been sufficiently deep, and shaken the very
+constitution of his germ-plasm. So family dispositions and traits,
+national and racial temperaments, are propagated, maintained and
+varied.
+
+THE SEX INSTINCTS
+
+Hormone reactions, as we have seen, initiate the complicated forces,
+processes and expressions of sex. The dictum of the founder of modern
+pathology, Virchow, that Woman was in effect an appendix to the
+ovaries, has long been taken to apply to her psychic traits as well
+as somatic. Her mind, like her skin, her hair and her pelvis, is a
+product of the ovarian endocrines. But these determinations are by no
+means her monopoly. Man is likewise a creation of the chemical wheels
+within wheels and springs within springs that are his glands of
+internal secretion. That he is not so obviously an appendix to his
+testes is due to two reasons. First, the male sex hormones have not
+the instability nor cyclic rhythmicity of the female. Secondly, and
+perhaps consequently, his sex instincts have become overlayered with
+other more labile instincts, with habits and customs and necessities
+that appear to oust the sex instinct into an altogether decentralized
+position. Moreover, it is the function of the female to be the excitor
+in the sex process: her subconscious, thoroughly aware of the fact,
+sees to it that the sex instinct stands starkly central and dominating
+in her life.
+
+The moods of love, like the more stereotyped manifestations of sex,
+are dependent upon a proper supply to the blood of the internal
+secretions of the reproductive organs, the gonadal endocrines. If the
+testes are removed from frogs, it is found that the clasp-reflex,
+symptom of sex desire, is abolished. If, after an interval of several
+days, the testes' extract is injected into the frog, the reflex
+reappears for a few days. The hormone provoking this sex reflex is
+present in the testes only during the breeding season. In birds,
+the seasonal nesting and migrating instincts may be eliminated by
+interfering with their ovaries. At the same tine there is a change in
+their plumage toward the male type. Similarly, the males, when their
+sex endocrines are cut off, will change their psychic nature as well
+as physically. Besides owning his flag-waving comb, his spurs and
+brighter feathers, the rooster struts to attract the female, and
+fights aggressively with his sex competitors. When he is made a capon,
+he loses his spurs and comb and distinctive plumage, and in addition
+becomes retiring and submissive, in short, a pseudo-hen in his
+instincts as well as in appearance. If the genital glands are
+extirpated from a male before puberty, the wattles remain small, pale
+and bloodless, no active, amorous or combative instinct emerges. The
+creature maintains a demure silence, and may even be sought by a
+virile male. So we may see homosexuality of a kind in the lowest
+animals. On the other hand, hens deprived of ovaries tend to
+metamorphose in the male direction, even to acquire the male spurs,
+and to display the male attitudes.
+
+All through the animal world, in the springtime, when the pituitary
+awakens or increases its secretion, and so stimulates the sex glands
+to augmented activity, emotions of sex and their expression are
+provoked by the inner stirring. When the nightingale warbles
+passionately and the mocking bird gurgles provokingly, when the robin
+fills its scarlet breast and the starling floats in ecstasy through
+the perfumed air, when the pigeon coyly woos its mate, and the
+butterfly flirts with the dazzling multicolors of its wings, when
+all the marvelous devices of sex attraction in nature, selection and
+courting, mating and reproducing are pondered, who but must wonder at
+the infinite possibilities of reaction of the sex hormones? All is for
+love, and all is because of the love in the blood that is manufactured
+unconsciously by a few hidden cells.
+
+EXPRESSIONISM AND EXHIBITIONISM
+
+We need a detailed examination of the various forms of expression
+art has differentiated into, in its relation to exhibitionism and as
+effects of the circulating libido-producing substance of the gonads.
+Sex exhibition differs in man and woman because of the differently
+combined internal secretions that are their substrates. The male's
+attitude, aggressive pursuit, is instigated by the compound adrenal
+and gonad endocrines. The female's various emulsions of coyness and
+display are motivated by posterior pituitary and gonad hormones in
+alliance.
+
+It is a dogma to state that the internal secretions of sex do not
+begin to function until after puberty. Some children manifest
+exhibitionism with a certain independence of environment.
+Before adolescence a good many girls act like tom-boys, and are
+distinguishable externally from boys only by their clothes. But others
+display signs of sex differentiation that are to be traced back to
+an awakening interstitial gonad action. Some boys have no interest
+whatever in sex. Others will show an intense curiosity spontaneously,
+a curiosity which perhaps may be explained as a larval precocity,
+dependent upon the minimum of sex hormone production by the gonads.
+Close observation of the correlation of somatic and psychic
+development in extreme examples of these children corroborates this
+view. Jonathan Hutchinson has described full-busted children of
+London already boasting of their affairs. Indeed, as education and
+environment affect the body (in so far as they influence it as a
+whole) by exciting or inhibiting the glands of internal secretion,
+sex-arousing stimuli from without must be considered to evoke their
+effects as stimulants of the latent puberty glands.
+
+At puberty, when the sex glands bloom, and the complex of the sex
+instincts is activated, exhibitionism manifests itself in a host of
+guises and disguises. Femininity in a woman, the womanly woman, or the
+eternal feminine, may indeed be defined by the degree of somatic and
+psychic exhibitionism she presents. A woman who has a delicate skin,
+lovely complexion, well-formed breasts and menstruates freely will be
+found to have the typical feminine outlook on life, aspirations
+and reactions to stimuli, which, in spite of the protests of our
+feminists, do constitute the biologic feminine mind. Large, vascular,
+balanced ovaries are the well-springs of her life and personality.
+On the other hand, the woman who menstruates poorly or not at all
+is coarse-featured, flat-breasted, heavily built, angular in her
+outlines, will also be often aggressive, dominating, even enterprising
+and pioneering, in short, masculinoid. She is what she is because she
+possesses small, shrivelled, poorly functioning ovaries. Between these
+two types all sorts of transitions exist, according as the other
+endocrines participate in the constitutional make-up. But no better
+examples could be given, off-hand, of the determining stamp of the
+internal secretions upon mind, character and conduct.
+
+INSTINCT AND BEHAVIOUR
+
+The sex instinct, analyzed as an endocrine mechanism, provides the
+clue to the understanding of all instinct and behaviour. If the
+post-pituitary regulates the maternal instinct, then its correlates:
+sympathy, social impulses, and religious feeling, must be also
+influenced, and so is furnished another example of a chemical control
+of instinctive behaviour. McDougall, once of Oxford, now of Harvard,
+introduced into psychology the idea of the simple instinct as a unit
+of behaviour, regarding the most complex conduct as a compounding of
+instincts. The instinct itself he analyzed into three elements: a
+specific stimulus-sensation, an emotion following, all ending in a
+particular course of muscular reaction. Translated into endocrine
+terms, what happens may be pictured as a series of chemical events.
+
+When the activity of a ductless gland rises above a certain minimum,
+its hormones in the blood sensitize, as a photographic plate is
+sensitized, a group of brain cells, to respond to a message from
+the outside world, with a definite line of conduct. There is a
+registration by the brain cells of the presence of the specific
+stimulus. Then there is communication by them with the endocrine
+organs. As a result, some of them are moved to further secretion,
+and others are paralyzed or weakened. In consequence of changes
+of concentration in the blood of the various internal secretions,
+tensions, movements and tumescences, as well as relaxations,
+inhibitions and detumescences, occur throughout the vegetative
+system--the blood vessels, the viscera, the nerves and the muscles.
+Each wires to the brain news of the change in it. In addition, the
+brain cells themselves are excited or depressed by the new hormones
+bathing them. In their final fusion, the commingling vegetative
+sensations constitute the emotion evolved in the functioning of the
+instinct.
+
+To lower the new tensions throughout the vegetative system to
+the normal range, the instinctive action is carried out. This
+superficially is regarded as the essence of the instinct. As a matter
+of fact, it is only the endpoint of a process, the resultant of a
+drive to restore equilibrium within the organism. It may all happen in
+less time than it takes to tell about it.
+
+The play of an instinct may therefore be analyzed into four processes.
+They succeed one another as sensation--endocrine stimulation--tension
+within the vegetative system--conduct to relieve tension. The dash is
+the symbol of a cause and effect relationship.
+
+This equation for an instinct, based upon an analysis of the working
+of the sex instinct, is the model for the analysis of all instincts,
+and therefore of all the compounded instincts that all human behaviour
+may be resolved into. Conduct, that fascinator of the common gossip
+and the great novelist alike, normal and abnormal, social and asocial,
+in all their complexities, even unto the third and fourth generation,
+the Freudian complexes, is governed therefore by the same laws that
+determine the movements of the stars and the eruptions of volcanoes.
+The most interesting factor in the instinct equation is the endocrine,
+because that is the one that is most purely chemical.
+
+ENDOCRINE CHARGING OF WISHES
+
+It is _the_ distinction of modern psychology that it has established
+the wish (craving, need, desire, libido) as the moving force in any
+psychic process. The position of the wish in psychology as the force
+within and behind the instinct may be compared to that of energy in
+physics, when it was elevated to a central position in the explanation
+of physical processes in the nineteenth century. The concept of the
+_charged_ wish has illuminated all the hidden recesses and rendered
+audible all the subdued murmurings of the mind. The truly novel in the
+content of the idea is the recognition of the fact that the wish is
+charged. Now it could never be charged in a vacuum. That means that
+a wish could never be born in the brain alone. For the brain has no
+power to charge itself with energy--it can only store and transmit. If
+a wish is potential energy that must be transformed into kinetic, it
+must have a source. That source is the vegetative system. Without the
+vegetative system, the great complex of viscera in the abdomen and
+chest, blood and its vessels, endocrines, muscles and nerves, the
+brain would remain but an intricate cold storage plant of memories,
+associations of past experiences. It would need no change and initiate
+no effort. But when the wish enters upon the scene, it is as if a dead
+storage battery has been refreshed with new current. Enriched with
+billions of electrons there is a stir and a movement, dynamic mind.
+But the dynamo is the more ancient possession of the animal, the
+vegetative apparatus. In short, what must always be remembered is that
+a wish is never cerebral, but always sub-cerebral, visceral, in its
+origins.
+
+The sub-cerebral makes the cerebral. Activities in the nervous system
+below the brain and especially the vegetative system, force upon it
+its function of the active verb. It has to be, to do, and to suffer,
+and then to manipulate the environment to satiate the insatiable
+viscera, insatiable because the local chemistry is continually raising
+the tension of one or the other of them. A physics of human behaviour
+becomes possible with the aid of these concepts of endocrine
+regulation of intravisceral pressure, and intervisceral equilibrium,
+an intramuscular pressure and an intermuscular equilibrium, with the
+brain as the shifting fulcrum of the system.
+
+The sensation of hunger, as we have seen, serves as good an exemplar
+as any of this mechanism of the wish. Hunger is preceded and
+accompanied by contractions of the stomach of increasing intensity.
+Those contractions must be brought about by a substance acting upon
+the nerve endings in the wall of the stomach. As it closes down upon
+itself, waves pass up and down. With each wave, the pressure within it
+rises. The exact amount of the pressure may be accurately measured
+by means of a small balloon swallowed and then inflated. When the
+pressure rises above a certain figure, the sensation of hunger breaks
+into the consciousness of the individual. We infer that certain
+sensory impulses sent up to the brain attain a strength that finally
+forces itself into the conscious field of feeling. The sensation of
+hunger varies from individual to individual because of variation in
+the reaction throughout the vegetative system. Most often it is a
+sense of movement or even an itch in the upper abdomen. Let some cause
+produce a weakening or cessation of the movements of the stomach--as
+fear and anger--and the sensation of hunger disappears coincidently
+with the drop in the pressure within it. As the mathematicians
+would say, the wish is a function of the pressure, and so of the
+concentration of substance behind the pressure.
+
+We have in hunger the wish reduced to the lowest terms, the most
+primitive form of it. Yet we may resolve all wishes, even the most
+idealistic, into the same terms. As the vegetative system becomes
+habituated by repeated experience to react in the same way to the same
+stimulus, permutations and combinations of wishes become possible
+until at length the inscrutable complexities of the behaviour of
+civilized man are evolved. We have to thank Von Bechterew, the
+greatest of Russian physiologists, for these fundamental principles,
+so important for the understanding of the control of human life and
+conduct.
+
+The associated reflex, aboriginal ancestor of the involved train
+of associations that constitute the highest thought, conduct and
+character, is the unit of the system. Recall the classic example
+cited. If a piece of meat is shown to a dog, his mouth waters. If now
+you proceed to ring a bell before offering the meat, his mouth will
+water only when he sees or smells the meat. If, however, the ringing
+of the bell precedes the meat a sufficient number of reactions, a time
+comes when merely the sound of the bell will cause salivation, without
+the presence of the meat. So it is with the associated reactions of
+the internal secretions. A stimulus originally indifferent to the
+endocrines may, by association, the laws of which are many, come to
+act like a spark to the endocrine-instinct mechanism. Hence we can
+account for the subtle play of instinct throughout all thinking.
+
+Even objects resembling the specific excitant of an instinct only
+remotely, or in some one quality, may start its mechanism and a host
+of associations bound up with it. Thus the maternal instinct may
+be excited by the sight of a baby. But because a baby is small and
+delicate, anything small and fine, a tiny book, a toy, a miniature,
+may arouse it. The object is then said to be appealing. The doctrine
+of association of instinctive and so of endocrine reactions enables
+us to understand the feeling--tone that at any moment pervades
+consciousness as well as its content.
+
+Choices, the psychology of selection of food, color, friends, mates,
+amusements also become explicable rationally. For conflicts among
+the different components of the vegetative system are continuous and
+inevitable. If the pressure within a viscus has been heightened, and
+persists, that is, is not disturbed by some other associated factor or
+instinct, conduct results to lower the pressure to what it was before
+the instigator of the tension appeared. But if another instinct is
+sparked, or another associated factor comes into play, another focus
+of increased pressure within the vegetative system is created, with
+another stream of energy flowing to the brain and demanding an outlet.
+This clash of instincts, the struggle between different foci of the
+vegetative system competing for the possession of the brain, is a
+common everyday process in conduct. Which will win means which will
+will. And so we have an energetic basis for volition.
+
+Which will win appears to depend primarily upon the kind of endocrines
+that predominate in the make-up of the individual, secondarily with
+his education. For it is the endocrines that are really in conflict
+when there is a struggle between two instincts. And if one endocrine
+system conquers, it must be either because it is inherently stronger,
+its secretion potential, that is, the amount of secretion it can put
+forth as a maximum, is greater (so explaining the term dominant)--or
+because a past experience has conditioned it to respond, although the
+opposing endocrine system does not. Fear and anger, respectively bound
+up with the activities of the adrenal medulla and cortex, we shall
+see, provide as good exemplars as any of this process.
+
+The response of the ductless glands to situations varies with their
+congenital _capacity_, and acquired _susceptibility_. Capacity is
+a question of internal chemistry, modifiable by injury, disease,
+accident, shock, exhaustion. Susceptibility depends upon the play of
+the forces focusing upon them that may be summed up as associations.
+In the ability of one endocrine system to inhibit another we have the
+germ of the unconscious. Hence the modus operandi of the repressions
+and suppressions, compensations and dissociations, which may unite to
+integrate or refuse to integrate, and so disintegrate and deteriorate
+a personality.
+
+As the personality develops, the vegetative system becomes susceptible
+to the manifold associates of family, school, church and society, art,
+science and religion, and last but not least sex. All the different
+nuances of personality are expressions of a particular relationship,
+transitory or permanent, between the endocrines and the viscera
+and muscles. Conversely, behaviour shows what a person actually is
+chemically; that is, what endocrine and vegetative factors predominate
+in his make-up.
+
+FEAR, ANGER, AND COURAGE
+
+Fear and anger are the oldest and so the most deep-rooted of the
+instincts. An ameba, contracting at the touch of some unpleasant
+object, feels fear in its most primitive form. And anger, the
+destructive passion, must have appeared early upon the scene of life.
+Certainly these two instincts were definitely developed and fixed in
+the cells before sex differentiation and the sex instincts were born
+at all. It is interesting to note this for our rabid Freudians.
+
+Fear and anger involve the adrenal gland. How comes it that two states
+of mind so contrasted should involve the same area? The answer lies in
+the bipartite construction of the adrenal. All the evidence points
+to its medulla as the secretor of the substance which makes for the
+phenomena of fear, and to its cortex as dominant in the reactions of
+anger.
+
+When adrenalin is injected under the skin in sufficient quantity, it
+will produce paleness, trembling, erection of the hair, twitching of
+the limbs, quick or gasping breathing, twitching of the lips--all the
+classic manifestations of fear. These are the immediate effects of
+fear because they are the immediate effects of excess adrenalin in the
+blood upon the vegetative viscera and the muscles. The perception
+by associative memory of these effects of adrenalin, the sensations
+arising from the organs affected, constitute the emotion of fear.
+Flight follows by muscle prepared for flight, for the disturbance of
+the inter-muscular equilibrium tenses the flexor muscles, the muscles
+of flight, and relaxes the extensor muscles, the muscles of attack.
+
+If, it would seem, the cortex secretion now pours into the blood,
+enough to more than overcome the effects of the medulla secretion, the
+inter-muscular equilibrium is disturbed in the opposite direction,
+for fight rather than flight, and anger results. Or if the cortical
+secretion pours in an overwhelming amount of its secretion from the
+first into the blood there will be no fear, but anger immediately.
+Habitually charging and fearless animals like the bison, bull, tiger,
+or lion have a relatively larger cortex in their adrenals. Habitually
+fleeing and fearful animals, like the rabbit, have a small cortex
+and a wide medulla in their adrenals. The reinforcing action of the
+thyroid is important. The adrenal medulla reinforced by the thyroid
+makes for terror, the adrenal cortex reinforced by the thyroid makes
+for fury.
+
+Some people are not easily frightened, others are more readily
+frightened, and still others are of an extremely fearful nature. It
+depends upon the proportion of adrenal cortex to medulla secretion in
+them. And their reaction to fear stimuli is a pretty good measure
+of the ratio. These formulations apply more particularly to fear in
+general and anger in general. But even in the least fearsome, i.e.,
+an individual in whom cortex dominates medulla, there may be
+fear--complexes, dating back to events and times when medulla
+overtopped cortex, especially childhood. So in the coolest people,
+certain persons, objects, episodes, may send a wave along an old line
+of nerve cells and paths which lead to the adrenal medulla, and so
+flood him with fear, terror or even panic before his usual cortex
+response occurs. Impressions during the early years of childhood,
+probing of the unconscious by various methods, have been shown to be
+the most potent in this respect. Sometimes the episode goes further
+back than childhood, and one must assume an inherited conditioning
+of the vegetative and endocrine systems. An animal leaping upon an
+ancestor in a forest during the night might account for the panic fear
+some people experience when alone in the dark, that nothing of their
+childhood history may account for.
+
+In women, the adrenal medulla naturally tends to overtop the cortex,
+because the latter makes for masculinity. Besides, the recurring
+cycle in the ovary, making the corpus luteum, evolves an additional
+stimulant to the medulla, through its irritating influence upon the
+thyroid. Then the influence of the post-pituitary is anti-adrenal
+cortex. So that, on the whole, a number of endocrines work to render
+woman naturally fearful, as we say.
+
+Courage is so closely related to fear and anger that all are always
+associated in any discussion. Courage is commonly thought of as the
+emotion that is the opposite of fear. It would follow that courage
+meant simply inhibition of the adrenal medulla. As a matter of fact,
+the mechanism of courage is more complex. One must distinguish animal
+courage and deliberate courage. Animal courage is literally the
+courage of the beast. As noted, animals with the largest amounts of
+adrenal cortex are the pugnacious, aggressive, charging kings of the
+fields and forests. The emotion experienced by them is probably anger
+with a sort of blood-lust, and no consideration of the consequences.
+The object attacked acted like the red rag waved at a bull--it had
+stimulated a flow of the secretion of the adrenal cortex, and the
+instinct of anger became sparked, as it were, by the new condition
+of the blood. In courage, deliberate courage, there is more than
+instinct. There is an act of volition, a display of will. Admitting
+that without the adrenal cortex such courage would be impossible, the
+chief credit for courage must be ascribed to the ante-pituitary. It is
+the proper conjunction of its secretion and that of the adrenal cortex
+that makes for true courage. So it is we find that acts of courage
+have been recorded most often of individuals of the ante-pituitary
+type. Photographs are obtainable of thirty-four winners of the
+Congressional Medal of Honor for extraordinary bravery in the War
+with Germany. Of these twenty-three exhibited the somatic criteria or
+hormonic signs of the ante-pituitary type. A prerequisite for adequate
+ante-pituitary function is a normal secretion of the interstitial
+cells of the reproductive glands. Cowardice is said to be a feature of
+eunuchs.
+
+THE PITUITARY AND INSTINCT
+
+We have seen that, more than any other gland or tissue of the body,
+the post-pituitary governs the maternal-sexual instincts and their
+sublimations, the social and creative instincts. A great deal of
+evidence is in our possession concerning the disturbances of emotion
+accompanying disturbances of this gland, and controllable by its
+control. It might be said to energize deeply the tender emotions, and
+instead of saying soft-hearted we should say much-pituitarized.
+For all the basic sentiments (as opposed to the intellectualized
+self-protective sentimentalism), tender-heartedness, sympathy and
+suggestibility are interlocked with its functions. Its secretion must
+act upon the great basal ganglia, at the base of the brain, which
+contain the nerve cells and fibres that are the centers of emotional
+control and co-ordination.
+
+The ante-pituitary has been depicted as the gland of intellectuality
+(to use that term for lack of better). By intellectuality we mean
+the capacity of the mind to control its environment by concepts and
+abstract ideas. The frontal lobes of the brain are the central offices
+for higher thought. Their cells are the most complex, have the most
+numerous branches and association fibres. They store the fruits of
+abstract thinking, mathematics, for example. The anterior pituitary is
+in the closest relation and contact with them. Its secretion is tonic
+to them. Now the instinct that is the forerunner of intellectuality
+is the instinct of curiosity, with its emotion of wonder, and its
+expression in the various constructive and acquisitive tendencies.
+Studies of intellectual men, and of those with a keen instinct of
+curiosity and a constructive-acquisitive trend prove them to be
+ante-pituitary dominant in their make-up. The administration of
+ante-pituitary extract to some defectives increases intellectual
+activity and self-control. The future of intelligence may expect
+a great deal from the newer chemistry of the secretions of the
+ante-pituitary.
+
+Two most important instincts, therefore, which in the complexity of
+their sublimations have created most of the institutions of society,
+the maternal and the intellectual, are connected directly with a
+proper function of the pituitary endocrines. So it happens that
+disturbances of these instincts, reaching far into the normal and
+intellectual spheres of the mind, are definitely connected with
+disturbances of the pituitary. As we shall note in reviewing the
+essentials of the pituitary-centered or pituito-centric personality,
+the personality governed by the fluctuations of activity within the
+pituitary, people with injured, diseased or mechanically limited
+pituitaries (because of the smallness of the bony case enclosing them)
+exhibit defects and perversions of conduct and intelligence directly
+attributable to affections of the very instincts and functions
+the pituitary governs. Children with small, mechanically cramped
+pituitaries lie and steal, are bed-wetters, have poor control over
+themselves, and a low learning capacity.
+
+THE THYROID AND INSTINCT
+
+The chemical mechanism of the instincts described: sex libido, passion
+and jealousy in relation to the ovaries and testes, fear and anger in
+relation to the adrenals, sympathy and curiosity in relation to the
+pituitaries, suggests that a similar explanation will hold for the
+dynamics of the other instincts. In the closest relation to the
+thyroid appear the instincts first isolated, so to speak, by McDougall
+as the instincts of self-display and self-effacement, accompanied
+by emotions of pride and shame respectively. In certain states of
+excessive thyroid activity there is an extra stimulation of the
+instinctive display of the person which may go on to boasting,
+mania and exhibitionism. On the other hand, in states of thyroid
+insufficiency, depression is produced, which may go on to melancholia,
+a desire to be alone, to hide, to sit apart and even a tendency to
+accuse the self of various uncommitted crimes and sins. In the form
+of cyclic insanity known as the manic-depressive psychosis, mania
+alternates with depression, as if the personality were dominated
+wholly in turn by one or the other of these two instincts of the ego.
+There is a good deal of evidence that behind them is a corresponding
+fluctuation in the amount the thyroid secretes into the blood. Among
+the thyroid-centered attitudes toward the self gyrate more than in
+any other type. Egomania and megalomania occur most often in thyroid
+unstable individuals.
+
+ENERGY AND SENSITIVITY
+
+In his classic Inquiries into Human Faculty, Francis Galton laid down
+some fundamental considerations concerning energy and sensitivity
+as mental traits. Energy he defined as the capacity for labor, and
+declared it to be the measure of the fullness of life or vitality.
+Statistical study by him of men of genius and their ancestors showed
+them to be endowed with a large amount of energy. It has been said to
+be the absolute prerequisite of genius. Now if there is a single fact
+that has been well established by investigations of the internal
+secretions, it is that the energy quantum of an individual is a
+function of and determined by his thyroid. The more thyroid he has,
+the more energetic will he be--the less thyroid the less energetic,
+and the lazier. The thyroid-centered individual, of the excess thyroid
+type, actually burns up more food and produces more heat than the
+ordinary organism. He burns himself up faster in general.
+
+When the thyroid sends more secretion into the blood, more thyroxin,
+it accelerates all the functions and activities of the organs. Tea and
+coffee produce loquacity because they stimulate the thyroid. People
+with thyroid dominant constitutions talk fluently, rapidly, and
+continuously. Their energy makes them doers, actors rather than
+spectators. They get up early in the morning, are on the go all day
+without surcease or fatigue, go to bed late, and often suffer from
+insomnia.
+
+Thyroid deficients, however, are definitely the opposite. They are
+quite conscious of the limited reserve of energy at their command.
+Also that they need plenty of refreshing sleep. Early to bed and late
+to rise remains the leading maxim of health for them. In addition they
+find it necessary to sleep during the day. Forty winks or more in
+the afternoon makes a good deal of difference to them. Taciturn,
+inarticulate, lazy, slow, tired, are the adjectives applied to them
+by their friends as well as by their enemies. All because of an
+insufficient or inefficient supply of the thyroid's iodine to their
+cells. The mobility of energy in an organism is a measure of the
+amount of active iodine in it. The physiologic synonyms for "energetic
+and lazy" are "well-iodinized" and "poorly iodinized."
+
+Sensitivity, the ability to discriminate between grades of sensation
+or acuteness of perception is another thyroid quality. Just as the
+thyroid plus is more energetic, so is he more sensitive. He feels
+things more, he feels pain more readily, because he arrives more
+quickly at the stage when the stimulus damages his nerve apparatus.
+The electric conductivity of his skin is greater, sometimes a hundred
+times greater, than the average. Conversely the thyroid deficient type
+has a low discriminative faculty. Galton has recorded that idiots
+hardly distinguish between heat and cold and that their sense of pain
+is so obtuse that some of the more idiotic seem hardly to know what it
+is. Cretins may moan but never shed tears.
+
+Energy and sensitivity in an individual should direct attention to the
+thyroid element predominating in his composition. Lack of energy and
+insensitivity to the degree of thyroid insufficiency in their make-up.
+
+MEMORY, JUDGMENT, AND POISE
+
+In between sensitivity and energy, the sensation and the reaction,
+comes a passage of the stimulus through the gauntlet of the stored
+past experience of the individual known as memory. Many hypotheses
+have been advanced by philosophers, psychologists and physiologists to
+explain the phenomenona of memory. To conceive of memory materially
+at all one must admit some sort of memory trace as the basis for the
+persistence of memory. This memory deposit facilitates the occurrence
+of the chemical reaction constituting the memory along the same path
+the next time. Forgetting then consists in a disappearance of these
+memory traces or deposits. Forgetting is greatest in the first hour
+after remembering, more than half of the memory trace being lost in
+that time. Comparison of the curve of forgetting, and the curve
+of diffusion of a colloid like gelatine from its solution, into a
+surrounding medium, shows them to be exceedingly similar. Forgetting
+may be explained by some such loss of the memory trace or deposit into
+the blood continually flowing by it.
+
+The internal secretions influence the amount and duration of the
+memory deposits. The thyroid appears to be essential to the _laying
+down_ of the memory trace. Cretins have poor memories on the retention
+side and so cannot learn. The memory of thyroid insufficients is
+wretched. In the extreme grades, the memory for recent occurrences
+becomes completely lost. Iodine and thyroid increase the electric
+conductivity of the brain, so that the memory trace must be deposited
+more easily in those who have an excess of thyroid. Removal of the
+thyroid produces a degeneration of nerve cells and their processes,
+and associative memory becomes difficult or impossible because
+conduction from cell to cell is interfered with. If sufficient thyroid
+is fed in excess, brain conduction may be so facilitated that epilepsy
+may result upon slight irritation.
+
+On the other hand, the pituitary seems to be related to _preservation_
+of the memory deposit. In conditions of disease of the pituitary,
+loss of memory for past experiences is more marked. As regards recent
+experiences, they are better held, although in a sort of subconscious
+manner, recoverable when the condition improves or is cured. But the
+greatest difference between the thyroid and pituitary effects upon
+memory exists as regards material: the thyroid memory applies
+particularly to perception and percepts, the pituitary to conception
+(reading, studying, thinking) and concepts.
+
+Judgment is another mental process that often intervenes between
+sensation and the energy-reaction. It involves memory and association
+of experiences. Behind it is an attitude as much as there is in an
+emotion or the arousing of an instinct. Beliefs and reasonings are
+complex judgments. They form the units of the intellectual process.
+
+There is an element of speed in judgment on reasoning as in perception
+and memory. And as in the latter, the thyroid determines the velocity.
+Quick thinking, as we call it, means good thyroid action, and slow
+thinking deficient thyroid action. The other element in judgment,
+accuracy, is influenced by the ante-pituitary. During adolescence
+there is physical growth which consumes most of the secretion of the
+ante-pituitary. After adolescence, after the early twenties, when
+physical growth has ceased, the ante-pituitary secretion sensitizes
+the cells of the brain to mental growth. The reaction potential of
+the ante-pituitary, that is its inherent, latent ability to supply a
+maximum of its endocrine for the nerve cells of the frontal lobes, is
+the best-known chemical determinant of intellectual genius. It makes
+for the greatest co-ordination of experience, knowledge, information,
+tastes and problems into one harmonious whole. And curiously, not only
+does it cause a fusion of intellectual material: it creates a desire
+for and a love of such material.
+
+We should expect to find extraordinarily well-developed ante-pituitary
+action among eminent philosophers and men of science, and we do.
+Adequate action of it is present throughout the range of normals who
+evidence sufficiently ripened judgment as they progress through
+life. The ability to profit by experience, and to make more and more
+accurate judgments as one grows older implies at least a maximum
+efficiency of it. This maturation is not at all universal. Even after
+middle age, after forty and fifty years of reasoning, some individuals
+retain the juvenile mind of their youth. Like the Bourbons, they
+have learned nothing and forgotten nothing. Their ante-pituitary
+insufficiency often coupled with a post-pituitary excess, and other
+instabilities and disequilibriums in the endocrine system, render them
+immature morons, compared with what might be expected of them for
+their years. They are the people who are old enough to know better.
+For the same reasons, inhibition and emotional control are poor in
+them.
+
+Besides the ante-pituitary, in the evolution of judgment, and the
+judgment faculty, due stress must be laid upon the influence of the
+internal secretion of the testes or ovaries, the product of the
+interstitial cells. Although the probability is that the effects
+are indirect, through a stimulation of the ante-pituitary, the fact
+remains that, in a child, memory may be marvelous and judgment poor
+(such memory is possibly purely thyroid in its determination). With
+the advent of the gonads upon the scene, judgments become the centre
+of the play's plot undoubtedly. The intelligence of eunuchs and
+eunuchoids is in general low. The skull and brain of castrates, animal
+and human, is smaller than the average. Gall, the physiologist who
+popularized ideas concerning the meaning of the protuberances and
+depressions of the head in relation to faculty and character, early in
+the nineteenth century, was the first to prove this. Among historic
+castrates, eunuchs, not a single example of great intellect, of the
+creative type, is known. On the contrary, the native gifts of the mind
+were destroyed. Thus Abelard, who was punished with castration by his
+uncle for his love affair with Helöise, never composed a verse of
+poetry thereafter.
+
+IMAGINATION AS AN ENDOCRINE GIFT
+
+That brings us to the consideration of imagination as influenced by
+the endocrines. The physical conditions of exercise of the imaginative
+faculty have not been sufficiently investigated. Alcohol has long been
+known to act as an evocant of strange images. The hallucinations of
+delirium tremens are the results obtained in extreme intoxication. A
+strangely imaged flow of consciousness, the imaginative state, may
+also be evoked by morphine and cannabis indica. There is no doubt
+that the brain cells may be made to combine in the fresh, novel, and
+unfamiliar associations that are recognized as unreal.
+
+Francis Galton, pioneer student of the conditionings of human faculty,
+left an interesting study of the visualising capacity, so far as it
+could be attacked by the statistical method. Two of his conclusions
+are worth repeating for our purposes. One is that the power to imagine
+is poor in philosophers and men of science. The other that it is
+higher in the female sex than in the male. We have seen that the
+philosophic, scientific, intellectual mind, the capacity to abstract,
+and think in terms of abstractions, is definitely dependent upon
+proper secretion by the ante-pituitary. In woman, the post-pituitary
+is generally predominant over the ante-pituitary. Though we are in
+need of a series of studies of the endocrine traits and composition of
+men endowed with high imaginative qualities, and so are at a loss, we
+have indications of an endocrine control of the state of consciousness
+we speak of as the imaginative.
+
+Most of the evidence accumulated in the examination and treatment of
+morbid conditions characterized by a restless, incoordinate activity
+of the brain cells points to excess of the post-pituitary secretion as
+the cause, or as one of the most important causes. The thyroid and the
+adrenal medulla also exert their influence. But the strongest appears
+to be the post-pituitary. Phobias, fears which obsess the mind,
+anxiety neuroses, suspicions, hallucinations, delusions, nervousness,
+all expressions of what we may sum up technically as the imaginative
+state of mind, occur and occur frequently, associated with other
+symptoms of posterior pituitary overactivity. Persons in whose make-up
+it rules are more liable to imagine disturbances of their mentality,
+or exhibit a well-developed imaginative streak. Normal states of
+overactivity of the post-pituitary such as occur in some women during
+the menstrual period and pregnancy, and in some men as part of the
+endocrine cycle of their everyday lives, are accompanied by increase
+in the susceptibility and vigor of the imagination. Whether the
+feeding of excess post-pituitary would lead to a stimulation of the
+tendency or ability to imagine is still to be decided. But it is
+known that quieting the post-pituitary by various means will cause
+a depression of the faculty, and eliminate its pathologic
+manifestations.
+
+Psychologists distinguish between the constructive imagination that
+expresses itself in an ordered activity and the unbalanced fancies
+of the fearful neurotic for example. The post-pituitary confers the
+lability of the underlying state of brain in all of these imaginative
+tincturings of consciousness. The constructive imagination, one of the
+few truly precious gifts of a personality, is probably the expression
+of a certain balanced activity of the ante-pituitary and the
+post-pituitary.
+
+MOODS AND THE ORGANIC OUTLOOK
+
+The lability the post-pituitary confers upon the combinations of
+perceptions and conceptions, grouped as the imagined, extends to
+the ruling mood that may be spoken of as the organic outlook.
+Post-pituitary in excess, without compensation or balancing by one or
+some of the other endocrines, is associated with an instability of
+mood and the organic outlook. Concomitant is a defective self-control.
+Typically, one sees the effects in the mental abnormalities of women
+during the premenstrual period. A number of them have their pituitary
+balance upset then, with an overtopping of the ante-pituitary by the
+post-pituitary. Irritability, a sub-hysteria, or an actual hysteria
+may emerge in the usually most placid characters. A quiet wife and
+mother may go for her husband, curse and mortify him, even strike and
+beat him. She may slap her children at that time and no other. It is
+well known that most of their crimes are committed by women during the
+menstrual period. So are the suicides. Deterioration of mentality and
+character so often observed during the menopause, with its apathies or
+excitements, melancholia or mania, the fits of weeping or gaiety, the
+loss of grip upon reality, the complete change in mood and temperament
+that reflect the transformation of the organic outlook, demonstrate
+clearly the overwhelming influence of the endocrines upon the
+attitudes of the self toward the self.
+
+It is possible to speak of thyroid moods, adrenal moods,
+ante-pituitary or post-pituitary moods, gonadal moods. Each of
+these is the echo in the mind of cells stimulated or depressed,
+by concentration or dilution in the blood of particular internal
+secretions. Restlessness and excitement can be produced experimentally
+by feeding thyroid. Vague anxiety, depressive fancies and fears,
+imaginative overactivity can be removed by inhibiting the
+post-pituitary. Hypersecretion of the ovary will cause a sexual
+susceptibility and a mood of genital obsession, capable of the most
+remarkable sublimations and perversions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE BACKGROUNDS OF PERSONALITY
+
+
+The question of moods and sublimations once raised introduces the
+problem of the relation of neuroses, nervous disorders without an
+organic disease basis, and mental abnormalities, to the endocrine
+system. Obviously, in view of all the influences exerted by the
+ductless glands upon every organ and function of the body and mind,
+and their intermediary, the vegetative nervous system, a relation must
+exist. Observations accumulated, some of which have been referred to
+in the preceding chapters, prove the complete, though complex, reality
+of such a deduction.
+
+The history of attitudes toward nerve and mental disorders is a
+remarkable illustration of the vicissitudes of ignorance playing with
+words. The Greeks, swayed and dazzled as they were by the magic of
+words which they discovered, yet never permitted themselves to be
+fooled by them. As an explanation for the phenomena of hysteria in
+women, that benign mental disorder par excellence, they had the theory
+of a wandering about of the womb in the organism as a cause. That
+provided an image of something material happening as an explanation.
+With the triumphs of anatomy after the Renaissance, that naïve view
+had to be discarded. In its place the humoral theory held sway, with
+its good humors and its bad humors, and their bilious, lymphatic,
+nervous and sanguine admixtures. But that, too, went the way of all
+flesh. During the first half of the nineteenth century, a popular
+phrase, "nerves," paraphrased by practitioners of medicine as
+neuroses, then came into vogue as the efficient cause of these
+troubles. "Nerves" indeed today have filtered everywhere into the
+common consciousness.
+
+Because of the irritant effects of light, food and social conditions,
+America has come to swarm with neurotics of every type, especially the
+sexual. A rich field was created for cults of treatment, which spring
+up like weeds periodically all over the country. We have seen how the
+American, Beard, was inspired by the idea that "nerves" represented a
+loss of tone, a flabbiness, weakness and softness of the nerves, to
+coin the word neurasthenia. Nerve exhaustion he believed was the cause
+of the nerve weakness. Weir Mitchell, another American, introduced the
+rest cure combined with overfeeding as a treatment for it.
+
+An analytical French neurologist, Charcot, was not to be satisfied by
+words of Latin-Greek derivation. Insisting upon the significance of
+the individual mental workings of each case, he and his pupil Janet
+began to unravel a tangle which has led to the present revolution in
+psychology. For Freud, Jung and Adler took up the story where Janet
+left off.
+
+Janet elaborated the ideas of a subconscious and an unconscious, a
+dissociation of the components of the mind, and a splitting of
+the personality. Lumping the phenomena of amnesia, somnambulism,
+hypnotism, anesthesia, obsession and hysteria into the grand group of
+mental dissociations and disintegrations, he achieved a unification
+never considered possible before him. Suggestion as a mode of cure was
+also emphasized and elaborated by him to an undreamed-of degree.
+
+Freud, in 1895, studying a case of hysteria with Breuer, had attempted
+cure by the method of free association, attempting to get the hysteric
+to pour out her mental life. Not succeeding, and his interest aroused
+by her continual references to her dreams, he discovered that by means
+of those dreams he could tap the subconscious and unconscious in
+regions hitherto inaccessible. For in the dreams, ideas, persons, and
+experiences appeared that never came upon the stage of the conscious.
+From that finding he developed the concept of repression, i.e., the
+relegation of a painful experience into the unconscious, and kept
+imprisoned there by the censor. Also how there it became the complex,
+which, like a stage manager, never appeared before the footlights of
+the conscious, but determined its content just the same by inhibition
+or stimulation of any character or scene to be enacted upon it.
+
+A complete critique of Freudianism cannot be attempted here. But in
+relation to the endocrine system as controllers of nerve function
+in health and disease, a valid criticism can be made. Firstly, the
+Freudian jargon, its technicalities and explanations, are metaphors.
+Some may regard them as justifiable descriptions of mental processes.
+But it certainly can be urged against them that they provide us with
+no idea concerning what is happening in the cells of the body and
+brain as explanation for the event, normal or abnormal, supposedly
+explained. Words like sublimation or transference are figures of
+speech and nothing else. Secondly, they ignore totally the powers of
+the vegetative apparatus, the viscera, muscles and secreting glands
+together, as originators and determiners of the wish and its
+adventures.
+
+How utterly different, from the point of view of the physiologist, the
+two explanations are as pictures, can be seen from a single example.
+The idea of repression, to the Freudian, means the pushing down
+into the subconscious of some experience. Pushing down is a process
+controlled by the laws of physics: it involves the concepts of matter
+and force. Hence, the expression, as a description of a psychic
+episode, is a metaphor pure and simple. From the standpoint of the
+process of repression as pictured by the student of the vegetative
+apparatus, the term signifies a real bottling up of energy. For the
+repression means actual compression of muscle, the muscle contained
+in the viscera. And the repression means a real interference with
+the release of energy, which remains bound up, tugging for room
+for expression as much as a spring tightly coiled in a box. In the
+production of that tension an endocrine has often been decisive. The
+endocrine nature of the individual may decide whether a subconscious,
+i.e., visceral or vegetative tension, is to come into being, live
+or die, in the face of a given situation. If thereby, a permanent
+disturbance of the equilibrium between the components is brought
+about, a neurosis, expression of an unsatisfied vegetative tension,
+follows.
+
+It has been hailed as a brand new discovery by those following the
+latest in psychology that the subconscious and the unconscious
+constitute a more essential component of the personality than the
+conscious. As a matter of fact, common practice has recognized the
+fact, if not the mechanism and its significance, for ages. It is not
+what people say or do--it is how they say it: that is how the true
+reactions of personality are recognized instinctively even by animals.
+Tone and gesture (when not acted or posed) are accepted as symbols and
+symptoms of states of the inmost sancta sanctorum that words and wit
+never give entrance to, nay disguise and block. Tone and gesture as
+revelations of the Inner-Me, the True-Me or Intra-Me if you will,
+are so potent because they are direct expressions of the vegetative
+apparatus. The curl of a lip, the flicker of an eye-lash, the twitch
+of a shoulder are the overflow of energy cramped in the increased
+intravisceral pressure, determined by increased outflow of endocrine
+secretion. Wittingly or unwittingly we interpret the little signs as
+messages from the deepest self, which they truly are.
+
+NERVOUS BREAKDOWNS AND SHELL SHOCK
+
+In civil life, the complex of symptoms Beard jumbled together as
+neurasthenia, when associated with a loss of self-control, so that the
+sufferer is incapacitated for the duties of everyday life, has become
+the popular "nervous breakdown." A sanitarium appears to be one of the
+necessary components of the condition. It is the last act, the climax
+of "nerves."
+
+During the War of 1914-1918, thousands of cases of functional
+disorders of the nervous came to be grouped under "Shell Shock."
+The psychic phenomena in the wake of concussion of the brain due to
+explosives suggested the term, and its application to affections of
+self-control, or dissociations of the personality, with paralysis,
+blindness, speechlessness, loss of hearing and so on. The War neurosis
+(including those arising in home service) is still a topical subject
+because thousands of mentally disabled soldiers are alive.
+
+In view of what has been said concerning the endocrine mechanism of
+the instincts and the vegetative apparatus, it could be predicted that
+a number of these nerve casualties of peace and war would be caused by
+an upset of the equilibrium between the glands of internal secretion.
+A study of war neuroses by the great Italian student of the
+endocrines, Pende, confirms this assumption. As emphasized, the
+internal secretions are like tuning keys, and tighten or loosen the
+strings of the organism-instrument, the nerves. War for the soldier,
+or the civilian combatant as well, sets the strings vibrating, and
+with them the glands controlled by them. Excessive stimulation or
+depression of an endocrine will disturb the whole chain of hormones,
+and the vegetative system, and their echoes in the psyche. The nervous
+disorders of war that have been lumped as shell shock or war shock may
+be looked upon as uncompensated; airings of the endocrine vegetative
+mechanism, as dislocations of parts and processes that are reflected
+outwardly as ailment or disease.
+
+AN ENDOCRINE NEUROSIS
+
+An exquisite example of an endocrine neurosis, that is a disorder of
+nerves and brain dependent upon an upset of the equilibrium between
+the internal secretions due to a trying experience, was furnished
+recently by the reactions of three naval officers lost in the snow
+wilds of Canada through a balloon adventure. The cases aroused a good
+deal of interest at the time, and the details were reported by the
+newspapers as if they were the episodes of a serial mystery story.
+
+The three officers started out late one fine evening from Rockaway
+Air Station in a balloon for a practice trip. Atmospheric conditions
+suddenly changed, they became lost in the clouds, and finally landed
+somewhere in the Canadian wilderness. The commander of the balloon
+crew, Lieut. A., 23 years old, was the youngest of the three; the
+oldest, Lieut. B., being 45, and the third man in the thirties, Lieut.
+C.
+
+According to the testimony given at the Court of Inquiry held
+afterwards, two hours after they abandoned the balloon and started
+struggling through the snow, B. became tired and complained of his
+fatigue. B.'s fatigue increased, and two days later became so great
+that the party had to stop for an hour and build a fire in order to
+permit him to rest. However, an hour proved too little: and in another
+half hour he was falling and fainting.
+
+Letters written by C. to his wife and gotten hold of by reporters
+declared that B. at this juncture passed into a semi-sane state, in
+which he accused himself of a number of sins, and volunteered to
+commit suicide, so that the others would not be burdened by his
+weakness. Also, that they might use his body to fortify themselves. A.
+discussed with C. the advisability of taking B.'s knife away from
+him. Living on their carrier pigeons, they continued on, moved by a
+desperate hope of finding someone. B. had several fainting spells
+after drinking water traced by moose tracks.
+
+Luck favored them, and they encountered an Indian who guided them to
+a place called Moose Factory. Here they wrote the letters home which
+reached their wives and the daily press before they themselves
+returned to civilization. A great hue and cry was raised by the
+newspapers about their plight. Newspaper correspondents vied with each
+other for the honor of being the first to meet them and get their
+story.
+
+They arrived at a collection of houses named Mattice. A. and C.
+proceeded ahead and found instructions for them not to talk. C. went
+back to B., who was in a shack with the correspondents full of the
+story of the letters. B. became enraged and struck C. who retained his
+self-control.
+
+Differences were patched up, and the three returned together to New
+York. There the medical examination of the three showed that the four
+days in the wilderness had left its deepest effects upon the physique
+and mind of B. In a few days he developed an attack of tonsillitis,
+with fever, and a mental disturbance described by the medical officer
+as exhaustion psychosis. He believed this condition to be the result
+of severe exhaustion, prolonged anxiety, worry, and extreme exposure.
+Extreme restlessness and irritability, confusion of thought and
+an undefined perplexity, all the prominent symptoms of exhaustion
+psychosis, making him hyperactive and inclined to acts of violence,
+were in evidence.
+
+The physique, character and reactions of Lieut. B. are what interest
+us in the case. The pictures of him published, and the structure of
+his skull, face and teeth, his hair and other physical traits point to
+his being an adrenal-centered type, of the unstable variety, so far as
+his internal secretion make-up is concerned. As we shall see in the
+next chapter on the different kinds of endocrine personalities,
+the unstable adrenocentric (convenient name for the class) is
+characterized by rapid exhaustibility because under conditions of
+stress and strain, the reserve of the gland is consumed. The adrenal
+glands, we noted in a preceding chapter, are concerned with the
+maintenance of muscle and nerve tone in emergencies. They are the
+glands which, during crises especially, control the production and
+supply of energy to the various organs and tissues called upon to
+function to the utmost in emergencies. When the adrenals fail, as they
+do readily in these labile adrenocentrics, it is as if the adrenals
+were cut out of the body. And it has been repeatedly shown that
+extirpation of the adrenals is immediately followed by degeneration
+and breakdown of the brain cells.
+
+These facts explain the reactions of Lieut. B. The acute call upon his
+adrenals made by his dangerous situation probably soon exhausted them
+of their content of reserve secretions. Overwhelming fatigue with loss
+of muscle tone followed. The changes in the brain caused him to talk
+as he did in the wilderness. Returned to safety, the news that his
+reputation was under fire because of C.'s letter brought out another
+adrenal characteristic: the excessive instinct of pugnacity, easily
+stimulated, with its emotion of anger and the tendency to violence.
+What is spoken of as a quick temper is an adrenocentric trait.
+Returned to New York, an infection, tonsillitis, attacked him.
+Infections in adrenocentrics use up the content of the adrenals as
+rapidly as physical exhaustion or emotion. So the tonsillitis, which
+in another type of individual would have been combatted continuously
+by the adrenals and so passed by as a mere sore throat, presented him
+with a high temperature, and the brain disturbance described by the
+medical officer as exhaustion-psychosis, with again a tendency to
+violence. In short, the history of his adventure is the history of his
+adrenals under stress and strain. It illustrates the mechanism of a
+typical endocrine neurosis.
+
+THE UNCONSCIOUS AND THE VISCERA
+
+In the chapter on the glands of internal secretion as an interlocking
+directorate, certain generalities were stated as the laws of the
+government of the organism's life by them in association with the
+vegetative apparatus. It was put forward as a fundamental revision of
+the theory, hitherto accepted, of the limitation of mind to the brain
+cells. We think and feel not alone with the brain, but with our
+muscles, our viscera, our vegetative nerves, and last but not least
+our endocrine organs. In short, we think and feel with each and every
+part of ourselves.
+
+Among these pristine factors determining the content of consciousness,
+the endocrines are most important, because they alone to start with,
+of all the other factors, are different in each and every individual.
+They are what render him unique at birth, even though he looks the
+counterpart of millions of other babies born at the same time. They
+constitute his inner destiny. As he grows, the external factors,
+social experiences, climate, accidents, and disease modify and
+condition the reactions and complexity of the endocrine system. As
+these modifications and associations are of the greatest import for
+the final elaboration of the personality, composing as they do the
+elements of the unconscious which confers the unique stamp of normal,
+abnormal, supernormal, or subnormal, it is worth while now to review
+the most general of the determining laws. Man is an energy phenomenon,
+both conscious and unconscious, with the energy emanating from the
+endocrine-vegetative mechanisms. So it becomes possible for us,
+by their aid, to analyze the conscious, the subconscious and the
+unconscious with the terms long current in the analyses of physics.
+
+1. Man is an energy machine which, though it is constantly losing
+energy as a whole; consists of parts constantly accumulating energy
+(as a result of inherent chemical reactions accelerated by the
+absorption of food). This process of local accumulation of energy
+associated with general loss of energy may be observed even in the
+ameba, in the form of stored reserve food material. Evolution
+created a system of organs, the viscera, as specialists in energy
+conservation, utilization or transformation.
+
+For intercommunication and interaction between the viscera two systems
+were elaborated: a younger system of direct contacts, the nerves,
+and nerve cells, through which influences could be conducted for the
+stimulation, acceleration, retardation or inhibition of an energy
+process in them; and the older, the endocrine gland association, for
+the production of chemical substances to act as messengers to be sent
+from one viscus to another, and also to the nerves, through the blood
+or lymph which bathe all the cells. They could affect only one or
+certain organs, because by selection only the chosen organ or organs
+knew the code, as it were. The chemical system is much the older
+system, and preceded the nerve system by aeons of time. The whole
+system, viscera, visceral nerves and the endocrines gradually united
+into a complete autonomous organism within the organism, and as such
+functions as the vegetative apparatus.
+
+EVOLUTION OF THE ENDOCRINES
+
+2. In the course of evolution, variations occurred in all three
+components of the apparatus, the viscera, the nerves, and the
+endocrines. Now variations in the viscera and the nerves are
+essentially grossly physical and quantitative. That is, there may be a
+bigger stomach or a smaller stomach, larger nerve fibres or smaller.
+And as Life always has worked with a large margin of safety, and
+always played for safety first as regards quantity, these variations
+have not become of much significance for the history and destiny of
+the animal.
+
+But variations among the endocrines made a tremendous difference. To
+have very much thyroid and very little pituitary, much adrenal and not
+enough parathyroid meant a great deal to the Organism as a whole,
+as well as to the vegetative apparatus. For states of tension and
+relaxation, activity and inactivity in the nerves and viscera would be
+determined by these variations in the ratio between the variants. The
+vegetative apparatus in its virginity, say in the new-born infant, may
+be said to have its development primarily determined by the reaction
+potentials of the endocrine part of it, that is the latent power of
+each gland to secrete at a minimum or a maximum, and the balance
+between them.
+
+EDUCATION OF THE VEGETATIVE SYSTEM
+
+3. Training or education involves, beside other effects, a training
+of the endocrines, and hence of the entire vegetative apparatus, to
+respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus. Experience is
+like the introduction of new push-buttons, levers, and wheels into the
+mechanism. All learning which calls out or arrests the functioning of
+an instinct, must, from what we have learned of the chemical dynamics
+of instincts as reactions between hormones, nerves and viscera, affect
+the vegetative system. When there is a conflict between two or
+more instincts, between pressures of energy flowing in different
+directions, there may be compromise and normality, or a grinding of
+the gears and abnormality.
+
+Where does the brain come in, in all this? As the servant of the
+vegetative apparatus. To call it the master tissue is manifestly
+absurd, when it can only be the diplomatic constitutional monarch of
+the system. It can, in fact, act only as the great central station
+for associative memory, as only one of the factors implicated in
+education.
+
+The most powerful educative agents of the vegetative apparatus of a
+human being are the other humans around him. And they comprise the
+most powerful of the external effectors of education, for better, for
+worse. The training and education of the endocrine-vegetative system
+is the basis of all social rules (Habit, Custom, Convention, Law,
+Conscience). An unresolved discord, a continued conflict among the
+parts of the vegetative system, in spite of such education, is the
+foundation of the unhappiness of the acute or chronic misfits and
+maladjusted, the neurotic and the psychotic.
+
+THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
+
+4. Another vastly important law that governs the content of the
+conscious and the unconscious, and resultant behaviour is the fact
+that the nerves and nerve cells of the vegetative apparatus, the
+nerves leading to the viscera and the endocrine glands, like the solar
+plexus, are affected by stimuli of lower value than those which arouse
+the brain cells. In the metaphorical language of the old psychology,
+the threshold value, that is the strength or loudness of stimulus
+sufficient to make itself felt or heard, is less for the vegetative
+apparatus than for the brain. So we begin to glimpse why an emotion
+seems to be experienced before the visceral changes that really
+preceded it, but pressed their way into consciousness later. This
+gives us a clue to the unconscious as the more sensitive and deeper
+part of the mind.
+
+More than that, it supplies us with a physical basis for the
+unconscious which will explain much of the observed laws of
+its workings. It provides a reason for the apparent swiftness,
+spontaneity, and unreasonableness of what is called intuition. And it
+may show us a source for a good deal of the material of dreams and
+dream states.
+
+We have said that we think and we remember, not alone with the brain,
+but with the muscles, the viscera and the endocrines. So do we forget
+not alone with the brain, but with the muscles, the viscera, the
+endocrines and their nerves. The utmost importance of muscle attitudes
+in remembering has been established in the experimental laboratory.
+
+It is one of the great services Freud rendered to psychology (and one,
+by the way, largely responsible for the acceptance of his doctrines
+by the disinterested intelligence) that he showed that a species
+of forgetting is nothing casual, but active and purposeful, a
+manifestation of the life of the unconscious. However, though his
+description of the process was correct, he left it to occur in a
+vacuum. As a matter of fact this forgetting consists in the inhibition
+of associative memory by a process in the vegetative apparatus, so
+as to maintain the equilibrium within itself which is reflected in
+consciousness as comfort.
+
+The unconscious, in short, consists of the buried associations among
+the parts of the vegetative apparatus and the brain cells. We seem to
+be much nearer to grasping the nature of the unconscious, when we look
+upon it as a historical continuum, a compound or emulsion of different
+and various states of intravisceral pressure and tone, in the
+vegetative apparatus, dependent upon the balance between the
+endocrines, as well as upon past experiences of the viscera in the
+way of stimulation or depression. We forget that which is held down,
+literally, in the vegetative apparatus. This explanation of forgetting
+tells, too, why the forgotten (stored in the sub-brain, the
+endocrine-vegetative system) continually projects itself into and
+interferes with the regular flow of consciousness, e.g., in slips
+of the tongue, mistakes of spelling, and so on: because the energy
+bottled in the vegetative system tends to erupt into the consciousness
+into which it would ordinarily flow.
+
+In the evolution of the mind, there have been elaborated devices
+to protect it against the vegetative apparatus. Consciousness, or
+awareness, must be accepted as a fundamental, primal fact, like
+protoplasm. Consciousness and protoplasm may be the complementary
+sides of the same coin. Whatever the truth, the fact stands out
+that the oldest, deepest, most potent consciousness is that of the
+traditionally despised lowest organs, the vegetative organs, the heart
+and lungs, stomach and intestines, the kidneys and the liver, and so
+on, their nerves, e.g., the solar plexus, and the glands of internal
+secretion. They invented and elaborated muscle, bone and brain to
+carry out their will. Evolution has been in the direction of a
+greater perfection of the methods of carrying out their will. Their
+consciousness, working upon the growing and multiplying brain cells,
+has created what we call self-conscious mind.
+
+Mind, reacting upon its creator, has, in a sense, come to dominate
+them, because it has become the meeting ground of all the
+energy-influences seething and bubbling in the organism, and
+so developed into the organ of handling them as a whole, their
+Integrating-Executive. But just the same and all the time, the
+underlying consciousness of the viscera and their accessories stand as
+the powers behind the throne, but as what we have now learned to speak
+of, in relation to the Mind, as the Unconscious.
+
+PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERYDAY LIFE
+
+To sum up these relations of the viscera, the endocrines, the
+unconscious and the mind, it may be stated as a far-reaching
+generality for the understanding of human life: that character and
+conduct are expressions of the streams of energy arising in the
+vegetative apparatus, primarily endocrine determined at birth, and
+secondarily experience determined after the organism has learned to
+react as a whole, as consciousness. The result of such a reaction as a
+whole tends to balance the disturbance of energy, so as to maintain
+or restore the equilibrium, or sense of harmony and comfort, when
+consciousness again disappears. This law is an attempt at synthesis of
+the labors of the psychanalysts, the behaviourists, and the students
+of the internal secretions (Freud, Jung, Adler, Sherrington, Watson,
+Von Bechterew, Kempf, Crile, Cannon, Cushing, Fraenkel are the
+great names of the movement). Most of the details, and all of the
+quantitative applications of the law still remain to be worked
+out. But a statement like the following of Cushing, the eminent
+surgeon-student of the endocrines, that "it is quite probable that the
+psychopathology of everyday life hinges largely upon the effect of
+ductless gland discharges upon the nervous system," shows which way
+the wind is blowing.
+
+In the face of these conceptions the position of the psychanalyst as a
+practical therapeutist becomes clearer, and the causes of his failure
+when he fails. In the first place, he deals with psychic results as
+processes, and ignores the physiology of their production. Since a
+true cure of the neurosis, what he is after, is impossible without a
+removal of the cause, a disturbance in the vegetative apparatus, he
+cannot succeed where an automatic adjustment among the viscera does
+not follow his probings and ferretings of the unconscious. In the
+second place, he disregards the existence of a soil for the planting
+of the malign complexes in the individual in whom they grow and
+flourish. That soil is composed in part of the endocrine relations
+within the vegetative apparatus. And as we can often attack that soil
+more effectively and radically from the endocrine end than from the
+experience end (e.g., repressed episodes) we may transform the soil
+and make it barren rock for morbid complexes, at any rate. The concept
+of the endocrine-vegetative apparatus as the determinant of normal
+and abnormal behaviour, emotional reactions and disturbances of power
+should in time cause even the most fanatic of the psychanalysts to
+recognize the functional basis of the mental acrostics they are so
+fond of dissecting.
+
+NATURAL ABILITY
+
+Another achievement of the psychanalysts is the recognition of the
+influence of organic and functional inferiorities of the individual
+upon the history of his personality. Gross organ inferiorities are
+those which are definite handicaps in the struggle for success in
+society, such as heart disease. Such handicaps, however, are limited
+to relatively few of a population. The raison d'être of the greater
+number of minor mental inefficiencies the psychanalyst puts down to
+handicaps in the unconscious. Again he mistakes figurative imagery for
+explanations. The conception of endocrine diversity in the make-up
+supplies us with the rationale of the vast majority of organic and
+functional defects and inferiorities, in short, subnormalities of any
+group, large or small.
+
+Moreover, how would the psychanalyst explain the occurrence and
+influence of organic and functional _superiorities_ and their
+tremendous influence upon the individual and society? We live in a
+generation which has acquired a flair for the pathologic. Undoubtedly
+it is a soul-sick generation, and its interest in sickness of the
+mind is only natural. Just the same, whatever advances, improvements,
+progress, have been made (and certainly a number of the changes in his
+environment, external and internal, must be admitted to be changes for
+the better) have been made, not by natural disability, but by natural
+ability. What is the physiology of natural ability?
+
+The finest study of natural ability that has as yet been composed is
+Francis Galton's on Hereditary Genius. It also remains the best study
+of the natural conditions of success. He showed that of the type of
+man he classed as "illustrious" there occurred about one in a million,
+and of the type "eminent" about two hundred and fifty in a million.
+Of the qualities which determine natural ability of this kind, he
+selected inherent capacity, zeal, and perseverance as the three
+prerequisites. And he states that "If a man is gifted with vast
+intellectual ability, eagerness to work, and power of working, I
+cannot comprehend how such a man should be suppressed." "Such men
+(those who have gained great reputations) biographies show to
+be haunted and driven by an incessant, instinctive craving for
+intellectual work." "They ... work ... to satisfy a natural craving
+for brain work." "It is very unlikely that any conjunction of
+circumstances should supply a stimulus to brain work commensurate with
+what these men carry in their own constitutions."
+
+What is this inherent craving for brain work? What is this zeal? And
+what is power of endurance and perseverance, the quality of stamina?
+How are they to be interpreted in terms of the internal secretions?
+
+In view of what has been said of the ante-pituitary as the gland of
+intellectuality, studies of intellectually gifted people having shown
+well functioning large pituitaries, and of mental defectives in a
+certain number of cases a small limited pituitary, it is justifiable
+to regard the factor of inherent capacity as a function of the
+ante-pituitary. The factor of zeal or enthusiasm points to the
+thyroid. Markedly enthusiastic types are thyroid dominant types. Vigor
+as a third factor, the ability to stand stress and strain of continued
+effort is dependent upon good adrenal and interstitial cell function.
+So we may say that craving and capacity for brain work plus ardor plus
+perseverance in its pursuit, the triplicate of natural ability, are
+the reflections in conduct and character of balanced and sufficient
+ante-pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal-interstitial contributions in
+the chemical formula of the personality. In the chapter on historic
+personages analyzed from the endocrine viewpoint, we shall see that
+some of the most eminent and illustrious people of history have been
+pituitary-centered.
+
+MENTAL DEFICIENCY
+
+Natural ability grows in an endocrine soil of a particular kind,
+perhaps affected by the internal secretions much as natural soil is by
+fertilizers like phosphates or nitrates. Increased production follows
+increased fertilization. Natural disability must vary similarly with a
+perversion or improper mixture, deficiency or absence of the hormones
+that combine in natural ability.
+
+It is assumed as a matter of course that the brain itself is there,
+which, to carry out our analogy, means that the crude soil or earth is
+there. Sufficient quantity and adequate quality of nerve tissue must
+be regarded as prerequisite. If the brain has been damaged in any way
+during development or birth, if it has been smashed up in any way, or
+if it has failed to evolve the minimum number of healthy nerve cells,
+the endocrine influence becomes negligible. It is like attempting to
+insert a key into a door which has no lock.
+
+It is among the specimens of normality of the brain cells that we may
+look for our examples of endocrine mental deficiency. Included are all
+sorts of examples of feeble-mindedness varying from the moron to the
+imbecile and idiot, arrested brain life. The cretin is the classic
+type of mental deficiency due to endocrine insufficiency, curable or
+improvable by the proper handling.
+
+Insanity, degeneration of the normal brain life, may be caused by an
+upset of the endocrine balance. Among the commonest manifestations
+of insanity are excitements and depressions, apathies and manias,
+hallucinations, delusions and obsessions, all of which are
+reproducible under known conditions of internal secretion excess or
+failure. Alternating states of mania and depression are caused in some
+instances by extreme hyperthyroidism. The critical periods of life,
+when a profound revolution is overturning the endocrine equilibrium,
+puberty, pregnancy, and the menopause, are the periods of most
+frequent occurrence of insanity, when mental instability reveals
+endocrine instability (Dementia praecox, pregnancy psychosis,
+menopause neurosis). Actual insanity need not be the only
+manifestation. By far the greater number of mental disturbances due
+to aberrations of the internal secretions never see an asylum or a
+doctor. They live more or less close to the borderline of insanity as
+persons who have spells, eccentricities and peculiarities, hysteria,
+tics or just "nervousness."
+
+About two-thirds of mental deficiency is definitely inherited, about
+one-third acquired. It is the opinion of a number of psychologists
+that it is inherited as what the Mendelians call a recessive, that is
+as a trait which will be overshadowed, if there is admixture of normal
+mentality, but will crop up by breeding with another mental defective.
+What we know of the endocrine factors in heredity leads us to suppose
+that it is the mating of one marked endocrine insufficiency with
+another that is often responsible for the inherited tendency to
+feeble-mindedness and insanity. The effect of the hormone system upon
+the vegetative apparatus may create the more obscure insanities and
+quasi-insanities. The direct action of the internal secretions upon
+the brain cells, producing a sort of hair trigger situation within
+them, may cause the explosive discharges from them which appear as
+overpowering impulses or uncontrollable conduct. The waves of feeling
+which precede them are unquestionably endocrine determined. The wave
+of fear a cat experiences upon seeing a dog is accompanied and indeed
+preceded by an increase of the amount of adrenalin in the blood. The
+picture of fright, as observed in a so-called normal person, staring
+eyes, trembling hands, dry lips and mouth, corresponds to the portrait
+of the appearance in hyperthyroidism. In persons afflicted with
+uncontrollable impulses, the inhibiting hormones may not be present in
+sufficient quantity.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, ranging from stupidity to imbecility, may also be
+a direct effect of insufficient endocrine supply to the brain cells.
+When there is not enough of the thyroid secretion in the blood, the
+tissue between the cells in the brain become clogged and thickened, so
+that a gross barrier to the passage of the nerve impulses is created.
+We have here an illustration of internal secretion lack actually
+producing gross changes in the brain. But without a doubt, most
+endocrine influences upon the brain, at work every minute and second
+of its life, are the subtle ones of molecular chemistry and atomic
+energetics. We know that such mental qualities as irritability and
+stupidity, fatigability, and the power to recover quickly or slowly
+from fatigue, sexual potency and impotence, apathy and enthusiasm are
+endocrine qualities. We know also that the thyroid dominant tends to
+be irritable and excitable, the pituitary deficient to be placid and
+gentle, the adrenal dominant to be assertive and pugnacious, the
+thymus-centered to be childish and easy-go-lucky and the gonad
+deficient to be secretive and shy. This brings us to the relation of
+the internal secretions to the type of personality as a whole.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE TYPES OF PERSONALITY
+
+
+THE ENDOCRINE PERSONALITY
+
+If a single gland can dominate the life history of an individual it
+becomes possible to speak of _endocrine types_, the result of the
+_endocrine analysis_ of the individual. Studying endocrine traits of
+physique, life reactions, disease tendencies, hereditary history and
+blood chemistry, one may gain an insight into the composition or
+constitution of an individual. The endocrine type of an individual
+is a summary of these, his behaviour in the past, and is also a
+prediction of his reactions in the future, much as a chemical formula
+outlines what we believe to be the skeleton of a compound substance
+as deducible from its properties under varying conditions. Only,
+admittedly, as yet the endocrine label is but roughly qualitative and
+most crudely quantitative, whereas the chemical formula is the essence
+of the exact.
+
+However, the fact remains that though we are only upon the first
+rungs of the ladder, we are upon the ladder. The horizon undoubtedly
+broadens. We possess a new way of looking upon humanity, a fresh
+transforming light upon those strange phenomena, ourselves. Of the
+ugly achievements of that dreadful century, the nineteenth, the most
+illuminating was the discovery of itself as the _ape-parvenu._ Yes,
+we are all animals now, it said to itself, and set its teeth in the
+cut-throat game of survival. But there was no understanding in that
+evil motto of a disillusioned heart. The ape-parvenu, desperately
+lonely and secretive, has still to understand himself.
+
+Let us be clear if we can. There is perhaps a certain presumption in
+the phrase, the endocrine type. It is ambitious, and perhaps will not
+fulfill its promise. But it is useful because it points a parallel and
+an ideal. As Wilhelm Ostwald never tired of repeating, H_{2}O is a
+complete shorthand record for the bundle of qualities commonly known
+as water. It is an example of that highest task of mind, synthesis.
+It is the highest synthesis of the studies of the internal secretions
+that certain combinations of them, permutations and blendings of
+them, are responsible for those unique wonders of the universe,
+personalities.
+
+The riddle of personality! Are we at last upon the track of its
+uncovering? That elusive mystery, which philosophers have wrapped in
+the thousand veils of Greek and Latin words, and psychologists, even
+unto the third and fourth generation of Freudians, have floundered
+about in, moles before a dazzling sun, is it to be unwound for our
+inspection? Think of the human soul. What an invisible, intangible
+chameleon is its true reality! Watch it, and you see something that
+seems to uncurl and expand like a feather with exultation and delight
+and joy, to contract and stiffen into a billiard ball with fear and
+pride, shrewd caution and vigilant malevolence, to rear back and spark
+fire like lightning with anger and temper, and to crawl and slither
+with abjection and smirking slyness, when it needs to. This multiplex
+Thing-Behind-Life, are we really about to dissect it into its
+elements?
+
+Personality embraces much more than merely the psychic attributes. It
+is not the least important of the lessons of endocrine analysis
+that there is no soul, and no body, either. Rather a soul-body, or
+body-soul, or the patterns of the living flame. The closer tracking of
+the internal secretions leads us into the secrets of the living
+flame, why it lives, and how it lives, the strange diversities of its
+colorings and music and the odd variations in its energy, vitality
+and longevity. Why it flickers, why it flares and glares, spurts,
+flutters, burns hard or soft, orange-blue or yellow.
+
+The medieval scholiasts, who fought as fiercely about names as nations
+about territories, divided men into the sanguine, the bilious, the
+lymphatic and the nervous. It was a pretty crude classification of
+different constitutions. The endocrine criteria, more exact and
+concrete, divide them into the adrenal centered, the thyroid centered,
+the thymus centered, the pituitary centered, the gonad centered, and
+their combinations.
+
+THE ADRENAL PERSONALITIES
+
+An adrenal personality is one dominated by the ups and downs of his
+adrenal gland. In the large, the curve of his life is the curve of
+secretion by this gland, both of its Cortex and medulla. Such an
+adrenal personality is entirely normal, within the definition of
+the normal as something not threatening the duration of life, nor
+comfortable adaptation to it. So are the other glandular types. No
+sharp line can be drawn between the normal and the abnormal in any
+case, the borderland is wide, the transitions many.
+
+The skin is one of the chief clues to the adrenal personality. The
+relation between the adrenal and the skin dates way back in the
+evolutionary scale, for adrenalin has been isolated directly from
+pigment deposits in the epidermis of frogs. Skin pigment bears a
+direct relation to the reaction of the organism to light, especially
+the ultraviolet rays, to the radiation of heat, and hence to the
+fundamental productions and consumptions of energy by the cells. So
+the gland of energy for emergencies writes its signature always all
+over the skin.
+
+In an adrenal personality, the epidermis is always slightly, somewhat,
+or deeply pigmented. The pigmentation is due to a dark brown deposit
+lightly or thickly scattered over the skin. With the general diffuse
+pigmentation or darkening there are often the black spots, the
+pigmented birth marks, or the lighter ones of freckles. The latter
+signify some permanent or transitory adrenal inadequacy in the past,
+ante-natal or post-natal, of the individual, and presage the same in
+his future. These spots have been frequently observed to appear
+after an attack of diphtheria or influenza. There seems to be more
+tuberculosis among those who have them than those who do not. We
+therefore say that diphtheria, influenza and tuberculosis stand out
+as adrenal-attacking diseases, which have a greater power to kill,
+cripple or hurt those with defective adrenal constitutions than
+others.
+
+The hair of the adrenal type is characteristic: ubiquitous, thick,
+coarse and dry. It is prominent over the chest, abdomen and back,
+and has a tendency to kink. Often its color is not the expected: an
+Italian's will be yellow, a Norwegian's jet black. It has been stated
+that most red-haired persons are adrenal types. Such persons also have
+well-marked canine teeth which is another adrenal trait. They also
+have a low hair line.
+
+When the adrenal type has a properly co-operating pituitary and
+thyroid, he possesses a striking vigor, energy and persistence. With a
+fortunate combination, he develops into a progressive winning fighter,
+arriving at the top in the long run every time.
+
+Brain work is pretty well lubricated in the well-compensated adrenal
+type. Brain fag is closely associated with, if not dependent upon,
+adrenal fag, particularly of the cortex. Brain tissue and adrenal
+cortex tissue are near relatives, and a normal human brain never
+develops without a normal adrenal cortex. The adrenal type with an
+hypertrophied adrenal cortex is always efficient.
+
+Among women, the adrenal type is always masculinoid. If physically
+feminine--due to adequate feminine reactions on the part of the
+other endocrines--she will at least show the qualities of a psychic
+virilism. A generation ago, such a woman had to repress her inherent
+trends and instincts in the face of public opinion and law, and so
+suffered from a feeling of inferiority. Nowadays, these women are
+striding forward and will attain a good many of the masculine heights,
+commanding responsible executive positions and high salaries. An
+adrenal type will probably be the first woman president of the United
+States.
+
+However, that presupposes a normal range of action of the other
+endocrines. Let there be some quirk or weakness elsewhere in the
+chain of hormones, and instead of the successful woman, behold
+the spinsters, the maiden aunts, the prudes and cranks who never
+satisfactorily adapt themselves in society. To them must be given
+a good deal of credit for the suffrage revolution. These unadapted
+adrenals, as we may call them, once sowed the seeds, expending their
+masculinism in the struggles of the pioneers' martyrdoms, preparing
+the harvest their sisters, the more adequate adrenal types, will now
+reap. The unadapted adrenals of today will have to look for new worlds
+to conquer.
+
+So much for the compensated adrenal types. They are the good workers,
+the efficients, the kinetic successes of the driven world. They make,
+at a certain level, good slave drivers because they feel within
+themselves a driving force. But suppose the adrenal type becomes
+uncompensated, or perhaps is inadequate to the demands of life to
+start with. Then the story becomes different. The perfect efficient
+superman of business or profession begins to lag. Though he is himself
+in the morning, he begins to lag in the afternoon. That is when he
+tires. In the evening he is all in. More sleep, recreational trips,
+vacations slip into the rank of necessities, whereas previously they
+had been laughed at as luxuries. More minute or large moles emerge
+in the skin, especially if the individual is of a fair type. If a
+strenuous effort is not made to give the adrenals an opportunity to
+recuperate, or if adjustment on the part of the other glands does not
+occur, this stage of intermittent and remittent adrenal inadequacy
+gives way in turn to the state of permanent adrenal insufficiency.
+
+The adrenal insufficient is important because he is to be seen
+everywhere. Built along the same lines as the adrenal adequate and
+apt to be taken for him, he differs and contrasts vividly below the
+surface. One may sum him up by saying that he is one variety of
+neurasthenic, perhaps the most frequent variety. Cold hands and feet
+plague him, cold feet psychically as well as physically, for a chronic
+and obsessive indecision is one of his most prominent complaints.
+A fatigability, that goes with a low blood pressure, lowered body
+temperature and a disturbed ability to utilize sugar for fuel
+purposes, is another of his chief complaints. The skin often presents
+an instability of the blood vessels, so that they now react to
+stroking with a blanched instead of a reddened effect. Irritability,
+a liability to go off the handle at the slightest provocation, and a
+consequent complete exhaustion that, after an outburst, sends him to
+bed, is conspicuous. Dismissed sometimes contemptuously as weaklings,
+they are accused of laziness, craziness, and haziness. In their
+psychic attempts to compensate, they land into all kinds of hot water,
+from which friends, relatives or luck extricate them sometimes. The
+other times they go to the wall.
+
+The congenital adrenal deficient is a special problem. If the history
+of such an individual is followed from birth, one gets a pretty
+typical story. The genealogy is nervous. Nervous is a word of many
+meanings. But when parents confess themselves nervous, it generally
+means a mental and emotional instability of some sort. Sometimes the
+idea is camouflaged as high strung. In the feeding narrative of the
+child, one finds not occasional incidents or episodes, but continued
+trouble, difficulties, adventures. Even after the first year or two,
+the nutritional chronicle is not satisfactory. Lack of appetite, lack
+of energy, lack of response to stimuli are its keynotes and the motifs
+of the later years of childhood.
+
+Growth is a strain. It becomes a task to make these children grow
+and gain. Chronically below the average weight and height, herculean
+efforts are made by the conscientious parents, but with small success.
+
+With the entry of school life and competition, the curtain rises upon
+the real tragedy, a tragedy in which the avenging Fates are the usual
+ignorance, stupidity and misunderstanding. If the teachers alone are
+duty-obsessed, or perhaps sadistic, the child endures the agonies of
+repeated admonitions, demotions, and punishments. However, a certain
+thick-skinned indifference may develop to protect the sufferer.
+
+If the parents are in addition ambitious, or proud, or competitive,
+then woe betide the victim. With their nervous dispositions, it is
+the school and the tutor who are to be blamed, if not the child. From
+school to school, from system to system, from novelty to fad, from
+doctor to doctor, from fakir to charlatan, from pillar to post, they
+wander in search of an education. Educational cults by the dozen have
+sprouted and grown fat around these unfortunates.
+
+The chief defect of the congenital adrenal inadequate is an
+insufficiently developed adrenal cortex. That means an insufficiently
+developed brain and nervous system. For we have seen how closely all
+these are related in development. Now education can never be the
+education of a vacuum. And we have to deal here with a relative
+vacuum. When there are no potentialities, there can be no education.
+Where the potentialities are limited, education must be limited.
+The congenital adrenal inadequate is defined in physical and mental
+energy. Hence educators cannot drive him. Up to a certain point he can
+be led, but no farther. He should not be expected to go to a college,
+and waste the opportunity of some one financially unlucky, but whose
+endocrine system is more generously endowed.
+
+Not that the outlook is absolutely hopeless. Puberty, with its
+tremendous changes in the glands of internal secretion, when one can
+almost hear the clicks and the whirring of the wheels in the internal
+machinery, may transform. The unfathomed possibilities of gland
+therapy are still to be probed. But the general rule remains.
+
+THE REACTIONS TO MODERNISM
+
+The adrenal personalities in all their variations must be safeguarded
+and carefully looked after in the strained complexities of modern
+post-bellum civilization. In a sense, the adrenal type is the Atlas
+of the twentieth century world, and small wonder that he and his
+descendants stagger beneath the burden. The adrenals are organs for
+the mobilization of energy, physical and mental, for emergencies. They
+are the glands which meet shocks and neutralize the effects of shock.
+In the solitary animal, the everyday producers of shock are pain,
+fright and wounds. The adrenal mechanisms oversecrete to encounter
+the enemy, and then there is a period of rest and recuperation. Man,
+however, with the growth of his imagination and the increase in
+number and density of his surrounding herd, has become the subject of
+continuous stimulation. In the past, this was balanced by the almost
+universal dominance of some religious belief, as an effective opiate.
+Concepts like Fate, Predestination, an all-guiding and all-wise
+Providence, relieved and shielded the adrenals, and acted as valuable
+adjuvants for the preservation of normality.
+
+The nineteenth century witnessed the birth and expansion of a great
+number of new stimulant reagents, the discoveries of physics and
+chemistry, which, with the climax of the World War of 1914-1918, have
+made for a more or less complete deliquescence of accepted religion.
+For the great majority there was no faith to take its place. War,
+pre-war, and post-war shocks have continued with their incessant
+pounding upon the reserves of energy. Under these conditions the
+adrenal personalities are bound to suffer. The other endocrine types
+suffer, too, but quite differently.
+
+Today, anti-adrenal, anti-religious ideas are epidemic. Of these,
+first prize belongs to a cult of egotism fathered by the Napoleonic
+Idea, consciously assertive and self-conscious in Max Stirner's
+"The Ego and His Own," which engendered a swarm of imitators and
+plagiarists. Human beings are all incorrigible egoists more or less,
+furtive or frank. But social and religious codes curbed the most
+narcissistic of kings and conquerors. Before Napoleon, all of them
+vowed allegiance and expressed submission to some sort of deity,
+confessed some fear of the Lord in their hearts. But the ideas
+of Napoleon flouted all that. The unscrupulous predatory who
+put effectual scheming for the self plainly above every other
+consideration and rode rough shod over all his fellows appealed
+powerfully to the latent animality of the adrenal types. Then came
+the dawning awareness of capital and labor of themselves as classes
+fiercely opposed forever in the policy of cut-throat versus
+cut-throat. The labor organizations and the commercial companies
+and corporations pitted themselves against each other consciously.
+Doctrines like "Property is but Robbery," "Everyone for himself and
+the devil take the hindmost," the "Iron Law of Wages" and the "Facts
+is Facts" of the Gradgrinds were the phrases of the nineteenth century
+that assisted. Finally came the Darwinian revelation of man as the
+ape-parvenu, which completed the disintegration of the old restraints.
+
+Man seemed to see himself now for the first time stark and naked. But
+Man consists of many varieties, and all reacted differently to
+the image in the clouded mirror. There was universal attempt at
+suppression. But slowly the anti-adrenal forces infiltrated every
+activity and every soul. Like a hidden focus of infection in the body,
+it germinated and poisoned. A slow fever crept into life. A febrile
+quality tinged the acquisition of wealth, the concentration upon sex,
+and the desperate pursuit of the novel stimulus.
+
+Then, like the hand that appeared at Belshazzar's Feast, came the War,
+only it was a hand that stayed with a long flashing lightning sword in
+its grip, sweeping pitilessly among the erstwhile dancing multitudes
+to mutilate and destroy. A good many people, with that sturdy
+animality George Santayana speaks somewhere of as a trait of mankind,
+set out to enjoy the War. It was a new sort of good time upon an
+incredibly large scale. It was an undreamed-of opportunity. The
+mechanisms of suppression of the mind render it incapable of
+appreciating horror until encountered. And so thousands with
+dangerously unstable adrenals were plunged into the most trying
+conditions possible. Hundreds of them, already shaken, on the
+borderland of instability, reacted with the phenomena of breakdown
+of control, lumped with a host of other phenomena, under the general
+rubric of "shell shock."
+
+That alone was not all. If hundreds collapsed, thousands approached
+the verge of collapse. They survived and were discharged from the
+armies as normal. They reappear in civil life as cases of "nerves."
+Ordinarily that would mean that they would be classed as failures. But
+such have been the psychologic reactions to the war that all kinds
+of compensations in the way of dangerous mental states have become
+frequent in these inadequate adrenal types. A trend to violence and a
+resentful emotionalism are combined with desperate attempts to spur
+the jaded adrenals with artificial excitements. Consequent melancholia
+and depression, the "blues," are inevitable. A survey of drug addicts
+would probably show a definite percentage of this type. The same
+applies to certain petty criminals and law breakers.
+
+The adrenal element in the personality must be considered in every
+disturbance, morbid, personal, or social involving brunette types,
+Huxley's dark white, Mediterranean-Iberians, red-haired persons, and
+even pigment-spotted fair people. Historians have traced the earliest
+civilization to the doings of a brunette people, the Sumerians, the
+first to build cities in the Euphrates-Tigris region more than five
+thousand years before Christ was born. An adrenalized people one
+would, expect to be the first to take advantage of possibilities
+because of their energy capacity. The earliest Sumerian stone carvings
+of warriors exhibit an undersized skeleton compared with the large
+head, broad face, a low hair line and prominent nose that would fit
+into the ensemble of the adrenal type. Certain other historical
+aspects of the adrenal personality have yet to be worked out.
+
+THE PITUITARY PERSONALITIES
+
+The presence of two antagonistic elements in the one gland complicates
+any attempt at even the most abstract analysis of a personality
+dominated by that gland. The pituitary, composed of an anterior lobe
+and posterior lobe, supplies two fairly uncomplicated corresponding
+types, best described as the masculine pituitary type, and the
+feminine pituitary type. The masculine pituitary type is one
+determined by the rule of the anterior pituitary, representing
+superlative brain tone and action, good all-around growth and
+harmonious general function, the ideal masculine organism. The
+feminine pituitary type has an excess of post-pituitary, with
+susceptibility to the tender emotions, sentimentalism, and
+emotionalism, feminine structural lines. Ante-pituitary dominance in
+a male reinforces the general masculinity while the post-pituitary
+depresses it. The post-pituitary in a woman augments her natural
+trend, ante-pituitary tending to counteract it. In other words,
+post-pituitary and ovary are conjunctive, ante-pituitary and ovary are
+disjunctive, post-pituitary and testis are opponents, ante-pituitary
+and testis are allies.
+
+One mechanical circumstance involved in the pituitary personalities
+may be the determinant of the entire life history. That is the
+emphasized fact that the pituitary is encased in a small bony box, at
+the base of the skull. The size of this bony box, and its capacity to
+yield to the various pressures of a pituitary enlarging to meet the
+demands of the organism, will often spell happiness or misery,
+success or failure, genius or idiocy for the man or woman. Certain
+possibilities are conceivable. All of them occur, for the developments
+of X-ray technique have rendered available almost a direct view of the
+sella turcica.
+
+In the first place, the bony box may be definitely too small to start
+in with. That means a small and so potentially inadequate pituitary,
+both anterior and posterior, potentially inadequate in that it will
+become impossible for it to grow and produce extra secretion upon
+demand. Handicapped thus, the unfortunate so born is doomed to
+inferiority and very little can be done for him. He will not develop
+satisfactorily. He possesses small genital organs which will not
+evolve properly in adolescence, or if they will not stand still, tend
+to revert to the opposite sex type. Then he tends to be dwarfed,
+fatigable, adipose. Among these types are included subjects of
+obsessions and compulsions who are dull and apathetic, cannot learn or
+maintain inhibitions, and so, without initiative, evolve into moral
+and intellectual degenerates, liable to epilepsy and the most
+remarkable sex aberrations. All because a cranny of the skull, about
+the size of a thimble, is not large enough for their dominating gland.
+
+If the bone of the cavity of the pituitary is softer and yielding,
+so that some enlargement of the gland is possible, especially of the
+anterior, there appear rapid growth with a tendency to high blood
+pressure, great mental activity associated with frequent and severe
+headaches (often of the migraine type), a combination of initiative
+and irritability and a marked sexuality. X-ray examination of the
+sella turcica shows what is called erosion of the bone as it yields to
+the pressure of the growing gland.
+
+The ideal sella turcica for the ideal pituitary type is a large room
+in which the gland may grow and reach its maximum size and so its
+maximum function, without needing to exert pressure or destroy and
+erode bone in front of it, to the side of it or behind it. The
+distinctive masculine and feminine types, classed as the normal,
+belong to this group. Sometimes, the bone in front of the pituitary
+will yield, while the one in the rear will not, and sometimes the
+conditions are reversed. Thus we may have ante-pituitary sufficiency
+with post-pituitary insufficiency, or ante-pituitary insufficiency
+with post-pituitary sufficiency, complexes which contribute to create
+the grosser functional hermaphrodite types of mixed sex.
+
+In the average feminine pituitary type of personality, post-pituitary
+dominates. In a woman and to a lesser degree in a man, the general
+build is slight and rather delicate. The skin is soft, moist, and
+hairless, the face is the doll or Dresden China sort, with a roseate
+or creamy complexion, flushing easily, eyes large and prominent. The
+mouth shows a high arched palate and crowded teeth rather long. The
+voice is high-pitched. One recognizes the traditional womanly woman,
+petite and chic, who always marries the hero in stories. She is
+usually fond of children, easily moved, has a good libido, and the
+traditional feminine traits. When unstable, the post-pituitary type is
+restless and hyperactive, craves excitement, and continual change of
+interest and scene, a new pleasure every moment. A good many of the
+women of today, who fifty years ago would have been nice sedate girls
+because of their excellent post-pituitary constitution, have
+been irritated by the atmosphere of post-1914 into the excess
+post-pituitary state, the adventurous never-satiated avid pleasure
+hunter, in whom the craving for stimulation will stop at nothing. F.
+Scott Fitzgerald portrayed an exquisite specimen of the kind in his
+short story "The Jellybean," with a quasi-heroine of a good Southern
+family, built to be a high standard wife and mother, who drinks,
+swears, gambles, and finally marries on a dare. Modern post-pituitary
+woman is excitement mad and thrill chasing. The worst of it is that
+the resultant personal tragedies cannot be dismissed as transient
+inevitables. The heredity of the internal secretions determines that
+the offspring of these women are bound to be pituitary unstable, the
+least desirable of endocrine instabilities because of the concomitant
+mental effects. Even from the purely selfish point of view, the
+standpoint of enlightened selfishness, the post-pituitary type must
+beware of excesses. For disturbances of menstruation, psychic fears,
+anxieties, states of suspicion and obsession, various pains are among
+the penalties.
+
+A period of post-pituitary excess as an effect of disease, pregnancy,
+or the rapid life, may be followed by post-pituitary deficiency as a
+result of exhaustion of the gland. The girl or woman then becomes fat
+and suffers from headaches (the fair, fat and forty type) yet retains
+a certain capacity for enjoyment which enables her to continue gay,
+happy and gentle, kind, interested. So she contrasts with the thyroid
+deficient who gets fat, but also dull, stupid, even morose.
+
+The masculine pituitary personality, the man with a dominant anterior
+pituitary gland in a roomy sella turcica with plenty of space to grow
+in, is the ideal virile type. They are generally tall (unless the
+growth of the long bones was checked too early by a social precocity
+of the testes) with a well-developed strong frame, large firm muscles,
+and proportionately sized hands and feet. The head is of the marked
+dolichocephalic type, flattened at the sides, face is oval more or
+less, with thick eyebrows, eyes rather prominent, nose broadish and
+long, lower jaw prominent and firm. Prominent bony points like the
+cheek bones, the elbows and the knees, the knuckle joints of the hands
+and feet. The teeth are large, especially the upper middle incisors,
+and they are usually spaced. The arms and legs are hairy. High grade
+brains, the ability to learn, and the ability to control, self-mastery
+in the sense of domination of the lower instincts and the automatic
+reactions of the vegetative nervous system, the rule by the individual
+of himself and his environment are at their maximum in him. The
+ante-pituitary personality is educable for intelligence, and even
+intellect, provided the proper educational stimulus is supplied. Men
+of brains, practical and theoretical, philosophers, thinkers, creators
+of new thoughts and new goods, belong to this group. The distinction
+between men of theoretical genius, whose minds which could embrace
+a universe, and yet fail to manage successfully their own personal
+everyday lives, and the men of practical genius, who can achieve and
+execute, the great engineers, and industrial men lies in the balance
+between the ante-pituitary and the adrenal cortex primarily. Men like
+Abraham Lincoln and George Bernard Shaw belong to this ante-pituitary
+group.
+
+The feminine pituitary personality, in whom there is predominance of
+the post-pituitary over the ante-pituitary, occurs in men. The type
+is short, rounded and stout. They have heads that seem too large
+for their bodies, the general hair distribution on the trunk and
+extremities is poor, although that of the scalp and face is plentiful,
+and they acquire an abdominal paunch early. They exhibit the feminine
+tendency to periodicity of function, their moods, activities,
+efficiency are cyclic, reminding one of the menstrual variations of
+the female. This rhythmicity saturates their personalities, so that
+poetry and music almost morbidly appeal to them. A number of the great
+poets and musicians are to be classified as of the feminine pituitary
+species. Last, but not least, they are the hen-pecked lovers and
+husbands. Sex difficulties are frequent in their history.
+
+The determination of endocrine type and tendencies, the prediction of
+the future personality, during childhood is one of the developments
+confidently to be looked for, as our knowledge of the internal
+secretions will grow. The possibilities of control loom as one of the
+most magnificent promises of science. Yet the high expectations for
+tomorrow should not depress our respect for the achievements of today.
+In the case of the pituitary, for instance, a hint as to the method
+of approach is furnished by the tabulation of the traits of pituitary
+dominance and pituitary inferiority in children.
+
+  Pituitary sufficient and dominant:
+    Large, spare, bony frame
+    Eyes wide apart
+    Broad face
+    Teeth, broad, large, unspaced
+    Square, protruding chin and jaws
+    Large feet and hands
+    Early hair growth on body
+    Thick skin, large sex organs
+    Aggressive, precocious, calculating, self-contained
+
+  Pituitary inferior:
+    Small, sometimes delicate skeleton
+    Rather adipose, weak muscles
+    Upper jaw prognathous
+    Dry, flabby skin
+    Small hands and feet
+    Abnormal desire for sweets
+    Subnormal temperature, blood pressure and pulse
+    Poor control of lower vegetative functions
+    Mentally sluggish, dull, apathetic, backward
+    Loses self-control quickly, cries easily, discouraged promptly,
+      psychic stamina insufficient
+
+The pituitary personality in childhood produced by limitation of the
+size of the gland, because its bony box is completely or partially
+closed, presents typical hall-marks. He supplies the second and third
+offenders in the juvenile courts, the delinquents and pathological
+liars of childhood, the incorrigibles, the precocious hoboes, mental
+and moral deficients and defectives, the prey of the sentimental
+complexes of elderly virgins and helpful futility all around. Not
+utilitarianism or futilitarianism is needed, but pituitarianism.
+The feeding of pituitary gland in large enough quantities to these
+unfortunates may do more than ten charity organizations, with the most
+patrician board of directors complete.
+
+THE THYROID PERSONALITIES
+
+The accessibility of the thyroid gland in the neck, the ease of
+surgical approach, the definite effects following its removal, and
+then the miraculous marvels of the feeding of thyroid have rendered it
+the centre of attack by the largest army of endocrine investigators.
+As a result we know more about the thyroid in childhood, adolescence,
+adult life and old age than about the other glands.
+
+In childhood, the subthyroid or thyroid deficient, the cretinoid type,
+the type resembling the cretin, is fairly common. The peasant's face,
+with the broad nose and the tough skin, coarse straight hair, the
+undergrowth, physical and mental, a persistent babyishness and a
+retardation of self-control development, make up the picture. He needs
+an excess of sleep, sleeps heavily, needs sleep during the day,
+when awakened in the morning still feels tired, and rather dull and
+restless, dresses slowly, has to be coaxed or forced to dress, gets to
+school late nearly every morning, does badly at the school, reaction
+time, learning time and remembering time being prolonged as compared
+with the average, and is lazy at home lessons. He perspires little,
+even after exertion, yet fatigues easily, is subject to frequent
+colds, adenoids, tonsillitis, and acquires every disease of childhood
+that happens along.
+
+Adolescence, the coming of menstruation, the first blooming of youth
+is delayed in the subthyroid. The secondary sex traits as they develop
+tend to be incomplete and to mimic those of the opposite sex. Yet in
+adolescence too there may be a sudden change and reversal of the whole
+process, a jump from the subthyroid to the hyperthyroid state. So a
+girl who has been dull and lackadaisical, with no complexion and every
+prospect of evolution into a wall flower, may be transformed into a
+bright-eyed woman, generally nervous and restless, high colored, and
+possessed of a craving for continual activity and excitement. Skin,
+hair and teeth become of the thyroid dominant type. The heart
+palpitates under the slightest stimulus, she perspires almost
+annoyingly, heat and emotion are prostrating. If such a
+transfiguration does not occur, the effect of the reconstructions
+of puberty is to create a person with about the following
+characteristics.
+
+  1. Height below the average
+  2. Tendency to obesity (toward middle age)
+  3. Complexion sallow
+  4. Hair dry--hair line high
+  5. Eyebrows scanty, either as a whole or in outer half
+  6. Eyeballs deep-set, lack lustre, in narrowed slits
+  7. Teeth irregular, become carious early
+  8. Extremities cold and bluish
+  9. Circulation poor. Subject to chilblains
+
+Intellectually, these people vary enormously, depending upon which of
+the other glands will enlarge to compensate for the deficiency of the
+thyroid. If the growth of the skull has left a roomy sella turcica
+for the pituitary to grow in, the intellect may be normal or even
+superior, though energy is below par. If this is not possible and
+the adrenals have to predominate, a lower, more animal and less
+self-controlled type of mentality is produced.
+
+In direct contrast to the subthyroid types is he who originally was
+hyperthyroid. During childhood he is quite healthy, thin, but striking
+robust, active, energetic, generally fair-complexioned with nose
+straight and high bridged, eyes rather "poppy," teeth excellent,
+regular, firm, white with a pearly translucent enamel. These children
+are always on the go, never get tired, require little sleep. Seldom
+will one of the classical children's diseases strike them, measles
+perhaps, but no other. Adolescence for them, however, is more apt to
+be stormy and episodic, adjustment to the new world of people and
+things is much more difficult, wanderlust is acute. All an expression
+of cells keyed up, charged with energy that must flow somewhere or
+explode.
+
+The ruddy live-wire, recognized everywhere as bubbling with vitality,
+the life of any group, the magnetic personality may, however, be
+shocked by some seismic event like the death of a father or mother,
+or the ruin of some cherished ambition. A break in the balance of the
+other glands follows quickly and disablement and invalidism, which may
+cure itself after some years, remain stationary, or descend to the
+worst forms of thyroid deficiency.
+
+During maturity, the type are characterized usually by a lean body,
+or tendency rapidly to become thin under stress. They have clean cut
+features and thick hair, often wavy or curly, thick long eyebrows,
+large, frank, brilliant, keen eyes, regular and well developed teeth
+and mouth. Sexually they are well differentiated and susceptible.
+Noticeable emotivity, a rapidity of perception and volition,
+impulsiveness, and a tendency to explosive crises of expression are
+the distinctive psychic traits. A restless, inexhaustible energy makes
+them perpetual doers and workers, who get up early in the morning,
+flit about all day, retire late, and frequently suffer from insomnia,
+planning in bed what they are to do next day.
+
+Certain types of thyroid excess associated with the thymus dominant
+next to be described are peculiarly susceptible to emotional
+instability. They are subject to brain storms, outbreaks of furious
+rage, sometimes associated with a state of semi-consciousness. To
+emphasize the analogy to epilepsy, their attacks have been called
+psycholepsy. Among the Italians especially they were watched and
+reported during the War, when the explosive fits were seen to take the
+form of irresponsible acts of insubordination or violence.
+
+THE THYMO-CENTRIC PERSONALITIES
+
+During the first period of childhood, up to five, six or seven, or
+more accurately, up to the point at which the permanent teeth begin
+to appear, every child may be said to be a thymus-dominated organism,
+because the thymus, holding the other endocrines in check, controls
+its life. That is why up to the third and fourth years at any rate,
+most children seem alike. Closer observation, however, reveals points
+of differentiation and signs of the coming potencies of the other
+hormones. During the second period, up to puberty, these marks of the
+deeper underlying forces of the personality make themselves more
+and more felt. The thymus, like a brake that is becoming worn out,
+continues to function in a progressively weaker fashion. Until with
+the arrival of the gonadal (ovaries' or testes') internal secretion,
+its influence is wiped out.
+
+There is a definite degree of thymus activity during everyone's
+childhood, unless by its premature involution, precocity displaces
+juvenility. Yet even during childhood, there are certain individuals
+with excessive thymus action, foreshadowing a continued thymus
+predominance throughout life. The "angel child" is the type: regularly
+proportioned and perfectly made, like a fine piece of sculpture, with
+delicately chiselled features, transparent skin changing color
+easily, long silky hair, with an exceptional grace of movement and an
+alertness of mind. They seem the embodiment of beauty, but somehow
+unfit for the coarse conflicts of life. In English literature several
+characters are recognizable as portraits of the type, notably Paul
+Dombey, whose nurse recognized that he was not for this world. They
+may look the picture of health, but they are more liable than any
+other children to be eliminated by tuberculosis, meningitis or even
+one of the common diseases of childhood.
+
+It is after puberty, when the thymus should shrink and pass out of
+the endocrine concert as a power, that the more complex reactions of
+personality emerge when the thymus persists and refuses to or cannot
+retire. The persistent thymus always then throws its shadow over the
+entire personality. To what extent that shadow spreads depends upon
+the strength of the other glands of internal secretion, their ability
+to compensate or to stay inhibited. Whether or not the pituitary will
+be able to enlarge in its bony cradle seems to be the most important
+factor determining these variations. If there is space for it to grow,
+at any rate normally, the individual may pass for normal, although
+he will have difficulties throughout life he may never understand,
+particularly in sexual directions. If the pituitary is limited.
+partially or completely, the thymus predominance is more prominent
+and fixed, and the abnormalities become obvious, both of person and
+conduct.
+
+The anatomic architecture of the latter thymo-centric personality is
+fairly typical. The reversion in type of the reproductive organs, the
+slender waist, the gracefully formed body, the rounded limbs, the long
+chest and the feminine pelvis strike one at the first glance. The
+texture of the skin is smooth as a baby's, and sometimes velvety to
+the touch. Its color may be an opaque white, or faintly creamy, or
+there may be an effect of a filmy sheen over a florid complexion.
+Little or no hair on the face contributes to the general feminine
+aspect in the more extreme types. They are often double jointed
+somewhere, flat footed, knock-kneed.
+
+In women, the external manifestations of a thymo-centric personality
+may be limited to thinness and delicacy of the skin, narrow waist,
+rather poorly developed breasts, arched thighs and scanty hair,
+with scanty and delayed menstruation. Or there may be obesity, with
+juvenility, if there is a repression of the pituitary secretion for
+one reason or other.
+
+In their reactions to the problems, physical and psychic, of everyday
+life, the thymo-centrics are distinctly at a disadvantage. In the
+first place, muscular strain, stress or shock is dangerous to them
+because they have a small heart, and remarkably fragile blood vessels,
+which renders their circulation incapable of responding to an
+emergency, or at least definitely handicapped. In infancy, they may
+die suddenly because of this, either for no ascertainable cause at
+all, or because of some slight excitement like that attending some
+slight operation, a fall, or a mild illness. During the run-about
+epoch they are unable to cope with the necessities of an active
+child's existence in playing with other children. Puberty and
+adolescence are specially perilous to them for they may endeavour to
+compensate for an inner feeling of physical inferiority by going
+in strenuously for athletics and sports, and so risking a sudden
+hemorrhage in the brain, producible by the tearing of a blood vessel,
+as if constructed of defective rubber. Reports published in the
+newspapers from time to time of children or young men instantly
+killed by a tap on the jaw in a boxing contest, or some other trivial
+injuries are doubtless samples of such reactions in thymo-centric
+people.
+
+As an illustration of the conduct aberrations of the thymo-centric
+personality during adult life, the following extracts from a newspaper
+report of a suicide are worth quoting.
+
+"An autopsy made yesterday by Dr. Benjamin Schwartz, first assistant
+to Dr. Charles Norris, Chief Medical Examiner, removed any mystery
+that surrounded the death on Saturday night by pistol bullets of Dr.
+José A. Arenas and the wounding of 'Miss Ruth Jackson' and Ignatio
+Marti.
+
+"Dr. Schwartz said that his post-mortem examination had convinced him
+beyond doubt that the dead physician-dentist had killed himself after
+he had tried to take the life of the young woman with whom he had
+lived and of the youth who was his successful rival.
+
+"'Besides that,' Dr. Schwartz said, 'my report to the police will
+include a statement from the young woman to me that she always had
+understood that Dr. Arenas had killed some one in Havana, Cuba, before
+he came to New York.
+
+"The autopsy left no doubt that Dr. Arenas was a case of status
+lymphaticus (thymus-centered personality). I made a most complete
+report because of the scientific value of the autopsy.
+
+"'This confirmed my first deductions after seeing the body on Saturday
+night in the doctor's furnished room with alcove bedroom adjoining.
+You will remember that as soon as I had seen him I revealed that he
+was wearing corsets.
+
+"'These cases of status lymphaticus are intensely interesting. In them
+the blood vessels are very small, and the lymphatic clement is greatly
+in excess. They die suddenly, from ruptures of blood vessels. Many
+of them are degenerate. Most of them are criminals. All of them are
+liable to commit crimes of passion. Among them are found a large
+percentage of drug addicts.
+
+"'Miss Jackson, in the hospital, confirmed my scientific theory that
+the dead man was not normal. She was perfectly frank in her statement.
+She said she had left her husband, Elmer Schultz, an automobile
+salesman in Toledo, several months ago and had come to New York. She
+said she had lived with the doctor for some time.
+
+"'About ten days ago she left him to live with Marti, a healthy,
+normal lad. Before she went from the doctor's room she destroyed those
+colored collars that were found beside the body. She cut them with
+scissors. But that was after, so she states, the doctor had destroyed
+stockings of hers by cutting them.
+
+"'She told me in the hospital today, and with every appearance of
+truth, that she had met Arenas in the subway at the station on
+Seventy-second Street and Broadway on Friday night and that she had
+asked him when she could come and get her clothes. He said, according
+to her story:
+
+"'Come to the house tomorrow afternoon--but come with Marti.'
+
+"'She said that she and Marti went there according to this invitation:
+that first the doctor showed her the cut collars and told her that she
+would get her clothes back in perfect condition, and that the next
+thing she knew she had been shot. She couldn't remember much after
+that.
+
+"'I believe that both she and Marti have told a perfectly
+straightforward story and the autopsy is proof of it.
+
+"'There were six bullets in the doctor's pistol to be accounted for.
+One, in an undischarged cartridge, still was in the weapon. That
+leaves five. One struck "Miss Jackson" in the right chest squarely in
+front, and penetrated the flesh about one inch. If there had been any
+power at all behind the missile it would have gone right through,
+pierced a lung, caused a hemorrhage, and the chances are that "Miss
+Jackson" would have died. That leaves four bullets.
+
+"'One more struck Marti in the left upper chest. It passed through the
+pocket there, and the skirt, grazed the skin, and then bounced over to
+the right hand side in front. It was a most amazing case of a bounding
+bullet. I was particularly careful about examining its course because
+at first I was suspicious of the stories that were told by Marti and
+"Miss Jackson." Now I know they are true.
+
+"'But anyone might have been puzzled by the queer antics of the
+missiles from the pistol of South American manufacture that the doctor
+used. If it had had any penetrating power--or rather if the bullets
+that it sent out, had any real kick behind them--the chances are that
+both "Miss Jackson" and Marti would be dead now.
+
+"'Two bullets, it will be remembered, entered the doctor's left chest,
+quite close together. Well, one nicked the heart and lodged between
+the lung and the heart. It didn't cause any more damage than a
+mosquito bite.
+
+"'The second bullet went through the soft flesh of the chest, but it
+struck a rib and bounded back out again. That bullet was picked up
+beside the body.
+
+"'After these vain attempts to send a bullet through his body to a
+fatal spot, the doctor apparently shifted the weapon to his right
+temple and pulled the trigger for the fifth time. Then the fifth
+bullet, driven likewise by a very weak charge of powder, pierced the
+skull at a point where it was thin and tore into his brain. Its lack
+of power, however, is shown by the fact that I found it this morning
+in the brain tissue.
+
+"'In all my experience I have never seen anything so queer. It sounds
+almost like a dream--a man trying to kill with a pistol that shoots
+bullets that either stop after striking soft flesh or bound out of the
+body into which they are fired. But it is true; I have had all of the
+bullets in my hand.
+
+"'They are all accounted for. They are all of the same sort. There
+is no reason to doubt that they are all from the same weapon, an
+instrument without manufacturer's name, and of a design that the
+police say is unfamiliar to them.
+
+"'The dead doctor was a distinct type, and his tragic end was one that
+should not surprise anyone who has any knowledge of such cases. The
+courtroom was thronged with friends of the dead physician-dentist, who
+not only is reported to be of a wealthy family of Bogota, Colombia,
+but generally is credited with many charitable works in the uptown
+Spanish colony here.'"
+
+The distinct type to which the first assistant to the chief medical
+examiner of the city referred is the thymo-centric personality
+(status lymphaticus is another technical name for it), we have been
+considering. The persistence of the thymus after adolescence makes for
+an arrest of masculinization or feminization, the end-point arrived
+at by the processes of puberty. That is, a partial castration takes
+place. Now, as the experiments of Steinach upon the transplantation of
+ovaries into males deprived of their testes and of testes into females
+deprived of their ovaries have demonstrated, the removal of the
+interstitial cells of one sex assists enormously in arousing the
+opposite sex traits that have been latent, homosexuality. In a
+thymo-centric, tendencies to homosexuality and masochism appear.
+And so all the remarkable after-effects of those processes that the
+Freudians have so lovingly traced: the father complex in men, the
+inferiority complex, and the feminoid complex in general.
+
+The feminoid complex introduces again the character of the functional
+hermaphrodite, the mixed male-female. The sex index will certainly
+come in time as a measurement of sexuality. But until then some more
+available classification of sex tendency is necessary. Including
+sex intergrades, one may divide sex types into six classes:
+male, _male_-female, male-_female_, female, _female_-male, and
+female-_male_. The sex intergrades, the four hyphenated classes,
+nearly all have some degree of persistent thymus. If its influence is
+partial, the emphasis is before the hyphen, upon the ostensible. If
+its influence is unchecked, the emphasis is after the hyphen upon the
+apparently latent sex. The sex difficulties produced in these people
+by the conflict between their conscious sex and their subconscious
+sex, the sex duel in the same mind, Siamese twins pulling in
+diametrically opposite directions, are comprehensible only from the
+viewpoint of the internal secretions.
+
+Homosexuality, in one form or another, frank or concealed, haunts
+the thymo-centric and spoils his life. The persistent thymus, like a
+vindictive Electra, stalks the footsteps of its victim, its possessor.
+He wishes to live, according to society's remorselessly rigid
+expectations, for virility and happiness. But his thymus condition
+forces him also to live for femininity and misery. That homosexuality
+is not purely a psychic matter, of complexes and introversion, as
+the newest psychology would have us believe, has been proved by
+observations of its development in animals with internal secretion
+disturbances, acquired or experimental. Thus it has been recorded that
+a male dog showed a large goitrous swelling of the thyroid in the
+neck, with a rapid heart, staring eyes, the loss of flesh and fat and
+the nervousness of a hyperthyroid condition. Therewith he became an
+absolute homosexual. Observations on the primates along the same
+lines have been made. In goitrous hyperthyroids thymus persistence is
+common.
+
+What complicates his sex difficulties, and makes social adjustment
+almost impossible or completely impossible, is that his pituitary
+frequently cannot react to assist him. Often, as emphasized, it
+is bound in by bone on all sides and neither ante-pituitary nor
+post-pituitary can adequately secrete for his needs. So social
+instinct and the capacity for inhibition, the ability to control
+himself conceptually and somatically, are poor. As a child it is
+difficult to train him along the lines of the elementary habits and
+customs. He is into late childhood a bed-wetter, and steals and lies
+quasi-unconsciously.
+
+His mother realizes soon that he cannot be made to acquire a sense of
+responsibility either for himself or for others. She becomes afraid to
+let him go into the street because of his inability to take care of
+himself, to acquire the right attitude toward street cars, autos,
+strangers, in short, danger. She dreads to take him to places because
+no sooner would they be out of them, than she would discover that he
+had taken something that did not belong to him, quite as a matter of
+course. He will fabricate stories with no motive, fabricate them
+out of whole cloth for the pure fun of it. In a word, moral
+irresponsibility is the keynote of the volitional traits of the
+thymo-centric personality from childhood up.
+
+With so much against them, physical inferiorities, mental defects,
+moral lacks of every sort, it is little wonder that the thymo-centrics
+die young. Infections hit them badly. The cases of flu that went off
+in twenty-four hours belonged to the type. Fulminant meningitis,
+pneumonia, diphtheria, scarlet fever, the varieties that are supposed
+to kill in twenty-four to forty-eight hours because of the terrible
+virulence of the attacking microbe, are probably so malignant only
+because the organism attacked is a thymus subject.
+
+In the alcohol and drug habitué wards of hospitals as well as in
+medicolegal cases of degenerates, gunmen and other criminals,
+the characteristic conformation and diagnostic stigmata of the
+thymo-centric are often encountered. Life treats them badly.
+Misunderstood and misjudged, they are the hopeless misfits of society.
+If the pituitary and the thyroid can enlarge to compensate for their
+defects, they may become the queer brilliants, the eccentric geniuses
+of the arts and sciences. Should they not, mental deficiency and
+delinquency are their portion. Epilepsy, then, is sometimes their mode
+of escape from the terrors of an utterly foreign world. Should they
+survive all other hazards, suicide may still be their most frequent
+fate. A study of 122 cases of suicide by one observer showed that the
+status lymphaticus was practically constant and often pronounced.
+
+Certain of them, after a stormy life in the twenties, become adapted
+to their surroundings in the thirties because the pituitary gradually
+emerges and becomes dominant in their personalities. They are then
+recessive thymocentrics. An increase in size, a broadening, together
+with a greater mental tranquillity and stability, accompany the
+adaptation. Historically, the thymocentrics who combined brilliancy
+and instability played a great part as some of the famous adventurers
+and restless experimentalists.
+
+THE SEX GLAND CENTERED OR GONADO-CENTRIC PERSONALITIES
+
+(The Eunuchoid Personality)
+
+Among the individuals whose personality is dominated by their sex
+glands the physiognomy, physique and life reactions are so distinctive
+that no better examples exist of our main thesis: that the whole life
+of man is controlled primarily by his internal secretions. These
+gonado-centric types are not all necessarily sex gland deficient, as
+the term eunuchoid implies. They may be rather gonad unstable with a
+corresponding instability of the entire endocrine system.
+
+About the face of the eunuchoid the striking feature is the
+incomplete, irregular, or absent hair development. Below thirty it is
+chubby and ruddy, and rather childish in its texture; after thirty,
+there is an effect of premature senility: the skin is yellowish,
+leathery, and wrinkled as the faces of old women are wrinkled: the
+upper lip is traversed by vertical wrinkles, and wrinkles come around
+corners of the mouth. The expression is juvenile, effeminate or
+plaintive.
+
+Invariably the voice is higher pitched than the usual masculine tones.
+It may be gentle and subdued, like a genteel female's, or strident and
+rasping. Occasionally it is a pleasant high tenor. The Adam's apple,
+poetic popular name for the thyroid cartilage, is never prominent,
+because it is not ossified, as it should be in the normal male.
+
+Tall and slender, or generally undersized, the muscles are soft
+and flabby as a woman's. The hands and feet are small and gracile
+typically. Viewed in profile, the lines of the body are feminine. The
+breasts may reach almost the size of the female's and there may be a
+well-marked area of pigmentation around the nipple. The hair growth
+under the shoulders and on the lower abdomen tends to be scanty and to
+approximate the opposite sex in quality and distribution, as do the
+reproductive organs themselves.
+
+These traits of physiognomy and physique indicate functional
+hermaphroditism in the underlying feminoid constitution. The feminoid
+constitution appears again in the supposedly masculine. The feminoid
+constitution should not be confused with the infantiloid constitution.
+The former, the gonado-centric personality, is a digression of growth,
+a deviated evolution of the individual because of the conflicting
+forces, some masculine and some feminine, in his make-up. The
+infantiloid constitution is one of arrested development, and may
+center around the arrested function in childhood or adolescence of
+any one or a number of endocrine glands. Yet the two may resemble one
+another pretty closely, at times. A cretin imitates the extreme grade
+of infantiloid constitution. The infantiloid is a sort of enlarged and
+lengthened child. The feminoid is ostensibly a man, with a good deal
+of woman in him. The infantiloid is a quite general type, but of
+course when typical is a freak, recognized and treated as such. How
+far the eunuchoid may deviate from the normal is suggested by the
+following description of one.
+
+"Face rounded, moon-like, chubby, devoid of hair. Eyes puffed. Lips
+protruding and fleshy. Cheeks round and thick. Nose little developed.
+Skin thick and of clear color. Disproportion between the size of head
+and body. Hair of scalp fine. Brows and lashes scarce, trunk elongated
+and cylindrical. Limbs thick and plump, tapering from the root to the
+extremities. Good fat layers over the entire body. Reproductive organs
+those of a little boy. Infantile mental state: light-heartedness,
+naïvete, timidity, easily evoked tears and laughter, promptly aroused
+but fugitive wrath: excessive tenderness, but unreasonable dislikes."
+
+An almost wholly mental infantiloid state or one purely physical
+may occur. Certain rather large Tom Thumbs belong to the group. In
+everyday life we see doll creatures, overgrown children, on every
+hand. Mental measurements of any large group of population reveal a
+remarkable percentage of it as below the mental age of 12. Juvenile
+traits and juvenile mind, separate or combined, should always suggest
+the possibility of the infantiloid constitution of one type of
+thymocentric also.
+
+The eunuchoid or feminoid personality is also found often among
+artists. One must carefully distinguish the two because the ensemble
+of characteristics of the one may easily stimulate the other. Yet
+fundamentally they are as far apart as the poles. The infantiloid
+type never rises above the subnormal, which is its habitat, while the
+feminoid type (or masculinoid, in woman) often produces an abnormal
+personality which rises above the normal. The infantiloids become the
+slaves and the weaklings of society, the Mark Tapleys, and the Tom
+Pinches, while the eunuchoids have created splendid literature and
+immortal music.
+
+The life reactions, and especially the sex reactions of the
+gonado-centric, are as complex and difficult as those of the
+thymo-centric. Straightforward homosexuality and the eunuchoid
+constitution have always been intimate. The homosexuality of the
+thymo-centric is more subtle and disguised, often buried under the
+stronger masculine component of the personality.
+
+Homosexuality as a cult has appeared correlated with the production of
+the functional hermaphrodite by artificially creating the eunuchoid
+type of constitution. Among the Aztecs, homosexuals were produced
+in quantity for religious purposes by a deliberate fostering of the
+eunuchoid constitution. They called them the Mujerados. Their method
+consisted in making a healthy man ride horseback constantly, until an
+irritable weakness of the reproductive organs ensued, and a paralytic
+impotence followed. The exhausted testes would then atrophy, and the
+voice ring falsetto, muscular tone and energy diminish, inclinations
+and habits become feminine. The Mujerado lost his position in society
+as a man, assumed female clothing, manners and customs, and to all
+intents and purposes was treated as a woman. Their large breasts were
+said to be capable of lactation. Their only reward was the high honor
+paid them as religious consecrates.
+
+Among the Phoenicians there was a similar sect, devoted to the worship
+of Astarte. Known as the Galli, they were men who had transformed
+themselves into the closest possible resemblance to women. At all
+times they were prepared to engage with members of either sex in
+sexual relations of the most depraved kind. They lived in idleness as
+prostitutes, cultivating and extending their skill in sex perversions
+as specialists. Their initiation into their professional careers was
+a part of a religious ritual. During the revels of great festivals,
+apprentices to the trade, wrought up by certain traditional songs and
+music, would be hypnotised into a frenzy, run amuck, throw off every
+garment, and, snatching up swords, deliberately placed in convenient
+spots, castrate themselves at one blow. In a wilder hysteria,
+screaming loudly, the self-made eunuchs would then run through the
+streets holding the severed organs high above their heads. At last,
+faint through loss of blood, they brought their madness to its climax
+by hurling the organs in their hands into the nearest houses, so
+forcing the owners to take them in, and provide them with female
+wearing apparel, and the other feminine accoutrements of war.
+Henceforth, this manner of dress was not to be changed. The physical
+changes followed. The hair of the face was lost, the breasts enlarged,
+the voice became high-pitched, and the other type-characters of the
+eunuchoid complex appeared.
+
+These constitutions thus may be either congenital or acquired.
+Individuals apparently normal during childhood and adolescence may
+be transformed. Injuries to the reproductive glands, sometimes the
+slightest bruises, may lead to atrophy, and a change of personality
+follows in less than six weeks. Mumps may achieve the same results
+because of the inflammation of the gonads that may accompany or follow
+it.
+
+Whole family and races may show some of the signs of the eunuchoid
+constitution for generations. According to Darwin (Descent of Man)
+"the development of the beard and the hairiness of the body differ
+remarkably in the men of distinct races, and even in different tribes,
+and families of the same race. On the European-Asiatic continent,
+beards prevail, until we pass beyond India, although with the
+natives of Ceylon they are often absent.... Eastward of India beards
+disappear, as with the Siamese, Kalmuks, Malays, Chinese, and
+Japanese. Throughout the great American continent the men may be said
+to be beardless: but in almost all tribes a few short hairs are apt to
+appear on the face, especially in old age...." Hair being an adrenal
+cortex trait, it is to be inferred that hairless families and races
+are more eunuchoid, and possess less of the adrenal cortex secretion
+than the more hairy.
+
+Whatever the exceptions--and there have been eunuch generals in
+history--Marces, Chancellor of Justinian, who beat the Goths at
+Nocera, and Ali the Gallant who commanded the Turkish Army after the
+invasion of Hungary in 1856--the eunuchoid generally runs to type in
+his mentality and his sexuality. He is an introvert, his personality
+is shut in, he isolates himself from the world.
+
+The lower eunuchoids exhibit a curiously child-like personality.
+Naïvely confiding, communicating to all comers all their joys and
+sorrows, they ask diffidently for confirmation of their statements,
+and they pass quickly from tears to laughter. About sexual matters
+they are extremely timid. A moral innocence pervades their speech and
+conduct. Usually they have no true conception of crimes of jealousy
+or passion. The occupations they go in for are those without
+responsibility away from crowds or observation, such as ship cooks,
+stewards, and so on. They marry to find a home, without the object of
+establishing sexual relations. When they are asked whether they think
+their wives will be pleased to look at the matter in the same light,
+and be contented to live with a man upon such conditions, they are
+puzzled or perplexed, as if they had never thought seriously about
+the matter before. Their simplicity has even extended to proposing to
+their wives to seek gratification from some other man. Naturally, such
+an arrangement often proves unsatisfactory, and desertion follows.
+
+Concerning the children sometimes the offspring of these unions,
+scepticism as to the identity of the father is decidedly permissible.
+Still in some cases the best of evidence exists that fertility occurs.
+The vitality of the children then is subnormal and the mortality
+rate high. The eunuchoid tendency is transmitted. Variations and
+transitions of every kind are found among the undersexed eunuchoid
+personalities, depending upon the quality and degree of the secretions
+lacking.
+
+When there is an excess of these sex secretions, a turbulent,
+tempestuous, sexually sensitive temperament, that may go on to
+satyriasis or nymphomania, is created. It has been shown that doves
+can be rendered overfeminine in their behaviour and characteristics
+by injections of ovarian material. Oversexed types of personality
+therefore may exist as well as undersexed.
+
+COMBINATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS
+
+The types of personality sketched--the thyrocentric, the
+pituitocentric, the adrenocentric, the thymocentric, the
+gonadocentric--are really prototypes, the great kingdoms of
+personality, to which individuals can be assigned, by hall marks which
+facilitate their classification. They may also be described as the
+pure endocrine types, which include a minority of a population. But
+the majority consist of dominant mixtures, hyphenates, groups which
+are the species and varieties of the greater classes. Combinations and
+variations of control among the adrenals and thyroid, pituitary or
+thymus, and so on, occur, with effects that are sometimes additive,
+reinforcing a particular trait of the person, and at others
+conflicting, and neutralizing. Quantitative variations of the same
+secretion may occur periodically in the same individual, which
+explains the multiplicity and complexity, the inconsistency and
+contradictions of conduct in a man or woman at the different episodes
+and crises of life, to a certain extent.
+
+There should be a stable balance between the various endocrines, the
+stability expressing itself in what we are pleased to call the normal.
+There should also be a balance between the antagonistic elements in
+the same gland; for instance, the pituitary. The pituitary, built
+of two distinct portions, the anterior and the posterior, is in
+equilibrium when the two are nicely adjusted. But the accidents and
+vicissitudes of life (pregnancy for example) will upset the balance.
+And so there will result changes of physique, conduct and character.
+Like possibilities apply to all the other glands of internal
+secretion. In our ability to exercise a control over these
+disturbances of balance, to be developed in the future, lies one
+of the great hopes for a chemical perfectability of human life and
+nature.
+
+NATURE'S EXPERIMENTS VS. MAN'S
+
+The kinds of personality described, as prototypes and variants and the
+fundamental facts supporting the view that they are the reaction types
+of the human beings we meet in everyday life, represent simply a
+beginning of the work to be done. Putting into our hands a new
+powerful searchlight that penetrates the interiors of body and soul, a
+fresh attitude toward the complicated problems of Man in society grows
+imminent. The normal and the abnormal become illuminated with an
+effect as if our retinas were suddenly to get sensitive to the
+ultraviolet rays to which we are now blind. An apparatus is put in our
+hands which shows us not only a static condition at a given moment,
+but the whole life process of an individual, normal or abnormal, his
+past and his future.
+
+Upon that fetich of the biologists, the struggle for existence, the
+struggle for survival, the struggle for possessions and satisfactions,
+for happiness, victory and virility, in short, for success, as success
+is measured by the biologists, a searching spectroscope can play, with
+a yield for our understanding and control of life, that will stand
+comparison with the astronomer's analysis of the stars. Toward the
+process of adjustment and adaptation, of the environment to the
+individual, as well as of the individual to the environment, attitudes
+will change from _hopeless acquiescence in the inevitable to a
+complete self-determination of the self and its surroundings._ The
+adventures of the personality, strung along as the episodes of his
+career, his friendships and sex reactions, his mishaps and diseases,
+and the final fate or fortune that overtakes him, be he normal,
+subnormal, supernormal, or abnormal, begin to become comprehensible,
+and hence controllable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SOME HISTORIC PERSONAGES
+
+
+THE INTERNAL SECRETIONS IN HISTORY
+
+According to the views, facts and guesses concerning human
+personality, as a body-mind complex dominated by the internal
+secretions, outlined in the preceding pages, biography, and human
+history as the interaction of biographies, become capable of
+interpretation from a new standpoint. If human life, in its
+essentials, is so much the product of the internal messenger system we
+speak of as the endocrines, then biography should present us with a
+number of illustrations of their power and influence. What is the
+evidence that, as Huxley anticipated, "the introduction into the
+economy of a molecular mechanism which, like a cunningly contrived
+torpedo, shall find its way to some particular group of living
+elements, and cause an explosion among them, leaving the rest
+untouched," and the multiplication of such cunningly contrived
+mechanisms, were responsible for those personalities, magnificent
+chemical compounds, with whose adventures historians are concerned?
+
+THE CASE OF NAPOLEON
+
+As a unique will and intelligence, Napoleon Bonaparte the First must
+be classed as one of the Betelegeuses of the race. H.G. Wells has
+called his career the "raid of an intolerable egotist across the
+disordered beginning of a new time." "The figure of an adventurer and
+wrecker." "This saturnine egotist." "Are men dazzled simply by the
+scale of his flounderings, by the mere vastness of his notoriety?"
+"This dark little archaic personage, hard, compact, capable,
+unscrupulous, imitative and neatly vulgar." There are other opinions.
+The Man of Destiny was worshipped by millions. Napoleona bring
+fortunes today. Interest in the man as a man has multiplied with every
+year. And certainly no one can deny him the quality of individuality
+in its most exaggerated form.
+
+In the second place he belongs among the moderns. Modern science and
+methods of observation have had their chance at him, and have left a
+conscious record of their results. Napoleon was the central figure of
+his time, and was watched by trained medical eyes during his life,
+and after his death. Protocols of the examination of his body are
+accessible, and Napoleonic specimens, preserved by fixing agents,
+may still be viewed at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
+England. Dr. Leonard Guthrie has worked up the material at hand in
+a report which he presented to the historical section of the
+International Congress of Medicine, in London in 1913. I propose to
+relate his findings to some other facts and the general principles
+roughly sketched in this book.
+
+There are a number of word portraits of Napoleon extant. But for our
+purposes certain of the notable features of his face and physique are
+to be considered. The first characteristic that struck everyone about
+him was the matter of his height. He was definitely sub-average,
+at death being about five feet six inches in height. As has been
+emphasized several times, deficiency or excess of growth will always
+direct attention to the pituitary. His sharply outlined features and
+a powerful lower jaw, combined with oddly small plump hands, long
+straight black hair, and dark complexion, all point to the pituitary,
+with a secondary adrenal effect. His pulse was slow, according to
+Corvisart, his personal physician, rarely above 50 to the minute. His
+sexual life, his libido, was abnormal. Curiously explosive in their
+appearance and manifestations were his sexual impulses. They "beset
+him on occasions which were sometimes inconvenient, and a peculiarity
+about them was that they subsided with equal suddenness if not
+immediately gratified, or if meanwhile something occurred to
+discourage his attention. All women were to him 'filles de joie.'
+Sexual rather than social attractions in women appealed to him."
+He was never in love, never possessed of permanent affection or
+tenderness for any woman. This explosive periodicity of the sexual
+life, "with a tendency to compression of it to the merely physical,"
+is another mark of some pituitary-centered personalities.
+
+Two other phenomena that persisted throughout his life throw light
+upon his endocrine constitution. One was trouble with his bladder
+which he told Antommarchi, another physician, bothered him as long as
+he could remember. Irritability of the bladder was so pronounced that
+he could not sleep for more than a few hours at a time. After battles,
+the trouble became worse so that it interfered with his riding.
+Constitutional difficulties in urination have been connected
+definitely with the function of the pituitary. The other pituitary
+disturbances which tinctured his life were certain "brain storms,"
+attacks of vomiting followed by "stupor verging on unconsciousness"
+brought on by outbursts of temper, physical overexertion, mental
+strain, or sexual excitement. It has been shown that such epileptic
+tendencies are present in subjects of pituitary disease, particularly
+those with pituitary instability. In Napoleon's case the brain attacks
+may have been crises of pituitary insufficiency in a hyper-pituitary
+type. This supposition is borne out by the headache which followed
+them, the headache of an oversecreting pituitary compensating for
+a defect in its formation. During his prime, his intellect was
+mathematical, logical, and rational, and remarkable for a prodigious
+memory. Such an intellect is the product of an extraordinary
+ante-pituitary. That he never permitted feeling to interfere with
+the dictates of his judgment, a quality which rendered him the
+most unscrupulous careerist of history, must be put down to an
+insufficiency of the post-pituitary. What post-pituitary does to the
+brain cells and the organism as a whole to render them susceptible
+to sympathy and suggestion, the social sublimations of the maternal
+instinct, with its offsprings of religion and art, we have seen.
+Napoleon lacked a chemical trace of the religious instinct, his
+sympathy was nil, and his conquests were made possible only because he
+was blind to the suffering and misery his greed for glory and dominion
+generated. Post-pituitary insufficients of this type, patent or
+concealed, gradually become corpulent as they grow older. The
+increasing corpulency of Napoleon was commented upon by all observers.
+
+A student of his make-up, and acquainted with present developments
+concerning the internal secretions, given an opportunity to observe
+him as we have when he was alive, and at the height of his success,
+would have had every reason for classing him a pituitary-centered,
+ante-pituitary superior, post-pituitary inferior, with an instability
+of both that would lead to his final degeneration. Besides, his
+insatiable energy indicated an excellent thyroid, his pugnacity,
+animality and genius for practical affairs a superb adrenal. Given the
+kind of pituitary he possessed, with its great intellectual potential
+energy and the relation between the two parts which would further the
+objects of an intellectual machine, plus a remarkable thyroid and
+adrenal, plus the military education Napoleon had, and the character
+of the Revolution into which he was plunged, and we have the
+conditions out of which his career emerged as inevitable.
+
+That it was his pituitary which first failed him, rather than the
+thyroid or adrenal, which might have, is demonstrated by a number of
+considerations. Before he made himself Emperor, it was noticed that he
+was becoming fat, a pituitary symptom. A comparison of portraits at
+different stages of his rise and fall shows an increasing abdominal
+paunch, and a laying down of fat in the pituitary areas, around the
+hips, the legs and so on. The beginning of weakness in judgment that
+he was to exhibit soon in the invasion of Russia manifested itself at
+the same time. His keen calculating ability attained the peak of its
+curve at Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. Thereafter, the descent
+begins. A rash, grandiose, speculative quality enters his projects,
+and divorces the elaborate coordination of means and end from his
+plans. That his thyroid energy capacity did not fail him is indicated
+by the fact that at St. Albans he would ride for three hours at the
+end of the day to tire himself sufficiently for sleep. That his
+adrenals were not affected is indicated by the brutality which
+remained characteristic to the end of his life.
+
+The findings after death confirm the view of him as an unstable
+pituitocentric who succumbed to pituitary insufficiency toward the
+latter half of his life. We possess the account of the postmortem by
+Dr. Henry, who performed it. "The whole surface of the body was deeply
+covered with fat. Over the sternum, where generally the bone is very
+superficial, the fat was upwards of an inch deep, and an inch and a
+half or two inches on the abdomen. There was scarcely any hair on the
+body, and that of the head was thin, fine and silky. The whole genital
+system (very small) seemed to exhibit a physical cause for the absence
+of sexual desire, and the chastity which had been stated to have
+characterized the deceased (during his stay at St. Helena). The skin
+was noticed to be very white and delicate as were the hands and arms.
+Indeed the whole body was slender and effeminate. The pubis much
+resembled the Mons Veneris in women. The muscles of the chest were
+small, the shoulders were narrow and the hips wide." In other words,
+the typical feminization of the body which accompanies pituitary
+insufficiency was found. He died of a cancer of the stomach. But
+before his death there were noted the mental transformations that
+succeed deficiency of his central endocrine. Apathy, indolence,
+fatigability, and frilosity were what impressed his associates at St.
+Helena. The deterioration of his mentality was also exemplified in his
+literary diversions, the "Siege of Troy" and the "Essay on Suicide."
+The puerility of these productions, as well as of his conduct, a
+sulking before his captors, and the decline of his physical energy,
+once a bottomless well, all point to the same conclusion.
+
+The rise and fall of Napoleon followed the rise and fall of his
+pituitary gland. No better illustration exists of the fundamental
+determination of a personality and its career by an endocrine,
+aside from other factors of education, environment, accident and
+opportunity. Without the sort of endocrine equipment he was born with,
+however, none of the other factors would have found the material to
+work upon. Born, say, with more of a posterior pituitary than he had,
+which would have rendered him more sensitive to the sufferings of his
+fellow-creatures, if nothing else, and the forces of the Revolution
+probably would have swamped him from the very first moment of his
+emergence at Toulon, when the whiff of grape-shot, symptom of an
+inexorable, merciless intellect and will, started him upon the road
+that led to the Napoleonic Era. Destiny is always ironic. For the
+deficiency of the internal secretions which made him eligible for
+glory was responsible as well as for his downfall.
+
+EPILEPSY AND MIGRAINE IN GENIUS
+
+In the annals of genius, there occur a number of instances of those
+who suffered from attacks that have been diagnosed epilepsy
+or migraine. Because their ailment was associated with their
+extraordinary ability, they attracted an attention that concerned
+itself not at all with the circumstance that genius has also been
+liable to measles, scarlet fever, and so on. Epilepsy and migraine
+certainly occur in people of no supernormal gifts, and often in
+degenerates and subnormals. Yet the fact remains that these affections
+of the nervous system, so terrible to feel and to behold, have
+afflicted the finest brains of the race.
+
+About forty years ago the idea established itself that epilepsy,
+exhibiting itself in one form or another as "fits," and migraine, the
+severe periodic sick headache, were interconvertible manifestations of
+the same underlying morbid process in the brain. Nothing in the way
+of a concrete cause, attackable on the material side, was elicited by
+this generalization. Then the investigations of the pituitary in the
+last decade produced evidence of epilepsy-like and migraine-like
+symptoms in sufferers from tumors or other enlargements of it.
+Reasoning back, cases of epilepsy and migraine began to be examined
+for evidences of involvement of the pituitary in their troubles.
+These accumulated rapidly. The physiognomy and physique of the
+pituito-centric were discovered in them. The phenomena noted in
+Napoleon's case were often present: lowering of the pulse, chilliness,
+and an increased irritability of the bladder. In women the attack
+often coincides with the menstrual period, a typical time of endocrine
+unbalance. Finally X-ray examinations of the sella turcica, the bony
+lodging of the pituitary, clinched the matter: it often appeared
+small, or enlarged, with erosions of the bone, signifying a desperate
+attempt of the gland to grow, and meet the needs of the organism. The
+complex of appearances called migraine now becomes understandable.
+There are a number of factors, such as fatigue, intense cold, or high
+sugar food like chocolate, which will cause an engorgement of the
+gland with blood and swelling of it. But they do not concern us now.
+Intense mental occupation, concentration as the popular term has it,
+acts as a patent excitor of the attack.
+
+Brain work drives more blood into the brain and the gland. Besides,
+mental activity is accompanied by increased function of the
+ante-pituitary, if intellectual, or of the post-pituitary if
+emotional. Brain work then causes a temporary enlargement of the
+gland. If, now, the bone container of the endocrine is too small to
+permit of much swelling, the bone will be pressed against or even worn
+into. This means headache, severe, easily going on to the kind known
+as sick-headache. The nerves which move the eyes in various directions
+lie next to the pituitary. If, in its expansion, it moves sufficiently
+outward, it may press upon, irritate them or paralyze, and so evolve
+various eye disturbances in association with the headache. No one can
+overrate this conception of migraine, for a number of men of genius
+have suffered from sick-headache and eye symptoms.
+
+As for epilepsy, the problem is more complex. One has to rule out
+first those who have organic destructive disease of the brain. But
+they are out of our field: genius predicates at least an intact brain.
+Of the others a number may be interpreted upon an endocrine basis. At
+least they will, in their physiognomy, physique, mentality, conduct
+and character, document the glandular constellation under which they
+live, and a proper understanding of which is necessary for them to be
+helped. One frequently seen is the thymo-centric, with small enclosed
+sella turcica. The latter fact explains the occurrence of the
+epilepsy. Periodic variations in the secretory tides of the other
+endocrines, the ovaries, the thyroid, and so on, may determine the
+onset of the attack of "fits." The point is that when epilepsy plays a
+constant part in the life history of a man of genius, we are justified
+in assuming a disturbed balance among his hormones, and so a reasoned
+picture perhaps of the foundations for the erratic in his behaviour or
+his productions.
+
+THE NEURASTHENIC GENIUS
+
+The fin de siècle intelligentsia of the nineteenth century were quite
+stirred up by a publication of Max Nordau on "Degeneration," in which
+a number of revered artists and intelligents were held up to public
+scorn as degenerates and neurasthenics. So wrought up were they, in
+fact, that Bernard Shaw was moved to compose a defense entitled "The
+Sanity of Art." In spite of the Great Vegetarian's dialectics, it
+remains to be explained why a certain species of creative ability has
+been combined with the fatigability, variability and general wretched
+irritability of every organ and tissue in the body which taught them
+that they were sensitive souls imprisoned in the flesh. Going from
+doctor to doctor as from pillar to post, from this medical creed to
+that hygienic cult, lucky to escape the worst, often landing upon the
+bosom of New Thought for succor. We have noted in previous chapters
+the relation of neurasthenia to the glands of internal secretion
+in general, and to adrenal insufficiency in particular. A closer
+examination of neurasthenic genius will show it to consist essentially
+of a pituitocentric in whom for one reason or another, congenital (the
+persistence of the thymus) or acquired (shocks, accidents, diseases)
+there has been failure of the adrenals, thyroid or the interstitial
+cells, about in the order of their occurrence.
+
+THE CASE OF NIETZSCHE
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche is about as good a case as there is on record of a
+genius blasted by migraine. The originality and force of his mind, as
+well as the articulate music of an imaginative poet, places Nietzsche
+among the philosophic elect of the race. Showing that he was an
+unstable pituitary-centered of a certain type will throw light upon
+his malady, as well as upon his life and work.
+
+In a set of volumes, entitled Biographic Clinics, Dr. George M. Gould
+of Philadelphia contended that the ill health of a number of men and
+women of genius of the nineteenth century was due to unconnected eye
+troubles. In attempting to bolster up his thesis he has collected
+biographic material useful to the student of personality. He never
+appears to have asked himself what was behind the eye trouble. The
+evidence relating to Nietzsche's endocrine personality is derived from
+some of the data he collected, as well as from the two volume life of
+the philosopher written by his sister, and the other biographies of
+him extant.
+
+To reconstruct the endocrine formula or equation of Nietzsche
+inductively, one should analyze first the information available
+concerning his parents and relatives. His grandfather was a
+conservative bourgeois of a superior type, who was the author of
+treatises designed to narcotize the forces of rebellion of his time.
+What he was like physically, no epitaph declares. His father was a
+clergyman. A description of him reads ... "tall and slender, with a
+noble and poetic personality, and a peculiar talent for music ...
+short-sighted." That ranks him at once as a pituito-centric.
+The mother was dark and had a fiery temper and came of a family
+distinguished for the powerfully built anatomy of its members. In
+the heredity of Nietzsche, the father appears therefore to supply
+a pituitary predominating element, the mother an adrenal-pituitary
+predominating element.
+
+Nietzsche himself worked strenuously at the intellectual life (after
+20, when he probably stopped growing, and the brain tonic action of
+the ante-pituitary could manifest itself). Early distinction rewarded
+him with a professorship in philology at 24. One of Prussia's wars
+of conquest entangled him, and presented him with diphtheria. A
+friendship with Richard Wagner marked the turning point of his life,
+and the point of departure for his works on the most fundamental
+values of human life. Meanwhile, attacks of sick-headache of varying
+degrees of severity made him miserable periodically--they came about
+every two weeks and lasted two to three days--and left him wretched
+and exhausted. At last, at 44, a species of stroke terminated his
+sufferings, causing him to lose his speech and memory, and thenceforth
+there was progressive deterioration, physical and spiritual, with
+repeated attacks.
+
+In the sister's biography there are several good photographs and
+reproductions of sculptures of Nietzsche at different ages. An
+examination of the frontispiece picture, which shows him in profile
+(profile views are the best for physiognomy), as well as of the bust
+of Nietzsche by Donndorf, exhibit the most striking traits of the
+head. To the student of internal secretions, the most prominent
+feature of the face, emphasized by both the camera and the artist,
+is the remarkable prominence of the supra-orbital arches, the bony
+protuberances from which the eyebrows spring. This is a definite
+pituitary character. The eyebrows themselves are luxurious and slope
+to meet, the bony development of the face as a whole is sharp and
+clean-cut, the skull tends to be long and narrow and the chin is
+square. All these point to a pituitary-centered personality. It is to
+be regretted that we have no picture or record of Nietzsche caught
+smiling, which would have preserved the state of his teeth for us. At
+any rate, considered as checks to my interpretation, his physiognomy
+and physique, the nature of his genius and the attacks which finally
+ruined his life, all fit into the conception of him as one whose life
+centered, like Napoleon's, around what was happening in his sella
+turcica.
+
+The attacks of sick-headache, diagnosable symptomatically as
+migraine, were so devastating that in 1883, after the printing of his
+masterpiece, "Also Sprach Zarathustra," he wrote "My life has been
+a complete failure." Extracts from his letters, collected by Gould,
+provide some idea of his suffering. In 1888, just before his stroke,
+he said, "I have in my eyes a dynamometer of my entire condition."
+
+The history of Nietzsche's eye trouble makes it probable that not
+simply a defect in his eyes themselves, but a deeper condition behind
+them was responsible. Up to the age of 15 he was a model scholar.
+Essential eye defects of refraction should make themselves felt during
+childhood. Then, with adolescence, he changed. Adolescence is one
+of the red-letter epochs for the pituitary, when its growth and
+enlargement precedes and stimulates the ripening of the sex cells
+in the reproductive organs. Until adolescence ended and physical
+development ceased, his intellectual interests were nil, and he was
+particularly backward in mathematics. Colds and coughs, and recurring
+pains in the head and eyes bothered him (colds and coughs are frequent
+in those whose pituitary expansion is limited by the bony sella
+turcica to any extent). After his puberty, migraine definitely became
+his demon companion. Following the diphtheria in the army (which
+must have damaged his adrenals), the attacks grew much worse, and
+complaints about them more bitter because the pituitary now, in
+addition to its own burden, had to compensate for the insufficient
+adrenals. So "his frequent illness made him more and more a subject of
+treatment and commiseration.... If only my eyes would hold out ...
+it seems to me at the age of 30 as if I had lived 60 years ... very
+frequent sufferings of stomach, head and eyes ... acidity oppresses
+me, and everything except the tenderest food becomes acid.... I cannot
+doubt that I am the victim of a serious cerebral disease, and that
+stomach and eyes suffer only from this central cause ... half-dead
+with pain and exhaustion." In December 1888, he fell, had to be
+helped home, lay silent for two days, then became loud, active and
+unbalanced. The attack was preceded by the drinking of much water.
+
+The specific quality of the Nietzsche genius also directs attention to
+a pituitocentric, to a pituitocentric in whom both ante-pituitary and
+post-pituitary are extraordinarily well-functioning, but are in a
+state of unbalance in which the post-pituitary gets the upper hand.
+Now, as we have seen, the post-pituitary makes for that instability
+of association between the brain cells which must be at the bottom of
+originality and creative thought, as well as of phobias, obsessions,
+hysterias and hallucinations. Persons in whom the post-pituitary
+predominates have a lively fancy and are liable to suffer from the
+tricks of association. Nietzsche, as we have noted, was poor in
+mathematics and in the calm cool proportioned forward march of
+scientific thought in general. His most brilliant ideas came to him in
+flashes and gleams. That is why so much of his work has come down to
+us in the form of aphorisms and paragraphs. He was, essentially, a
+poet among the metaphysicians, which again favors the conception of
+him as a pituitary-centered with a dominant post-pituitary. Yet his
+incisive critical faculty, as well as his love of music, also document
+the supernormal ante-pituitary.
+
+To sum up, the physique and physiognomy of Nietzsche, his migraine
+attacks and the later fate which overtook him, his likes and
+dislikes, his tastes, abilities and accomplishments followed from his
+composition as one pituitary-centered, with post-pituitary domination,
+a superior thyroid, and inferior adrenals.
+
+DARWIN AS A NEURASTHENIC GENIUS
+
+Charles Darwin, as the author of the "Origin of Species" and the
+greatest revolutionist of the nineteenth century, has naturally had
+a great deal of attention paid to his life and personality. Yet not
+until the publication of his Autobiography and his son's Reminiscences
+was it generally known that he suffered from chronic ill health for
+most of his adult life. Dr. W.A. Johnston, in an article in the
+_American Anthropologist_, 1901, has marshalled a number of available
+facts, to sustain his thesis that Darwin was a victim of neurasthenia.
+Now neurasthenia, it is now accepted, is simply a waste-basket word,
+corresponding to the class miscellaneous in a classification of any
+group of real objects. And, as has been emphasized in preceding
+chapters, most neurasthenia rises upon a disturbed endocrine
+foundation, most often, an insufficiency of the adrenals. That is, a
+defect in the chain of co-operation, balance and compensation among
+the internal secretions is the basis for the weakness of the nervous
+system the term neurasthenia is supposed to explain, actually only
+names. Darwin's case was pretty certainly that.
+
+There can be no doubt that Darwin had an abnormal fatigability, a lack
+of stamina and endurance in mental as well as physical application
+which plagued him from the late twenties to the sixties. As a child,
+he was strong and healthy, fond of outdoors, and though underrated by
+his teachers, noted to be possessed of intense curiosity, especially
+concerning natural objects. At school he was a fleet runner and
+cultivated a habit of long walks. Then he was surely no neurasthenic.
+Three years which, he himself afterwards said, were worse than wasted,
+at Cambridge, were filled with shooting, riding and hunting. His good
+health lasted until the time he probably stopped growing at 21 or 22.
+Thereafter his troubles began.
+
+What was Darwin, so far as his endocrine composition was concerned?
+In the first place his father was a variety of pituitocentric, of the
+post-pituitary inferior type, six feet two inches tall, exceedingly
+corpulent, and, in the eyes of his son, the sharpest of observers and
+the most sympathetic of men. He wished to make a physician out of his
+son in order to carry on the medical tradition of the family: Erasmus
+Darwin was a physician before him. His son, however, showed no
+inclination for so learned and confining a profession and had to
+be reproached by his father in these immortal words: "You care for
+nothing but shooting dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a
+disgrace to yourself and all your family."
+
+Cambridge came after Edinburgh, as he was rushed from medicine into
+the clergy. But in vain. A friendship struck up with a naturalist,
+Henslow, settled his career for him. Henslow heard of a trip of
+general exploration the ship _Beagle_ was to take and recommended
+Darwin as naturalist. The captain at first would not hear of the
+proposal because of Darwin's nose, a typical pituitary proboscis. But
+his prejudices were overcome, and Darwin sailed.
+
+It was upon this voyage that Darwin made himself the greatest
+naturalist of all time, and at the same time infected himself with
+the virus of neurasthenia. At Plymouth, while waiting for the ship to
+sail, he complained of palpitation and pain about the heart, probably
+due to a transient hyperthyroidism, brought on by excitement. During
+the voyage, which lasted five years, he was afflicted often by
+sea-sickness. A ship-mate relates that after spending an hour with the
+microscope he would say "Old Fellow, I must take the horizontal for
+it" and lie down. He would stretch out on one side of the table, then
+resume his labors for a while when he again had to lie down. Already
+fatigability had to be fed with rest. A serious illness that Darwin
+claimed affected every secretion of his body acted probably as the
+exhausting drain upon his adrenal potential.
+
+The return to England was the date of onset for a record of continuous
+illness, aggravated by his marriage, apparently, for his misery
+increased progressively after it. So much so that he was forced to
+leave London altogether so as to avoid the strain of social life, even
+that of meeting his scientific friends or attending scientific society
+meetings fatiguing him to exhaustion. After such occasions there would
+be attacks of violent shivering, with vomiting and giddiness. It was
+necessary for him to impose upon himself an absolute régime of daily
+routine. Any interference with it upset him completely, and made it
+impossible for him to do any work. Early morning was the only time for
+physical as we; as mental exertion. Evening found him thoroughly used
+up, with every move an effort. Insomnia made him its prey. A curious
+sensitiveness to heat and cold distressed him. In 1859, when the
+"Origin of Species" appeared, he wrote to a friend that his health had
+quite failed, and that indigestion, headaches, with a looming hopeless
+breakdown of body and mind made his life a burden and a curse. The
+twenty years of research he devoted to the problems of evolution were
+one long torture. For sixteen more years, during which he worked upon
+and produced immortal classics of biology, he was the most wretched
+and unhappy sufferer from neurasthenia. His life was a continuous
+alternation of small doses of work and large doses of rest. So he
+was enabled to publish twenty-three volumes of original writing and
+fifty-one scientific papers. Living a sort of quasi-sanitarium life,
+with the rules and regulations of one undergoing a rest cure for
+thirty-six years, he thus accomplished infinitely more than the
+millions who have led the strenuous life. That he thus survived, as a
+genius, among the perils of an intellectual nature in an environment
+for which his adrenals sentenced him to destruction, must be put down
+in large measure to the ministrations and good sense of wife and
+children who supplied him with the endocrine energy he lacked. All
+these details I have given in the attempt to analyze the internal
+secretion constitution of this great man of genius, to establish that
+he really suffered from inadequate function of his adrenal glands, for
+the symptoms of chronic though benign adrenal insufficiency coincide
+in their mass effect with the story of his life. He was not a good
+animal, as Herbert Spencer declared was a first sine qua non of the
+successful life. He was a poor animal, the poorest of animals, because
+he possessed poor adrenals. What saved him was his congenitally
+superior pituitary (the nidus of genius) and the overacting thyroid,
+which combined to compensate to some extent for his fundamental lack.
+According to his son he rose early because he could not lie in bed,
+and he would have liked to get up earlier than he did.
+
+What other hints have we that in spite of his fatigue disease he was
+a pituitocentric? The record of his physique and physiognomy,
+documentary and that left in portraits and photographs. He was tall
+and thin and his frame was naturally strong and large. Face was ruddy,
+and his grey eyes looked out from under deep overhanging brows and
+bushy eyebrows. The ears were large and prominent, the hair straight,
+the nose broad and well developed. All these are distinctive pituitary
+traits. The photograph of him taken by Maull and Fox in 1854 shows his
+chin to be the square firm kind that goes with the ante-pituitary type
+physique. (This photo is the frontispiece of the collection of essays
+entitled "Darwinism and Modern Science," edited by A.C. Seward and
+published in 1909). Charles Darwin, we may say, then, lived the
+life of one with a hyperfunctioning pituitary, the anterior portion
+dominating the posterior, a thyroid excess, and an adrenal much
+deficient, the combination settling the fate of a grand intellect
+in an invalid. It is interesting to note that an extant portrait
+of Erasmus Darwin, Darwin's distinguished grandfather, shows a
+pituitocentric, but with a rounder head and a fatter face, which point
+to a predominance of the post-pituitary over the ante-pituitary.
+Correspondingly, he was more speculative and poetic intellectually
+than his grandson, and more irascible and imperious in his moods.
+
+After 1872, when Charles Darwin was sixty-three years old, a marked
+change for the better occurred in his health. For the last ten years
+of his life the condition of his health was a cause of satisfaction
+and hope to his family. "He was able to work more steadily with less
+fatigue and distress afterwards." This is probably to be explained as
+following the gonadopause hi him--the cessation of activity of the
+interstitial cells. After this event, the adrenals in the male nearly
+always function more efficiently, and well being is improved even
+though the blood pressure often rises coincidently. In the relative
+vigor of that decade we have another bit of evidence that the adrenals
+had much to say over Darwin's life.
+
+EPILEPTIC GENIUS
+
+  He had a fever when he was in Spain
+  And, when the fit was on him, I did mark
+  How he did shake: 'tis true, this god did shake
+  His coward lips did from their color fly;
+  And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world,
+  Did lose his lustre: I did hear him groan.
+
+  --Julius Caesar.
+
+Epilepsy, the "falling sickness" or "fits," is generally associated
+with a deterioration or degeneration of mentality, and an inferior
+personality is frequently an ingredient. Progressively increasing data
+accumulate to incriminate more and more a disturbance of the endocrine
+balance, on the side of multiple deficiencies, as the basic mechanism
+at the bottom of a good many of them. Concurrent studies reveal that
+abnormalities of the thyroid, the parathyroids, the ovaries and
+testes, and even the thymus exist behind the attack. Investigation of
+the content of the consciousness of the different kinds of epilepsies
+from this point of view will doubtless bring to light some interesting
+information. There is much to be done for the epileptic with this new
+method of approach.
+
+Epilepsy, just the same, may occur in men gifted with the sort of
+transcendent ability called genius. Mohammed, Lord Byron, Dostoyevsky,
+Flaubert, to name a few cases, are famous instances. The point to be
+settled is whether epileptic genius, that is epilepsy with superior
+ability, occurs most often in pituitocentrics, the epilepsy being
+symptomatic of a pituitary struggling against barriers, tugging
+against bonds. As mentioned, in such cases epilepsy appears as the
+twin brother of migraine in genius. Should that be established,
+we should have more evidence for the pituitary dominance of most
+specimens of intellectual power. As a case in point let us take the
+most famous of the epileptic geniuses--Julius Caesar, "When the fit
+was on I marked how he did shake; tis true, this god did shake."
+
+According to Plutarch, Julius Caesar was of slender build,
+fair-complexioned, pale, emaciated, of a delicate constitution
+(reminding us of Darwin), subject to severe headache and violent
+attacks of epilepsy. In view of the work of Cushing, the concurrence
+of "severe headache and violent attacks of epilepsy" is sharply
+suggestive of a pituitary origin for both. In his seventeenth year
+he was already engaged to be married, which proves his precocity. An
+overactive, erratic pituitary could here also be held responsible.
+Soon after he was proscribed by the dictator Sulla, and the first of
+a series of epileptic convulsions is recorded. Shock tries the
+pituitary, as well as the adrenals.
+
+His sexual libido was of the quality that stimulated his soldiers to
+sing celebrations of his exploits. The first woman he was engaged to
+be jilted. Cornelia, his first wife, he divorced on the ground that
+"Caesar's wife must be above suspicion." Matrimony committed twice
+thereafter landing him in the divorce court, he devoted himself to
+liaisons, one with Cleopatra. This sexual hyperactivity was probably
+another pituitary trait.
+
+The compound of intellectual and practical ability he realized was
+of the rarest. It meant a most delicate balance between his
+ante-pituitary, post-pituitary, adrenals and thyroid. He was an
+orator, politician, historian, conqueror, and statesman. That his
+thyroid functioned well can be deduced from a career which involved
+more than three hundred personal triumphs as recognition from his
+native city. On horseback, riding without using his hands, he would
+often dictate to two or three secretaries at once. The masculine love
+of glory and ambition, expression of a well-working ante-pituitary,
+was combined with the effeminate echoes of an equally well-evolved
+post-pituitary. No prima donna was more concerned with the care of
+her skin, complexion and hair than he. The analogy extends even to
+superfluous hair which he had removed, not by the modern electrolysis,
+but by depilation with forceps and main force. The attendants at
+his bath would polish his epidermis, for his satisfaction, until it
+resembled alabaster or marble.
+
+Caesar was not the kind of great man that Darwin was, and only
+a rather muddled careerist because he had too much adrenal and
+post-pituitary. But he was pituitocentric of a certain type. We
+possess no authentic portraits or busts of him to go by. But the bust
+in the Museum of Naples, for which he probably sat (some, H.G. Wells
+among them, will not accept this), presents the sort of face that is
+often seen in pituitary epileptics, and the features and skull of a
+pituitocentric: long, large, well-modeled head eyebrows prominent,
+with tendency to meet, aquiline nose and strong chin.
+
+In these three, Napoleon, Nietzsche and Caesar, we have male
+pituitocentrics, exhibiting diversities of life and tastes because of
+differences in the co-working endocrine glands in their makeup. We
+shall consider now a female pituitocentric who presents the strangest
+contrasts in physique, physiognomy, conduct and character, dependent
+upon a variation in the balance between the two portions of the
+pituitary.
+
+THE LEGEND OF FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
+
+All biographies consist of prevarications and all autobiographies
+of fiction. That summing up of a mass of literature over which
+industrious students have ruined their eyes, held good until after the
+War, when things changed. Then Mr. Lytton Strachey, at one fell blow,
+and with one magnificent masterpiece, hurdled the old idols and
+established a new standard of deliberate accuracy in print. In his
+"Eminent Victorians" he set the pace for the host of those who have
+been stimulated by his good example, like Lady Margot Asquith.
+
+Of the four Victorian respectable worthies Strachey has dissected as
+ruthlessly as the anatomist a post-mortem, his portrait of Florence
+Nightingale, the founder of the modern science and art of nursing, is
+most interesting because it provides data of the utmost value to
+the student of the endocrine basis of human personality. In the
+conventional two-volume biography of this superwoman, she is pictured
+as an intellectual saint, stepped from a stained glass window upon her
+wonderful visit to a clay-smeared earth. The biographer, presenting
+all the ins and outs of her body and soul as he has, makes her live
+before us with a fresh vitality that is startling.
+
+The species of life Florence Nightingale lived, involving as it did
+struggle with a masculine world, and conquest of it, implies the
+existence in her of certain masculine traits and marks, for the normal
+feminine psyche is submissive rather than aggressive toward its
+environment, human and otherwise. Belonging to a family in the highest
+circles, it was upon the table d'hôte of her destiny that she should
+become a regulation debutante, careeristina, and successful wife and
+mother. Instead, she chose to question the whole routine of the life
+of her class, and in her diary she records her doubts and cravings,
+and her revolt against what is assumed by her family and friends to be
+the normal course of existence for her. The attitudes and questionings
+in these passages, the religious feeling displayed, are distinctly
+masculine. Most easily could the following, for instance, pass as
+having been written by a man: "I desire for a considerable time only
+to lead a life of obscurity and toil, for the purpose of allowing
+whatever I may have received of God to ripen, and turning it some day
+to the glory of His Name. Nowadays people are too much in a hurry
+both to produce and consume themselves. It is only in retirement, in
+silence, in meditation that are formed the _men_ who are called to
+exercise an influence upon society." In a note-book she puts May 7,
+1852, as the date upon which she was conscious of a call from God
+to be a saviour. Now the vast majority of women who have remained
+spinsters at 32, in spite of considerable personal attractions and
+high natural ability, are visited by waves of emotional fervor for a
+de-personalization of the self. But in the case of the subject, as
+Strachey has so well shown, the call was pursued with a self-willed,
+pitiless, unscrupulous determination, worthy of Satan himself upon the
+most ferocious evil bent. In its pursuit indeed she became what her
+latest biographer has called a "woman possessed by a Demon." All
+necessary, not alone because if she had been meek and mild she would
+have existed in futility, but because of the high percentage of the
+masculine endocrines in her composition. It is most regrettable that
+we have no statement of the findings of a gynecologic examination of
+her. That she was almost consciously masculine may be inferred not
+only from the way she bullied Lord Pannure and worked to death her
+dearest friend with the angelic temper, Sidney Herbert, who was so
+amiable that he could be driven by one who wrote: "I have done with
+being amiable. It is the mother of all mischief." She could also
+write, "I attribute my success to this: I never gave or took an
+excuse. Yes, I do see the difference now between me and _other men_.
+When a disaster happens, I act, and they make excuses."
+
+Lytton Strachey has painted superbly all this in his essay. But for us
+his most significant passage is the following: "When old age actually
+came, something curious happened. Destiny, having waited patiently,
+played a queer trick upon Miss Nightingale. The benevolence and public
+spirit of that long life had only been equaled by its acerbity. Her
+virtue had dwelt in hardness, and she had poured forth her unstinted
+usefulness with a bitter smile upon her lips. And now the sacredness
+of years brought the proud woman her punishment. She was not to die
+as she had lived. The sting was to be taken out of her: she was to be
+made soft; she was to be reduced to compliance and complacency. The
+change came gradually, but at last it was unmistakable."
+
+"_There appeared a corresponding alteration in her physical mould._
+The _thin, angular_ woman, with her haughty eye, and her acrid mouth,
+had vanished, and in her place was the _rounded, bulky form_ of a _fat
+old lady_, smiling all day long. Then something else became visible.
+The brain which had been steeled at Scutari was, indeed,
+literally growing soft. Senility--an ever more and more amiable
+senility--descended."
+
+We have here an absolutely typical pituitary history, with another
+case of pituitocentric natural ability. What happens when pituitary
+hyperfunction or superiority becomes underfunction or inferiority is
+precisely as Strachey has described so cleverly of the "ministering
+angel": the acrid, thin and keen degenerate every time into the
+amiable, fat and dull. Just as Napoleon was transformed by the
+mutations of his pituitary, so was the Saint with the Lamp. And in
+both instances the contrasting modifications, from one extreme of
+glandular function to the other, supply us with the clue to the secret
+hand of their inner being and becoming, which worked upon the twists
+and turns of circumstance about them as a sculptor upon clay.
+
+The official biography by Sir Edward Cook contains three portraits,
+representing three different stages, which bear out the pituitocentric
+thesis of her personality and life history. One as she was at 25, and
+pictured by Mrs. Gaskell: "She is tall; very straight and willowy in
+figure; thick and shortish rich brown hair; very delicate complexion
+... perfect teeth ... perfect grace and lovely appearance ... she is
+so like a saint." The face is long and oval, of the post-pituitary
+kind. Then gradually the ante-pituitary gained an ascendency in the
+concert of her internal secretions, so coloring her life with its
+masculine tints, and altering her face as well as her disposition. The
+photograph of her taken when she was 38 shows a quadrangular outline,
+and all the acridity that impressed Strachey. The last picture of her,
+a water color drawing made in 1907, shows a round visaged old dame,
+who might be the peasant grandmother of two dozen descendants. Little
+patches of red over the cheek bones remind one of myxedema and
+indicate that toward the very end of her life her thyroid failed her
+as well as her pituitary. So that our biographer relates: "Then by
+Royal Command, the Order of Merit was brought to South Street, and
+there was a little ceremony of presentation. Sir Douglas Dawson, after
+a short speech, stepped forward and handed the order of the insignia
+to Miss Nightingale. Propped up by pillows, she dimly recognized
+that some compliment was being paid her. 'Too kind--too kind!' she
+murmured; and she was not ironical." In the days of pituitary and
+thyroid hyperfunction we may be sure she would have been caustically
+and penetratingly ironical.
+
+THE EXPLANATION OF OSCAR WILDE
+
+The case of Oscar Wilde, as one of the high tragedies of English
+Literature and Life, attracted the attention of the whole world in its
+heyday, and even today evokes controversy. As a literary figure and
+artist, the poet of the Portrait of Dorian Gray, and "De Profundis,"
+belongs without a doubt to the immortals. As a convicted criminal, who
+served for two years at hard labor in Reading jail, and afterwards,
+a prey to chronic alcoholism, died in obscurity in Paris, he still
+remains a subject of whispered conversation in private, and his crime
+a taboo to the public, mentionable only at the risk of arousing the
+terrible odium sexicum of the prurient majority. Oscar Wilde was a
+homosexual of a certain type. In view of the previously laid down
+considerations concerning the endocrine genesis of homosexuality, how
+are we to explain him, and his natural history?
+
+As with the other exemplars of genius examined we need here, too, to
+gain some insight into his "internal secretion heredity." His father,
+Sir William Wilde, was a surgeon. Photographs of him show the long
+and broad face of a pituito-adrenal centered individual, with
+a corresponding duplex incarnation in the face, the upper half
+strikingly spiritual, the lower curiously animal.
+
+He was active, practical and eminently successful. His wife recalls
+Florence Nightingale, in face, figure and conduct (people who are
+built alike as regards their internal secretions are those whom we
+recognize as similar physically and psychically). She, too, was a
+pituito-adrenal, and in so far resembled her husband. But as in a
+woman ante-pituitary and adrenal superiority make for masculinity,
+she must be classed as a masculinoid type of woman. She was socially
+aggressive, and took part in the revolutionary movement of her time in
+Ireland. Thus we find that Oscar Wilde was the result of a mating of
+internal secretions acting in the same direction. The process might be
+compared to parthenogenesis.
+
+It is on record that when enceinte his mother often expressed the
+wish that her child be a girl. When a boy was born, she was immensely
+disappointed. To compensate for her disappointment, she brought him up
+a good deal like a little girl. She had him dressed in girls' clothes
+at an age when most boys are violent destroyers of clothing. She would
+hang massive jewelry upon him, for the delight of playing with the
+resultant stage picture as a satisfaction for her discontented
+desires. In the light of modern psychology, and our formulization of
+her endocrine status, we must put down her conduct to a suppressed
+homosexual craving. Had her son been built along the lines of strong
+emphatic masculinity, her influence, though vicious, would probably
+have found no congenial soil, and would have died out altogether after
+his contacts with the outer world, beginning with school. No matter
+how she would have conditioned his vegetative system temporarily,
+his internal secretions, released then from compression, would have
+asserted themselves and determined his fate differently. However, it
+is quite possible that if such had been the case Oscar Wilde, the
+aesthete, the paradoxer, the disciple of Walter Pater and Baudelaire,
+would have stayed in the land of the to be born. I mean that then
+we would not have had Oscar Wilde, but another person, genius or
+commonplace, who also might have borne the name of Oscar Wilde.
+
+That was not to be. The singular assortment of endocrines that mingled
+their activities to make Oscar Wilde shaped a personality which we
+must classify as the thymocentric (thymus-centered). Why this should
+be so is an interesting question. Pituito-adrenal plus pituito-adrenal
+of his heredity should make two pituito-adrenals according to
+elementary arithmetic and the rule of three. A cancellation of the two
+factors of the equation rather than addition seems to have occurred.
+The result was a persistent thymus superiority, with an instability of
+the other two main glands involved.
+
+How do we know that Oscar Wilde was a thymocentric? Because in his
+fullest development he exhibited all the earmarks of the thymus
+pattern. We possess a number of good pictures and descriptions of him,
+as he was really a contemporary, and would probably be alive today
+if he had been put in a hospital for proper treatment instead of in
+prison. An excellent description is that of Henri de Regnier's: "This
+foreigner (Wilde) was _tall_, and of _great corpulence_. A _high_
+complexion seemed to give still greater width to his clean shaven
+face. It was the _unbearded_ (glabre) face that one sees on coins. The
+_hands_ ... were rather _fleshy_ and _plump_." The points of immediate
+interest are the height, the complexion and the beardlessness. One
+classic variety of the thymocentric is tall, has a baby's skin, and
+has little or no hair on the face. A passage from a narrative written
+by one of his warders confirms the last condition decidedly. "Before
+leaving his cell to see a visitor, he was alway careful to conceal, as
+far as possible, his unshaven chin by means of his red handkerchief."
+Bristles on the chin, with little or none on the cheeks, is the
+inference. It is important to stress the thymocentric significance of
+this glabrosity of the face. Another sign to be put in italics was the
+quality of his voice. It has been described as a beautiful tenor, when
+he had it under perfect control, and high pitched and strident when
+under the influence of passion or temper. Such a voice would be the
+product of a larynx remaining partly or completely in the infantile
+state, as in a woman's. That, and the large breasts he is said to have
+had, point again to the thymus-centered constitution. All in
+all, there can be no doubt that Oscar Wilde was a case of status
+lymphaticus, the technical name for the thymus-centered personality.
+
+As happens in a number of thymocentrics, his pituitary must have
+attempted to compensate for the endocrine deficiencies always present
+in them. The exceptional size of his head was a pituitary trait.
+Finding, possibly making, plenty of room for itself to grow, for some
+unknown reason, in an extraordinary fashion, it reinforced the love of
+the beautiful that is part of the feminine post-pituitary nature, with
+an intellectual ability and maturity that was at first all-conquering.
+In the face of a society organized for pure masculine and pure
+feminine types, disgrace and disaster at last overtook him with almost
+the ruthlessness of natural selection wiping out an unadapted sport
+suddenly cropping up in an environment. In prison he suffered from
+severe splitting headaches, which were probably due to changes in his
+pituitary. Described as being directly over the eyes, they haunted him
+until his death, and may have had a good deal to do with the absinthe
+addiction he acquired.
+
+THE TREATMENT OF GENIUS
+
+The problem of Oscar Wilde raises an ethical question that still
+remains to be finally answered. Granting that all of society should
+one day see him and his kind as a peculiar and specific constitutional
+product of an odd intermixture of internal secretions, what should
+be done with him and them? It is easy to play with words like
+"degenerates." But still, we do not condemn imbeciles, idiots or
+defectives, or other substandard, subnormal creatures to the prisons.
+For the sake of the good opinion society would maintain of itself,
+it sends the latter nowadays to hospitals, sanitaria, or their
+equivalents, where protection for itself without punishment for them
+may be practised. But is confinement, or even treatment the solution?
+For we have to consider what society would lose by cutting such
+abnormals off from itself, and them from its stimulations. A number
+of artists have been built like Oscar Wilde, musicians in particular.
+Without them, would there not be a great gap, a yawning absence, in
+the world's culture?
+
+Modern diagnosis and modern therapy might have done a great deal for
+Napoleon, Nietzsche, Julius Caesar, Florence Nightingale, Oscar Wilde.
+Were they alive today, and willing to submit themselves to scientific
+scrutiny, the X-ray would tell us of the state of the pituitary and
+thymus in them, chemical examinations of the blood the condition of
+the thyroid and adrenals, detailed investigation of the body and mind
+a flood of light upon their maladies as well as their personalities.
+Therapy might have relieved Napoleon of his attacks, and so, halting
+the creeping degeneration of his pituitary, made Waterloo impossible.
+But then, would we have had the Emperor at all? Would there have been
+enough of that instability that drives on the genius to his goal?
+Nietzsche might have been relieved of his headaches, and Caesar of
+his epilepsy--but then, would not--with correction of the underlying
+streams of activity on the part of the other glands of the internal
+secretion to compensate--their peculiar superiority and distinction,
+and the fruits of their lives as by-products, have been destroyed.
+Florence Nightingale, too, might have been a softer and more human
+person. But then would she have revolutionized the practice of
+nursing? Oscar Wilde possibly might have been made over into a
+heterosexual. But then would not the world be the poorer without "De
+Profundis," let us ask? To state the problem in the most general
+terms: how much abnormality are we to tolerate (I speak, of course, of
+malignant abnormality, and disregard benign abnormality altogether)
+for the sake of the valuable that is concomitant? How much are we
+to stand of that which degrades the germ-plasm while it raises the
+mind-plasm of the race? The Flowers of Evil. Destroy or modify the
+roots, change the seed, and the buds will bloom, if at all, not
+orchids, but dull brown commonplaces.
+
+What means may be licensed for the attainment of a worthy end is
+perhaps the broadest aspect of the problem. The instruments of Man's
+ascent to divinity may arouse his instinctive repulsions, dislikes,
+and destructive passions. The study of the internal secretions is
+putting and will put the most powerful apparatus for the control of
+the abnormal into our hands. What are we going to do with them?
+
+It does not follow that because we are beginning to understand the
+normal that we are to establish one fixed absolute standard of the
+normal. In view of all the possible mixtures, permutations and
+combinations of the endocrine glands, that may construct an
+individual, it is possible to conceive a million types of normals.
+For normality means harmony, the harmonious equilibrium between the
+hormones, which tends to continue itself, because it does no harm to
+itself. So there are all sorts and conditions of men and women who
+are classed as normals. We need create no inquiry into the value of
+raising the subnormal to the normal level. It is when we come to
+consider the possibility of lowering the supernormal (in certain
+respects) to the normal, that we pause and hesitate. Traditional
+morality assists not, but hinders us here.
+
+Whatever the race may ultimately decide, it is safe to predict that it
+is now somewhat possible, and will become more and more possible, to
+regulate or even check the ills of genius, without interfering with
+its highest evolution and expression. For example, Bernard Shaw, to
+take a living man of genius, is pretty visibly a pituitocentric of the
+well-balanced variety. He has the height, the facial features, the
+hands, and the sort of mentality that run together in his endocrine
+make-up. He also has the headaches. It is quite probable that feeding
+him pituitary gland extract in the proper dosage would relieve him of
+his headaches. A process might be started in his pituitary, however,
+that would diminish its extraordinary output which has assisted
+to make his brain so brilliant. The possibility, nevertheless,
+is excessively remote as the pituitary predominance in him is so
+overwhelming, that nothing short of surgery, nature's or the medical
+graduate's, could really affect that overmastering eminence. The time
+will come, though it is not yet by a long, long road, when we shall
+be able to intervene, and perhaps meddle, in nature's most intimate
+plans. The right of the power to modify, like the power to kill, will
+be defined and limited by common agreement before that goal will be
+reached.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES
+
+
+The knowledge that the shape and action of a man's body as well as
+his mind depend on the internal secretions inspires the hope of the
+emergence of a hitherto inconceivable controlling power over human
+life in the future. For in the wake of chemical discovery there has
+always come chemical control. The nature of chemical research, the
+necessity for clear thinking, accurate measurement, and experience
+in the actual handling of materials, the fundamental tradition and
+technique of the science, have made and will make the practical
+applications about which we today may only speculate. What the study
+of the internal secretions suffers from, at the beginning of the third
+decade of the twentieth century, is insufficient appreciation of its
+meaning for mankind. It is true that there are thousands of workers
+scattered throughout the world contributing their mites to the general
+store. They increase yearly, almost daily, and their achievements,
+in spite of an uncritical enthusiasm in some quarters and a
+semi-charlatanism in others, have been and continue magnificent. But
+they are pecking at a mountain which requires organized, massive,
+engineering organization for its blasting.
+
+The crying need is for an international institute, endowed and
+equipped for investigation upon the proper scale, with all the
+available appliances and methods already worked out and at hand. Such
+an institution would possess the right chemical laboratories for
+the making of blood analyses, metabolism examinations, and tests of
+endocrine functions. There would be X-ray machines and experts to
+radiograph the pituitary, pineal and thymus glands when possible.
+There would be psychologists to carry out intelligence tests,
+determine emotional reactions, and group mental aberrations,
+deficiencies and defectives. There would be statisticians, trained in
+biometrics, to criticize and compare data obtained. There would be
+anthropoligists to note and measure variations in angles and curves,
+ratios and quotients of the external conformation of the body.
+Internists would record the history and status of the organs and
+viscera. There would be librarians to collect, abstract and collate
+the vast, accumulating literature. In short, the mystery of
+personality, the most marvelous, complex, and variable process in the
+universe, would be attacked and at length penetrated systematically
+and persistently, with the ideal of absolute control of its
+composition as the goal in view.
+
+The nature of the researches? They would be infinite in their variety
+and significance. Their practical by-products, dropped in the pursuit
+of knowledge by the scientist, as Atalanta's lover the golden apples
+in his race, to assuage the scent of the hard-headed business man,
+would be profitable enough for any country in peace or war, to pay
+for itself ten times over and at compound interest. A volume could be
+filled with suggestions for interesting and promising investigations.
+But we may glance at some of the immediately useful aspects that might
+exercise those concerned with the everyday life of men, women and
+children.
+
+THE ENDOCRINE EPOCHS OF LIFE
+
+There is no more famous classifications of the epochs of life
+that mark off the milestones of the individual's evolution than
+Shakespeare's Seven Ages. So different is he at those different stages
+of his development, so changed his body and mind that it has become a
+part of popular physiology that we are entirely made over every seven
+years, and that no cell in the organism lasts longer than that. The
+tradition certainly does not apply to the brain and nervous system,
+for the number of brain cells is fixed at birth, and cannot be
+increased, only decreased, because they are too highly specialized to
+reproduce themselves.
+
+What transfigures the individual as the years go by is no simple wear
+and tear of the tissues, nor the replacement of old cells by new. It
+is the rearrangement of relationships among the ductless glands, the
+shifting of influences from the predominant to the subordinate, and
+vice versa, in the constellation of the internal secretions, that
+determines the unfolding of the personality. The transformations raise
+doubt sometimes as to the reality of personal identity. What actually
+happens in the changes from childhood to adolescence, from adolescence
+to maturity, and so on, is the sloughing of one internal glandular
+dominance for another.
+
+Growth, as a general name for the mutations, the ensemble of somatic
+and psychic differentiation, from year to year, passes through five
+epochs that are standard for the normal. The normal is the being who
+harmonizes with his environment, and yet reacts with it because of
+recurring needs within him. His endocrine equation settles what is
+unique and different in him. But the gland which flourishes during the
+epoch as its time of triumph, when it has its day, determines what
+makes him like his fellows.
+
+From this point of view it becomes permissible to speak of the five
+Endocrine Epochs. Similarities and resemblances of mind and body
+between people at a given period of life, childhood, youth, maturity
+must be put down to their common government by the salient endocrine
+of the epoch. So one may list:
+
+  Infancy as the epoch of the thymus
+  Childhood as the epoch of the pineal
+  Adolescence as the epoch of the gonads
+  Maturity as the epoch of whatever gland is left in control as the
+  result of the life struggle.
+  Senility as the epoch of general endocrine deficiency.
+
+Infancy as the epoch of the thymus explains why, in any given
+geographic locality, the babies look alike and act alike. Specialists
+in the observation and treatment of infants have noted that not until
+after the second year is any tendency to differentiation discernible
+to any extent among them. It is only after the second year, or
+somewhere around that time, that the child begins to individuate, and
+distinct individual traits and a personality manifest their outlines.
+The thymus is the great inhibitor of all the glands of internal
+secretion. By its checking activity upon the other members of the
+endocrine system, the thyroid and pituitary in particular, it gives
+the baby time to grow in bulk, which is its chief business during the
+first two years of its existence. It quadruples its birth weight. The
+brain and nervous system complete their growth in mass by the end of
+the fourth year. Recall the experiments of Gudernatsch working with
+tadpoles, who showed that feeding with thymus produced giant tadpoles
+whose metamorphosis into frogs was inhibited, while feeding thyroid
+produced frogs the size of flies. Differentiation occurred without the
+preliminary increase in mass usual. As differentiation and bulk thus
+appear antagonistic, at least at the beginning of growth, the function
+of the thymus, at a maximum during infancy, seems then to be to
+restrain the differentiating endocrines, until sufficient material
+has been accumulated by the organism upon which the differentiating
+process may work.
+
+After the second year, the thymus begins to shrink. That is to say,
+officially its involution begins. Careful dissection will demonstrate
+some thymus tissue even in a normal subject up to the fourteenth year.
+This refers to the average normal, for the large thymus may continue
+large and grow larger after the second year in the type of individual
+designated in a preceding chapter as the thymocentric.
+
+If the thymus retrogresses after the second year, what takes its place
+as a brake upon the forward driving impulses of the other endocrines?
+We have every reason for assigning that rôle to the pineal. It
+performs its service mainly, in all probability, by inhibiting the
+sex stimulating effect of light playing upon the skin. Since it is
+especially a sex gland inhibitor, the thyroid and pituitary become
+freer to exert their influences than under the thymus régime. And so
+we find that it is after the second year that thyroid and pituitary
+tendencies manifest their effects. The Pineal Era, from the second
+to the tenth to fourteenth years, remains to be investigated from a
+number of viewpoints interesting to the parent, the educator, and
+the student of puericulture. Precocity is directly related to early
+involution of the pineal. For just as the thymus involutes at the
+second year, the pineal atrophies before the onset of adolescence.
+
+Adolescence is the period of stress and strain throughout the somatic
+and psychic organism because of the volcanic upheavals in the sex
+glands. The history of the individual is dominated by them up to
+twenty-five or so, when maturity commences in the sense of a relative
+sex stability. They continue to exert a powerful pressure throughout
+maturity. But life episodes and crises, diseases, accidents, and
+struggles, experiences of pleasure and pain, as well as climatic
+factors, settle finally which endocrine or endocrines are left in
+control as a consequence of the series of reactions the period of
+maturity may be analyzed into.
+
+THE INTERPRETATION OF SENILITY
+
+Senility inevitably follows maturity, not as night follows day by a
+mathematical necessity, but because of the process of degeneration
+which ultimately overtakes all the glands of internal secretion,
+dominant as well as subordinate. Just why the degeneration must occur
+no one can say. Injury to the endocrine organs of one sort or another,
+ranging all the way from emotional exhaustion to bacterial infection,
+is the reason usually considered sufficient. Just why recuperation and
+regeneration do not preserve them in the elderly as they do in youth
+is a problem to be solved when we understand the laws of regeneration,
+at present almost totally beyond our control. Some say that it is a
+matter of the wear and tear of our blood vessels, those rubber-like
+tubes which transport food and drainage with nonchalant equanimity to
+all cells as long as they last. In the classic phrase: a man is as
+old as his arteries, ergo his ductless glands will be as old as their
+arteries. And the age of arteries is simply a matter of wear and tear,
+the resultant of the function which is universal among molecules.
+Arteriosclerosis, the hardening of arteries, might be the whole story.
+
+But there are certain experiments and considerations which rather
+confute that easy explanation, or at least make clear that the mystery
+is not so simple. The work of Steinach, a Viennese investigator, has
+contributed most to the elucidation of the nonarterial factor in
+senility. No one has asserted more loudly the importance of the
+interstitial cells that fill in the spaces between the tubules of the
+testes in the male, and the follicles of the ovary in females. Rats
+have been his medium of study, for they are most easily procurable,
+live fastest, breed, and withstand experimental and operative
+procedures better than any other animal.
+
+An old rat is like an old man in his dotage. His bald, shrivelled skin
+covers an emaciated body. His eyes are dimmed by cataracts and his
+breathing is labored and difficult because his heart muscle has lost
+its tone. Huddled in a corner, life to him has become concentrated
+into the desire for a little food, and immobility. If now, something
+is done to his sex apparatus, a marvelous transformation may be
+effected. That something no one could predict. It consists in slitting
+the genital duct, which leads from the germinal cells to the exterior.
+After the operation, the germinal cells, which grow into the
+spermatozoa, atrophy and disappear, since they can no longer function.
+As if released from some restraint, the interstitial cells, however,
+multiply enormously. With their multiplication, the miracle of
+rejuvenation is performed.
+
+After some weeks the sluggish currents of being in the rat, which had
+slowed down as a preliminary to stopping altogether, flow fast and
+furious. Waves of new chemical substances inundate his cells. And they
+respond like the fields that border the Nile after the annual flood.
+All his tissues, skin, muscle, nerve, even bone, are restored. A
+vitality is created which makes him bound and dart like a youth of his
+species. In due time, though, senility returns. It is as if a storage
+battery, recharged, runs down and becomes dead again. Slitting the
+genital duct of the other testis, causing its interstitial cells to
+hypertrophy and multiply, repeats the effects of the first experiment.
+The organism responds again to the new waves of vitality that vibrate
+through it. That it is recharged is demonstrated again by a revival of
+sex appetite and sex activity. The female which had become an object
+of indifference is reinstated as a creature to be sought and pursued.
+The second period ends in its turn. And now entirely new interstitial
+glands, in the form of fresh testes removed from a young animal, are
+transplanted into the body of the old rat. Once more youth returns.
+But now it burns itself more quickly than even before. An acute
+exhaustion of the mind appears first. Then all the other phenomena of
+old age steal back upon the old rat, and senility, firmly established
+in the saddle, rides him to the end.
+
+THE POSSIBILITIES OF REJUVENATION
+
+Whatever other deductions may be extracted from these experiments,
+they prove beyond a doubt the existence of an endocrine factor in the
+process of aging, as well as an arterial. They also demonstrate that
+the internal secretion of the sex glands, well advertised as it has
+been as the Elixir of Youth that Ponce de Leon, and Brown-Séquard with
+so many others, pursued in vain, is not the whole story. For if it
+was, the duration of the new youth should be another span of life,
+whereas in actuality it is only a fraction of that time. This fact,
+together with a number of others, make clear that while the gonads may
+be the jeune premier of the drama, the vitality of the plot depends
+upon the other endocrines. Since old age is an exhaustion, permanent
+and irreparable of _all_ the members of the ductless gland
+directorate, the reason becomes clear for the temporary quality of the
+rejuvenation effected by the procedures of Steinach.
+
+Practically, then, the question at once arises: which of the glands in
+particular are involved? There is first that ubiquitous agent in the
+system, the thyroid. Chemical analysis of it has shown that the
+iodine content decreases with the age of the individual, and becomes
+specially low after forty. It is after the menopause in women that
+myxedema, the disease of complete degeneration of the thyroid, and of
+the physical and mental faculties, is most frequent. The thyroid
+of old people exhibits, in varying degrees, signs of a similar
+degeneration. Thyroid feeding, properly controlled, will clear up
+certain of the deteriorations of mind and body observable in the aged.
+The grossness of the features lessens, a number of the pains go,
+muscular endurance increases, memory and intelligence do not remind
+one so forcibly of the old dotard in his second childhood. Of course
+the improvement at present achievable is only relative. But in the
+prematurely aging, decay invading a half accomplished maturity,
+marvels have been achieved at times with feeding of the gland.
+
+The pituitary, too, begins to retrogress after the period of maturity.
+And an early retrogression means a short maturity. In women, the onset
+of an obesity, and coincidently, of a lazy and dull morale, coincides
+with this declension of the pituitary powers. All the glands of
+internal secretion, in fact, shrink and shrivel as old age advances.
+Only, as in other relationships, the predominating endocrine stamps
+its signature more visibly upon the documents of decadence than the
+others. Pituitary types, as said, get fat and slow, thyroidal become
+bulky and stupid or thin and sour, the adrenal dark, shrunken and
+forever tired of life. So type emerges, even in all-around glandular
+deficiency.
+
+The problem of rejuvenation is the problem of recharging, or replacing
+all of the glands of internal secretion, at least the most important,
+the thyroid, the pituitary and the adrenals, as well as the gonads.
+Longevity is perhaps largely a matter of preventing, or postponing
+their wane. Beside, there is the prophylaxis of bacterial infections,
+and their all embracing corrosions--which, too, have an endocrine
+aspect.
+
+Persistence of youth or juvenility may be manufactured by nature in
+two ways. There may be a persistence of early glandular predominances.
+We have seen what happens to the thymocentric. That a pineal-centered
+juvenile or infantile type exists may be safely predicted. Nature's
+only other mode of securing perpetual youth seems to be by prolonging
+the time allotted to the sex gland crescendo.
+
+As for the golden age of maturity itself, what humdrum people and
+poets have despised as middle age, the margin of reserve of the ruling
+hormone is a quantity almost malleable in our hands, but still to be
+regarded with respect as a hard cold proposition by the physiologist.
+In general, the continuance of any stage of development means the
+maintaining of the glandular administration peculiar to it. So the
+chubby debonair irresponsible whom nothing can touch is happy in the
+possession of a pineal uncorrupted by the years, while the genius who
+can turn out his best work at sixty-five must thank his pituitary for
+standing by him to the end.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PUERICULTURE
+
+There is a specialty now growing in the womb of science which in its
+own good time will come to fruition as the study of the child's needs
+or puericulture. Even today there exists a scientific basis for the
+formulation of the principles upon which every child should be brought
+up. Though we have had marvelous results from the campaigns to lower
+infantile mortality, most of what has been done has been medical in
+its interest, and so largely negative in its accomplishments. The
+removal of the causes of evil no doubt gives the good its opportunity.
+But how to raise a child, endowed with satisfactory ancestral stuff,
+as a Grade A normal or supernormal, still remains to be erected into
+an exact science.
+
+A number of attempts have been abortive in this field. Why they have
+failed to arouse the ardor of the parent has puzzled some of the
+pioneers. Child-culture as the foundation of all systems of education
+has continued more or less of a hope rather than an achievement
+because of a lack of appreciation of the different constitutional
+varieties of children. A certain amount of attention has been lavished
+upon children needing special attention, those mainly suffering from
+insufficient development of one sort or another. In the last decade or
+so, an endeavour to focus upon the exceptional child, exceptional
+in intelligence or some special creative endowment, has started an
+interesting movement. All of them have suffered from the fallacies and
+troubles of the pure psychologist who would handle mind as an entity
+in a vacuum.
+
+A realization of the different physical and psychic educational
+needs of various children will arrive only when we see them as built
+differently. Just as shoddy and silk, cotton and wool, alone or in
+combination, all possess different qualities as wearing material, so
+different children have varying capacities for the wear and tear of
+education. The endocrine classification of the human race, applied
+to children, will here yield a harvest to the educator and to the
+country. Nothing is more evident than the diversified nature of the
+needs of the various internal secretion types, once they are realized
+as such.
+
+The history of a thymocentric type, for instance, is predictable from
+the very first few months of his life. Difficulties in feeding, in
+habit formation and adaptation, in the reaction to infections, in
+social play and so on, one may expect for him. The course of events
+for the other endocrine types also follow laws of their own. It will
+be above all in the _understanding_ of children, their make-up,
+reactions and powers, that the biologist will achieve some of his
+finest triumphs.
+
+The educator will have to take account of the state of the pituitary
+in estimating the normal intelligence, or influencing the abnormal or
+subnormal intelligence. As well will he have to consider the thyroid
+in the child whose conduct is refractory, even though his proficiency
+in his studies is excellent. And the condition of the adrenal will be
+ascertained in the types that tire easily, and that seem unable to
+make the effort necessary or desirable. Periodic seasonal and critical
+fluctuations in the equilibrium among the hormones will have to be
+taken into account in the explanation of what have hitherto been put
+down to laziness, naughtiness, stupidity, or obstinacy.
+
+A child's capacity for education, essentially its capacity for the
+highest and most productive kind of life, is limited by inherent
+factors. These factors are two: the quality of the nerve tissue, its
+ability to make a number of associations, and the quantity of the
+internal secretions, measured by the maximum obtainable in a given
+situation. These inherent factors explain, too, why children born
+and bred in virtually the same environment show the most extreme
+differences in educability. That the differences are inherited was
+made evident by Galton's finding that the chance of the son of an
+eminent man exhibiting eminent ability was 500 times as great as that
+of the son of a man taken at random.
+
+Every baby, then, is born with a combination of nerve cells and
+ductless glands which determine its capacity for mental development,
+that might never be realized, but could never be exceeded. If, in any
+family, minor differences in educability are observed, they can be
+put down to disturbance of these two factors occurring after the
+fertilized germ cell had started to divide and reproduce itself. But
+any marked falling off in either the nervous or endocrine factors has
+to be considered pathologic, due to an impairment of them by adverse
+environment.
+
+Recent studies have amply established that the proportion of
+certifiable mental defectives, and of a much larger class, the
+subnormal but not certifiable class, is progressing by leaps and
+bounds. It is perhaps the most absurd frailty of our present system
+of education that it takes almost no account of innate differences in
+educability. To spend money upon the teaching of these children along
+lines where they are unteachable is not only waste pure and simple,
+but crime, for it deprives the educables of their just due.
+
+These, of course, are the crude and simple lines upon which the finer
+and more complex evolution of the endocrine problems of the school
+child will build. The fine art of education itself is crude and gross
+and simple compared with what it might be, even as a beginning. The
+science of education has yet to begin, as the offspring of that
+science of the future, to which knowledge of the internal secretions
+will contribute no little, the science of puericulture.
+
+VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
+
+It is difficult, indeed, to avoid becoming merely enthusiastic upon
+the possibilities of the applications of the endocrines to the
+educational domain. Happiness for the average individual consists of
+a double success--success in his vocation (chosen or forced upon him)
+and success in his sex life. A certain hue and cry has been raised in
+the last few years concerning the vast and overwhelming importance of
+sex in the happiness and even in the successes of a man's everyday
+life. And no doubt there is a relation. Sublimation plays its part in
+the explanation of vocational idiosyncrasies. The fact, however, that
+perfect success in sex may occur with absolute failure in the career,
+however, splits the problem for good into its realities: a physiologic
+aspect as well as a psychologic.
+
+So, as school education will have to take serious account of endocrine
+anomalies and possibilities, will the institution which selects and
+trains for a career. Vocational misfits have aroused the ardor of our
+efficiency experts. And again, the sweeping psychological attack has
+beaten its head against the stonewall of ignorance of constitutional
+predispositions and tendencies of material. The attempt to erect
+psychologic types for vocational selections could never make much
+headway because it could only flounder in a swamp of metaphors,
+product of the vices of its methods. Not that anyone would wish to
+discard at all the psychologic mode of approach. But no science, in
+the sense of accurate examination, was possible, in the matter of
+classification for vocation, without the insight into the physiology
+of the candidate that the analysis of his endocrine formula will
+provide.
+
+One need not dilate upon the value of such an examination.
+Civilization has not yet learned how to pick its personnel. And so
+artists and scientists, philosophers and politicians, financiers and
+religious leaders, arise and survive by the operation of the laws of
+probabilities and chances, rather than by any intelligent selection
+and cultivation of material. The case, indeed, is simply a subdivision
+of the vast subject: haphazard muddle in the conduct of life. A cry
+has been raised for the superman, and a cry has been raised for a
+method of anthropometry. For the lack of these two, it has been
+said, all governments have been doomed to defeat. The study of the
+endocrines will by no means supply a panacea. But as it will furnish a
+means of approach to the determination of how men and women are built,
+and why they are built differently, no one can gainsay the tremendous
+advantages to the nation that will proceed to classify its population
+accordingly, and know its strength and weakness in terms of the actual
+generators of success and failure.
+
+Suggestions have been offered in the preceding pages of concrete
+applications of endocrine knowledge to the understanding of behaviour,
+of the genius and commonplace, criminal and Puritan. And in the
+chapter on historic personages, we tracked some of the story in
+detail. This vein when explored will quarry untold riches. It has been
+observed that financiers of mark, like great musicians, are special
+pituitary types. Also that the financiers are voracious meat eaters
+and the musicians inordinately fond of sweets. Differences in anterior
+and posterior predominances might account for this. That we are
+playing here with no phantasy is proven by the fact that we can effect
+changes of tastes as well as of intellectual direction by appropriate
+feeding of various glandular extracts. Just as much, indeed, as we can
+influence sex susceptibility, and the reaction to sex stimulation, by
+the artificial introduction from without of the proper hormones.
+
+FATIGUE AND INDUSTRY
+
+In industry, business and profession, the biologist will come more and
+more to be called as consultant. Labor unions as well as the large
+employers of labor, and their employment managers have given much
+thought to the problem of fatigue. Just what fatigue is, why different
+individuals tire at different rates, why some are constructed for
+monotonous routine while others must have constant variety and change,
+the relation to accidents and to quantity output, are a few of the
+major lines of inquiry upon which the endocrines obviously have a
+large bearing. To the employment manager, labor turnover and the
+selection of personnel are adjacent fields of research.
+
+Fatigue as an endocrine deficiency--a depressed state of one or
+more of the glands of internal secretion, abolished when its normal
+functioning is restored--is a general principle from which departures
+of exploration of sub-problems will proceed. An endocrine organ will
+secrete at a certain rate. When it is stimulated excessively, it will
+eject extra amounts of its secretion. How long the period of excessive
+stimulation may last must depend upon the secretion potential or
+margin of reserve of the cells, varying from organ to organ, and from
+individual to individual. After that, exhaustion and failure follows,
+with the onset of the symptoms of fatigue.
+
+A pretty demonstration of this process has been worked out in the
+electrical stimulation of muscle. If a muscle, say the biceps, is
+irritated by an electric current, it will contract. As the strength of
+the current is increased, the degree of contraction becomes greater.
+A sort of stepladder effect of increasing contractions may be thus
+obtained. After a time, the electric shocks cannot cause a greater
+contraction, but only a lesser. And if continued, the muscle will
+cease to function because of fatigue. If now, when the muscle begins
+to lag in its response, and its contractions to decrease, one injects
+into a vein extracts of thyroid, parathyroid, or adrenal glands, they
+will immediately reinvigorate the failing contractions. The injections
+must be made before the fatigue is carried to the point of absolute
+exhaustion. It follows that these glands normally pour into the
+circulation substances which counteract the effect of fatigue
+substances, and in fact make possible muscular recuperation from
+fatigue throughout the day as well as in emergencies and crises.
+
+Fatigue, conventionally recognized, is something acute and urgent. As
+such it means a violent draining of the endocrine wells. But there
+is also a chronic fatigue, which has been dignified with the name of
+Fatigue Disease. Bernard Shaw once asked for someone to tell him
+the name of the germ causing the symptoms of overwork. That being
+impossible, he will have to be satisfied with the answer that it is
+not a germ, but an internal secretion, or rather a defect of internal
+secretion that is the cause.
+
+Whether or not the adrenals have been damaged by past experiences,
+and upon their capacity to respond to the necessities of an occasion,
+fatigue reactions primarily depend. A quotation from Sir James
+MacKenzie, most distinguished of modern English students of medicine,
+summarizes the matter neatly. "Abelous, and Langlois and Albanese have
+studied the relation of the adrenal bodies to fatigue.... They infer
+that the muscular weakness following removal of the adrenals is due
+to toxic substances. In view of our present knowledge of the
+physiological action of adrenaline in its various forms, it seems more
+probable that the weakness is to be explained by the absence of the
+normal tone producing internal secretions of the bodies in question."
+In other words, the adrenals regulate muscle tone. They produce
+nature's tonics for weary tissues. The chronic lassitude of thousands
+of our generation, suffering from "that tired feeling," may be put
+down to chronic adrenal insufficiency.
+
+It requires no superlative imagination to see that an adrenal poor
+subject does not belong upon a job that involves muscle stress over a
+long period, or indeed fatiguing conditions of any sort. Nor that a
+thyroid poor individual is not the best choice for a position that
+demands a keen, alert body and mind. In the selection of executives,
+the nature and stamina of the pituitary will undoubtedly be taken very
+seriously in the near future.
+
+A certain hocus-pocus concerning character reading, a perverted
+revival of the ancient phrenology and physiognomy, has invaded the
+employment territory in America as the newest charlatanism. The study
+of the internal secretions, including blood and X-ray examinations,
+will surely assist the demand for a truly scientific estimate
+of constitution and character that can be relied upon in the
+classification and distribution of personnel.
+
+THE PROSPECTS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH
+
+By their effects upon the endocrines, public health influences like
+food, clothing, sleep and overpressure and last but not least,
+_disease_, the so-called diseases of childhood, possess a tremendous
+importance in limiting the output of the educable. They act to
+subtract from and so to lower the rating, the capacity of the
+germ-plasm. Most material and vital of these influences are the common
+diseases of children, for they strike directly at the glands of
+internal secretion.
+
+Measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, mumps, and the others have long
+been accepted as providential visitations for sins known or unknown.
+That children had to have them and were better off when they had them
+has become part of the tradition of the laity, fostered by the lazy
+ignorance of previous medical generations. But today we are beginning
+to ask ourselves why children must have these endemic infections
+of their age. The pathologist goes farther and asks the reason for
+certain apparent immunities. He asks why the little boy who sleeps
+with his brother sick with scarlet fever does not contract the
+disease, even though not protected by a previous attack.
+
+Determining why susceptibility to a special disease in a particular
+case exists will constitute the greatest line of advance for the
+understanding and prevention of disease, and so the perfection of
+public health. In the last influenza epidemic countless physicians
+were puzzled by the spectacle of men and women in the pink of
+condition carried off in twenty-four hours while puny associates were
+either passed over, or pooh-poohed their colds. Pathologists have
+spent their energies fruitfully upon the infectious causes of disease,
+the microbes and parasites especially. But now, having solved most of
+those problems, the vital question of why an organism permits itself
+to be attacked is pushing itself to the front. Why a peculiar ailment
+selects its victim, why the bacillus finds a fertile soil, is the
+neglected problem, which must be solved before the abolition of
+disease and its carriers will be remotely conceivable.
+
+Long ago, Hippocrates, revered founder of the art of medicine,
+recognized that there was a specific affinity of disease for
+individuals with more or less the same characteristic somatic and
+psychic traits and trends. Tuberculosis, for instance, was noted for
+its frequency in long-skeletoned, thin persons, remarkably optimistic.
+And the plethoric, choleric nature of the sufferer from gout has
+become proverbial. Before the era of the great bacteriologic
+discoveries of the eighties and nineties, the concordance of esoteric
+racial and personal markings was a great help in diagnosis to the
+physician. For he realized, though he sometimes credited it to his
+clinical intuition, that it was a certain type of personality that was
+liable to the specific disease.
+
+But personality and its reactions, normal and abnormal, are determined
+by the endocrines. So we should find that particular infections
+run with special internal glandular predominances. For the picture
+presented by an infection, temperature, rash, prostration, are the
+details of the general reaction of the organism in the face of a
+new situation, the presence of a powerful, destructive invader.
+Information has accumulated that the invader is powerful and
+destructive, as well as selective, because of endocrine deficiency of
+one sort or another in the body it has attacked. Work of a number of
+investigators has indicated that an individual's susceptibility or its
+reverse, resistance, is intimately subjected to the derangements or
+harmonies of the endocrine system.
+
+Comparison of the endocrine type and the disease assaulting has
+yielded an even more interesting principle. Knowing the state of the
+internal secretion reservoirs enables us to predict the liability to
+certain of these infections of childhood. Diphtheria has been found to
+occur most virulently among adrenal poor individuals. Moreover, they
+are left poorer in adrenal afterwards. It follows that they would be
+assisted by the feeding of adrenal. Mumps is a sickness that sometimes
+permanently injures the gonads: the testes or ovaries. The thyroid
+dominant, whose system is rich in thyroid, will rarely suffer from any
+of the common diseases of children--if at all, from measles. Op the
+other hand, those who have every infection of the period, and who, as
+their mothers say, seem to get everything, are those whose system
+is thyroid poor. Thyroid poverty is a splendid enticement to the
+universal microbe. The thymocentric stands all diseases poorly. The
+pituitary type is more liable to epidemic meningitis and infantile
+paralysis, typhoid and scarlet fever.
+
+The public health officer of the future will be armed with a new
+weapon in his fight against the spread of an epidemic. He will be able
+to classify the endocrine traits of the population exposed, and to
+advise a course of glandular feeding for the types specially liable.
+The Schick test for diphtheria susceptibility is an illustration
+of one method of approach to the problem of the epidemiologist in
+settling who needs protection. The endocrines will assist him in the
+great body of diseases for which no immunity test is at hand. Should
+another influenza epidemic come along, for instance, the proper
+handling, from the endocrine standpoint, of the thymocentrics and
+the related adrenocentrics would help considerably in lowering the
+mortality.
+
+Endocrine types have other tendencies, which when studied and
+controlled, will decimate the great assassins of middle age: heart
+disease and kidney disease, with accompanying degenerations of the
+blood vessels and circulation. The adrenocentric tends to get up a
+hyperacidity of the stomach and a high blood pressure, besides certain
+forms of diseases of the lungs. The thyrocentric is predisposed to
+heart disease, as well as intestinal disturbances. The pituitocentric
+is liable to periodic and cyclic upsets in his health.
+
+Narcotism, the craving for narcotic or stimulant drugs, and its
+subvariety, alcoholism, has been found most often among the
+thymocentrics. Any type of endocrine inferiority, interfering with
+success in life, may lead to the habit of drug addiction as one way
+out. But the blood and tissues of the thymocentric appear to become
+habituated to the narcotic stimulant more easily than the other types,
+and so to demand it with a physical imperative comparable to the food
+or sex urge. Among artists, philosophers and statesmen, on the other
+hand, actively productive and so contrasted with criminals and
+degenerates drug addiction has frequently been a mode of endocrine
+compensation. That is, the drug produced temporarily the effects of
+the internal secretion lacking or insufficient. Thus the effects of
+cocaine may be compared with the effects of thyroid. But while there
+is a normal mechanism for thyroid detoxication, the cocaine or heroin
+derivatives mark the tissues permanently with their scars and deform
+the personality.
+
+THE HYGIENE OF THE INTERNAL SECRETIONS
+
+All these protean expressions of endocrine determination may now begin
+to be looked upon with the hopeful and optimistic attitude of him who
+understands cause and effect and can control. The advances made in the
+last ten years in the practical manipulation of the ductless glands
+from without, the introduction of glandular extracts by feeding or
+injection, and the modification of their structure and function by
+surgery, the X-ray and radium, and other procedures, enable us
+to regard more confidently the problems hitherto accepted as the
+insoluble and intricate handiwork of Fate. Fate may have woven the
+patterns of our being. But as we commence to probe the machinery and
+to examine the looms more carefully, we begin to understand why the
+wheels creak, and why there are seconds and odd lots in the product as
+well as the rare and precious firsts. Moreover, we are learning how to
+handle the machinery ourselves. The abdication of Fate can therefore
+be confidently expected in due time.
+
+However, we have yet to begin, and we can begin with prevention. The
+theory of Adler, that some organ inferiority is responsible for much
+unhappiness in life has received much advertisement in conjunction
+with the doctrines of the Freudians. It is a theory of little scope
+when applied to the eyes, ears, heart and so on because only a small
+minority of the cases are of that kind. But as we have seen, a
+deficiency of an internal secretion, an endocrine inferiority,
+reverberates throughout all the cells. Not only the mind, but all of
+the members of the organism must strain and co-operate to make up for
+the break in the balance.
+
+Endocrine inferiority is indeed the most frequent organic inferiority.
+And we may explain a number of mental types upon that basis. Thus the
+inferior gonado-centric, who has something wrong with his reproductive
+organs, will evolve in one of two directions. If his adrenal and
+thyroid are of poor quality, he will become the secluded introvert,
+shut off from the interests of normal life. He will enter the
+borderland of insanity if pituitary difficulties supervenes. If, on
+the contrary, the adrenal, thyroid and pituitary are present in
+a certain proportion, he will become the active, aggressive,
+never-resting, keen, and relentless fanatic reformer. A woman who is
+gonad deficient with a superior adrenal will suffer from virilism
+and specialize in the extreme tactics and mythology of the feminist
+movement. A number of life reactions are classifiable as the strivings
+of endocrine inferior individuals to overcome their sense of
+inferiority. The unconscious vegetative system and the system of
+consciousness are both modified by the weakness of a link in the
+glandular chain.
+
+What, therefore, is to be recommended in the prophylaxis of the
+natural deterioration of the wells of life, the ductless glands? For
+even if we may be able to replenish them when they dry up, would it
+not be better to delay their dessication? The hormones reply to every
+call of life and respond in every reaction. The normal constructive
+process of their cells remanufactures what has been lost, and the
+original capacity to respond is restored. If, though, the rate of
+destruction and loss outruns the rate of repair and construction, they
+will be permanently damaged. This is what occurs in shock, serious,
+severe accidents and injuries, prolonged infections and diseases,
+profound continued emotions, and the wear and tear of overwork. The
+prevention of these excessive fatigues of the endocrine system in one
+or all of its parts, and especially the prevention and enfeeblement of
+the diseases of children which injure them at a period when they are
+most sensitive to injury, is the task of the endocrine hygienist.
+Periodic examinations, to check up the balance sheets of the hormone
+factories and to measure the amount of their damage by means of blood
+analyses, will provide the most valuable method in the campaign to
+lengthen the productive and enjoying span of life.
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CRIME
+
+Endocrine hygiene will discover no wider or more fruitful area for
+exploration and control than that of crime. For more than a generation
+there have been attempts at a criminology, and a new understanding and
+control of crime. In the United States a concomitant sentimentalism
+has concocted measures like the honor system which, naturally failing
+of their purpose, have undermined confidence in the idea of scientific
+diagnosis and treatment of crime. As someone has noted, to ask a
+criminal to promise not to misbehave, when discharged from prison,
+is like asking a typhoid fever patient to promise not to have a
+temperature above ninety-nine degrees the next morning. For a large
+proportion of criminals--the percentage has yet to be determined,
+although the most recent police commissioner of Chicago has estimated
+it at ninety per cent--punishment for a period of time and then
+letting him go free is like imprisoning a diphtheria carrier for a
+while and then permitting him to commingle with his fellows and spread
+the germ of diphtheria.
+
+Of course, the doctrine of responsibility is all tangled up with our
+attitude towards and treatment of crime. Though clear thought makes
+mandatory the recognition of a universal cause and effect law,
+practical common sense has defined free will. Consent or the
+withholding of consent to a given course of action has been the
+criterion of responsibility.
+
+In practice, the limitation of responsibility will depend upon the
+insertion of extraneous factors into the formula of consent. The
+pragmatic test has been and will be the probability that the
+correction of the somatic or psychic condition would have prevented or
+will prevent the consent to the crime. As long as no such condition
+will be demonstrable, society for its own protection will have to
+confine the unfortunate individual.
+
+The character of the confinement, its duration, and the uses to which
+it will be put should be dominated by the idea of discovering
+the unknown criminal predisposition. If crime is an abnormality
+scientifically studiable and controllable like measles, court
+procedure and prison management will have to be transformed radically.
+There is scattered throughout the world now a group of people who are
+applying medical methods to the diagnosis and treatment of crime. They
+are the pioneers who will be remembered in history as the compeers of
+those who transformed the attitudes toward insanity and its therapy.
+The insane were once condemned and handled as criminals are in most
+civilized countries yet. The criminologic laboratory as an adjunct to
+the court of justice, like that associated with the court of
+Chief Justice Olson in Chicago, remains to be universalized. What
+contribution to a more rational treatment of the criminal will the
+study of the internal secretions make?
+
+It has been shown that the greater number of convicts are mentally and
+morally subnormal. To explain the subnormality, the criminologist
+has conducted and will continue to conduct investigations into the
+heredity and early environment of the criminal, his education and
+occupation, the social and religious influences to which he was
+subjected, and the intelligence test quotient. The conditioning of the
+vegetative system and the endocrine status of the prisoner, however,
+will without a doubt come to occupy the leading positions in any
+interpretation of crime in the future.
+
+Introspective observation of pre-criminal states of mind by so-called
+normal persons reveals that in many of them there is an impairment of
+reason and will power, in others an exaltation amounting almost
+to hysteria. What are these but endocrine states of the cells,
+experimentally reproducible by increasing or decreasing the influence
+of the thyroid, the adrenals, the pituitary? Crimes of passion may be
+traced in no small part to disturbances of the thyroid. A psychologic
+examiner of a Pittsburgh court, interested in the subject, has found
+an enlarged thyroid in over ninety per cent of delinquent girls.
+Similarly, crimes of violence may be ascribed to a profound break
+in the adrenal equilibrium. Criminal tendencies in women during
+menstruation and pregnancy, periods of deep-seated mutation in the
+internal glandular system, have long been noted. A kleptomania,
+uncontrollable desire to steal, confined to the duration of pregnancy
+alone, has been described. We have seen how the thymocentric,
+especially if he possesses a small bony case for his pituitary, is
+predisposed to crime. A recent study of twenty murderers in the State
+of West Virginia showed them all to have a persistent thymus and the
+thymocentric constitution. A study of the recidivists, those who
+return for second and third offences, in one institution, disclosed
+that a large majority had a subnormal temperature and an increased
+heart and breathing rate. These are endocrine-controlled functions.
+Conduct, normal or abnormal, being the resultant of the conflict of
+conscious and subconscious impulses and inhibitions, the internal
+secretions as controllers of the susceptibility of the brain cells to
+impulses and inhibitions, must be held accountable for a portion at
+least of the chemical reactions behind crime.
+
+It is possible, by X-ray treatment of the thymus, to cause it to
+shrink to more normal proportions. It is possible, by feeding various
+glandular extracts, to correct deficiencies or excesses of their
+function, and so to remedy the underlying basis for a criminal career.
+Here and there work of this kind has been successfully carried out in
+selected instances. What a suitable drive upon the whole matter would
+yield in happiness to the individual and dollars and cents to society,
+time alone will show.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE EFFECT UPON HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+The ubiquitous and deep-seated influence of the internal secretions
+upon life and personality comprises but a fraction of what is known,
+and only a hint of what is to become known. There is an endocrine
+aspect to every human being and every human activity, normal and
+abnormal, internal process and its external expression, regulated
+by laws of which we are beginning to catch a glimpse. Their control
+promises us now a dominion over the most intimate and inaccessible
+recesses of our lives in a way comparable only to the control we now
+exercise over the forces and energies once revered as the instruments
+of the gods--light, heat, magnetism, electricity. We have learned how
+to control and change our environment. We are now learning, endocrine
+research is now discovering, how to control and change ourselves.
+
+The story of the evolution of the two types of control has many
+analogies. When man ceased looking upon his surroundings as inhabited
+by spirits of good and evil, as he conceived himself, and discovered
+that they were composed of things malleable and analysable in his
+hands, he became their master. When now he drops the old superstitions
+about himself as a spirit, an emulsion of a spirit of good and spirit
+of evil, and sees himself more and more clearly as the most complex
+of chemical reactions, regulated and determined as are the simple
+and complex chemical reactions around him, he will begin to rule and
+modify himself as he rules and modifies them. Whether or not he will
+ultimately come to this final lucidity of thought and action, it
+behooves us to consider some of the uses to which our present
+knowledge might be put.
+
+Since every step of the daily routine or adventure, from waking to
+sleeping, eating, drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, working,
+idling, fighting, playing, feeling, enjoying, sorrowing, every shade
+of emotion and nuance of mood, in short every phase of happiness
+and unhappiness, are endocrine episodes in the life history of the
+individual, the sphere of applications is as long and broad and deep
+as life itself. Not only do the internal secretions open up before us
+the great hope--that Life at last will cease to stumble and grope and
+blunder, manacled by the iron chains of inexorable cause and effect.
+They provide tools, concrete and measurable, that can be handled and
+moved, weighed and seen, for the management of the problems of human
+nature and evolution.
+
+Every department of human life, the questions of labor and industry,
+science and art, education, puericulture, international problems,
+crime and disease, may be illuminated. War and Sex, those two master
+interests of mankind, may be understood and handled sympathetically
+as they have never before. The reactions of man alone, and man in the
+crowd, will be clarified. The red thread of individuality which runs
+through the woof and warp of all human affairs will be unraveled.
+
+Inevitably, customs, morals, codes of procedure and practice,
+institutions, all those expressions of opinion which make conduct,
+all the currents which contrive the infinite variety of life, will be
+transmitted into another set of values.
+
+A remoulding, a remodeling will take place all along the line.
+Manifestly an unstable thymocentric should not be treated as a
+criminal, but treated in a sanitarium. A masculinoid woman needs
+satisfactions not vouchsafed in the old "love, honor and obey" home.
+How absurd it is to found codes of morality upon sermons or even the
+latest psychologies. During the nineteenth century progress in physics
+and mechanics overturned traditions thousands of years had painfully
+toiled to erect. What is to happen when man comes at last to
+experiment upon himself like a god, dealing not only with the
+materials without, but also with the very constituents of his
+innermost being? Will he not then indeed become a god? If he does not
+destroy himself before, that is surely his destiny. For better or for
+worse, we possess now in the endocrines new instruments for swaying
+the individual as individual, and as related to other individuals, as
+a member of a type, family, nation, species and genus.
+
+THE BASIS OF VARIATION
+
+The sense of likeness and the sense of unlikeness plays a decisive
+rôle in the diurnal schedule of the individual. His sense of
+resemblance to his father and mother, his kin and clan, mark him and
+them off against the cosmos as an alliance of defense and offense. Yet
+no matter how closely he is like them and they like him, he differs
+and varies, they differ and vary, with a sort of mutual forgiveness,
+because the amount of resemblance overtops the degree of variation. In
+a paper on the "Rediscovery of the Unique," H.G. Wells emphasized the
+unique quality of the individual, and how, in spite of the cleverest
+devices of classification, living things ultimately escaped the
+classifying net by virtue of their tendency forever to vary.
+
+The individual is unique. Yet when all is said and done, the fact
+remains that between individuals there is resemblance, and among them
+variation. What is the reason for their resemblances and what is the
+cause of their variation?
+
+The conception of a particular chemical make-up of the individual,
+statable and relatively controllable in terms of the internal
+secretions, supplies a more rational and satisfactory method
+of approach to the problem than any so far suggested as far as
+vertebrates are concerned at any rate. In effect, the differences
+between individuals may fundamentally thus be grouped among the
+differences which distinguish other chemical substances. The
+difference between water, technically known as hydrogen monoxide,
+and the antiseptic fluid labeled hydrogen dioxide lies wholly in the
+possession by the latter of an extra atom of oxygen in its molecules.
+All the peculiarities and qualities by which hydrogen peroxide is
+separated from water are referred to that additional quantum of
+oxygen. So the diversity of constitution and appearance of two
+brothers, alike in that they have inherited the same internal
+secretion trends, may be traced to the superiority of the pituitary of
+the one over the other.
+
+Variation and resemblance are large issues, crucial material of the
+science of biology upon which much has been thought and written. That
+the proportion of the endocrines determines variation and resemblance,
+heredity and evolution is a hypothesis advanced, supported by a large
+amount of facts, and capable of the most interesting experimental
+verification and observation. If a child resembles particularly either
+of its parents, grandparents or relatives, there is good reason for
+believing that it is because their endocrine formulas are very much
+alike. When people apparently not blood-related at all resemble
+one other, the same law must hold. Resemblances may be partial or
+complete, and the degree will depend upon the amount and ratio of the
+internal secretions involved.
+
+The same endocrine constitutions will produce corresponding physiques,
+physiognomies, abilities and characters. Deviations in endocrine type
+from that of the original stock, more of one endocrine and less of
+another, is at the bottom of the phenomenon of variation, basic for
+the origin of new species as well as the extinction of the old. In
+short, viewing the internal secretions as determinants, by their
+quantitative variations, of a host of biologic phenomena furnishes a
+concrete and detailed foundation for Darwin's theory of pangenesis.
+
+INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS
+
+Darwin's theory of pangenesis was an attempt to harmonize everything
+known in his time about heredity. It supposed that the various
+organs of the body gave off into the blood substances, themselves
+in miniature, which were taken up by the sex cells, and so became
+responsible for the development of their mother-organ in the newly
+forming individual. Modern knowledge cannot accept all this as a
+whole. But in a modified version, it has become the germ of a theory
+of heredity of which J.T. Cunningham, of Oxford, is the chief backer.
+
+Beginning with the traits and qualities which distinguish the sexes,
+grouped as the secondary sex characters, he showed that they are
+correlated with the special sexual function of the species in which
+they occur. These traits appear only when the hormones occur which
+are present in one sex and that only when the gonads of that sex are
+mature. In some cases they appear only at the period of the year
+when reproduction takes place, disappearing again after the breeding
+season. Their presence makes certain cells develop in excessive
+numbers at a particular spot in the organism (as in the growth of
+breasts from a few sweat glands) or causes them to specialize (to make
+hair on the face in man, or to grow antlers on the head of a stag).
+After castration, the hormones being absent, all these points of
+contrast between the sexes fail to appear. So by analogy we may
+explain all somatic and psychic differentiation as functions of the
+glands of internal secretion. Contemplated from the angle of the
+effect of environment upon the endocrines, and a reflected action
+upon the germ cells, we may outline a mechanism of the inheritance of
+acquired characters at certain times and consequent adaptation. The
+cycle of events would be as follows:
+
+1. A state of lability of cells at a point because of increased or
+decreased use.
+
+2. An increased or decreased appropriation by them of the hormone
+controlling their function.
+
+3. A corresponding increase or decrease in function of the gland of
+internal secretion and so,
+
+4. An increased or decreased representation of it in the reproductive
+sex cells in the gonads.
+
+To take a classic illustration, the long neck of the giraffe. The neck
+of certain animals living in a district populated by trees with high
+branches would be in state of instability. If at the same time the
+pituitary, for some reason, was unstable and reacted with an extra
+supply of its secretion, it would stimulate the neck cells to
+reproduce themselves. In turn the pituitary would become stabilized
+in the direction of increased secretion, and hand on the component of
+increased secretion to the sex cells. That component, in conjunction
+with other factors, would therefore determine the emergence of a
+definite species character. In other words, the glands of internal
+secretion, as intermediaries between the environment and body, and
+between the body and the reproductive sex cells or germplasm, tender
+the clue to a phase of the puzzle of heredity, adaptation and
+evolution. It is only a dotted outline of an explanation to be sure,
+but one certainly capable of being filled in.
+
+THE BEARING ON BREEDING
+
+Since the endocrine glands are so subtly sensitive and responsive to
+environment, and are at the same time so intimately concerned in the
+process of inheritance--a law which sums up their influence upon
+resemblance and variation in animals--there is no need to stress
+their importance for the practical science and art of good breeding,
+eugenics. Another mode of approach to its problems is opened up, and
+fresh enthusiasm instilled into its hopes and aspirations. A method
+of analysis of the factors involved, together with rules for the
+prediction of the outcome of certain matings, when finally worked out,
+will elevate its procedure to the level of the more exact sciences.
+
+A man's chief gift to his children is his internal secretion
+composition. The endocrines are truly the matter of breeding as
+they are of growth. They are the material carriers of the inherited
+physical and psychic dispositions, powers, abilities and disabilities
+from the soma to the germplasm and back from the germplasm to the
+soma. All kinds of questions arise as soon as one attempts to consider
+the bearing of this underlying principle upon concrete situations.
+What happens, say, when a pituitocentric mates with a thyrocentric?
+Or when a pituitocentric marries a pituitocentric? Is there a
+reinforcement or a cancellation of the dominant endocrine? Is there
+a quantitative addition of internal glandular tendencies in the
+germplasm, or a more complex rearrangement dependent upon reactions
+between all the internal secretions?
+
+The term endocrine dominants brings up the inquiries of Mendelism, and
+the relation of Mendelian conceptions of dominant and recessive to the
+internal secretions. The Mendelians have emphasized the rôle of the
+unit factor in heredity, and the conservation of the unit factor as
+an entity through all the adventures of matings. Also, that when unit
+factors, say of the color of the eyes, come into conflict, brown or
+black being mixed with blue or grey, one, the recessive, is submerged
+and overlaid but not destroyed by the other, the dominant. So brown or
+black eyes, dark hair, curly hair, dark skin, and so on, are dominant,
+while blue or grey eyes, light or straight hair, light skin are
+recessives. A nervous temperament is dominant to the phlegmatic. A
+number of psychic qualities have been declared to be Mendelian unit
+factors: memory, mechanical instinct, mathematical ability, literary
+ability, musical ability, and even handwriting.
+
+As architects of human qualities the endocrines must be involved
+in the Mendelian unit factors. Moreover, they seem to act upon a
+particular locale in different degrees, which is the strongest
+argument against the resolution of a number of structural traits into
+Mendelian unit characters. Most characters, somatic or psychic, are
+the products not of the action of one internal secretion alone, but of
+the interlinked activities of all of them. The amount of fat deposited
+under the skin, for instance, is influenced by the pituitary, the
+thyroid, the pancreas, the liver, the adrenals and the sex glands.
+Other qualities, likewise, are resultants of a compromise between all
+the endocrine factors comprising the equation of the individual. If
+we are to look for unit factors at all in endocrine heredity, we must
+look more deeply into constitution, and measure the hormone potentials
+and their mobilization or suppression.
+
+It will, in all probability, be found that the stability or
+instability of an endocrine will have a good deal to do with the part
+played by it in inheritance as well as in the life of the individual
+An unstable pituitocentric marrying another unstable pituitocentric
+will have children either exceptionally small or tall, or abnormally
+bright or stupid. The instability tends to right itself in the next
+generation, or that following. Genius as a sport, as well as sudden
+degeneration of family stock, the whole problem of mutation, may be
+closely connected with this tendency.
+
+It has been noted that the extinction of species has been preceded by
+a great increase in their size, for example, the case of the great
+reptilia of prehistoric time. That possibly represented pituitary
+stabilization, and so an abeyance of the ability to vary, necessary
+for fresh adaptation to a changing environment. Indeed, endocrine
+instability appears the fundamental condition of the tendency to vary,
+endocrine stability the opposite.
+
+Certain endocrine facts in relation to heredity should be mentioned.
+The daughters of mothers who menstruated early, themselves menstruate
+early. Animals fed upon thyroid during pregnancy, comparable to the
+thyrocentric, give birth to offspring with a very large thymus,
+comparable to the thymocentric. Women with partial thyroid deficiency,
+or myxedema, bear cretins. These are suggestive of what the internal
+secretions may do to an individual in inheritance and development.
+Inherited endocrine potential is the maximum reaction of which a gland
+is capable. This matter of potential is comparable to the factor of
+reserve power or margin of safety demonstrated up to the hilt for
+such organs as the heart and kidney as varying from individual to
+individual. A low potential, like instability of an internal secretion
+gland, may be latent, and not made manifest until the proper stimulus,
+the maximum amount of stress and strain, like accident, disease, shock
+or war, arrives.
+
+When the individual is tested the effects may be purely local because
+there is always in the organism a point of least resistance. Physical
+changes alone may be prominent. Or because somatic changes are minor,
+the psychic will dominate the picture. An attack of the "blues,"
+unaccompanied by any demonstrable transformation of the bodily
+processes, may be the sole symptom of an endocrine failure somewhere
+in the chain due to hereditary weakness or low potential.
+
+So we may account for family trends and streaks, for varieties
+and strains among individuals, upon more precise lines based upon
+endocrine analysis. Family disturbances of the internal secretions of
+the extreme sort denominated disease are well known. Indeed, a number
+of family diseases or predispositions to diseases, have been traced
+to them. Predisposition in any direction will probably be shown to be
+caused by them, within limits. Research here has its opportunity.
+
+THE IMPROVEMENT OF RACIAL STOCK
+
+A vast new territory of inquiry and achievement, as yet totally
+unexplored, is opened by the endocrines to the eugenists, and those
+idealists whose most earnest aspiration is the improvement of racial
+stock as a necessary preliminary to improvement of racial life.
+Beginning with Galton, they have brought to light a great collection
+of data to prove that human traits and faculties, good and bad, are
+inherited. Ability has been shown to run in certain families and
+degeneracy in others. Yet all of the practical net result has been
+summed up in the term "negative eugenics," the eugenics of prohibition
+and warning.
+
+Now the concept of personality, as woven around a system of chemical
+reflexes, handed on from generation to generation, is bound to change
+all that, and to create a structure of positive eugenics. It has been
+said that what radium is to chemistry, the internal secretions are to
+physiology. Just as radium enlightens the chemist about the history of
+matter, and the integrations and disintegrations constituting the life
+of an element--the internal secretions illuminate the history of the
+individual as part of the life of the race, and of its integrations
+and disintegrations. Seeing the individual as a system of chemical
+substances interacting will assist enormously to predict the nature,
+character and constitution of his descendants, which is essentially
+what the eugenist is after.
+
+The study of matings, the heart of the matter, will concern itself
+with the investigation and comparison of the kind of endocrine
+personalities that mate, the internal secretion predominances that
+cross, and the consequent endocrine personality of the offspring.
+Data bearing upon physique and physiognomy, details of anatomy and
+function, mind and behaviour will so be co-ordinated as no eugenist
+has hitherto succeeded in doing. Laws of endocrine inheritance will
+emerge that will bring the control of heredity within measurable
+distance. Standards and norms of a new kind would be obtained.
+
+A beginning of this study of endocrine inheritance, on the pathologic
+side, has been made. Some of these have been along Mendelian lines.
+Following up abnormal growth (making giants and dwarfs) and abnormal
+metabolism (goitre, diabetes, and so on), it has been stated that it
+would seem that abnormal growth is dominant in the male, and recessive
+in the female, while abnormal metabolism is dominant in the female and
+recessive in the male. If an endocrine abnormality like a goitre,
+or cretinism, or a dwarf or giant appear in a family as a sign of
+endocrine instability, other members of that family will very likely
+show internal secretion abnormalities.
+
+If one gland of internal secretion acts as the centre of the system
+and the others as satellites, we should be able to trace what happens
+to it in the different generations. Does it maintain its supremacy? Or
+will it be ousted by another member of the group? The time will come
+when we shall thus be able to advise prospective parents of the
+consequences of procreation and to forecast the meaning for the race
+of a particular marriage. Internal glandular analysis may become
+legally compulsory for those about to mate before the end of the
+present century.
+
+What are desirable and undesirable matings? The general law followed
+by nature in her helterskelter way seems to be the production of the
+greatest number of hybrids and variations possible, whether for
+good or evil does not matter. Certain endocrine types appear to be
+specially attracted to others belonging to the same group. Thus
+thymus-centered types frequently marry. The ante-pituitary type of
+male, the strongly masculine, mates often with the post-pituitary type
+of female, the markedly feminine. The children exhibit the lineaments
+of the pituitary-centered type. The general trend seems to be the
+establishment of a better balanced, equilibrated type. Yet the
+children often are apt to segregate into pituitary dominants or
+pituitary deficients. Happiness and unhappiness in marriage should
+be examined from the standpoint of endocrine compatibility or
+incompatibility. Likewise those divorced or about to be divorced.
+
+The correction of endocrine defects, disturbances, imbalances and
+instabilities, before mating, presents another field. It remains to be
+seen whether we shall thereby, in one generation, be able to affect
+at all the germplasm, hitherto revered by all pious biologists as an
+environment-proof holy of holies. No one can deny, in the face of the
+multitude of evidence available, that internal secretion disturbances
+occur in the mother, which, when grave, offer in the infant gross
+proof of their significance, and therefore when slight must more
+subtly work upon it. Endocrine disturbances in infancy have been
+traced to endocrine disturbances in the mother during pregnancy.
+Pregnant animals fed on thyroid give birth to young with large thymus
+glands. The diet of the mother has been proved conclusively to
+influence the development and constitution of the child. As the
+internal secretions influence the history of the food in the body,
+they affect development in the womb indirectly as well as directly.
+Certainly, whether or no we learn how to change the nature of
+germplasm within a short time, we have in the endocrines the means at
+hand for affecting _the whole individual that is born and sees the
+light of day_.
+
+THE CONTROL OF MUTATIONS
+
+The true physical and intellectual evolution of man depends upon the
+production of mutations of a desirable kind that can survive. The
+information furnished by the study of the endocrines concerning
+the genesis of personality provides the foundations for a positive
+eugenics, a eugenics of the encouragement of desirable matings, with
+the proper legal and social procedures. Selective breeding for the
+production of the best endocrine types should become practicable.
+
+But the biologist should be able to go farther. If the eugenist is to
+limit himself to the method of the animal breeder he will have to rest
+satisfied with the characters or hereditary factors given, that turn
+up spontaneously in an individual. But with the internal secretions
+as the controllable controllers of mutations, the outlook changes.
+It should become possible to produce new mutations, good and bad, to
+speed up their production at any rate. The feeding of thyroid to
+a gifted father before procreation might enhance immeasurably the
+chances of transmission of his gift as well as of its intensification
+in his offspring. A field of investigation is opened that would
+embrace in due time the deliberate control of human evolution.
+
+All the physical traits, stature, color, muscle function, and so on,
+offer themselves for improvement, as well as brain size, and the
+intellectual and emotional factors which have dominated man's social
+evolution. The general prevalence of nervous disorders in civilized
+countries, visible even in the nervous infants the specialist in
+children's diseases is called upon to treat, shows that the nervous
+system of the better part of mankind is in a state of unstable
+equilibrium. It may be another example of the curious coincidences
+that have been called the Fitness of the Environment that the
+investigation of the endocrines promises to put into our hands the
+instruments of the control of the future of the nervous system. In
+general, meanwhile, the eugenist should strive for raising the level
+of the endocrine potential, and discourage its lowering. That means
+the encouragement of matings in which all the internal secretion
+activities are reinforced. On the other hand, those internal secretion
+combinations, generally leading to a deficiency of all of them which
+produce types of mental defectives, delinquency and crime should not
+be allowed to occur.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+What suggestions now are there for the euthenist who would control
+the influence of environment upon child culture. There are certain
+pertinent facts and leads that are worth considering.
+
+In analyzing environment, one must distinguish sharply in the jungle,
+the non-living factors from the living. For while the nonliving act
+upon the endocrines directly, the living act upon the vegetative
+system, as a whole. The non-living factors are those with the intimate
+scrutiny of which physics and chemistry have busied themselves: food,
+water, air, light, heat, electricity, magnetism. The living are the
+animals that prowl all over the planet, the predatories spreading the
+gospel of fear.
+
+The dietetic habits of a person, for instance, are known to have an
+influence upon the glands of internal secretion. Meat-eating produces
+a greater call upon the thyroid than any other form of food. In time
+this ought to produce a degree of hyperthyroidism in the carniverous
+populations. Pre-war statistics concerning meat-eating in different
+countries show the greatest meat-eating among the English-speaking
+groups, who all in all must be admitted the most energetic.
+
+                                _Meat per Day per_
+  _Countries_              _Capita in Grams_
+
+  Australia                             306
+  U.S. of America                       149
+  Great Britain                         130
+  France                                 92
+  Belgium and Holland                    86
+  Austria-Hungary                        79
+  Russia                                 59
+  Spain                                  61
+  Italy                                  29
+  Japan                                  25
+
+Sea-water contains iodine. People living in contact with sea-water
+would be apt to get more iodine in their systems, and so a greater
+degree of thyroid activity. On the other hand, certain bodies and
+sources of inland water hold something deleterious to the thyroid, so
+that whole populations in Europe, Asia and America drinking such water
+have become goitrous and cretinous, and a large percentage straight
+imbeciles. Endemic cretinism is the name given to the condition. In
+parts of Switzerland, Savoy, Tyrol and the Pyrenees, in America
+around some of the Great Lakes, there are still such foci. Marco Polo
+described similar areas he encountered in his travels through Asia.
+
+Certain foods with aphrodisiac qualities may act by stimulating the
+internal secretion of the sex glands. A type of pituitocentric has an
+almost uncontrollable craving for sweets. Alcohol and the endocrines
+remain to be studied.
+
+Light, heat and humidity stand in some special relation to the
+adrenals. Pigment deposit in the skin as protection against light
+is controlled by the adrenal cortex. The reaction of the skin blood
+vessels to heat and humidity is regulated by the adrenal medulla. A
+change in the adrenal as a response to changes of temperature and
+humidity in an environment would result in a number of concomitant
+transformations throughout the body. So variation and adaptation are
+probably connected. Most Europeans living for a sufficiently long time
+in the tropics suffer from a combination of symptoms spoken of as
+"Punjab head" or "Bengal head." The condition is probably the result
+of excessive adrenal stimulation by the excessive heat and light of
+the tropical sun, followed by a reaction of exhaustion and failure,
+with the consequent phenomena of a form of neurasthenia. In the
+section on the pineal gland there was mentioned the relation between
+light and the pineal gland in growing animals, and how it serves to
+keep in check the sex-stimulating action of light. The earlier puberty
+and menstruation of the warmer climates may be explained as due to an
+earlier regression of the pineal under the pressure of a great amount
+of light playing upon the skin.
+
+All these, and many more could be cited, are instances of the direct
+influence of environmental factors upon one or more of the endocrines,
+and so upon the organism as a whole. Indeed, stimuli may be considered
+to modify an organism only in so far as they modify the glands of
+internal secretion. Consequently, climatic factors will tend to make a
+population possess certain points of resemblance in common.
+
+Varieties of the human race exist as do varieties of dogs. The
+pekingese and the fox terrier are as different as the Slav and Latin
+are different: because of differences in internal secretion make-up.
+The Slav peasant is definitely subthyroid in his general effect:
+round head, coarse features, stubby hands, and his stolid, brooding
+intellectual and emotional reaction. The Latin shows a pronounced
+adrenal streak in his coloration, his emotivity, his susceptibility to
+neurosis and psychosis. H. Laing Gordon, a Scot physician, reported
+that of 700 cases he studied, more than twice as many of duplex eyed
+individuals (brown or black, i.e., adrenal-centered most often), were
+susceptible to the mental disturbances of war as the simplex (blue or
+gray-eyed, i.e., thyroid-centered most often). He also pointed out
+that such individuals tend to have a narrow and abnormally arched
+palate. The Anglo-Saxon tends to be more sharply pituitarized, his
+features are more clean-cut, his mentality more stable. The Frenchman
+is rather a cross between the Anglo-Saxon pituitary-centered and the
+Italian or Spanish adrenal-centered.
+
+So national resemblances, traceable to climatic influences being
+repeated from generation to generation upon the endocrines, may be
+explained physiologically. The physiologic interpretation of history
+will indeed be found the broadest, including as complementary Buckle's
+climatic theory, Hegel's ideas on the influence of ideas, and Marx's
+on the superiority of the economic motives and forces.
+
+THE RACES OF MANKIND
+
+Arthur Keith, conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons of England, was the first to apply the principle of endocrine
+differentiation to the problem of the color-lines--the lines which
+have divided mankind crudely into the yellow, the red, the white and
+the brown, the Negro, the Mongol, the Caucasian, the copper tinted
+American. It has long been recognized by anthropologists that the
+differences of color march with differences in every comparable trait.
+Thus the ideal Negro is built upon a pattern in which all the elements
+are specific and singular. When the looms revolve that make him,
+there is produced a gleaming black skin, kinky black hair, squat
+wide-nostriled nose, thick protruding lips, large striking teeth,
+prominent jaws, and staring eyes. As his upright carriage and
+bone-muscle-fat proportions are distinctive, so are his musical voice
+and his easily wrought upon nerves. In contrast the Caucasian has a
+good deal of hair on his body, his skin is a pale tan-pink, his lips
+are thin, and his nose especially has the definite bridge which
+narrows it. The Mongol, like the Negro, has the hairless body and the
+beardless face, but unlike him has lank straight hair on his head,
+while his features are flattened and fore-shortened.
+
+Upon the basis of these structural, functional and mental differences,
+the qualitative and quantitative evolution of which in the race as in
+the individual is guided by the glands of internal secretion, Keith
+presents a very good case for the view that the white man is an
+example of relative excess of the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and
+gonad endocrines. "The sharp and pronounced nasalization of the
+face, the tendency to strong eyebrow ridges, the prominent chin, the
+tendency to bulk of body, and height of stature in the majority of
+Europeans" are the signs of pituitary dominance. Keith is also of the
+opinion that "the sexual differentiation, the robust manifestations of
+the male characters, is more emphatic in the Caucasian than in
+either the Mongol or Negro racial types ... in certain negro types,
+especially in Nilotic tribes, with their long stork-like legs, we seem
+to have a manifestation of abeyance in the action of the interstitial
+glands." As for the adrenal superiority of the white man, "it is 150
+years since John Hunter came to the conclusion ... that the original
+color of man's skin was black, and all the knowledge that we have
+gathered since his supports the inference he drew. From the fact that
+pigment begins to collect and thus darken the skin when the adrenal
+bodies become the seat of a destructive disease we infer that they
+have to do with the clearing away of pigment, and that we Europeans
+owe the fairness of our skins to some particular virtue resident in
+the adrenal bodies." Finally, as regards the thyroid, a comparison of
+the face of a cretin with that of the Negro or Mongol tells the story.
+A certain variety of idiocy, Mongolian idiocy, in which the face
+simulates cretinism so closely as to deceive practised clinical
+observers, is characterized by a Chinese cast of the features and
+eyes, hence the name. And in the Bushman of South Africa, the cretin's
+face is even more startlingly recalled.
+
+There is every reason then for believing that the white man possesses
+more of pituitary, adrenal, gonad, and thyroid internal secretions as
+compared with the yellow man or black man. And since these endocrines
+control not only physique and physiognomy, anatomic and functional
+minutiae, but also mind and behaviour, we are justified in putting
+down the white man's predominance on the planet to a greater
+all-around concentration in his blood of the omnipotent hormones.
+While the Negro is relatively subadrenal, the Mongol is relatively
+subthyroid. Their relative deficiency in internal secretions
+constitutes the essence of the White Man's Burden.
+
+MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD HIMSELF
+
+A last, but by no means least, application we may consider of the
+developing knowledge of the internal secretions in relation to human
+evolution is its effect upon Man's attitude toward himself and so
+toward his fellow men. Whatever else he is, man is a land animal with
+ideas. That makes him a thought-adventurer among materials. In a word,
+he is the last word of mind working upon matter. But persistently he
+has refused to recognize himself as matter and as subject to the laws,
+to the physics and chemistry of matter.
+
+History consists of the protocols that record the high lights of the
+interactions of materials and ideas which is the adventure of man in
+time and space. Materials and ideas have reacted, the record shows;
+materials come upon have begotten strange fantasies. Ideas that
+flashed from nowhere into a consciousness have transformed utterly the
+face of the earth. The herd-brute, agglutinated with his fellows by a
+magnetism beyond his ken, could be infected with thought, and so cast
+in the heroic mould. The possibility of communion,--that possibility
+of possibilities, for without it none other could be possible--has
+rendered man the heir of a divine destiny. For the progressive
+education of the race, a single discoverer here, an inventor there,
+and thinkers everywhere have been inspired. In due time their
+inspiration becomes the possession of even the lowest brain but
+capable of grasping it.
+
+Man's attitude toward himself, his self-consciousness, and his
+attitude toward his fellow creatures has grown and varied and
+evolved with his education about himself. According to the theory he
+formulated concerning his being, his why and wherefore, he directed
+and governed, punished and mutilated himself and them. But the
+pressure of his curiosity, and the inexorable quality of the truth
+would not let him stand still. The poetic genius within him, as Blake
+called it, struggled on from one dogma concerning his nature to
+another. Behaviour malignant or beneficent, horrible in its tragedy
+and pitiable in its comedy, flowed inevitably on. Witchcraft trials
+and the tortures of the Spanish Inquisition belong among the more
+mentionable consequences of some of man's theories about his own
+nature and its requirements.
+
+Heretofore the imaginative spirit has had its day in the matter. And,
+curiously enough, an obsession to subjugate the natural has made it
+exalt the supernatural. Visions, dreams, portents, revelations, all
+symptomatic of an order of things above nature, are the stuff of what
+more than ninety-nine per cent of the millions of the race believe
+about themselves and their fate. Man's cruelty to man, through the
+ages, is a comment upon how vast and ramifying may be the consequences
+of a delusion.
+
+But now for a couple of centuries the critical spirit, which is the
+spirit of science, has been invading the affairs of men. Humble but
+persistent corrosive of delusion, it has infiltrated the furthest
+bounds of ignorance and superstition. It has not dared to assert the
+supremacy of its fundamental views upon the everyday problems of human
+life because it was without concrete means of vindicating its claims.
+That lack is now supplied by the growing understanding of the chemical
+factors as the controllers and dictators of all the legion aspects of
+life.
+
+The profoundest achievement of the physiologist will be the change his
+teachings and discoveries will bring about in man's attitude toward
+himself. When he comes to realize himself as a chemical machine that
+can, within limits, be remodeled, overhauled and repaired, as an
+automobile can be, within limits, when he becomes saturated with the
+significance of his endocrine-vegetative system at every turn and move
+of his life, and when sympathy and pity informed by knowledge and
+understanding will come to regulate his relationships with the lowest
+and most despised of the men, women and children about him, the era of
+the first real civilization will properly be said to be born.
+
+Morality, as society's code of conduct for its members, will have
+to change in the direction of a greater flexibility with the
+establishment of organic differences in human types. There is nothing
+that is more emphasized to the pathologist than that one man's meat is
+another man's poison. In the family, as nature's laboratory for
+the manufacture of fresh combinations of the internal secretions,
+allowances will be made for divergences in capacity and deportment
+from a new angle altogether. Schools will function as the developers,
+stimulators and inhibitors of the endocrines, as well as investigators
+of the individuals who have not enough or too much of one or some of
+them. Prisons will have the same function, only they will be named
+detention hospitals. The raising of the general level of intelligence
+by the judicious use of endocrine extracts will mean a good deal to
+the sincere statesman. The average duration of life will be prolonged
+for an enormous mass of the population. If the prevention of war
+depends upon the burning into the imagination of the electorates
+what the consequences of war are, a high intelligence quotient and
+revaluation of life will count for a good deal.
+
+Man is the animal that wants Utopia. So long as human nature was
+looked upon as fixed constant in the ebb and flow of life, a Utopia of
+fine minds could be conceived only by the dreamer and poet. The desire
+for such a Utopia could only be regarded as a tragic aspiration for an
+impossibility. The physiology of the internal secretions teaches that
+human nature does change and can be changed. A relative control of its
+properties is already in view. The absolute control will come.
+
+Nor need anyone fear that the science of the internal secretions in
+its maturity will signify the abolition of the marvelous differences
+between human beings that create the unique personalities of history.
+A derangement of the endocrines has been responsible for masterpieces
+of the human species in the past and will be responsible for them in
+the future. The equality of Utopia can be the equality of the highest
+and fullest development possible for each of its inhabitants. The
+applications of endocrine control will not necessarily interfere
+with the life of the individual. There will be breeding of the best
+mixtures of glands of internal secretion possible. And there will
+be treatment for those born with a handicap, or who have become
+handicapped in the life struggle. There will be a stimulation of
+capacity to the limit. But beyond that, compulsory equalization is a
+theorist's bogey.
+
+The internal secretions are the most hopeful and promising of the
+reagents for control yet come upon by the human mind. They open up
+limitless prospects for the improvement of the race. A few hundreds of
+investigators are engaged upon their study throughout the world. That
+is one of the ironies of our contemporary civilization. A concerted
+effort at the task of understanding them, backed by the labors of tens
+of thousands of workers, would, without a doubt, accomplish as much
+for humanity as the vast armies and navies that consume the substance
+of mankind. If we could not obtain Utopia then, we might, at least by
+abolishing the subnormals and abnormals who constitute the slaves and
+careerists of society, render the human race less contemptible and
+more divine.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ Ability, natural
+  Acquired characters, inheritance of
+  Acromegaly
+  Addison
+  Addison's disease
+  Adolescence, period of
+  Adrenal glands
+    and anger
+    and courage
+    and emergencies
+    and emotions
+    and fatigue
+    and fear
+    and neuroses
+    and pseudo-hermaphroditism
+    and puberty
+    blood pressure and
+    brain cells and
+    chromaffin cells of
+    cortex of
+    excess of secretion
+    failure of secretion
+    function of
+    glands of combat and fight
+    hair and
+    influence of in hermaphroditism
+    insufficiency of secretion
+    medulla of
+    pigment cells and
+    relation to pineal gland
+    relation to pituitary
+    secretion of
+    sexuality and
+    skin and
+  Adrenal-centered type
+  Adrenal face
+  Adrenal personalities, or types
+    compensated
+    insufficient
+    in pregnancy
+    of brain work
+    of girl
+    of hair
+    of skin
+    of teeth
+  Adrenal personalities, or types of women
+    reactions to modernism in
+  Adrenalin
+  Alcoholism and endocrine types
+  Analysis, endocrine
+  Anger
+    and adrenals
+  Antagonisms
+  Anti-Fate
+  Antitoxic function of thyroid gland
+  Ape-parvenu, the
+  Applications of endocrinology
+  Autonomic system
+
+  Backgrounds of personality
+  Baldness and the thyroid
+  Baumann
+  Bayliss
+  Beard
+  Beard's neurasthenia
+  von Bechterew
+  Behavior
+  Bell, Blair
+  Bernard, Claude
+  Berthold
+  Black races, endocrine control in
+  Blood pressure, and adrenals
+  Body, influence of glands upon
+  Body-mind complex
+  Bones
+    long, development of
+  Bordeau
+  Bossi
+  Brain cells and adrenals
+  Brain, growth of
+  Brainwork, adrenal type of
+  Breakdown, nervous
+  Breeding, bearing of endocrine glands on
+  Brown-Séquard
+
+  Caesar, Julius, an epileptic
+    pituitary in
+  Capacity
+  Careerist
+    as abnormals
+    feminine
+    instincts of
+    masculine
+    super-
+  Carlson
+  Castration
+    effects of
+    effects of, on thymus
+  Character
+  Charcot
+  Charging of wishes, endocrine
+  Check and drive system
+  Chemistry of the soul
+  Child--bearing, transfigurations of
+  Childhood, epoch of the pineal
+  Chromaffin cells of adrenals
+  Chromosomes
+  Climacteric
+  Color, endocrine control of, in races
+  Combat, adrenals and
+  Combinations of types of personality
+  Conduct
+  Constitutions, endocrine
+  Cooperation
+  Corpus luteum
+    and mammary glands
+  Courage and the adrenals
+  Cretinism
+    a thyroid deficiency
+    effect of feeding thyroid in
+  Cretinoid type
+  Cretin
+  Crime, treatment of
+  Criminals and endocrine types
+  Critical ages
+  Curling
+  Cushing, Harvey
+
+  Dangerous age, the
+  Darwin, Charles
+    as a neurasthenic genius
+    his "Descent of Man"
+    his theory of Pangenesis
+  Davenport
+  Deficiency, mental
+  Development
+  Diabetes, and the pancreas
+  Diet, effect of on the endocrine glands
+  Directorate, endocrine glands as a
+  Diseases and endocrine types
+  Division of labor
+  Drug addiction and endocrine types
+  Dwarfs
+
+  Education, of vegetative-system
+    vocational
+  Egomania
+  Elixir of life
+  Emergencies, adrenals glands of
+  Emotions, adrenals glands of
+  Endocrine
+    analysis
+    charging of wishes
+    constitutions
+    control in color of races
+    corporation
+    deficiency in old age
+    epochs of life
+    glands
+      and feeblemindedness
+      and insanity
+      as an interlocking directorate
+      bases of variation
+      bearing on breeding
+      discovery of
+      effect of diet on
+      influence upon body
+      influence upon mind
+    inferiority
+    neurosis
+    personality
+    sex traits
+    types
+      alcoholism and
+      criminals and
+      diseases and
+      drug addiction and
+      narcotism and
+  Endocrines, evolution of
+  Endocrinology, applications of
+    possibilities of
+  Energy
+    and thyroid
+  Enthusiasm and thyroid
+  Environment, influence of
+  Epilepsy, in genius
+  Epochs of life, endocrine
+  Eugenics, negative
+    positive
+    promises of
+  Eunuchoid face
+    personality
+  Eunuchoidism
+  Eunuchs
+  Evolution, human, effect of internal secretions upon
+  Exhibitionism
+  Expressionism
+  Eyes
+
+  Face, adrenal
+    eunuchoid
+    hyperpituitary
+    hyperthyroid
+  Facial types
+  Family, and mixed sex
+  Fat, distribution of
+  Fat people
+  Fate and Anti-Fate
+  Fatigue and industry
+    as an endocrine deficiency
+    relation of adrenals to
+    relation of thymus to
+  Fear
+    mechanism of
+    relation of adrenals to
+  Feeblemindedness and the endocrine glands
+  Feminine pituitary type
+  Feminine precocity
+  Feminoid complex
+    constitution and personality
+  Fertilization
+  Fight, relation of adrenals to
+  Fingers, pituitary and
+    thyroid and
+  Forgetting
+  Freedom
+  Freud
+  Freudianism
+  Freudians
+  Friedleben
+
+  Galli
+  Galton
+  Genius, epilepsy in
+    migraine in
+    neurasthenic
+    treatment of
+  Giants
+  Girl, endocrine types of
+  Glands, definition of
+    endocrine, as an interlocking directorate
+    discovery of
+    influence on body
+    influence on mind
+  Goitre, relation of iodine to
+  Gonads
+    and libido
+    and sexuality
+    and thymus
+  Gonads and thyroid
+    function
+    secretion
+  Gonad-centric personalities
+    homosexuality and
+  Growth
+    relation of thymus to
+  Guilford
+  Gull
+
+  Hair
+    and adrenals
+    and pineal
+    and thymus
+    and thyroid
+  Hands, and pituitary
+    and thyroid
+  Henle
+  Hermaphrodite
+  Hermaphroditism
+    functional
+    influence of adrenals in
+    influence of pituitary in
+  Hibernation
+    and the pituitary
+  Historic personages
+    Darwin, Charles
+    Julius Caesar
+    Napoleon
+    Nietzsche
+    Nightingale, Florence
+    Wilde, Oscar
+  History, internal secretions in
+  von Hochwart
+  Homosexuality, and gonad-centric type
+    and thymus type
+  Hormones
+    harmony of the
+  Horsley
+  Howitz
+  Human nature
+    attitudes towards
+    case against
+    science and
+  Hunger
+  Hunter, John
+  Hygiene of the internal secretions
+  Hyperpituitary face
+    skin
+  Hyperpituitrism,
+  Hyperthyroid face
+    skin
+    type
+      of girl
+      pregnancy in
+      premenstrual molimina in
+  Hyperthyroidism
+  Hysteria
+
+  Imagination, an endocrine gift
+  Improvement of racial stock
+  Industry, and fatigue
+    relation of endocrines to
+  Infancy, epoch of the thymus
+  Infantilism
+  Infantiloid constitution or personality
+  Inferiority, breeding of
+  Inheritance of acquired characters
+  Insanity, and the endocrine glands
+  Instinct
+  Instincts, pituitary
+    thyroid
+  Insuline
+  Intellectuality, and the pituitary
+  Internal secretions, determinants of vegetative pressures
+    effect of, upon human evolution
+    hygiene of
+    in history
+  Interstitial glands, see Gonads
+    type of teeth
+  Iodine, in thyroxin
+    relation of to goitre
+
+  Janet
+  Judgment
+  Julius Caesar, an epileptic
+    pituitary in
+
+  Keith
+  Kendall
+  Kinetic chain
+    drive
+    system
+  Kocher
+
+  Laennec
+  Lanugo
+  Larey
+  Libido and gonads
+    sex
+  Life, well-springs of
+  Lime salts, and sex
+  Lincoln, Abraham
+  Lutein
+
+  MacDougallians
+  Malthusian law of slavery
+  Mammary glands
+    corpus luteum and
+    placenta and
+  Man, a transient
+    attitude of towards himself
+    a product of glands of internal secretion
+    critical age in
+    secondary sex characteristics of
+  Manic depressive psychoses
+  Mankind, races of
+  Marie, Pierre
+  Masculine, the secret of the
+  Masculine and feminine, mechanics of, and see Sex
+  Masculine pituitary type
+  Masculinoid women
+  Masochism
+  Maternal instinct
+    different from sex instinct
+    relation of the pituitary to
+  Matings, desirable and undesirable
+  Megalomania
+  Memory
+  Mendelism
+  Menopause
+  Menstruation
+    and ovaries
+    cycle of
+  Mental deficiency
+  Migraine in genius
+  Mind, influence of glands on
+    oldest part of
+  Mitchell, Weir
+  Mixed sex and the family
+  Mixed types
+  Möbius
+  Modernism, reactions to in adrenal types
+  Moods, and the organic outlook
+  Moral irresponsibility and thymus type
+  Mujerados
+  Müller, Johann,
+  Murray
+  Muscles
+  Mutations, control of
+  Myxedema
+    operative
+
+  Napoleon, case of
+  Narcotism, and endocrine types
+  Nature's experiments _vs_. Man's
+  "Nerves"
+  Nervous breakdowns
+  Neurasthenia
+  Neurosis
+    adrenals and
+    endocrine
+    war
+  Nietzsche, case of
+  Nightingale, Florence, legend of
+  Normal, what is
+
+  Obesity
+  Operative myxedema
+  Ord, William
+  Ovaries, internal secretion of
+    relation of to menstruation
+    removal of, effect of
+    rôle of
+  Oversecretion
+
+  Pancreas
+    diabetes and
+    function of
+    removal of
+    secretion of
+  Pangenesis, Darwin's theory of
+  Parathyroids
+    function of
+    secretion of
+  Paulesco
+  Pawlov
+  Permutations, of types of personality,
+  Perry, Caleb
+  Personality, background of
+    combinations of types of
+    determined by the endocrines
+    endocrine
+    eunuchoid
+    types of
+      adrenal
+      combinations of
+      gonad-centric
+      nature's experiments _vs_. man's
+      permutations of
+      pituitary of
+  Philosophers, prejudices of
+  Physics of the wish
+  Physiologists, attitude of
+  rôle of
+  Pigment cells and the adrenals
+    in skin of various races
+  Pineal gland
+    and hair
+    and childhood
+    feeding of to children
+    function of
+    muscle function of
+  Pineal gland, obesity and
+    puberty and
+    relation of to adrenals
+    to progressive muscular atrophy
+    secretion of
+    type of muscles
+  Pituitary gland
+    action of
+    and fingers
+    and toes
+    compared with thyroid
+    diminished action of
+    extirpation of
+    function of
+    in Julius Caesar
+    in Oscar Wilde
+    instincts
+  overaction of
+    personalities
+    regulator of organic rhythms
+    relation to adrenals
+      to growth
+      to hair
+      to hermaphroditism
+      to hibernation
+      to imagination
+      to intellectuality
+      to judgment
+      to maternal instincts
+      to memory
+      to puberty
+      to rejuvenation
+      to sex difficulties
+      to sexual glands
+      to stature
+      to thymus
+    secretion of
+    secretion, characteristics of inferior
+      characteristics of sufficient
+    type
+      feminine
+      masculine
+      of eyes
+      of hands
+      of muscles
+      pregnancy in
+      premenstrual molimina in
+  Pituitary-centered type
+  Pituitocentrics, Caesar
+    Darwin
+    Napoleon
+    Nietzsche
+    Nightingale
+  Pituitrin
+    function of
+  Placenta
+    and mammary glands
+  Placental gland
+  Plater, Felix
+  Plummer
+  Poise
+  Popielski
+  Possibilities of endocrinology
+  Postpituitary type of girl
+  Precocity, feminine
+    male
+  Pregnancy, in various endocrine types
+  Premenstrual molimina, in various endocrine types
+  Progressive muscular dystrophy and the pineal gland
+  Prostate
+  Pseudo-hermaphroditism and the adrenals
+  Psychanalyst, as a therapeutist
+  Psychology, new
+  Psychopathology of every day life
+  Puberty
+    glands, see Gonads
+    in female
+    significance of
+  Public health, prospects of
+  Pure types
+  Puericulture, science of
+
+  Races of mankind
+  Reactions to modernism in adrenal types
+  Rejuvenation, possibilities of
+  Religion of science
+  Repression
+  Resilience of skin
+  Restelli
+  Reverdin, J.L.
+  Rhythms of sex
+  Robertson
+
+  Sadism
+  Schiff, Moritz
+  Science, and human nature
+    origin of
+    religion of
+  Secondary sex traits
+  Secretin
+  Secretion
+  Sella turcica
+  Semon, Sir Felix
+  Senility, epoch of endocrine deficiency
+    interpretation of
+  Sensitivity
+  Sex
+    and lime salts
+    attitudes towards questions of
+    cause of
+    chemistry of
+    characteristics, secondary
+    conflict
+    crises
+    difficulties, pituitary and
+    glands, see Gonads
+      and hair
+      and puberty
+      and muscles
+      centered
+      chain
+    index
+    instinct
+      different from maternal instinct
+    libido
+    life, determining factors of
+    mixed, and the family
+    rhythms of
+    traits, or characteristics
+      endocrine
+      origin of
+      primary
+    secondary
+  Sexual cravings
+    glands, see Gonads, and Sex glands
+      and pituitary gland
+  Sexuality, and gonads
+    and adrenal glands
+  Shaw, G.B.
+  Shell-shock
+  Skeletal types
+  Skin
+    adrenal type
+    and adrenals
+    hyperpituitary type
+    hyperthyroid type
+    pigmentation
+    subadrenal type
+    subpituitary type
+    subthyroid type
+  Slavery, Malthusian law of
+    origin of
+  Soul, chemistry of the
+  Starling
+  Statesman, problems of
+    why he fails
+  Stature, pituitary and
+  Status lymphaticus, and thymus type
+  Steinach
+  Stirner, Max
+  Subadrenal skin
+  Subpituitary skin
+  Subpituitary type of women
+    premenstrual molimina in
+  Subpituitism
+  Subthyroid face
+    skin
+    type
+      of eyes
+      of women, pregnancy in
+  Subthyroidism
+  Sugar metabolism
+  Super-Careerist
+  Susceptibility
+  Sympathetic system
+
+  Teeth
+  Tethelin
+    action of
+    function of
+  Thymic face
+  Thymo-centric personalities
+  Thymo-centric type
+    Oscar Wilde
+  Thymus
+    and gonads
+    and pituitary
+    and puberty
+    and sexual glands
+    and thyroid
+    effect of castration on
+    effect of feeding thymus to animals
+    extirpation of
+    function of
+    hair and
+    hyperactivity of
+    infancy, epoch of the
+    persistent, skin of
+    relation of fatigue to
+    relation of growth to
+    relation of weight to
+    removal of, effect on gonads
+    secretion
+    type of teeth
+  Thymus type
+    homosexuality and
+    moral irresponsibility and
+    status lymphaticus and
+  Thyroid gland
+    and adrenals
+    and baldness
+    and energy
+    and enthusiasm
+    and intersitial glands
+    and judgment
+    and memory
+    and pancreas
+    and pituitary
+  Thyroid gland and puberty
+    and rejuvenation
+    and skin
+    and thymus
+    antitoxic function of
+    as an accelerator
+    as a catalyser
+    as a differentiator
+    as an energiser
+    compared with pituitary
+    creator of land animals
+    deficiency
+    effect of feeding the gland
+    excess
+    functions of
+    hair and
+    instincts
+    personalities
+    secretion of, and see Thyroxin
+    type, of eyes
+    of hands
+    of muscles
+    of teeth
+  Thyroid-centered type
+  Thyrotoxin
+  Thyroxin
+    and energy mobilization
+    and energy production
+    and speed of living
+  Toes
+    pituitary and
+    thyroid and
+  Tonus
+  Types
+    endocrine
+    adrenal
+    adrenal-centered
+    alcoholism and
+    combinations of
+    cretinoid
+    criminals and
+    diseases and
+    drug addiction and
+    facial
+    hyperthyroid
+    mixed
+    narcotism and
+    of girls
+    pituitary,
+    pituitary-centered
+    pure
+    skeletal,
+    subthyroid
+    thyroid-centered
+  Unconscious, the
+    and the viscera
+    physical basis of
+  Undersecretion
+  Variation
+    endocrine glands as basis of
+  Varieties of internal secretions
+  Vegetative apparatus
+  Vegetative pressures
+    internal secretions
+    determinants of
+  Vegetative system
+    education of
+  Virilism
+  Viscera
+    the unconscious and
+  Vocational education
+
+  War neurosis
+  Weight relation of thymus to
+  White races
+    endocrine control in
+  Wilde, Oscar
+    explanation of
+  Wishes
+    endocrine charging of
+    physics of
+  Women
+    adrenal type of
+    masculinoid
+    secondary sex characteristics in
+
+  X-chromosome
+
+  Yellow races
+    endocrine control in
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glands Regulating Personality
+by Louis Berman, M.D.
+
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+Project Gutenberg's The Glands Regulating Personality, by Louis Berman, M.D.
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Glands Regulating Personality
+
+Author: Louis Berman, M.D.
+
+Release Date: November 25, 2003 [EBook #10266]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, Josephine Paolucci and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY
+
+A STUDY OF THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION IN RELATION TO THE TYPES
+OF HUMAN NATURE
+
+BY LOUIS BERMAN, M.D.
+
+ASSOCIATE IN BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
+
+1922
+
+
+The passage from the miracles of nature to those of art is easy.
+
+--Francis Bacon, _Novum Organum_, 1620.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION: ATTITUDES TOWARD HUMAN NATURE
+  I.    HOW THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION WERE DISCOVERED
+  II.   THE GLANDS: THYROID AND PITUITARY
+  III.  THE ADRENAL GLANDS, GONADS, AND THYMUS
+  IV.   THE GLANDS AS AN INTERLOCKING DIRECTORATE
+  V.    HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE NORMAL BODY
+  VI.   THE MECHANICS OF THE MASCULINE AND FEMININE
+  VII.  THE RHYTHMS OF SEX
+  VIII. HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE MIND
+  IX.   THE BACKGROUNDS OF PERSONALITY
+  X.    THE TYPES OF PERSONALITY
+  XI.   SOME HISTORIC PERSONAGES
+  XII.  APPLICATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES
+  XIII. THE EFFECT UPON HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+
+
+THE GLANDS REGULATING PERSONALITY
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+ATTITUDES TOWARD HUMAN NATURE
+
+
+THE CASE AGAINST HUMAN NATURE
+
+Man, know thyself, said the old Greek philosopher. Man perforce has
+taken that advice to heart. His life-long interest is his own species.
+In the cradle he begins to collect observations on the nature of
+the queer beings about him. As he grows, the research continues,
+amplifies, broadens. Wisdom he measures by the devastating accuracy
+of the data he accumulates. When he declares he knows human nature,
+consciously cynical maturity speaks. Doctor of human nature--every
+man feels himself entitled to that degree from the university
+of disillusioning experience. In defense of his claim, only the
+limitations of his articulate faculty will curb the vehemence of his
+indictment of his fellows.
+
+For all history provides the material, literature the critique,
+biology the inexorable logic of the case against human nature. The
+historical record is a spectacle of man destroying man, a collection
+of chapters on man's increasing cruelty to man. Limitations of time
+and space have been shortened and eliminated. Tools of production have
+been multiplied and complicated. The sources of energy and power have
+been systematically attacked and trapped. But the nature of man has
+remained so unchanged that clap trap about progress is easy target for
+the barrage of every cheap pamphleteer.
+
+The naturalist probes into codes of conduct, systems of morality,
+structures of societies, variations in the scales of value that
+individuals, races and nations have subjected themselves to as custom,
+law and religion. Again and again the portrait is presented of
+man preying upon man, of cunning a parasite upon stupidity and of
+predatory strength enslaving the weakling intellect. Until finally are
+evoked reactions and consequences that overtake in catastrophe and
+cataclysm preyer and preyed upon alike.
+
+Human nature is but part of the magnificent tree of beast nature. Man
+is linked by every tie of blood and bone and cell memories with his
+brethren of the sea, the jungle, the forest and the fields. The beast
+is a seeker of freedom, but a seeker for his own ego alone, and the
+satisfaction of his own instincts only. Thus he struggles to a sort of
+freedom which makes him the Ishmael of the Universe, everyone's hand
+against him, as his own hand is against everyone. The human animal has
+achieved no advance beyond the necessities of his ancestors, nor freed
+himself from his bondage to their instincts and automatic reflexes.
+And so the sociologist, the analyst of human associations, turns out
+to be simply the historian and accountant of slaveries.
+
+Yet the history of mankind is, too, a long research into the nature
+of the machinery of freedom. All recorded history, indeed, is but
+the documentation of that research. Viewed thus, customs, laws,
+institutions, sciences, arts, codes of morality and honor, systems
+of life, become inventions, come upon, tried out, standardized,
+established until scrapped in everlasting search for more and more
+perfect means of freeing body and soul from their congenital thralldom
+to a host of innumerable masters. Indeed, the history of all life,
+vegetable and animal, of bacillus, elephant, orchid, gorilla, as well
+as of man is the history of a searching for freedom.
+
+Freedom! What to a living creature is freedom? How completely has it
+dominated the life history of every creature that ever crawled upon
+the earth? Trace our cellular pedigree, descend our family tree to its
+rootlets, our amebic ancestors, and the craving for more freedom is
+manifest in the soul of even the lowest, buried in darkness and slime.
+When the first clever bit of colloidal ooze, protoplasm as the ameba,
+protruded a bit of itself as a pseudopod, it achieved a new freedom.
+For, accidentally or deliberately, it created for itself a new
+power--the ability to go directly for food in its environment, instead
+of waiting, patiently, passively, as the plant does, for food to just
+happen along. Therewith developed in place of the previous quietist
+pacifist, quaker attitude toward its surroundings, a new religion, a
+new tone: aggressive, predatory, careerist.
+
+That adventure was a great step forward for the ameba--a miracle that
+freed it forever from the danger of death by starvation. But latent
+in that move were all the terrible possibilities of the tiger, the
+alligator, the wolf and all the varieties of predaceous beast and
+plant, parasitism and slavery. The device that enabled the ameba to
+change its position in space of its own will, and so increased its
+freedom immeasureably, meant the generation of infinite evil, pain,
+suffering and degradation for billions in the womb of time.
+
+THE BREEDING OF INFERIORITY
+
+Human history, being a continuation of vertebrate history, is full of
+similar instances. The invention of the stock company, for example,
+furnished a certain relative freedom to hundreds, a certain amount of
+leisure to think and play, and independence to travel and record, and
+immunity from a daily routine and drudgery. In turn, it bore fruit in
+miseries and horrors multiplied for millions, like those of the child
+lacemakers of Mid-Victorian England, who were dragged from their beds
+at two or three o'clock in the morning to work until ten or eleven at
+night in the services of a stock company.
+
+A corporation is said to have no soul. The struggle for freedom of
+every living thing has no conscience. Throughout the living world,
+from ameba to man, parasitism and slavery together with their
+by-products, physical and spiritual degeneracy, appear as the after
+effects of the more vital individual's efforts to remain alive and
+free. The origins of slavery may be seen in the parasitisms of the
+infectious diseases which kill man. The change from parasitism to
+slavery was an inevitable step of creative intelligence. In the
+transition evolution made one of those breaks which it indulges in
+periodically as its mode of progress.
+
+The natural effect of slavery has been a selection of two sorts of
+individuals along the lines of the survival of the adapted. It has
+tended to perpetuate in the breed the qualities of the strong which
+would make them stronger, and certain qualities in the weak which
+would increase their weakness. For parasitism and likewise slavery
+infallibly entail the degradation of certain structures and an
+overgrowth of others by the law of use and disuse. The type of organ
+which would function normally, were not its possessor parasitic in
+that function, invariably degenerates or disappears. Parasitic insects
+lose their wings. An entire anatomical system may even be lost. So the
+tapeworm, which feeds upon the digested food present in the intestines
+of its host, has no alimentary canal of its own because it needs none.
+On the other hand, the organs of attack and combat grow by a constant
+use into the most remarkable of efficient weapons.
+
+In human society the process continues. Out of the tapeworm nature,
+the tiger nature, the wolf nature, the simian nature, human nature
+evolves. Repeated episodes of subjugation and suppression mixed with
+countless incidents of predaceous cupidity and rapacity have made
+Man what he is today. Indeed, by a sort of instinct, society has
+constructed its institutions upon empirical observations and
+assumptions agreeing with this principle. The deductions concerning
+human nature and human traits that an interplanetary visitor would
+draw from a study of our common law would be at least slightly
+humiliating to our incorrigible pride. Law courts, codes of civil
+contract and criminal procedure, the systems of subordination in
+armies and navies, castes and classes, men and women, employers and
+employees, teachers and pupils, parents and children, are based upon
+the fundamental, the conservative axiom that man, especially the
+common plain man (Lincoln's phrase), is a being incurably lazy,
+stupid, dishonest, muddled, cowardly, greedy, restless, obsessed with
+a low cunning and a selfish callousness and insensibility to the
+sufferings of his fellow creatures, animal and human.
+
+Why is it that Man, the noblest creature of creation, made in the
+image of God, capable of the flights of attainment that distinguish a
+Christ, a Caesar, a Plato, a Shakespeare, a Shelley, a Newton, is so
+described, not alone by hopeless pessimists like Koheleth, Swift, and
+Mark Twain, but by the common law, the common opinion, the common
+assumptions of mankind? Because the development of slavery and
+parasitism in human society, the subjection of the weak to the strong,
+the dull and base to the clever and headstrong, set up a vicious
+cycle: the liberation of more energy for the making of more and
+more slaves and the propagation of slaves and slave qualities in a
+geometrically increasing proportion.
+
+This might be called the _Malthusian law of slavery_. For the
+qualities that I have named as man's own characterization of himself
+are the qualities of the slave and the slave-soul. Nietzche took great
+pains to repeat ad nauseam that these qualities were the qualities of
+the slave. But by burdening himself with the hypothesis, evolved from
+his inner consciousness, that the slaves imposed from below a morality
+of weakness upon their masters, he missed the really obvious process
+by which slaves beget more slaves, slavery begets more slavery, and
+the slave-soul becomes universal. That process is the simple action
+of physical and spiritual reproduction of the slaves. The subnormal
+begets the subnormal, the inferior begets the inferior.
+
+Slavery appeared as an invention of the would-be-free. It was a
+brilliant flash of genius of a seeker after freedom. However, it
+became a boomerang. By multiplication and hereditary transmission, the
+inferiority and the number of the slaves created a new overwhelming
+problem for the superior few, the upper crust of the free. At last the
+problem grew into the problem of problems, the problem of government,
+that threatened all freedom, as an epidemic disease threatens even
+the most healthy. Government, at first organized for conquest and
+subjugation, had to change its character until it became more and more
+to consist of experiments in a new social machinery that would free
+somebody of the incubus. So through the centuries, one technique of
+liberty after another was tested in the laboratory of experience.
+
+But always the attempts are so muddled, because the problem is not
+grasped. Muddledom is the essence of the slave-soul. And the
+essence infiltrates and poisons the whole atmosphere in which the
+would-be-free think and act. Kings' heads are chopped off, a whole
+class is guillotined, reform movements come and go, the masters fight
+every inch of their retreat, and pile stratagem upon stratagem, device
+upon device, to retain their spoils.
+
+The democratic formula of freedom for all comes to the fore. So at
+last universal suffrage is introduced as the panacea. Freedom seems
+within grasp. Now it looks as if a method and an objective have been
+hit upon, that will lead both the free and the enslaved out of their
+mutual bondage, and release the handcuffs which have bound them
+together. All the trial and error tests to which history had subjected
+institutions appeared to culminate in the formula that would
+automatically yield Liberty. The French wanted a little more and added
+Equality and Fraternity. The Americans put it quite definitely as the
+formula that would assist the Pursuit of Life, Liberty, and Happiness.
+That formula is: the _democracy of the normals_.
+
+To be sure, a civilization might be organized for the breeding and the
+glorification of the supernormals. Such a civilization may yet have to
+be tried. But as the supernormals, as we know them today, are merely
+biologic sports, in a sense, simple accidents, no one can tell whether
+they will turn out true shots or just flashes in the pan. So it looks
+the better course to stick to the plan of nature, which seems to be
+the raising of the level of the normals, and the gradual increase of
+their faculties and powers.
+
+WHAT THE STATESMAN IS UP AGAINST
+
+Under the terms of the democratic formula the problems of the
+statesman seem to become enormously simplified. That is, if one
+assumes that he has worked out a perfectly clear idea of what
+a democracy means and what the normal means. Assuming these
+unassumables, his problem simplifies into the definite object of
+producing and developing the greatest possible number of normals--or
+if you will, the greatest happiness of the greatest number of normal
+lives.
+
+Furthermore you then begin to have the entirely novel possibility in
+the world: some sort of collective effort for a collective purpose,
+beyond the personal greeds and fears, factions and hatreds. So the
+state, instead of fulfilling its old function of serving as the tool
+of certain powerful individuals, latterly known as the Big Men, might
+be transformed into an instrument toward freedom. With the ideal of a
+democracy of the normals ever before him, the statesman could go on
+to construct and modify his social machinery. That would entail the
+satisfaction not alone of the animal needs, but also the highest
+aspirations and therefore the provision of the finest conditions of
+life for the normal: those most favorable, stimulative, and assistant
+to creative activity. For what else is the content of the idea of
+freedom?
+
+Without committing the intellectual sin which William James named
+Vicious Abstractionism, the goal of the clearest progressive and
+liberal thought and forces of the twentieth century might be summed
+up as this freedom in a democracy of normals. A good formula which
+coincides with the technique of nature in the evolution of species.
+A fair fight, a free-for-all who are unhandicapped, is the motto
+of natural selection. Where civilization shakes hands with natural
+instinct, what but the happiest of results can be expected?
+
+Unfortunately, the formula in human society possesses an Achilles'
+heel. Again it is slavery. Where slavery has become bred into the
+bone, the standard of the normal becomes reduced so tremendously that
+the average of normals, the majority, are hopelessly inferior. In
+effect, they are really subnormal. So the ideal of our ideal statesman
+is bound to be defeated because of the inadequacy of his material.
+
+No matter how interested in his main business: the promotion of
+freedom for creative activities in a democracy of the normals, he is
+bound to be beaten by the majority consisting of subnormals. There is
+nothing left for him but to cater to the minority of careerists, the
+one-eighth of the electorate representing superior intelligence. The
+intelligence tests employed in the War showed that and also that
+forty-five per cent of the examined, or about one half the total
+population, had a mental capacity, or natural ability that would never
+develop beyond the stage normal to a twelve-year-old child. They are
+doomed to remain forever subnormal.
+
+THE CAREERISTS AS THE ABNORMALS
+
+The careerists are those who practice the careerist religion. The
+careerist religion is the religion par excellence of modernity.
+Someone once said, with the perfect candor of the North American, that
+America is the land of opportunity. He meant that America is the land
+of the Careerist or, as it has also been put, it is the land of the
+man on the make. The careerist, or the man on the make, is of a
+thousand genera and species, varieties and subvarieties, with
+transition links between. One finds him at every level of society.
+
+Excepting a negligible minority, the feminine career of today (as of
+the last ten thousand years of the race's history) consists in the
+acquisition of a husband. After that she is so identified with him
+that her own life, as something distinct, individual and unique,
+becomes blurred and then completely erased. The feminine careerist,
+the careeristina, if you will, is a definite type. Consider the
+unimportance of a collective purpose to the woman whose career is the
+mate, and then the mate's career. All the kinks and twists of the
+feminine mind, resulting from the necessities of that fundamental
+primary problem, would form a multitudinous and interesting list. The
+most successful careeristinas are the absolutely unconscious ones
+because they are not passively besieged nor actively bombarded by any
+doubts as to what they want. They play their game exceedingly well as
+do not the quasi-rebels and faint-hearted revoltees that form no small
+percentage of the Newest Women. For a number of women the feminist
+movement has been an attempt to break away from the traditions of
+the wife-careerist, and to strike a line of auto-careerism. Can
+the careeristina instinct, the fruit of the practice of so many
+generations, be uprooted by the good intentions of a mere statesman?
+
+But the masculine careerist is a marvelous creature. He is a biologic
+sport, an abnormal variation. New York is the place to watch and
+study him in his thousands and tens of thousands. You can observe
+him climbing, climbing, climbing, precisely as an ant climbs a tree.
+Nothing can really discourage or sway him from his chosen path. If he
+is not getting on financially, he is getting on socially, or he is
+using the one method of advance to help him with the other. How the
+line of least resistance and greatest advantage is determined for and
+taken by him is a fascinating process.
+
+The careerist instinct, the inherited flair for a career, must not be
+confounded with the instincts of self-preservation, self-expansion
+or self-expression, because they are utterly different. Indeed, the
+careerist instinct is often their direct antagonist, clashing with and
+dominating them. The making of the career involves the distortion, the
+mutilation, degradation, degeneration or even the complete suppression
+of the true personality. But it is all instinctive. To consider the
+life of the careerist as an expression of instinct will explain too
+the success of so many who have no inner awareness of what they want.
+These go straight for the career, looking neither to the right nor
+to the left, without doubt or hesitation, just as they go for the
+respiration business as soon as they are born.
+
+Then there is the Super-Careerist. Ordinarily, the careerist is rather
+obvious, easily recognizable, with diaphanous motives and conduct. But
+there is another and rarer bird, the careerist of talent, even the
+careerist of genius, whom it is not so easy to see through. Clever and
+brainy, he may be a good all around trifler, or his specific gift for
+some line of achievement may make him more effective. There is nothing
+he may not call himself: conservative, liberal, progressive, or
+radical. Often he is an agnostic about social and political affairs
+and problems, which passes for the indecision of the open mind, and is
+quite handy to render him all things to all men. But perpetually, the
+underlying careerist instinct drives him to use all men and women, all
+ideas and movements and forces he comes in contact with for his own
+personal advancement, just as the slave making instinct guides the red
+ant in all its activities to procure its captives. Ideas do not make a
+hero out of him, but he makes heroes of ideas, because they serve him
+in his ascent.
+
+Because he is the most subtle, the most complex and the most deceptive
+type of careerist, he is the most dangerous to the adventure and
+speculation in intellect which mankind is. To say that he is a wolf in
+sheepskin is to be unjust to him, since he is most successful when he
+is most unaware of his own charlatanry. He is most sincere when he
+is most insincere, and most truthful when he lies best. A little
+self-consciousness of hypocrisy is a corrupting thing, much of it
+completely incompatible with the most successful careerism. Tartuffe
+is always applauded by the world when he plays Hamlet, if he really
+believes in himself as Hamlet. And, as all he has to do, if he is at
+all talented, is to look into his glass and see himself in the part,
+he carries it off very well.
+
+WHY THE STATESMAN FAILS
+
+Slaves and careerists, subnormals and abnormals, are the important
+elements of the constituency of every modern statesman. The financial
+and social careerists as business men, professionals, artists,
+publicists, presidents of countries, politicians, philosophers
+dominate his outlook, his plans, his horizon. The slaves, the
+inferiors, the subnormals exist merely to be exploited by them. No
+one questions the causes of the multiplicity of them. No one asks why
+there are so many little lives. For a fundamentally minded statesman
+the control of the production of the careerist, why he is produced,
+and how he may be prevented, becomes the primary problem of his art.
+
+Well, you say, what are you going to do about it? That is human
+nature. The Evils of Human Nature! There is the perpetual answer to be
+repeated by our clever editors unto Eternity. You cannot get away from
+human nature. It is human nature to be a careerist. It is human nature
+to put the immediate triumphs of the self and its pleasures above
+the more indirect, the more remote and distant benefits of a great,
+wonderful, free community. We are all careerists. In so far as
+democracy has succeeded as a form, it has persisted because there was
+in it for the common man the promise of his getting more out of life
+that way than any other way. For himself. And the devil take the
+others. The myopia of such crude selfishness continues to determine
+his politics to this very day. And so he proceeds to vote for favors
+bestowed and patronage past or potential. That is, when he does not
+throw his ballot away altogether into the fire of family habit,
+sectional inertia, or race prejudice.
+
+Again you say, that is human nature. It is human nature for us to
+be narrow, to be confined within the circle of personal thought and
+desire, without imagination for the beyond. So the calf is limited in
+its wanderings to the radius of the rope by which it is tethered. The
+servile soul will always be submissive and docile, greedy and stupid.
+What else could you expect from the descendant of the solitary beast
+who once lived for thousands of years in caves? Without servility of
+the soul, without chains for the spirit of the wild animal against
+the world, men could never have been driven to live together for
+twenty-four hours in communities.
+
+The conception of human quality out of which all social machinery has
+been devised and built is a conception of slave quality and careerist
+quality. As we are all caught in the net, as the unconscious memories
+of our slave and careerist ancestors flow in our blood and echo in our
+cells, all we can do is accept it and work with it. Human nature is an
+incurable disease. Like Jehovah's definition of Himself, it is, it has
+been, and ever will be. Everywhere the same, always the same, forever
+the same, there is no way out.
+
+POOR HUMAN NATURE
+
+All of these strictures upon poor human nature are exceedingly
+delightful to our careerists. Every unpleasant social fact, every
+outrage to our best instincts, every exhibition of incapacity,
+incompetency, inefficiency, indifference, every example of
+super-criminal negligence is pardoned as an effect of that universal
+sin, human nature. Take the case of the statesman and the diplomats
+who failed to prevent the Great War, though they saw it coming for
+years, and who should therefore all, Entente as well as German,
+American as well as Japanese, be indicted for their criminal
+negligence, precisely as a physician would be for failure to report
+and stop the spread of an epidemic disease. All these crimes of
+omission and commission are excused on the plea that it was all due to
+human nature, and that what can be blamed on human nature in general
+can be blamed on no one in particular.
+
+Poor human nature! Flagellated on every hand, what are we to do with
+it? Why is the careerist so numerous and ubiquitous? Why does the
+slave-soul infiltrate like a cancer the soul of society with its black
+fluid? Is freedom, the divine idea, nothing but the toy of an orator
+to the majority, a distant star in the night to a helpless minority?
+Yet the instinct to freedom, the appetite for freedom, flickers
+through the centuries as a fitful flame, though snuffed out by every
+gust of class passion, every wind of mob resentment, and every storm
+of national jealousy. Though the inferior subnormals multiply into
+great sheep majorities, and the careerists, like Napoleon, morbid
+variants, involve millions in their disease, the idea of freedom
+persists obstinately. Have we any reason for regarding it as other
+than an illusion?
+
+If freedom is an illusion, we must admit the doom of democracy. And no
+Wagnerian crashes of orchestration mitigate the tragedy of the scene
+as our eyes are opened to the twilight of our new gods. For what other
+social methods are there left to us? In the struggle against nature's
+barriers upon human aspiration for perfect satisfactions, it looks as
+though every other method has failed us.
+
+In the past, refined aristocracies and benevolent despotisms have
+failed as miserably as our democracies are now failing and as we are
+sure crude anarchism and communism would. Their inferiority has thrown
+them on the scrap heap. As for our present ways of government as a
+permanent method, the storage of power in the hands of the Clever Few.
+War burns in the lesson of how little the careerist regards either
+the subnormal or supernormal. He condemns them all sooner or later to
+wholesale slavery and carnage.
+
+Is man then never to be the architect of his own destiny? Are we to
+surrender our faith in the future of our kind to the spectacle of a
+miserable species sentenced by its own nature to self-destruction? We
+thought to rise upon the wings of knowledge and beauty, lured by
+the mysteries of color and the magic of design and the might of the
+intellect and its words, that have transfigured life into the greatest
+adventure ever attempted in time and space. But we find ourselves
+merely another experiment, intricate and rather long drawn out, to be
+sure, with marvelous pyrotechnics, magnificent effects here and there,
+but bound to eliminate itself in the end, to make stuff for the
+museums of the real conqueror of the stars yet to come. We are
+condemned to be classed with the dodo and the mammoth by the coming
+discoverer of an escape from the slave and careerist. And so let
+us resign ourselves to fate. Let us eat of the humble bread of the
+stoic's consolation in the face of the mocking laughter of the gods,
+let us admit that Mind in Man has unconsciously but irretrievably
+willed its own self-annihilation. What remains for us except to beat
+our breasts and proclaim: So be it, O Lord, so be it?
+
+MAN AS A TRANSIENT
+
+Yet, true as it is that the human animal has achieved no advance
+beyond the necessities of his ancestors, nor freed himself from his
+bondage to their instincts and automatic reflexes, is there no way out
+anywhere? Is there perhaps some ground for hope and consolation in the
+thought that we, of the twentieth century, no longer see ourselves,
+Man, as something final and fixed? Darwin changed Fate from a static
+sphinx into a chameleon flux. Just as certainly as man has arisen from
+something whose bones alone remain as reminders of his existence, we
+are persuaded man himself is to be the ancestor of another creature,
+differing as much from him as he from the Chimpanzi, and who, if he
+will not supplant and wipe him out, will probably segregate him and
+allow him to play out his existence in cage cities.
+
+The vision of this After-man or From-man is really about as helpful to
+us as the water of the oasis mirage is to the lost dying of thirst
+in the desert. The outcries of the wretched and miserable, the
+gray-and-dreary lived din an unmanageable tinnitus in our ears. Like
+God, it may be but a large, vague idea toward which we grope to
+snuggle up against. It seems implicit in the doctrines of evolution.
+But how do we know that in man the spiral of life has not reached its
+apex, and that now, even now, the vortices of its descent are not
+beginning? How do we know that the From-man is to be a Superman and
+not a Subman? How can we dare to hope that the slave-beast-brute is to
+give birth to an heir, fine and free and superior?
+
+We do not know and we have every indication and induction for the most
+oppositely contrary conclusions. Life has blundered supremely, in,
+while making brains its darling, forgetting or helplessly surrendering
+to the egoisms of alimentation. So it has spawned a conflict between
+its organs, and a consequent impasse in which the lower centres drive
+the higher pitilessly into devising means and instruments for the
+suicide of the whole.
+
+As War shows plainly to the most stupidly gross imagination, the germs
+of our own self-destruction as a species saturate our blood. The
+probability looms with almost the certainty of a syllogistic
+deduction, that such will be the outcome to our hundreds of thousands
+of years of pain upon earth. In the face of that, speculations upon
+a comet or gaseous emanations hitting the planet, or the sun growing
+cold, become babyish fancies. How clearly the possibility is pointed
+in the discussions about the use in the next War of bacterial bombs
+containing the bacilli of cholera, plague, dysentery and many others!
+What influenza did in destroying millions, they can repeat a thousand
+times and ten thousand times. What else the laboratories will bring
+forth, of which no man dreams, in the way of destructive agents acting
+at long distance, upon huge masses and over any extent of territory,
+is presaged in that single example. But besides thus willing, by an
+inner necessity, its own annihilation, Life, in the very structure
+and machinery of its being, seems caught into the entanglements of an
+inescapable net, an eternity-long bondage it can never rip, to flee
+and remake itself into the immortal image that is its God.
+
+And so there go by the board the last alleviations of those unbeatable
+optimists who would soothe their aching souls with at least the drop
+of comfort: that if man is a mortal species, with not the slightest
+prospect of a continuing immortality, not to mention a glorious future
+and destiny, there are others. Man, after all, may be simply a bad
+habit Life will succeed in shaking off. No philosophy or religion can
+afford to be anthropocentric merely. It must include all life and all
+living things to which we are blood-related. There are other species
+or latent species to take up the torch that burned poor homo sapiens
+and ascend the heights. The ant and bee may yet mutate along certain
+lines that would make them the masters of the universe.
+
+But no matter what species or variety gets the upper hand in the
+struggle for survival and power, the implications of the qualities
+necessary to victory in conflicts of individual separate pieces of
+protoplasm will be there. Besides, life is always begotten of life.
+That is why synthetic protoplasm is nothing but a phrase. It is
+impossible to conceive of something alive, possessed of the property
+of remembering, that is not possessed of a store of past experiences.
+You can no more think of getting rid of these unconscious memories of
+protoplasm than you can think of getting rid of the wetness of water.
+They are imbedded in the most intimate chemistry of the primeval ameba
+as well as in our most complex tissues.
+
+The memories of the cold lone fish and the hot predatory carnivor who
+were our begetters, may haunt us to the end of time. The bee and the
+ant, too, have woven inextricably into the woof of their cells the
+instincts that sooner or later would send their brain ganglia,
+even when evolved to the pitch of perfection, to elaborating the
+self-and-species murdering inventions and discoveries that are
+apparently destined to slay us. The powers of unconscious memory and
+unlearnable technique of reaction to experience, once grooved, thus
+prove the great gift and the eternal curse of protoplasm. Making it
+possible for it to be and become what it is and has, they have
+also made it forever impossible for it to be or become its own
+contradiction.
+
+Add to this unsloughable remembrance of the past, for better, for
+worse, the secretive consciousness of its present needs every living
+thing, as against every other living thing, is obsessed with. As a
+peregrinating, finite, spatially limited being, it is separated from
+all other living beings by inorganic, dead masses, and yet driven to
+contact with them by a fundamental impulse to assimilate them into
+itself, and make them part of itself. That assimilatory urge is
+present in every activity from coarse ingestion as food to the moral
+metabolism of the hermit-saint who would influence others to do as he.
+
+FATE AND ANTI-FATE
+
+In effect the history of Life resembles the life history of the
+smallest things we know of, the electrons, and the largest, the great
+suns and stars of space. The electron begins, perhaps, as a swirl in
+the primeval ether, joins other electrons, forms colonies, cities,
+empires, elements of an increasing complexity, through stages of a
+relative stability, like lead or gold. Until it reaches the stage of
+integration which wills its own disintegration, that we have been
+taught to look upon with proper awe and reverence as radium. And we
+are told that nebulae wander until they collide and give birth to
+stars, stars wander and collide and give birth to nebulae. Life begins
+as a quivering colloid, goes on painfully to build a brain, which
+automatically refines itself to the point of discovering and using
+the most efficient methods of destroying others, and by a boomerang
+effect, itself. Fate!
+
+The conception of Fate was a Greek idea. The classic formula for
+tragedy, the struggle of Man with the sequence of cause and effect
+within him and without, that is so utterly beyond his grasp and ken,
+or power to modify, originated with them. But they must also be given
+the credit for having conceived an idea and started a process which,
+at first slowly and gropingly, now slipping and falling, torn and
+bleeding among the thorns of the dark forest of human motives,
+presently goes on, with a firmer, more practiced, more confident step,
+to emerge into the light as the deliberate Conqueror of Fate. That
+idea-process, this Anti-Fate is Science.
+
+Science began with the adventures of free-thinking speculators, who
+revolted against religious cosmogonies and superstitions. Sceptics
+concerning the knowledge that was the accepted monopoly of the
+priesthood must have existed in the oldest civilization we know
+anything of, more than twenty-five thousand years ago, the
+Aurignacians. But it was to the Greeks that we owe that amalgamation
+of curiosity delivered of fear, that merger of systematic research
+and critical thinking untrammelled by social inhibitions which is the
+essence of modern science. Out of them has come the great Tree of
+Knowledge of our time, which is, too, the only Ygdrasil of Life,
+undying because it lives upon successive generations of human brain
+cells.
+
+Science, as the pursuit of the real, began with very small things by
+men with very small intentions. Inventories, collections of isolated
+data, something permanent for the mind out of the flux of transient
+sensations, little tracks and foot paths in the jungle of phenomena,
+were their goal. With no sense of themselves as the mightiest of
+master-builders, cultivating humility toward their material at any
+rate, the little men ploughed their little fields, striking the oil
+of a great generalization or classification or explanation with no
+fanfare of trumpets.
+
+First as freaks and cranks, then as scholars and pedants, then
+protected and perhaps stimulated under the competitive royal patronage
+as societies and academies, they prepared for the harvest. Comparing
+them to pioneer farmers sowing an undeveloped territory is really
+totally inadequate and inaccurate. For the most part, they were like
+coral makers, laboriously constructing, with no vision, certainly no
+sustained vision, of the whole. To the practical men of affairs, the
+shopkeepers and traders, the land-owners and ship-owners, the soldiers
+and sailors, the statesmen and politicians, the people who specialized
+in maneuvering human beings and materials, they were, for this
+futile devotion to abstract knowledge, marked ridiculous and absurd
+weaklings, mollycoddles, babies, not to be trusted with the demands
+and dangers of public life.
+
+But it so happened remarkably late in history that with the discovery
+of the possibilities of coal there was a great boom in the demand for
+industrial machinery. At the same time there were thrown up the most
+marvelous advances in physics and chemistry. Recurring War became not
+the clashes of mercenary armies, but the catapulting of whole nations
+at each other. New destructive devices out of the laboratories were
+raised into the commandants of the course of history. Then science
+acquired prestige.
+
+Science as King, science as power, looms as the great new figure, the
+overshadowing novel factor, in practical statesmanship. Unlike the
+factor X in the traditional equation, it is the known factor par
+excellence, the factor by which the value of all the other factors
+of human life will be ascertained and solved. As knowledge of the
+conditions determining all life, it stands as the courageous David of
+the race against the Goliath territory of the uncontrollable and the
+inevitable, even the unknowable. Human history resolves itself into
+the drama: Science contra Fate. Quite a change from the vaudeville
+show of the restless personal ambitions of vindictive fools and greedy
+scoundrels, the mischief and adventures of half-witted geniuses and
+licensed rogues that have been figures of the prologue.
+
+The future of science has become the future of the race. So much of
+an inkling of the truth is beginning to be appreciated. That is
+ordinarily taken to mean that the process by which the Wessex man
+became the New York and London man, the accumulation of accidental
+discoveries and inspired inventions of scattered individuals, will go
+on, providing a succession of marvels and miracles for the careerist
+and his retinue. Not only is he to be entertained and served by them,
+but any commercial value will also be exploited by him. The natural
+wonders of the laboratories have taken the place of the supernatural
+absurdities of the medieval mind as a fillip for the imagination of
+the man in the street. Even spiritualism apes the technique of the
+physicist. The credulity of reporters alone concerning developments
+in surgery, for example, is incredible. There is enough rot published
+daily for a brief to be made out against the idolatry of science.
+
+THE RELIGION OF SCIENCE
+
+Science also as a religion, as a faith to bind men together, as a
+substitute for the moribund old mythologies and theologies which kept
+them sundered, is commencing to be talked of in a more serious tone.
+The wonder-maker may have forced upon him, may welcome, the honors
+of the priest, though he pose as the humble slave of Nature and her
+secrets. Presently the foundations and institutes, which coexist with
+the cathedrals and churches, just as once the new Christian chapels
+and congregations stood side by side with pagan temples and heathen
+shrines, may oust their rivals, and assume the monopoly of ritual.
+Should its spirit remain fine and clear, should it maintain the
+glorious promise of its dawn, should its high priests realize the
+perpetually widening intimations of its universal triumph, and escape
+the ossification that has overtaken all young and hopeful things and
+institutions, the real foundation for a future of the species would be
+laid, and so its ultimate suicide prevented.
+
+The time has gone by, however, for any complacent assurance that the
+redemption of mankind is to be attained by a new religion of words.
+There is no doubt that the damnation or salvation of an individual has
+often been determined by a religious crisis, in which the magic of
+words have worked their witchery. There is plenty of evidence that a
+psychic conversion will effect an actual revolution in the whole way
+of living of the victim or patient, as you like it. William James,
+in his "Varieties of Religious Experience," established that pretty
+definitely. When it comes to groups, races, nations, the outlook is
+wholly different. There is a conflict of so many and diverse habits
+and interests, beliefs and prejudices, that hope for some common
+merely intellectual solvent for all of them is rather forlorn. If at
+all, the resolution of the conflict will come by a pooling of actual
+powers and interests, in which the religion of science will play
+the great part of the Liberator of mankind from the whole system of
+torments that have made the way of all flesh a path of rocks along
+which a manacled prisoner crawls to his doom.
+
+SCIENCE AND HUMAN NATURE
+
+Science has a future. The religion of science has a future. Can
+science assure us that human nature, in spite of its beast-brute-slave
+origins holds the possibility of a genuine transformation of its
+texture? Can Fate's stranglehold upon us be broken? There will be
+certainly a tremendous, an overwhelming increase in the general
+stock of informations we call physics and chemistry and biology. An
+abundance of new comforts, novel sensations, fresh experiences, and
+breath-bereaving devices that will thrill or heal, will follow of
+course in their wake. The religion of science will infiltrate
+and penetrate and permeate by its capillary action the barbaric
+superstitions, the ridiculous rites, the unsanitary insanities of our
+social systems.
+
+But what about the poor human soul itself, with its inherent vices
+and virtues, its fears and indulgences, audacities and nobilities,
+jealousies, shames, blunders, incurable likes, cravings and diseases?
+Can science change the texture of the slave and careerist, if they
+represent the subnormal and the abnormal? What about the Becky Sharps,
+the Mark Tapleys, and Tom Pinches, not to speak of the Nicholas
+Nicklebys and the Hamlets, the Micawbers and the Falstaffs? What
+future have they as they recur in the generations? Indeed, does not
+the very fact of their recurrence, of them and of the hundreds of
+other types and temperaments, point implacably to the conclusion to
+which the historian, the philosopher and the biologist have driven us:
+that in the grip of an endless chain of pasts the human soul has no
+future?
+
+That may appear an irrelevant, an immaterial, and an incompetent
+question to our men of business and affairs. Human nature, as fallen
+angel or ape parvenu, has always looked upon itself as fixed for
+eternity. "Human nature never changes, and is everywhere and always
+will be the same." "As a man is built." "Bred in the bone." These are
+the axioms of our social and economic Euclids. Indeed, Man, assuming
+that his nature is as uncontrollable as the course of the stars, has
+limited his research into the substance of freedom to a groping for an
+understanding of the adequate external conditions of liberty. Thus he
+set himself another of the insoluble problems he seems to delight
+in by neglecting the most important factor in the equation. Yet the
+invisible soul of man, ignored, as a variable, varying quantity, has
+upset all societies and constitutions, and all schemes of bondage as
+well as of freedom.
+
+For freedom, it becomes obvious as soon as it is clearly stated, is
+sheer impossibility until the internal conditions of his nature
+are ascertained, and the way paved for their control. A simple
+illustration of the working of this principle is supplied by our
+democracies, grossly pretenders. How can a democracy be possible
+without a knowledge of the control of the individually and socially
+subnormal, who, since they offer themselves to exploitation by
+the careerists, prove themselves the weak links in the chain of
+co-operation with an equal opportunity for all, that is the democratic
+ideal? In what does the equality or inequality of men consist? Just
+what are the qualities necessary for successful competition, or if you
+will, co-living, of man with his fellow-men, and how and why do they
+operate? No freedom, independent of the servile repetitions of
+history and heredity, is conceivable until these inquiries have been
+elaborately carried out toward a certain working finality.
+
+THE PROMISES OF EUGENICS
+
+There are, to be sure, the claims and assertions and negative
+achievements of the youngest of the sciences, eugenics. They are
+invincible optimists, the eugenists: it is perhaps a case of a virtue
+born of necessity. Thus Francis Galton, in the preface to the "Bible
+of Eugenics," his essays on Hereditary Genius, declares: "There is
+nothing either in the history of domestic animals or in that of
+evolution to make us doubt that a race of sane men may be formed
+who shall be as much superior, mentally and morally, to the Modern
+European, as the Modern European is to the lowest of the Negro races."
+High hopes beat in this declaration. But Galton could not have
+foreseen that the signing of a scrap of paper by one of the Modern
+Europeans would let loose all the other Modern Europeans in a
+pandemonium of horrors the lowest of the Negro races could not but
+envy as a masterpiece of its kind. It seemed to be suspiciously easy
+for him to accept an excuse to slide down the dizzy height he had
+climbed from the African level.
+
+The eugenists would put their trust in the encouraged breeding of the
+best and the compulsory sterility of the rest. But what is the best,
+and who are the best, and where will you find them when they are not
+inextricably emulsified with the worst? It's a long, long way to the
+day of a segregating out and in of Mendelian unit-characters. Besides,
+this is a strange world of choices. Nobody is to be considered worthy
+of parenthood until he has fallen in love properly. Nobody who would
+permit an outsider's decision as to when he was properly in love would
+be worth thirty cents as a parent. There is the ultimate dilemma
+of the eugenist--the dilemma which destroys forever the dream of a
+control of parenthood from the point of view of merely psychic values.
+
+NEW PSYCHOLOGY
+
+There are the claims and outcries and promises of the
+psychologists--the specialists in the probing of the human soul and
+human nature. In our time, the demand for a dynamic psychology of
+process and becoming, psychology with an energy in it, has split them
+into two schools--the emphasizers of instinct and the subconscious,
+the McDougallians, and the pleaders for sex and the unconscious, the
+Freudians. A synthesis between these two groups is latent, since their
+differences are those of horizon merely. For the McDougallians look
+upon the world with two eyes and see it whole and broad--the Freudians
+see through their telescope a circular field and exclaim that they
+behold the universe. It is true that they own a telescope.
+
+But what has either to offer our quest for light on the future of
+the species? Nothing very much. Thus, to turn to the disciples
+of McDougall. In a recent volume entitled, "Human Nature and its
+Remaking," Professor William Ernest Hocking of Harvard contends that
+Man, all axioms about his nature to the contrary, is but a creature
+of habit, and so the most plastic of living things, since habit is
+self-controlled and self-determined. By the self-determination of the
+habits of the race will the new freedom be reborn. It sounds old,
+very old. And pathetic because it recognizes original and permanent
+ingredients of our composition in the words pugnacity, greed, sex,
+fear, as elements to be accepted in any system of the principles of
+civilization. It is the bubble of education all over again. What in
+our cells is pugnacity? What in our bones is greed? What in our
+blood is sex? What in our nerves is fear? Until these inquiries are
+respected, conscious character building or even stock breeding must
+remain the laughing stock of the smoking rooms and the regimental
+barracks.
+
+Come the Freudians. To them we owe the aeroplanes to a new universe.
+They have opened up for us the geology of the soul. Layer upon layer,
+cross-section upon cross-section have been piled before us. And what
+a melodramatic cinema of thrills and shivers, villains and heroes,
+heroines and adventuresses have they not unfolded. Each motive, as
+the stiff psychologist of the nineteenth century, with his
+plaster-of-Paris categories and pigeon holes and classifications,
+labelled the teeming creatures of the mind, becomes anon a strutting
+actor upon a multitudinous stage, and an audience in a crowded
+playhouse. Scenes are enacted the febrile fancy of a Poe or a de
+Maupassant never could have conjured. The complex, the neurosis, the
+compulsion, the obsession, the slip of speech, the trick of manner,
+the devotion of a life-time, the culture of a nation all furnish bits
+for the Freudian mosaic. Attractions and inhibitions, repulsions and
+suppressions are held up as the ultimate pulling and pushing forces of
+human nature.
+
+But is the problem solved? Is not human nature primarily animal
+nature? And do we so thoroughly understand this animal nature? Does
+not all this material of Freudianism consist of variations upon social
+burdens imposed on the original human nature? To be sure, at every
+moment of life, choices have to be made, and choice involves the
+clashing of instincts and motives, with victory for one or some, and
+defeat for the others. But the Freudian material per se--the sex
+material--is it not merely the by-product of a certain state of
+society? A sane society would eliminate nearly all of Freudian
+disease, but still have original human nature upon its hands. Why is
+it that of two individuals exposed to the same situation, one will
+develop a complex, the other will remain immune? The only soil we know
+of, the real foundation stones of our being and living, are the cells
+we are made of. Tell me the cellular basis of a complex, and I will
+grant that you have arrived at some real knowledge.
+
+WAY FOR THE PHYSIOLOGIST
+
+There has grown up, contemporaneously with the teachings of Freud,
+a body of discoveries and knowledge in physiology, concerning
+these factors, which is like a long sword of light illuminating a
+pitch-black spot in the night. The dark places in human nature seem to
+have become the sole monopoly of the Freudians and their psychology.
+But only seemingly. For all this time the physiologist has been
+working. Beginning with a candle and now holding in his hands the most
+powerful arc-lights, he has explored two regions, the sympathetic
+nervous system and the glands of internal secretion, and has come upon
+data which in due course will render a good many of the Freudian
+dicta obsolete. Not that the Freudian fundamentals will be scrapped
+completely. But they will have to fit into the great synthesis which
+must form the basis of any control of the future of human nature. That
+future belongs to the physiologist. Already his achievements provide
+the foundations. I propose in the following chapters to sketch the
+history and outline the elements of this new knowledge, and then to
+glimpse some of the larger human reactions to it. A good deal of this
+new knowledge is not altogether new. A number of the isolated facts
+have been known and talked about for more than two generations. But
+the newer additions, and the light they have thrown upon old problems
+present the opportunity for a synthesis, which must sooner or later be
+made.
+
+THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOUL
+
+Besides, it is time that the secrets of the laboratories stepped out
+into the market place, unashamed. Imaginative man has played for ages
+immemorial with wondrous fairy tales and fancies of what he would
+achieve. The sciences of physics and chemistry have made everyday
+commonplace realities out of his radiant dreams. One need not repeat
+the cliches of our editors. But the analogy is there nevertheless. No
+control over heat and light and electricity, today our slaves, was
+possible until physics and chemistry took them in hand. No control of
+the human soul is possible until it too will be taken in hand by them.
+We may now look forward to a real future for mankind because we have
+before us the beginnings of a chemistry of human nature. The internal
+secretions, with their influence upon brain and nervous system as
+well as every other part of the body corporation, as essentially
+blood-circulating chemical substances, have been discovered the real
+governors and arbiters of instincts and dispositions, emotions and
+reactions, characters and temperaments, good and bad. A huge complex
+of evidence, as various, complicated and obscure as human nature
+itself, supports that fundamental law.
+
+The chemistry of the soul! Magnificent phrase! It's a long, long way
+to that goal. The exact formula is as yet far beyond our reach. But we
+have started upon the long journey and we shall get there. Then will
+Man truly become the experimental animal of the future, experimenting
+not only with the external conditions of his life, but with the
+constituents of his very nature and soul. The chemical conditions of
+his being, including the internal secretions, are the steps of the
+ladder by which he will climb to those dizzy heights where he will
+stretch out his hands and find himself a God. Modern knowledge of
+these chemical substances, circulating in the blood, and affecting
+every cell of the body, dates back scarce half a century. But already
+the paths blazed by the pioneers have led to the exploration of great
+countries. The thyroid gland, the pituitary gland, the adrenal glands,
+the thymus, the pineal, the sex glands, have yielded secrets. And
+certain great postulates have been established. The life of every
+individual, normal or abnormal, his physical appearance, and his
+psychic traits, are dominated largely by his internal secretions. All
+normal as well as abnormal individuals are classifiable according to
+the internal secretions which rule in their make-up. Individuals,
+families, nations and races show definite internal secretion traits,
+which stamp them with the quality of difference. The internal
+secretion formula of an individual may, in the future, constitute his
+measurement which will place him accurately in the social system.
+
+"More and more we are forced to realize that the general form and
+external appearance of the human body depends, to a large extent,
+upon the functioning, during the early developmental period, of the
+endocrine glands. Our stature, the kinds of faces we have, the
+length of our arms and legs, the shape of the pelvis, the color and
+consistency of the integument, the quantity and regional location
+of our subcutaneous fat, the amount and distribution of hair on our
+bodies, the tonicity of our muscles, the sound of the voice, and
+the size of the larynx, the emotions to which our exterior gives
+expression. All are to a certain extent conditioned by the
+productivity of our glands of internal secretion." (Llewellys F.
+Barker, Johns Hopkins University, 1st President of Association for
+Study of Internal Secretions.)
+
+The implications for the statesman, the educator, the vocational
+expert, the student of the neurotic and of genius, of delinquents,
+deficients and criminals, the explorers of the exceptional and the
+commonplace, the understanding of the poetic and kinetic, base and
+dull types, as well as of those two master interests of mankind, Sex
+and War, are manifest. The mystery of the individual, in all his
+distinct uniqueness, begins to be penetrated. And so every phase
+of social life, in which the individual is at bottom the final
+determinant, must be reviewed in the light of the new knowledge.
+History may be examined from an entirely new angle. The biographies
+of our Heroes of the Past, in the Carlylean sense, will bear
+reinspection. Even Utopias will have to be revised.
+
+The internal secretions constitute and determine much of the inherited
+powers of the individual and their development They control physical
+and mental growth and all the metabolic processes of fundamental
+importance. They dominate all the vital functions during the three
+cycles of life. They co-operate in an intimate relationship which may
+be compared to an interlocking directorate. A derangement of their
+function, causing an insufficiency of them, an excess, or an
+abnormality, upsets the entire equilibrium of the body, with
+transforming effects upon the mind and the organs. In short, they
+control human nature, and whoever controls them, controls human
+nature.
+
+The control of the glands of internal secretion waits upon our
+knowledge of them, the nature and precise composition of the
+substances manufactured by them, and just what they do to the cells.
+Envisaging the future, that knowledge today is meagre. Looking back
+fifty years, it becomes an amazing achievement and revelation. It is
+worth our while to survey the accomplished, and to trace its general
+human significance. For a certain tangible degree of knowledge and
+control has been attained and should be part of the average citizen's
+equipment in dealing with the everyday problems of his life.
+
+THE ATTITUDE OF THE LABORATORY
+
+A certain number of so-called experimental physiologists, that is,
+the physiologists of the animal laboratory, who will have nothing but
+syllogistic deductions and quantitative determinations based upon
+animal experiments as the data of their science, will be apt to look
+askance upon the preceding paragraphs, and those which will follow. To
+them, any man who relates the internal secretions to anything, outside
+of the routineer's paths, puts his reputation at stake, if he has
+any reputation at all to start in with. They would have us deliver
+a Scotch verdict upon all the questions which arise as soon as one
+attempts to take in the more general significance of the glands of
+internal secretion. This, even though the more general implications
+concerning the effects of their products, the relations of them to
+growth and development, nutrition and energy, environmental
+reactions and resistance to disease, as well as the grand complex of
+intelligence, are admittedly well ascertained in some directions.
+
+The method of absolute measurement in science has yielded miracles.
+For some thousands of years, an isolated individual, here and there
+or an isolated institution have devoted themselves to the task,
+struggling not only with their own weaknesses, but with religious and
+political dogmas which spoiled and vitiated even the beginnings of
+their efforts. When, in the seventeenth century, men associated
+themselves in research, for free communication and discussion of their
+findings, a great invention came alive. Close on its heels was born
+the exact experimental method. Amazing triumphs were born of that
+marriage which swept away before it ignorance and superstition and
+prejudice. Its children and grandchildren have flourished and grown
+strong and mighty. They have transmuted the material conditions of
+life. Certainly all the laurels belong to the method of absolute,
+measured observations.
+
+Yet all this time the old method of inductive observation has not gone
+dead. Most magnificent triumph of nineteenth century science, the
+evolution theory of Charles Darwin, remains the most conspicuous
+instance of clarification of thought in human history. That work was
+the outcome of an attempt to relate and interpret a collection of
+observations on species and their variations, that had long lain to
+hand, a mixture without a solvent. Darwin saw certain generalizations
+as solvents, and behold! a clear solution out of the mud. But it was
+by piling evidence upon evidence, co-ordinating isolated facts not
+directly associated, that the towering structure was erected. There is
+no prettier sample extant of the powers of the inductive method.
+
+Not that there are no triumphs of the quantitative method in store for
+the biologist. Already, the materials of the Mendelians have become
+basic parts of his structure. And today, in pursuit of the solutions
+of hundreds of the problems of living matter, chemists and
+physiologists are employing the most precise standards, units, and
+measures of the physical sciences. Blood chemistry of our time is a
+marvel, undreamed of a generation ago. Also, these achievements are
+a perfect example of the accomplished fact contradicting a priori
+prediction and criticism. For it was one of the accepted dogmas of the
+nineteenth century that the phenomena of the living could never be
+subjected to accurate quantitative analysis.
+
+However desirable the purely quantitative experimental methods may be,
+they naturally need always to be preceded by the qualitative studies
+of direct observations. Inevitably there will be numberless errors,
+apparent and real inconsistencies and contradictions, and ideas that
+will have to be discarded. Just the same there is no other method of
+progress. Every bit of evidence points towards the internal secretions
+as the holders of the secrets of our inmost being. They are the well
+springs of life, the dynamos of the organism. In trailing their scent
+we appear to be upon the track not only of the chemistry of our
+bodies, but of the chemistry of our very souls. An increasing host of
+factors and studies marshal themselves solidly for that declaration.
+Endeavor to conceive the consequences and possibilities for the
+future. A synthesis of the known in the field provides even now a
+means of understanding and control of the perplexities of human nature
+and life that are like a vista seen from a mountain top after the
+lifting of a fog.
+
+The most precious bit of knowledge we possess today about Man is that
+he is the creature of his glands of internal secretion. That is, Man
+as a distinctive organism is the product, the by-product, of a number
+of cell factories which control the parts of his make-up. Much as the
+different divisions of an automobile concern produce the different
+parts of a car. These chemical factories consist of cells, manufacture
+special substances, which act upon the other cells of the body and so
+start and determine the countless processes we call Life. Life, body
+and soul emerge from the activities of the magic ooze of their silent
+chemistry precisely as a tree of tin crystals arises from the chemical
+reactions started in a solution of tin salts by an electric current.
+
+Man is regulated by his Glands of Internal Secretion. At the beginning
+of the third decade of the twentieth century, after he had struggled,
+for we know at least fifty thousand years, to define and know himself,
+that summary may be accepted as the truth about himself. It is
+a far-reaching induction, but a valid induction, supported by a
+multitude of detailed facts.
+
+Amazingly enough, the incontestable evidence, that first pointed to,
+and then proved up to the hilt, this answer to the question: What is
+Man? has been gathered in less than the last fifty years. Darwin and
+Huxley, and Spencer, who first opened men's eyes to their origins,
+were ignorant of the very existence of some of them, and had not the
+faintest notion or suspicion of the real importance or function of any
+of them.
+
+THE PREJUDICES OF PHILOSOPHERS
+
+Now, there are certain prejudices and problems which appear to be
+rudely brushed away by the dogmatic arrogance of the principle stated.
+What, you say, is Man but an affair of his peculiar gland chemistry?
+But what of mind, soul, consciousness? Still another of these
+pathetically one-sided and superficial theories of man as a machine
+pure and simple which would make him the most complicated of
+mechanisms, a marvel of intricate parts, but would deprive him of his
+essence as self-conscious unique in the universe. Man, thinking man,
+at any rate, dreads to lose the cherished impregnable conviction that
+he is something apart, inherently, and therefore infinitely different
+from every other phenomenon in the range of his cosmos.
+
+A thorough dissection of the relation and attitude toward psychic
+material of the consistent physiologist, who refuses to deal in
+contradictory terms, would lead us a little too far. So would the
+reconciliation between the claims of mind and the concept of the
+organism as a system of chemical reactions. The most fundamental
+aspects of that herculean task, warned by the sign, No Trespassing,
+we shall leave to the metaphysicians. The influence of the glands of
+internal secretion upon the mind we must consider, but at present
+postpone. Yet the hot-headed contenders on both sides may be reminded
+of certain facts.
+
+We live in the most iconoclastic of ages. There are sane people alive
+today going quietly about their business who deny the very existence
+of consciousness. These heretics of course pooh-pooh absolutely the
+lions of metaphysics. On the other hand, it may be pointed out to our
+mechanists who believe in mechanism to the bitter end, that even if
+man can be described entirely as a mere transformer of energy, there
+is no reason why he cannot also be described as a transformer of
+energy plus someone who makes use of the transformer and of the
+energy transformed. The stone wall before the honest mechanist is the
+abolition of purpose, and design, an old insoluble problem upon
+his premises. Preach, until you are blue in the face, behaviorist
+tropisms, in which man is pushed and pulled about in his environment
+as are iron filings in a magnetic field. Think up objective
+physiologies in which your life and mine become a series of
+concatenated influences and compound reflexes. Play with words like
+the concentration reflex when you mean idea, and the symbolic reflex
+when you mean language. But your most rigid nomenclature will never
+abolish the mystic personal purpose in the equation, no matter how low
+the step in the animal series to which you descend. The declaration
+that a man is dominated by certain glands within his body should not
+be taken to give aid and comfort to those who would banish mind from
+the universe.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HOW THE GLANDS OF INTERNAL SECRETION WERE DISCOVERED
+
+
+Just what are the glands of internal secretion? And how have we become
+possessed of whatever information about them we have? A brief review
+of how the idea of a gland of internal secretion came into the human
+mind and of the contributions that have converged into a single body
+of knowledge is worth while.
+
+A gland is a collection of cells (those viscous globules which are the
+units of all tissues and organs). It manufactures substances intended
+for a particular effect upon the body economy. The effect may be
+either local or upon the body as a whole.
+
+Originally, a gland meant something in the body which was seen to make
+something else, generally a juice or a liquid mixture of some sort.
+A classical example is the salivary glands elaborating saliva. The
+microscope has shown us that every gland is a chemical factory in
+which the cells are the workers. The product of the gland work is its
+secretion. Thus the sweat glands of the skin secrete the perspiration
+as their secretion, the lachrymal glands of the eyes the tears as
+theirs. The collectivism of management and control is the only
+essential difference between them and the modern soap factory or
+T.N.T. plant.
+
+Man as a carnivor, and as a consequent anatomist, has been acquainted
+with these more superficially placed glands for some thousands of
+years. During all this time and during the epoch of the achievements
+of gross anatomy, it was believed that the secretions of all glands
+were poured out upon some surface of the body. Either an exterior
+surface like the skin, or some interior surface, the various mucous
+membranes. This was supported by the discovery of canal-like passage
+ways leading from the gland to the particular surface where its
+secretion was to act. These corridors, the secretory or excretory
+ducts, are present, for example, in the liver, conducting the bile
+to the small intestine. Devices of transportation fit happily into
+a comparison of a gland to a chemical factory, corresponding thus
+closely to the tramways and railroads of our industrial centers.
+
+Little more than a hundred years ago, it was observed that certain
+organs, like the thyroid body in the neck, and the adrenal capsules in
+the abdomen, hitherto neglected because their function was hopelessly
+obscure, had a glandular structure. As in so much scientific advance,
+the discovery or improvement of a new instrument or method, a fresh
+tool of research, was responsible. The perfection of the microscope
+was the reason this time.
+
+If one wishes to trace the idea of internal secretion by cells to an
+individual, it is convenient, if not pedantic, to give the credit to
+Theophile de Bordeu, a famous physician of Paris in the eighteenth
+century. Bordeu came to Paris as a brilliant provincial in his early
+twenties and by the charm of his manner and daring therapy fought
+his way to the most exclusive aristocratic practice of the court.
+Naturally a courtier, taking to the intrigues of the royal court like
+a duck to water, making enemies on every hand as well as friends, and
+with a fastidious and impatient clientele, he yet found time to dabble
+in the wonders of the newly perfected microscope and to speculate upon
+the meaning of the novelties revealed by it in the tissues. _He coined
+the thought of a gland secretion into the blood_.
+
+It was in the year 1749 that he came to Paris from the Pyrenees,
+a young medical graduate, destined to become the most fashionable
+practitioner of his time. At the age of twenty-three he was holding
+the professorship of anatomy at his alma mater, Montpelier, where
+his father was a successful physician. At twenty-five he was elected
+corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Sciences. A handsome
+presence and a Tartarin de Tarascon disposition assured his success
+from the start. The medical world was then composed of the emulsion of
+charlatanry and science Moliere ridiculed. Success stimulated envy and
+jealousy. One of the richest of the older medical men set himself the
+job of procuring his scalp. On a trumped-up charge of stealing jewels
+from a dead patient--a favorite accusation against the doctors of the
+eighteenth century--he had Bordeu's license taken away from him. The
+good graces of certain women to whom Bordeu had always appealed, and
+who indeed supplied the funds to get him started in Paris, rammed
+through two acts of Parliament to reinstate him. Nothing daunted, he
+returned to his quest for a court clientele, and was rewarded finally
+by having the moribund Louis XV as a patient.
+
+This was the man with whom the modern history of the internal
+secretions begins. Not content with adventures among the courtiers and
+desperadoes of the most corrupt court in the most corrupt city of the
+world, he went in for research. The high power microscope that came
+into vogue when he was studying, revealed vague wonders which he
+described in a monograph, "Researches into the mucous tissues or
+cellular organs." But what makes him interesting is a slender volume
+on the "Medical Analysis of the Blood," published in the year of the
+American Declaration of Independence. The sexual side of men and women
+aroused Bordeu's most ardent enthusiasms. Starting with observations
+on the characters of eunuchs and capons, as well as spayed female
+animals, he formulated a conception of sexual secretions absorbed
+into the blood, settling the male or female tint of the organism and
+setting the seal upon the destiny of the individual. Thus he must be
+donated the credit of anticipating the most modern doctrine on the
+subject.
+
+The generation after him witnessed the triumph of the cell as the
+recognized unit of structure of the tissues, the brick of the organs.
+It was soon found that the cells of the more familiar glands, like
+the sweat or tear glands, resembled the cells of the more mysterious
+structures named the thyroid in the neck, or adrenal in the abdomen,
+of which the function was unknown. What had hitherto prevented
+classification of the latter as glands was the fact that they
+possessed no visible pathways for the removal of their secretion. So
+now they were set apart as the _ductless_ glands, the glands without
+ducts, as contrasted with the glands normally equipped with ducts.
+Since, too, they were observed to have an exceedingly rich supply of
+blood, the blood presented itself as the only conceivable mode of
+egress for the secretions packed within the cells. So they were also
+called the blood or vascular glands.
+
+The names which became most popular were those which represented a
+contrast of the glands with the ducts, conveying their secretion to
+the exterior, as the glands of EXTERNAL SECRETION and the glands
+without the ducts, the secretions of which were kept within the body,
+absorbed by the blood and lymph to be used by the other cells, as
+the glands of INTERNAL SECRETION. How different these two classes
+of glands are may be realized by imagining the existence of great
+factories manufacturing food products, which would diffuse through
+their walls into the atmosphere, to be absorbed by our bodies.
+
+There are certain terms for the glands of internal secretion which
+are used interchangeably. They are spoken of often as the _endocrine_
+glands and as the _hormone_ producing glands. Endocrine is most
+convenient for it stands for both the gland and its secretion. Hormone
+is employed a good deal in the literature of the subject. But it
+applies specifically to the internal secretion, and not to the gland.
+
+THE EXPERIMENTAL PIONEER
+
+All this clarification of the concept of the glands of internal
+secretion occurred in the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
+However, no inkling of their real importance to the body, of which
+quantitatively they form so insignificant a part, was apparently
+revealed to anyone. Not even the most daring speculation or brilliant
+guess work in physiology engaged them as material. Thus Henle, the
+great anatomist, calmly affirmed that these glands "have no influence
+on animal life: they may be extirpated or they degenerate without
+sensation or motion suffering in the least." Johann Mueller, the most
+celebrated physiologist of his day and contemporary of Henle, wrote
+in 1844 and coolly stated, "The ductless glands are alike in one
+particular--they either produce a different change in the blood which
+circulates through them or the lymph which they elaborate plays a
+special role in the formation of blood or of chyle." In other words,
+they were dismissed as curious nonentities, of no real significance
+to the running of the body. Laennec, the French founder of the Art of
+Diagnosis in Medicine, once said that nothing about a science is more
+interesting than the progress of that science itself. He might have
+added that nothing either was more interesting than the contradictions
+in that progress. For while these grand moguls of their sciences were
+enunciating their dogmas, pioneers here and there were already setting
+the mines that were to explode them.
+
+The experimental method, to the value of which biologists were
+just beginning to awaken, was destined to be the vehicle of Time's
+revenges. An application of it to the mysteries of sex was the
+immediate occasion. Sex and sex differences have always more or less
+obsessed the imagination of mankind. The volumes of theories about
+them would constitute a respectable museum. Certain gross facts,
+however, were known. The effects of loss of the sex glands upon the
+configuration of the body and the predominating constitution in
+animals and eunuchs have always attracted attention. The proverbs and
+stories of all nations are full of references to them. But up to the
+nineteenth century no controlled experimental work was ever carried
+out regarding them. It was in 1849, that A.A. Berthold of Goettingen, a
+quiet, sedate lecturer, carried out the pioneer experiment of removing
+the testes of four roosters and transplanting them under the skin. It
+was Berthold's idea to test whether a gland with a definite external
+secretion, and a duct through which that secretion was expelled,
+but which yet had powers over the body as a whole that were to be
+attributed only to an internal secretion, could not be shown, by
+a clean-cut experiment, to possess such an internal secretion. He
+succeeded perfectly. For he found that, though, in thus separating the
+gland from its duct and so cutting off its external secretion, the
+action of the cells manufacturing that secretion was destroyed, the
+general effects upon the body were not those of castration. The
+animals retained their male characteristics as regards voice,
+reproductive instinct, fighting spirit and growth of comb and wattles.
+Whereas if the glands were entirely removed, these male traits,
+peculiar to the rooster, were completely lost. The inference was the
+existence of an internal secretion.
+
+To Berthold belongs the honor of being the first experimental
+demonstrator who proved the reality of a gland with a true internal
+secretion and the power it exercised through the blood upon the
+entire organism. Besides, he showed that a typical gland of external
+secretion could also have an internal secretion, a possibility never
+before considered. That two kinds of cells could live within the same
+gland: one set usually recognized as producing the external secretion,
+the other evolving the internal secretion, was an astounding original
+conception.
+
+ENTER CLAUDE BERNARD
+
+Science is supposed to be immune to the personal prejudices and
+emotional habits of the vulgar. It is the tradition that a new
+contribution to knowledge emerging from no matter how obscure the
+source, should be hailed as a gift from the gods. But the sad truth of
+the matter is that a new finding in science requires as much backing
+as a new project in high finance or social climbing. Berthold, like
+Mendel, the founder of genetics, was a great pioneer. But there was no
+personage, no person of consequence, with no patronage by anyone of
+consequence, no wife or kin, to push him, and no audience to stimulate
+him. His poor four little pages of a report, published ten years
+before Darwin's "Origin of Species," attracted not the slightest
+notice. Buried in the print of a journal with a subscription list of
+possibly two or three hundred, of whom perhaps two dozen may have been
+interested enough to read it, but without any recorded reaction on the
+part of any of them, it was a flash in the pan. Though it was good,
+original, conclusive stuff, it was cut dead, absolutely, by the
+scientific world. As a result, forty years elapsed before the
+implications of his studies were rediscovered by the Columbus of the
+modern approach to the internal secretions, the American Frenchman,
+Brown-Sequard.
+
+It took a first class man of genius in his field, in Paris, with a
+respected position in the whirl of its medical planetary system and
+a university appointment, to boom and advertise the doctrine of the
+internal secretions, so that people began to sit up and listen and
+take sides--on the wrong grounds. This Frenchman was Claude Bernard.
+At a series of lectures on experimental physiology delivered at the
+College of France, in 1855, he coined the terms internal secretion and
+external secretion and emphasized the opposition between them, on the
+basis of an incorrect example, the function of the liver in the supply
+of sugar to the blood.
+
+Just as Columbus reached America, carried on a series of logical
+syllogisms, built upon unreal pictures of a straight path to the East,
+Claude Bernard opened up the continent of the internal secretions to
+the experimental enthusiasts of his time by a discovery which today
+is not grouped among the phenomena of internal secretion at all. In
+attempting to throw light upon the disease diabetes, in which there
+is a loss of the normal ability of the cells to burn up sugar, he
+examined the sugar content of the blood in different regions of the
+body. He found that the blood of the veins, in general, contained less
+sugar than the blood of the arteries, which meant that sugar was taken
+from the blood in passing through the tissues. But the venous blood of
+the right side of the heart contained as much sugar as the arterial
+blood. Evidently, somewhere, sugar was added to the blood in the veins
+before it got to the heart. The blood of the vein which goes from
+the liver to the right side of the heart was then found to contain a
+higher percentage of sugar than is present in the arteries. The vein
+which transmits the blood from the intestines to the liver had
+the usual lower percentage of sugar corresponding to the analysis
+established for the other veins. The liver, therefore, must add sugar
+to the blood on its way to the heart. Extraction of the liver then
+revealed the presence in it of a form of starch, an animal starch,
+which Bernard called glycogen, the sugar-maker. The origin of the
+sugar added to the blood on its way from the liver to the heart was
+thus settled. Bernard went on to hail glycogen and the sugar derivable
+as the internal secretions of the liver, and to erect, and then drive
+home, a theory of internal secretions and their importance in the body
+economy.
+
+The case he had hit upon was exquisitely fortunate, as the liver had
+hitherto been regarded purely a gland of external secretion, the bile.
+Nowadays, glycogen and the blood sugar are not considered internal
+secretions, because they are classified as elementary reserve food,
+while the concept of the internal secretions has become narrowed down
+to substances acting as starters or inhibitors of different processes.
+Moreover, the process of liberation of sugar from glycogen itself in
+the liver, upon demand, is today set down to the action of an internal
+secretion, adrenalin. Claude Bernard's conception, like a novelist's
+characters, has turned upon its creator, taken on a life of its own,
+and evolved into something he never intended. He looked upon an
+internal secretion as simply maintaining the normal composition of the
+blood, which bathed alike and treated alike the democracy of cells.
+Today, the blood is believed merely the transporting medium for the
+internal secretion, destined for a particular group of cells.
+
+ADDISON'S AS THE FIRST ENGLISH CONTRIBUTION
+
+The years 1855-56 are red-letter years in the history of the glands of
+internal secretion. They witnessed, not only the publication of
+Claude Bernard's "Lectures on Experimental Physiology," but also the
+appearance of a monograph by Thomas Addison, an English physician,
+entitled "On the constitutional and local effects of disease of the
+suprarenal bodies." In this, he described a fatal disease during which
+the individual affected became languid and weak, and developed a dingy
+or smoky discoloration of the whole surface of the body, a browning
+or bronzing of the skin, caused generally by destructive tuberculous
+disease of the suprarenal or adrenal bodies. Addison promptly put down
+these constitutional effects of loss of the adrenal bodies to loss
+of something produced by them of constitutional importance. He was
+particularly struck by the change in the pigmentation of the skin, so
+much so that his own designation for the affection was "bronzed
+skin." Since then, however, the condition has been universally styled
+Addison's Disease.
+
+There is something spectacularly mysterious and picturesque about most
+of the malign, insidious effects of the disease which appealed at once
+to a number of investigators. The most adventurous, the most daring,
+the most imbued with enthusiasm for the experimental method, was the
+American Frenchman, Brown-Sequard, who is acknowledged the father of
+modern knowledge of the glands of internal secretion, though to Claude
+Bernard belong the honors of the grandfather.
+
+BROWN-SEQUARD THE GREAT
+
+Brown-Sequard, as the outstanding figure in the history of the glands
+of internal secretion, deserves some notice as a personality. In the
+words of the note-makers for novels and plays, he was a card. He was
+born in 1817 at Port-Louis, on the island of Mauritius, off Africa,
+then French property. His father was a Mr. Brown, an American sea
+captain; his mother a Mme. Sequard, a Frenchwoman. Early in childhood,
+the father sailed away on one of his voyages and never came back. The
+mother thereafter supported herself and her son sewing embroideries.
+At fifteen, Brown-Sequard, with the physical appearance of an Indian
+Creole, was clerking in a colonial store by day, and composing poetry,
+romances and plays by night. The call of Paris was in his blood, which
+was indeed a supersaturated solution of wanderlust.
+
+Soon he was landed there to make his fortune in literature, only too
+speedily to be disillusioned. Exhibition of manuscripts to a leading
+literary light merely evoked curt advice to learn a trade or go into
+business. He would have none of either and studied medicine instead,
+earning his way by teaching as he learned. In the laboratories, he
+made the acquaintance of people who more than once were to be his
+salvation in the ups and downs of his career. In 1848 he was one of
+the secretaries of the Society of Biology, newly founded by Claude
+Bernard.
+
+Some trouble, perhaps some effect upon his health of cholera which
+then swept Paris, caused him to return to his native Mauritius, to
+encounter an epidemic of cholera. There he slaved manfully, for which
+a gold medal was afterward struck for him. That over with, he embarked
+in 1852 for New York, without a word of American, learning English on
+board. This was the first of a series of voyages. As he often boasted,
+he crossed the ocean sixty times, not a bad record for the days when
+the _Mauretania_ was still in the womb of time. He made a hopeless
+failure out of practice in New York, became so poor as to practice
+obstetrics at five dollars a case, and married a niece of Daniel
+Webster. Then he went back to Paris. Back to America next as Professor
+of Physiology at the University of Richmond, Virginia, a job occupied
+for a few months only because of his opinions on slavery, ostensibly
+anyhow.
+
+To Paris then the rolling stone meandered again. So that soon after he
+was offered and accepted the charge of a great newly opened hospital
+for epileptics in London. That proved merely an interlude and in
+1863 we find him back in his fatherland (if we may hold France his
+motherland) as Professor of Neuropathology at Harvard. In New York
+fame preceded him now with a thousand trumpets, so that on the day of
+his arrival, he was kept busy seeing patients until night, when he
+had to desist because of exhaustion. But still he did not prosper. An
+unfortunate second marriage almost broke his heart, and an attempt
+to found in New York a new medical periodical, the _Archives of
+Scientific and Practical Medicine and Surgery_, got him into hot
+water. Not until the death of Claude Bernard in 1878 left vacant the
+chair of physiology in the College of France, did he find peace and
+rest. He hastened to Paris, was appointed, and lived, in spite of the
+most erratic of existences, to the ripe old age of 78, working up to
+the last minute.
+
+Addison's monograph stimulated Brown-Sequard, in the year after its
+printing, to reproduce the fatal disease experimentally by excising
+the suprarenal capsules in animals. Addison was very modest in his
+monograph. He stated that the first case of the malady had been
+reported by his great predecessor at Guy's Hospital, London, Richard
+Bright, the describer of Bright's Disease. Then he talks about the
+"curious facts" he had "stumbled upon" and refers to an "ill-defined
+impression" that these suprarenal bodies, in common with the spleen
+and other organs, "in some way or other minister to the elaboration of
+the blood." In the preface to his work he had spoken more confidently
+of the fact that Nature, as an experimenter and a vivisector, can
+beat the physiologist to a frazzle. Indeed, he begins like this: "If
+Pathology be to disease what Physiology is to health, it appears
+reasonable to conclude that, in any given structure or organ, the laws
+of the former will be as fixed and significant as those of the latter:
+and that the peculiar characters of any structure or organ may be as
+certainly recognized in the phenomena of disease as in the phenomena
+of health. Although pathology, therefore, as a branch of medical
+science, is necessarily founded on physiology, questions may
+nevertheless arise regarding the true character of a structure or
+organ, to which occasionally the pathologist may be able to return a
+more satisfactory and decisive reply than the physiologist--these two
+branches of medical knowledge being thus found mutually to advance and
+illustrate each other. Indeed, as regards the functions of individual
+organs, the mutual aids of these two branches of knowledge are
+probably much more nearly balanced than many may be disposed to admit:
+for in estimating them we are very apt to forget how large an amount
+of our present physiological knowledge respecting the functions of
+these organs has been the immediate result of casual observations made
+on the effects of disease." William James expressed the same thought
+some decades later, when he emphasized that the abnormal was but the
+normal exaggerated and magnified, played upon by the limelight, and
+therefore the best teacher and indicator of the exact definition and
+limitations of the normal.
+
+Addison, speaking before the South London Medical Society in 1849,
+declared that in all of three afflicted individuals there was found a
+diseased condition of the suprarenal capsules, and that in spite of
+the consciousness "of the bias and prejudice inseparable from the hope
+or vanity of an original discovery ... he could not help entertaining
+a very strong impression that these hitherto mysterious organs--the
+suprarenal capsules--may be either directly or indirectly concerned
+in sanguification (the making of the blood): and that a diseased
+condition of them, functional or structural, may interfere with the
+proper elaboration of the body generally, or of the red particles more
+especially...." A modern, acquainted with after developments, would
+say that Addison was very hot upon the trail indeed. But withal,
+though he must have been well aware of John Hunter's advice to Jenner
+on vaccination, "Don't think, make some observations," his training in
+the indirect reasoning and deductions of the clinician prevented him
+from going right on to a direct experimental test of his theories.
+
+This Brown-Sequard proceeded to do. Removing the adrenal glands in
+several species of animals, he found, meant a terrible weakness in
+twenty-four to forty-eight hours, and death shortly after. If only one
+were removed, there was no change apparent in the normal animal, but
+death occurred rapidly upon removal of the other, even after a long
+interval. Furthermore, transfusion of blood from a normal into
+one deprived of its suprarenals prevented death for a long time,
+indicating that the suprarenals normally secreted something into the
+blood necessary to life.
+
+The years 1855-1856 beheld two other important glands of internal
+secretion, the thyroid, the gland in the neck astride the windpipe,
+and the thymus, in the chest above the heart, make their debut.
+
+The thymus was introduced by the great classic monograph of Friedleben
+on the "Physiology of the Thymus," in which he mentioned the usual
+forgotten pioneers: Felix Plater, a Swiss physician, who in 1614 had
+found an enlarged thymus in an infant dying suddenly, and Restelli,
+an Italian, who interested himself in the effects of removal of the
+thymus more than ten years before. Friedleben believed that in the
+young without a thymus, there occurred a softening of the bones, and
+general physical and mental deterioration. He started the ball rolling
+for a number of researches.
+
+Moritz Schiff, of Frankfort-on-the-Main, showed that excision of the
+thyroid gland in dogs is invariably fatal. A number of physicians in
+the first half of the century had reported certain remarkable symptoms
+associated with enlargement of the thyroid gland, as goitre. In 1825
+the collected posthumous writings of Caleb Perry, an eminent physician
+of Bath, England, recorded eight cases, in which, together with
+enlargement of the gland, there developed enlargement and palpitation
+of the heart, a distinct protrusion of the eyes from their sockets and
+an appearance of agitation and distress. Schiff's paper was the first
+to throw any light on the subject. But for some reason, probably the
+same as in Berthold's forlorn experiments with the sex glands, the
+work of a person of no importance was ignored, or perhaps the more
+charitable view is that it was forgotten. Yet the tide of observation
+kept sweeping in relevant data.
+
+In 1850, Curling, an English pathologist, studying the cretinous
+idiots of Salzburg, written about centuries before by Paracelsus,
+discovered that with their defective brain and mentality there
+was associated an absence of the thyroid body, and accompanying
+symmetrical swellings of fat tissue at the sides of the neck. Then
+Sir William Gull in 1873 painted the singular details of a cretinous
+condition developing in adult women, a condition to which another
+Englishman, William Ord, of London, five years later donated the title
+of myxedema, because of a characteristic thickening and infiltration
+of the skin that is one of its features.
+
+Surgery then enters upon the scene. The great Swiss surgeon. Theodore
+Kocher, performed the first excision of the thyroid gland in human
+beings for goitre, in the same year. In 1882, J.L. Reverdin, another
+surgeon of Geneva, noticed that in man complete removal of the thyroid
+was followed by symptoms identical with those collected under the name
+of myxedema, and used the phrase "operative myxedema" to emphasize
+his conviction of the connection between them. Then Schiff, in
+1884, neglected twenty-five years, came back, with an array of
+demonstrations, proving that the various symptoms, tremors, spasms and
+convulsions, following removal of the thyroid, could be prevented by
+a previous graft of a piece of the gland under the skin, or by the
+injection of thyroid juice into a vein or under the skin, or by the
+ingestion of thyroid juice or the raw thyroid by mouth.
+
+A crystallization of ideas about the true function of the thyroid was
+now inevitable. In 1884, Sir Victor Horsley produced an experimental
+myxedema by removal of the thyroid in monkeys, resembling closely in
+its symptom-picture the disease as it occurs in human beings. Moebius,
+a German neurologist, came out boldly for the conception that a number
+of ailments could be due to qualitative and quantitative changes in
+the secretion of the thyroid, and that just as myxedema and cretinism
+were due to an insufficiency of the secretion, Parry's disease was
+to be ascribed to an excessive outpouring of it. The next steps
+were easy. In 1888, Sir Felix Semon, as an outcome of a collective
+investigation, established for all time that cretinism, myxedema and
+post-operative myxedema were one and the same.
+
+It was bound to occur to someone that if human myxedema and animal
+experimental myxedema were one and the same, Schiff's procedure of
+prevention and cure by feeding thyroid gland by mouth in the latter
+could be applied to the former. The idea occurred to two men, Murray
+and Howitz, in 1891. Murray's patient, a Mrs. H., was shown before the
+Northcumberland and Durham Medical Society, an English country medical
+organization, in February, 1891. She was forty-two years old and had
+borne nine children. The illness attacking her had begun insidiously,
+with a gradual enlargement and thickening of her face and hands.
+She had become very slow in speech and gait, sensitive to cold, and
+languid and depressed in spirit to the point of inability to go about
+alone. Murray, employing the glycerin extract of the thyroid gland of
+a freshly killed sheep, injected twenty-four drops hypodermically,
+twice a week. There was an immediate and marvelous improvement, which
+continued steadily, Murray finding that it could be maintained by
+feeding the gland by mouth. The features and skin returned to the
+normal, speech quickened and she became able to walk about and live
+her life without hesitation or assistance. She lived to the age of
+seventy-four, dying in 1919. In the twenty-eight years, during which
+it was always necessary to administer the thyroid, she consumed over
+nine pints of thyroid, comprising the glands of 870 sheep.
+
+Giants and dwarfs and fat people have always interested people as
+freaks, departures from the usual and the normal, and have formed the
+stock of popular museum, circus and country fair. Every mythology has
+concerned itself with them. The Titans among the Greeks, Og, Gog
+and Magog among the Hebrews, are examples of the fascination of the
+superlarge. John Hunter, the founder of experimental surgery, spent a
+fortune in chasing after the skeleton of a famous Irish Giant in 1783.
+Dwarfs have also fascinated--witness the short-limbed satyrs of the
+Greeks and the dwarf gods (Ptah and Bes) of Egypt, as well as the
+vogue of the court dwarf-buffoons, of whom Velasquez has left us some
+portraits. Fat people, obesity as a manifestation of personality, have
+aroused wonder and amusement the world over. The Fat Boy has always
+furnished good sport to the Sam Wellers.
+
+All these characters, tall or short, fat or lean, are related to the
+activity of a gland of internal secretion in the head, the pituitary,
+which became a centre of interest in the late eighties. Because of its
+situation, the opinion of the ancients was that it was the source of
+the mucus of the nose, an opinion reinforced by the greatest anatomist
+of the Dark Ages, Galen, and held up to the seventeenth century. In
+other words, it was considered simply a gland of external secretion.
+Experimental removal of the pituitary was essayed by Horsley in 1886,
+the same man who two years before had reproduced myxedema successfully
+in monkeys. Others succeeded his attempt. But the conclusions drawn
+were uncertain or contradictory, resulting from the difficulties of
+the operative technique of getting at a gland placed at the base
+of the brain. Not until 1908 was the problem solved by Paulesco of
+Bucharest, who devised a way of reaching it by trepanning the skull.
+He was thus able to prove beyond a doubt that the pituitary gland was
+essential to life, and that without it no animal could continue to
+live for any length of time. Soon after, Harvey Gushing and his
+associates at Johns Hopkins Hospital discovered that removal of part
+of the gland was followed by a pronounced obesity and sluggishness.
+A basis for the understanding of obesity and growth was then
+established.
+
+In the eighties, there came to the clinic of Pierre Marie in Paris,
+a pupil of the great Charcot, various women complaining of headache.
+They also told him about an enlargement of their hands and feet, and
+an alarming change in the bones of the face. He differentiated the
+affection from its imitators, and created its present designation of
+"acromegaly" (enlargement of the extremities). Also he correlated
+their relationship to the giants who have been mentioned. Acromegalics
+have been also likened to the Neanderthal Man, who had probably, as
+the gorillas may have, an excess of the pituitary in their systems.
+For four years he studied the morbid phenomena in the tissues of these
+sufferers at last consigned to their end. First one, and then another,
+and then a third and a fourth exhibited a striking hypertrophy of the
+pituitary body and a consequent widening of the portion of the base
+of the skull which cradles the gland. He proceeded to say so in
+the graduating thesis of his pupil, Souza Leite. The inference
+was inevitable that the entire process was to be put down to an
+overactivity of the pituitary. Ever since, too, the growth of the
+skeleton has been accepted as controlled by that gland.
+
+About this time another set of old observations came to life again,
+related to those of Docent Berthold on the auto-grafting of the testes
+of a cock, with complete retention of its sexual characters, which he
+said, must be due "to the productive action of the testes, i.e., to
+its effect upon the blood, and thence to the corresponding effect of
+such blood upon the entire organism." Of course, stock raisers and
+poultry fanciers have noted the interesting outcome of castration for
+about as long as their professions have existed. And for ages the
+diminution of sexual activity as a predecessor to the decadence of
+senility has been harped upon. Rejuvenation, especially in connection
+with sexual activity, as well as with tissue and spiritual elasticity,
+has been one of the haunting phantoms of the imagination for as long
+as we have records of articulate humanity. Together with El Dorado,
+the Elixir of Youth has shared the honors with the Philosopher's
+Stone. The idea of employing the chemical materials of the sex glands,
+the testes or the ovaries, to bring back youth, to restore juvenility,
+had not, as far as we know, occurred to anyone who at any rate put
+himself on record, by word or deed, until 1889. The hero of the new
+departure was the hero of so many daring adventures among speculative
+experiments, Brown-Sequard.
+
+At this time the wanderer was an aged sage, seventy-two years old,
+fit, as custom goes, only for retirement and resignation to the fate
+of all flesh. The old passion of experimenting upon himself as well as
+upon the guinea-pigs, dogs, cats and monkeys, by which he was always
+surrounded, was as alive and kicking as ever. I suppose he had been
+thinking for years concerning some method for the resumption of youth,
+for we find him exclaiming, when the opportunity loomed of a great
+laboratory on Agassiz Island, Long Island, on one of his recurrent
+flights to New York: "Would that I were thirty!" And other passages in
+his personal communications refer again and again to his consciousness
+of growing old. The miracles that were being performed by injecting
+thyroid and feeding thyroid in animals probably acted as the spark to
+an inflammable mass of ideas long smouldering in the subcellars of his
+mind. The effects were reported to the Society of Biology in Paris,
+one memorable evening, June 1, 1889, in two notes on the results of
+the hypodermic injection in man of the testis juice of monkeys and
+dogs, and certain generalizations deduced therefrom. Such juices, he
+stated, had a definite energy-mobilizing or, as he put it, dynamogenic
+action upon the subject himself, stimulating amazingly his general
+health, muscular power and mental activity.
+
+These experiments, their nature, the manner in which they were
+conducted, the character and age of the experimenter, and the results
+claimed, were exquisitely good stuff for ridicule. Cartoonists and
+reporters leaped upon the theme with the avidity of the true-blue
+interviewer. Paris, where to be ridiculed is to be killed in public
+with the most ignominious of deaths, reacted as only the French
+temperament can react. The wits of the salons crackled, the
+bourgeoisie chortled, the proletariat roared. The Elixir of Life had
+been discovered and it was excellent sport.
+
+But Brown-Sequard remained unshaken. He had all the roues of Paris
+running to him, and consequent charges of quackery and charlatanism.
+How much of these unsavory epithets really applied to him will not be
+determined until we have a better acquaintance with his more intimate
+life. A biography and collection of his letters is needed. But it is
+certain that the general principles he arrived at, aided as much by
+the wings of intuition as by the clues of incomplete and incompletely
+controlled experiments, survive as the foundations of whatever we know
+about the internal secretions, and all our present viewpoints. He
+summed these up in 1891 as follows:
+
+"All the tissues, in our view, are modifiers of the blood by means of
+an internal secretion taken from them by the venous blood. From this
+we are forced to the conclusion that, if subcutaneous injections of
+the liquids drawn from these parts are ineffectual, then we should
+inject some of the venous blood supplying these parts.... We admit
+that each tissue, and, more generally, each cell of the organism,
+secretes on its own account, certain products or special ferments,
+which, through this medium (the blood), influence all other cells of
+the body, a definite solidarity being thus established among all the
+cells through a mechanism other than the nervous system.... All
+the tissues (glands and other organs) have thus a special internal
+secretion, and so give to the blood something more than the waste
+products of metabolism. The internal secretions, whether by direct
+favorable influence, or whether through the obstacles they oppose to
+deleterious processes, seem to be of great utility in maintaining the
+organism in its normal state."
+
+The only part of this statement not conceded today is that relating to
+the formation of internal secretions by tissues other than those of
+which the cells are definitely glandular, that is secretory: as can be
+determined under the microscope. Brown-Sequard added to the concept
+of internal secretions, fathered by Claude Bernard, the idea of a
+correlation, a mutual influencing of them and of the different organs
+of the body through them. The nervous system had hitherto been
+regarded as the sole means of communication between cells, by its
+telegraphic arrangements of nerve filaments reaching out everywhere,
+interweaving with each other and the cells. The Brown-Sequard
+conception inferred the existence of a postal system between cells,
+the blood supplying the highway for travel and transmission of the
+post, the post consisting of the chemical substances secreted by
+the glands. To be sure, the doctrine was only an inference, though
+well-founded, of which the direct experimental proof was not to
+be obtained until the researches of Bayliss and Starling. Yet to
+Brown-Sequard belongs the immortal credit, if not of the originator,
+at any rate of the resurrector of the idea of using gland extracts to
+influence the body. The unwarranted hopes aroused by his enthusiastic
+reports of rejuvenating miracles have long since been dissipated.
+Moreover, they smeared the whole subject with a disrepute which clings
+to certain narrow and unreasonable minds to this day. But as every
+physiologist since has acknowledged, he was and remains the great
+path-breaker in the conquest of the internal secretions.
+
+THE HORMONES
+
+The problem of the internal secretions was now attacked from another
+angle. A great Russian physiologist, Pawlow, called attention to the
+fact that the introduction of a dilute mineral acid, such as the
+hydrochloric acid, normally a constituent of the stomach digestive
+fluid, into the upper part of the intestine, provoked a secretion
+of the pancreas, which is so important for intestinal digestion. He
+explained the phenomenon as a reflex, a matter of the nerves going
+from the intestine to the pancreas.
+
+His pupil, Popielski, threw doubt upon so easy an explanation, by
+proving that the same reaction could be elicited even after all the
+nerve connections between the gut and the spinal cord were severed. If
+the relation was a reflex, it would have to be classed now as one of
+those local nerve circuits, which are pretty common among the viscera,
+a local call and reply as it were, without mediation of the great long
+distance trunk lines in the spinal cord and the medulla oblongata.
+
+The work of Bayliss and Starling, two English physiologists, was
+commenced then to test the hypothesis. They soon found that the
+experiment could be so devised as to exclude any influence whatever on
+the part of the nervous tissues, and yet result positively. Thus, if a
+loop of intestine was so prepared as to be attached to the rest of the
+body only by means of its blood vessels, all the nerves being cut,
+putting some acid into it was still followed by a flow of pancreatic
+juice, no less marked than when none of the parts about the piece
+of gut had been disturbed. It was evident that the stimulus to the
+pancreas was carried by way of the blood stream. That the stimulating
+substance was not the acid itself, was shown by the failure of the
+reaction to occur when the acid was injected directly into the blood
+stream. Since there was this difference in the effects between acid in
+the intestine and acid in the blood, it was manifest that the active
+substance must be some material elaborated in the intestinal mucous
+membrane under the influence of the acid. So they scraped some of the
+lining of the bowel, rubbed it up with acid, and injected the filtered
+mixture into the blood. They were rewarded by a flow of pancreatic
+juice greater in amount than any obtained in their other experiments.
+From the filtered mixture they isolated in an impure form, a solid
+substance which, when introduced into the circulation, has a similar
+action. To this, of which the exact chemical make-up is as yet an
+unknown, they gave the name secretin.
+
+Secretin and its properties they used to generalize as a perfectly
+direct and amply demonstrable example of an internal secretion.
+Metaphors are no less valuable in physiology than in poetry. They
+declared that the internal secretions appeared to them to be chemical
+messengers, telegraph boys sent from one organ to another through the
+public highways, the blood (really more like a moving platform). So
+they christened them all hormones, deriving the word from the Greek
+verb meaning to rouse or set in motion. As a science is a well-made
+language, a new word is an event. It sums up details, economizes
+brain-work and so is cherished by the intellect. The study of the
+internal secretions has advanced by leaps and bounds since it became
+convenient to speak of them as hormones. Withal, the brilliant work of
+Bayliss and Starling stands as the third great foundation stone,
+the first Claude Bernard's and the second Brown-Sequard's, in the
+architecture of the modern concepts of the internal secretions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE GLANDS: THYROID AND PITUITARY
+
+
+The glands of internal secretion, the history of which, as tools of
+thought, I reviewed in the previous chapter, have each an interesting
+evolutionary story. Without some acquaintance with that story, the
+rough outline of their physical architecture, and the particular work
+they are called upon to perform in the body, no adequate understanding
+of their influence upon types of human nature and personality is
+possible.
+
+THE THYROID GLAND
+
+This gland consists of two maroon colored masses astride the neck,
+above the windpipe, close to the larynx. These are bridged by a narrow
+isthmus of the same tissue. They remind one of the flaps of a purse
+opened up. The gland has always attracted much attention because its
+enlargement constitutes the prominent deformity known as goitre.
+
+To begin with, the thyroid was once a sex gland, pure and simple. In
+the lowest vertebrates and in the homologous tissues of the higher
+invertebrates, the fractions of the thyroid are intimately connected
+with the ducts of the sexual organs. They are indeed accessory sexual
+organs, uterine glands, satellites of the sex process. From Petromyzon
+upward that relationship is lost, the thyroid migrates more and more
+to the head region, to become the great link between sex and brain.
+How alive that function still is, is grossly shown by the swelling of
+the gland with sexual excitement, menstruation and pregnancy.
+
+Relative to the body weight it is largest in the mammalia, and
+smallest in the fishes. It therefore grows larger as the vertebrate
+ascends in the scale. It has, in fact, developed in direct proportion
+to and side by side with the fundamental, differentiating vertebrate
+characteristics. Of these, the possession of a dry hairy skin instead
+of a moist or mucus bearing, chitinous skin, the ownership of
+an internal bony skeleton and a large skull, and a complicated
+development of brain, are the diagnostic signs. Thyroid internal
+secretion has a very definite controlling relation to all of them: to
+skin, its hairiness, moisture and amount of mucus, to the growth and
+size of the bones, especially the bones of the extremities and the
+skull, and to intelligence and the complexity of the convolutions of
+the brain. Injury to the thyroid, especially in growing animals, is
+followed by profound retrogression or arrest of development in skin,
+skeleton and brain.
+
+In the fishes and the cyclostomes the thyroid is represented only by
+some small scrubby patches, little larger than the heads of pins,
+scattered along the aorta, the great blood vessels from the heart, and
+out a little way along each gill. It becomes larger and more compact
+among the amphibians and reptiles, but still remains quite small.
+Large and prominent among the birds and mammalia, it is largest and
+most prominent among the primates and man. It is hence permissible to
+think of the thyroid as a dictator of evolution, to crown it as the
+vertebrate gland par excellence, and to call the typical vertebrate
+brand marks secondary _thyroid_ characteristics in precisely the
+sense of Darwin classing the horns of cattle as secondary _sexual_
+characteristics.
+
+In such enthusiasm for the thyroid as a determinant of evolution, its
+pillar of cloud by day and column of fire by night, one should not
+forget the other glands of internal secretion. In them all, we may
+suppose, Life, tired of inventing merely prehensile, destructive and
+reproductive organs, hit upon the happy thought of contrivances which
+are in essence chemical factories to speed up the rate of variation
+and so of a higher evolution.
+
+CREATOR OF THE LAND ANIMAL
+
+According to this conception the thyroid played a fundamental part in
+the change of sea creatures into land animals. Experimentally, thyroid
+has been used to transform one into the other. Thus the occasional
+change of a Mexican axolotl, a purely aquatic newt, breathing through
+gills, into the amblystoma, a terrestrial salamander, with spotted
+skin, breathing by means of lungs, has long been known. Feeding the
+axolotl on thyroid gland produces the metamorphosis very quickly, even
+if the axolotl is kept in water. In the reptile house at the London
+Zoological Gardens full-grown examples of the common black axolotl and
+the pretty white variety are exhibited. Some are nearly three inches
+long. Alongside are shown several examples of the amblystoma stage,
+produced in one of the laboratories of Oxford University and at
+the gardens by thyroid feeding. A variation of the thyroid in the
+direction of increased secretion was probably responsible for the
+first land animals.
+
+THYROXIN, SECRETION OF THE THYROID
+
+Under the microscope, as in the test tube, the thyroid shows
+remarkable and unique features. Closed spherules lined by a single
+layer of cells enclosing a gelatinous material known as colloid, which
+stains deeply with acid dyes, comprise the units of its architecture.
+Essentially, it may be pictured as a series of jelly bubbles secreted
+by outlying cells.
+
+A relatively high percentage of iodine is the unique distinctive fact
+in its chemistry. Discovered by Baumann in 1895, the presence of the
+element has focused the intelligence of chemists upon the gland,
+with the consequent demonstration of arsenic also in it. It was soon
+manifest that the secretion of the gland was dependent upon the
+iodine content for its activity. Active extracts of the thyroid like
+thyreoglobulin and iodothyrin were proven to contain iodine, and to
+become inactive when the iodine was removed. Efforts to isolate the
+iodine containing active principle in pure form were fruitless until
+the work of Kendall at the Mayo Foundation. He obtained it as a white,
+finely crystalline, odorless and tasteless substance, heat stable,
+and analyzable. The free form separates as a sheaf of fine needles.
+Kendall at first called it the a-iodine compound, then named it
+thyroxin.
+
+There are other internal secretions of the thyroid, with a function of
+their own, that have no iodine. But they are secondary, and obscure.
+Thyroxin is accepted today as the purified internal secretion of the
+thyroid because all the effects of the whole gland may be elicited
+with it. Thyroxin produces results with doses amazingly minute
+compared with the quantity of whole gland necessary. Moreover, a dose
+of thyroxin appears to last an organism in need of it over a period of
+time; the other has to be administered continuously.
+
+Studies with thyroxin carried on in recent years have rounded out the
+whole concept of the business of the thyroid in the body economy.
+One may sum it up by saying that the thyroid secretion is the _great
+controller of the speed of living_. The more thyroid one has, the
+faster one lives; the less one has, the more slowly one lives.
+
+That is not to imply any direct proportion between the amount of
+thyroid secretion in an individual, and the length of life to which he
+is destined. The speed of living, in the chemical sense (which is the
+fundamental sense), and the rate at which the chemical reactions go on
+that constitute the process of life, are dependent upon the thyroid.
+When the reactions go faster, more oxygen and food material are burned
+up or oxidized, more energy is liberated, the metabolic wheel rotates
+more quickly, the individual senses, feels, thinks and acts more
+quickly.
+
+Likening one energy machine to another, the thyroid may be compared
+to the accelerator of an automobile. That is a rough and superficial
+comparison because an accelerator lets in more of the fuel to be
+burned up, while the thyroid makes the fuel more combustible. It thus
+resembles more the primer, for a rich mixture of gasoline and air
+burns at a greater velocity than a poor one. But the action of thyroid
+could really be simulated only by some substance that could be
+introduced into the best possible of gasoline mixtures, to increase
+its combustibility by a hundred per cent or more. For that is what
+thyroid will do to our food. Nor has it only this destructive or
+combustion side. Withal there is at the same time a constructive
+action, for the process frees energy to be used for heat, motion or
+other need. The thyroid, therefore, in addition to its role as an
+accelerator, acts, too, as the efficient lubricator for energy
+transformations. So we see it as accelerator, lubricator and
+transformer of our energies.
+
+THE GLAND OF ENERGY PRODUCTION
+
+The isolation of thyroxin has made possible the determination of the
+influence of the thyroid hormone upon the evolution of energy in any
+higher animal organism. There is, for every individual, a constant,
+known as the metabolic rate, or the combustion rate, a reading of the
+rate at which his cells are consuming material for heat. The metabolic
+rate is thus a gauge of the energy pressure within the organism.
+It may be calculated by measuring the amount of carbon dioxide gas
+exhaled during a unit of time, and the number of calories of heat
+radiated by the skin simultaneously. A simplified device has lately
+rendered it practicable to make actual determinations by a few
+five-minute readings of the rate of oxygen absorption by the lungs.
+Plummer, also connected with the Mayo Foundation, has shown that what
+would amount to less than a grain of the thyroxin would more than
+double the amount of energy produced in a unit of time. To be exact,
+one milligram of thyroxin increases the metabolic rate two per cent.
+That illustrates some of the power of the internal secretion of the
+thyroid and its importance to normal life.
+
+THE MOBILIZATION OF ENERGY
+
+But not only is the height of pressure of energy in the cells
+controlled by the thyroid. The mobility of that energy is also
+controlled. Without it, rapid and large fluctuations of energy output,
+and elasticity and flexibility of energy mobilization for any sudden
+mental or muscular act, let alone an emergency, become impossible. A
+woman suffering with myxedema, the condition described by the English
+physician Gull as a cretinoid state supervening in the adult life
+of woman, has an insufficient amount of thyroxin in her blood and
+tissues. She is clumsy and awkward and will stumble when endeavoring
+to walk upstairs. Any effort is almost paralyzed because the range
+of fluctuation of energy, the ability to mobilize energy, in turn
+dependent upon an ability to increase the metabolic rate, is limited.
+In slang phrase, she cannot step on it. Her existence is set to go at
+a rate in the neighborhood of forty per cent below the normal. By the
+administration of thyroxin, her metabolic rate can be raised to any
+desired figure, the spark can be adjusted, so to speak, to any point
+we like, and it can be so maintained for years.
+
+In the normal animal, to be sure, the internal secretion of the
+thyroid is not absolutely essential to life. So it contrasts with the
+hormone of the minute parathyroids placed so closely to it, a minimum
+dose of which is absolutely a prerequisite for continued life. The
+fundamental chemical reactions within the cells occur in the complete
+absense of thyroxin. But they go on in a relatively fixed, rigid and
+unvarying way, confined within the narrow limits of a constant figure.
+Under such conditions, the level of energy production is bound to be
+low, and to remain low, and the modus of its mobilization slow and
+unwieldy. With thyroid is introduced the trick of _catalysis_, or the
+speeding up of the vital chemical reactions, through the agency of an
+_intermediate_ which accelerates the process. It is par excellence the
+great catalyst of energy in the body. (A catalyst is an intermediary
+like the trace of water, which will bring about an explosion between
+dry oxygen and hydrogen that without it have stayed inert with the
+strongest currents of electricity.) Thus it supplies a mechanism not
+only for quantity output of that subtle reality we label energy, but
+also an apparatus for varying the available amount of it, and for
+permitting the maximum range in ease and rapidity of its utilization.
+The thyroid is still another device of life for procuring more and
+more variation and differentiation, its goal, as far as we can peer
+through the opalescent screen upon which its manifestations quiver.
+
+From another point of view, the thyroid may be looked upon as the
+organ evolved for maintaining the same amount of iodine in the blood
+as there is in sea water. Sea water was our original habitat, since,
+like Venus, we have all come up out of the sea.
+
+The more intimate study of the composition of the blood has revealed
+the most astonishing parallelism between it and the compounds of sea
+water. The blood is sea water, to which has been added hemoglobin as
+a pigment for carrying oxygen to the cells not in direct contact with
+the atmosphere, nutrients to take the place of the prey our marine
+ancestors gobbled up frankly and directly, and white cells to act as
+the first line of defense. To keep the concentration of iodine in the
+blood a constant, the thyroid evolved, since there is no iodine in
+most foods and very little in those which do contain it.
+
+That a minimum amount of iodine in the food is necessary to health is
+shown by the existence of goitre regions. Around some of the Great
+Lakes in the United States, for instance, the water does not contain
+enough iodine. As a result, numerous cases of goitre occur. Iodine in
+the form of sodium iodide in small doses will act as a prophylactic.
+The amount of iodine in the blood is about one or two parts to ten
+millions, and that of the liver is about three or four parts to ten
+millions. Since the liver is the most complex and active chemical
+factory in the body, its appropriation of a greater amount of iodine
+for itself is understandable.
+
+When thyroxin is administered in a single dose, there is a distinct
+lag in the absorption of it by the tissues. A single dose does not
+generate its maximum effect until the tenth day. This effect continues
+for about ten days. Then there is a gradual decrease in the intensity
+of reaction for another ten days. So that the length of time a single
+administration of thyroxin functions within the body is about three
+weeks. Again we have occasion to notice a protective device of the
+cells. Since the presence of thyroxin in the tissues determines the
+rate at which they burn themselves up, it is obvious that if there
+were no mechanism for retarding its action, and at need varying it,
+they really would set fire to themselves. That is to say, if the
+tissues held a maximum of the thyroid internal secretion, and had to
+take up more and more as it was fed out to them by the thyroid through
+the blood, the pressure of energy production would attain the state of
+a boiler without a safety valve. Even if self-destruction were avoided
+by the ingestion of the largest quantities of energy-bearing foods,
+rest for the cells would be difficult, if not impossible.
+
+The thyroxin in the tissues diminishes after a period of great
+exertion, the thyroxin probably being carried back to the thyroid
+gland and kept there as reserve until further demand. So it has been
+discovered that during the winter months, the thyroid glands of beef,
+sheep and hogs all contain much less iodine than during the summer
+months. During the winter months, manifestly, more energy is required
+to maintain body temperature, hence the gland surrenders more of its
+secretion to the tissues and so keeps less of it itself. There must
+be, too, a certain wearing out of the potency of the iodine with time.
+Even dead inorganic catalysts, made of simple elements, wear out after
+having been used time and time again.
+
+Though the thyroid is the supreme energizer, life is incompatible with
+a certain excess of it. Death can be produced by successive daily
+injections of its internal secretion. But it has, besides the
+energizing effect, certain formative and nervous influences equally
+marvelous. As illustrations, there are the cases of thyroid
+deprivation in human beings, cretinism and myxedema, as well as
+those in which it is believed there occurs an excess of the
+thyroid secretion in the blood and tissues, the condition of
+_hyper_thyroidism.
+
+CRETINISM AS THYROID DEFICIENCY
+
+Not that there is any arresting contrast of startling difference
+between the phenomena presented by different species. The younger the
+animal, the grosser the morbid symptoms witnessed. The animal fails to
+grow. The bones and cartilage, except of the skull, fail to develop.
+The abdomen projects and becomes large and flabby. The sex organs
+atrophy. There is sterility. Pregnant rabbits abort, hens produce
+very small eggs or none at all. These are the results of removing the
+thyroid in animals.
+
+Apathetic, indifferent, dirty, awkward, apparently idiotic, describe
+the human cretins. Their skin is rough and coarse, peeling in sheets.
+In some it is considerably knarled and creased as in the aged, and in
+others swollen, hard and resistant. The hair becomes shaggy and rough,
+losing all luster, and tends to grow irregularly and fall out. The
+temperature becomes subnormal and an anemia supervenes. There is a
+distinct reduction in the resistance to infections and intoxications.
+
+Cretinism in the human is a condition in which the burning taper we
+call Life flickers and smoulders and smokes. Thirty years ago it
+was an example of the most hopeless idiocy. Whole populations were
+afflicted with it. But neither man of science, nor bigot-fanatic,
+assured by the Divine Confidence of its meaning as a visitation,
+believed it could be modified an iota. Today, that inept word "cure"
+may be applied to our power of attack upon it, provided it is
+permitted to attack early enough. Modification, in the direction of
+the most surprising betterment, is the miracle that has been wrought.
+
+The history of a cretin runs somewhat as follows: A baby is born,
+which in all appearances seems normal. Perhaps the nose is a trifle
+squatter than even the average new-born's flat nose. There may also be
+abnormal sleepiness, greater even than that of the normal baby in the
+first month or two in that there is no spontaneous awakening from
+the coma for food. But in most cases this is put down to normal
+variability, or maybe to that limbo of all a baby's troubles:
+weakness. After some months, it is noticed that the infant is failing
+to grow at the normal rate, either physically or mentally. Examination
+at this time reveals a curious thickening of the dental ridges. Then
+the tongue takes the centre of the scene, by becoming unusually thick
+and prominent, to the point of projecting beyond the mouth at all
+times, and interfering with breathing, when the infant is in a
+recumbent position.
+
+More and more of the characteristics of the affection turn up. The
+queer, repulsive, pitiful face of the cretins, which makes them all
+seem brothers or twins, shapes itself. A yellowish, white or waxy
+pallor; rough, dry, scaly, bloated skin; swollen, often wrinkled brow;
+watery eyes, often almost concealed by the thickened eyelids; the
+depressed pug nose with its wide, thick nostrils; large, erect ears;
+the wobbly, drooling tongue, sticking out at one, yet not in derision;
+the hair thin, and like tow in texture rather than human; eyebrows
+and eyelashes are scant, and often absent; the nails short, thin and
+brittle; the teeth, very late in coming, may be represented by a few
+sharp points, irregular, decaying quickly, sometimes not succeeded at
+all by those of the second dentition.
+
+Whatever growth occurs is irregular and disproportionate. The trunk,
+though small compared with the head, appears massive against the
+background of the diminutive extremities. The back is somewhat humped,
+arching at the waist-line, while the abdomen protrudes like a balloon,
+with a hernia, often, at the navel. The extremities are short, bowed,
+cold, and livid, covered with rolls of the infiltrated skin, rolls
+which cannot be smoothed out. Hands and feet are broad, pudgy, and
+floppy, the fingers stiff, square and spade-like, the toes spread
+apart, like a duck's, by the solid skin. Above the collar bones there
+are frequently great pads of fat which sometimes encircle the narrow
+bull neck.
+
+The mental state varies with the degree of deprivation of the internal
+secretion of the thyroid. In the worst cases it is repulsively
+vegetable. Even the intelligence common to the higher animals is
+wanting. The cretins of the "human plant" kind, as they have been
+nicknamed, will not recognize mother or father or any person about
+them, or even a person from an object, and manifest no interest in
+anything or anybody, not even toys. Hunger and thirst they manifest by
+grunts and inarticulate sounds, or by screaming. They neither smile,
+cough, nor laugh, but sit like sphinxes, breathing, but not reacting.
+
+There are, of course, all grades and varieties. There are those who
+recognize parents and familiar faces, and exhibit some evidence of
+affection for them, acquire a limited vocabulary, and then cease, no
+progress possible even with the alphabet. They attain the size and age
+of two or three years and there stop altogether, as if a permanent
+brake were applied to the wheels of their growth. Some higher types
+may even come to speak connected sentences, and exhibit a certain
+mild spontaneity, though stupid and slow and abnormally deliberate,
+resembling the acquired form of thyroid deprivation or insufficiency,
+for which Ord invented the name myxedema.
+
+I have filled in with some detail this thumbnail sketch of thyroid
+deprivation as it occurs in infancy to illustrate how wide a sweep the
+gland's lariat embraces. Skin, hair, bones, muscle and fat, brain and
+intelligence, growth and development, are modified precisely as the
+size and shape of certain crystals are modified by the presence or
+absence of ingredients in an apparently homogeneous solution. A
+fertilized ovum, in which the predecessor of the thyroid gland is
+present, that is to say, in which there is the seed and soil for its
+sprouting, looks the same as one without that formative material. Yet,
+when the time comes for the internal secretion of the thyroid to put
+in its oar in the metabolic game, its presence or absence makes all
+the difference in the world to the individual.
+
+In the middle of the nineteenth century, when the concentration of
+phosphorus in the brain was established as significant, the cry for
+the emphasis of that fact was--without phosphorus no thought is
+possible. We can much more relevantly declare that without thyroid,
+no thought, no growth, no distinctive humanity or even animality is
+possible. For the epigram about phosphorus was bombast, since it can
+be declaimed with equal truth that without oxygen, without carbon,
+without nitrogen, without any of the food elements that go to make
+up the chemical composition of brain matter, no thought is possible.
+Indeed, if one were set upon the indictment of a single chemical
+element as the begetter of consciousness, the prisoner at the bar
+would have to be copper. There is more copper in the brain by a
+considerable degree than in any other organ of the body. Which perhaps
+will be exceedingly regretted by the patrons of the aristocracy of the
+soul who would have it as an emanation of a deposit in the brain of
+silver at least, if not gold. They are like the old lady who would
+never permit herself to be cured of her ailments except by gold plated
+pills. Copper, however, is not necessary to intelligence. Without
+thyroid there can be no complexity of thought, no learning, no
+education, no habit-formation, no responsive energy for situations,
+as well as no physical unfolding of faculty and function, and no
+reproduction of kind, with no sign of adolescence at the expected age,
+and no exhibition of sex tendencies thereafter.
+
+EFFECTS OF FEEDING THYROID
+
+How subtly the internal secretion affects every phase and aspect of
+child as well as adult, by doing something to the speed of activities
+in their cells, is told straightway by the effects of it when eaten
+or introduced into the skin or blood of various people. A cretin,
+idiotic, dwarfish, deformed, hopeless, an incessantly prodding burden
+of sorrow to the mother, who looks upon the masterpiece she had
+labored to bring forth, and beholds a terrible gargoyle, becomes
+transformed when fed thyroid.
+
+In a few days the cretin will get warmer, and require much less
+wrapping and bed-clothing. With the improvement in circulation, the
+color becomes better and the extremities lose their coldness. In a
+week or so, irritability and resentment at disturbance appear. He will
+begin to recognize and know his parents, smile and play. There is
+a gradual return to the normal of the facial appearance, and a
+resumption of growth. All kinds of marvelous growth effects occur.
+Twenty teeth may be cut in six months. Coarse, rough dry, shaggy hair
+becomes fine, silken, long and curly. The skin becomes soft, moist and
+roseate. Inches in height may be added every month. Bright, active,
+even talkative, are the descriptive terms an observer would apply
+after a few months. A complete remaking of body and soul is apparently
+affected.
+
+Yet, should the administration of the thyroid cease, an almost
+immediate reversion to the original vegetative condition is
+inevitable. After a few days, reactiveness slows down, the child will
+speak only when spoken to, will sit quietly in a chair all day and
+act semi-anesthetized. Gradually hair and skin return to the previous
+cold-blooded animal state, and the whole picture of the cretin is in
+full bloom. Supplying the internal secretion of the gland promptly
+repeats the transformation.
+
+One wonders what is to be the ultimate fate of these reformed cretins.
+Since the tale of the opening of life to them, once considered
+hopeless idiots, is scarce a generation old, we have no data, as
+yet, as to the character of their children or grandchildren, their
+adventures and vicissitudes, in short, their life history. Those of
+whom we have any record are normal and healthy school children or
+workers, alive to the interests of childhood or their occupation
+and social circles. No one outside their family knows that they are
+cretins, and the most acute observer would be hard put to it to
+suspect. What a theme for the reflections upon appearances the eminent
+Victorians loved!
+
+There are possibilities the imagination may envisage. One may suppose
+such a cretin, with all his other ductless glands intact, grown
+successfully to manhood under careful medical guidance. No one but
+himself is aware of his affliction, outside of his medical advisers.
+Luck aids him to rise in the world, or perhaps he has been born with
+a spoon of the precious metals in his mouth. Adolescence, love and
+marriage dance their sequence. Our hero of course keeps his dread
+secret to himself. Whether such an omission of confidence would
+entitle his wife to a divorce is something courts will be called upon
+to decide sooner or later. But, without anticipating, the honeymoon
+involves a trip to the South Seas. A storm and a wreck throws them
+alone on an island, tropical, easy to live on, and rescue in the
+course of a few months certain. The man, to his horror, discovers that
+he has saved of his medicaments only a pill box containing half a
+dozen of thyroid tablets, his requirement being one a day. He sees
+them go day by day. Finally they are all gone. He feels his faculties
+slipping hour by hour. Shall he tell her? Indecision grips him, and he
+delays until the day when his consciousness sinks to the point where
+his mind no longer grasps his problem. The wife must endure the
+spectacle of the enchantment of her husband, and his change from
+gallant lover to dull animal ogre. A new version of Beauty and the
+Beast!
+
+Cretinism as one manifestation of a soul without thyroid or without
+enough thyroid is not all. The first great successes with thyroid were
+achieved in adults, particularly adult women, exhibiting a peculiar
+obesity, coldness, loss of hair and teeth and a remarkable lassitude
+and torpor that might be summed up as a chronic drowsiness, like a
+saturation of the blood with some narcotic drug. Or there may be a
+melancholia, or a lack of ability to seize the finer points of a
+mental process, or an argument treated in the abstract. Children
+are said to be lazy, slow or dull. They experience an irritating
+difficulty in understanding questions and expressing their wants and
+desires, and so are declared to be vicious, or stupid.
+
+All these are grades of the degeneration which Ord, the Englishman,
+named myxedema. At its worst it is a sort of bloating and drying of
+the body and the mind. Then there is infantilism, which is helped by
+the giving of thyroid extract. It differs from the ordinary cretinism
+in that, while one is reminded of the latter by the physical stunting
+and the other stigmata, there is a certain amount of intelligence
+which enables the individual to hold his own while he is a child. He
+becomes a grown-up baby: at twenty prefers the company of children of
+ten, and passes under the evil influence of designing so-called normal
+persons. So dominated he will lie, steal, start fires, commit almost
+any crime, with no inherent flair for criminality, but because of a
+lack of independent judgment and inability to resist suggestion, and
+a desire to please friends. He is simply an overgrown child who still
+loves to play with toys, laughs and cries, becomes angry or afraid,
+unreasonably and ridiculously, and yells for mamma when thwarted or
+scared.
+
+So much for what happens when there is not sufficient of the thyroid
+secretion in the blood and tissues. Now to consider the effects of
+an excess of it, the condition called hyperthyroidism, as the
+insufficiency of it is labelled subthyroidism. Too much thyroxin can
+be introduced into the system of a normal individual, or even a cretin
+by the simple administration of too large doses or over too long
+a time. Also a train of symptoms similar to those evoked by an
+oversecretion of the thyroid may be mobilized by the taking of too
+much iodine. Great sorrow, great joy, a sudden severe jolt to the
+nervous equilibrium, sexual excitement, an overwhelming anger or grief
+may leave in their wake a permanent hyperthyroidism. The symptoms are
+the reverse of cretinism and myxedema. There is an over-excitability
+of the nerves in place of sluggishness, and an over-reactivity of the
+whole organism to its environment. The heart's action is too fast, and
+under the slightest stimulus gets faster to the point of obtruding
+itself into the conscious mind as a palpitation. Instead of the
+lowered temperature and coldness of the cretin, there is a heightened
+temperature, one or two degrees above the normal, and a feeling of
+heat. The individual has a high warm color, does not sleep well,
+becomes or remains thin no matter how much he or she eats, is
+abnormally susceptible sexually, may suffer from a definite insomnia,
+is emotional, and perspires freely. Alert, neurotic or high-strung,
+magnetic, and imaginative are some of the descriptive adjectives
+applicable. The eyes are bright and prominent, large and beautiful,
+when they have not reached the stage entitled "pop-eyed." Or they may
+even become so protuberant and bulging as to develop the expression of
+one staring aghast at some ineffable horror. The latter is the feature
+of only the severest types, when there is an associated goitre, the
+combination designated as exopthalmic goitre.
+
+There are, too, individuals in whom hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism
+are mixed, or rather alternate. At one time they present the phenomena
+of the one, at another of the other. They are the people who complain
+of the cyclic quality of their moods and purposes. Their mood will
+be a heaven of exaltation and exhilaration, and then descend into a
+slough of despond from which they feel themselves inextricable. They
+are always talking about the ups and downs of their mental states.
+Headache and languor and fatigability, dry skin and lack of appetite
+for food or exertion on one day or for one week, give way on the next
+day, or for the next week, to an energetic gayety, and sweaty, flushed
+skin, a prominent appetite for food and every sort of activity. Driven
+to be forever on the go, for one period, in the next they feel like
+lying down most of the day, with no inclination for any life whatever.
+The stage of depression may go as far as a melancholia, the stage of
+stimulation as far as mania. They may simulate manic-depressive or
+cyclic insanity. Something restrains them, and holds them bound as in
+a vise in the one cycle. And then they are driven on beyond themselves
+by some invisible whip in the next.
+
+THYROID AS DIFFERENTIATOR
+
+Besides the action of the thyroid as energizer, lubricator, and growth
+catalyzer, it has a remarkable power as a differentiator of tissues.
+It determines the embryonic etchings of the different organs which in
+their totality comprise the unique individual. Every multicellular
+animal must first have existed as a single cell, the impregnated ovum.
+With the body and personality of the ovum, the creature is one and
+continuous, literally something the single cell has made of itself by
+sub-dividing and differentiating. In the process, the cell mass often
+goes through stages which stand out as individualities in themselves,
+that appear on the surface absolutely unrelated. So the caterpillar
+and the butterfly, to the naive child, seem as far apart as worm and
+bird. In the case of the frog, the tadpole as a first sketch seems
+completely an impossible and wild absurdity. Yet we know that there is
+an orderly progression of events, a propagation of cells, a forward
+going arrangement of chemical reactions, that results in expansion and
+intricate complication of the organism. Just what the forces at work
+in this most mysterious of all natural processes are, has been an
+intellectual mystery that the best minds of the race have attempted
+to get rid of with words like pangenesis (Darwin). Words of Black
+(Mediterranean or Greek and Latin) origin, as Allen Upward has named
+them, always cover a multitude of ignorances. The glands of internal
+secretion, here, as in so many other dark places, provide the open
+sesame to certain long closed doors of biology. They offer themselves
+to us as the first definitely tangible agents which are known to keep
+the process of growth going, and undoubtedly initiate the marvelous
+unfolding of tissues and functions, organs and faculties summed up as
+development or differentiation.
+
+Thus by the direct feeding of thyroid at particular points in the
+differentiating history most curious effects have been elicited. If
+the gland is made part of the nutriment, the bathing environment, of
+the tadpole, a hastening of its metamorphosis is attained. The tadpole
+lives not out its day as a tadpole, but precociously turns into a
+frog. But such a frog! It is a miniature frog, a dwarf frog, a frog
+seen by looking through the wrong end of the telescope, a frog not
+magnified, but micrified. Frogs have been so created the size of
+flies. There has occurred a splitting of the two reactions which
+ordinarily go hand in hand: the reaction of growth which is just brute
+increase of total mass or weight and volume, and the reaction of
+differentiation which is the finer process. The picture is a frog, but
+a frog the size of a tadpole, a frog which has missed its childhood,
+adolescence and youth, skipping over these transition stages into the
+adult age, as a pigmy.
+
+It is all as if a baby were suddenly to grow a beard and moustache,
+evolve and shed teeth, and acquire the manner of an earnest citizen,
+and yet retain the height and weight of a baby. That the spectacle
+of such a superbaby is not quite the most fantastic of all
+improbabilities is shown by the condition of progeria, first recorded
+by the Briton, Hastings Guilford. A queer spectacle in which a child
+incontinently grows old without having lived--in the course of a few
+weeks or months. You look upon him and see senility on a small scale,
+but with all its peculiarities: wrinkled skin, apathy, gray hair and
+all the rest of it. All we can say about it is that it is probably due
+to a paralysis of all the glands of internal secretion, a removal
+of their influence upon the cells. Contrariwise to the feeding of
+thyroid, removal of the thyroid of tadpoles will prevent their
+development into frogs. If iodine is then fed to them, say mixed with
+flour, normal metamorphosis will occur. If Body is the tool chest
+which we carry about with us, as Samuel Butler said, then to the
+thyroid belongs the name of tool-maker.
+
+Another function of thyroid that must be taken into consideration is
+what has been spoken of as its antitoxic function--in plainer English,
+its power to prevent poisoning, or to increase resistance against
+poisons, including the bacteria and other living agents which
+cause the infectious diseases. Each molecule of food, ingested for
+assimilation into our substance, accumulates a history of wanderings
+and pilgrimages, attachments and transformations beside which the
+gross trampings of a Marco Polo become the rambling steps of a
+seven-league booted giant. In the course of its peregrinations, it
+becomes a potential poison, potential because it is never allowed to
+grow in concentration to the danger point. The thyroid plays its role
+of protector like all the internal secretory machines. In an animal
+deprived of a thyroid the feeding of meat shortens life--a single
+sample of how it works to guard against intoxication from within. The
+feeding of thyroid will also raise the ability of the cells to stand
+poisons introduced from without--intoxications of all sorts. Alcohol
+and morphine will affect in much smaller doses the subthyroid person
+than the normal or the hyperthyroid. As regards the infections, which
+directly or indirectly kill most of us, the injection of thyroid will
+increase the content in the blood of the protective antibodies which
+preserve us, temporarily at any rate, against malignant invaders. The
+opsonins, for example, those substances which butter the bacteria so
+that the appetite of the white cells for them is properly roused, are
+mobilized by thyroid feeding or injection. Other substances in the
+blood which destroy and dissolve bacteria are also increased. The
+thyroid probably performs these functions by sending its secretion
+to the cells directly responsible for the immunity reactions, and
+stimulating them to activity.
+
+A sketch of the thyroid like the foregoing shows it as the wondrous
+controller of vitality and growth, and indefatigable protector against
+intoxicants and injuries. When it is sufficiently active, life is
+worth while; when it is defective, life is a difficult threatening
+blackness. That would make it out as the gland of glands. It is
+tremendously important, without a doubt, in normal everyday life. But
+no more so than the other members of the cast. The position of star it
+may claim, but in vain. The other glands of internal secretion to
+be sketched will each, when the marvels of its business in the
+cell-corporation are considered, present itself as candidate for the
+honors of the president. Justice should give fair credit to all
+the organs which fabricate the reagents of individuality, and the
+regulators of personality.
+
+THE PITUITARY
+
+In the human skull, the pituitary is a lump of tissue about the size
+of a pea lying at the base of the brain, a short distance behind the
+root of the nose. It is of a grayish-yellow color, unpretentious and
+insignificant enough in appearance, and so long neglected by the
+scientists who boast their immunity to the glamor of the spectacular.
+Guesses at its nature date back to Aristotle.
+
+Like most of its colleagues among the glands of internal secretion,
+it is really two glands in one, two glands with but a single name. At
+least it consists of two different parts, distinct in their origin,
+history, function and secretions, but juxtaposed and fused into what
+is apparently a homogeneous entity. They are conveniently spoken of as
+the anterior gland and the posterior gland.
+
+In the embryo, the anterior gland is derived by a proliferation of
+cells from the mouth area. The posterior gland represents an outgrowth
+of the oldest part of the nervous system. When it is traced back along
+the tree of the vertebrate species, it is found to be present in all
+of them. An ancient invention, its precursor has been identified in
+worms and molluscs and even among the starfish. "The pituitary
+is practically the same, from myxine to man." A trusted veteran,
+therefore, among the internal secretory organs, its importance can be
+surmised.
+
+To understand the story of the pituitary, variously acquired bits of
+information concerning it have been assembled and fitted together like
+the fragments of a picture puzzle, as Cushing has so well put it. Here
+and there pieces stick out, obviously out of place. The relations of
+some of them to one another or to the whole design are not at all
+clear. Parts appear to have been irrevocably lost, or not yet to have
+turned up. Chance bystanders will select odd figures and articulate
+them into a new harmony. Yet out of the jumble of fragments, a fairly
+respectable insight has been gained in less than a half century.
+
+The pituitary is cradled in a niche at the base of the skull which,
+because of its form, is known as the Sella Turcica or Turkish saddle.
+So situated, an operative approach to it is overwhelmingly difficult.
+On the other hand, X-ray studies are favored. "Nature's darling
+treasure" it might be called, since there has been provided a skull
+within the skull to shelter it.
+
+Under the most highly magnifying lenses of the microscope, three kinds
+of cells have been distinguished. The anterior gland is a collection
+of solid columns of cells, surrounded by blood spaces into which their
+secretion is undoubtedly directly poured. A gelatinous material,
+presumed to be the internal secretion of the gland, has, in fact, been
+observed emerging from the cells into the blood spaces. The posterior
+lobe, or gland, consists of secreting cells producing a glassy
+substance which finds its way into the spinal fluid that bathes the
+nervous system. The spinal fluid itself is a secretion of another
+gland at the base of the brain, the choroid. Nerves and internal
+secretion are associated here with a closeness symbolic of their
+general relations.
+
+From each portion of the gland (to stick to the accepted nomenclature
+of speaking of the two glands as one) an active substance has been
+isolated. Robertson, an American chemist, separated from the anterior
+lobe a substance soluble in the fat solvents, like ether and gasoline,
+which he christened tethelin. But P.E. Smith has shown that the active
+material is soluble neither in boiling water nor in boiling alcohol,
+the typical fat solvent. A number of facts favor the idea of the
+anterior lobe cells as stimulants of growth of bone and connecting
+and supporting tissues generally. From the posterior lobe, pituitrin,
+believed its internal secretion, has been obtained in solution.
+
+Pituitrin is a substance of many marvelous functions. In general, it
+controls the _tone_ of the tissues, of involuntary or smooth muscle
+fibres of the blood vessels and the contractile organs of the body
+like the intestines, the bladder and uterus. When injected, it will
+slowly raise the blood pressure and keep it raised for some time, and
+will increase the flow of urine from the kidneys and of milk from the
+breasts. It will also cause an intense continued contraction of the
+bladder and the uterus. It is also said to control the salt content of
+the blood upon which its electrical conductivity and other properties
+depend. Normally, there is a certain fixed ratio of the salts in the
+blood, which keeps them like the ratio in sea-water. Again, we have
+an example of the curious atavism of the internal secretions. The
+thyroid, remember, keeps the iodine concentration of the blood like
+that of the ocean, our original habitat. Pituitrin likewise does its
+part to maintain our internal environment as near as possible to what
+was once the surrounding medium. A substance somewhat similar has been
+found in the skin glands of toads.
+
+The extraordinarily well protected position of the pituitary, its
+persistence throughout life, and its abundant blood supply, emphasize
+its vital importance. No other gland of internal secretion can
+adequately substitute for it. Complete expiration means death, in two
+or three days, with a peculiar lethargy, unsteadiness of gait and loss
+of appetite, emaciation, and a fall of temperature, so that the
+animal becomes cold-blooded, its temperature the same as that of the
+atmosphere it occupies. If only part of the anterior lobe is taken
+away, there occurs a remarkable degeneration of the individual. The
+degeneration is not a mucinous infiltration of the skin and the
+internal organs which occurs with thyroid deprivation, but a fatty
+degeneration, with a tendency to inversion of sex. A singular
+somnolence, a dry skin, loss of hair, a dull mentality, sometimes
+epilepsy, and a noticeable craving for and tolerance of sweets appear.
+These are but a few of the observations obtained in experimental
+sub-pituitarism, that is, underaction or insufficient secretion of the
+pituitary, produced by removing part of the anterior gland.
+
+If such an experimental sub-pituitarism is started in infancy, for
+instance in puppies, there is a cessation, or marked hindering and
+slowing of growth. That is, dwarfs are artificially created. Apropos,
+pathologists have shown that in several true human dwarfs the gland
+is rudimentary or inadequate. All of which goes hand in hand with the
+evidence that the skeleton stands directly under the domination of the
+pituitary.
+
+REGULATOR OF ORGANIC RHYTHMS
+
+There are certain other singular by-effects of the gland in its
+relation to the periodic phenomena of the organism like hibernation,
+sleep, and the critical sex epochs of both sexes. In hibernation, or
+winter sleep, the animal in cold weather passes into a cataleptic
+state in which it continues to breathe, more deeply but more slowly
+than when awake, but shows no other signs of consciousness or life.
+A lowered blood pressure and a marked insensitivity to painful and
+emotional stimuli go with it. There is a preliminary storage of starch
+in the liver, and of fat throughout the fat depots of the body. These
+are so like what happens after part of the pituitary is removed, that
+a comparison of the two becomes inevitable. Common to both conditions
+is a drop in the rate of tissue combustion or metabolism, which can
+be relieved by injection of an extract of the pituitary, a rise of
+temperature occuring simultaneously. Moreover, examination of the
+glands of internal secretion of hibernating species, like the
+woodchuck, during the period of hibernation, shows changes in all of
+them, but most marked in the pituitary, the shrunken cells staining
+as if they too were asleep, or in a resting stage. The characteristic
+alive qualities of these cells return, without relation to food
+or climate, when the animal comes to in the spring, at the vernal
+equinox. Hibernation may, perhaps, be put down to a seasonal wave of
+inactivity of the pituitary gland.
+
+Now winter sleep may be looked upon as an exaggeration of ordinary
+night sleep, the latter differing from the former only in its brevity.
+In the natural sleep of non-hibernating species there occurs, too,
+a fall in temperature. Moreover, they all, even man, have a certain
+capacity for winter sleep, as the experiences of travellers and
+explorers in the arctic regions indicate. In certain parts of Russia,
+where there is a scarcity of food during the winter months, the
+peasants pass weeks at a time in a somnolent state, arousing once a
+day for a scant meal. Just as the sex glands influence the body and
+mind profoundly with a certain cyclic periodicity of activity and
+inactivity (rut, heat, menstrual period and so on), which has been
+demonstrated to have a very close functional relationship with the
+pituitary, so sleep and hibernation will bear interpretation as
+products of a temporary dormancy of the same gland. We have, then,
+to set up in the place of Morpheus and Apollo, the new gods of the
+internal secretion of a chemical-making bit of the brain, as an
+explanation of the rhythms of sleep and wakefulness.
+
+There are individuals who go about outside of hospital walls,
+quasi-normally, who are semi-hibernators or partial hibernators, and
+who are really in a state of subpituitarism. They are people who may
+have something wrong or inferior with their pituitary, but not to the
+extent of interference with their daily life. They go about with their
+type stamped upon them for the seeing eye. The classical type is
+obese, with fat distributed everywhere, but more so in the lower
+abdomen and the lower extremities. They are slow and dull, and
+sexually inactive, often impotent. They are sometimes tall, but most
+often dwarfish, and may be subject to epileptic seizures. They recall
+the picture of what happens to young dogs partially deprived of the
+pituitary. Dickens delivered a perfect likeness of an extreme degree
+of the condition in the Fat Boy of the "Pickwick Papers," whose
+employment with Mr. Wardle consisted in alternate sleeping and eating.
+
+WHEN THE PITUITARY OVERACTS
+
+All grades of overaction of the pituitary exist. Then its peculiar
+power to act as a stimulant to the growth of bone and the soft
+supporting and connecting tissues like tendons and ligaments comes
+into play. If the overaction or excess of secretion begins in
+childhood or adolescence, that is, before puberty, there results a
+great elongation of the bones, so that a giant is the consequence. Now
+giants have always appealed to the imagination of the little man, and
+have had all kinds of wonderful abilities ascribed to them by him. The
+giants and ogres of folk-lore and fairy tales are favored with the
+most extraordinary mental advantages. Direct and analytic acquaintance
+with the giants of our own day, as well as a probing of their conduct
+in the past, has shown that normal giants--persons of exceptional size
+free from physical or mental deformities--are rare. There are people
+with _hyper_-pituitarism who exhibit the highest mental powers. In
+them is an increased activity of the posterior lobe in association
+with enlargement and hyperfunction of the anterior, overgrowth is not
+so marked, and the individual is lean and mentally acute. But the
+ordinary giant is one in whom there is degeneration of the pituitary
+after too much action of the anterior and too little of the posterior
+glands. A tumor or disease process in the gland is most often
+responsible.
+
+If the overaction of the anterior happens after puberty, when the
+long bones have set, and can not grow longer, a peculiar diffuse
+enlargement of the individual occurs, especially of his hands and feet
+and head. The nose, ears, lips and eyes get larger and coarser.
+As these people are rather big and tall to begin with, the effect
+produced is that of a heavy-jawed, burly, bulking person, with bushy
+overhanging eyebrows, and an aggressive manner. For there is, too,
+something distinctive about their mentality which has been as often
+portrayed as those of the pathologic giant. Rabelais' most famous
+character, Gargantua, belongs to the group. We recruit more
+drum-majors than prime ministers from among these people. They
+often suffer much from torturing boring headaches, and a consequent
+despondency and feeling of hopelessness which colors gray the entire
+spiritual spectrum. Up to a certain point these sufferers have a
+remarkable alertness and capacity. When conscious of the malady, they
+often meet it with a doggedly courageous optimism, which is another
+characteristic, although women occasionally commit suicide.
+
+In both the semi-hibernators who remind one of cattle, and in the
+giant or acromegalic types who remind one of the anthropoid ape, there
+develops a distinct diminution of sexual life. An abnormal process in
+the anterior gland, whether of oversecretion or of undersecretion,
+may interfere with the proper functioning of the posterior gland, the
+secretion of which is tonic not only to the brain cells, but also to
+the sex cells. Thus, young animals deprived of the pituitary will not,
+if male, grow spermatozoa, nor ripe ova in the female. Moreover, the
+feeding of pituitary increases sexual activity. In the case of hens,
+this has been demonstrated to be about thirty per cent by a pretty
+experiment. At a time of the year when eggs diminish, six hundred
+and fifty-five hens laid two hundred and seventy-three eggs upon an
+ordinary diet. When pituitary was added to their food for four days,
+the number of eggs rose to three hundred and fifty-two, an increase of
+seventy-nine. In addition, the fertility of the chicks born of these
+eggs was augmented, especially if both parents had been fed on
+pituitary. There are other aspects of the relation of the pituitary to
+sex, which will be treated in another chapter.
+
+THE BONY CRADLE OF THE PITUITARY
+
+Always, in attempting to understand the pituitary, it is necessary to
+remember that it is tightly packed in the bony cradle, the Turkish
+Saddle or Sella Turcica. Should some stimulus, local, or in the blood,
+arouse the gland to growth, a good deal will depend upon whether it
+has room to grow in, or it will make room by eroding the bone. With
+space for the formation of a large anterior and posterior pituitary
+gland, there will be created the long, lean individual, with a
+tendency to high blood pressure and sexual trends, great mental
+activity, initiative, irritability and endurance. An outstanding trait
+of these favorites of fortune is that they remain thin no matter how
+much food they consume, and they have the best of appetites. They
+often are subject to severe headaches because of intermittent swelling
+of the gland against the bone of its container.
+
+If the bony container is or becomes too small for its contents, it
+is interesting that along with the other signs of pituitary
+insufficiency, such as undersize, obesity, and asymmetry, there
+developes conspicuous moral and intellectual inferiority. The
+unfortunates suffer from compulsions and obsessions and lack
+inhibitions. They are the pathological liars with little or no
+initiative or conscience--amoral, not merely theoretically, but
+instinctively and unconsciously, with all the certitude and perfection
+of the unconscious accomplishment.
+
+THYROID AND PITUITARY
+
+The thyroid and the pituitary have often been compared. The anterior
+gland and the thyroid arise from almost the same spot in the embryonic
+oesophagus, the thyroid being an outgrowth in front, the anterior
+pituitary an outgrowth behind of the same soil. They both control
+growth marvelously, also the differentiation, the mass and intricacy
+of the tissues. But they differ in the site of their control. The
+thyroid bears more directly upon the inner and outer coverings of the
+body, the skin, the skin glands and the hair, the mucous membranes,
+and the irritability and the preparedness for response of the nerves.
+The pituitary acts more upon the framework of the body, the skeleton
+and the mechanical supports and movers. Bone and ligament, muscle
+and tendon seem to be within its immediate sway. The secretion or
+secretions of the pituitary diffuse directly into the fluid bathing
+the nervous system, supplying beneficent stimulants and aiding in the
+abstraction of harmful waste. So while the thyroid raises the energy
+level of the brain, and the whole nervous system, as a byproduct of
+its general awakening effect upon all the cells of the body, the
+pituitary probably stimulates the brain cells more directly, perhaps
+in the manner of caffeine or cocaine.
+
+The difference between the thyroid and the pituitary might be put this
+way: that while the thyroid increases energy evolution and so makes
+available a greater supply of crude energy, by speeding up cellular
+processes, the pituitary assists in energy transformation, in energy
+expenditure and conversion, especially of the brain, and of the sexual
+system. In short, the thyroid facilitates energy production, the
+pituitary its consumption. The pituitary appears therefore as the
+gland of continued effort. Hence fatigability, an inability to
+maintain effort, is one of the prominent complaints when there is
+destruction or an insufficiency of it for one reason or another. As
+such, it contrasts with the glands of emergency effort, known as the
+adrenals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE ADRENAL GLANDS, THE GONADS, AND THYMUS
+
+
+Like the pituitary, each adrenal gland is a double gland, that is,
+consists of two distinct portions, united together, one might say, by
+the accident of birth. It would be confusing, however, to speak of
+each as two glands, because there are, as a matter of fact, two
+separate adrenal glands, one in the right side of the abdomen, and the
+other in the left. Each gland is composite, or duplex. How the two
+parts came to be united is a long story, interesting but too long to
+be recounted here. In fishes they are apart and independent.
+
+Each adrenal is a cocked hat shaped affair, astride the kidneys,
+easily recognized because of its yellowish fatty color. Indeed, for
+centuries the glands were not given a separate status as organs, but
+were passed up as part of the fat ensheathing the kidney. In childhood
+and youth, in common with the other glands, they are relatively larger
+and more prominent than in the adult. Also, at every age, the amount
+of blood passing through them is very large compared to their size.
+Their tremendous importance in the body economy accounts for their
+being so favored.
+
+The two parts of which each gland is composed, are known as the cortex
+or outer portion (literally the bark) and the medulla or inner portion
+(literally the core). No clean-cut boundary sharply delimits the two,
+as strands and peninsulas of tissue of one portion penetrate the
+other. In the history of their development in the species and the
+individual, and in their chemistry and function, a sharp difference
+contrasts them.
+
+In the embryo, the cortex is derived from the same patch that gives
+rise to the sex organs, the ovaries in the female, and the testes in
+the male, described as the germinal epithelium. How intimately the
+two sets of glands are connected is neatly pointed by this fact of a
+common ancestor. All vertebrates possess adrenal glands. In the lowest
+of the vertebrates, Petromyzon, the two parts are distinct, the cells
+of the cortex-to-be are situated in the walls of the kidney blood
+vessels, projecting as peninsulas in the blood stream, the blood
+sweeping over and past them. The medulla-to-be consists of cells
+accompanying the vegetative nerves. Among reptiles, the two become
+adjacent for the first time, and among birds one part occupies the
+meshes of the other. The size of the cortex varies directly with the
+sexuality and the pugnacity of the animal. The charging buffalo, for
+example, owns a strikingly wide adrenal cortex. The fleeing rabbit,
+on the other hand, is conspicuous for a narrow strip of cortex in its
+adrenal. Human beings possess a cortex larger than that of any other
+animal.
+
+No definite chemical substance has as yet been isolated from the
+cortex. That remains a problem for the investigator of the future. But
+certain observations, especially concerning the relation between
+the development and behaviour of the so-called secondary sex
+characteristics, those qualities of skin, hair and fat distribution,
+physical configuration and mental attitudes, which distinguish the
+sexes, and the condition of the gland, indicate clearly that an
+internal secretion will be isolated, and that it will in its activity
+furnish certain predictable features.
+
+Three different layers of cells, arranged in strings, that
+interpenetrate to form a network directly bathed by blood, that breaks
+in upon them from _open_ blood vessels, compose the cortex. Most
+remarkable is this method of blood supply for it is exceedingly common
+among the invertebrates and rare among the vertebrates.
+
+In certain disturbances of these glands, especially when there are
+tumors, which supply a massive dose of the secretion to the blood
+presumably, peculiar sex phenomena and general developmental anomalies
+and irregularities are produced. If the disease be present in the
+fetus, taking hold before birth, and so brought into the world with
+the child, there evolves the condition of pseudo-hermaphroditism. The
+individual, if a female, presents to a greater or less extent the
+external habits and character of the other sex. So that she is
+actually taken for a man, although the primary sex organs are ovaries,
+often not discovered to be such except when examined after an
+operation or death. How closely such an occurrence touches upon the
+problems of sex inversion and perversion comes at once to mind.
+
+If the process involving the adrenal cortex attacks it after birth,
+the symmetrical correspondence and harmony of the primary sex organs
+and the secondary sex characters are not affected. But there follows
+a curious hastening of the ripening of body and mind summed up in the
+word puberty, a precocious puberty, with the most startling effects.
+A little girl of 2, 3, or 4 years of age perhaps will come to exhibit
+the growth and appearance of a girl of 14. She begins to menstruate,
+her breasts swell, she shoots up in height and weight, sprouts the
+hair distribution of the adult, and the mentality of the adolescent,
+restless, acquiring, doubting, emerge. A tot bewitched into puberty!
+A boy of six or seven may suddenly, in the course of a few weeks or
+months, become a little man, robust, rather short and stocky, but
+moustached, with the muscular strength and sexual powers of a man and
+thinking as a man. It is all as if into some fermentable medium or
+solution a little yeast were dropped that changed the quiet calm of
+its surface into a bubbling, effervescing revolution. It suggests at
+once that maturation, the transformation of the child into the man or
+woman, must be due to the pouring into the blood and the body fluids
+of some substance which acts like the yeast in the fermentable
+solution. The adrenal cortex is one source of the maturity-producing
+internal secretions.
+
+If trouble in the adrenal cortex starts after puberty, phenomena of
+the same type, but of a different order, exhibit themselves. A woman,
+say in the thirties, becomes thus afflicted. Slowly or quickly her
+body will be covered by an abundant growth of hair, more or less of a
+beard and moustache appear upon the face, her voice will become deep
+and penetrating, her muscles will harden, and she will show a capacity
+for hard physical labor. Sexually she appears to be made over,
+masculinity now predominates in her make-up. Virilism is the name by
+which the French in particular have popularized the knowledge of the
+condition. Virilists have to shave or be shaved regularly and are not
+bothered in the least by the cares, responsibilities, jealousies and
+anxieties of personal beauty, for the change in their spirituality
+makes them immune to the preoccupations of the feminine. The cause of
+such a transformation in a previously entirely normal woman has been
+found to be a tumor of the adrenal cortex.
+
+But not only is sexuality, and the conduct of the secondary sex
+characters, connected with the adventures of the adrenal cortex. The
+development of the master tissues of the body, the brain, the pride
+and darling of evolution, is in some subtle way correlated with
+it. The adrenal cortex contains more of the phosphorus-containing
+substances of the general nature of those found in the central nervous
+system than any other gland or non-nervous tissues in the body. During
+human intrauterine life the adrenal glands are large and conspicuous,
+in the first half of the second month being twice as large as the
+kidneys. Most of this relatively huge size, which happens in the human
+alone, and not in other animals, is due to enlargement of the cortex.
+Should this preponderance of the cortex over the medullary portion not
+occur in the human, that is, if the proportions remain like those of
+other animals, the brain fails to develop properly, or an entirely
+brainless monster is generated. The human brain, therefore, probably
+owes its superiority over the animal brain, to the adrenal cortex, in
+development anyhow. The growth of the brain cells, their number and
+complexity is thus controlled by the adrenal cortex.
+
+Besides its action upon the sex cells and the brain cells, the
+internal secretion of the adrenal cortex acts upon the pigment cells
+of the skin, blunting their sensitiveness to light. In degeneration
+of the interior of the gland, which destroys the medulla, but not the
+cortex, the color of the skin is left unmodified. If, however, the
+cortex is invaded, as happens most often in the classical tuberculosis
+of the adrenals which drew the attention of the Englishman Addison
+to them, then a darkening of the skin, which may go on to a negroid
+bronzing, follows. That means an increased sensitiveness of the
+pigment cells of the skin to light. Skin color control may therefore
+be looked upon as an adrenal cortex function.
+
+So much is known about the adrenal cortex. Upon the medulla, the
+interior gland of the gland, there has been lavished an amount of
+attention beside which the cortex is to be classed as a neglected
+wall-flower. Nearly everything that possibly could be determined
+about an internal secretion has in its case been settled or plausibly
+guessed at. The cells manufacturing the secretion, its exact chemistry
+and function, its action upon the blood, the liver and spleen, the
+heart and lungs, the brain and nervous system, have been minutely
+investigated, studied and charted. Its source in the food, its fate in
+the body, its place in the history of the individual and the species,
+its importance as a weapon in the struggle for existence, and the
+survival of the fittest have been made the subject of an astonishing
+number of researches, considering the short period of scarce three
+decades that intensive science has centered its barrage upon it.
+
+In the first place, the medulla contains numerous nerve cells,
+belonging to the vegetative, also called the sympathetic nervous
+system. But these nerve cells are merely minor notes of the symphony.
+The motif is settled by a majority of large, granular cells, which
+stain a distinctive yellowish-brown when the gland is fixed in a
+solution of bichromate of potash. All chromium salts, in fact, stain
+the therefore labelled chromaffin cells. The characteristic staining
+power appears to be dependent upon, or correlated with, the presence
+of the internal secretion of the medulla of the adrenal, adrenalin.
+For the content of adrenalin, as calculated chemically, and the
+depth of stain as seen under the microscope, rise and fall together.
+Chromaffin reaction and adrenalin content go together. The poisonous
+skin glands of the toad have been found to give a marked chromaffin
+reaction, and to contain a large amount of adrenalin. Other masses
+of cells in the human body, especially along the course of the
+sympathetic nervous system, have been shown to give the reaction and
+to contain adrenalin.
+
+The erratic Brown-Sequard pounded and hammered away for more than
+thirty years on the importance to life of the adrenal glands, since
+death occurred so quickly after their removal. But it was not until
+Schaefer, the Scotch physiologist, (who has done more than any other
+living man to stimulate study of the internal secretions) found that
+an extract of them, when injected into a vein, produced a remarkable
+though temporary rise of the blood pressure, that a real enthusiasm
+for its investigation was generated. As the upshot, a number of other
+significant properties besides the first of blood-pressure raising,
+have been put down to its credit. Chemical tests demonstrated that
+it originated in the medulla. The exact amount of it present in the
+medulla, in the blood issuing from the adrenals and in the circulation
+in general have been determined. The concentration in the blood is
+about one part in twenty million, while there is about a hundred
+thousand times as much stored in the gland as reserve. In infections
+and intoxications, after muscular exertion, and with profound
+emotions, there is a decrease of it in the gland and an increase in
+the blood. Pain and excitement, especially fear and rage, will bring
+about its discharge from the gland. With its entry into the blood,
+there is a tremendous heightening of the tone, a _tensing_, of the
+nervous system. The nerve cells become more sensitive to stimuli,
+more sugar is poured into the blood from the liver, more red blood
+corpuscles are squeezed into the circulation from the blood lakes of
+the liver and spleen. There is a redistribution of the whole blood
+mass, a good deal of it being withdrawn from the internal viscera, and
+hurried to the skeleton muscles and the brain. The heart beats more
+strongly, the eye sees more clearly, the ear hears more distinctly,
+and the breathing is more rapid. The temperature rises, the hair of
+the head and the body becomes erect, the skin gets moist and greasy.
+It will help a fatigued muscle to regain its normal tone. In short, it
+has a reinforcing action upon the nutritive properties of the blood,
+the tone of the muscles, and the activity of the brain and the
+vegetative nerves.
+
+Chemists set themselves the task of discovering just what was the
+substance possessed of such extraordinary and hitherto unimagined
+properties. The pure adrenalin was isolated, capable of evoking all
+the reactions of the impure adrenal extract mixtures. The final
+triumph was the preparation of it artificially in the laboratory,
+its synthesis. When a substance can be synthesized in the chemist's
+laboratory, it means that its composition has become thoroughly
+understood. Here at last was an example of those mysterious internal
+secretions, the existence of which had indeed been postulated and
+proven, but which had never actually been inspected by the eye of
+mortal man. To have it in a test-tube, indeed to possess it in large
+quantities in bottles, to be able to manipulate and examine it without
+fear of the co-action of admixed impurities, to see it with the eye,
+and to taste it with the tongue, was truly a marvel. The miracle
+aroused at once scores of researches.
+
+THE GLAND OF COMBAT AND FIGHT
+
+Considering its effects, one is reminded at once of the similarity
+to the expression of a primitive emotion like anger or fear. So, by
+turning a relation upside down, it was argued that if artificial
+adrenalin could produce all these effects of an emotion like fear, the
+emotion itself should produce an increase of the natural adrenalin in
+the blood. This was found to be the case. Cannon of Harvard has built
+up an entire theory of the adrenal as the gland of emergencies upon
+the basis of these effects. In the facing of crises the adrenal
+functions as the gland of combat. And indeed, as I have mentioned,
+the more combative and pugnacious an animal, the more adrenal it has,
+while the timid and meek and weak have less.
+
+The Glands of Combat, the glands of emergency energy, the glands
+of preparedness,--such are the adrenal glands when viewed from the
+adrenalin standpoint. A picture of its activity in the evolutionary
+scheme of struggle and survival is something like the following:
+meeting an enemy, the animal is put in danger. It must fight or flee
+for its life. In either case, certain conditions must be fulfilled, if
+the body of the animal endangered is to be saved. To prevent injury to
+itself, and to do as much injury as possible to the foe--that becomes
+its immediate urge and necessity. Of the two animals, if in one the
+heart should begin to beat more strongly, the blood pressure to rise,
+the blood to flow more rapidly through the attacking instruments, the
+muscles, the teeth and claws, the brain and its eyes, while the other
+animal experiences none of these, the former will be the victor in
+fight or flight. Adrenalin may be looked upon as the invention for the
+mobilization at a moment's notice, or as we say, after generations of
+use, by instinct, of all these visceral and blood advantages in the
+struggle of combat or flight.
+
+The nature of instinct, in its relation to the glands of internal
+secretion, is a problem for another chapter. But we may note that the
+James-Lange theory of an emotion regards it as a consciousness of the
+very changes in the organism adrenalin causes. Since adrenalin is the
+starter of the whole process, and since McDougal has defined emotion
+as the feeling aspect of an instinct, just as an instinct may
+be defined as the motor aspect of an emotion, the adrenals as
+emotion-genetic, and instinct-genetic, play a part in the most
+profound processes of the subconscious and unconscious.
+
+THE MECHANISM OF FEAR
+
+We may therefore visualize a mechanism of fear. An instant excess of
+adrenalin occurs in the blood of, say, a cat when it is alarmed by the
+sight of a dog. In that cat, at the image of its hereditary enemy,
+certain brain cells vibrate. A nerve tract, in use as the line for
+that particular message in a hundred thousand generations of cats,
+whirrs its yell to the medulla of the adrenal gland. Through the tiny,
+solitary veins of the glands, an infinitesimal quantity of the reserve
+adrenalin responds. And with what an effect! The blood, that primary
+medium of life, the precious fluid that is everything, must all, or
+nearly all, be sent to the firing line, the battle trenches, the
+brain and muscles, now or never. So the blood is drafted from the
+non-essential industries--from the skin where it serves normally to
+regulate the heat of the body--from the digestive organs, the stomach
+and intestine, which must forsooth stop now, since if the organism
+will die, their last effort of digestion has been done--from the liver
+and spleen, great chemical factories in normal times, but now of no
+moment. Besides, should they be wounded, it is better they should
+be bloodless, and so run the least chance of bleeding to death, or
+getting infected, for the more tissue there is around, the greater the
+danger of infection. So, like the skin, the liver which usually holds
+in its great lakes and vessels about a quarter of all the blood in
+the body, is almost drained and blanched. At the same time, its great
+storehouses of sugar open their sluices and pour into the blood,
+increasing its sugar content by about a third because the combustion
+of sugar is the easiest way of getting energy free in the cells, sugar
+being the most quickly burned up of all the foods, and so the great
+food of the muscles and the heart. The poisons of fatigue, acid
+products of the contraction of muscles, are antagonized and
+neutralized by substances formed in the course of the oxidation of the
+sugar. Adrenalin, too, is directly fatigue antagonist. It causes the
+blood to clot faster than under ordinary circumstances. It erects the
+hair of the animal, and dilates the pupils of the eyes. There is an
+increase of the apparent size, all of which are to intimidate the
+enemy, like an Indian's painting of his face blue and green. It
+also--but what else does it not do?
+
+The story of adrenalin would have delighted the heart of Samuel
+Butler. His "Note Books," opulent as they are, would have been the
+richer in pages and pages with his comments on it. Contending as he
+did with the pompous, dogmatic mechanism worship of the new scientific
+clique of his time on the one hand, and the superstitions of the old
+theological caste on the other, he had to fight the hardest kind of
+guerrilla warfare in defense of the Purpose of Life. Adrenalin, that
+weapon of a gland tracing its ancestry back to the begetter of the
+brain itself, for brain and adrenal gland both have evolved from the
+small nerve ganglia of the invertebrates, would have backed up to the
+hilt his argument, which he had to elaborate on the indirect grounds
+of analogy and induction. Essential for defense, and for protection,--
+an organ in which everything necessary for the stratagems of retreat,
+or the offensives of attack, are supplied ad libitum, while everything
+non-essential or detrimental to the matter of the moment is inhibited,
+arrested and suppressed--no more perfect sample of the design with
+which Life is drenched could be imagined by the most closeted of
+passionate idealists.
+
+FAILURE OF THE ADRENALS
+
+As the gland of acute stress and strain, the adrenals in modern life
+are called upon to function more heavily and frequently than in the
+past. As a matter of fact, the life of the beast of jungle and field,
+as well as of savage and barbarian, is just as full of emergencies and
+shocks as that of the average city man or woman. In the case of the
+latter, however, inhibitions, education, and the conditions of modern
+living, improper food, sedentary indoor confinement, and universal
+rack and noise, have undoubtedly made greater and greater demands upon
+the adrenal glands. Chemical quantitative studies have shown that by
+repeated stimulation, the adrenal glands may be exhausted of their
+reserve supply of secretion, which returns only insufficiently if not
+enough time is given for recuperation. There results a condition of
+temporary or chronic adrenal insufficiency, supposedly an insufficient
+functioning of the gland as a whole. In persons so afflicted there
+appears a fatigability, a sensitiveness to cold, cold hands and feet,
+which are sometimes mottled bluish-red, a loss of appetite and zest in
+life, and a mental instability characterized by an indecision, and a
+tendency to worry, a weepishness upon the slightest provocation.
+
+A certain number of the temporary breakdowns or nervous prostrations,
+which seem to be growing more common or fashionable, may be sometimes
+traced to such a deficiency of normal response to the needs of
+everyday conflict by the adrenal gland. In some, mental and physical
+elasticity are totally lost, and even the slightest exertion in
+either field often causes so much weariness and exhaustion as to be
+prohibited. Depression and even melancholia are associated with the
+fear of not being able to accomplish good work hitherto easy and
+enjoyed. Sometimes they are obsessed with the thought that they have
+lost their nerve completely, and so dread to commit themselves in even
+the most trivial of situations. The vacillating frame of mind is so
+distressing at times as to arouse thoughts of suicide. When these
+symptoms concur in the type of personality whom I shall describe
+as the unstable adrenal-centered individual, there is evidence for
+explaining the process as the effect of an insufficiency of secretion
+by the adrenal gland.
+
+Shock, collapse, heart failure and sudden death following abnormal
+emotion, like an attack of rage, or the terrors of a railroad
+accident, or bad news, or excessive exertion like running a long race
+or climbing a high mountain when in poor general health, as the phrase
+goes, or in the terminal stages of infections like epidemic influenza
+or Asiatic cholera, have been put down to an acute insufficiency of
+the adrenal gland. A lowered temperature, blood pressure, and blood
+vessel tone, exhibited in tests of the response of the skin to
+stroking, are present in all of these and point the same moral.
+
+In the second half of the 19th century, an American physician, Beard,
+described Neurasthenia, a general disturbance of the body and mind,
+not properly classifiable as a disease, but serious enough to
+incapacitate or at least greatly limit the sufferer. The neurasthenic
+is to be recognized by the fact that the most painstaking objective
+examination of his organs reveals nothing the matter with them. Yet,
+according to his complaint, everything is the matter with him. He
+cannot sleep when he lies down, he cannot keep awake when he stands
+up. He cannot concentrate, but still he is pitifully worried about his
+life. The slightest irritant causes him to go off the handle. As
+he works himself up into his hysterical state as a reaction to a
+disagreeable person or problem, irregular blotches may appear on
+his face and neck. Generally, his hands and feet are clammy and
+perspiring, his face is abnormally flushed or pallid, the eyes are
+worried or starey, unwonted wandering sensations involving now this
+area of the body, or now that obsess him. As the blood pressure is
+too low for the age, the circulation is nearly always inadequate and
+palpitation of the heart is a frequent complaint. So frequent, that
+attention is often centered upon the heart, a diagnosis of heart
+disease is made, and the unfortunate is doomed for life--to brood
+over horrible possibilities. The brooding over themselves and their
+troubles is one of the distinctive features of the whole complex.
+Neurasthenia may masquerade as any organic disease. An individual with
+a soil for a neurasthenic reaction to life will become neurasthenic
+when confronted by any stone wall, including a serious ailment within
+himself.
+
+Beard's Neurasthenia leaped at once into the limelight. It was seized
+upon and applauded in Europe as a good new name for an old condition,
+observed particularly in Americans abroad to rest from the fatigues of
+the get-rich-quick games of industrial speculators. In fact, the name
+of the American Disease was given to it. Various theories about the
+effects of climate, sunlight per square inch and unit of time, oxygen
+content of the air, and so on, were offered up upon the altar of
+scientific explanation. Sir Arbuthnot Lane, famous protagonist of
+Lane's intestinal kink, said that all Americans were neurasthenic.
+Neurasthenia became one of the most popular of diagnoses, and remains
+so today.
+
+Neurasthenia, regarded as a reaction of people to the stress and
+strain of life, has without a doubt increased. The most casual of
+observers will tell you that the generation of the Great War is a
+neurasthenic generation. It takes its pleasures too intensely,
+its pains too seriously, its troubles too flippantly. But what is
+neurasthenia? Beard himself regarded it as a chronic fatigue and loss
+of tone of the nervous system, a literal interpretation of his term.
+That the conception, as far as it goes, is valid is proved by the fact
+that it is the neurasthenics who furnish the majority of the clientele
+of the cults, the Christian Scientists, the osteopaths and the
+chiropractors, and who are the subjects of the faith and miracle
+cures, like those of Lourdes. That is because their particular
+disease, or what appears to them to be their very own disease--and
+they certainly cherish their ailments--is but an expression of, a
+compensation for, indeed a consolation for, the underlying feelings of
+insufficiency or inferiority. Were there no moral code, were there
+no social system, nor the consequent inculcated conscience to be
+responsible to, there would be no such disguising symptom as
+the disease which preoccupies the consciousness. The feeling of
+insufficiency would be there, and would be recognized as in itself
+the disease. To the physiologist and the psychologist, the feeling of
+insufficiency is the disease, no matter how spectacular the overlaying
+phenomena--a cripple on crutches or a man blind and speechless. Shell
+shock is now acknowledged to belong to this group.
+
+Now one of the outstanding effects of disease of the adrenal glands is
+the feelings of muscular and mental inefficiency. And as a matter
+of fact, a good number of observations conspire for the idea that a
+certain number of neurasthenics are suffering from insufficiency of
+the adrenal gland. The chronic state of the acute phenomenon, known as
+the nervous breakdown, really represents in them a breakdown of the
+reserves of the adrenals, and an elimination of their factor
+of safety. In the light of that conception, the great American
+disease--dementia americana--is seen to be adrenal disease--and the
+American life to be the adrenal life, often making too great demands
+upon that life, and so breaking down with it.
+
+ADRENAL EXCESS
+
+The converse of adrenal insufficiency, that of adrenal excess, also
+exists. In certain types of the middle-aged, a high blood pressure,
+accompanied by a great capacity for work, has been shown to be
+associated with hypertrophy of the cortex. In women, there is a
+degree of masculinity, as the adrenal in women makes for masculinity,
+neutralising more or less the specifically feminine influences of
+the internal secretions of the ovary. Such women possess a vigor and
+energy above the normal, and command responsible positions in society,
+not only among their own sex, but also among men. They are the ones
+who, in the present overturn of the traditional sex relationships,
+will become the professional politicians, bankers, captains of
+industry, and directors of affairs in general.
+
+THE GONADS
+
+(_Sexual, Puberty or Interstitial Glands_)
+
+The gonads is the name applied to the generative or reproductive
+glands considered collectively. In the male, they are the testes; in
+the female, the ovaries. They are, therefore, sometimes called the
+sexual glands. As they possess definite canals for the removal of
+their gross secretion, the specific reproductive cells, ova or
+spermatozoa, to a surface of the body, they are first of all glands of
+external secretion. But they have been also found to hold secretory
+cells not concerned with the making of the reproductive corpuscles,
+but, as all the evidence indicates, with the manufacture of an
+internal secretion. These interstitial cells form the interstitial
+gland. A classic example of a gland of internal secretion lodged in
+the interstices of a gland of external secretion is thus furnished by
+the gonads.
+
+ORIGIN OF SEX TRAITS
+
+The history of sex goes back far in the scheme of life. The
+immortality of the ameba was at one time one of the indisputables of
+biology. Then some observations were made which threw doubt upon a
+long accepted fact, now declared a dogma. Lately, opinion has veered
+back to immortality. But in the case of a close relative of the ameba,
+the one-celled animal known as the paramecium, union with another
+paramecium, true conjugation, has been proved necessary to prevent
+death sooner or later. Sex here appears in its most primitive form, on
+the basis of exchange of necessary materials, between individuals to
+prevent death, their own having been, so to speak, worn out, in the
+course of metabolism.
+
+Specifically different sexes come later, when mortality is a universal
+fate, as a means of rebirth and escape from death. Then the sexes
+develop their latest function, most prominent among the younger
+vertebrates, of acting as nature's most potent method of variation and
+differentiation. In the pursuit of the different, nature has exalted
+sex, and the intensity of the sex life. As far as the preservation of
+a species is concerned, and the reproduction of the individual, the
+asexual methods, budding, for example, would have done well enough.
+But when it comes to enacting a different individual apart from the
+effects of environment, sex stands out as the favored method of Life.
+
+The development of the sexes and the sexual life brought a new element
+of conflict into the living world. Before the advent of the sexes the
+conflict was essentially for the means of existence, food alone. But
+with the sexual life came a conflict for sex pleasure, a competition
+among members of the same species for the same individual as their sex
+partners. The result was the introduction of a factor in evolution
+which Darwin examined so closely in the "Descent of Man."
+
+The sex conflict has been the cause for the origin and the survival
+of certain physical and mental traits, helpful in sex attraction, sex
+combat, the growth of the embryo, and the nutrition and safety of the
+young of a species,--in short, the whole process of sexual selection.
+The proportions of the skeleton, the distribution of hair and fat, the
+construction of organs of attack and defense, the color of the skin,
+the cyclic processes of preparation for impregnation, the oestrus or
+heat period in animals, the menstrual period in the human being, the
+psychic reactions to danger and combat have all been thus determined.
+That man is bearded while woman is not,--that woman has potentially
+functional breasts while man has not,--the aggressive pugnacity of
+man contrasted with the more passive timidity of woman, have all been
+evolved in the sex struggle, surviving because most effective in that
+struggle. These so-called secondary sexual characteristics are an
+expression of the influence of the internal secretion of the gonads,
+or the interstitial glands. Some call them puberty glands, because
+their ripening initiates puberty.
+
+We know that these interstitial glands, to stick to that name, (rather
+than to the name of the puberty glands, since they serve not only
+to induce puberty but to maintain maturity) are the actual primary
+dictators of the process by which male and female are distinguished,
+if not created. Castration was probably the first surgical operation
+carried out for experimental purposes, suggested no doubt by a
+curiosity concerning its effects. Trepanning of the skull, the
+geologic record indicates, was done even by the cave man. But as an
+experimental operation, castration seems to hold the primary position
+in the annals of surgery.
+
+Its effects noted, the satisfaction of one of the lower human
+instincts, jealousy, popularised it. From the days of Semiramis,
+eunuchs have been commonplace figures of the East, their function
+definite: to guard the harems of the powerful. The age of Abdul Hamid
+witnessed no diminution of the barbaric tortures by which children are
+prepared for the profession. It is to the credit of England that in
+its dominions in the Orient the practice has been abolished. But it
+goes on even today. According to the best authorities, four out of
+five of these victims at the auto-da-fe of a vicious human instinct
+die immediately or soon after from exhaustion due to pain and
+infection. Not all of the ancient nations countenanced the brutal
+horror. The Hebrews placarded castration an unpardonable sin, making
+it a sin to castrate even animals. Nor was any man so mutilated
+permitted to worship in the house of the Lord (Deuteronomy xxiii, 11).
+Yet we have evidence that the latter Jewish kings employed foreign
+eunuchs in their harems, who often held the most important positions
+as ministers of the court.
+
+Besides the eunuchs, another group of people have presented material
+for the study of the interstitial glands. These are the Skoptzi of
+Russia and the Lipowaner of Roumania. Among them castration is a
+religious ritual. Mankind has always been most brutal to itself in the
+name of the ideal. These sects were founded because in the eighteenth
+century an antipode of Joseph Smith and Brigham Young discovered this
+passage in Matthew xix, 12.
+
+"For there are some eunuchs which were so born from their mother's
+womb, and there are some eunuchs which were made eunuchs of men: and
+there be eunuchs _which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom
+of heaven's sake_. He that is able to receive it, let him receive it."
+
+He decided that he was inspired to spread the gospel of castration. A
+sect was founded who thought that surgery was the easiest way to enter
+the gates of Paradise, and they multiplied and fructified. The sect
+exists today, and some of the most interesting studies of the internal
+secretion of the interstitial glands have been made among them.
+
+Related to acquired eunuchism is the condition of eunuchoidism, the
+eunuchs which were so born from their mother's womb. Baron Larey, the
+great surgeon of Napoleon's armies, was their first painter. He was
+the only altruist Bonaparte said he had ever met in his life. He
+portrayed a group of soldiers with peculiarly high-pitched voices,
+smooth and hairless skins, and atrophied generative organs. A somewhat
+similar picture is evolved in certain types of insufficiency of
+the pituitary gland. Features of the picture are exhibited with
+disturbances of the other internal secretory glands also, like the
+thymus.
+
+But a host of experiments and data prove the interstitial glands to be
+the direct controllers of elementary sexuality and the specific sex
+traits of male and female. Beginning with Berthold back in the first
+half of the nineteenth century, who studied the fowl, a number of
+observations have been made on the effects of excision, translocation
+and transplantation of these glands.
+
+The results of the experiments and observations can be summed up as
+follows: if the male individual is castrated before puberty, that is,
+before the advent of the sexual life, secondary sex qualities do not
+develop. In males, the generative organs do not grow, hair on the face
+does not appear, hair elsewhere on the body remains generally scanty,
+the voice continues as high-pitched as the child's, there is more
+or less muscle weakness, obesity, and mental sluggishness. In other
+words, we have an effeminate man, technically a eunuch. In the
+castrated female, the pelvis does not grow to the normal feminine
+size, the breasts do not swell as they should, more or less hair comes
+out on the face, the voice is low-pitched, and tends to be rather
+husky, the legs are longer, and again, the mentality is dulled. That
+is, a masculine sort of woman is produced.
+
+In short, the castrated male takes on a feminine type, and the
+castrated female, a male type. In either case there is also an
+infantilism, a retention of the infantile mental traits, a lack of
+development of the adult mental attitudes and reactions. Now, if
+in the castrated male is transplanted an ovary, the positive
+characteristics of the female are evoked, such as enlarged mammary
+glands, and a tendency to secretion of milk. Experiments have also
+been reported in which a uterus was also placed in such an animal,
+with a means of entry, and pregnancy followed. If in the castrated
+female a testicle is planted, the masculine traits become much more
+marked and striking. A direct exchange of the male and female
+roles can thus be achieved. Castration after puberty cannot modify
+profoundly structures like the skeleton which are already completed.
+Yet it may unquestionably bring about definite retrogressive changes
+in the secondary sex characters: reduction or loss of virility,
+diminution of facial and body hair, and a general presenility or
+hastening of senility.
+
+How remarkably these interstitial cells influence the entire structure
+and vitality of the organism is indicated by these facts. How much
+they have to do with sexual impulses, sexual excitement, and sexual
+desire, what the Freudians have popularized as the libido, and how
+subtly they act upon the coming and duration of adolescence and
+maturity, as well as sexual precocity and peversions, we shall
+consider in a later chapter. But it is enough now to remember that
+these interstitial glands are the primary dictators of the genital
+sense and flair of the individual. In any attempt at measurement of
+men and women, the quality and quantity of the internal secretion
+of the interstitial cells must be respected as a fundamental
+consideration. The womanly woman and the manly man, those ideals of
+the Victorians, which crumbled before the attack of the Ibsenites,
+Strindbergians and Shavians in the nineties, but which must be
+recognized as quite valid biologically, are the masterpieces of these
+interstitial cells when in their perfection. They are such solely
+because of the right concentration in the blood of the substances
+manufactured not only by these cells, but by all the glands of
+internal secretion. For it cannot be repeated and emphasized too often
+that the interstitial cells of the sex glands are most sensitive to
+all kinds of other influences, and, in particular, the other internal
+secretory organs. They may indeed be watched as an index scale or
+barometer of the general tone of the whole internal secretion system.
+Sex variations offer a variety of clues to variations, disturbances,
+predominances and abnormalities in all the components of the ductless
+gland association.
+
+To take a single instance, the development of the long bones is
+dependent upon the handling of food lime by the body. Eunuchs and
+eunuchoids, that is, individuals with insufficient internal secretion
+of the interstitial cells, have longer bones and more fragile bones
+than the normal. Vice versa, those with an excess of the secretion
+have shorter and thicker bones. The earlier the onset of menstruation,
+which means puberty, the shorter the extremities, as the action of the
+internal secretion of the ovaries closes the story of the growth of
+the long bones.
+
+The ovaries are a most important factor in the regulation of the power
+of the organism to keep lime in the bones. If they over-secrete in an
+excess which cannot be taken care of by the other glands of internal
+secretion, the body loses lime, a softening and curving of the bones
+occurs, and the most horrible deformities and tortures for the
+sufferer. Taking out the ovaries has cured some of the afflicted.
+Administration of the antagonizing gland extracts has helped others.
+An Italian, Bossi, in 1907, used adrenal gland curatively. More
+recently, a British student of the subject, Blair Bell, was given the
+direction of the treatment, at long range, of a number of cases in
+India, the land of chronic pregnancy with insufficient food, and
+consequent oversecretion of the ovaries, with the typical softening of
+the bones. At his suggestion pituitary was used successfully.
+
+Some of the glands of internal secretion act as accelerators to the
+sex glands. Others act as retarding antagonists. Among the most
+important of the latter is
+
+THE THYMUS
+
+The thymus is the gland which dominates childhood. It appears to do so
+by inhibiting the activity of the testes or ovaries. Castration causes
+a persistent growth and retarded atrophy of the thymus. Removal of the
+thymus hastens the development of the gonads.
+
+Situated in the chest, astride the windpipe, it descends and covers
+over the upper portion of the heart, overlapping the great vessels
+at the base of the heart. It is a brownish red mass, which when cut
+presents the spongy effect of a sweetbread. The more intimate view
+of detail revealed by the higher powers of the microscope shows
+conglomerations of the white cells of the blood known as lymphocytes.
+But scattered through the substance of the gland, between these
+lymphocytes, like the interstitial cells of the sex glands placed
+between the sex cells, are peculiarly staining cells in whorls.
+Of which there are many more in the thymus of embryonic and early
+postnatal life, known after their discoverer as Hassal's Corpuscles.
+They are believed by some to elaborate the specific internal secretion
+of the thymus. Present in all vertebrates, there seems to be more of
+it in the carnivora than in the herbivora, like the thyroid.
+
+Concerning the exact function of the thymus, we are a good deal at
+sea. The latest opinion about the results of extirpation even in young
+and growing animals is that they are nil. Yet there is a certain
+justification for proclaiming the thymus the gland of childhood, the
+gland which keeps children childish and sometimes makes children out
+of grown-ups. There is a quantity of data for that proposition. In
+the first place, the curve of rise of growth of the gland seems to
+coincide with the period of childhood, the curve of its decline with
+the period of adolescence and the rise of the sex glands. In the
+past, it was accepted, that with puberty the thymus atrophied and
+was replaced by some sort of fatty tissue. Nowadays, it is held that
+secretion cells persist throughout life. When the extent of this
+persistence is too great, the gland being from five to ten times as
+large as the normal, a number of other features become prominent to
+make the extraordinary individual, the status lymphaticus, who amid
+the hazards of life will react in an extraordinary way. He will be
+taken up in the consideration of internal secretion personalities.
+
+Then there are the varied and remarkable phenomena of thymus
+enlargement and hyperactivity in childhood itself. When an enlarged
+thymus is present in an infant, the initiation of breathing in the
+new-born, the introduction of the newcomer to the oxygen of the air,
+may be an exceedingly prolonged, difficult, matter. Such a baby is
+said to be born blue, and the breathing may be stridorous for days,
+becoming normal for a time, to be followed later by spells of trouble
+in breathing, breathlessness or breathlessness with blueness, and
+threatened extinction. Sometimes these spells come out of a clear
+sky in an apparently healthy child. That some poison, probably an
+oversecretion of the thymus, is responsible is shown by the relief
+obtainable by X-ray shrinkage of the gland, or the surgical removal of
+a part of it.
+
+Moreover, the gland is influenced by and influences the factors
+of body weight and growth with an extreme readiness and lability.
+Deficient general undernutrition leads to rapid decline in its weight.
+Back in 1858, the pioneer student of the thymus, Friedleben, declared
+that the size and condition of the thymus is an index to be the state
+of nutrition of the body. Underfeeding for four weeks will reduce it
+to one thirtieth the normal. It seems to act as a storage and reserve
+organ, affording some protection against the limitation of growth by
+lack of food material. In exhausting or wasting disease, the weight
+of the gland sinks much more quickly than other glands. Scattered
+instances have been reported of children growing, putting on inches in
+height and expanding mentally, when thymus was fed to them, in whom
+every other measure previously tried had failed. A French study of
+over four hundred idiotic children with normal thyroids reported that
+over three fourths had no thymus at all. Everything points to the most
+direct and close relation between the gland and nutrition and growth,
+but with nothing tangibly definite like our knowledge of the thyroid
+and the pituitary.
+
+There is evidence that the thymus is involved in the health and
+efficiency of muscle cells and muscularity. Certain tumors of the
+thymus, presumably destructive of the gland substance proper, and
+thus cutting off its secretion, are accompanied by a singular muscle
+weakness and atrophy of the muscle cells, entirely out of proportion
+to the general damage suffered by the other cells of the body when
+affected by the poison of a malignant growth. Also, the thymus has
+been discovered diseased in certain mysterious progressive muscular
+wastings. A remarkable fatigability of muscles, which appears after
+the slightest exertion, is a feature. The feeding of thymus has caused
+muscle cramps which apparently depends upon an increased excitability
+of the muscle nerve endings.
+
+Feeding of thymus to some of the lower creatures of the animal kingdom
+will completely hold up differentiation. Take the unfolding of the
+specialized tissues and organs which transform the tadpole into the
+frog and the chrysalis into the butterfly. A tadpole kept supplied
+with enough thymus in a nutrient medium will swell into an
+extraordinary giant tadpole, but will not change into a frog.
+Recently, this experiment has been contradicted. Yet this effect
+corresponds to the conception of its importance in childhood as a
+retardant of precocity, physical and mental. Clinical observations
+emphasize that in childhood it is the chief brake upon the other
+glands of internal secretion which would hasten development and
+differentiation, checking them perhaps for a given time and so
+profoundly influencing growth.
+
+THE PINEAL
+
+The pineal is another gland which has been credited with similar
+abilities and a like holding-the-reins-tight-in-childhood function
+among the cells. Like the thymus, it has been supposed one of the
+distinctive organs of childhood and to die with it. Generations of
+anatomists solemnly asserted, repeating each other's mistakes with the
+aplomb of the historians who declare that history repeats itself, that
+the pineal body was a useless, wastefully space consuming vestige of a
+once important structure. That was the view in that century of grandly
+inaccurate assertions, the nineteenth. Not that they relegated it with
+that statement to the limbo of the dull and the uninteresting. Quite
+the contrary. They conferred upon it a distinguished romance and
+mystery by identifying it as the last heir and vestigial remnant of
+a third eye, situated in the back of the head, which may still be
+observed in certain reptiles. Imagine it! Somewhere, stuck away in a
+cranny of the floor of your head and mine, is this descendant of an
+organ that once sparkled and shone, wept and glared, took in the stars
+and hawks and eagles, and now is condemned to eternal darkness and an
+ineffectual sandiness. Today, we have not discarded that view of its
+history, but we know a little more regarding its composition and
+function.
+
+What and where is the romantic object? It is a cone-shaped bit of
+tissue hidden away at the base of the brain in a tiny cave behind
+and above its larger colleague, the pituitary. Microscopic scrutiny
+reveals that it is made up in part of nerve cells containing a pigment
+similar to that present in the cells of the retina, thus clinching the
+argument for its ancient function as an eye. But the outstanding and
+specifically glandular cells are large secreting affairs, which too
+reach back to the tidewater days of our vertebrate ancestors, when
+Eurypterus and other Crustaceans were engrossed with the fundamental
+problems of brain versus belly. Besides these, there are the singular
+masses upon which has been fastened the unnecessarily opprobious
+epithet of brain sand. These, noted and commented upon from the
+earliest times, consist of collections of crystals of lime salts,
+sometimes small, lying about in discrete irregular masses, and
+sometimes grouped into larger mulberry-like concretions, varying
+much in size. These brain sand particles have become of practical
+importance in the detection of pineal disease because they, like all
+lime salts, will stop the X-rays, and so can be photographed.
+
+For a long time, indeed up to scarcely more than a few decades or so
+ago, the pineal was believed to have no present function at all, or at
+least no ascertainable or accessible duty in the body economy. That
+it might perhaps be, in a sense, a gland of internal secretion was
+a despised theory. Then a classic case, the most extraordinary and
+curiosity-piquing sort of case, with symptoms involving the pineal
+gland, in a boy, was reported by the German neurologist, Von Hochwart.
+That boy provoked a little army of researches. He came to the clinic
+complaining about his eyes and other troubles which pointed pretty
+definitely to a brain tumor as the diagnosis to pigeon-hole him.
+Nothing extraordinary about him in that respect. But the story told by
+his parents was quite extraordinary, even to the jaded palate of the
+clinic professor and his assistants. They said that he was a little
+over five years old, a statement conclusively proved correct at his
+death. Up to the time at which his illness began, he had been quite
+normal in size, intelligence and interests. But with the onset of his
+misfortune, he had begun to grow, and rapidly until now he looked
+and corresponded in all measurements to a normal boy of twelve or
+thirteen. Hair developed all over his skin, most prominently and
+abundantly in the typically hairy places of adults. His voice became
+low-pitched, and most remarkable of all, his sexuality and mentality
+precocious. He became capable of true sexual life and is said to have
+asked many questions about the fate and condition of the soul after
+death. On one occasion he remarked reflectively: "It is odd how much
+better I feel when I let other children play with my toys than when I
+play with them myself." Other statements attributed to him imply the
+most astounding maturity of thought and mental process. Headaches
+finally came, and he died about four weeks later. The cause of the
+whole bizarre tragedy was found to be a tumor of the pineal gland.
+
+As has happened before in medical history, no sooner was the one
+prodigy reported, than a score of others of the same ilk sprang into
+the limelight. Cases of precocious genital development, especially,
+some of them occurring as early as the second year of life, were
+linked with them. It is an interesting point to be noted that in
+these, as in those started by an overaction of the adrenal cortex, it
+is premature masculinity that is stimulated. The adrenal cortex must
+be classed as a gland of masculinity. The pineal possibly acts as a
+brake upon the adrenal cortex.
+
+Very soon after the report of Von Hochwart's prodigy appeared, an
+experimental research on the pineal was begun in New York. The pineal
+glands of a number of young bullocks were obtained and used for
+feeding, to see whether an overaction of the internal secretion
+could be produced. Guinea pigs, kittens and rabbits were used. The
+experiments covered about two years in time. Of a dozen small
+kittens, the subjects outgrew the controls rapidly in activity, size,
+intelligence, and resistance to intercurrent disease. Of ten small
+rabbits, the controls weighed about a third less than the subjects,
+which were strikingly clean, active, fat and salacious.
+
+Feeding of the gland was then extended to a particular class of
+defective children, children with well-shaped heads, normal eyes,
+symmetrically functioning limbs, excellent digestion, strong muscles
+and generally, normal, sometimes rapid growth. It is to them,
+particularly when mental normality has progressed up to the eighth,
+tenth or twelfth year and stopped, that the term "moron" has been
+applied. They have been a hopeless lot, belonging to the limbo of the
+incurables. Moreover, they, emphatically the physically normal ones,
+differ from one another enormously in the extent to which mental
+operations are possible. As all transitions and degrees exist, no
+definite classification and subdivision of them has been made. Yet
+ever since the cretin, once looked upon as an eternally damned
+defective, was transformed by thyroid feeding into an apparently
+normal being, there has been no dearth of effort to find the right
+kind of internal secretion to fit their desperate situations, but in
+vain. In defectives with definitely, organically damaged brains,
+no result of course was to be expected. In those of any class over
+fifteen, no response has been elicited by feeding pineal gland. In the
+others the results have been contradictory.
+
+A set of observations have related the pineal to muscle function,
+inviting comparison of it with the thymus. There is a singular muscle
+shrinking and deforming disease, known as progressive muscular
+dystrophy, hitherto a complete and unsolved mystery. Newer studies
+of the pineal in this disease during life by means of the X-ray have
+shown it calcified, that is, buried in lime salts, which signifies put
+out of business. Recently thus another hint as to its function has
+been ferreted out.
+
+The tadpole as a reagent to test out the growth effects of different
+glands of internal secretion has also been employed for the pineal.
+Ten-day-old tadpoles fed on pineal present a marked translucency of
+the skin due to a retraction of the skin pigment cells. Now without a
+doubt a number of as yet unknown growth and metabolic effects follow
+exposure of the body to the complete gamut of light rays. The
+interesting suggestion follows that the pineal influences the body by
+varying the degree of light ray reaction.
+
+The pineal, the ghost of a once important third eye at the back of
+our heads, still harks back in its function to a regulation of our
+susceptibility to light, and its effect upon sex and brain. So it
+becomes one of the significant regulators of development, with an
+indirect hastening or retardation of puberty and maturity according
+as it works in excess, or too indolently. It appears thus the blood
+brother of the adrenal cortex which also influences the skin pigment
+and so susceptibility of the organism to light, brain growth and sex
+ripening. It is interesting that Descartes, in 1628, considered the
+pineal the seat of the soul.
+
+THE PARATHYROIDS
+
+Sometimes imbedded within the substance of the thyroid in the neck,
+sometimes placed directly behind it upon the windpipe, are four tiny
+glands, each about the size of a wheat seed, the parathyroids. For
+long they were swamped in the nearness of their great neighbor, and
+considered merely a variable part of it. There are some who contend
+that even today. But it has been proven that they are separate,
+individual glands, with a structure and function of their own, and a
+definite importance to the body economy.
+
+On the animal family tree they appear early, contemporaneously with
+the thyroids. In the embryo they develop from about the same sites.
+And very often they look very much alike under the microscope,
+especially when the cells are in certain quiescent stage of secretion.
+Yet they are wholly independent in nature, activity and business.
+
+First experimenters upon the effects of removal of the thyroid were
+confused by contradictory findings with different animals because in
+some they would take out the parathyroids at the same time without
+knowing it, and in others they would not. That possibility suggested,
+more careful dissectors accomplished the job of extirpating the
+thyroid while leaving the parathyroids intact and vice versa. In
+consequence some definite information about the parathyroids is
+available, even though their internal secretion has never been
+isolated, or its existence established as more than an inference.
+
+When the parathyroids are removed, an astounding increase in the
+excitability of the nerves follow. It is as if the animal were
+thoroughly poisoned with strychnine. The slightest stimulus will make
+him jump, or throw him into a spasm. When the excitability of the
+nerves is measured by an electrical instrument it is found augmented
+by from five hundred to one thousand per cent. The reflexes, those
+automatic responses of brain and spinal cord to certain stimuli and
+situations, become enormously sensitive, so that merely letting the
+light into a darkened room will make the subject of the experiment go
+into a series of convulsions.
+
+On the chemical side, an explanation for these nervous phenomena has
+been advanced. Lime in the blood and cells appears to be necessary in
+a number of ways. In the making of bone and teeth, in the coagulation
+of the blood, in the keeping of fluid within the blood vessels, and
+in maintaining the tone of the nerves, it plays a major role. Now the
+parathyroids, among all the glands of internal secretion, seem to act
+as the prime regulators of the amount of lime held within the blood
+and cells. For when the parathyroids have been completely and
+aseptically excised, without injuring any other organ, immediately the
+body begins to lose lime. Something has gone out of it that helped
+it to bind lime, and without that essential something, the internal
+secretion presumably of the parathyroids, the lime departs. As
+a conspicuous consequence the teeth fail to develop properly,
+particularly as to their enamel, for which lime is an essential
+constituent. Hair is lost, there is a general wasting, the nails get
+brittle, and the bones soften, and the animal dies. Supplying lime
+directly, particularly by direct injection into the blood, will
+relieve the symptoms.
+
+In man, a condition of nervous over-excitability has been described
+as tetany. It occurs most often in the young, the pregnant, or in
+vomiting after operations. All sorts of tests have related the malady
+to the phenomena succeeding parathyroid deprivation, and they are now
+looked upon as aspects of it. Individuals have been reported suffering
+from an insufficiency of the internal secretion of parathyroids,
+with a sudden extreme depression, nervousness and restlessness, an
+inability to sleep or sit still, and a tremulous handwriting. Such
+reports round out the evidence for the importance of the parathyroids
+in an understanding of the factors which control growth, especially
+as regards lime utilization, for without lime properly handled no
+building of cells is possible. Also the parathyroids are necessary to
+a steadiness of muscle and nerve.
+
+THE PANCREAS
+
+The business of the parathyroids concerns the keeping of lime in the
+body. Another gland, the pancreas or sweetbreads, this time within the
+abdomen, a close neighbor of the solar plexus, alias the abdominal
+brain, is occupied with holding and hoarding sugar in the body,
+particularly in the liver, the great sugar warehouse. This matter
+of retaining sugar and controlling its output is one of the utmost
+significance for growth and metabolism, the resistance to infections,
+the response to emergency situations, and in general to the
+mobilization of energy for physical and mental purposes. For without
+sugar sufficiently at hand for the cells, no muscle work or nerve
+work, the essentials of the struggle for existence, are possible.
+
+The pancreas is an organ with both an internal and external secretion.
+The external secretion, long known, evolved by the major portion of
+the gland, is poured into the small intestine to play the star in
+digestion. Scattered here and there among the definitely glandular
+cell groups creating the external secretion are smaller collections of
+cells, called the islets of Langerhans, which have been demonstrated
+to elaborate the internal secretion. There are about a million of
+these islands in each gland. The hormone has been called insuline.
+Unlike most of the glands with a double secretion in which the
+internal is absolutely independent, and so to speak, unconscious of
+the external, these two of the pancreas are often disturbed together,
+perhaps because trouble easily hits them both together.
+
+Quite the most well-known disease due to disturbed internal secretory
+function of the pancreas is diabetes. An enormous amount of work has
+been spent upon the various aspects of it as a mystery. Hundreds of
+papers in a dozen languages upon the subject are in existence. In a
+nutshell, they have established pretty well that diabetes is a disease
+in which there is an excess of sugar in the blood and urine because of
+an insufficient amount of the secretion of the islands of Langerhans
+in the pancreas. Removal of the pancreas makes the body, essentially
+the liver, unable to retain sugar, as well as unable to burn up sugar
+for energy. The situation is comparable to a locomotive with its coal
+bins leaking, and the coal itself acting as if made of slate or some
+equally uncombustible or only partially combustible material.
+
+The control of sugar mobilization from the liver, where it is stored
+as glycogen or animal starch, is divided between the pancreas and
+the adrenals, the pancreas acting as the brake, the adrenals as the
+accelerator of the mechanism. Adrenal and pancreas are therefore
+direct antagonists, the pans of the scale which represents sugar
+equilibrium in the organism. Diabetes may be regarded as a disturbance
+of the adrenal-pancreas balance, assisted by events which produce
+adrenal overwork like great or prolonged emotion, or by strain of the
+pancreas, effected by over-eating for example.
+
+There are other minor glands of internal secretions. But those
+considered are by far the most important and the most recently
+explored. In a summary, one would classify them as follows:
+
+   _Name        Secretion            Function_
+  1. Thyroid       Thyroxin          Gland of energy production
+                                     Controller of growth
+                                       of specialized organs
+                                       and tissues--brain
+                                       and sex
+
+  2. Pituitary--                     Gland of energy consumption
+                                       and utilization--continued
+                                       effort
+       anterior    Unknown           Growth of skeleton and
+                                       supporting tissues
+       posterior   Pituitrin         Nerve cell and involuntary
+                                       muscle cell, brain and sex tone
+
+  3. Adrenals                        The Gland of Combat
+       cortex      Unknown            a. Brain growth--tone
+                                         development of
+                                         sex glands
+       medulla     Adrenalin          b. Energy for emergency
+                                         situations
+
+  4. Pineal        Unknown            a. Brain and sex development
+                                      b. Adolescence and puberty
+                                      c. Light and maturity
+
+  5. Thymus        Unknown            Gland of Childhood
+
+  6. Interstitial  Testes in male     Glands of secondary
+       glands of   Ovaries in female   Sex traits
+
+  7. Parathyroids  Unknown            a. Controllers of lime
+                                         metabolism
+                                      b. Excitability of
+                                         muscle and nerve
+
+  8. Pancreas      Insuline           Controller of sugar
+                                         metabolism
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE GLANDS AS AN INTERLOCKING DIRECTORATE
+
+
+Now in considering each gland of internal secretion as a separate
+entity, and labelling it with certain properties and actions, we of
+course commit the usual sin of the intellect: the sin of abstraction
+and isolation of its material. This crime of analysis the intellect
+commits every day in the search for truth. Before its dissection, it
+seems to have to dip the elusive article in a fixative, and bottle it
+in a vacuum.
+
+Yet nothing in reality is more of a changing flux than the body in all
+of its parts and tissues and organs. And of all these, the glands of
+internal secretion stand out as the most susceptible to change. Made
+to react to stimuli of offense and defense, instantaneously responsive
+to situations involving energy exchanges and protective reflexes,
+they are never for any minute the same or alone. They never function
+separately. Each influences the other in a communicating chain. Let
+one be disturbed, and all the others will feel the impact of the
+disturbance and vibrate with it.
+
+Any break in the somatic or psychic equilibrium, a blow or an
+infection, or a startling thing seen, or a worrisome thought felt,
+will start a process going. This will only wind up when every gland
+has been somehow touched, and a final equilibrium reestablished. The
+thyroid, maybe, was first excited, and then in turn the adrenals, with
+a boomerang reinforcing effect upon the thyroid, and at the same time
+a stimulating effect upon the pituitary. Each gland is thus influenced
+and influencing, agent and reagent in the complex adjustments of the
+organism.
+
+ENDOCRINE CO-OPERATIONS
+
+The body-mind is a perfect corporation. Not quite perfect, for
+continually there arise little insurgencies, inadequacies and
+frictions to which in time it will succumb. Yet, in the efficiency of
+its co-operations, and in the co-ordination of the needs and supplies
+of producer, middle man, and consumer, there is no one of the great
+organizations of the captains of industry which can for a moment
+approach it.
+
+Of this corporation the glands of internal secretion are the
+directors. But the huge corporation, not to topple over with its own
+unwieldy size, must be composed of smaller units, each within itself
+a corporation, and governed by a directorate. There are, in the
+corporation-organism, different departments and bureaus, subdivisions
+of function, which constitute the smaller corporations within the
+larger corporation. These subsidiary companies have their own glands
+of internal secretion as their directors.
+
+Thus, the growth of the brain is presided over by the adrenal cortex,
+the thyroid, the thymus and the pituitary. They determine the size of
+the brain, the number of its cells, the complexity of its convolutions
+and the speed of its chemistry, which means the speed of thought and
+memory and imagination. As its directorate, therefore, they may be
+entitled. The disturbance of one of them means the disturbance of all
+of them, and a consequent deleterious effect upon the brain. Now take
+the burning up of sugar in the organism, the great material source
+of energy, which is controlled by the pancreas, the adrenals and
+the liver, the thyroid and the pituitary. Together they form the
+directorate of sugar metabolism. But, as is evident from a glance at
+the membership of the growth directorate, and comparing it with the
+directorate of sugar metabolism, there are some members who are
+present on both boards. An infection, an illness, an ailment, an
+exaltation or intoxication of such members will produce reverberations
+in both directorates. A disturbance of sugar metabolism might then
+cause a disturbance of growth. The advantages and disadvantages
+are before us of having, in the glands of internal secretion, an
+interlocking directorate, rulers over all the varied and manifold
+activities of the organism.
+
+Behind the body, and behind the mind is this board of governors.
+Indeed, from the administrative and legislative points of view, the
+body-mind may be said to be governed by the House of Glands. It is the
+invisible committee behind the throne. Upon the throne is what? Man,
+the most baffling of complexities. Man who is not a mind, but owns a
+mind--Man who is not a body, but possesses a body, just as he might
+have a motor car, a fortune or a calamity. Back of all his daily
+activities, behind the life of body-mind is the mysterious unique
+individuality, the Ego, the Psyche or the Soul. Lately, a competitor
+with these ancient and honorable terms has come upon the scene as the
+Subconscious. In that darkened No Man's Land is determined a man's
+destiny. The endocrine association stands out as at least the most
+important physical determinant of the states and processes of the
+subconscious.
+
+ANTAGONISMS AND CO-OPERATIONS
+
+As within a corporation there are factions and cliques, influences
+that always work together, and forces that are always pulling in
+opposite directions, so within the interlocking directorate of the
+ductless glands there are antagonisms and inhibitions, co-operations
+and compensations. One gland will assist the action of another's
+secretion with its own, or will in turn be stimulated to secrete by
+it. Another will throw out its secretion in order to neutralize the
+effects produced. Or its own activity will be depressed or completely
+inhibited by it. Thus the pituitary arouses the interstitial glands
+and vice versa, whereas the pancreas and the thyroid are mutually
+inhibitory. Indeed, whole systems of glands may work in unison, or be
+pitted against each other in certain situations, especially when
+the organism is subjected to conflicting impulses with the clash
+of opposing instincts, like fear and anger. In general there is
+reciprocity and team work among the internal secretions.
+
+A certain minimum amount of each must be present if life is to
+continue along the normal lines. Whether there is to be an excess
+of any one secretion above this minimum, or a deficiency below it,
+decides the fate of the individual. If there is deficiency of one, the
+other members of the directorate attempt to make up for what has been
+lost, and to carry on its work by an extra effort, to substitute. Or,
+released from the discipline of the deficient member, or the necessity
+for antagonizing it, they may be released from its stimulus to
+secrete, and produce less of their own specific secretion. A general
+reaction all along the line will accompany overaction, oversecretion,
+of one gland. Due to consequent stimulations and depressions of
+other glands, some may be excited by the event to overwork--some to
+assist--others, to act as antidote for--the excess secretion, while
+still others, relieved of a burden, do not have to supply as much of
+their quota under the circumstances and so shut down, or limit their
+output.
+
+It is important to get clearly in mind these subtle inter-reactions of
+the different ductless glands. They may be antagonistic in their end
+effects because of the opposed functions of the nerves or organs
+stimulated. There are inhibitions and restraints produced when a gland
+will send out its secretions to stop another gland secreting. There
+are compensations resulting when because of insufficiency of a gland,
+others will endeavour, by manufacturing more of their own secretion,
+to compensate for the loss. There are mutual co-operations,
+partnerships, when a gland will oversecrete to assist another, or in
+response to another which is also oversecreting. There are losses
+of balance, so that when one gland ceases secreting, another will
+simultaneously or soon after. Normal secretion, oversecretion or
+undersecretion are thus adjusted, but leave a train of after effects.
+
+So with loss or insufficiency of the thyroid, there may be pituitary
+overgrowth, because the pituitary may act as vicar for the thyroid.
+The thyroid and thymus are antagonistic, for the thyroid hastens
+differentiation, puberty and the coming of sexual maturity, while the
+thymus delays and retards them and prolongs the period of childhood.
+The thyroid and the pancreas are antagonists, for when the thyroid
+has been excised, the pancreas appear no longer necessary to act as a
+break upon the mechanism of sugar liberation into the blood from
+the liver. The thyroid stimulates the interstitial glands, for
+menstruation and pregnancy are impossible with no thyroid or an
+insufficient thyroid. Removal of the pituitary makes the thymus shrink
+because the restraining influence of the latter is no longer needed.
+But there is an enlargement of the thyroid to compensate. In castrates
+there is an increase in the size and number of the cells of the
+anterior pituitary, again a compensation or substitution effect. The
+pituitary and the adrenal cortex are mutually assistant, alike in
+their influence upon the tone of the brain and sex cells.
+
+THE KINETIC SYSTEM
+
+So there are combinations of glands to assist or restrain others, or
+to control a body function, or to determine the domination or abeyance
+of an instinct. One such has been named the kinetic system because it
+comes into play in situations which demand prompt adaptation without
+hesitancy, and a consequent immediate transformation of static or
+stored energy into kinetic or active energy. According to this
+conception the brain, the adrenals, the liver, the thyroid and the
+muscles together constitute a machine very much like an automobile.
+The self-starter of the machine is the brain, with storage battery
+(composed of stored past memories) and ignition combined. The thing
+seen without, or the idea felt within, act as the initial sparks,
+while the adrenals, as the carburetors, permit the freer flow of fuel,
+sugar, from the liver. The thyroid works as the accelerator, the
+original impulse finally landing upon muscles keyed up and supplied
+with food to meet the situation, be it that of removing a poison,
+removing an aggressor (attack) or removing the individual himself
+(running away). When one is exhausted by exertion and emotion, injury,
+intoxication or infection, it is these members of the kinetic system,
+the brain, the adrenals, thyroid and liver, which are exhausted.
+Exhaustion diminishes when the activity of the brain is diminished by
+anesthetics, and cured when it is abolished by sleep.
+
+If the adrenal gland may be called the Gland of Emergency energy, the
+Kinetic System is entitled to the name of Council of Emergency Defense
+for the organism. The Kinetic Drive is the name that has been given to
+the whole system at work. It is one of the best examples we have of
+inter-glandular co-operations and reactions in reply to the threat of
+danger or the hint of pleasure.
+
+THE CHECK AND DRIVE SYSTEM
+
+Another instance of the complexity of these inter-glandular reactions
+is furnished by the thyroid and the adrenals. The thyroid and the
+adrenals are mutually stimulating--when the thyroid oversecretes, the
+adrenal dittos, and vice versa. Yet they have directly opposed effects
+upon the economy--because they act upon antagonistic portions of
+the involuntary or vegetative nervous system, the system which is
+independent of the will. Before proceeding further, it is worth while
+sketching this division of the nervous system.
+
+In the construction of a motor car from the point of view of absolute
+control of it at every moment, the first thought of the mechanic is an
+adequate _brake_ and an efficient _regulator_ of speed, instruments
+antagonistic, but necessary to work simultaneously or alternately.
+The involuntary or vegetative nervous system is built upon the same
+principle. It supplies every organ in the body beyond the control of
+the will (that is to say, the brain) with two sets of filaments which
+have opposing functions. One group of filaments in general increases
+or activates the function of the organ to which it is distributed. The
+other group of filaments, when tingling, inhibits or prohibits that
+function. They are like the two buttons on the wall which regulate
+the supply of electricity to incandescent bulbs, one switching on the
+current, the other switching it off. It has been agreed to call the
+stimulative or activating portion the autonomic or drive system. To
+its antagonist has been left the older name of the sympathetic or
+check system. It is because they do not both act upon these two
+components of the vegetative nervous system, but only upon one, that
+the thyroid and adrenal though in themselves complementary, come to
+exert opposite effects. For the internal secretion of the thyroid has
+a selective affinity for the autonomic or activating system, while
+that of the adrenals has a selective affinity for the sympathetic or
+inhibiting system.
+
+In the stomach, for instance, extracts of the adrenal glands have been
+proved to intensify the function of the sympathetic or check system
+in different degrees, so that there is a lessening of the amount and
+acidity of the gastric fluid. On the other hand, thyroid extracts will
+intensify the action of the autonomic or drive system, so that the
+amount and acidity of the digestive juice is increased.
+
+The stomach cell may, therefore, be regarded as a test-reagent for
+the different internal secretions, as they affect the check and drive
+systems.
+
+These constitute an automatic device for regulating the activities of
+every organ. Three factors enter into the mechanism. One is the amount
+of the circulating internal secretions. Another is the organic and
+functional integrity of the nerve filaments comprising the check and
+drive systems. The third consists of the number and vitality and
+limitations of the terminal receiving cells acted upon by the nerve
+filaments, which in their turn have been acted upon by the internal
+secretions. Upon every organ, including the mind, through the brain, a
+stimulus from without or within will act according to its ability to
+influence one or others of these factors.
+
+Normally, the check and drive systems are properly balanced. But under
+stress and strain the balance is upset. Indeed, the Kinetic Drive may
+be defined as a mechanism contrived in the course of evolution as the
+normal, healthy mode for meeting stress and strain. The Kinetic chain
+of organs, brain, adrenals, liver, thyroid and muscles, began working
+together in desperate situations for their possessor ages ago.
+Successful in helping him to survive, they have survived as a
+functional unit.
+
+It was probably evolved in the Post-Tertiary Era, about twenty million
+years ago, when the coming of the carnivores introduced direct
+body-to-body conflicts, and their concomitants, a quick and versatile
+nervous system. During the Tertiary epoch the earth basked in the heat
+of a tropical sun nearly everywhere on its surface. The luxuriant
+vegetation of the torrid zone flourished and swarmed, for the
+temperature all over was what it is today at the equator. Gigantic
+vegetarians were the animals, creatures like the dinosaurs, enormous,
+gargoylean monsters, of an incredible size and strength, but clumsy
+and grotesque, with small brains and little intelligence. For what
+need was there for brain and intelligence when food lay about so
+abundantly at hand for them to gorge themselves. As there was no
+competition for food, there were no enemies.
+
+Then as the earth evolved and grew cooler, vegetation failed, the
+ancestors of the present carnivora appeared, the fathers of the
+wolf and tiger, light, lithe and pugnacious, with senses acute and
+ferocious weapons of attack, who set out to destroy everybody. They
+destroyed pretty nearly all of the huge leaf-eating species, and only
+the more plastic and smaller ones, who were more keen-sensed and
+swift-footed (of whom the deer and antelope, horse and ox are the
+descendants), escaped. The smallest either took to the air to become
+the bat, or, like the forerunners of the squirrel and ape, took to the
+trees.
+
+It was the coming of the carnivores, therefore, that accelerated the
+development of brain matter, and started the process which created
+man. But in the millions and millions of years of conflicts, instincts
+grew into being that sank deep into bone and marrow. The most
+fundamental reflexes, those immediate responses to irritation or
+danger, were laid down, and among them the drive and check system.
+When the animal had decided to fight its enemy or was forced to fight,
+or determined to prey, then was the time for the drive system to do
+its utmost to speed up everything that would help in the fight, while
+the check system came into play to hinder whatever would interfere or
+burden in the fray. First the drive mechanism must have been hit upon,
+and then the value of the check devices must have been found in fear
+and flight, and especially in hiding and simulation of death, when
+even breathing had to be inhibited. Until finally there developed, for
+everyday use, a complete check and drive nerve machinery for every
+organ, to be used according to the exigencies of the moment, with the
+thyroid as the primary stimulant and controller of the drive system
+and the adrenal as the primary dictator over the check system.
+
+THE HARMONY OF THE HORMONES
+
+All the glands, in fact, work in unison, with a distribution of the
+balance of power that diplomatists might envy. In the co-ordinating
+synchronism, the vegetative nervous system plays the part of an agent
+that acts as well as is acted upon. The chemical interaction of the
+internal secretions is not the only way in which they influence each
+other. For, as the case of the thyroid and the adrenal so well shows,
+secretions which, when directly interacting, are mutually reinforcing,
+when affecting nerves, may become clashing opponents.
+
+The Kinetic Chain is about as good a case as there is of the glands of
+internal secretion co-operating. The Check and Drive systems, with the
+adrenals and thyroid opposed, are one of the best instances of their
+antagonisms. Besides, there are a number of other relationships
+between them that might be cited. They all bear with more or less
+pressure, positive or negative, upon the sex glands which will be
+considered in its place. If one wished to consider all the glands in
+their pro and anti relations, a separate volume would be required.
+
+THE VEGETATIVE APPARATUS
+
+The combination of the internal secretions and the vegetative system
+has been spoken of as the vegetative or autonomic apparatus. The
+vegetative apparatus is the oldest part of the nervous system.
+And some acquaintance with its constitution is necessary to any
+understanding of the possibilities of control of human nature.
+
+For modern thought does not regard the brain as the organ of mind at
+all, but as one unit of a complex synthesis, of which mind is the
+product, and the vegetative apparatus is the major component. That
+involves the blasting of the last current superstition of the
+traditional psychology, the dogma that the brain is the exclusive seat
+of mind.
+
+That an animal is a vast concourse of cells is one of the accepted
+fundamentals of biology. What is not so generally taken into
+consideration is that the assemblage is formed by the agglutinations
+of millions of years, and that it is hence composed of parts of
+different ages and pedigrees, some exceedingly ancient and hoary, some
+middle-aged, and some relatively new and recent. In the invertebrates,
+who date further back in the history of the planet than any
+vertebrate, the nervous system consists of discrete patches of nerve
+cells, the ganglions composing the ganglionic system of which the
+vegetative or autonomic nervous system of man is the direct descendant
+and representative. The brain and central nervous system are
+definitely later acquisitions, imposed upon the original stratum of
+the check and drive machine.
+
+The primitive chassis of the mechanism, so to speak, is the so-called
+vegetative nervous system. Grouped with that system are the primeval
+breathing, feeding and reproducing inventions, the viscera boxed up
+in the chest and abdomen. The third partner is the glands of internal
+secretion, which act upon the viscera both directly and indirectly
+through the check and drive effect upon the vegetative nerves.
+The glands are like tuning keys, by which certain strings in the
+instrument may be tightened, so that its vibratory activity is
+increased, or they may be loosened, the vibrations decreased, the
+activity lessened. Tuning up the motors is a constant process in the
+organism. Finally, there are the large nerve masses at the base of the
+brain known as the basal ganglia, which contain the nerve centers for
+the co-ordination of the other three. All these together constitute
+the oldest family of the corporate organism. Beside them, the brain
+and the face and the prehensile organs are mere parvenus.
+
+THE OLDEST PART OF THE MIND
+
+Granted, then, that this vegetative apparatus is the most deeply
+rooted core of our being. What warrant is there for the grandiloquence
+of the phrase: the Oldest part of the Mind? There is, indeed, room for
+rhetoric, even poetry, here. For all the evidence points to it as the
+rightful occupant of the throne upon which Shelley placed his Brownie
+as the Soul of the Soul. Or to put it in another way, we think and
+feel primarily with the vegetative apparatus, with our muscles,
+especially the involuntary, with our viscera, and particularly with
+our internal secretions. Whenever there is thought and feeling, there
+is movement, commotion, precedent and concomitant, among these. They
+are the oldest seats of feeling, thought and will and continue to
+function as such.
+
+Just what evidence is there for this conception? In the first place,
+there is the fascinating story of the origin of vertebrates from
+invertebrates of the sea scorpion or spider type. Then there is a
+whole group of data which demonstrate that the primitive wishes which
+make up the content of a baby consciousness are determined, settled by
+states of relaxation or tension in different segments or areas of the
+vegetative apparatus. According to this, the brain enters as only one
+of the characters in the play of consciousness. It is just the organ
+of awareness by the organism of itself as an integer which must adjust
+itself to the specific condition within the disturbed vegetative
+apparatus. Consequently the brain emerges not as the master tissue,
+but as merely the servant of the vegetative apparatus.
+
+Consciousness is a circuit. Swinging around in it are the
+wish-feelings generated by the vegetative dynamo. From each viscus,
+from the stomach and intestine, from the kidneys and bladder, from
+the liver and spleen, from the blood-vessels, from all the glands
+of external and internal secretion, there flow along the vegetative
+nerves, to and from the brain, energies of various qualities and
+intensities. All the members of the vegetative apparatus are more or
+less active, and so all our wishes are all more or less active. All
+our working hours we are aware of hunger, satiety or indifference, of
+a desire to empty the intestine or bladder, or of a lack of necessity
+of doing so, of a state of tranquillity of the blood-vessels and sweat
+glands, or of a perturbation of them, of a varying tensity of even the
+muscles that are, as we say, under the control of the will, of the
+state, in fact, of all the elements of the vegetative complex. The
+stream of feeling which constitutes the undertow of consciousness
+originates outside of the brain altogether, and is composed of
+currents arising from viscera, muscles, blood-vessels and glands.
+
+Now the component currents are of different sizes and positions and
+variable degrees of warmth. That is another way of saying that whether
+or not a current is to become the center of the stream, or to approach
+it, or whether it is to be hot, cold, or tepid, depends upon the
+degree of activity of the various parts of the vegetative apparatus.
+A convenient name for this is _tonus_. Tonus can be experimentally
+watched and measured. Thus hunger, the most primitive of the
+wish-feelings, has been found to be simultaneous with certain
+characteristic contractions of the stomach. Stop those contractions,
+and you stop the hunger. The contractions begin slowly and weakly,
+and no awareness of them occurs in the mind. As they grow stronger,
+consciousness becomes a sensation rather like an itch somewhere in
+the upper abdomen, and accompanied sometimes by a sense of general
+weakness. The vegetative activity going on as a current almost on the
+outside of the stream of feeling has swelled and warmed, and so forced
+itself, in a manner of speaking, into the center of the stream. Or if
+you will, the rest of the stream has to arrange itself around it as
+the center. A similar mechanism for the tonus of the other members
+of the vegetative system, and how they determine consciousness and
+behaviour is understandable. It has been shown that when the bladder
+tone and the intestinal tone are of a definitely measurable size, one
+has the desire to empty them. The same applies to the sex glands.
+The pressure within a viscus is dependent upon the ratio between the
+amount of contraction of the involuntary muscle in its walls, the
+external pressure, and the quantity of its distending contents, the
+internal pressure. The resultant quotient, the internal pressure
+divided by the external pressure, measures the intravisceral pressure.
+The primitive wish-feelings are the direct expressions of the various
+intravisceral pressures, or tones. The primitive soul is an awareness
+of the fused primitive wish-feelings of themselves as a whole, and of
+the struggle between them for recognition, isolation, and, as we say,
+satisfaction. This satisfaction consists in a degradation of the
+highest intravisceral pressure to a point at which some other
+intravisceral pressure becomes higher and therefore predominant.
+
+PHYSICS OF THE WISH
+
+Mind, consciousness, may then be portrayed as an ocean comprised of
+mobile current layers, complexes built up around the awareness of
+different intravisceral pressures. A shifting hierarchy of such
+pressures form the points of focusing of consciousness that result in
+conduct. Behaviour may be defined as the resultant of the organism's
+pressure against the environment's counter pressure until there is
+a sufficient reduction of the specifically exciting intravisceral
+pressure. Just as water flows to its own level, so will conduct flow
+to reduce intravisceral pressure to its own level. A physics of the
+soul comes into prospect, in which a mathematical analysis will state
+the process quantitatively in terms of some common unit of pressure.
+
+Not only conduct, but also character, because it is past conduct
+repeated, associated, and fixed, will be so statable. For
+intravisceral tonus or pressure is not simply or only an acute or
+passing affair. There is for it a persistent or average figure,
+the so-called normal for it, below which or above which the acute
+situation will bring it. _Character_ is a _matter then of standards
+in the vegetative system_. Character, indeed, is an alloy of the
+different standard intravisceral pressures of the organism, a fusion
+created by the resistance or counter pressure of the obstacles in the
+environment. Character, in short, is the grand intravisceral barometer
+of a personality.
+
+Thus the comfortable, healthy, happy, well-balanced, progressive,
+constructive, virile personality is one in whom there is a
+continuously harmonious reduction of the intravisceral pressures in
+the environment called society. For in a gregarious creature, like
+man, fellow beings are the most powerful determinants of negative and
+positive vegetative pressures. Not so well rounded are other types
+existing because of inferiorities or excesses of the standard visceral
+tone. There is, for instance, the sexually cold type, comfortable by
+creating for itself an anaphrodisiac environment composed of pressures
+that can be fitted into its own. Or there may be an insufficiency of
+standard pressure in the alimentary tract, and we have the ascetic,
+mal-nourished, striving, uplifting type. Different types will be made
+by the permutations and combinations of factors that determine the
+intravisceral pressure and the environmental, i.e., social resistances
+or counter pressures.
+
+INTERNAL SECRETIONS DETERMINANTS OF VEGETATIVE PRESSURES
+
+Now of all the different factors which determine the tones, that is to
+say, the internal pressures, of the various parts of the vegetative
+apparatus (including all structures not controlled by the will in
+the term), the internal secretions or hormones are by far the most
+important. This significance is conferred upon them because it is
+by their activities primarily that these pressures are produced,
+regulated, lowered and heightened; in short, controlled. We have seen
+how the thyroid and adrenal hold the reins of the drive or check
+systems in the vegetative apparatus. Together with the other ductless
+glands, they decide the advance or halt, forward or retreat, tension
+or relaxation, charge and discharge, of the visceral--involuntary
+muscle--blood vessel combination which is at the core of life. Here
+again they emerge as the directorate.
+
+Carlson, the Chicago physiologist, who probably knows more about being
+hungry than any other man on the planet, once demonstrated that the
+injection of an ounce or two of the blood, which means the internal
+secretion mixture, of a starving animal, into one not starving
+increased the signs of hunger and the accompanying hunger contractions
+of the stomach. There can be no doubt that hunger is the expression of
+a certain specific concentration of internal secretion or secretions
+in the blood. When the quantity, in the cycles of metabolism, becomes
+sufficiently great, it stimulates the stomach to contract in a way
+which augments the pressure within it to a point at which the feeling
+of hungriness, and the wish to satisfy it, or to get rid of it,
+becomes imperative, and the dominant of consciousness.
+
+Without doubt the sexual cravings are likewise so determined. Sex
+libido is an expression of a certain concentration, a definite amount
+peculiar to the individual, of the substance manufactured by the
+interstitial cells, circulating in the blood. It arouses its effects
+probably by (1) increasing the amount of reproductive material in
+the sex glands in a direct chemically stimulating effect upon the
+germinative cells, and so raising the internal pressure within them,
+(2) stimulating the involuntary muscles within the walls and the
+canals of the sex glands, and so, by augmenting the tenseness of the
+muscles, elevating the total intravisceral pressure, (3) by a direct
+chemical and indirect nervous effect upon the brain, the muscles, the
+heart, as well as the other glands of internal secretion stimulating
+the organism as a whole. Though the isolation in pure form of the
+substance or substances involved has never been scientifically
+achieved, their inference is entirely justified. It is indeed the only
+comprehensible mechanism conceivable that will fit all the known facts
+about the matter. And even though the assertions of Brown-Sequard were
+only the exaggerations of a semi-charlatan, it is certain that some
+day in the near future the particular substance, that he claimed he
+had discovered, will be handed about in bottles for the inspection of
+the curious.
+
+Besides thyroxin, adrenalin, and the libido-producing secretion of the
+interstitial cells, the substance produced by the paired glandlets,
+situated behind the thyroid, the parathyroids, have a profound
+influence upon the vegetative apparatus and the vegetative nervous
+system. These direct the lime exchanges within the cells of the
+organisms, including the nerve cells. It has been shown that lime is,
+relatively, a sedative to cells. It raises the threshold or strength
+of stimulus necessary to evoke a reaction. Removing the parathyroids
+means removing the lime barrier, for with their deficiency there is a
+change in, and then an escape, from the blood, of the lime, by way
+of the kidneys. The result is sometimes an enormous increase in the
+excitability of all the cells, and especially of the vegetative
+apparatus. What that means for the individual whose comfort depends
+upon a stability of the intravisceral tones and pressures may be
+readily imagined.
+
+The pancreas likewise acts as a sedative to the vegetative apparatus.
+In particular, this applies to the sugar mechanism in the liver under
+the discipline of the check and drive organization. The adrenal and
+the pancreas are the direct antagonists in the struggle for control of
+sugar. Removal of the adrenals will cause a decrease in the amount
+of sugar in the blood, while removal of the pancreas will produce an
+increase. Excess of sugar in the blood may thus be concomitant with
+changes of character considered incorrigible.
+
+In different locales of the vegetative apparatus, as indeed of
+the body in general, the directorate seems to be handed over to a
+committee of control, generally made up of two members working
+in opposing directions. Such a division of power in the general
+directorate is analogous to the small holding corporations which
+divide functions in, for example, the United States Steel Corporation.
+The relative ratios of tonus in these smaller internal secretion
+balances are of the utmost significance as causes of differences
+in the vegetative apparatus, which are the basis of differences in
+structure, power, and character between individuals.
+
+THE GENERAL LAWS OF THE DIRECTORATE
+
+Our knowledge of the glands of internal secretions as an interlocking
+directorate presiding over all the functions of the organism is still
+exceedingly meagre. As yet, we seem to be knocking at the portals
+of the chemistry of the imponderable. There are holes in the bronze
+doors, and we glimpse the unfathomable distances of unexplored
+regions. But we do see something, and we do glimpse a beginning.
+Already the outlines of a differential anatomy, and a different
+physiology and a differential psychology, which will explain to us
+the unique in the constitution, the temperament and character of
+an individual, emerge. It is worth while, before proceeding to the
+details, so valuable to a society which would become rational, to
+summarize the general principles emerging, expressing the directing
+powers of the ductless glands over the individual. _They may be
+regarded as the present postulates of a new science of the whys and
+wherefores separating and setting apart, as so recognizably distinct,
+those peregrinating chemical mixtures: men and women_.
+
+1. The life of every individual, in every stage, is dominated largely
+by his glands of internal secretion. That is, they, as a complex
+internal messenger and director system, control organ and function,
+conduct and character. The orderliness of human life, in the
+sequential march of its episodes, crises, successes and failures,
+depends, to a large extent, upon their interactions with each other
+and with the environment.
+
+2. One or several of the glands possesses a controlling or superior
+influence above that of the others in the physiology of the individual
+and so becomes the central gland of his life, its dominant, indeed, so
+far as it casts a deciding vote or veto, in its everyday existence and
+incidents as well as in its high points, the climaxes and emergencies.
+
+3. These glandular preponderances are at the basis of personality,
+creating genius and dullard, weakling and giant, Cavalier and Puritan.
+All human traits may be analyzed in terms of them because they are
+expressions of them.
+
+4. Specific types of personality may be directly associated with
+particular glandular prominences, so that we have the thyroid-centered
+types, the pituitary-centered types, the adrenal-centered types, etc.
+These are the classic Three, the prototypes in their purity most
+easily described and recognized.
+
+5. Combinations of these, as well as of other glands--with joint
+predominance--occur and indeed form the majority of populations. The
+phenomena of varieties in species are thus explained.
+
+6. Internal secretion traits are inherited, and variations in heredity
+are essentially the structural representation of the resultant of a
+parallelogram of forces exerted by each of the parental prepotent
+glands. If they are of the same type, they may reinforce each other:
+if not, inhibitions and compensations will come into play. Mendelian
+laws may apply.
+
+7. The process of evolution, as the play of natural selection upon
+these variations, becomes comprehensible from a new standpoint.
+
+8. Certain diseases, and disease tendencies, both acute and
+constitutional, as well as traits of temperament and character, and
+predetermined reactions to certain recurring situations in life,
+are rooted in the glandular soils that compose the stuff of the
+individual.
+
+9. The subconscious, of which the vegetative apparatus is the physical
+basis, leads back to the internal secretions for the profoundest
+springs of its secrets. We shall see how and why.
+
+10. Given the internal secretory composition, so to speak, of an
+individual--his endocrine formula--and so his intravisceral pressures,
+one may predict, within limits, his physical and psychic make-up,
+the general lines of his life, diseases, tastes, idiosyncrasies and
+habits.
+
+11. Within limits, if the previous history of an individual is known,
+his physical appearance may be approximately described, and his future
+outlined.
+
+12. Conversely, given the physical and psychic composition of an
+individual, and his past history, one may deduce the internal
+secretion type to which he belongs.
+
+Examples:
+
+  A. One Thyroid-centered Type has
+    Bright eyes
+    Good clean teeth
+    Symmetrical features
+    Moist flushed skin
+    Temperamental attitude toward life
+    Tendency to heart, intestinal and nervous disease
+
+  B. One Pituitary-centered Type
+    Abnormally large or small size
+    Musical--acute sense of rhythm
+    Asymmetrical features
+    Tendency to cyclic or periodic diseases
+
+  C. One Adrenal-centered Type
+    Hairy
+    Dark
+    Masculinity marked
+    Tendency to diphtheria and hernia
+
+These are some of the master types. They have their variants depending
+upon the influences of the other glands, especially the interstitial
+cells of the sex glands.
+
+ANTE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+In their ensemble, the glands of internal secretion wield a
+determining influence upon the development of the individual from
+his very inception. If his various powers may be conceived of as an
+orchestra, they may be said to conduct it from the very beginning of
+its movements, and to cease only with its termination. From the moment
+when the spermatozoon penetrates and fecundates the ovum, the fate
+of the future being is settled by their disposition. The seal of his
+destiny is soaked with their substance.
+
+POST-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+Every particle of protoplasm, every granule of the impregnated ovum
+carries the representatives of the parental ductless glands. As a
+consequence, they transmit chemically, with no figure of speech
+involved, the peculiar familial, racial and national characters from
+progenitors to offspring. They confer upon the child a number of the
+properties commonly recognized as inherited. All those features which
+distinguish Caucasian from Mongolian, Scandinavian from Italian,
+Italian from Jew are determined by them.
+
+In short, at every step of his life, in every relation and
+association, in every expression of the inner forces that control his
+being, the normal individual is influenced by his internal secretions.
+Let us now see how.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE NORMAL BODY
+
+
+The origin of the remarkable differences between individuals that
+distinguish species, varieties and families, has long been one of the
+chief puzzles of biology. It may indeed be called the leading puzzle,
+which led Darwin on to the collection of the data that culminated in
+the "Origin of Species." The why of the Unique is the fundamental
+problem of those who would understand life.
+
+An explanation is an attempt at a consistent and persistent, sometimes
+an obstinate clarity of mind. A vast number of observations gathered
+by laboratory experimentalists as well as by those naturalists of the
+abnormal, physicians in active practice, prove that the construction
+of the individual both during development before maturity, and
+maintenance during maturity, his constitution, in short, is directed
+by the endocrine glands. It is possible now to present an explanation
+of the individuality of the individual.
+
+To assert that variation is responsible for the individual, that it
+is the mechanism which isolates him as a being like none other of his
+fellows, not even his parents, brothers, and sisters, is merely to beg
+the question. What is variation? The internal secretion theory of the
+process offers, for the first time, an explanation that is coherent
+and comprehensive, based upon concrete and detailed observations.
+It provides an adequate interpretation of the numberless hereditary
+gradations and transitions, blendings and mixtures. It suggests a
+control of heredity in the future.
+
+THE PURE TYPES
+
+In the pure types, only one gland, either by being present in great
+excess above the average, or by being pretty well below the average,
+comes to exercise the dominating influence upon the traits of the
+organism. As the strongest link in the chain, or as the weakest, it
+rules. The others must accommodate themselves to it. Among them as
+commanders of growth, development and normal function, it holds the
+balance of power. In every emergency it stands out by its strength or
+by its weakness. It thus creates its own type of man or woman, with
+attributes and characteristics peculiar to itself. These pure types,
+as we have seen, are mainly the thyroid, the pituitary, and the
+adrenal-centered.
+
+Each with the signs peculiar to it can be identified among the faces
+that pass one in the street. And they differ so markedly among
+themselves that they provide a new and accurate means of classifying
+varieties among the races of the species: man. The thyroid type
+differs as much from the adrenal type as does a greyhound from a
+bull-dog. The greyhound has a certain size, form, character and
+capacity. The bull-dog has similar qualities which are yet quite
+different. Each is built for a particular career. Among human beings,
+the pure thyroid type is easily distinguished from the pure adrenal
+type, and both of these from the pure pituitary type. Each is stamped
+with a significant figure, height, skin, hair, temperament, ambition,
+social reactions and predisposition to certain diseases.
+
+THE MIXED TYPES
+
+Among the mixed types, the lines of distinction are less clear, and so
+they are more difficult to classify. The mixed types may be said to
+be hyphenated. In them, two or even three of the internal secretory
+glands conflict for predominance. The combined action makes for a
+resultant modification in the primary glandular markings and effects.
+A hyphenated classification thus becomes inevitable. Especially is
+this so if the two glands are mutually antagonistic and inhibitory.
+A compromise effect is then necessitated. Or an individual may be
+dominated by one gland at one period of his life and by another at a
+later period. One of the glands, the thyroid, for example, will show,
+by the traces it has left upon the earliest developing features, that
+it was in control at the very earliest dates of his history, while
+other signs will disclose the more recent influence of the adrenal
+or of the pituitary. The combination becomes classifiable as the
+thyroid-pituitary type, or as the thyroid-adrenal type.
+
+That the external features as well as the chronic diseases of human
+beings are controlled by some common factor has long been suspected.
+Inquiries into morbid phenomena with a hereditary trend yielded
+information that has paved the way for the internal secretion theory.
+It has long been known that certain diseases effect only certain
+individuals of a definite constitution. Apoplexy, diabetes,
+arteriosclerosis, Bright's disease, are met with almost exclusively in
+what the older clinicians talked about as the apopleptic type. On the
+other hand, they said, anemias, tuberculosis, hemophilias, scrofulas
+occurred more among the lymphatic type. But they had no idea whatever
+of the true functional basis of the two different types. The truth
+as we of today view it is that these two types represent different
+textures of human beings, fabricated of different internal secretions.
+They are really two different breeds of the species Homo Sapiens. The
+materials being different, the color and feel of them is different,
+and the resistance to wear and tear is different.
+
+ENDOCRINE ANALYSIS
+
+The modes of classification glimpsed at are certainly exceedingly
+broad and sweeping. It is well enough to establish types and classes.
+But beneath them are sheltered the infinite possibilities of
+permutations and combinations, which explain the countless variety
+and complexity of form and function. Every individual born among the
+vertebrates, for example, must have a certain definite amount and
+percentage of pituitary gland, anterior and posterior, pineal,
+thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, interstitial and
+so on. Now if, to state it in terms of percentages, for the sake of
+argument, the pituitary is 25, the pineal 10, the thyroid 36, the
+parathyroids 15, the thymus 29, the adrenals 60, the pancreas 49, the
+interstitials 72 (the gland when acting maximally to be graded as
+100), we see at once how different such an individual must be from one
+who has, say, pituitary 84, pineal 39, thyroid 26, parathyroid 42,
+adrenals 96, pancreas 22 and interstitials 89. One obtains at once
+from the contrasts of such figures some idea of the possibilities. As
+each point plus or minus must count to produce some difference in the
+individual, the results are manifest. Varying within the numerical
+limits imposed by genus, species, variety and family (which limits
+are probably responsible for the persistence of the particular genus,
+species, variety, or family) the individual becomes an individual
+because of the relative values of the percentages in his blood and
+tissues of these different internal secretions. We thus begin to gain
+an insight into the patterns according to which men, women and animals
+are woven.
+
+We are, as yet, far from an exact endocrine analysis of the
+individual. But we know that the endocrines rule over growth and
+nutrition, a vast dominion which incorporates every organ and every
+tissue. By enhancing or retarding the nutritional changes, the growth
+of the organ or tissue is favored or restricted. The size and shape of
+an individual, as a whole, as well as of the specialized cell masses
+composing him, as hands and feet, the nose and ears, and so on, are
+therefore controlled by them. Whether an organism is to be tall or
+short, lean or corpulent, graceful or awkward, is decided by their
+interactions. These, like human covenants, vary with the different
+reactions of the parties to the contract. And so a great deal depends
+upon whether they work harmoniously or discordantly, and upon which
+does the most work and which the least.
+
+Undersecretion and Oversecretion
+
+It is when a gland, either in the course of development, or because of
+the influence of starvation, shock, injury, poisoning or infection,
+begins to undersecrete or oversecrete that its effects upon growth and
+nutrition become grossly manifest. A veritable transfiguration of the
+individual may occur, the black magic of which may perplex him for
+a lifetime. A man, made eunuchoid by an accident or by mumps, will
+observe in himself astonishing changes in his constitutional make-up,
+mentality and sexuality. He would be more astounded to learn that
+beneath the appearances, the changes, so alarming him, there are
+profound alterations in the rate at which he is taking in oxygen,
+burning up sugar, accumulating carbon dioxide and excreting waste
+byproducts through the kidneys, which are responsible for them.
+
+The differences between the normal and abnormal are only a matter of
+degree. And so, to be sure, are differences between types. But it is
+hard to realize that the striking distinctions between the thyroid
+type and the pituitary, comparable, as said, to the differences
+between a greyhound and a bull-dog, are dependent solely upon
+quantitative variations in the general and local speeds of metabolism,
+among the cells.
+
+DIVISION OF LABOR
+
+Besides the antagonisms and co-operations between them, there are
+certain lines along which the glands, in their effects, specialize.
+The thyroid, for instance, is concerned specially with the regulation
+of the shape, form and finish of an organ. The pituitary shines at the
+periods of developmental crises, determining them and modifying them.
+It exerts the greatest influence upon the time of eruption of the
+teeth, both the temporary and the permanent, the onset of puberty, the
+recurrence of menstruation in women, and the time of occurrence of
+labor. The interstitial glands distribute the basis of the powers and
+limitations of masculinity and femininity. Abnormalities of these
+glands also affect the individual all along the line, in all of his
+aspects. So affected he may apparently change into a wholly different
+being. He may change in size, in the shape of his head, feet and
+hands, as well as in his habits, aptitudes and dispositions. So he may
+find it necessary to purchase an entirely different size of hat, more
+commodious clothes, and newly fitting gloves and shoes. At the same
+time, his family, relatives and friends, discover that the erstwhile
+generous, frank, neat and punctual and liked, has become stingy and
+suspicious and slovenly and hated. And all because a gland has begun
+to undersecrete or to oversecrete. The transformation will be slight
+or marked, depending entirely upon the extent of impairment, positive
+or negative, of the gland involved.
+
+But it is not only in the shaping of the normal individual's
+architecture that the internal secretions dominate. Over that subtle
+something known in all languages as vitality, expressive of the
+intensity of feeling, thought and reactions in cells, they rule
+supreme. Gay vivacity and grim determination, the temperament of a
+Louis XIV, and the soul of a Cromwell, are the crystallizations of
+these chemical substances acting upon the brain.
+
+INTERNAL SECRETION VARIETIES
+
+There is no better way of illustrating the influence of the internal
+secretions upon the normal than the analysis of the variation of
+traits with variations in glandular predominances. The general build
+of an individual, his skeletal type, the proportion between the size
+of his arms and that of his legs, as well as that between his trunk
+and his lower extremities, whether he is to be tall, lanky and
+loutish, or short, squat and dumpy, are to be considered. Different
+facial types are the expressions of underlying endocrine differences.
+The head and skull offer a number of clues to the controlling
+secretions in the blood and tissues. Whether the forehead is to be
+broad or narrow, the distance between the eyes, the character of the
+eyebrows, the shape and size and appearance of the eyes themselves,
+the mould of the nose and jaws and the peculiarities of the teeth, are
+all so determined. The skin, in its color, texture, the quantity
+and distribution of its fatty and other constituents, eruptions and
+weather reactions, is influenced. Also the mucous membranes, the
+color and lustre and structure of the hair, as well as its general
+distribution and development, are hieroglyphics of the endocrine
+processes below the surface. Whether the muscles are massive or
+sparse, atrophied or hypertrophied, soft or hard, easily fatigable
+or not, bespeak conditions in the glandular chain. In short, we must
+regard the individual as an immensely complicated pattern of designs
+traced by the hormones as the primary etchers of his development.
+Though it must be admitted that the number of unknown and unsolved
+relations in the pattern are still enormously great, enough has
+been established to make possible a rough working analysis of the
+particular, unique organism placed before us for examination as Mr.
+Smith, Mrs. Jones, or Miss Smith-Jones.
+
+WHAT IS THE NORMAL?
+
+Anthropologists, from the beginning of anthropology, have battled
+in vain for a satisfactory inclusive definition, or, at least,
+description of the normal. With the introduction of the biometric
+method, the goal at last appeared within sight. A cocked hat curve
+expressing the distribution and range of the normal looks formidable.
+The attainable turned out a mirage, for the curves constructable by
+the measurement of traits of a population only proved the truth of the
+old axiom that all transitions and variations between extremes exist.
+The Problem of the Normal seemed more elusive than ever. And the best
+that could be done for the elucidation of its mystery, was to apply
+and observe the law of averages.
+
+From the endocrine standpoint, the reason for this becomes clear. The
+biometric method concerned itself with externals, with, as it were,
+symptoms. Since these external signs are but manifestations of the
+inner chemical reactions, of which the internal secretions are the
+determining reagents, or factors, with permutations and combinations
+possible in all directions, the diversity and variability of each
+individual and his traits stands explained and understandable. The
+normal, as the perfect or nearly perfect balance of forces in the
+organism, at any given moment, emerges as a more definite and real
+concept than that which would abstract it from a curve of variations.
+Moreover, since the directive forces within the organism are
+pre-eminently the internal secretions, the normal becomes definable as
+their harmonious balancing or equilibrium, a state which tends not to
+undo (as the abnormal does) but to prolong itself.
+
+The potential combinations and compensations, antagonisms and
+counteractions, attainable within the endocrine glands as an
+interlocking directorate, point the cause for the elusive quality of
+the normal. Tall men and short men, blonde women and dumpy women,
+lanky hatchet-faced people, stout moon-faced people, Falstaff and
+Queen Elizabeth, George Washington and Abraham Lincoln, Disraeli and
+Walt Whitman, Caesar and Alexander, as well as Mr. Smith and Miss
+Jones come within the range of the normal. There are all kinds and
+conditions and sorts of men and women, and all kinds and sorts and
+conditions of the normal, because an incalculable number of harmonious
+relations and interactions between the endocrines are possible, and
+do actually occur. The standard of the normal must obviously not be
+a single standard, but a series of standards, depending upon which
+glands predominate, and how the others adapt themselves to its
+predominance. Adrenal-centered types, thyroid-centered types,
+pituitary-centered types, thymus-centered types, as well as hyphenated
+compounds of these, such as the pituitary-adrenal types, exist as
+normals. They can be conceived of as normal types because they exist
+as normal types.
+
+THE SKELETAL TYPES
+
+Now men, for as long as we have any knowledge of their thoughts and
+classifications and attitudes, have been accustomed to first think
+of one another, to classify and size one another as tall or short,
+slender or broad, thin or corpulent. The biological necessity, indeed,
+instinct of the one animal to relate the other animal to aggressive or
+harmless agencies in his surroundings, accounts for this. Relatively,
+of course, for all these modes of description imply offensive or
+defensive possibilities of the stimulus for the recorder in relation
+to himself. The interest in stature is fundamental, and has persisted
+in the most civilized, nations. The relationship of height and weight,
+as well as of length and breadth, to other physical traits, have
+formed the subject of scientific study. There is, for instance, the
+classification of Bean, who divided mankind generally into two types,
+those of a medium size, stocky long legs and arms, large hands and
+feet, short trunk, and face large in comparison to the head (the
+meso-onto-morphs) and those who were either tall and slender, or small
+and delicate, with the smaller face, eyes close together, long, high,
+narrow nose, and trunk longer as compared with the extremities (the
+hyper-onto-morphs). Bean showed, too, that the hypers (to use a short
+word to contrast with the mesos) were present to the extent of almost
+a hundred per cent in a series of tuberculosis, and about ninety per
+cent in a series of central nervous system disease. All of which is
+exceedingly interesting and suggestive, but throws no light upon the
+underlying mechanisms of statures.
+
+STATURE AND GROWTH
+
+Stature is essentially determined by the growth of the long bones.
+They are the pace-makers, and the muscles and soft tissues follow the
+pace they set. Now the primary determinant, catalyst or sensitizer of
+the growth of the long bones is the anterior pituitary. All statures
+should therefore be first scrutinized from the point of view of the
+pituitary. Individuals over six feet tall or under five feet five
+inches should be looked upon as having a pituitary trend. This
+pituitary trend may be primary, due to its own undergrowth or
+overgrowth, or it may be due to lack of inhibition from the sex glands
+such as occurs in eunuchs and eunuchoids, or excessive or premature
+inhibition from them as happens in certain salacious dwarfs.
+
+The long bones grow at a point of junction between the bone proper
+and an overlying layer of gristle or cartilage, known as the zone of
+ossification. It is upon this zone of ossification that the various
+growth influences appear to focus and concentrate their efforts, among
+them the internal secretions. After growth has been finished, that is,
+after adolescence, these zones of ossification close, so that growth
+is no longer possible unless they become reactivated. Upon the zone of
+ossification must act the pituitary, and indirectly the thyroid, the
+interstitial cells, the thymus and the adrenals. Individuals oversized
+or undersized either belong to the pituitary type, or if hyphenated,
+have the pituitary as one of the dominants in their composition. The
+necessities of child-bearing determine a greater angle between trunk
+and lower extremities in the female. Underactivity of the pituitary,
+for instance, will prevent the development of the normal angle. The
+ratio in length of the upper limbs to the lower is a fairly constant
+relationship for each sex normally Deviations occur with a break
+somewhere in the chain of cooperation of the internal secretions
+controlling the growth of bone.
+
+HANDS, FINGERS AND TOES
+
+The size and shape and general configuration of the hands, fingers
+and toes are details that tell an endocrine tale. Students of hands
+naturally have grouped them as the long slender and the short, broad,
+the bony and the well-filled out, the tapering fingers and the stumpy.
+The character of a hand is determined anatomically by the length and
+breadth of the bones, the amount and distribution of fat, and the
+thickness and elasticity of the skin. Over these, the essential
+control lies in the pituitary and the thyroid. So we find that
+pituitary types have, when there is oversecretion, large bony, gross
+hands, spade-shaped, or when there is undersecretion, hands that are
+plump, with peculiarly tapering fleshy fingers. The hyperthyroid has
+long slender fingers, the subthyroid pudgy, coarse, ugly foreshortened
+hands, often cold, and bluish.
+
+FACIAL TYPES
+
+An artist will see in a face the past history of generations, a
+narrative of the adventures of the blood, a record of tears and
+smiles, wrinkles and dimples, the victories and defeats of buried
+drudgery and romance. These signatures which the Faculty of Life have
+scribbled or engraved over it as upon a diploma, bespeak for him
+spiritual moments. To the student of the internal secretions the
+lines, expressions, attitudes are important for they tell of the state
+of tensions and strains in the vegetative apparatus with which they
+are inseparably connected. It is when one comes to the consideration
+of the face as a complex of brows, eyes, nose, lips and jaws that he
+becomes most interested. For in the modeling and tone of every one of
+the features each of the endocrine glands has something to say. In
+consequence there has been described the hyperpituitary face, and the
+hyperthyroid face, the subthyroid face and the subpituitary face, the
+adrenal face, the eunuchoid face and the ovarian face and also the
+thymic.
+
+To bring to mind an immediate complete image of the hyperthyroid face,
+one should think of Shelley. The oval shape of it, with the delicate
+modeling of all the features, the wide, high brow, the large,
+vivacious, prominent eyes with the glint of a divine fire in them and
+the sensitive lips all belong to the classical picture. Generally
+flushed over the cheek-bones, there is undoubtedly a certain
+effeminate effect associated with it. At least, it is the least animal
+and brutish of the faces of man.
+
+On the other hand, the subthyroid face is that of the cretin and
+cretinoid idiot, in a mild degree. So characteristic that we recognize
+the portrait in the descriptions of Pliny in early Roman tunes and of
+Marco Polo in his Asiatic travels. Coarseness, dullness, pudginess are
+its keynotes. Irregular features, tendency to wide separation of the
+eyes and pug nose, sallow, puffy complexion, waxy thickened nose and
+eyelids, deep-set, listless, lacklustre eyebrows, and thick prominent
+lips comprise the catalogue of the physiognomy. On the whole, the sort
+of face one passes in the street as stupid and common. But there are
+a number of fascinating and marvelous varieties of the stupid and
+common.
+
+The adrenal face is most often dark or freckled. It tends to be
+irregularly broadish. It is hairy, one is struck forcibly. There is a
+low hair line, which makes the brow appear rather low, and there is
+a good deal of hair over the cheek bones. The adrenal type is round
+headed.
+
+The face of the hyperpituitary is striking and pretty sharply defined.
+It is long and narrow, with a tendency to prominence of the bony
+parts. Square, protruding jaw, high, thin, straight nose, emphasized
+eyebrows, and marked cheek-bones, comprise the leading points in its
+composition. On the other hand, the subpituitary is more rounded and
+trends toward the full moon effect, the chin recedes, the cheek-bones
+are buried under fat, the nose spreads more and is flatter. In its
+general expression, there is a complacence and tranquillity which is
+often mistaken for sleepiness, and often actually is dullness.
+
+The eunuchoid face is usually fat with puffy eyelids. The skin is
+smooth and cool, marble-like often, poor in pigment and color.
+Sometimes it is sallow, wrinkled and senile in a man in his early
+twenties. At others, it is distinctly feminine in its hairlessness,
+and the delicate texture of the skin, as well as in the clean-cut
+patterning of the features. Every gradient between premature senility
+and sex inversion is encountered.
+
+The thymic face frequently stamps its possessor at sight. Its owner
+has a smooth, soft skin, with little or no hair, and a dead white or
+"peaches-and-cream" complexion. One wonders, when unacquainted with
+the type, who the man's barber is, or where he learned to shave
+himself so well. It may be curiously velvety to the touch and swept by
+a faint sheen. Among children occur the most exquisite samples of the
+kind designated as the angelic child. The face is finely moulded and
+beautifully proportioned, features artistically chiselled, eyes blue
+or brown with long lashes, cheeks transparent with rapid, fleeting
+variations in coloring, thin lips, and oval chin. In the adult, the
+chin is receding, and the mouth seems underdeveloped in one variety.
+
+THE TEETH
+
+As closely connected with the internal secretions as are the bones of
+the face and the skull are the teeth. Tooth formation is essentially a
+modified bone formation. And as the bones of the face are influenced,
+so are the teeth influenced. But as each tooth is a miniature organ,
+inspectable by the eye as a unit, the action of the ductless glands
+is more obviously reflected for the observer to read. By their teeth
+shall ye know them. Upon the whole history of the evolution of each
+tooth, in the growth of the dental follicle and its walls, the
+fruition of the dentinal germ, the making of the enamel organ, the
+dental pulp, the cementum and the peridental membrane, the endocrines
+leave their mark.
+
+There are certain general statements about the teeth and the internal
+secretions that can be made. The teeth of the thyroid types are
+pearly, glistening, small and regular; in other words, the teeth to
+which poets have devoted sonnets. The pituitary types have teeth that
+are large and square and irregular, with prominence of the middle
+incisors, and a marked separation or crowding of them. The
+interstitial types have small irregular upper teeth, with turned,
+stumpy or missing lateral incisors. The thymus types have youthful,
+milky white teeth that are thin and translucent, and scalloped or
+crescentic at the grinding edge. The teeth of the adrenal type are all
+well-developed, tend to have a yellowish color, with a reddish tinge
+to the grinding surfaces.
+
+The degree and regularity of development of the middle upper cutting,
+biting teeth, as distinguished from the grinding molars, the middle
+and lateral incisors, and the canines offer further guides to the
+endocrine constitution analysis. The size of the central incisors
+seems to be directly proportional to the degree of pituitary
+predominance. On the other hand, the size and regularity of
+the lateral incisors seem proportional to the influence of the
+interstitial cells. When these are inferior in the make-up of an
+individual, the lateral incisors are nearly always distorted. The
+size of the canines appears to be a measure of adrenal activity. Long
+sharply pointed canines mean well-functioning adrenal gland equipment
+to start in with, inherited from a bellicose progenitor.
+
+No individual peculiarities of the teeth are accidental. Just as the
+absence of hair on the face in a man or a moustache effect in a
+woman stand for some definite stress or strain in the mechanics of
+interaction of the internal secretions, so likewise do variations in
+dentition, as to the time of eruption of the teeth, their position and
+quality, and their resistance to decay.
+
+Proper balance between the thymus and pituitary will permit the
+eruption of the teeth within the normal time limits, both the milk
+teeth and the permanent teeth. When there is equilibrium between the
+pituitary and the gonads, the teeth will be regular in shape and
+position. Carious teeth, in children and adults, sometimes indicate
+endocrine imbalance. Thyroid and adrenal balance determines the
+resistance to decay of the molars. Early decay of the molars in
+children is significant of insufficiency of the thyroid. When the
+first permanent molar, which should appear in the upper arch in its
+usual position between the sixth or eighth years, does not, there has
+been a prenatal disturbance of the pituitary, according to Chayes
+and others. Rapid decay of the teeth in childhood should always call
+attention to the parathyroids.
+
+In pregnancy, the teeth suffer particularly because of disturbances of
+the endocrines. The saying, "A tooth for every child," is said to have
+its equivalent in every language. The bicuspids and second permanent
+molars erupt around puberty, when profound readjustments are going on
+among the glands of internal secretion. They consequently suffer with
+their abnormalities or divergences from type. The teeth thus furnish a
+good deal of information concerning the distribution of the balance of
+power among the hormones.
+
+THE SKIN
+
+The skin is influenced in its color, moisture, hairiness, texture, fat
+content and disease vulnerability by the endocrines. The question of
+color is very interesting, for it is probably the expression of the
+blending action of the different internal secretions. Davenport, the
+American student of heredity and eugenics, has shown that neither
+white nor black skins are either perfectly white or perfectly black,
+but are mixtures in various proportions of black, yellow, red and
+white. The exact percentages of the pigments in each particular skin,
+can be determined by means of a rotating disc. Thus a white person's
+skin may have the following composition:
+
+Black 8% Red 50%
+
+Yellow 9% White 33%
+
+The composition of the skin of a very black negro may be:
+
+Black 68% Red 26%
+
+Yellow 2% White 7%
+
+Now the fact that in Addison's disease in which the adrenals are
+destroyed there occurs a coincident increase in the black in the
+skin, and other evidence pointing to adrenal implication in dark
+complexioned white people, as well as in those possessing pigmented
+spots, seems to indicate the adrenals as controllers of the black
+and white factors. Davenport has concluded that there are two double
+factors for black pigmentation in the full-blooded negro which are
+separately inheritable. The determinants of the red and yellow have
+still to be worked out.
+
+The moistness of the skin, as perspiration, depends upon the number
+and activity of the sweat glands. It varies with the water content of
+the body, the state of the vegetative nervous system, and the body
+temperature. Thus the skin of the hyperthyroid and the subadrenal
+is soft and moist, because of their antagonistic effects upon the
+sympathetic system. The subthyroid and the hyperadrenal have dry
+and harsh skins for the same reason, if no other glands intervene.
+However, in both of the latter, if there is a persistent thymus, the
+skin will retain the bland quality of adolescence.
+
+There is a curious variation among the different internal secretion
+types in the reaction of the skin to stroking. When the skin,
+especially the skin over the shoulders, the breasts and the abdomen,
+is stroked with some blunt object, the blood vessels react either by a
+greater filling up or emptying of themselves. The latter occurs most
+regularly in the subadrenal types, the former in the hyperthyroid.
+Both forms of reaction run parallel to the different check or drive
+effects of the vegetative apparatus. With too much drive, that is, too
+much thyroid, there is the flushing reaction; with too little check,
+that is, with too little adrenal, there is the whitening. These
+differences probably explain the emotional reactions of the face. In
+anger, for example, some people become a dead white, others a fiery
+red. Whether one will do one or the other may depend upon the relative
+predominance of the thyroid or of adrenal in the individual.
+
+In the distribution of fat beneath and throughout the skin all of the
+endocrine glands appear to have a voice. The typically hyperthyroid
+and hyperpituitary individuals tend to be thin, as well also as those
+who have well-functioning or excessively functional interstitial
+cells. In all of these the administration of the respective internal
+secretions increases the burning up of material in the body, and all
+of them have a higher rate of tissue combustion than their confreres,
+with a subthyroid or subpituitary keynote in their cell chemistry, or
+with insufficient interstitial cell action. Generally the latter have
+a very dry skin, the former a moist skin. With delayed involution of
+the pineal, obesity results.
+
+The elasticity of the skin is another quality that varies with the
+concentration in the blood of the internal secretions. Elasticity of
+the skin, its recoil upon being stretched like a rubber band, may be
+taken as a measure of the activity of all the endocrine glands. For,
+as can be noticed especially upon the back of the hand, the older a
+man grows, the less elastic becomes the skin. In older people, raising
+the skin upon the back of the hand will cause it to stand up as a
+ridge for a few seconds and then slowly to return to the level of the
+surrounding skin. Whereas in a youthful person it will quickly snap
+back into place. This quality of elasticity of the skin is due to the
+presence in it of the so-called yellow elastic fibres, cell products,
+with a resilience greater than anything devised by man. The
+preservation of the resilience is a function of the internal
+secretions. Thus, after loss of the thyroid, the ridging effect
+characteristic of senility can be produced in one young as measured by
+his years. It has been said that a man is as old as his arteries, and
+also that as he is as old as his skin. It might better be said that he
+is as old as his elastic tissue, young when he is rich in it, old when
+poor and losing it. And as elastic tissue and internal secretions
+stand in the relation of created and creators, or at least preserved
+and preservers, a man may be said to be as old, that is as young,
+fresh and active as his ductless glands.
+
+THE HAIR
+
+There is no characteristic of the human body, except perhaps
+the teeth, more influenced in its quality, texture, amount and
+distribution than the hair. And again, each of the glands of internal
+secretion plays a part, but most importantly the thyroid, the
+suprarenal cortex and the interstitial sex glands. All contribute
+their specific effect, and the blend, the sum of the additions and
+subtractions constituting their influences, appears as a specific
+trait of the individual, a trait so significant as to be used by the
+professionals absorbed in the study of man, the anthropologists, as a
+criterion of racial classifications.
+
+Some acquaintance with the history of the normal growth of hair is
+necessary to its understanding. There develops during the life of the
+fetus within the womb a curious sort of wooly hair everywhere over
+the entire body (excepting the palms and soles which remain hairless
+throughout life), remarkably soft and fluttery--the lanugo. At about
+the eighth month of intra-uterine existence, a good deal of this
+lanugo is lost, to be replaced on the head and eyebrows by a crop of
+thick, coarse, pigmented real hair. So it happens that at birth the
+infant's hair is a queerly irregular growth, a mixture of what is left
+of the general lanugo development, and the localized patches of the
+more human hair. Until puberty this children's hair remains the same,
+although at times, particularly after dentition, and after infectious
+diseases which undoubtedly alter the relations of the internal
+secretions, changes of color and texture occur. Then, with sexual
+ripening, there appear in males the so-called terminal hairs, over the
+cheeks and lips and chin, and, in both sexes, in the folds under
+the shoulders and over the lower abdomen, the hair which might be
+distinguished as the sex hair in contradistinction to the juvenile
+hair of the head, the extremities and the back.
+
+Now the smoothness of the face in children is connected with the
+activity of the thymus and pineal glands. Among individuals in whom
+the juvenile thymus persists after puberty, no growth of hair occurs
+on the face, and in precocious involution or destruction of the
+pineal, hair appears on the face and in other terminal regions in
+children of six or less, a symptom classical in the child who suffered
+from a tumor of the pineal, and discussed immortality with his
+physicians. It is probable that these thymus and pineal effects are
+indirect through their action upon the sex glands. For in the types
+with persistent juvenile thymus there occurs a maldevelopment of the
+sex glands, while in those with early pineal recession the sex glands
+bloom simultanously with the appearance of adolescent hair and mental
+traits. The hastening of sexual hair by tumors of the adrenal gland
+may also be put down to a release from restraint of the interstitial
+sex cells.
+
+There are certain spheres in the hair geography of the body, over
+which particular glands may be said to rule or to possess a mandate.
+The hair of the head seems to be primarily under the control of
+the thyroid. Thus in cretins reconstructed by thyroid feeding, the
+straight, rather animal hair becomes lustrous and fine, silken and
+curly. In the thyroid deficiency of adults, a prominent phenomenon
+often is the falling out of the hair in handfuls. Baldness is
+frequently associated with a progressive decrease of the concentration
+of thyroid in the blood. At the same time, there tends to be a
+thinning of the eyebrows, especially of the outer third.
+
+The hair of the face in males, and the other terminal hairs in both
+males and females, is regulated by the sex glands primarily. In the
+female, the ovary, that is to say, the interstitial cells of the
+ovary, inhibit the growth of hair upon the face. In destructive
+disease of the ovaries, as well as in other affections of it, hair in
+the form of moustache, beard and whiskers may appear in female. That
+is why in women after the grand sex change of life, the menopause,
+hair often grows in the typically male regions because of loss of the
+inhibiting influence of the ovarian internal secretion upon them.
+After castration of the ovaries, the same may result. Removal of the
+male sex glands, or disturbances of them, will interfere with the
+proper development of the normal facial hair. Of the hair of the
+chest, the abdomen and the back, the adrenals seem to be the
+controllers. Adrenal types have hairy chests in males, and hair on the
+back in females. They have also a good deal of hair upon the abdomen.
+The hair on the extremities varies a good deal with the pituitary.
+People with hair upon hands, arms and legs, alone, are generally
+pituitary, or have a striking pituitary streak in their make-up.
+
+When the adrenals increase in size in childhood, a remarkable triad
+follows--general hairiness, adiposity and sexual precocity. One fact
+should be noted. When the adrenals evoke precocity, and an early
+awakening of the secondary sex characteristics, it is a masculine
+precocity, and an approximation to the masculine even in females.
+There is a definite trend toward an increase of the male in the
+individual's composition at the expense of the female. We shall have
+to consider this in greater detail when we analyze the internal
+secretion basis of masculinity and femininity. In general, the degree
+of general hairiness is an index to the amount of adrenal influence
+upon the organism. All the endocrines which affect the hair growth
+also act upon the sebaceous glands which oil the skin.
+
+THE EYES
+
+Eyes present clues to internal secretion constitutions dependent upon
+influences of architecture and function. The thyroid eye is typical.
+It is large, brilliant and protruding. The individual is "pop-eyed."
+On the other hand, subthyroidized eyes tend to be sunken and
+lustreless. The eyes of a pituitary type are either set markedly
+apart, or close together, with the hair at the root of the nose so
+prominent as to constitute a separate bridge known as the nasal brow.
+The size of the pupil, and its humidity, which have so much to do with
+the expression of the eye, vary directly with the activities of the
+driving and checking divisions of the vegetative system, and are
+a pretty good index as to which, at the time of observation, is
+predominant. When the check system is in control, the pupils are large
+and dilated. When its antagonist and rival, the drive system, is on
+top, the pupils are small and contracted. The reactions of the pupils
+when charged by strong emotion, like fear or anger, likewise turn upon
+the status of check or drive internal secretions in the economy of the
+organism at the time the exciting agent presents itself.
+
+MUSCLES
+
+It would seem, at first sight, that organs like muscles, mechanical
+instruments for the manipulation of the organism in space, would
+be more or less independent of the subtler processes of internal
+chemistry of the blood and tissues. But no assumption would be more
+beside the mark. Just as much as the bones and viscera, the teeth and
+the hair, they show grossly how they are being influenced by all the
+endocrine glands. So thyroid types generally have a skeleton
+sparsely covered with a muscular mantle. Pituitary types have large
+well-developed muscles. The pineal gland has some definite relation to
+muscle chemistry not yet probed. Thus, it has been shown that when the
+pineal has been completely destroyed prematurely by lime deposits in
+it, there is concomitant a wasting of muscles in places. This waste is
+sometimes replaced by fat. Pictures and images in wood and stone
+of these muscle freaks dating from the fifteenth, sixteenth, and
+seventeenth century are in existence. Then there is the extraordinary
+fatigability of the muscles which occurs in the thymus types,
+who nevertheless have large well-rounded muscles, a paradox of
+contradiction between anatomy and physiology. Such a type, for
+instance, may be picked out by a football coach for an important
+position in a line-up, simply on the tremendous impressiveness of
+the muscle make-up, only to see him bowled over and out in the first
+scrimmage. The tone of muscles, the quality of resisting firmness or
+yielding softness, is essentially determined by the adrenal glands,
+especially in time of stress and strain.
+
+Brown-Sequard was the first to show that extracts of sex glands could
+increase the capacity for muscular work. Whether this was a direct
+effect upon the muscles, or indirect through the nerves or other
+endocrines, no one can say. Certainly the carriage of an individual,
+outer symptom of the inner tonus among his muscles and tendons, may be
+said to be as distinctively an endocrine affair as the color of his
+skin. And like its variations, variations of their tone, development,
+reactivity, fatigability, and endurance may be traced to corresponding
+states of overaction, or underaction, and odd combinations of the
+different hormones. Much remains to be learned about them and the
+manner of their control. Such an affliction as flatfoot, dependent
+upon a laxity of the ligaments in one who seems perfectly healthy and
+strong, may lead the analyst back to a thymus-centered personality.
+That is but one example.
+
+Since, too, muscle attitudes, muscle tensions and muscle relaxations
+play so large a part in the production of fundamental mental states:
+the attitudes, moods, memories and will reactions, the vegetative
+apparatus enters, to play its part as a determinant.
+
+SEX
+
+Over no domain of the body have the endocrines a more absolute
+mandatory than over that of the whole complex of sex. Both as regards
+the primary reproductive organs, their size and shape, and the
+character of their implantation, malformations and anomalies, as well
+as the physical and mental traits lumped as the secondary sexual,
+puberty, maturity, and senility, voice changes and erotic trends,
+virility and femininity, the internal secretions are dictators at
+every step. So significant are these, that even a rough summary of the
+discoveries and the outlook in the field involves some consideration
+of the details.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE MECHANICS OF THE MASCULINE AND THE FEMININE
+
+
+It needs a poet to chant the epic of sex. The mystery of it puzzled
+the minds of the earliest Sumerian thinkers. As a source of deepest
+excitement, it generated the most revolting ceremonies, bizarre
+customs, astounding cruelties and incomprehensible stupidities of
+the race. Men and women, as soon as they have done with their usual
+business of keeping themselves free of disagreeable sensations,
+hunger, cold, fear of enemies, betake themselves to it as a primary
+interest all over the world. The most advanced psychologists of the
+day link the sex impulse with the windings and twistings of all human
+activity.
+
+Yet the Homer of sex through the ages is still to come. But at all
+times the mystery evoked speculation and attempt at explanation.
+Acting upon their theories as to the nature and function of sex, men
+have, ever since the passing of the primeval matriarchates, segregated
+women, equalized them, worshipped them, or enslaved them. Opinions
+have varied from ancient national aphorisms to the effect that
+women have no souls to the most ultramodern utterances of
+biologist-publicists that the differences between men and women are
+the differences between two species. There are other epigrams, vast
+sweeping generalities, extant concerning the nature of sex, and women
+particularly. All partake of the complexity of truth and therefore own
+a certain validity. Still, since as a matter of fact, these items have
+been based upon superficial observations colored by the tradition and
+verbiage of the milieu, they are valuable more as human documents, as
+material for the psychologist, than as scientifically obtained data,
+able to stand unblinking before the rays of the critical searchlights.
+
+SCIENCE VS. ART
+
+Not that all the vast accumulation needs to be thrown pell-mell,
+higgledy-piggledy into the discard. The love lyrics of the poet, the
+magic of the emotions of Shelley and Poe, for instance, with their
+marvelous music and exquisite intonings of feeling, furnish us with
+important information. They are the facts of the sex life, as much as
+the song of the nightingale, or the mocking laughter of the cuckoo
+pursued by its mate. So Sappho and Elizabeth Browning, to take only
+two samples, have contributed some of the feminine reaction. The
+erotic motive in literature has but paralleled the erotic motive in
+life, with all of its vagaries, delusions, confusions, ecstasies and
+suffering.
+
+We have had concerning sex not knowledge, but a series of attitudes,
+the attitude of virtue, the attitude of pruriency, the attitude of
+good taste, the attitude of the theoretic libertine, the attitude of
+the satyr's vulgarity. All these poses, of course, have supplied not
+an iota to an understanding of the foundations of the problems of sex,
+biologically considered. Thus, a masculine master has coined that
+immortal phrase, the Eternal Feminine. And in a matriarchate we
+should undoubtedly hear of the Eternal Masculine. Each leaves one as
+unenlightened as the other. A rough and ready code of life attributes
+certain grossly characteristic qualities of mind and body to each
+sex. This is supposed to be enough for common sense. Beyond that the
+mystery has been wrapped in cotton wool. That perhaps explains the
+enormous popularity of contemporary pornographic and so-called sex
+literature.
+
+There are bound up with sex feeling and sex knowledge many customs,
+beliefs and habits, many legal statutes and social institutions, in
+the complex that is called sentiment, to which science looms as the
+sacrilegious ogre who devours romance. Without spending space upon the
+ravages of the sentimental idealist, certainly responsible for as much
+human disaster as the brutal realist, it is manifest that a revolution
+in sex standards and relations is inevitable as soon as the new
+doctrines filter down as matters of fact to the levels of the common
+intelligence. And surely, nothing else could be wished for in the
+world desired by all of us, the world ruled by intelligence, and
+intelligent good will.
+
+SEX CHEMISTRY
+
+A few general statements may be put down outright as material to go
+upon before we proceed to details.
+
+1. Femininity and masculinity have a definite chemical basis in the
+reactions of the internal secretions of which they are the expression.
+That is to say, that just as a precipitate of chalk is formed when one
+throws some carbonate of soda into lime water, so the masculine
+and the feminine are to be looked upon as precipitates and
+crystallizations of a long series of linked chemical reactions in
+the fluids of the body, in which the internal secretions play a
+determining part.
+
+2. Femininity and masculinity are expressions of the interplay of all
+the internal secretions. It used to be said by smart cats and accepted
+by the tabby cats, that a woman was a woman because of her ovaries
+alone. It is being said by some great discoverers of the day that man
+is a man because of his testes alone. Neither of these dogmas is true.
+There are individuals with ovaries who show every deviation from the
+feminine and there are individuals with testes who exhibit every
+variation from the masculine. The other endocrine glands are of equal
+importance.
+
+3. There is no absolute masculine or absolute feminine. The ideals
+of the Manly Man and the Womanly Woman were erected by the blind
+ignorance of the nineteenth century illusionists, and a line drawn to
+cleave them. But indeed biologically there exists every transition
+between the masculine and the feminine. The explanation of these
+different sex types consists in the different admixtures of the
+internal secretions possible and actual. When we speak of the feminine
+we really mean the predominantly feminine. And when we speak of
+the masculine, we mean the mainly masculine. Between, all sorts of
+transitions are possible and occur.
+
+Man in relation to the internal secretions we have considered in
+reviewing the interstitial cells. To him, we shall return later. Let
+us turn now to that fascinating subject of the ages, Woman. What
+produces and maintains the Feminine?
+
+THE CAUSE OF SEX
+
+To all appearances, that inscrutable simplest of living things, the
+fertilized ovum, beginning of the human, starts bisexual, double
+sexed, both masculine and feminine, or perhaps neither masculine nor
+feminine. Then a form develops. Then within that form a patch of cells
+arise which the microscopist recognizes as the forerunners of the male
+or the female reproductive cells. Then some more development. And at
+birth, sex is definitely settled, as far as the reproductive organs
+are concerned.
+
+Our knowledge here, as everywhere, is still fragmentary. Statistical
+reviews seem to show that in times of stress, war, famine, pestilence,
+more boys are born than girls. But that is neither here nor there. It
+sheds no further light on the subject. Monosexuality is a distinction
+of the human species: the sexes are pretty clearly differentiated.
+In some animals, such as some worms, there is a bisexuality of the
+individual. There are present the reproductive organs of both sexes,
+capable of impregnating other individuals as well as of being
+impregnated. In some of these, even self-impregnation may occur. This
+is the condition of hermaphroditism.
+
+But the higher up one goes in the scale of evolution, the greater
+becomes the distinction between the sexes. Anatomic hermaphroditism
+becomes a rare anomaly. Life appears to have perfected this trick of
+separate sexes, sex specialization, in short, for the sake of the
+efficiency which goes with specialization.
+
+When a germ cell divides, its nuclear material breaks up into segments
+known as chromosomes. Now it has been found, for example in the case
+of the common squash bug, anasa tristis, that there are 22 chromosomes
+in the female, and 21 in the male. In the female two of these are
+visibly different from the rest, while in the male there is one odd
+one, the remaining 20 being like the corresponding 20 of the female.
+Before the germ cell becomes fit to mix with a germ cell of opposite
+sex, in the process of fertilization, it must lose one half of these.
+So the number of chromosomes for the species is kept the same or
+constant. This is the process of maturation. In the process, when the
+chromosome number is halved among the females, 11 go into each mature
+egg. But among the males, the odd chromosome, also known as the
+X-chromosome, can perforce go only into half of the sperm cells,
+leaving the others without it. So the sperm are formed in equal
+numbers of 10 and 11 chromosomes respectively.
+
+When fertilization occurs, and the sperm cell fuses with the egg, the
+following may take place: (1) a ten chromosome sperm may unite with
+the eleven chromosome egg, and produce a twenty-one chromosome
+individual or (2) an eleven chromosome sperm may unite with an eleven
+chromosome egg producing a twenty-two chromosome individual. It has
+been found that the twenty-two chromosome individual invariably
+develops into a female, and the twenty-one into a male. Therefore,
+femaleness is a positive quality, dependent upon the action of the
+X-chromosome, and maleness an absence of femaleness, due to lack
+of the extra, odd chromosome. In man, two X-chromosomes have been
+discovered, half the sperm containing 12, and the other half
+containing only 10 chromosomes. The number of chromosomes in human
+cells consequently is 22 in the male and 24 in the female.
+
+The X-chromosome is the bearer of sex destiny. There still remains the
+work to be done on the actual control of sex by man, apart from its
+natural determination. For the time being, let the feminists glory in
+the fact that they have two more chromosomes to each cell than
+their opponents. Certainly there can be no talk here of a natural
+inferiority of women.
+
+THE SECONDARY OR ENDOCRINE SEX TRAITS
+
+Yet the matter is after all not so simple as this would make it out
+to be. All that can be safely laid down is that the character of the
+reproductive organs is determined by the extra chromosomes. And though
+these reproductive organs have a good deal to do with the masculine or
+feminine quality of the organism as a whole, through their internal
+secretions, they are not alone. All the other internal secretions have
+their say in the final outcome, determining what may be called the
+dominant sex quality, but leaving inherent the latent soil of the
+other sex. This may become active and dominant in its turn, under
+certain conditions of stimulation, abnormality, or disease, dependent
+upon a rearrangement of status and influence among the ductless
+glands. Bisexuality preceded monosexuality in the animal pedigree, and
+co-exists with it even at the highest points of the genealogical tree.
+
+While from the standpoint of the species, the criterion of the sex
+classification of its members will depend upon their capacity to
+fertilize or to be fertilized, a quality that may, therefore, be
+spoken of as the primary sex character, a number of other traits have
+been evolved by sexual selection, the secondary sex traits. They have
+come to be just as important, to the individual, as far as his or her
+consciousness of sex attitudes and reactions to it are concerned. The
+terms primary and secondary sex characteristics, though inapt, must be
+allowed to stand.
+
+These accessory sex-serving traits undoubtedly survived because of
+their usefulness in external adornment for attracting attention in
+courtship, in the metabolic requirements of sex combat and the sex
+act, and in the necessities of caring for the young, until well-grown.
+The rooster's comb and spurs, the male frog's claspers, the stag's
+antlers, and so on, are familiarly and obviously so useful. Besides
+there are fundamental differences in inner physiology. The human male
+consumes more oxygen than the female per minute, since he has more red
+corpuscles in his blood. In some caterpillars the blood is yellow in
+the males and green in the females. W.I. Thomas has devoted an essay
+of some fifty pages to a review of the organic differences between man
+and woman. The ordinary criteria, employed every day by the man in the
+street to distinguish man from woman may be arranged as follows:
+
+     _Man_                      _Woman_
+
+  Hair on face                Hairless face
+  Skin coarse and lean        Skin fine and plump
+  Muscles powerful            Relatively weak
+  Bones heavy                 Bones light
+  Aggressive--bass voice      Reserved--treble voice
+
+THE ROLE OF THE OVARIES
+
+While the primary sex characters, as such, are present and
+distinguishable from birth, quite the opposite holds for the secondary
+sex traits. During childhood they are in abeyance or at least pretty
+sharply suppressed. Girls and boys who are permitted to dress alike,
+to play the same games and among whom no consciousness of sex is
+encouraged are often difficult to tell apart. The boys will be boys,
+and most of the girls tom-boys.
+
+With puberty comes a marked change of attitude toward the other sex.
+Puberty is the time of ripening of the specific germ cells. It is
+then the ovaries begin to secrete ova ripe for fertilization, and the
+testes begin to secrete sperm ready to fertilize. Before this can
+happen an event announced in the female by the onset of menstruation,
+two conditions must be fulfilled in the endocrine history of the
+individual. There must be a certain atrophy and retrogression of
+the thymus gland, and there must likewise be a similar atrophy and
+retirement of the pineal gland. Both of these involutions of the
+glands of childhood must occur before the normal hypertrophy and
+development of the sex glands and their secretions can start. Besides,
+there must be a minimum activity of the thyroid, adrenal and pituitary
+glands. Without them, below a certain minimum, the reproductive organs
+and their secretions will remain infantile, causing a persistent
+infantilism or delay of puberty.
+
+Formerly there was ascribed to the ovaries, in a lump and without
+qualification, an absolute despotism over the specifically feminine
+functions of menstruation, gestation, parturition, and lactation.
+Nowadays, we see its domain as a limited monarchy, if not indeed as
+one sovereign state of a republic, a member equal but not superior to
+the others of a board of directors. Its true business comes down to
+two particular roles: first, the production of ova, and, second, the
+secretion of a hormone or hormones. Over the other functions once
+supposed its monopoly, all the ductless glands rule.
+
+What concerns us now is its internal secretion or secretions. One of
+them is known as lutein and it has never been chemically isolated
+in its pure form. The existence of lutein, like the existence of
+electricity, is an inference, something we are sure is there because
+of its effects. It originates in a remarkable part of the ovary, the
+corpus luteum. Besides, there are the products of the interstitial
+cells, the creations of a special layer of cells around the ovum, the
+membrana granulosa. They produce a substance tonic to the uterus.
+
+When the ovaries are removed, there occurs an atrophy of the womb
+muscle, due to loss of this tonic substance. This atrophy, accompanied
+by an abolition of the normal periodic uterine contraction, makes
+conditions unfavorable to pregnancy. It has been claimed that the
+secretion of the corpus luteum is necessary for the complete progress
+of a pregnancy. Cases are on record, however, of ovaries taken out
+soon after the onset of pregnancy, without interference with the
+gestation.
+
+Castration is comparable in every way with the menopause or the
+time of cessation of sexual life, a process that might be called
+self-castration. It produces certain general constitutional effects.
+Adiposity often develops, undoubtedly associated with underfunction of
+the thyroid and pituitary glands. The woman breathes less oxygen per
+minute and burns up less food and tissue. There is some disturbance
+of the lime balance with an increased excitability of the vegetative
+nervous system. Concomitant is the release of some brake upon the
+blood pressure mechanisms, so that a family tendency to high blood
+pressure will flare up. Some women are rendered unstable by the
+process, others are completely transformed, and still others adapt
+themselves, with little or no discomfort, to the new situation. The
+response to the revolution in the cell-republic of the castrate by
+the other endocrines, the thyroid, the pituitary, and the adrenals,
+determines which it is to be.
+
+For normally, with feminine puberty, there is an increased activity of
+the thyroid, the posterior pituitary and the adrenal medulla. These
+changes indeed constitute the formula of normal feminization. In the
+male, the ripening of the testes is accompanied or perhaps preceded by
+augmented function of the adrenal cortex and the anterior pituitary.
+This difference in biochemistry accounts for the contrast between the
+sexes in the skin, hair, fat, cartilage (voice) and bone changes.
+Ovary and adrenal medulla and posterior pituitary and thyroid
+predominance constitute the feminine formula. Testis and adrenal
+cortex and anterior pituitary predominance comprise the masculine
+endocrine directorate.
+
+THE REACTIONS OF THE OTHER GLANDS
+
+As in so many other aspects, the facts about the various influences
+exerted by the endocrine glands upon the reproductive system are
+complicated and disjointed. A chink of light has been let in upon a
+dark cave, and slowly the chink will widen. But the gross effects are
+clear.
+
+Around the ovary and the uterus, the endocrines gyrate as the planets
+around the sun. The ovary is the organ for the preservation and
+maturation of the germ plasm, that treasure which the body is built
+but to cherish and hand on as a sacred heirloom. The ova, the female
+egg cells, are the fundamental concern of the ovary. Secondarily, it
+secretes its messengers to keep the rest of the body, and particularly
+the other endocrines, in touch with the necessities of the adventures
+of these ova. It is thus enabled to bend every force and power at its
+command to the service of the reproductive instinct.
+
+In learning their role so well in the course of evolution, the
+thyroid, the pituitary and the suprarenal have become indispensable
+stimulants (in various degrees peculiar to the individual), to the
+primary function of the ovary. As a consequence, to hold the sex
+stimulating glands in check, there had to appear others, restraining
+them and so preventing sex precocity. These are the thymus and pineal.
+So closely are they all related that insufficient action of the
+thyroid, pituitary or adrenals may cause atrophy of the ovaries
+and uterus, with abolition of genital function. If the sex glands
+themselves fail, as occurs usually in most women sometime in the
+forties, the thyroid-pituitary-adrenal association must readjust
+itself to the new development. The adaptation evokes the phenomena of
+the transition to a new life, the climacteric.
+
+THE SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBERTY
+
+Tracing the development of sex life there is a certain order of events
+in a normal history. Before puberty, the ova have lain asleep, as it
+were, in a cocoon state. Now with puberty they awaken. And with them
+all those profound mechanisms and inventions that have to do with
+their nutrition up to ripening. Then revolve the cycles that are
+translated as menstruation, the propulsion, fertilization and
+implantation of the ova in the uterus,--the full development of the
+fetus,--its birth, and feeding after birth--all of which are ductless
+gland controlled.
+
+Samuel Butler once noted that:
+
+"All our limbs and sensual organs, in fact, our whole body and life,
+are but an accretion round and a fostering of the spermatozoa. They
+are the real "He." A man's eyes, ears, tongue, nose, legs and arms
+are but so many organs and tools that minister to the protection,
+education, increased intelligence and multiplication of the
+spermatozoa, so that our whole life is in reality a series of complex
+efforts in respect of these, conscious or unconscious according
+to their comparative commonness. They are the central fact in our
+existence, the point towards which all effort is directed."
+
+Nothing could be said more truly of Woman, and the ova she carries.
+All that transpires during pubescence is symptomatic of the underlying
+tidal stir in the cells. The uterus becomes gorged with blood
+periodically, to provide an enriched soil for the perhaps to be
+fertilized ovum to plant itself. The breasts grow, and fat is
+deposited in particular places as reserve material for the making of
+milk. The qualities which are to appeal to the eye and ear and even
+nostrils of the male appear. Instincts dawn, an independence of spirit
+germinates, emulsified with a curious shyness and coyness and a
+desperate loneliness and secrecy. And all because there have been let
+loose in the blood from the glands of internal secretion the chemical
+substances that set going the clockwork of sequential incidents
+elaborated and repeated through countless aeons of time.
+
+FEMININE PRECOCITY
+
+Ordinarily, in the north temperate climate, puberty begins about
+the fourteenth year, but may begin anywhere from the tenth to the
+sixteenth. Feeding and environment indirectly, the state of the
+internal secretions as a whole directly, determine this. In girls,
+those definite signs, menstruation and the growth of the breasts,
+before the age of ten, mean premature awakening of the ovaries and a
+concomitant co-reaction of the other endocrines, creating the ensemble
+of maturity.
+
+In females, the primary stimulus, the initial spark of femininity,
+must originate in the ovary. There are other forms of precocity in the
+female, dependent upon stimulations of other glands, but these forms
+are masculinisms, a masculinization of the personality, and not a
+true awakening of the feminine constitution. So one must distinguish
+sharply between a precocity by masculinization and precocity of
+premature feminization. The latter always implies the touch of the
+fairy's wand upon the sleeping ovaries. Sexual precocity in boys may
+be produced by a premature overactivity not only of the specific
+reproductive organs: the testes, but also by an early excess of
+secretion on the part of the cortex of the adrenal gland or the
+pituitary gland, or by a too early involution of the pineal or thymus.
+When such abnormalities of adrenal, pituitary, thymus or pineal occur
+in girls, it is the masculine streak in the hastening of growth that
+is made manifest. All this emphasizes the relative bisexuality of
+every normal, no matter how pronounced, when superficially viewed, his
+or her form of predominating sex may be. Under the right conditions
+recession of the most marked virility or femininity becomes
+conceivable, and occurs.
+
+THE SECRET OF THE MASCULINE
+
+Masculinization having entered upon the scene, one may well ask: what
+truly (which means chemically) lies behind all these differences
+and divergences between male and female? What is the secret of the
+variable internal secretion admixtures? You can tell us that the
+recipes are different, the ingredients different, the results
+different as a Nesselrode pudding is from, say, a rice pudding. But
+what is the inner mechanism of the process? Since the masculine and
+the feminine are but expressions of certain relative capacities and
+potentialities, some single principle must run through the making of
+both.
+
+Recognizing of course the qualifications inherent in so broad a
+statement the answer is: the handling of the lime salts. Life
+originated, or at least lived and worked for long ages in sea water.
+During these eras the salts of the sea have come to play a dominant
+role in its being. The lime salts, because of their peculiar
+properties of dissolving or precipitating themselves according to
+electrical conditions in their medium, have come to occupy a
+central position in all the processes of growth, metabolism and sex
+differentiation. So it is that masculinity may be described as a
+stable, constant state in the organism of lime salts, and the feminine
+as an unstable, variable state of lime salts. The male skeleton
+contrasts with the female as the stronger, larger, heavier and
+straighter because it is an expression of a greater capacity to
+utilize, store and keep lime in the system. Women throughout their
+reproductive period are liable to rapid and pendulum-like fluctuations
+of their lime content.
+
+Menstruation, pregnancy, lactation, all draw upon the stores of lime,
+sometimes depleting them to the point of softening of the bones and
+wrecking the whole skeleton. The endocrines control the transport,
+and course, combinations and permutations in the history of lime's
+progress among the cells, and are in turn themselves affected by it.
+Man is relatively free of these liabilities, and so remains man by
+his freedom from the recurrent crises involving the lime salt reserve
+which constitute the essence of the life story of woman.
+
+THE SEX INDEX
+
+It follows from these considerations that when it becomes necessary
+to size the sex composition of a man or woman, a measurement becomes
+establishable which may be spoken of as the sex index. To be able to
+say of Mr. Llewylln Jones that he is sixty per cent masculine and
+forty per cent feminine, or of Mrs. Worthington that she is seventy
+per cent feminine and thirty per cent masculine would be of the utmost
+value under all kinds of circumstances. Unfortunately, lacking as we
+do the exact figures of an advanced blood chemistry (yet in its most
+infantile infancy) a direct indexing of the sort is impossible. But it
+is certainly conceivable, along the lines of measurement suggested
+by the Binet tests and others, that a scale of evaluation of the
+secondary sex traits may be elaborated, which would turn out as
+valuable in understanding the frictions of the individual, and more
+concretely, that aspect of it to which pathologists of the mind are
+tracing so much needless misery and suffering: maladjusted sexuality,
+expressed and suppressed. Nothing will contribute more to harmonious
+adjustment for these sufferers than recognition of the fact that we
+are all, more or less, partial hermaphrodites.
+
+THE FUNCTIONAL HERMAPHRODITE
+
+The complete or total hermaphrodite we define as the individual who
+possesses the reproductive organs of the male and the female, both
+testes and ovaries. So rare is such a combination in man that for a
+long time its occurrence was doubted, descriptions of it regarded as
+myth. However, undoubted cases are on record, examined by the most
+careful of observers, of ovo-testis or mixed reproductive organs.
+Strangely enough, the history of these cases, shows that at one time
+the masculine set, and at another the feminine set, will hold sway
+over the sex traits and functions. Blending does not happen.
+
+Rare though the true hermaphrodite may be, the partial hermaphrodite
+is relatively frequent. The mixed ensemble of the directly contrasting
+type, such as the concomitance of testes with feminine secondary sex
+traits, or of ovaries with masculine sex traits, have been described
+from time immemorial as freaks. Occurring even more frequently is the
+mixed sex ensemble, in which the type of reproductive organs and of
+secondary sex traits run roughly parallel, emulsified with certain
+traits of the opposite sex. Physical features of one sex, instincts
+and mental attitudes of the other co-exist in the same individual by
+reason of an excess in one direction or a deficiency in another of the
+internal secretions. The degree of masculine trend in a woman is a
+crude measure of adrenal domination, the degree of feminine deviation
+in a man is roughly proportional to the amount of pituitary influences
+in his make-up.
+
+Whether one or the other sex tendency will dominate depends upon the
+quantity of sex hormone divergence from the ideal normal. But also
+determinant are the environment stimuli provoking excessive or
+deficient secretory reactions from the other endocrines involved,
+through the vegetative nervous system. Such especially are the
+associates of the mixed sex individual. Ordinarily the combative male
+and the submissive female are differentiated by contrasts of skin
+and hair, fat and bone structure. The combative male is built as a
+fighting machine, the submissive female as an organism of attractive
+grace and beauty for impregnation and parturition. When one sees the
+fragile woman aggressive, the masculinoid woman submissive, one
+may infer an education of experience that has brought the usually
+recessive glands into the foreground, and by their hyperactivity
+imposed a bisexuality of function upon a unisexual anatomic structure.
+A man apparently as formidable as a tyrannosaurus, may be ruled by
+his wife for the same reason. These combinations of a single organic
+sexuality with a functional bisexuality, based upon internal secretion
+disturbances, are frequent, and merit the name of functional
+hermaphrodites or mixed sex types.
+
+MIXED SEX AND THE FAMILY
+
+The psychology of the family in its relation to the endocrine traits
+of its members is something that still remains to be thoroughly worked
+out as a problem of tremendous importance. Particularly are the
+reactions of the mixed sex types to be carefully considered. For,
+since the family is fundamentally a sex institution, devised to
+satisfy the sex needs, all the way from companionship to parenthood,
+it is apparent that the mixed sex types will be tried the hardest by
+its inexorable conditions. It is in relation to the mother (or nurse)
+first, the father next, and other associates in proportion to their
+proximity, that the primary endocrine-vegetative mechanisms, the germs
+of the growing soul, become established. These are superimposed upon
+the hereditary instinct apparatus.
+
+Fear, rage and love reactions develop first in association with the
+suckling reflex, and the accompaniments, the mother's smile and voice,
+the color of her hair, eyes and skin, her breasts and odors. Each time
+the babe reacts to a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus, there is an
+outpouring of certain internal secretions, a cessation of others, a
+tingling of certain vegetative nerves and organs, a hushing of others.
+The ensemble of reactions tends to be repeated around the same
+stimulus, until the whole becomes automatic. One may observe the same
+process in the lower animals. Offer a piece of meat to a dog and his
+mouth waters. Ring a bell before offering the meat. Repeat this a
+number of times, and after a while the mere ringing of the bell,
+without the presence of the meat, will cause his mouth to water. This
+associated vegetative secretion reflex is the most fundamental to
+grasp in an understanding of the deepest strata of personality.
+
+Now there are, besides the associated vegetative-endocrine reactions,
+certain inborn automatic processes in the vegetative system and in
+the internal secretion system, which work automatically to produce
+increased intravisceral pressures. The reduction of these pressures
+below the point of their intrusion upon consciousness, their relief,
+as we say, also form the centers of constellations around feelings
+of satisfaction or love. Such, for example, are the voiding of
+excretions. Sooner or later, these automatic reactions, and the
+associated reflexes formed around the mother, father and other
+associates, come into conflict. Inhibitions or prohibitions of the
+automatic act at certain times or moments are imposed by somebody.
+And so there occurs a pitting of the automatic mechanism against the
+associated reflex. Conflict with adjustment by suppression must occur.
+Thus a sense of self as active wisher (for the automatically pleasant
+experience), and punishable suppressor (of the same in favor of the
+acquired associated reflex) develops.
+
+So far, so good. Compromise by regulation from above, from the
+brain, of the automatic reactions follows, as training. No absolute
+repression is forced, no absolute encouragement is indorsed.
+Harmonious equilibrium, or normality, continues. But now there come
+upon the scene the unconscious fears.
+
+In the paleontology of character, these fears are the deepest strata,
+the eocene era, so to speak, of the soul. They are the hardest to get
+at and the most silent, as well as the most dominant of the influences
+which guide conduct. In Sir Walter Raleigh's words:
+
+  "Passions are best likened to streams and floods.
+  The shallows murmur, the deeps are dumb."
+
+During the first period of childhood, up to five or six, the primary
+fears group themselves around the taboos and secrets of its life.
+
+Though we have every reason for believing that the sex glands are
+acting in some way upon the organism during this time, nothing
+definite is known. Yet, as the numerous studies of the subconscious
+recently made prove, sex curiosity like the other curiosities,
+flowers. More than about the automatic visceral reactions, these
+curiosities evoke the repressive imperatives of the associates, the
+mother and father especially. These repressive influences may be
+and often are the effects of ignorance, prudishness, vulgarity, or
+homosexuality, or the sex perversions that are known as sadism and
+masochism. But by the necessities of the case, the sex wishes become
+overlayed by reflexes associated with the mother and father and close
+associates as love. This might be termed the oligocene. As the circle
+of acquaintance widens, other loved objects usher in the miocene
+phases of the development. With these become interspersed various
+hates and detestations, deliberately cultivated and accepted by the
+consciousness. So we have a cross-slice of the personality in the
+first five or six years of childhood.
+
+But now, with the onset of the second dentition, a subtle change
+begins in the endocrine equations of the body. The second dentition
+itself is an expression of a certain internal secretion wave passing
+through the cells, an increase of action of some hormones, a decrease
+of others. And a consciousness of physical sexuality appears, while
+the outlines of character, hitherto mere tracings, become firmer,
+heavier, quasi-indelible lines. That there is some activity on the
+part of the internal secretions of the sex glands, the ovaries and
+testes, can be demonstrated by accurately charting the behaviour of a
+boy or girl after this time. It will be found that there is a cyclic
+variation of health and conduct, more or less marked of course in each
+case. A cold may appear periodically at the end of each month, an
+increase of irritability and waywardness may be observed, or, on the
+contrary, a decrease of the regular restless playfulness. The ghost of
+sex begins to haunt the scene.
+
+Now all kinds of possibilities of conflict emerge. The child is still
+a bisexual, growing into a mixed sex type, depending upon the nature
+and amount of its internal secretions. The influencing adult of the
+family, the most important of the external factors encouraging or
+depressing the tendencies of the child, possesses a fairly fixed ideal
+of monosexuality which he or she, generally quite unconsciously, seeks
+to impose upon it. A doting feminine mother will make her son as much
+as possible like her husband: if she dislikes her husband, as much as
+possible like her father or grandfather. A masculinized mother will
+tend to make a sex object out of the son, however, which means his
+feminization. But, on the internal secretion side, the boy may be
+definitely masculine. That is, after adolescence he would be strongly
+masculine, _if the vegetative-endocrine mechanisms created by the
+mother's personality had not slipped into the inside track_, so to
+speak. As a consequence, continual subconscious conflict between the
+two sets of sex reaction will, sooner or later, disturb, perhaps
+disrupt and ruin his life.
+
+So an infant may start life with a fairly balanced endocrine
+equipment, with its wake of a normal life (barring accidents and
+infections), and yet he may end as an inferior, insane, criminal, or
+failure directly because of establishment of conflict between himself
+as one sort of sex type, and his obligatory associates of another
+sort of mixed sex type. This applies also to the mother-daughter, the
+father-son, and the father-daughter relationship.
+
+Male and female created He them, is a bald misstatement of the facts.
+Male and female emerge as final by-products of endocrine heredity,
+environmental treatment and adaptation. Often the male-female,
+the female-male, persist anatomically, or are forced to persist
+functionally. Society, constructed upon the Biblical dogmas of man as
+a fallen angel, and absolute sex, is responsible for much misery and
+suffering meted out to the functional hermaphrodite, as we shall see
+later in an analysis of the endocrine character of Oscar Wilde. The
+privileges and powers of sex relationship, marriage and parenthood,
+should be safeguarded for the mixed sex type, the man or woman with
+the variable sex index. For there are no tragedies in life more
+pitiful than those in which an aggressive masculinely built type is
+forced to assume a submissive, receptive, passive, feminine role and
+vice versa, the tragedy of compelled homosexuality, because of wrong
+associates.
+
+MASOCHISM AND SADISM
+
+The functional hermaphrodite enables us, too, to understand the
+phenomena of masochism and sadism, to a certain extent, on the
+chemical side. The masculine personality, the combination of
+masculine, e.g., adrenal cortex and gonad internal secretion
+predominance, is built for aggression. The feminine personality,
+the union of feminine, e.g. thyroid and ovarian superiority, is
+constructed for submission. Reverse the possibilities, or confuse
+them, as occurs in the functional hermaphrodite, and the attitudes
+become reversed or perverted. So a masculinoid personality in woman
+will make for sadism, a feminoid personality in a man for masochism.
+Variants and refinements of these perversions will often be found
+in the functional hermaphrodite who must satisfy two doubly flowing
+streams of visceral pressure within himself. Persistence of the thymus
+or pineal gland tends to a prolongation of the infantile and child
+types, that will be taken advantage of.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE RHYTHMS OF SEX
+
+
+If one permits a drop of ink to fall into a glass of water, amazing
+figures and shapes, bizarre and chameleon, are born as the blue swirls
+and whirls through the resisting medium. Unseen forces and currents,
+tides and pressures, set up a seething and flowing, pulling and
+twisting of the drop of ink until it becomes a strange wraith created
+out of the molecules. A temporary individuality lives in the water.
+
+So likewise the forces of sex, essentially the forces of the internal
+secretions, mould and sculpt and mould again the woman out of
+the flesh and blood. Adolescence--puberty--menstruation: the
+maid,--pregnancy--labor--lactation: the matron, thirty years of ups
+and downs of these processes around the idea of love or suppressed
+love, against an aesthetic background of some sort--and finally the
+loss of the stress and strain of sex, the menopause. All the landmarks
+of the life of woman, in their entirety, are erected and dominated by
+the tides and currents, the phases of concentration and dilution, of
+the different internal secretions in the endocrine mixture which is
+the blood.
+
+Marvelous are all the manifestations of the reproductive necessity.
+Considering that reproduction was at first merely a form of growth, a
+discontinuous kind of growth, that seized upon sex as a splendid means
+to escape death, the chemical methods evolved arouse a sense of awe.
+A baby is born with her or his glands practically as fixed for her or
+him as the color of the eyes. Thymus and pineal keep him a child, keep
+him unsexed. Then at puberty, a new current is added to the calmly
+flowing river, and behold! a turmoil. Ovaries or testes actively
+functioning erupt upon the calm spectacle, and the girl is
+transfigured into the maid, the boy into the youth. After the ovaries,
+the corpus luteum: after the corpus luteum, the placenta: after the
+placenta, the mammary glands: after that the cycle begins again until
+the ovaries are exhausted and the chain is broken. Besides, all the
+other glands of internal secretion beat in rhythm, fluctuate in their
+activities, may divide prematurely the tides or dam them completely.
+
+Innumerable varieties and combinations of interglandular action supply
+us with the limitless types of adolescent girls. Some endocrine
+cooperatives that make one girl stable and settled, will make others
+unstable and unsettled. Alicia may be hyperthyroid, and so excitable,
+nervous, restless, and subject to palpitation of heart and
+sleeplessness. Bettina may have too much post-pituitary, and so will
+menstruate early, tend to be short, blush easily, be sentimentally
+suggestive and sexually accessible. Christina may be adrenal cortex
+centred and so masculinoid: courageous, sporty, mannish in her tastes,
+aggressive toward her companions. Dorothea may have a balanced thyroid
+and pituitary and so lead the class as good-looking, studious, bright,
+serene and mature. Florence, who has rather more thyroid than her
+pituitary can balance, will be bright but flighty, gay but moody,
+energetic, but not as persevering. And so on and so on.
+
+Environment, habit-formation, training, education serve only to bring
+out the internal secretion make-up of the girl, or to suppress
+and distort and so spoil her. Adolescence will be peaceful, calm,
+semi-conscious, or disturbing, revolutionary and obsessive according
+to the reaction of the other endocrines to the rise of the ovaries.
+Harmony, and so continued happiness of the mind and body, means
+that they have been welcomed into the fold. Disharmony, ailments,
+unhappiness, difficulties, mean that they are being treated as
+intruders, or are acting as marauders. The after life, sexually the
+period of maturity, barring accidents, diseases, and shocks, will bear
+the same character. The kind of adolescence provides the clue to the
+kind of maturity, for both are effects of the same endocrine factors.
+
+THE SEX GLAND CHAIN
+
+Furthermore, the activities of a normal woman involve a series of sex
+glands. Since there function, in addition to the ovaries, the glands
+of the uterus, the breasts or mammary glands, and the placental
+gland (the secreting cells of the tissue which comes out as the
+after-birth). Each of these contributes directly to the reproductive
+life of the individual. To call the ova the sex glands is to confer
+upon them a name which really belongs to a chain of glands.
+
+All of the members of the sex chain, including those of the thyroid,
+the adrenal and the pituitary, are necessary to the functions of
+menstruation, impregnation, settlement of fertilized ovum in the wall
+of the uterus, labor and lactation. A disturbance of one of them will
+set up disturbances all along the line, and a resonance of distress
+or compensation upon the part of all of them. As an interlocking
+directorate over the sexual functions of the female, they are members
+one of the other. So what helps or hurts one, helps or hurts all.
+
+THE CYCLE OF MENSTRUATION
+
+Essentially, the ovary is a collection of follicles, nests of
+cells, acting as safe deposit vaults for the ova that are to become
+candidates for fertilization. At birth, there are some 30,000 to
+200,000 of these, of which a good many atrophy during childhood so
+that there are no more than about 30,000 left at puberty. Of the
+30,000, only an elite 400 actually mature between the ages of fifteen
+and forty-five. About every twenty-eight days, one of the follicles
+swells, becomes filled with liquid, pushes or is pushed to the surface
+of the ovary, there to rupture and expel into the abdominal cavity the
+tiny ripe ovum. The rest of the torn follicle makes itself over into
+a peculiar yellowish body, the true corpus luteum, should pregnancy
+occur. If pregnancy and the consequent placenta do not occur, it
+shrinks and turns into a scar, the false corpus luteum. The true
+corpus luteum resembles closely the adrenal cortex in make-up and
+staining reactions. It seems as if, once successful impregnation has
+been achieved, the feminine organism adrenalizes itself, makes itself
+more masculine and less feminine, inhibiting the posterior pituitary
+and the adrenal medulla, as well as the ovaries. Besides, the corpus
+luteum stimulates the thyroid to prepare for the heavy demands to be
+made upon it during pregnancy.
+
+Before menstruation, there is a stage of preparation, a stir and
+twittering of the endocrines, the premenstrual state. Currents of
+communication flow between the different glands, messages and replies
+pass to and fro. When these are properly balanced, so that all goes
+well, the consciousness of the woman will be disturbed by no knowledge
+of them. In some women abnormal sensations appear, a sense of fullness
+in the breasts, or of weight in the back or pelvis, or pain in the
+head. The last is probably due to swelling of the pituitary beyond
+the capacity of its bony container. In a good many women, nervous
+and mental phenomena herald the expected menstruation because of a
+complete upset of the balance between the internal secretions, with
+resulting disturbance of the nervous system. Irritability, depression,
+excitability, melancholia, exaltations, restlessness, hysteria, loss
+of self-control, or even more marked mental aberrations may appear.
+Following them, and roughly paralleling them, may come various
+abnormalities of menstruation itself. The character, extent and
+duration of these furnish us the best clues to the endocrine stability
+or instability of the particular feminine organism.
+
+Menstruation is simply the uterus saying: well, not this time. As the
+destined ovum within its nest, the follicle, grows, its fluid affects
+the interstitial cells to send their specific stuff into the blood.
+There it circulates, hits this gland and that, makes some more active,
+others less, transforms the chemistry of the cells, and engorges the
+mucous membranes, most of all those of the nose and of the uterus. It
+is all to welcome the mature ovum and its possible impregnation, to
+prepare a site for its landing and settlement, blood and food for its
+nutrition, safety for its development. But it is not to be. No sperm
+at hand, or effective enough to penetrate that wandering ovum. Love's
+labour's lost. All must return to the so-called normal, really the
+intermenstrual state. The womb must surrender some of that blood,
+the glands return to their routine, and a sex diastole of the whole
+organism succeeds. Until again, another follicle swells, another ovum
+matures, and the premenstrual state of sex high tide cycles back.
+
+Seven to ten days before menstruation we know that sex high tide is
+beginning for that is when the blood pressure goes up. As this rise of
+blood pressure is probably controlled by the posterior pituitary, we
+have a clue to the reason for the rhythmic variations in the rate of
+production of its secretion by the ovary. For, since menstruation is
+so closely connected with the phases of the moon and the tides, the
+rhythmicity of the posterior pituitary may be traced to the days when
+the pineal was an eye at the top of the head, and in direct relation
+with the pituitary.
+
+Menstruation has been said to be a miniature labor. It is not that
+as much as it is a miniature abortion. It is an effort of nature
+still-born. But nature is quite used to its disappointments and
+returns placidly to the daily grind. The four phases of a woman's
+twenty-eight day cycle succeed each other as the premenstrual,
+the menstrual, the postmenstrual and the intermenstrual, with the
+precision of pistons moving in a motor, when no interfering factor
+as disease, profound emotion or climate disturbances are present,
+affecting the endocrines.
+
+The sequence of events appears to be about as follows: The amount of
+post-pituitary secretion reaches a certain concentration. This in turn
+stimulates the thyroid and adrenal medulla. They in turn activate the
+ovarian cells, which congest the uterine glands and lining membrane.
+The follicle bursts, the ovum is discharged and wanders, the uterus
+waits and wonders. Nothing happens, the curtain is lowered, the
+scenery is removed, the actors revert to civilian clothes. That is the
+story of menstruation, the central phenomenon of woman's pre-pregnancy
+life. One sees it clearly as a play of an internal secretion
+syndicate.
+
+THE PREMENSTRUAL MOLIMINA
+
+The premenstrual molimina is the traditional title accorded symptoms,
+sensations, feelings, observations of women in the premenstrual phase.
+In the light of endocrine analysis, they become exceedingly important
+indicators of the underlying constitution of the individual concerned.
+Indeed, the premenstrual period furnishes a direct clue to the
+dominating internal secretion in a woman. Moreover, these premenstrual
+phenomena are the shadows cast by coming events. For they mimic and
+prophesy the events of the last crisis of feminine sex life,
+the cessation of ovulation which goes by the name of menopause,
+gonadopause, or change of sex life. The premenstrual phenomena provide
+a positive film, so to speak, of the latent negative picture of the
+endocrine system of the girl or woman.
+
+Thus, there is the sub-pituitary or pituitary insufficient type, in
+whom the excessive swelling of the gland causes headache, and a dull,
+heavy, tired feeling, a definite depression. Drowsiness, sleepishness,
+indifference to surroundings, general sluggishness of thought, feeling
+and reaction, a phlegmatic frilosity, all go with it. It is due to
+an overweighing of the pituitary, controller of good brain tone, and
+alive wakefulness, by the demands of the organism.
+
+On the other hand, the hyperthyroid type of woman reacts with an
+exaggeration of her tendency. When the posterior pituitary begins to
+secrete more in her its stimulation of the thyroid is enough to tip it
+over the normal line. Such a woman in the premenstrual phase becomes
+irritable and restless, does not know what to do with herself, cannot
+concentrate on conversation, occupation or any single activity, may
+become excited to the point of mania. Hot, tremulous, sleepless, or
+sleeping badly, she has a much harder time of it than her pituitary
+sister.
+
+These samples of premenstrual internal secretion reaction are the
+extremes of a vast number and variety of types. There are women in an
+unstable quasi-premenstrual state for the greater part of their lives.
+Sometimes an infectious disease or a psychic blow will put a woman
+into this class. The significance of these cyclic changes has been
+tremendously increased by the recent formal admission of women to
+participation in public activities on a plane of equality with men.
+
+Evidence exists that in man, too, there is some cyclic rhythmicity of
+his endocrines, which sets up a fluctuation in his physical and mental
+efficiency. The curves of these variations have still to be plotted,
+and will doubtless contribute no little to our knowledge of the
+control of human nature. One unexpurgated fact stands out: the
+reproductive mechanism of woman has rendered her whole internal
+secretion system, and so her nervous system, all her organs, her mind,
+definitely and sharply more tidal in their currents, more zigzag in
+their phases, more angular in their ups and downs of function, and so
+less predictable, reliable and dependable.
+
+THE MASCULINOID WOMAN
+
+The masculinoid woman, as a functional hermaphrodite, exists first
+as a congenital entity, with an inborn distribution of endocrine
+predominances that make for masculinity. There are also numerous
+acquired forms. The infections of childhood, measles, scarlet fever,
+diphtheria, and above all mumps, may so damage the hormone system
+that an inversion of sex type follows. However, the stimulative and
+depressive effects of environment are even more significant. The
+effects of environment in producing changes in an organism, the
+changes the biologist sums up as adaptation, can be tracked in many
+instances to responsive reactions of the glands of internal secretion
+to demands made upon them by changed external conditions. So a cold
+climate, which necessitates a more voluminous hair covering for an
+animal, will evoke a hypertrophy of the adrenal cortex. Secondarily
+other effects appear as by-products of the adaptation. The adrenal
+cortex makes for pugnacity, temper, animal courage, irritability and
+anger reactions. So a hairy animal will, in general (unless other
+endocrines come in to defeat the primary effect), be more pugnacious,
+courageous, irritable and combative. The same applies to woman. An
+environment which tends to encourage the masculine traits in her, to
+arouse repeatedly her pugnacity and combative decisions in the more
+rapid give and take of the masculine world, will rouse the adrenal
+cortex to greater activity, and so make her face hirsute, her
+attitudes aggressive, and perhaps render her sterile. Concomitantly
+there may be a disturbance of menstruation.
+
+The presence or absence of sterility, natural or enforced, always
+present, or say appearing after the birth of one child, must all be
+donated a prominent place in studying the endocrine make-up of a
+woman. When there is not enough ovarian secretion, the ovum may not be
+able to burst through the ovary, a necessity before it may begin its
+travels to the uterus. Next, the propulsive action of the genital
+ducts may be insufficient because of defective corpus luteum. Or the
+uterus may not have received enough posterior pituitary or thyroid to
+make it fit soil for the ovum to plant itself in. Or there may be
+too much of these, which cause the uterus to massage itself daily by
+gentle contractions and so keep it well-toned. Excessive massage will
+throw the ovum out. All these are factors in the sterility problem,
+with its psychic resonances affecting the maternal instinct.
+
+THE MATERNAL INSTINCT
+
+There have been created high odes to an unknown god, sensuous lyrics
+of love, apostrophes and addresses to every human passion. But no
+poet, to my knowledge, has risen to the heights of the maternal
+instinct. Some contemporary clap-trap about sentimentalism will
+perhaps decry and ridicule the demand for an apotheosis of it. There
+are some who deny its existence, and assert that maternity is forced
+upon every woman. Reduced to its elements, such nonsense turns out the
+absurd pose of the theorist desperate to epater le bourgeois or to
+cover up hidden defects in his or her make-up.
+
+Without the maternal instinct, without the hope of immortality through
+somatic or spiritual posterity, we should all, who were sane enough,
+have to condemn ourselves to the futilities of hedonism. So that the
+criminal who was condemned to roll a huge boulder up a hill, only to
+see it roll down again, would have to thank his lucky stars for his
+lighter punishment. The future, tomorrow, the Kingdom of Heaven on
+Earth, or if you will, the Republic of Supermen, means to all of us
+what the child means to the madonna. The cynical epicurean careerists
+and careeristinas, and the depraved degenerates of a comfort-lusting
+civilization may have suffered an absolute atrophy and castration of
+that instinct. But they are pathologic specimens, and we are not for
+the moment concerned with them.
+
+The Freudians have set up a great hullaballoo about creative
+activities as sublimations of the sex instinct, or as they would have
+it, the libido. That is their obsession, the confusion of the sex
+instinct, the instinct for sex life and satisfaction in the relation
+of the male to the female, with the maternal instinct. The paternal
+instinct bears the same relation to the maternal, as the breasts of
+the male do to those of the female, i.e., a functional hermaphrodite
+trait. The maternal instinct is the instinct to create, provide and
+care for offspring.
+
+The mother expresses the deep craving of protoplasm for immortality.
+What drives her is the instinct of Life to preserve itself unto
+eternity in infinite space and time. That separates it sharply from
+the temporary needs of the sex instinct. The artist, the man of
+science or letters, the statesman, craftsman and maker of every
+sort is instigated by the maternal instinct. He creates for his own
+pleasure, to be sure. But it is in its essence the pleasure of the
+bird making its nest.
+
+It is necessary, therefore, to distinguish between the sex instinct
+and the maternal instinct. For different glands of internal secretion
+have been found responsible for them. A distinct difference in the
+quality and amount of the two instincts may be observed in the same
+person. A strong maternal instinct may be seen again and again to
+dominate a woman with but little or no sex urge or passion. Numerous
+physiologically frigid women have lived successful and happy married
+lives because of contented maternity. Other women, with normal or
+exaggerated sex instinct who welcome and stimulate the sex life, may
+have no wish for children, no functioning maternal instinct at all,
+and if sterile, will accept their fate with indifference or even
+exultation. These variations occur because of a difference in chemical
+source and determination of the two instincts. While the ovary,
+stimulated by the thyroid and the adrenal medulla, is the chief
+determinant of the sex instinct, to the posterior pituitary must be
+credited the chief hormone of the maternal instinct. The interactions
+of the two glands, the ovary and the posterior pituitary, modified
+by accessory influences, determine the relative intensity of the two
+instincts. In a sense, the two glands may be said to be antagonistic
+and yet one stimulates and complements the other.
+
+THE TRANSFIGURATIONS OF CHILD-BEARING
+
+Though what happens at puberty, what happens all through life through
+the agencies of the endocrines is amazing enough, what occurs during
+the period of child-bearing is perhaps the most amazing of all. As
+emphasized, pregnancy is the time, among the internal secretions, of a
+great uprooting and stirring, of fundamental and cataclysmic changes
+in the most intimate chemistry of the cells. It is as if a dictator,
+inspired by his country's danger, its enemies at the gates of its
+capitol, were to draft and mobilize everyone, man woman and child from
+everyday activities to the necessities of defense. Or rather it is
+as if there appeared within the heart of our civilization a common
+purpose and intelligence, now so palpably lacking, which magnetized
+and drew to itself all the streams of individual self-aggrandizing
+effort. Imagine that possibility and how it would change the face of
+the earth and the entire basic constitution of human life and society.
+So do the profound tides of the hormones, centering around the new
+creature being made in the womb, transfigure the face and constitution
+of the child-bearing woman.
+
+During pregnancy, in consequence, the integrity of every structure
+of the body is tested. A stern, relentless accountant goes over the
+cells, counts up their reserves, establishes a balance, credits and
+debits according to the demands of the growing parasite within them.
+Follow changes in the skin, the bones, the nervous system and the
+mind. That is, all the glands, subtle recorders, transmitters,
+producers of the vibrations of change are influenced. But the most
+influential are the most affected, as the most dominant personalities
+in a community are most disturbed by a revolution.
+
+In Sinclair Lewis' "Main Street," the best novel ever made about
+America as a nation of villagers, the heroine, Carol Kennicott, has
+this to say to someone sentimentalizing about maternity.
+
+"I do not look lovely, Mrs. Bogar. My complexion is rotten, and my
+hair is coming out, and I look like a potato bag, and I think my
+arches are falling,... and the whole business is a confounded nuisance
+of a biological process."
+
+The exploration of the internal secretions has brought us an
+explanation and an understanding of why child-bearing is a nuisance.
+We know now that if Carol Kennicott's complexion became rotten and
+her hair fell out, it was because her thyroid was not adequate to the
+demands of pregnancy, and that if her arches were falling, and her
+figure acquiring a potato bag dumpiness, it was because her pituitary
+was insufficient. In all probability she was a thymus-centered type,
+which accounts for much of the material that goes to make up the
+novel.
+
+Different endocrine types react characteristically toward the
+situations of pregnancy. The adrenal type may not be able to respond
+with the necessary enlargement of its cortex which is normal for the
+needs of gestation. So pigmentations, darkenings and discolorations of
+the skin, especially of the face, the traditional chloasma develops.
+The hyperthyroid type may become sharply exaggerated, almost to the
+point of mania and psychosis. The subthyroid will suffer an emphasis
+of her defect, and pass on, because of pregnancy, to the truly
+diseased state of myxedema, the state of dull, slow, stupid,
+semi-animal semi-idiocy. The pituitary type becomes more masculinized.
+The face becomes more triangular and coarser, the chin and cheek-bones
+more pronounced, and there is a growth of all the bones, so that she
+is seen to grow visibly in height and breadth, and in the size of the
+hands and feet. Concomitantly, there is a changed, a more matured and
+steadier outlook upon life, all due to stimulation of the anterior
+pituitary, controller of growth, physical and mental.
+
+In general, the major endocrines, the pituitary, the adrenals, and the
+thyroid should hypertrophy and hyperfunction during pregnancy.
+Should they not, should adverse mechanical circumstances or chemical
+malfunction prevent, dire effects may follow. A woman with the
+closed-in type of pituitary, shut up in a small non-expansile sella
+turcica, will suffer the most violent headaches, will become fat, will
+frequently abort. One whose thyroid cannot rise to the demands of
+gestation, because of previous disease (like typhoid or measles) which
+injured her thyroid excessively, may be poisoned by the new elements
+introduced into the blood by the growing fetus, as it is the job
+par excellence of the thyroid to render innocuous these poisons.
+Of adrenal insufficiency, failure of the adrenals to hypertrophy
+sufficiently in pregnancy, little is known. Possibly the corpus
+luteum, the endocrine formed of the torn egg nest in the ovary, makes
+up for any deficiency in this respect. For there is the most curious
+resemblance imaginable between the cells of the adrenal cortex and
+those of the corpus luteum, some day to be completely explained.
+
+THE PLACENTAL GLAND
+
+The placenta, an organ and gland of internal secretion newly formed in
+the uterus, when the fertilized ovum successfully imbeds itself within
+it, must be considered in any analysis of the transfigurations of
+child-bearing. Born with the pregnancy, its life is terminated with
+the pregnancy, for it is expelled in labor as the after-birth. Its
+importance and function as a gland of internal secretion has become
+known only recently. Many still doubt and question the accordance of
+that rank to it. But feeding experiments with it, in various endocrine
+disturbances in human beings, have proved its right to the title.
+
+The placenta is created by the fusion of the topmost enlarged cells
+of the uterine surface and the most advanced cells constituting
+the vanguard of the growing and multiplying ovum. These front line
+invaders interact with the cells in contact with them to make a new
+organ which serves as lung, stomach and kidney for the embryo, since
+it is the medium of exchange of oxygen, foodstuffs and waste products
+between the blood of the mother and the blood of the embryo.
+Ultimately it acts, too, as a gland of internal secretion, influencing
+the internal secretions of the mother, and also those of the embryo.
+
+Settlement of the fertilized ovum in the womb introduces into the
+system new secretions, new substances which are partly male in origin,
+since the ovum contains within it the substance of the male sperm
+which has penetrated it. This masculine element causes a rearrangement
+of the balance of power between the endocrines towards the side of
+masculinity. They push down the pan of the scale to inhibit the
+post-pituitary. So menstruation, the menstrual wave which follows the
+increasing tide of post-pituitary secretion, is postponed. For ten
+lunar months, not another ovum breaks through the covering of the
+ovary, and the uterus is left undisturbed. The placental secretion
+plays a most important role as brake upon the post-pituitary, the most
+active of the feminizing uterus-disturbing endocrines. Until at last
+something happens that puts the placenta out of commission in this
+function of restraint, and the long bottled up post-pituitary
+secretion explodes the crisis apparent as the process of labor.
+
+A condition of self-poisoning often occurs in pregnancy, with symptoms
+orchestrating from mild notes like nausea and vomiting to the high
+keys of convulsions and insanities. They represent what happens when
+an unbalanced endocrine system is attacked by the placenta. Depending
+upon where in the internal secretion chain the weak point, the
+Achilles' heel spot, will be found, the nature of the reaction will
+vary. And even after labor, after the explosive crisis, so much of the
+reserve endocrine materials may be consumed, that an actual mania or a
+chronic weakness may come in its wake.
+
+Yet the placental secretion must not be looked upon as something
+wholly evil in its potentialities. Without enough of it to hold the
+uterus stimulating endocrines, particularly the post-pituitary, in
+check, still-birth results. If there is enough, and not too much of
+it, the woman will not feel ill at all, or perhaps only transiently,
+but will be possessed of a curious feeling of drowsy content and
+passive, relaxed happiness. Let there be relatively too much of it,
+too little of the other glands, and the grosser transfigurations and
+ailments of the child-bearing period follow.
+
+THE MAMMARY GLANDS
+
+Once pregnancy is terminated by labor, the placenta is expelled from
+the body as the after-birth. The placenta removed, a new arrangement
+of the balance of power among the endocrines becomes necessary. But a
+new-comer appears upon the scene to take up the function left vacant
+by the absent placenta. This new-comer is the secretion of the
+activated breasts, the mammary glands. They make for a persistence
+of the state of equilibrium among the endocrines attained during
+pregnancy.
+
+The mammary glands are typical glands of external secretion. They make
+the milk and pour it out of the breasts through little canals into the
+mouth of the suckling. Yet evidence forces us to conclude that they
+are also glands of internal secretion, that their internal secretion
+substitutes to a certain extent for the loss of that of the placenta
+but not quite.
+
+What seems to happen in fact, is this: the corpus luteum secretion
+stimulates the dormant cells of the mammary glands, formed during
+puberty, but latent until the advent of pregnancy. We know that
+injection of corpus luteum will cause an hypertrophy of the breasts.
+The same effect is produced regularly during the menstrual period,
+with a consciousness of swelling of the breasts. Their atrophy at the
+menopause coincides with the shrinkage of the ovaries that takes place
+at that period. Activity of the breasts parallels indeed more or less
+the activity of the corpus luteum.
+
+With the prolonged activity of the corpus luteum during pregnancy,
+prolonged stimulation of the breasts occurs. The secretion of the
+post-pituitary would now cause the change from the internal cell
+secretion to milk. But it is inhibited from so doing by the placenta.
+When the placenta is removed, after labor, the post-pituitary can act,
+and a free flow of milk is established. However, to counterbalance
+this, and to prevent the post-pituitary from overacting, the breasts
+secrete a hormone with an action like that of placenta, but not so
+strong, which tends to inhibit the ovary. So is put off the imposition
+of a pregnancy upon a period of lactation, obviously bad for mother,
+infant, and embryo. We have here an exquisite sample of the checks and
+compensations which make for a self-balancing of the whole endocrine
+system.
+
+CRITICAL AGES
+
+The Dangerous Age is a phrase coined by a Scandinavian writer as a
+more dramatic euphemism for the time of life when sex function ceases,
+the climacteric. As a matter of fact, the age of adolescence is just
+as much of a dangerous age as the age of deliquescence. The only
+difference between them is that the dangers of the one have been
+hushed up, the dangers of the other well boomed and advertised.
+Both are dangerous to the individual, because both are periods of
+instability and readjustment of the cells, particularly the brain
+cells, to a deranged endocrine system and blood chemistry.
+
+Moral attitudes differ at the two ages, not so much as an effect of
+experience, as expressions of different visceral pressures produced
+by newly dominant internal secretions. So in Eugene O'Neil's play,
+"Diff'rent," we see the woman Emma Crosby as she is in her youth, when
+her ovaries have budded and bloomed for only a few years, and her
+other endocrine influences are still dormant. She breaks off her
+engagement to Captain Caleb Williams on the eve of her wedding because
+she is informed of the episodes of a sex affair he was involved in on
+his last voyage, under circumstances not discreditable to him. The
+next act shows her thirty years later when, as an elderly spinster,
+she is passing through the climacteric, and is in the state of sexual
+hyperesthesia some women are afflicted with before the menopause. It
+is as if the ovaries and the accessory sex internal secretions erupt
+into a sort of final geyser before they are exhausted. So the captain,
+ever faithful, finds her, and discovers to his horror that she is a
+thousand times more like other women than he has ever been like other
+men. Because of his ignorance of the underlying chemical basis for
+the transfiguration, tragedy follows. Critics may cackle about a sex
+starved woman, who has repressed her natural desires, and hail the
+play as a contribution to the Freudian clinics. As a matter of fact,
+it is a study of libido variation, with endocrine variation, at two
+stages of the inner chemical life of a woman.
+
+The chain of events at the menopause, the acme and then ebb of the sex
+tide, may be summed up something like this:
+
+The ovaries cease producing their eggs and so shrivel as a storage
+battery atrophies when it dries up. An important member of the
+endocrine board of directors thus drops out, and so a rearrangement
+of gland activities, a new regime, becomes necessary. If a balance
+of power is established quickly and equitably, very little happens.
+Quickly the woman passes on to the next plane of her existence. But
+if some endocrine proves recalcitrant, and takes advantage of the
+situation to make itself dominant, trouble and maladjustment, and
+their psychic echoes, come. Anterior pituitary control will mean
+a relative masculinization, with hair on the face and aggressive
+attitudes. Post-pituitary most often refuses to settle down, and
+expressing its ambition as headaches, flushes, obesity and hysteria,
+may cause extreme misery and unhappiness to its possessor. Sooner
+or later, if the harmonious equilibrium of the normal life is to be
+revived, all the glands must regress, thyroid, pituitary and adrenals.
+
+With the waning of the ovarian function, the thyroid type will also
+exhibit its particular flare. If there is thyroid excess the woman
+will be excitable and irritable, the thyroid deficient will be
+depressed and dull, the thyroid unstable (that is swinging between
+excess and deficiency) will have a cyclic up and down alternation of
+mood and temperament. The adrenal centered will have a high blood
+pressure and masculinoid traits, the adrenal inferior will have a low
+blood pressure and suffer from a constant weakness and fatigability.
+So each form of reaction to the critical ages is individualized
+according to the predominating glandular influence in the constitution
+of the woman. When the womb has atrophied, and the breasts have
+shrunk, the typical tan complexion, and the angular masculinoid
+figure, face and psyche follow, and the transfiguration has been
+completed.
+
+Man has his critical age of sex cell deterioration as well as woman.
+The age period swings between forty-five and fifty-five. Here enters
+upon the scene that organ of external and internal secretion, the
+prostate, the most important of the accessory sex glands in the male.
+Experiments with its extract upon growing tadpoles have demonstrated
+it to have the same differentiating effects as thyroid, but without
+the poisoning effects. Furthermore, the microscope reveals cyclic
+changes in its cells comparable to the menstrual phenomena of the
+uterus. Indeed it is accepted as the homologue or male representative
+of the uterus. Small and undeveloped during childhood, its growth at
+puberty parallels that of the other reproductive organs. Its secretion
+has been shown to be necessary to the vitality of the sperm cells.
+The regression of the prostate, its retirement from the field of
+sex competition, is the central episode of the male climacteric.
+Accompanying its shrinking are prominent an irritable weakness,
+despondency, and melancholia, which may emerge at any time if there is
+disease or disturbance of it. The influence of the prostate upon man's
+mental condition, and its contribution to the sex index, still remains
+to be investigated in detail.
+
+SEX CRISES
+
+At the periods of interstitial cell hyperactivity, when a wave
+of radicalism in the blood sweeps through the tissues, the other
+endocrines are tested, and their latent stability or instability is
+made manifest. Even before puberty, cyclic variations of health and
+conduct may be observed in boys and girls which undoubtedly depend
+upon currents among the internal secretions. Children, who, in the
+best of circumstances, habitually are attacked by a wanderlust and run
+away from home, or suffer from fits of naughtiness, are samples of
+such endocrine lability. Children specialists have found that at about
+the end of the second year their charges begin to individuate. In a
+certain percentage, sex traits appear pretty early. But the fact
+of the matter is that it is rather the minority of girls who
+spontaneously exhibit the traditional stigmata of the natural girl.
+The doll-cherishing, housekeeping imitator of mother is another story.
+
+At puberty arise the most exquisite cases of life crisis dependent
+upon hormonic crisis. The boy becomes restless, irritable and
+quick-tempered when his thyroid and adrenals respond to the call of
+the interstitial cells. If they do not, he will become dull, heavy,
+lazy and listless. The girl correspondingly is transformed into a
+vivacious, gay, nervous and apprehensive butterfly, or a sedate,
+dreamy, bashful, or even morose moth. It is interesting to note that
+poise, mental equilibrium, is not established until physical growth
+ceases, marked by a cessation of growth of the long bones known as
+ossification of the epiphyses. Poise seems to be controlled by the
+ante-pituitary. The growth of the long bones is also dominated by the
+ante-pituitary. It would seem as if, its secretion dedicated to the
+one function, could not be available for the other. So it happens that
+those in whom growth ceases early (probably because of an earlier
+and more vigorous invasion of the internal secretion system by the
+interstitial cell product), develop mental maturity more rapidly and
+possess more of it than those in whom growth continues. The acumen and
+salacity of certain dwarfs is proverbial. The puberty phenomena
+teach that sex crises of every sort are dependent fundamentally upon
+fluctuations, periodic or aperiodic, of the sex index, as we have
+defined it.
+
+THE DETERMINING FACTORS OF SEX LIFE
+
+The material summarized in the preceding paragraphs furnish some
+slight inkling of the vast dominion of Sex, in all its relations,
+somatic and spiritual, over which the glands of internal secretions
+rule. The founder of modern pathology, Virchow, said that woman is
+woman because of her ovaries. He meant that woman is a woman, the sort
+of woman she specifically is, because of her internal secretions. But
+no divine decree has laid down a line of cleavage between man and
+woman. There are fundamental constitutional differences between man
+and woman. But it is just as true that man is man because of _his_
+internal secretions.
+
+We have seen that the concepts of Man and Woman are the end-points of
+a curve including variations of every possible combination that are
+embraced in the construction of a sex index. This sex index is not an
+absolute constant, although its range of fluctuation is pretty well
+fixed at birth. It varies from day to day, year to year, depending
+upon the influences that have been brought to bear upon it. But it
+determines the character of the three planes of sex: the endocrine,
+the vegetative, and the psychic. The endocrine is concerned with the
+fundamental chemistry of sex, the internal secretions, which determine
+the chemical reactions that provide the free energy for the sex
+process. Upon the vegetative plane occur those transformations,
+tensions, and relaxations, in the viscera, which are controlled
+in part by the endocrines and in part by the experiences of the
+individual as registered in his subconscious. Upon the psychic,
+conscious planes appear the echoes and reflections of the occurrences
+upon the other two planes, as well as reactions arising in the brain
+from the necessity of the organism reacting as a whole to isolated
+episodes. Accompanying is a self-awareness of the organism as a unit.
+The three planes are not like separate plates of glass one raised
+above the other, the usual idea picture of planes. They are
+nebulae, swirling into each other, influencing and being influenced
+continually. The reactions among these three complexes of sex create
+the milieu for the variations and aberrations of tendency, character
+and conduct which stamp his unique quality upon the individual. Sex
+morale is likewise so influenced. The fundamentals of sex ethics will,
+in due time, be revised in accordance with these conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+HOW THE GLANDS INFLUENCE THE MIND
+
+
+It is impossible to review here in detail all the facts accumulated
+concerning the influence of the internal secretions upon all the
+processes of mind, intellectual and emotional. A volume would not
+suffice for their adequate consideration. Reflexes, instincts,
+habits, tendencies and emotions are involved in their machinery. The
+development and normal functioning of the intellect, the pure reason
+as Kant called it, are controlled by them. Brain, without them in
+solution, without enough of them in that wonderful solution, the
+blood, sleeps or remains dormant like the butterfly in the cocoon.
+The cretin, who has not enough thyroid or no thyroid, is an imbecile
+because of his deficiency. Supply him with thyroid from outside
+sources, feed him animal thyroid, be it of the sheep, the pig, or the
+goat, and behold a miracle! he is restored to the level of at least
+the relatively normal intelligence.
+
+Acuteness of perception, memory, logical thought, imagination,
+conception, emotional expression or inhibition and the entire content
+of consciousness are influenced by the internal secretions. The most
+ultramicroscopic activities of the molecules and atoms in the highest
+nerve cells and nerve tissues are dominated. The speed of their
+chemistry and their associations, and thus the speed of thought, are
+regulated. Iodine has been shown to increase the electric conductivity
+of the brain that is, the rate at which electrons will fly through it.
+The thyroid may then be regarded as manipulating the amount of iodine
+brought to play upon the brain cells at a particular moment of danger
+or exaltation. Adrenalin increases the electric conductivity of the
+brain. Nerve impulses, and with them sensations and ideas, travel
+faster or flow more quickly through iodinized or adrenalinized brain
+cells. In dangerous situations we think more rapidly and keenly, for
+in emergencies the blood floods the brain with extra thyroid and
+adrenal secretions.
+
+THE BODY-MIND COMPLEX
+
+Mind, still regarded by most of mankind as something distinct and
+apart from the body, is thus exhibited as but part and parcel of it. A
+deaf, dumb, and blind animal, deprived of tongue, and olfactory mucous
+membrane, without sensations from the outside world can grow no mind,
+in the sense of intelligence. The sense organs of the body mediate
+the primary mind stuff. Without internal secretions and a vegetative
+system there could be no soul, in the sense of complex emotion. Nor
+those combinations of thought and emotion which synthesize attitudes,
+sentiments and character. The internal secretions and the vegetative
+system mediate the primary soul stuff. Mind is thus emulsified with
+body as a matter of cold literal fact. The soul was once a subtlety
+of metaphysics. Now when mind appears soaked in matter saturated with
+chemicals like the hormones, therefore woven out of material threads,
+the independent entity created out of intangible spirit flies like a
+ghost at dawn.
+
+View the outlook. Mind, the slippery phantom, now becomes controllable
+for the purposes of everyday life, because we can put our fingers
+upon, touch, handle and change these material factors, the internal
+secretions and the vegetative system. Through them we may affect the
+very quality of the nerve tissue. The future of the race, the future
+of human nature, depends upon the knowledge to be born of the
+researches into the vast possibilities of this idea. Man, the
+Adventurer, the prey of Chance and Luck, will then become, indeed now
+becomes, the Captain of Fate and Destiny.
+
+It is, of itself, a revolution in the intellect, to conceive of
+instincts and emotions, suggestibility and contra-suggestibility,
+initiative and imitation, volitions and inhibitions as chemical
+matters. In all their relations, mutually reacting effects and
+defects, excesses and deficiencies, the internal secretions set up
+psychic echoes and reflections. When morbid and their equilibrium
+dislocated, we may even have phobias and neuroses.
+
+A man's nature is essentially his endocrine nature. Primarily, when he
+is born, he represents a particular inherited combination of different
+glands of internal secretion. They, constituting the inventory of his
+vital stock in trade, start him in life. Afterwards, food, the routine
+of his existence, the accidents of experience, education, disease and
+misfortune, in short, environment, modify him because they modify his
+ductless glands and his vegetative apparatus, as well as his brain,
+depressing some parts, and stimulating others, and so rearranging the
+system. In particular will he be transformed as the gland is affected
+which is the centre of the system to which the others adapt and
+accommodate themselves. The inertia of the system is very great,
+almost absolute, and always tends to return. If he has children, he
+hands on his constellation of endocrines, in spite of mishaps, not at
+all or only slightly transformed. Sometimes, however, the experiential
+transformation has been sufficiently deep, and shaken the very
+constitution of his germ-plasm. So family dispositions and traits,
+national and racial temperaments, are propagated, maintained and
+varied.
+
+THE SEX INSTINCTS
+
+Hormone reactions, as we have seen, initiate the complicated forces,
+processes and expressions of sex. The dictum of the founder of modern
+pathology, Virchow, that Woman was in effect an appendix to the
+ovaries, has long been taken to apply to her psychic traits as well
+as somatic. Her mind, like her skin, her hair and her pelvis, is a
+product of the ovarian endocrines. But these determinations are by no
+means her monopoly. Man is likewise a creation of the chemical wheels
+within wheels and springs within springs that are his glands of
+internal secretion. That he is not so obviously an appendix to his
+testes is due to two reasons. First, the male sex hormones have not
+the instability nor cyclic rhythmicity of the female. Secondly, and
+perhaps consequently, his sex instincts have become overlayered with
+other more labile instincts, with habits and customs and necessities
+that appear to oust the sex instinct into an altogether decentralized
+position. Moreover, it is the function of the female to be the excitor
+in the sex process: her subconscious, thoroughly aware of the fact,
+sees to it that the sex instinct stands starkly central and dominating
+in her life.
+
+The moods of love, like the more stereotyped manifestations of sex,
+are dependent upon a proper supply to the blood of the internal
+secretions of the reproductive organs, the gonadal endocrines. If the
+testes are removed from frogs, it is found that the clasp-reflex,
+symptom of sex desire, is abolished. If, after an interval of several
+days, the testes' extract is injected into the frog, the reflex
+reappears for a few days. The hormone provoking this sex reflex is
+present in the testes only during the breeding season. In birds,
+the seasonal nesting and migrating instincts may be eliminated by
+interfering with their ovaries. At the same tine there is a change in
+their plumage toward the male type. Similarly, the males, when their
+sex endocrines are cut off, will change their psychic nature as well
+as physically. Besides owning his flag-waving comb, his spurs and
+brighter feathers, the rooster struts to attract the female, and
+fights aggressively with his sex competitors. When he is made a capon,
+he loses his spurs and comb and distinctive plumage, and in addition
+becomes retiring and submissive, in short, a pseudo-hen in his
+instincts as well as in appearance. If the genital glands are
+extirpated from a male before puberty, the wattles remain small, pale
+and bloodless, no active, amorous or combative instinct emerges. The
+creature maintains a demure silence, and may even be sought by a
+virile male. So we may see homosexuality of a kind in the lowest
+animals. On the other hand, hens deprived of ovaries tend to
+metamorphose in the male direction, even to acquire the male spurs,
+and to display the male attitudes.
+
+All through the animal world, in the springtime, when the pituitary
+awakens or increases its secretion, and so stimulates the sex glands
+to augmented activity, emotions of sex and their expression are
+provoked by the inner stirring. When the nightingale warbles
+passionately and the mocking bird gurgles provokingly, when the robin
+fills its scarlet breast and the starling floats in ecstasy through
+the perfumed air, when the pigeon coyly woos its mate, and the
+butterfly flirts with the dazzling multicolors of its wings, when
+all the marvelous devices of sex attraction in nature, selection and
+courting, mating and reproducing are pondered, who but must wonder at
+the infinite possibilities of reaction of the sex hormones? All is for
+love, and all is because of the love in the blood that is manufactured
+unconsciously by a few hidden cells.
+
+EXPRESSIONISM AND EXHIBITIONISM
+
+We need a detailed examination of the various forms of expression
+art has differentiated into, in its relation to exhibitionism and as
+effects of the circulating libido-producing substance of the gonads.
+Sex exhibition differs in man and woman because of the differently
+combined internal secretions that are their substrates. The male's
+attitude, aggressive pursuit, is instigated by the compound adrenal
+and gonad endocrines. The female's various emulsions of coyness and
+display are motivated by posterior pituitary and gonad hormones in
+alliance.
+
+It is a dogma to state that the internal secretions of sex do not
+begin to function until after puberty. Some children manifest
+exhibitionism with a certain independence of environment.
+Before adolescence a good many girls act like tom-boys, and are
+distinguishable externally from boys only by their clothes. But others
+display signs of sex differentiation that are to be traced back to
+an awakening interstitial gonad action. Some boys have no interest
+whatever in sex. Others will show an intense curiosity spontaneously,
+a curiosity which perhaps may be explained as a larval precocity,
+dependent upon the minimum of sex hormone production by the gonads.
+Close observation of the correlation of somatic and psychic
+development in extreme examples of these children corroborates this
+view. Jonathan Hutchinson has described full-busted children of
+London already boasting of their affairs. Indeed, as education and
+environment affect the body (in so far as they influence it as a
+whole) by exciting or inhibiting the glands of internal secretion,
+sex-arousing stimuli from without must be considered to evoke their
+effects as stimulants of the latent puberty glands.
+
+At puberty, when the sex glands bloom, and the complex of the sex
+instincts is activated, exhibitionism manifests itself in a host of
+guises and disguises. Femininity in a woman, the womanly woman, or the
+eternal feminine, may indeed be defined by the degree of somatic and
+psychic exhibitionism she presents. A woman who has a delicate skin,
+lovely complexion, well-formed breasts and menstruates freely will be
+found to have the typical feminine outlook on life, aspirations
+and reactions to stimuli, which, in spite of the protests of our
+feminists, do constitute the biologic feminine mind. Large, vascular,
+balanced ovaries are the well-springs of her life and personality.
+On the other hand, the woman who menstruates poorly or not at all
+is coarse-featured, flat-breasted, heavily built, angular in her
+outlines, will also be often aggressive, dominating, even enterprising
+and pioneering, in short, masculinoid. She is what she is because she
+possesses small, shrivelled, poorly functioning ovaries. Between these
+two types all sorts of transitions exist, according as the other
+endocrines participate in the constitutional make-up. But no better
+examples could be given, off-hand, of the determining stamp of the
+internal secretions upon mind, character and conduct.
+
+INSTINCT AND BEHAVIOUR
+
+The sex instinct, analyzed as an endocrine mechanism, provides the
+clue to the understanding of all instinct and behaviour. If the
+post-pituitary regulates the maternal instinct, then its correlates:
+sympathy, social impulses, and religious feeling, must be also
+influenced, and so is furnished another example of a chemical control
+of instinctive behaviour. McDougall, once of Oxford, now of Harvard,
+introduced into psychology the idea of the simple instinct as a unit
+of behaviour, regarding the most complex conduct as a compounding of
+instincts. The instinct itself he analyzed into three elements: a
+specific stimulus-sensation, an emotion following, all ending in a
+particular course of muscular reaction. Translated into endocrine
+terms, what happens may be pictured as a series of chemical events.
+
+When the activity of a ductless gland rises above a certain minimum,
+its hormones in the blood sensitize, as a photographic plate is
+sensitized, a group of brain cells, to respond to a message from
+the outside world, with a definite line of conduct. There is a
+registration by the brain cells of the presence of the specific
+stimulus. Then there is communication by them with the endocrine
+organs. As a result, some of them are moved to further secretion,
+and others are paralyzed or weakened. In consequence of changes
+of concentration in the blood of the various internal secretions,
+tensions, movements and tumescences, as well as relaxations,
+inhibitions and detumescences, occur throughout the vegetative
+system--the blood vessels, the viscera, the nerves and the muscles.
+Each wires to the brain news of the change in it. In addition, the
+brain cells themselves are excited or depressed by the new hormones
+bathing them. In their final fusion, the commingling vegetative
+sensations constitute the emotion evolved in the functioning of the
+instinct.
+
+To lower the new tensions throughout the vegetative system to
+the normal range, the instinctive action is carried out. This
+superficially is regarded as the essence of the instinct. As a matter
+of fact, it is only the endpoint of a process, the resultant of a
+drive to restore equilibrium within the organism. It may all happen in
+less time than it takes to tell about it.
+
+The play of an instinct may therefore be analyzed into four processes.
+They succeed one another as sensation--endocrine stimulation--tension
+within the vegetative system--conduct to relieve tension. The dash is
+the symbol of a cause and effect relationship.
+
+This equation for an instinct, based upon an analysis of the working
+of the sex instinct, is the model for the analysis of all instincts,
+and therefore of all the compounded instincts that all human behaviour
+may be resolved into. Conduct, that fascinator of the common gossip
+and the great novelist alike, normal and abnormal, social and asocial,
+in all their complexities, even unto the third and fourth generation,
+the Freudian complexes, is governed therefore by the same laws that
+determine the movements of the stars and the eruptions of volcanoes.
+The most interesting factor in the instinct equation is the endocrine,
+because that is the one that is most purely chemical.
+
+ENDOCRINE CHARGING OF WISHES
+
+It is _the_ distinction of modern psychology that it has established
+the wish (craving, need, desire, libido) as the moving force in any
+psychic process. The position of the wish in psychology as the force
+within and behind the instinct may be compared to that of energy in
+physics, when it was elevated to a central position in the explanation
+of physical processes in the nineteenth century. The concept of the
+_charged_ wish has illuminated all the hidden recesses and rendered
+audible all the subdued murmurings of the mind. The truly novel in the
+content of the idea is the recognition of the fact that the wish is
+charged. Now it could never be charged in a vacuum. That means that
+a wish could never be born in the brain alone. For the brain has no
+power to charge itself with energy--it can only store and transmit. If
+a wish is potential energy that must be transformed into kinetic, it
+must have a source. That source is the vegetative system. Without the
+vegetative system, the great complex of viscera in the abdomen and
+chest, blood and its vessels, endocrines, muscles and nerves, the
+brain would remain but an intricate cold storage plant of memories,
+associations of past experiences. It would need no change and initiate
+no effort. But when the wish enters upon the scene, it is as if a dead
+storage battery has been refreshed with new current. Enriched with
+billions of electrons there is a stir and a movement, dynamic mind.
+But the dynamo is the more ancient possession of the animal, the
+vegetative apparatus. In short, what must always be remembered is that
+a wish is never cerebral, but always sub-cerebral, visceral, in its
+origins.
+
+The sub-cerebral makes the cerebral. Activities in the nervous system
+below the brain and especially the vegetative system, force upon it
+its function of the active verb. It has to be, to do, and to suffer,
+and then to manipulate the environment to satiate the insatiable
+viscera, insatiable because the local chemistry is continually raising
+the tension of one or the other of them. A physics of human behaviour
+becomes possible with the aid of these concepts of endocrine
+regulation of intravisceral pressure, and intervisceral equilibrium,
+an intramuscular pressure and an intermuscular equilibrium, with the
+brain as the shifting fulcrum of the system.
+
+The sensation of hunger, as we have seen, serves as good an exemplar
+as any of this mechanism of the wish. Hunger is preceded and
+accompanied by contractions of the stomach of increasing intensity.
+Those contractions must be brought about by a substance acting upon
+the nerve endings in the wall of the stomach. As it closes down upon
+itself, waves pass up and down. With each wave, the pressure within it
+rises. The exact amount of the pressure may be accurately measured
+by means of a small balloon swallowed and then inflated. When the
+pressure rises above a certain figure, the sensation of hunger breaks
+into the consciousness of the individual. We infer that certain
+sensory impulses sent up to the brain attain a strength that finally
+forces itself into the conscious field of feeling. The sensation of
+hunger varies from individual to individual because of variation in
+the reaction throughout the vegetative system. Most often it is a
+sense of movement or even an itch in the upper abdomen. Let some cause
+produce a weakening or cessation of the movements of the stomach--as
+fear and anger--and the sensation of hunger disappears coincidently
+with the drop in the pressure within it. As the mathematicians
+would say, the wish is a function of the pressure, and so of the
+concentration of substance behind the pressure.
+
+We have in hunger the wish reduced to the lowest terms, the most
+primitive form of it. Yet we may resolve all wishes, even the most
+idealistic, into the same terms. As the vegetative system becomes
+habituated by repeated experience to react in the same way to the same
+stimulus, permutations and combinations of wishes become possible
+until at length the inscrutable complexities of the behaviour of
+civilized man are evolved. We have to thank Von Bechterew, the
+greatest of Russian physiologists, for these fundamental principles,
+so important for the understanding of the control of human life and
+conduct.
+
+The associated reflex, aboriginal ancestor of the involved train
+of associations that constitute the highest thought, conduct and
+character, is the unit of the system. Recall the classic example
+cited. If a piece of meat is shown to a dog, his mouth waters. If now
+you proceed to ring a bell before offering the meat, his mouth will
+water only when he sees or smells the meat. If, however, the ringing
+of the bell precedes the meat a sufficient number of reactions, a time
+comes when merely the sound of the bell will cause salivation, without
+the presence of the meat. So it is with the associated reactions of
+the internal secretions. A stimulus originally indifferent to the
+endocrines may, by association, the laws of which are many, come to
+act like a spark to the endocrine-instinct mechanism. Hence we can
+account for the subtle play of instinct throughout all thinking.
+
+Even objects resembling the specific excitant of an instinct only
+remotely, or in some one quality, may start its mechanism and a host
+of associations bound up with it. Thus the maternal instinct may
+be excited by the sight of a baby. But because a baby is small and
+delicate, anything small and fine, a tiny book, a toy, a miniature,
+may arouse it. The object is then said to be appealing. The doctrine
+of association of instinctive and so of endocrine reactions enables
+us to understand the feeling--tone that at any moment pervades
+consciousness as well as its content.
+
+Choices, the psychology of selection of food, color, friends, mates,
+amusements also become explicable rationally. For conflicts among
+the different components of the vegetative system are continuous and
+inevitable. If the pressure within a viscus has been heightened, and
+persists, that is, is not disturbed by some other associated factor or
+instinct, conduct results to lower the pressure to what it was before
+the instigator of the tension appeared. But if another instinct is
+sparked, or another associated factor comes into play, another focus
+of increased pressure within the vegetative system is created, with
+another stream of energy flowing to the brain and demanding an outlet.
+This clash of instincts, the struggle between different foci of the
+vegetative system competing for the possession of the brain, is a
+common everyday process in conduct. Which will win means which will
+will. And so we have an energetic basis for volition.
+
+Which will win appears to depend primarily upon the kind of endocrines
+that predominate in the make-up of the individual, secondarily with
+his education. For it is the endocrines that are really in conflict
+when there is a struggle between two instincts. And if one endocrine
+system conquers, it must be either because it is inherently stronger,
+its secretion potential, that is, the amount of secretion it can put
+forth as a maximum, is greater (so explaining the term dominant)--or
+because a past experience has conditioned it to respond, although the
+opposing endocrine system does not. Fear and anger, respectively bound
+up with the activities of the adrenal medulla and cortex, we shall
+see, provide as good exemplars as any of this process.
+
+The response of the ductless glands to situations varies with their
+congenital _capacity_, and acquired _susceptibility_. Capacity is
+a question of internal chemistry, modifiable by injury, disease,
+accident, shock, exhaustion. Susceptibility depends upon the play of
+the forces focusing upon them that may be summed up as associations.
+In the ability of one endocrine system to inhibit another we have the
+germ of the unconscious. Hence the modus operandi of the repressions
+and suppressions, compensations and dissociations, which may unite to
+integrate or refuse to integrate, and so disintegrate and deteriorate
+a personality.
+
+As the personality develops, the vegetative system becomes susceptible
+to the manifold associates of family, school, church and society, art,
+science and religion, and last but not least sex. All the different
+nuances of personality are expressions of a particular relationship,
+transitory or permanent, between the endocrines and the viscera
+and muscles. Conversely, behaviour shows what a person actually is
+chemically; that is, what endocrine and vegetative factors predominate
+in his make-up.
+
+FEAR, ANGER, AND COURAGE
+
+Fear and anger are the oldest and so the most deep-rooted of the
+instincts. An ameba, contracting at the touch of some unpleasant
+object, feels fear in its most primitive form. And anger, the
+destructive passion, must have appeared early upon the scene of life.
+Certainly these two instincts were definitely developed and fixed in
+the cells before sex differentiation and the sex instincts were born
+at all. It is interesting to note this for our rabid Freudians.
+
+Fear and anger involve the adrenal gland. How comes it that two states
+of mind so contrasted should involve the same area? The answer lies in
+the bipartite construction of the adrenal. All the evidence points
+to its medulla as the secretor of the substance which makes for the
+phenomena of fear, and to its cortex as dominant in the reactions of
+anger.
+
+When adrenalin is injected under the skin in sufficient quantity, it
+will produce paleness, trembling, erection of the hair, twitching of
+the limbs, quick or gasping breathing, twitching of the lips--all the
+classic manifestations of fear. These are the immediate effects of
+fear because they are the immediate effects of excess adrenalin in the
+blood upon the vegetative viscera and the muscles. The perception
+by associative memory of these effects of adrenalin, the sensations
+arising from the organs affected, constitute the emotion of fear.
+Flight follows by muscle prepared for flight, for the disturbance of
+the inter-muscular equilibrium tenses the flexor muscles, the muscles
+of flight, and relaxes the extensor muscles, the muscles of attack.
+
+If, it would seem, the cortex secretion now pours into the blood,
+enough to more than overcome the effects of the medulla secretion, the
+inter-muscular equilibrium is disturbed in the opposite direction,
+for fight rather than flight, and anger results. Or if the cortical
+secretion pours in an overwhelming amount of its secretion from the
+first into the blood there will be no fear, but anger immediately.
+Habitually charging and fearless animals like the bison, bull, tiger,
+or lion have a relatively larger cortex in their adrenals. Habitually
+fleeing and fearful animals, like the rabbit, have a small cortex
+and a wide medulla in their adrenals. The reinforcing action of the
+thyroid is important. The adrenal medulla reinforced by the thyroid
+makes for terror, the adrenal cortex reinforced by the thyroid makes
+for fury.
+
+Some people are not easily frightened, others are more readily
+frightened, and still others are of an extremely fearful nature. It
+depends upon the proportion of adrenal cortex to medulla secretion in
+them. And their reaction to fear stimuli is a pretty good measure
+of the ratio. These formulations apply more particularly to fear in
+general and anger in general. But even in the least fearsome, i.e.,
+an individual in whom cortex dominates medulla, there may be
+fear--complexes, dating back to events and times when medulla
+overtopped cortex, especially childhood. So in the coolest people,
+certain persons, objects, episodes, may send a wave along an old line
+of nerve cells and paths which lead to the adrenal medulla, and so
+flood him with fear, terror or even panic before his usual cortex
+response occurs. Impressions during the early years of childhood,
+probing of the unconscious by various methods, have been shown to be
+the most potent in this respect. Sometimes the episode goes further
+back than childhood, and one must assume an inherited conditioning
+of the vegetative and endocrine systems. An animal leaping upon an
+ancestor in a forest during the night might account for the panic fear
+some people experience when alone in the dark, that nothing of their
+childhood history may account for.
+
+In women, the adrenal medulla naturally tends to overtop the cortex,
+because the latter makes for masculinity. Besides, the recurring
+cycle in the ovary, making the corpus luteum, evolves an additional
+stimulant to the medulla, through its irritating influence upon the
+thyroid. Then the influence of the post-pituitary is anti-adrenal
+cortex. So that, on the whole, a number of endocrines work to render
+woman naturally fearful, as we say.
+
+Courage is so closely related to fear and anger that all are always
+associated in any discussion. Courage is commonly thought of as the
+emotion that is the opposite of fear. It would follow that courage
+meant simply inhibition of the adrenal medulla. As a matter of fact,
+the mechanism of courage is more complex. One must distinguish animal
+courage and deliberate courage. Animal courage is literally the
+courage of the beast. As noted, animals with the largest amounts of
+adrenal cortex are the pugnacious, aggressive, charging kings of the
+fields and forests. The emotion experienced by them is probably anger
+with a sort of blood-lust, and no consideration of the consequences.
+The object attacked acted like the red rag waved at a bull--it had
+stimulated a flow of the secretion of the adrenal cortex, and the
+instinct of anger became sparked, as it were, by the new condition
+of the blood. In courage, deliberate courage, there is more than
+instinct. There is an act of volition, a display of will. Admitting
+that without the adrenal cortex such courage would be impossible, the
+chief credit for courage must be ascribed to the ante-pituitary. It is
+the proper conjunction of its secretion and that of the adrenal cortex
+that makes for true courage. So it is we find that acts of courage
+have been recorded most often of individuals of the ante-pituitary
+type. Photographs are obtainable of thirty-four winners of the
+Congressional Medal of Honor for extraordinary bravery in the War
+with Germany. Of these twenty-three exhibited the somatic criteria or
+hormonic signs of the ante-pituitary type. A prerequisite for adequate
+ante-pituitary function is a normal secretion of the interstitial
+cells of the reproductive glands. Cowardice is said to be a feature of
+eunuchs.
+
+THE PITUITARY AND INSTINCT
+
+We have seen that, more than any other gland or tissue of the body,
+the post-pituitary governs the maternal-sexual instincts and their
+sublimations, the social and creative instincts. A great deal of
+evidence is in our possession concerning the disturbances of emotion
+accompanying disturbances of this gland, and controllable by its
+control. It might be said to energize deeply the tender emotions, and
+instead of saying soft-hearted we should say much-pituitarized.
+For all the basic sentiments (as opposed to the intellectualized
+self-protective sentimentalism), tender-heartedness, sympathy and
+suggestibility are interlocked with its functions. Its secretion must
+act upon the great basal ganglia, at the base of the brain, which
+contain the nerve cells and fibres that are the centers of emotional
+control and co-ordination.
+
+The ante-pituitary has been depicted as the gland of intellectuality
+(to use that term for lack of better). By intellectuality we mean
+the capacity of the mind to control its environment by concepts and
+abstract ideas. The frontal lobes of the brain are the central offices
+for higher thought. Their cells are the most complex, have the most
+numerous branches and association fibres. They store the fruits of
+abstract thinking, mathematics, for example. The anterior pituitary is
+in the closest relation and contact with them. Its secretion is tonic
+to them. Now the instinct that is the forerunner of intellectuality
+is the instinct of curiosity, with its emotion of wonder, and its
+expression in the various constructive and acquisitive tendencies.
+Studies of intellectual men, and of those with a keen instinct of
+curiosity and a constructive-acquisitive trend prove them to be
+ante-pituitary dominant in their make-up. The administration of
+ante-pituitary extract to some defectives increases intellectual
+activity and self-control. The future of intelligence may expect
+a great deal from the newer chemistry of the secretions of the
+ante-pituitary.
+
+Two most important instincts, therefore, which in the complexity of
+their sublimations have created most of the institutions of society,
+the maternal and the intellectual, are connected directly with a
+proper function of the pituitary endocrines. So it happens that
+disturbances of these instincts, reaching far into the normal and
+intellectual spheres of the mind, are definitely connected with
+disturbances of the pituitary. As we shall note in reviewing the
+essentials of the pituitary-centered or pituito-centric personality,
+the personality governed by the fluctuations of activity within the
+pituitary, people with injured, diseased or mechanically limited
+pituitaries (because of the smallness of the bony case enclosing them)
+exhibit defects and perversions of conduct and intelligence directly
+attributable to affections of the very instincts and functions
+the pituitary governs. Children with small, mechanically cramped
+pituitaries lie and steal, are bed-wetters, have poor control over
+themselves, and a low learning capacity.
+
+THE THYROID AND INSTINCT
+
+The chemical mechanism of the instincts described: sex libido, passion
+and jealousy in relation to the ovaries and testes, fear and anger in
+relation to the adrenals, sympathy and curiosity in relation to the
+pituitaries, suggests that a similar explanation will hold for the
+dynamics of the other instincts. In the closest relation to the
+thyroid appear the instincts first isolated, so to speak, by McDougall
+as the instincts of self-display and self-effacement, accompanied
+by emotions of pride and shame respectively. In certain states of
+excessive thyroid activity there is an extra stimulation of the
+instinctive display of the person which may go on to boasting,
+mania and exhibitionism. On the other hand, in states of thyroid
+insufficiency, depression is produced, which may go on to melancholia,
+a desire to be alone, to hide, to sit apart and even a tendency to
+accuse the self of various uncommitted crimes and sins. In the form
+of cyclic insanity known as the manic-depressive psychosis, mania
+alternates with depression, as if the personality were dominated
+wholly in turn by one or the other of these two instincts of the ego.
+There is a good deal of evidence that behind them is a corresponding
+fluctuation in the amount the thyroid secretes into the blood. Among
+the thyroid-centered attitudes toward the self gyrate more than in
+any other type. Egomania and megalomania occur most often in thyroid
+unstable individuals.
+
+ENERGY AND SENSITIVITY
+
+In his classic Inquiries into Human Faculty, Francis Galton laid down
+some fundamental considerations concerning energy and sensitivity
+as mental traits. Energy he defined as the capacity for labor, and
+declared it to be the measure of the fullness of life or vitality.
+Statistical study by him of men of genius and their ancestors showed
+them to be endowed with a large amount of energy. It has been said to
+be the absolute prerequisite of genius. Now if there is a single fact
+that has been well established by investigations of the internal
+secretions, it is that the energy quantum of an individual is a
+function of and determined by his thyroid. The more thyroid he has,
+the more energetic will he be--the less thyroid the less energetic,
+and the lazier. The thyroid-centered individual, of the excess thyroid
+type, actually burns up more food and produces more heat than the
+ordinary organism. He burns himself up faster in general.
+
+When the thyroid sends more secretion into the blood, more thyroxin,
+it accelerates all the functions and activities of the organs. Tea and
+coffee produce loquacity because they stimulate the thyroid. People
+with thyroid dominant constitutions talk fluently, rapidly, and
+continuously. Their energy makes them doers, actors rather than
+spectators. They get up early in the morning, are on the go all day
+without surcease or fatigue, go to bed late, and often suffer from
+insomnia.
+
+Thyroid deficients, however, are definitely the opposite. They are
+quite conscious of the limited reserve of energy at their command.
+Also that they need plenty of refreshing sleep. Early to bed and late
+to rise remains the leading maxim of health for them. In addition they
+find it necessary to sleep during the day. Forty winks or more in
+the afternoon makes a good deal of difference to them. Taciturn,
+inarticulate, lazy, slow, tired, are the adjectives applied to them
+by their friends as well as by their enemies. All because of an
+insufficient or inefficient supply of the thyroid's iodine to their
+cells. The mobility of energy in an organism is a measure of the
+amount of active iodine in it. The physiologic synonyms for "energetic
+and lazy" are "well-iodinized" and "poorly iodinized."
+
+Sensitivity, the ability to discriminate between grades of sensation
+or acuteness of perception is another thyroid quality. Just as the
+thyroid plus is more energetic, so is he more sensitive. He feels
+things more, he feels pain more readily, because he arrives more
+quickly at the stage when the stimulus damages his nerve apparatus.
+The electric conductivity of his skin is greater, sometimes a hundred
+times greater, than the average. Conversely the thyroid deficient type
+has a low discriminative faculty. Galton has recorded that idiots
+hardly distinguish between heat and cold and that their sense of pain
+is so obtuse that some of the more idiotic seem hardly to know what it
+is. Cretins may moan but never shed tears.
+
+Energy and sensitivity in an individual should direct attention to the
+thyroid element predominating in his composition. Lack of energy and
+insensitivity to the degree of thyroid insufficiency in their make-up.
+
+MEMORY, JUDGMENT, AND POISE
+
+In between sensitivity and energy, the sensation and the reaction,
+comes a passage of the stimulus through the gauntlet of the stored
+past experience of the individual known as memory. Many hypotheses
+have been advanced by philosophers, psychologists and physiologists to
+explain the phenomenona of memory. To conceive of memory materially
+at all one must admit some sort of memory trace as the basis for the
+persistence of memory. This memory deposit facilitates the occurrence
+of the chemical reaction constituting the memory along the same path
+the next time. Forgetting then consists in a disappearance of these
+memory traces or deposits. Forgetting is greatest in the first hour
+after remembering, more than half of the memory trace being lost in
+that time. Comparison of the curve of forgetting, and the curve
+of diffusion of a colloid like gelatine from its solution, into a
+surrounding medium, shows them to be exceedingly similar. Forgetting
+may be explained by some such loss of the memory trace or deposit into
+the blood continually flowing by it.
+
+The internal secretions influence the amount and duration of the
+memory deposits. The thyroid appears to be essential to the _laying
+down_ of the memory trace. Cretins have poor memories on the retention
+side and so cannot learn. The memory of thyroid insufficients is
+wretched. In the extreme grades, the memory for recent occurrences
+becomes completely lost. Iodine and thyroid increase the electric
+conductivity of the brain, so that the memory trace must be deposited
+more easily in those who have an excess of thyroid. Removal of the
+thyroid produces a degeneration of nerve cells and their processes,
+and associative memory becomes difficult or impossible because
+conduction from cell to cell is interfered with. If sufficient thyroid
+is fed in excess, brain conduction may be so facilitated that epilepsy
+may result upon slight irritation.
+
+On the other hand, the pituitary seems to be related to _preservation_
+of the memory deposit. In conditions of disease of the pituitary,
+loss of memory for past experiences is more marked. As regards recent
+experiences, they are better held, although in a sort of subconscious
+manner, recoverable when the condition improves or is cured. But the
+greatest difference between the thyroid and pituitary effects upon
+memory exists as regards material: the thyroid memory applies
+particularly to perception and percepts, the pituitary to conception
+(reading, studying, thinking) and concepts.
+
+Judgment is another mental process that often intervenes between
+sensation and the energy-reaction. It involves memory and association
+of experiences. Behind it is an attitude as much as there is in an
+emotion or the arousing of an instinct. Beliefs and reasonings are
+complex judgments. They form the units of the intellectual process.
+
+There is an element of speed in judgment on reasoning as in perception
+and memory. And as in the latter, the thyroid determines the velocity.
+Quick thinking, as we call it, means good thyroid action, and slow
+thinking deficient thyroid action. The other element in judgment,
+accuracy, is influenced by the ante-pituitary. During adolescence
+there is physical growth which consumes most of the secretion of the
+ante-pituitary. After adolescence, after the early twenties, when
+physical growth has ceased, the ante-pituitary secretion sensitizes
+the cells of the brain to mental growth. The reaction potential of
+the ante-pituitary, that is its inherent, latent ability to supply a
+maximum of its endocrine for the nerve cells of the frontal lobes, is
+the best-known chemical determinant of intellectual genius. It makes
+for the greatest co-ordination of experience, knowledge, information,
+tastes and problems into one harmonious whole. And curiously, not only
+does it cause a fusion of intellectual material: it creates a desire
+for and a love of such material.
+
+We should expect to find extraordinarily well-developed ante-pituitary
+action among eminent philosophers and men of science, and we do.
+Adequate action of it is present throughout the range of normals who
+evidence sufficiently ripened judgment as they progress through
+life. The ability to profit by experience, and to make more and more
+accurate judgments as one grows older implies at least a maximum
+efficiency of it. This maturation is not at all universal. Even after
+middle age, after forty and fifty years of reasoning, some individuals
+retain the juvenile mind of their youth. Like the Bourbons, they
+have learned nothing and forgotten nothing. Their ante-pituitary
+insufficiency often coupled with a post-pituitary excess, and other
+instabilities and disequilibriums in the endocrine system, render them
+immature morons, compared with what might be expected of them for
+their years. They are the people who are old enough to know better.
+For the same reasons, inhibition and emotional control are poor in
+them.
+
+Besides the ante-pituitary, in the evolution of judgment, and the
+judgment faculty, due stress must be laid upon the influence of the
+internal secretion of the testes or ovaries, the product of the
+interstitial cells. Although the probability is that the effects
+are indirect, through a stimulation of the ante-pituitary, the fact
+remains that, in a child, memory may be marvelous and judgment poor
+(such memory is possibly purely thyroid in its determination). With
+the advent of the gonads upon the scene, judgments become the centre
+of the play's plot undoubtedly. The intelligence of eunuchs and
+eunuchoids is in general low. The skull and brain of castrates, animal
+and human, is smaller than the average. Gall, the physiologist who
+popularized ideas concerning the meaning of the protuberances and
+depressions of the head in relation to faculty and character, early in
+the nineteenth century, was the first to prove this. Among historic
+castrates, eunuchs, not a single example of great intellect, of the
+creative type, is known. On the contrary, the native gifts of the mind
+were destroyed. Thus Abelard, who was punished with castration by his
+uncle for his love affair with Heloeise, never composed a verse of
+poetry thereafter.
+
+IMAGINATION AS AN ENDOCRINE GIFT
+
+That brings us to the consideration of imagination as influenced by
+the endocrines. The physical conditions of exercise of the imaginative
+faculty have not been sufficiently investigated. Alcohol has long been
+known to act as an evocant of strange images. The hallucinations of
+delirium tremens are the results obtained in extreme intoxication. A
+strangely imaged flow of consciousness, the imaginative state, may
+also be evoked by morphine and cannabis indica. There is no doubt
+that the brain cells may be made to combine in the fresh, novel, and
+unfamiliar associations that are recognized as unreal.
+
+Francis Galton, pioneer student of the conditionings of human faculty,
+left an interesting study of the visualising capacity, so far as it
+could be attacked by the statistical method. Two of his conclusions
+are worth repeating for our purposes. One is that the power to imagine
+is poor in philosophers and men of science. The other that it is
+higher in the female sex than in the male. We have seen that the
+philosophic, scientific, intellectual mind, the capacity to abstract,
+and think in terms of abstractions, is definitely dependent upon
+proper secretion by the ante-pituitary. In woman, the post-pituitary
+is generally predominant over the ante-pituitary. Though we are in
+need of a series of studies of the endocrine traits and composition of
+men endowed with high imaginative qualities, and so are at a loss, we
+have indications of an endocrine control of the state of consciousness
+we speak of as the imaginative.
+
+Most of the evidence accumulated in the examination and treatment of
+morbid conditions characterized by a restless, incoordinate activity
+of the brain cells points to excess of the post-pituitary secretion as
+the cause, or as one of the most important causes. The thyroid and the
+adrenal medulla also exert their influence. But the strongest appears
+to be the post-pituitary. Phobias, fears which obsess the mind,
+anxiety neuroses, suspicions, hallucinations, delusions, nervousness,
+all expressions of what we may sum up technically as the imaginative
+state of mind, occur and occur frequently, associated with other
+symptoms of posterior pituitary overactivity. Persons in whose make-up
+it rules are more liable to imagine disturbances of their mentality,
+or exhibit a well-developed imaginative streak. Normal states of
+overactivity of the post-pituitary such as occur in some women during
+the menstrual period and pregnancy, and in some men as part of the
+endocrine cycle of their everyday lives, are accompanied by increase
+in the susceptibility and vigor of the imagination. Whether the
+feeding of excess post-pituitary would lead to a stimulation of the
+tendency or ability to imagine is still to be decided. But it is
+known that quieting the post-pituitary by various means will cause
+a depression of the faculty, and eliminate its pathologic
+manifestations.
+
+Psychologists distinguish between the constructive imagination that
+expresses itself in an ordered activity and the unbalanced fancies
+of the fearful neurotic for example. The post-pituitary confers the
+lability of the underlying state of brain in all of these imaginative
+tincturings of consciousness. The constructive imagination, one of the
+few truly precious gifts of a personality, is probably the expression
+of a certain balanced activity of the ante-pituitary and the
+post-pituitary.
+
+MOODS AND THE ORGANIC OUTLOOK
+
+The lability the post-pituitary confers upon the combinations of
+perceptions and conceptions, grouped as the imagined, extends to
+the ruling mood that may be spoken of as the organic outlook.
+Post-pituitary in excess, without compensation or balancing by one or
+some of the other endocrines, is associated with an instability of
+mood and the organic outlook. Concomitant is a defective self-control.
+Typically, one sees the effects in the mental abnormalities of women
+during the premenstrual period. A number of them have their pituitary
+balance upset then, with an overtopping of the ante-pituitary by the
+post-pituitary. Irritability, a sub-hysteria, or an actual hysteria
+may emerge in the usually most placid characters. A quiet wife and
+mother may go for her husband, curse and mortify him, even strike and
+beat him. She may slap her children at that time and no other. It is
+well known that most of their crimes are committed by women during the
+menstrual period. So are the suicides. Deterioration of mentality and
+character so often observed during the menopause, with its apathies or
+excitements, melancholia or mania, the fits of weeping or gaiety, the
+loss of grip upon reality, the complete change in mood and temperament
+that reflect the transformation of the organic outlook, demonstrate
+clearly the overwhelming influence of the endocrines upon the
+attitudes of the self toward the self.
+
+It is possible to speak of thyroid moods, adrenal moods,
+ante-pituitary or post-pituitary moods, gonadal moods. Each of
+these is the echo in the mind of cells stimulated or depressed,
+by concentration or dilution in the blood of particular internal
+secretions. Restlessness and excitement can be produced experimentally
+by feeding thyroid. Vague anxiety, depressive fancies and fears,
+imaginative overactivity can be removed by inhibiting the
+post-pituitary. Hypersecretion of the ovary will cause a sexual
+susceptibility and a mood of genital obsession, capable of the most
+remarkable sublimations and perversions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+THE BACKGROUNDS OF PERSONALITY
+
+
+The question of moods and sublimations once raised introduces the
+problem of the relation of neuroses, nervous disorders without an
+organic disease basis, and mental abnormalities, to the endocrine
+system. Obviously, in view of all the influences exerted by the
+ductless glands upon every organ and function of the body and mind,
+and their intermediary, the vegetative nervous system, a relation must
+exist. Observations accumulated, some of which have been referred to
+in the preceding chapters, prove the complete, though complex, reality
+of such a deduction.
+
+The history of attitudes toward nerve and mental disorders is a
+remarkable illustration of the vicissitudes of ignorance playing with
+words. The Greeks, swayed and dazzled as they were by the magic of
+words which they discovered, yet never permitted themselves to be
+fooled by them. As an explanation for the phenomena of hysteria in
+women, that benign mental disorder par excellence, they had the theory
+of a wandering about of the womb in the organism as a cause. That
+provided an image of something material happening as an explanation.
+With the triumphs of anatomy after the Renaissance, that naive view
+had to be discarded. In its place the humoral theory held sway, with
+its good humors and its bad humors, and their bilious, lymphatic,
+nervous and sanguine admixtures. But that, too, went the way of all
+flesh. During the first half of the nineteenth century, a popular
+phrase, "nerves," paraphrased by practitioners of medicine as
+neuroses, then came into vogue as the efficient cause of these
+troubles. "Nerves" indeed today have filtered everywhere into the
+common consciousness.
+
+Because of the irritant effects of light, food and social conditions,
+America has come to swarm with neurotics of every type, especially the
+sexual. A rich field was created for cults of treatment, which spring
+up like weeds periodically all over the country. We have seen how the
+American, Beard, was inspired by the idea that "nerves" represented a
+loss of tone, a flabbiness, weakness and softness of the nerves, to
+coin the word neurasthenia. Nerve exhaustion he believed was the cause
+of the nerve weakness. Weir Mitchell, another American, introduced the
+rest cure combined with overfeeding as a treatment for it.
+
+An analytical French neurologist, Charcot, was not to be satisfied by
+words of Latin-Greek derivation. Insisting upon the significance of
+the individual mental workings of each case, he and his pupil Janet
+began to unravel a tangle which has led to the present revolution in
+psychology. For Freud, Jung and Adler took up the story where Janet
+left off.
+
+Janet elaborated the ideas of a subconscious and an unconscious, a
+dissociation of the components of the mind, and a splitting of
+the personality. Lumping the phenomena of amnesia, somnambulism,
+hypnotism, anesthesia, obsession and hysteria into the grand group of
+mental dissociations and disintegrations, he achieved a unification
+never considered possible before him. Suggestion as a mode of cure was
+also emphasized and elaborated by him to an undreamed-of degree.
+
+Freud, in 1895, studying a case of hysteria with Breuer, had attempted
+cure by the method of free association, attempting to get the hysteric
+to pour out her mental life. Not succeeding, and his interest aroused
+by her continual references to her dreams, he discovered that by means
+of those dreams he could tap the subconscious and unconscious in
+regions hitherto inaccessible. For in the dreams, ideas, persons, and
+experiences appeared that never came upon the stage of the conscious.
+From that finding he developed the concept of repression, i.e., the
+relegation of a painful experience into the unconscious, and kept
+imprisoned there by the censor. Also how there it became the complex,
+which, like a stage manager, never appeared before the footlights of
+the conscious, but determined its content just the same by inhibition
+or stimulation of any character or scene to be enacted upon it.
+
+A complete critique of Freudianism cannot be attempted here. But in
+relation to the endocrine system as controllers of nerve function
+in health and disease, a valid criticism can be made. Firstly, the
+Freudian jargon, its technicalities and explanations, are metaphors.
+Some may regard them as justifiable descriptions of mental processes.
+But it certainly can be urged against them that they provide us with
+no idea concerning what is happening in the cells of the body and
+brain as explanation for the event, normal or abnormal, supposedly
+explained. Words like sublimation or transference are figures of
+speech and nothing else. Secondly, they ignore totally the powers of
+the vegetative apparatus, the viscera, muscles and secreting glands
+together, as originators and determiners of the wish and its
+adventures.
+
+How utterly different, from the point of view of the physiologist, the
+two explanations are as pictures, can be seen from a single example.
+The idea of repression, to the Freudian, means the pushing down
+into the subconscious of some experience. Pushing down is a process
+controlled by the laws of physics: it involves the concepts of matter
+and force. Hence, the expression, as a description of a psychic
+episode, is a metaphor pure and simple. From the standpoint of the
+process of repression as pictured by the student of the vegetative
+apparatus, the term signifies a real bottling up of energy. For the
+repression means actual compression of muscle, the muscle contained
+in the viscera. And the repression means a real interference with
+the release of energy, which remains bound up, tugging for room
+for expression as much as a spring tightly coiled in a box. In the
+production of that tension an endocrine has often been decisive. The
+endocrine nature of the individual may decide whether a subconscious,
+i.e., visceral or vegetative tension, is to come into being, live
+or die, in the face of a given situation. If thereby, a permanent
+disturbance of the equilibrium between the components is brought
+about, a neurosis, expression of an unsatisfied vegetative tension,
+follows.
+
+It has been hailed as a brand new discovery by those following the
+latest in psychology that the subconscious and the unconscious
+constitute a more essential component of the personality than the
+conscious. As a matter of fact, common practice has recognized the
+fact, if not the mechanism and its significance, for ages. It is not
+what people say or do--it is how they say it: that is how the true
+reactions of personality are recognized instinctively even by animals.
+Tone and gesture (when not acted or posed) are accepted as symbols and
+symptoms of states of the inmost sancta sanctorum that words and wit
+never give entrance to, nay disguise and block. Tone and gesture as
+revelations of the Inner-Me, the True-Me or Intra-Me if you will,
+are so potent because they are direct expressions of the vegetative
+apparatus. The curl of a lip, the flicker of an eye-lash, the twitch
+of a shoulder are the overflow of energy cramped in the increased
+intravisceral pressure, determined by increased outflow of endocrine
+secretion. Wittingly or unwittingly we interpret the little signs as
+messages from the deepest self, which they truly are.
+
+NERVOUS BREAKDOWNS AND SHELL SHOCK
+
+In civil life, the complex of symptoms Beard jumbled together as
+neurasthenia, when associated with a loss of self-control, so that the
+sufferer is incapacitated for the duties of everyday life, has become
+the popular "nervous breakdown." A sanitarium appears to be one of the
+necessary components of the condition. It is the last act, the climax
+of "nerves."
+
+During the War of 1914-1918, thousands of cases of functional
+disorders of the nervous came to be grouped under "Shell Shock."
+The psychic phenomena in the wake of concussion of the brain due to
+explosives suggested the term, and its application to affections of
+self-control, or dissociations of the personality, with paralysis,
+blindness, speechlessness, loss of hearing and so on. The War neurosis
+(including those arising in home service) is still a topical subject
+because thousands of mentally disabled soldiers are alive.
+
+In view of what has been said concerning the endocrine mechanism of
+the instincts and the vegetative apparatus, it could be predicted that
+a number of these nerve casualties of peace and war would be caused by
+an upset of the equilibrium between the glands of internal secretion.
+A study of war neuroses by the great Italian student of the
+endocrines, Pende, confirms this assumption. As emphasized, the
+internal secretions are like tuning keys, and tighten or loosen the
+strings of the organism-instrument, the nerves. War for the soldier,
+or the civilian combatant as well, sets the strings vibrating, and
+with them the glands controlled by them. Excessive stimulation or
+depression of an endocrine will disturb the whole chain of hormones,
+and the vegetative system, and their echoes in the psyche. The nervous
+disorders of war that have been lumped as shell shock or war shock may
+be looked upon as uncompensated; airings of the endocrine vegetative
+mechanism, as dislocations of parts and processes that are reflected
+outwardly as ailment or disease.
+
+AN ENDOCRINE NEUROSIS
+
+An exquisite example of an endocrine neurosis, that is a disorder of
+nerves and brain dependent upon an upset of the equilibrium between
+the internal secretions due to a trying experience, was furnished
+recently by the reactions of three naval officers lost in the snow
+wilds of Canada through a balloon adventure. The cases aroused a good
+deal of interest at the time, and the details were reported by the
+newspapers as if they were the episodes of a serial mystery story.
+
+The three officers started out late one fine evening from Rockaway
+Air Station in a balloon for a practice trip. Atmospheric conditions
+suddenly changed, they became lost in the clouds, and finally landed
+somewhere in the Canadian wilderness. The commander of the balloon
+crew, Lieut. A., 23 years old, was the youngest of the three; the
+oldest, Lieut. B., being 45, and the third man in the thirties, Lieut.
+C.
+
+According to the testimony given at the Court of Inquiry held
+afterwards, two hours after they abandoned the balloon and started
+struggling through the snow, B. became tired and complained of his
+fatigue. B.'s fatigue increased, and two days later became so great
+that the party had to stop for an hour and build a fire in order to
+permit him to rest. However, an hour proved too little: and in another
+half hour he was falling and fainting.
+
+Letters written by C. to his wife and gotten hold of by reporters
+declared that B. at this juncture passed into a semi-sane state, in
+which he accused himself of a number of sins, and volunteered to
+commit suicide, so that the others would not be burdened by his
+weakness. Also, that they might use his body to fortify themselves. A.
+discussed with C. the advisability of taking B.'s knife away from
+him. Living on their carrier pigeons, they continued on, moved by a
+desperate hope of finding someone. B. had several fainting spells
+after drinking water traced by moose tracks.
+
+Luck favored them, and they encountered an Indian who guided them to
+a place called Moose Factory. Here they wrote the letters home which
+reached their wives and the daily press before they themselves
+returned to civilization. A great hue and cry was raised by the
+newspapers about their plight. Newspaper correspondents vied with each
+other for the honor of being the first to meet them and get their
+story.
+
+They arrived at a collection of houses named Mattice. A. and C.
+proceeded ahead and found instructions for them not to talk. C. went
+back to B., who was in a shack with the correspondents full of the
+story of the letters. B. became enraged and struck C. who retained his
+self-control.
+
+Differences were patched up, and the three returned together to New
+York. There the medical examination of the three showed that the four
+days in the wilderness had left its deepest effects upon the physique
+and mind of B. In a few days he developed an attack of tonsillitis,
+with fever, and a mental disturbance described by the medical officer
+as exhaustion psychosis. He believed this condition to be the result
+of severe exhaustion, prolonged anxiety, worry, and extreme exposure.
+Extreme restlessness and irritability, confusion of thought and
+an undefined perplexity, all the prominent symptoms of exhaustion
+psychosis, making him hyperactive and inclined to acts of violence,
+were in evidence.
+
+The physique, character and reactions of Lieut. B. are what interest
+us in the case. The pictures of him published, and the structure of
+his skull, face and teeth, his hair and other physical traits point to
+his being an adrenal-centered type, of the unstable variety, so far as
+his internal secretion make-up is concerned. As we shall see in the
+next chapter on the different kinds of endocrine personalities,
+the unstable adrenocentric (convenient name for the class) is
+characterized by rapid exhaustibility because under conditions of
+stress and strain, the reserve of the gland is consumed. The adrenal
+glands, we noted in a preceding chapter, are concerned with the
+maintenance of muscle and nerve tone in emergencies. They are the
+glands which, during crises especially, control the production and
+supply of energy to the various organs and tissues called upon to
+function to the utmost in emergencies. When the adrenals fail, as they
+do readily in these labile adrenocentrics, it is as if the adrenals
+were cut out of the body. And it has been repeatedly shown that
+extirpation of the adrenals is immediately followed by degeneration
+and breakdown of the brain cells.
+
+These facts explain the reactions of Lieut. B. The acute call upon his
+adrenals made by his dangerous situation probably soon exhausted them
+of their content of reserve secretions. Overwhelming fatigue with loss
+of muscle tone followed. The changes in the brain caused him to talk
+as he did in the wilderness. Returned to safety, the news that his
+reputation was under fire because of C.'s letter brought out another
+adrenal characteristic: the excessive instinct of pugnacity, easily
+stimulated, with its emotion of anger and the tendency to violence.
+What is spoken of as a quick temper is an adrenocentric trait.
+Returned to New York, an infection, tonsillitis, attacked him.
+Infections in adrenocentrics use up the content of the adrenals as
+rapidly as physical exhaustion or emotion. So the tonsillitis, which
+in another type of individual would have been combatted continuously
+by the adrenals and so passed by as a mere sore throat, presented him
+with a high temperature, and the brain disturbance described by the
+medical officer as exhaustion-psychosis, with again a tendency to
+violence. In short, the history of his adventure is the history of his
+adrenals under stress and strain. It illustrates the mechanism of a
+typical endocrine neurosis.
+
+THE UNCONSCIOUS AND THE VISCERA
+
+In the chapter on the glands of internal secretion as an interlocking
+directorate, certain generalities were stated as the laws of the
+government of the organism's life by them in association with the
+vegetative apparatus. It was put forward as a fundamental revision of
+the theory, hitherto accepted, of the limitation of mind to the brain
+cells. We think and feel not alone with the brain, but with our
+muscles, our viscera, our vegetative nerves, and last but not least
+our endocrine organs. In short, we think and feel with each and every
+part of ourselves.
+
+Among these pristine factors determining the content of consciousness,
+the endocrines are most important, because they alone to start with,
+of all the other factors, are different in each and every individual.
+They are what render him unique at birth, even though he looks the
+counterpart of millions of other babies born at the same time. They
+constitute his inner destiny. As he grows, the external factors,
+social experiences, climate, accidents, and disease modify and
+condition the reactions and complexity of the endocrine system. As
+these modifications and associations are of the greatest import for
+the final elaboration of the personality, composing as they do the
+elements of the unconscious which confers the unique stamp of normal,
+abnormal, supernormal, or subnormal, it is worth while now to review
+the most general of the determining laws. Man is an energy phenomenon,
+both conscious and unconscious, with the energy emanating from the
+endocrine-vegetative mechanisms. So it becomes possible for us,
+by their aid, to analyze the conscious, the subconscious and the
+unconscious with the terms long current in the analyses of physics.
+
+1. Man is an energy machine which, though it is constantly losing
+energy as a whole; consists of parts constantly accumulating energy
+(as a result of inherent chemical reactions accelerated by the
+absorption of food). This process of local accumulation of energy
+associated with general loss of energy may be observed even in the
+ameba, in the form of stored reserve food material. Evolution
+created a system of organs, the viscera, as specialists in energy
+conservation, utilization or transformation.
+
+For intercommunication and interaction between the viscera two systems
+were elaborated: a younger system of direct contacts, the nerves,
+and nerve cells, through which influences could be conducted for the
+stimulation, acceleration, retardation or inhibition of an energy
+process in them; and the older, the endocrine gland association, for
+the production of chemical substances to act as messengers to be sent
+from one viscus to another, and also to the nerves, through the blood
+or lymph which bathe all the cells. They could affect only one or
+certain organs, because by selection only the chosen organ or organs
+knew the code, as it were. The chemical system is much the older
+system, and preceded the nerve system by aeons of time. The whole
+system, viscera, visceral nerves and the endocrines gradually united
+into a complete autonomous organism within the organism, and as such
+functions as the vegetative apparatus.
+
+EVOLUTION OF THE ENDOCRINES
+
+2. In the course of evolution, variations occurred in all three
+components of the apparatus, the viscera, the nerves, and the
+endocrines. Now variations in the viscera and the nerves are
+essentially grossly physical and quantitative. That is, there may be a
+bigger stomach or a smaller stomach, larger nerve fibres or smaller.
+And as Life always has worked with a large margin of safety, and
+always played for safety first as regards quantity, these variations
+have not become of much significance for the history and destiny of
+the animal.
+
+But variations among the endocrines made a tremendous difference. To
+have very much thyroid and very little pituitary, much adrenal and not
+enough parathyroid meant a great deal to the Organism as a whole,
+as well as to the vegetative apparatus. For states of tension and
+relaxation, activity and inactivity in the nerves and viscera would be
+determined by these variations in the ratio between the variants. The
+vegetative apparatus in its virginity, say in the new-born infant, may
+be said to have its development primarily determined by the reaction
+potentials of the endocrine part of it, that is the latent power of
+each gland to secrete at a minimum or a maximum, and the balance
+between them.
+
+EDUCATION OF THE VEGETATIVE SYSTEM
+
+3. Training or education involves, beside other effects, a training
+of the endocrines, and hence of the entire vegetative apparatus, to
+respond in a particular way to a particular stimulus. Experience is
+like the introduction of new push-buttons, levers, and wheels into the
+mechanism. All learning which calls out or arrests the functioning of
+an instinct, must, from what we have learned of the chemical dynamics
+of instincts as reactions between hormones, nerves and viscera, affect
+the vegetative system. When there is a conflict between two or
+more instincts, between pressures of energy flowing in different
+directions, there may be compromise and normality, or a grinding of
+the gears and abnormality.
+
+Where does the brain come in, in all this? As the servant of the
+vegetative apparatus. To call it the master tissue is manifestly
+absurd, when it can only be the diplomatic constitutional monarch of
+the system. It can, in fact, act only as the great central station
+for associative memory, as only one of the factors implicated in
+education.
+
+The most powerful educative agents of the vegetative apparatus of a
+human being are the other humans around him. And they comprise the
+most powerful of the external effectors of education, for better, for
+worse. The training and education of the endocrine-vegetative system
+is the basis of all social rules (Habit, Custom, Convention, Law,
+Conscience). An unresolved discord, a continued conflict among the
+parts of the vegetative system, in spite of such education, is the
+foundation of the unhappiness of the acute or chronic misfits and
+maladjusted, the neurotic and the psychotic.
+
+THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF THE UNCONSCIOUS
+
+4. Another vastly important law that governs the content of the
+conscious and the unconscious, and resultant behaviour is the fact
+that the nerves and nerve cells of the vegetative apparatus, the
+nerves leading to the viscera and the endocrine glands, like the solar
+plexus, are affected by stimuli of lower value than those which arouse
+the brain cells. In the metaphorical language of the old psychology,
+the threshold value, that is the strength or loudness of stimulus
+sufficient to make itself felt or heard, is less for the vegetative
+apparatus than for the brain. So we begin to glimpse why an emotion
+seems to be experienced before the visceral changes that really
+preceded it, but pressed their way into consciousness later. This
+gives us a clue to the unconscious as the more sensitive and deeper
+part of the mind.
+
+More than that, it supplies us with a physical basis for the
+unconscious which will explain much of the observed laws of
+its workings. It provides a reason for the apparent swiftness,
+spontaneity, and unreasonableness of what is called intuition. And it
+may show us a source for a good deal of the material of dreams and
+dream states.
+
+We have said that we think and we remember, not alone with the brain,
+but with the muscles, the viscera and the endocrines. So do we forget
+not alone with the brain, but with the muscles, the viscera, the
+endocrines and their nerves. The utmost importance of muscle attitudes
+in remembering has been established in the experimental laboratory.
+
+It is one of the great services Freud rendered to psychology (and one,
+by the way, largely responsible for the acceptance of his doctrines
+by the disinterested intelligence) that he showed that a species
+of forgetting is nothing casual, but active and purposeful, a
+manifestation of the life of the unconscious. However, though his
+description of the process was correct, he left it to occur in a
+vacuum. As a matter of fact this forgetting consists in the inhibition
+of associative memory by a process in the vegetative apparatus, so
+as to maintain the equilibrium within itself which is reflected in
+consciousness as comfort.
+
+The unconscious, in short, consists of the buried associations among
+the parts of the vegetative apparatus and the brain cells. We seem to
+be much nearer to grasping the nature of the unconscious, when we look
+upon it as a historical continuum, a compound or emulsion of different
+and various states of intravisceral pressure and tone, in the
+vegetative apparatus, dependent upon the balance between the
+endocrines, as well as upon past experiences of the viscera in the
+way of stimulation or depression. We forget that which is held down,
+literally, in the vegetative apparatus. This explanation of forgetting
+tells, too, why the forgotten (stored in the sub-brain, the
+endocrine-vegetative system) continually projects itself into and
+interferes with the regular flow of consciousness, e.g., in slips
+of the tongue, mistakes of spelling, and so on: because the energy
+bottled in the vegetative system tends to erupt into the consciousness
+into which it would ordinarily flow.
+
+In the evolution of the mind, there have been elaborated devices
+to protect it against the vegetative apparatus. Consciousness, or
+awareness, must be accepted as a fundamental, primal fact, like
+protoplasm. Consciousness and protoplasm may be the complementary
+sides of the same coin. Whatever the truth, the fact stands out
+that the oldest, deepest, most potent consciousness is that of the
+traditionally despised lowest organs, the vegetative organs, the heart
+and lungs, stomach and intestines, the kidneys and the liver, and so
+on, their nerves, e.g., the solar plexus, and the glands of internal
+secretion. They invented and elaborated muscle, bone and brain to
+carry out their will. Evolution has been in the direction of a
+greater perfection of the methods of carrying out their will. Their
+consciousness, working upon the growing and multiplying brain cells,
+has created what we call self-conscious mind.
+
+Mind, reacting upon its creator, has, in a sense, come to dominate
+them, because it has become the meeting ground of all the
+energy-influences seething and bubbling in the organism, and
+so developed into the organ of handling them as a whole, their
+Integrating-Executive. But just the same and all the time, the
+underlying consciousness of the viscera and their accessories stand as
+the powers behind the throne, but as what we have now learned to speak
+of, in relation to the Mind, as the Unconscious.
+
+PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OF EVERYDAY LIFE
+
+To sum up these relations of the viscera, the endocrines, the
+unconscious and the mind, it may be stated as a far-reaching
+generality for the understanding of human life: that character and
+conduct are expressions of the streams of energy arising in the
+vegetative apparatus, primarily endocrine determined at birth, and
+secondarily experience determined after the organism has learned to
+react as a whole, as consciousness. The result of such a reaction as a
+whole tends to balance the disturbance of energy, so as to maintain
+or restore the equilibrium, or sense of harmony and comfort, when
+consciousness again disappears. This law is an attempt at synthesis of
+the labors of the psychanalysts, the behaviourists, and the students
+of the internal secretions (Freud, Jung, Adler, Sherrington, Watson,
+Von Bechterew, Kempf, Crile, Cannon, Cushing, Fraenkel are the
+great names of the movement). Most of the details, and all of the
+quantitative applications of the law still remain to be worked
+out. But a statement like the following of Cushing, the eminent
+surgeon-student of the endocrines, that "it is quite probable that the
+psychopathology of everyday life hinges largely upon the effect of
+ductless gland discharges upon the nervous system," shows which way
+the wind is blowing.
+
+In the face of these conceptions the position of the psychanalyst as a
+practical therapeutist becomes clearer, and the causes of his failure
+when he fails. In the first place, he deals with psychic results as
+processes, and ignores the physiology of their production. Since a
+true cure of the neurosis, what he is after, is impossible without a
+removal of the cause, a disturbance in the vegetative apparatus, he
+cannot succeed where an automatic adjustment among the viscera does
+not follow his probings and ferretings of the unconscious. In the
+second place, he disregards the existence of a soil for the planting
+of the malign complexes in the individual in whom they grow and
+flourish. That soil is composed in part of the endocrine relations
+within the vegetative apparatus. And as we can often attack that soil
+more effectively and radically from the endocrine end than from the
+experience end (e.g., repressed episodes) we may transform the soil
+and make it barren rock for morbid complexes, at any rate. The concept
+of the endocrine-vegetative apparatus as the determinant of normal
+and abnormal behaviour, emotional reactions and disturbances of power
+should in time cause even the most fanatic of the psychanalysts to
+recognize the functional basis of the mental acrostics they are so
+fond of dissecting.
+
+NATURAL ABILITY
+
+Another achievement of the psychanalysts is the recognition of the
+influence of organic and functional inferiorities of the individual
+upon the history of his personality. Gross organ inferiorities are
+those which are definite handicaps in the struggle for success in
+society, such as heart disease. Such handicaps, however, are limited
+to relatively few of a population. The raison d'etre of the greater
+number of minor mental inefficiencies the psychanalyst puts down to
+handicaps in the unconscious. Again he mistakes figurative imagery for
+explanations. The conception of endocrine diversity in the make-up
+supplies us with the rationale of the vast majority of organic and
+functional defects and inferiorities, in short, subnormalities of any
+group, large or small.
+
+Moreover, how would the psychanalyst explain the occurrence and
+influence of organic and functional _superiorities_ and their
+tremendous influence upon the individual and society? We live in a
+generation which has acquired a flair for the pathologic. Undoubtedly
+it is a soul-sick generation, and its interest in sickness of the
+mind is only natural. Just the same, whatever advances, improvements,
+progress, have been made (and certainly a number of the changes in his
+environment, external and internal, must be admitted to be changes for
+the better) have been made, not by natural disability, but by natural
+ability. What is the physiology of natural ability?
+
+The finest study of natural ability that has as yet been composed is
+Francis Galton's on Hereditary Genius. It also remains the best study
+of the natural conditions of success. He showed that of the type of
+man he classed as "illustrious" there occurred about one in a million,
+and of the type "eminent" about two hundred and fifty in a million.
+Of the qualities which determine natural ability of this kind, he
+selected inherent capacity, zeal, and perseverance as the three
+prerequisites. And he states that "If a man is gifted with vast
+intellectual ability, eagerness to work, and power of working, I
+cannot comprehend how such a man should be suppressed." "Such men
+(those who have gained great reputations) biographies show to
+be haunted and driven by an incessant, instinctive craving for
+intellectual work." "They ... work ... to satisfy a natural craving
+for brain work." "It is very unlikely that any conjunction of
+circumstances should supply a stimulus to brain work commensurate with
+what these men carry in their own constitutions."
+
+What is this inherent craving for brain work? What is this zeal? And
+what is power of endurance and perseverance, the quality of stamina?
+How are they to be interpreted in terms of the internal secretions?
+
+In view of what has been said of the ante-pituitary as the gland of
+intellectuality, studies of intellectually gifted people having shown
+well functioning large pituitaries, and of mental defectives in a
+certain number of cases a small limited pituitary, it is justifiable
+to regard the factor of inherent capacity as a function of the
+ante-pituitary. The factor of zeal or enthusiasm points to the
+thyroid. Markedly enthusiastic types are thyroid dominant types. Vigor
+as a third factor, the ability to stand stress and strain of continued
+effort is dependent upon good adrenal and interstitial cell function.
+So we may say that craving and capacity for brain work plus ardor plus
+perseverance in its pursuit, the triplicate of natural ability, are
+the reflections in conduct and character of balanced and sufficient
+ante-pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal-interstitial contributions in
+the chemical formula of the personality. In the chapter on historic
+personages analyzed from the endocrine viewpoint, we shall see that
+some of the most eminent and illustrious people of history have been
+pituitary-centered.
+
+MENTAL DEFICIENCY
+
+Natural ability grows in an endocrine soil of a particular kind,
+perhaps affected by the internal secretions much as natural soil is by
+fertilizers like phosphates or nitrates. Increased production follows
+increased fertilization. Natural disability must vary similarly with a
+perversion or improper mixture, deficiency or absence of the hormones
+that combine in natural ability.
+
+It is assumed as a matter of course that the brain itself is there,
+which, to carry out our analogy, means that the crude soil or earth is
+there. Sufficient quantity and adequate quality of nerve tissue must
+be regarded as prerequisite. If the brain has been damaged in any way
+during development or birth, if it has been smashed up in any way, or
+if it has failed to evolve the minimum number of healthy nerve cells,
+the endocrine influence becomes negligible. It is like attempting to
+insert a key into a door which has no lock.
+
+It is among the specimens of normality of the brain cells that we may
+look for our examples of endocrine mental deficiency. Included are all
+sorts of examples of feeble-mindedness varying from the moron to the
+imbecile and idiot, arrested brain life. The cretin is the classic
+type of mental deficiency due to endocrine insufficiency, curable or
+improvable by the proper handling.
+
+Insanity, degeneration of the normal brain life, may be caused by an
+upset of the endocrine balance. Among the commonest manifestations
+of insanity are excitements and depressions, apathies and manias,
+hallucinations, delusions and obsessions, all of which are
+reproducible under known conditions of internal secretion excess or
+failure. Alternating states of mania and depression are caused in some
+instances by extreme hyperthyroidism. The critical periods of life,
+when a profound revolution is overturning the endocrine equilibrium,
+puberty, pregnancy, and the menopause, are the periods of most
+frequent occurrence of insanity, when mental instability reveals
+endocrine instability (Dementia praecox, pregnancy psychosis,
+menopause neurosis). Actual insanity need not be the only
+manifestation. By far the greater number of mental disturbances due
+to aberrations of the internal secretions never see an asylum or a
+doctor. They live more or less close to the borderline of insanity as
+persons who have spells, eccentricities and peculiarities, hysteria,
+tics or just "nervousness."
+
+About two-thirds of mental deficiency is definitely inherited, about
+one-third acquired. It is the opinion of a number of psychologists
+that it is inherited as what the Mendelians call a recessive, that is
+as a trait which will be overshadowed, if there is admixture of normal
+mentality, but will crop up by breeding with another mental defective.
+What we know of the endocrine factors in heredity leads us to suppose
+that it is the mating of one marked endocrine insufficiency with
+another that is often responsible for the inherited tendency to
+feeble-mindedness and insanity. The effect of the hormone system upon
+the vegetative apparatus may create the more obscure insanities and
+quasi-insanities. The direct action of the internal secretions upon
+the brain cells, producing a sort of hair trigger situation within
+them, may cause the explosive discharges from them which appear as
+overpowering impulses or uncontrollable conduct. The waves of feeling
+which precede them are unquestionably endocrine determined. The wave
+of fear a cat experiences upon seeing a dog is accompanied and indeed
+preceded by an increase of the amount of adrenalin in the blood. The
+picture of fright, as observed in a so-called normal person, staring
+eyes, trembling hands, dry lips and mouth, corresponds to the portrait
+of the appearance in hyperthyroidism. In persons afflicted with
+uncontrollable impulses, the inhibiting hormones may not be present in
+sufficient quantity.
+
+Feeble-mindedness, ranging from stupidity to imbecility, may also be
+a direct effect of insufficient endocrine supply to the brain cells.
+When there is not enough of the thyroid secretion in the blood, the
+tissue between the cells in the brain become clogged and thickened, so
+that a gross barrier to the passage of the nerve impulses is created.
+We have here an illustration of internal secretion lack actually
+producing gross changes in the brain. But without a doubt, most
+endocrine influences upon the brain, at work every minute and second
+of its life, are the subtle ones of molecular chemistry and atomic
+energetics. We know that such mental qualities as irritability and
+stupidity, fatigability, and the power to recover quickly or slowly
+from fatigue, sexual potency and impotence, apathy and enthusiasm are
+endocrine qualities. We know also that the thyroid dominant tends to
+be irritable and excitable, the pituitary deficient to be placid and
+gentle, the adrenal dominant to be assertive and pugnacious, the
+thymus-centered to be childish and easy-go-lucky and the gonad
+deficient to be secretive and shy. This brings us to the relation of
+the internal secretions to the type of personality as a whole.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE TYPES OF PERSONALITY
+
+
+THE ENDOCRINE PERSONALITY
+
+If a single gland can dominate the life history of an individual it
+becomes possible to speak of _endocrine types_, the result of the
+_endocrine analysis_ of the individual. Studying endocrine traits of
+physique, life reactions, disease tendencies, hereditary history and
+blood chemistry, one may gain an insight into the composition or
+constitution of an individual. The endocrine type of an individual
+is a summary of these, his behaviour in the past, and is also a
+prediction of his reactions in the future, much as a chemical formula
+outlines what we believe to be the skeleton of a compound substance
+as deducible from its properties under varying conditions. Only,
+admittedly, as yet the endocrine label is but roughly qualitative and
+most crudely quantitative, whereas the chemical formula is the essence
+of the exact.
+
+However, the fact remains that though we are only upon the first
+rungs of the ladder, we are upon the ladder. The horizon undoubtedly
+broadens. We possess a new way of looking upon humanity, a fresh
+transforming light upon those strange phenomena, ourselves. Of the
+ugly achievements of that dreadful century, the nineteenth, the most
+illuminating was the discovery of itself as the _ape-parvenu._ Yes,
+we are all animals now, it said to itself, and set its teeth in the
+cut-throat game of survival. But there was no understanding in that
+evil motto of a disillusioned heart. The ape-parvenu, desperately
+lonely and secretive, has still to understand himself.
+
+Let us be clear if we can. There is perhaps a certain presumption in
+the phrase, the endocrine type. It is ambitious, and perhaps will not
+fulfill its promise. But it is useful because it points a parallel and
+an ideal. As Wilhelm Ostwald never tired of repeating, H_{2}O is a
+complete shorthand record for the bundle of qualities commonly known
+as water. It is an example of that highest task of mind, synthesis.
+It is the highest synthesis of the studies of the internal secretions
+that certain combinations of them, permutations and blendings of
+them, are responsible for those unique wonders of the universe,
+personalities.
+
+The riddle of personality! Are we at last upon the track of its
+uncovering? That elusive mystery, which philosophers have wrapped in
+the thousand veils of Greek and Latin words, and psychologists, even
+unto the third and fourth generation of Freudians, have floundered
+about in, moles before a dazzling sun, is it to be unwound for our
+inspection? Think of the human soul. What an invisible, intangible
+chameleon is its true reality! Watch it, and you see something that
+seems to uncurl and expand like a feather with exultation and delight
+and joy, to contract and stiffen into a billiard ball with fear and
+pride, shrewd caution and vigilant malevolence, to rear back and spark
+fire like lightning with anger and temper, and to crawl and slither
+with abjection and smirking slyness, when it needs to. This multiplex
+Thing-Behind-Life, are we really about to dissect it into its
+elements?
+
+Personality embraces much more than merely the psychic attributes. It
+is not the least important of the lessons of endocrine analysis
+that there is no soul, and no body, either. Rather a soul-body, or
+body-soul, or the patterns of the living flame. The closer tracking of
+the internal secretions leads us into the secrets of the living
+flame, why it lives, and how it lives, the strange diversities of its
+colorings and music and the odd variations in its energy, vitality
+and longevity. Why it flickers, why it flares and glares, spurts,
+flutters, burns hard or soft, orange-blue or yellow.
+
+The medieval scholiasts, who fought as fiercely about names as nations
+about territories, divided men into the sanguine, the bilious, the
+lymphatic and the nervous. It was a pretty crude classification of
+different constitutions. The endocrine criteria, more exact and
+concrete, divide them into the adrenal centered, the thyroid centered,
+the thymus centered, the pituitary centered, the gonad centered, and
+their combinations.
+
+THE ADRENAL PERSONALITIES
+
+An adrenal personality is one dominated by the ups and downs of his
+adrenal gland. In the large, the curve of his life is the curve of
+secretion by this gland, both of its Cortex and medulla. Such an
+adrenal personality is entirely normal, within the definition of
+the normal as something not threatening the duration of life, nor
+comfortable adaptation to it. So are the other glandular types. No
+sharp line can be drawn between the normal and the abnormal in any
+case, the borderland is wide, the transitions many.
+
+The skin is one of the chief clues to the adrenal personality. The
+relation between the adrenal and the skin dates way back in the
+evolutionary scale, for adrenalin has been isolated directly from
+pigment deposits in the epidermis of frogs. Skin pigment bears a
+direct relation to the reaction of the organism to light, especially
+the ultraviolet rays, to the radiation of heat, and hence to the
+fundamental productions and consumptions of energy by the cells. So
+the gland of energy for emergencies writes its signature always all
+over the skin.
+
+In an adrenal personality, the epidermis is always slightly, somewhat,
+or deeply pigmented. The pigmentation is due to a dark brown deposit
+lightly or thickly scattered over the skin. With the general diffuse
+pigmentation or darkening there are often the black spots, the
+pigmented birth marks, or the lighter ones of freckles. The latter
+signify some permanent or transitory adrenal inadequacy in the past,
+ante-natal or post-natal, of the individual, and presage the same in
+his future. These spots have been frequently observed to appear
+after an attack of diphtheria or influenza. There seems to be more
+tuberculosis among those who have them than those who do not. We
+therefore say that diphtheria, influenza and tuberculosis stand out
+as adrenal-attacking diseases, which have a greater power to kill,
+cripple or hurt those with defective adrenal constitutions than
+others.
+
+The hair of the adrenal type is characteristic: ubiquitous, thick,
+coarse and dry. It is prominent over the chest, abdomen and back,
+and has a tendency to kink. Often its color is not the expected: an
+Italian's will be yellow, a Norwegian's jet black. It has been stated
+that most red-haired persons are adrenal types. Such persons also have
+well-marked canine teeth which is another adrenal trait. They also
+have a low hair line.
+
+When the adrenal type has a properly co-operating pituitary and
+thyroid, he possesses a striking vigor, energy and persistence. With a
+fortunate combination, he develops into a progressive winning fighter,
+arriving at the top in the long run every time.
+
+Brain work is pretty well lubricated in the well-compensated adrenal
+type. Brain fag is closely associated with, if not dependent upon,
+adrenal fag, particularly of the cortex. Brain tissue and adrenal
+cortex tissue are near relatives, and a normal human brain never
+develops without a normal adrenal cortex. The adrenal type with an
+hypertrophied adrenal cortex is always efficient.
+
+Among women, the adrenal type is always masculinoid. If physically
+feminine--due to adequate feminine reactions on the part of the
+other endocrines--she will at least show the qualities of a psychic
+virilism. A generation ago, such a woman had to repress her inherent
+trends and instincts in the face of public opinion and law, and so
+suffered from a feeling of inferiority. Nowadays, these women are
+striding forward and will attain a good many of the masculine heights,
+commanding responsible executive positions and high salaries. An
+adrenal type will probably be the first woman president of the United
+States.
+
+However, that presupposes a normal range of action of the other
+endocrines. Let there be some quirk or weakness elsewhere in the
+chain of hormones, and instead of the successful woman, behold
+the spinsters, the maiden aunts, the prudes and cranks who never
+satisfactorily adapt themselves in society. To them must be given
+a good deal of credit for the suffrage revolution. These unadapted
+adrenals, as we may call them, once sowed the seeds, expending their
+masculinism in the struggles of the pioneers' martyrdoms, preparing
+the harvest their sisters, the more adequate adrenal types, will now
+reap. The unadapted adrenals of today will have to look for new worlds
+to conquer.
+
+So much for the compensated adrenal types. They are the good workers,
+the efficients, the kinetic successes of the driven world. They make,
+at a certain level, good slave drivers because they feel within
+themselves a driving force. But suppose the adrenal type becomes
+uncompensated, or perhaps is inadequate to the demands of life to
+start with. Then the story becomes different. The perfect efficient
+superman of business or profession begins to lag. Though he is himself
+in the morning, he begins to lag in the afternoon. That is when he
+tires. In the evening he is all in. More sleep, recreational trips,
+vacations slip into the rank of necessities, whereas previously they
+had been laughed at as luxuries. More minute or large moles emerge
+in the skin, especially if the individual is of a fair type. If a
+strenuous effort is not made to give the adrenals an opportunity to
+recuperate, or if adjustment on the part of the other glands does not
+occur, this stage of intermittent and remittent adrenal inadequacy
+gives way in turn to the state of permanent adrenal insufficiency.
+
+The adrenal insufficient is important because he is to be seen
+everywhere. Built along the same lines as the adrenal adequate and
+apt to be taken for him, he differs and contrasts vividly below the
+surface. One may sum him up by saying that he is one variety of
+neurasthenic, perhaps the most frequent variety. Cold hands and feet
+plague him, cold feet psychically as well as physically, for a chronic
+and obsessive indecision is one of his most prominent complaints.
+A fatigability, that goes with a low blood pressure, lowered body
+temperature and a disturbed ability to utilize sugar for fuel
+purposes, is another of his chief complaints. The skin often presents
+an instability of the blood vessels, so that they now react to
+stroking with a blanched instead of a reddened effect. Irritability,
+a liability to go off the handle at the slightest provocation, and a
+consequent complete exhaustion that, after an outburst, sends him to
+bed, is conspicuous. Dismissed sometimes contemptuously as weaklings,
+they are accused of laziness, craziness, and haziness. In their
+psychic attempts to compensate, they land into all kinds of hot water,
+from which friends, relatives or luck extricate them sometimes. The
+other times they go to the wall.
+
+The congenital adrenal deficient is a special problem. If the history
+of such an individual is followed from birth, one gets a pretty
+typical story. The genealogy is nervous. Nervous is a word of many
+meanings. But when parents confess themselves nervous, it generally
+means a mental and emotional instability of some sort. Sometimes the
+idea is camouflaged as high strung. In the feeding narrative of the
+child, one finds not occasional incidents or episodes, but continued
+trouble, difficulties, adventures. Even after the first year or two,
+the nutritional chronicle is not satisfactory. Lack of appetite, lack
+of energy, lack of response to stimuli are its keynotes and the motifs
+of the later years of childhood.
+
+Growth is a strain. It becomes a task to make these children grow
+and gain. Chronically below the average weight and height, herculean
+efforts are made by the conscientious parents, but with small success.
+
+With the entry of school life and competition, the curtain rises upon
+the real tragedy, a tragedy in which the avenging Fates are the usual
+ignorance, stupidity and misunderstanding. If the teachers alone are
+duty-obsessed, or perhaps sadistic, the child endures the agonies of
+repeated admonitions, demotions, and punishments. However, a certain
+thick-skinned indifference may develop to protect the sufferer.
+
+If the parents are in addition ambitious, or proud, or competitive,
+then woe betide the victim. With their nervous dispositions, it is
+the school and the tutor who are to be blamed, if not the child. From
+school to school, from system to system, from novelty to fad, from
+doctor to doctor, from fakir to charlatan, from pillar to post, they
+wander in search of an education. Educational cults by the dozen have
+sprouted and grown fat around these unfortunates.
+
+The chief defect of the congenital adrenal inadequate is an
+insufficiently developed adrenal cortex. That means an insufficiently
+developed brain and nervous system. For we have seen how closely all
+these are related in development. Now education can never be the
+education of a vacuum. And we have to deal here with a relative
+vacuum. When there are no potentialities, there can be no education.
+Where the potentialities are limited, education must be limited.
+The congenital adrenal inadequate is defined in physical and mental
+energy. Hence educators cannot drive him. Up to a certain point he can
+be led, but no farther. He should not be expected to go to a college,
+and waste the opportunity of some one financially unlucky, but whose
+endocrine system is more generously endowed.
+
+Not that the outlook is absolutely hopeless. Puberty, with its
+tremendous changes in the glands of internal secretion, when one can
+almost hear the clicks and the whirring of the wheels in the internal
+machinery, may transform. The unfathomed possibilities of gland
+therapy are still to be probed. But the general rule remains.
+
+THE REACTIONS TO MODERNISM
+
+The adrenal personalities in all their variations must be safeguarded
+and carefully looked after in the strained complexities of modern
+post-bellum civilization. In a sense, the adrenal type is the Atlas
+of the twentieth century world, and small wonder that he and his
+descendants stagger beneath the burden. The adrenals are organs for
+the mobilization of energy, physical and mental, for emergencies. They
+are the glands which meet shocks and neutralize the effects of shock.
+In the solitary animal, the everyday producers of shock are pain,
+fright and wounds. The adrenal mechanisms oversecrete to encounter
+the enemy, and then there is a period of rest and recuperation. Man,
+however, with the growth of his imagination and the increase in
+number and density of his surrounding herd, has become the subject of
+continuous stimulation. In the past, this was balanced by the almost
+universal dominance of some religious belief, as an effective opiate.
+Concepts like Fate, Predestination, an all-guiding and all-wise
+Providence, relieved and shielded the adrenals, and acted as valuable
+adjuvants for the preservation of normality.
+
+The nineteenth century witnessed the birth and expansion of a great
+number of new stimulant reagents, the discoveries of physics and
+chemistry, which, with the climax of the World War of 1914-1918, have
+made for a more or less complete deliquescence of accepted religion.
+For the great majority there was no faith to take its place. War,
+pre-war, and post-war shocks have continued with their incessant
+pounding upon the reserves of energy. Under these conditions the
+adrenal personalities are bound to suffer. The other endocrine types
+suffer, too, but quite differently.
+
+Today, anti-adrenal, anti-religious ideas are epidemic. Of these,
+first prize belongs to a cult of egotism fathered by the Napoleonic
+Idea, consciously assertive and self-conscious in Max Stirner's
+"The Ego and His Own," which engendered a swarm of imitators and
+plagiarists. Human beings are all incorrigible egoists more or less,
+furtive or frank. But social and religious codes curbed the most
+narcissistic of kings and conquerors. Before Napoleon, all of them
+vowed allegiance and expressed submission to some sort of deity,
+confessed some fear of the Lord in their hearts. But the ideas
+of Napoleon flouted all that. The unscrupulous predatory who
+put effectual scheming for the self plainly above every other
+consideration and rode rough shod over all his fellows appealed
+powerfully to the latent animality of the adrenal types. Then came
+the dawning awareness of capital and labor of themselves as classes
+fiercely opposed forever in the policy of cut-throat versus
+cut-throat. The labor organizations and the commercial companies
+and corporations pitted themselves against each other consciously.
+Doctrines like "Property is but Robbery," "Everyone for himself and
+the devil take the hindmost," the "Iron Law of Wages" and the "Facts
+is Facts" of the Gradgrinds were the phrases of the nineteenth century
+that assisted. Finally came the Darwinian revelation of man as the
+ape-parvenu, which completed the disintegration of the old restraints.
+
+Man seemed to see himself now for the first time stark and naked. But
+Man consists of many varieties, and all reacted differently to
+the image in the clouded mirror. There was universal attempt at
+suppression. But slowly the anti-adrenal forces infiltrated every
+activity and every soul. Like a hidden focus of infection in the body,
+it germinated and poisoned. A slow fever crept into life. A febrile
+quality tinged the acquisition of wealth, the concentration upon sex,
+and the desperate pursuit of the novel stimulus.
+
+Then, like the hand that appeared at Belshazzar's Feast, came the War,
+only it was a hand that stayed with a long flashing lightning sword in
+its grip, sweeping pitilessly among the erstwhile dancing multitudes
+to mutilate and destroy. A good many people, with that sturdy
+animality George Santayana speaks somewhere of as a trait of mankind,
+set out to enjoy the War. It was a new sort of good time upon an
+incredibly large scale. It was an undreamed-of opportunity. The
+mechanisms of suppression of the mind render it incapable of
+appreciating horror until encountered. And so thousands with
+dangerously unstable adrenals were plunged into the most trying
+conditions possible. Hundreds of them, already shaken, on the
+borderland of instability, reacted with the phenomena of breakdown
+of control, lumped with a host of other phenomena, under the general
+rubric of "shell shock."
+
+That alone was not all. If hundreds collapsed, thousands approached
+the verge of collapse. They survived and were discharged from the
+armies as normal. They reappear in civil life as cases of "nerves."
+Ordinarily that would mean that they would be classed as failures. But
+such have been the psychologic reactions to the war that all kinds
+of compensations in the way of dangerous mental states have become
+frequent in these inadequate adrenal types. A trend to violence and a
+resentful emotionalism are combined with desperate attempts to spur
+the jaded adrenals with artificial excitements. Consequent melancholia
+and depression, the "blues," are inevitable. A survey of drug addicts
+would probably show a definite percentage of this type. The same
+applies to certain petty criminals and law breakers.
+
+The adrenal element in the personality must be considered in every
+disturbance, morbid, personal, or social involving brunette types,
+Huxley's dark white, Mediterranean-Iberians, red-haired persons, and
+even pigment-spotted fair people. Historians have traced the earliest
+civilization to the doings of a brunette people, the Sumerians, the
+first to build cities in the Euphrates-Tigris region more than five
+thousand years before Christ was born. An adrenalized people one
+would, expect to be the first to take advantage of possibilities
+because of their energy capacity. The earliest Sumerian stone carvings
+of warriors exhibit an undersized skeleton compared with the large
+head, broad face, a low hair line and prominent nose that would fit
+into the ensemble of the adrenal type. Certain other historical
+aspects of the adrenal personality have yet to be worked out.
+
+THE PITUITARY PERSONALITIES
+
+The presence of two antagonistic elements in the one gland complicates
+any attempt at even the most abstract analysis of a personality
+dominated by that gland. The pituitary, composed of an anterior lobe
+and posterior lobe, supplies two fairly uncomplicated corresponding
+types, best described as the masculine pituitary type, and the
+feminine pituitary type. The masculine pituitary type is one
+determined by the rule of the anterior pituitary, representing
+superlative brain tone and action, good all-around growth and
+harmonious general function, the ideal masculine organism. The
+feminine pituitary type has an excess of post-pituitary, with
+susceptibility to the tender emotions, sentimentalism, and
+emotionalism, feminine structural lines. Ante-pituitary dominance in
+a male reinforces the general masculinity while the post-pituitary
+depresses it. The post-pituitary in a woman augments her natural
+trend, ante-pituitary tending to counteract it. In other words,
+post-pituitary and ovary are conjunctive, ante-pituitary and ovary are
+disjunctive, post-pituitary and testis are opponents, ante-pituitary
+and testis are allies.
+
+One mechanical circumstance involved in the pituitary personalities
+may be the determinant of the entire life history. That is the
+emphasized fact that the pituitary is encased in a small bony box, at
+the base of the skull. The size of this bony box, and its capacity to
+yield to the various pressures of a pituitary enlarging to meet the
+demands of the organism, will often spell happiness or misery,
+success or failure, genius or idiocy for the man or woman. Certain
+possibilities are conceivable. All of them occur, for the developments
+of X-ray technique have rendered available almost a direct view of the
+sella turcica.
+
+In the first place, the bony box may be definitely too small to start
+in with. That means a small and so potentially inadequate pituitary,
+both anterior and posterior, potentially inadequate in that it will
+become impossible for it to grow and produce extra secretion upon
+demand. Handicapped thus, the unfortunate so born is doomed to
+inferiority and very little can be done for him. He will not develop
+satisfactorily. He possesses small genital organs which will not
+evolve properly in adolescence, or if they will not stand still, tend
+to revert to the opposite sex type. Then he tends to be dwarfed,
+fatigable, adipose. Among these types are included subjects of
+obsessions and compulsions who are dull and apathetic, cannot learn or
+maintain inhibitions, and so, without initiative, evolve into moral
+and intellectual degenerates, liable to epilepsy and the most
+remarkable sex aberrations. All because a cranny of the skull, about
+the size of a thimble, is not large enough for their dominating gland.
+
+If the bone of the cavity of the pituitary is softer and yielding,
+so that some enlargement of the gland is possible, especially of the
+anterior, there appear rapid growth with a tendency to high blood
+pressure, great mental activity associated with frequent and severe
+headaches (often of the migraine type), a combination of initiative
+and irritability and a marked sexuality. X-ray examination of the
+sella turcica shows what is called erosion of the bone as it yields to
+the pressure of the growing gland.
+
+The ideal sella turcica for the ideal pituitary type is a large room
+in which the gland may grow and reach its maximum size and so its
+maximum function, without needing to exert pressure or destroy and
+erode bone in front of it, to the side of it or behind it. The
+distinctive masculine and feminine types, classed as the normal,
+belong to this group. Sometimes, the bone in front of the pituitary
+will yield, while the one in the rear will not, and sometimes the
+conditions are reversed. Thus we may have ante-pituitary sufficiency
+with post-pituitary insufficiency, or ante-pituitary insufficiency
+with post-pituitary sufficiency, complexes which contribute to create
+the grosser functional hermaphrodite types of mixed sex.
+
+In the average feminine pituitary type of personality, post-pituitary
+dominates. In a woman and to a lesser degree in a man, the general
+build is slight and rather delicate. The skin is soft, moist, and
+hairless, the face is the doll or Dresden China sort, with a roseate
+or creamy complexion, flushing easily, eyes large and prominent. The
+mouth shows a high arched palate and crowded teeth rather long. The
+voice is high-pitched. One recognizes the traditional womanly woman,
+petite and chic, who always marries the hero in stories. She is
+usually fond of children, easily moved, has a good libido, and the
+traditional feminine traits. When unstable, the post-pituitary type is
+restless and hyperactive, craves excitement, and continual change of
+interest and scene, a new pleasure every moment. A good many of the
+women of today, who fifty years ago would have been nice sedate girls
+because of their excellent post-pituitary constitution, have
+been irritated by the atmosphere of post-1914 into the excess
+post-pituitary state, the adventurous never-satiated avid pleasure
+hunter, in whom the craving for stimulation will stop at nothing. F.
+Scott Fitzgerald portrayed an exquisite specimen of the kind in his
+short story "The Jellybean," with a quasi-heroine of a good Southern
+family, built to be a high standard wife and mother, who drinks,
+swears, gambles, and finally marries on a dare. Modern post-pituitary
+woman is excitement mad and thrill chasing. The worst of it is that
+the resultant personal tragedies cannot be dismissed as transient
+inevitables. The heredity of the internal secretions determines that
+the offspring of these women are bound to be pituitary unstable, the
+least desirable of endocrine instabilities because of the concomitant
+mental effects. Even from the purely selfish point of view, the
+standpoint of enlightened selfishness, the post-pituitary type must
+beware of excesses. For disturbances of menstruation, psychic fears,
+anxieties, states of suspicion and obsession, various pains are among
+the penalties.
+
+A period of post-pituitary excess as an effect of disease, pregnancy,
+or the rapid life, may be followed by post-pituitary deficiency as a
+result of exhaustion of the gland. The girl or woman then becomes fat
+and suffers from headaches (the fair, fat and forty type) yet retains
+a certain capacity for enjoyment which enables her to continue gay,
+happy and gentle, kind, interested. So she contrasts with the thyroid
+deficient who gets fat, but also dull, stupid, even morose.
+
+The masculine pituitary personality, the man with a dominant anterior
+pituitary gland in a roomy sella turcica with plenty of space to grow
+in, is the ideal virile type. They are generally tall (unless the
+growth of the long bones was checked too early by a social precocity
+of the testes) with a well-developed strong frame, large firm muscles,
+and proportionately sized hands and feet. The head is of the marked
+dolichocephalic type, flattened at the sides, face is oval more or
+less, with thick eyebrows, eyes rather prominent, nose broadish and
+long, lower jaw prominent and firm. Prominent bony points like the
+cheek bones, the elbows and the knees, the knuckle joints of the hands
+and feet. The teeth are large, especially the upper middle incisors,
+and they are usually spaced. The arms and legs are hairy. High grade
+brains, the ability to learn, and the ability to control, self-mastery
+in the sense of domination of the lower instincts and the automatic
+reactions of the vegetative nervous system, the rule by the individual
+of himself and his environment are at their maximum in him. The
+ante-pituitary personality is educable for intelligence, and even
+intellect, provided the proper educational stimulus is supplied. Men
+of brains, practical and theoretical, philosophers, thinkers, creators
+of new thoughts and new goods, belong to this group. The distinction
+between men of theoretical genius, whose minds which could embrace
+a universe, and yet fail to manage successfully their own personal
+everyday lives, and the men of practical genius, who can achieve and
+execute, the great engineers, and industrial men lies in the balance
+between the ante-pituitary and the adrenal cortex primarily. Men like
+Abraham Lincoln and George Bernard Shaw belong to this ante-pituitary
+group.
+
+The feminine pituitary personality, in whom there is predominance of
+the post-pituitary over the ante-pituitary, occurs in men. The type
+is short, rounded and stout. They have heads that seem too large
+for their bodies, the general hair distribution on the trunk and
+extremities is poor, although that of the scalp and face is plentiful,
+and they acquire an abdominal paunch early. They exhibit the feminine
+tendency to periodicity of function, their moods, activities,
+efficiency are cyclic, reminding one of the menstrual variations of
+the female. This rhythmicity saturates their personalities, so that
+poetry and music almost morbidly appeal to them. A number of the great
+poets and musicians are to be classified as of the feminine pituitary
+species. Last, but not least, they are the hen-pecked lovers and
+husbands. Sex difficulties are frequent in their history.
+
+The determination of endocrine type and tendencies, the prediction of
+the future personality, during childhood is one of the developments
+confidently to be looked for, as our knowledge of the internal
+secretions will grow. The possibilities of control loom as one of the
+most magnificent promises of science. Yet the high expectations for
+tomorrow should not depress our respect for the achievements of today.
+In the case of the pituitary, for instance, a hint as to the method
+of approach is furnished by the tabulation of the traits of pituitary
+dominance and pituitary inferiority in children.
+
+  Pituitary sufficient and dominant:
+    Large, spare, bony frame
+    Eyes wide apart
+    Broad face
+    Teeth, broad, large, unspaced
+    Square, protruding chin and jaws
+    Large feet and hands
+    Early hair growth on body
+    Thick skin, large sex organs
+    Aggressive, precocious, calculating, self-contained
+
+  Pituitary inferior:
+    Small, sometimes delicate skeleton
+    Rather adipose, weak muscles
+    Upper jaw prognathous
+    Dry, flabby skin
+    Small hands and feet
+    Abnormal desire for sweets
+    Subnormal temperature, blood pressure and pulse
+    Poor control of lower vegetative functions
+    Mentally sluggish, dull, apathetic, backward
+    Loses self-control quickly, cries easily, discouraged promptly,
+      psychic stamina insufficient
+
+The pituitary personality in childhood produced by limitation of the
+size of the gland, because its bony box is completely or partially
+closed, presents typical hall-marks. He supplies the second and third
+offenders in the juvenile courts, the delinquents and pathological
+liars of childhood, the incorrigibles, the precocious hoboes, mental
+and moral deficients and defectives, the prey of the sentimental
+complexes of elderly virgins and helpful futility all around. Not
+utilitarianism or futilitarianism is needed, but pituitarianism.
+The feeding of pituitary gland in large enough quantities to these
+unfortunates may do more than ten charity organizations, with the most
+patrician board of directors complete.
+
+THE THYROID PERSONALITIES
+
+The accessibility of the thyroid gland in the neck, the ease of
+surgical approach, the definite effects following its removal, and
+then the miraculous marvels of the feeding of thyroid have rendered it
+the centre of attack by the largest army of endocrine investigators.
+As a result we know more about the thyroid in childhood, adolescence,
+adult life and old age than about the other glands.
+
+In childhood, the subthyroid or thyroid deficient, the cretinoid type,
+the type resembling the cretin, is fairly common. The peasant's face,
+with the broad nose and the tough skin, coarse straight hair, the
+undergrowth, physical and mental, a persistent babyishness and a
+retardation of self-control development, make up the picture. He needs
+an excess of sleep, sleeps heavily, needs sleep during the day,
+when awakened in the morning still feels tired, and rather dull and
+restless, dresses slowly, has to be coaxed or forced to dress, gets to
+school late nearly every morning, does badly at the school, reaction
+time, learning time and remembering time being prolonged as compared
+with the average, and is lazy at home lessons. He perspires little,
+even after exertion, yet fatigues easily, is subject to frequent
+colds, adenoids, tonsillitis, and acquires every disease of childhood
+that happens along.
+
+Adolescence, the coming of menstruation, the first blooming of youth
+is delayed in the subthyroid. The secondary sex traits as they develop
+tend to be incomplete and to mimic those of the opposite sex. Yet in
+adolescence too there may be a sudden change and reversal of the whole
+process, a jump from the subthyroid to the hyperthyroid state. So a
+girl who has been dull and lackadaisical, with no complexion and every
+prospect of evolution into a wall flower, may be transformed into a
+bright-eyed woman, generally nervous and restless, high colored, and
+possessed of a craving for continual activity and excitement. Skin,
+hair and teeth become of the thyroid dominant type. The heart
+palpitates under the slightest stimulus, she perspires almost
+annoyingly, heat and emotion are prostrating. If such a
+transfiguration does not occur, the effect of the reconstructions
+of puberty is to create a person with about the following
+characteristics.
+
+  1. Height below the average
+  2. Tendency to obesity (toward middle age)
+  3. Complexion sallow
+  4. Hair dry--hair line high
+  5. Eyebrows scanty, either as a whole or in outer half
+  6. Eyeballs deep-set, lack lustre, in narrowed slits
+  7. Teeth irregular, become carious early
+  8. Extremities cold and bluish
+  9. Circulation poor. Subject to chilblains
+
+Intellectually, these people vary enormously, depending upon which of
+the other glands will enlarge to compensate for the deficiency of the
+thyroid. If the growth of the skull has left a roomy sella turcica
+for the pituitary to grow in, the intellect may be normal or even
+superior, though energy is below par. If this is not possible and
+the adrenals have to predominate, a lower, more animal and less
+self-controlled type of mentality is produced.
+
+In direct contrast to the subthyroid types is he who originally was
+hyperthyroid. During childhood he is quite healthy, thin, but striking
+robust, active, energetic, generally fair-complexioned with nose
+straight and high bridged, eyes rather "poppy," teeth excellent,
+regular, firm, white with a pearly translucent enamel. These children
+are always on the go, never get tired, require little sleep. Seldom
+will one of the classical children's diseases strike them, measles
+perhaps, but no other. Adolescence for them, however, is more apt to
+be stormy and episodic, adjustment to the new world of people and
+things is much more difficult, wanderlust is acute. All an expression
+of cells keyed up, charged with energy that must flow somewhere or
+explode.
+
+The ruddy live-wire, recognized everywhere as bubbling with vitality,
+the life of any group, the magnetic personality may, however, be
+shocked by some seismic event like the death of a father or mother,
+or the ruin of some cherished ambition. A break in the balance of the
+other glands follows quickly and disablement and invalidism, which may
+cure itself after some years, remain stationary, or descend to the
+worst forms of thyroid deficiency.
+
+During maturity, the type are characterized usually by a lean body,
+or tendency rapidly to become thin under stress. They have clean cut
+features and thick hair, often wavy or curly, thick long eyebrows,
+large, frank, brilliant, keen eyes, regular and well developed teeth
+and mouth. Sexually they are well differentiated and susceptible.
+Noticeable emotivity, a rapidity of perception and volition,
+impulsiveness, and a tendency to explosive crises of expression are
+the distinctive psychic traits. A restless, inexhaustible energy makes
+them perpetual doers and workers, who get up early in the morning,
+flit about all day, retire late, and frequently suffer from insomnia,
+planning in bed what they are to do next day.
+
+Certain types of thyroid excess associated with the thymus dominant
+next to be described are peculiarly susceptible to emotional
+instability. They are subject to brain storms, outbreaks of furious
+rage, sometimes associated with a state of semi-consciousness. To
+emphasize the analogy to epilepsy, their attacks have been called
+psycholepsy. Among the Italians especially they were watched and
+reported during the War, when the explosive fits were seen to take the
+form of irresponsible acts of insubordination or violence.
+
+THE THYMO-CENTRIC PERSONALITIES
+
+During the first period of childhood, up to five, six or seven, or
+more accurately, up to the point at which the permanent teeth begin
+to appear, every child may be said to be a thymus-dominated organism,
+because the thymus, holding the other endocrines in check, controls
+its life. That is why up to the third and fourth years at any rate,
+most children seem alike. Closer observation, however, reveals points
+of differentiation and signs of the coming potencies of the other
+hormones. During the second period, up to puberty, these marks of the
+deeper underlying forces of the personality make themselves more
+and more felt. The thymus, like a brake that is becoming worn out,
+continues to function in a progressively weaker fashion. Until with
+the arrival of the gonadal (ovaries' or testes') internal secretion,
+its influence is wiped out.
+
+There is a definite degree of thymus activity during everyone's
+childhood, unless by its premature involution, precocity displaces
+juvenility. Yet even during childhood, there are certain individuals
+with excessive thymus action, foreshadowing a continued thymus
+predominance throughout life. The "angel child" is the type: regularly
+proportioned and perfectly made, like a fine piece of sculpture, with
+delicately chiselled features, transparent skin changing color
+easily, long silky hair, with an exceptional grace of movement and an
+alertness of mind. They seem the embodiment of beauty, but somehow
+unfit for the coarse conflicts of life. In English literature several
+characters are recognizable as portraits of the type, notably Paul
+Dombey, whose nurse recognized that he was not for this world. They
+may look the picture of health, but they are more liable than any
+other children to be eliminated by tuberculosis, meningitis or even
+one of the common diseases of childhood.
+
+It is after puberty, when the thymus should shrink and pass out of
+the endocrine concert as a power, that the more complex reactions of
+personality emerge when the thymus persists and refuses to or cannot
+retire. The persistent thymus always then throws its shadow over the
+entire personality. To what extent that shadow spreads depends upon
+the strength of the other glands of internal secretion, their ability
+to compensate or to stay inhibited. Whether or not the pituitary will
+be able to enlarge in its bony cradle seems to be the most important
+factor determining these variations. If there is space for it to grow,
+at any rate normally, the individual may pass for normal, although
+he will have difficulties throughout life he may never understand,
+particularly in sexual directions. If the pituitary is limited.
+partially or completely, the thymus predominance is more prominent
+and fixed, and the abnormalities become obvious, both of person and
+conduct.
+
+The anatomic architecture of the latter thymo-centric personality is
+fairly typical. The reversion in type of the reproductive organs, the
+slender waist, the gracefully formed body, the rounded limbs, the long
+chest and the feminine pelvis strike one at the first glance. The
+texture of the skin is smooth as a baby's, and sometimes velvety to
+the touch. Its color may be an opaque white, or faintly creamy, or
+there may be an effect of a filmy sheen over a florid complexion.
+Little or no hair on the face contributes to the general feminine
+aspect in the more extreme types. They are often double jointed
+somewhere, flat footed, knock-kneed.
+
+In women, the external manifestations of a thymo-centric personality
+may be limited to thinness and delicacy of the skin, narrow waist,
+rather poorly developed breasts, arched thighs and scanty hair,
+with scanty and delayed menstruation. Or there may be obesity, with
+juvenility, if there is a repression of the pituitary secretion for
+one reason or other.
+
+In their reactions to the problems, physical and psychic, of everyday
+life, the thymo-centrics are distinctly at a disadvantage. In the
+first place, muscular strain, stress or shock is dangerous to them
+because they have a small heart, and remarkably fragile blood vessels,
+which renders their circulation incapable of responding to an
+emergency, or at least definitely handicapped. In infancy, they may
+die suddenly because of this, either for no ascertainable cause at
+all, or because of some slight excitement like that attending some
+slight operation, a fall, or a mild illness. During the run-about
+epoch they are unable to cope with the necessities of an active
+child's existence in playing with other children. Puberty and
+adolescence are specially perilous to them for they may endeavour to
+compensate for an inner feeling of physical inferiority by going
+in strenuously for athletics and sports, and so risking a sudden
+hemorrhage in the brain, producible by the tearing of a blood vessel,
+as if constructed of defective rubber. Reports published in the
+newspapers from time to time of children or young men instantly
+killed by a tap on the jaw in a boxing contest, or some other trivial
+injuries are doubtless samples of such reactions in thymo-centric
+people.
+
+As an illustration of the conduct aberrations of the thymo-centric
+personality during adult life, the following extracts from a newspaper
+report of a suicide are worth quoting.
+
+"An autopsy made yesterday by Dr. Benjamin Schwartz, first assistant
+to Dr. Charles Norris, Chief Medical Examiner, removed any mystery
+that surrounded the death on Saturday night by pistol bullets of Dr.
+Jose A. Arenas and the wounding of 'Miss Ruth Jackson' and Ignatio
+Marti.
+
+"Dr. Schwartz said that his post-mortem examination had convinced him
+beyond doubt that the dead physician-dentist had killed himself after
+he had tried to take the life of the young woman with whom he had
+lived and of the youth who was his successful rival.
+
+"'Besides that,' Dr. Schwartz said, 'my report to the police will
+include a statement from the young woman to me that she always had
+understood that Dr. Arenas had killed some one in Havana, Cuba, before
+he came to New York.
+
+"The autopsy left no doubt that Dr. Arenas was a case of status
+lymphaticus (thymus-centered personality). I made a most complete
+report because of the scientific value of the autopsy.
+
+"'This confirmed my first deductions after seeing the body on Saturday
+night in the doctor's furnished room with alcove bedroom adjoining.
+You will remember that as soon as I had seen him I revealed that he
+was wearing corsets.
+
+"'These cases of status lymphaticus are intensely interesting. In them
+the blood vessels are very small, and the lymphatic clement is greatly
+in excess. They die suddenly, from ruptures of blood vessels. Many
+of them are degenerate. Most of them are criminals. All of them are
+liable to commit crimes of passion. Among them are found a large
+percentage of drug addicts.
+
+"'Miss Jackson, in the hospital, confirmed my scientific theory that
+the dead man was not normal. She was perfectly frank in her statement.
+She said she had left her husband, Elmer Schultz, an automobile
+salesman in Toledo, several months ago and had come to New York. She
+said she had lived with the doctor for some time.
+
+"'About ten days ago she left him to live with Marti, a healthy,
+normal lad. Before she went from the doctor's room she destroyed those
+colored collars that were found beside the body. She cut them with
+scissors. But that was after, so she states, the doctor had destroyed
+stockings of hers by cutting them.
+
+"'She told me in the hospital today, and with every appearance of
+truth, that she had met Arenas in the subway at the station on
+Seventy-second Street and Broadway on Friday night and that she had
+asked him when she could come and get her clothes. He said, according
+to her story:
+
+"'Come to the house tomorrow afternoon--but come with Marti.'
+
+"'She said that she and Marti went there according to this invitation:
+that first the doctor showed her the cut collars and told her that she
+would get her clothes back in perfect condition, and that the next
+thing she knew she had been shot. She couldn't remember much after
+that.
+
+"'I believe that both she and Marti have told a perfectly
+straightforward story and the autopsy is proof of it.
+
+"'There were six bullets in the doctor's pistol to be accounted for.
+One, in an undischarged cartridge, still was in the weapon. That
+leaves five. One struck "Miss Jackson" in the right chest squarely in
+front, and penetrated the flesh about one inch. If there had been any
+power at all behind the missile it would have gone right through,
+pierced a lung, caused a hemorrhage, and the chances are that "Miss
+Jackson" would have died. That leaves four bullets.
+
+"'One more struck Marti in the left upper chest. It passed through the
+pocket there, and the skirt, grazed the skin, and then bounced over to
+the right hand side in front. It was a most amazing case of a bounding
+bullet. I was particularly careful about examining its course because
+at first I was suspicious of the stories that were told by Marti and
+"Miss Jackson." Now I know they are true.
+
+"'But anyone might have been puzzled by the queer antics of the
+missiles from the pistol of South American manufacture that the doctor
+used. If it had had any penetrating power--or rather if the bullets
+that it sent out, had any real kick behind them--the chances are that
+both "Miss Jackson" and Marti would be dead now.
+
+"'Two bullets, it will be remembered, entered the doctor's left chest,
+quite close together. Well, one nicked the heart and lodged between
+the lung and the heart. It didn't cause any more damage than a
+mosquito bite.
+
+"'The second bullet went through the soft flesh of the chest, but it
+struck a rib and bounded back out again. That bullet was picked up
+beside the body.
+
+"'After these vain attempts to send a bullet through his body to a
+fatal spot, the doctor apparently shifted the weapon to his right
+temple and pulled the trigger for the fifth time. Then the fifth
+bullet, driven likewise by a very weak charge of powder, pierced the
+skull at a point where it was thin and tore into his brain. Its lack
+of power, however, is shown by the fact that I found it this morning
+in the brain tissue.
+
+"'In all my experience I have never seen anything so queer. It sounds
+almost like a dream--a man trying to kill with a pistol that shoots
+bullets that either stop after striking soft flesh or bound out of the
+body into which they are fired. But it is true; I have had all of the
+bullets in my hand.
+
+"'They are all accounted for. They are all of the same sort. There
+is no reason to doubt that they are all from the same weapon, an
+instrument without manufacturer's name, and of a design that the
+police say is unfamiliar to them.
+
+"'The dead doctor was a distinct type, and his tragic end was one that
+should not surprise anyone who has any knowledge of such cases. The
+courtroom was thronged with friends of the dead physician-dentist, who
+not only is reported to be of a wealthy family of Bogota, Colombia,
+but generally is credited with many charitable works in the uptown
+Spanish colony here.'"
+
+The distinct type to which the first assistant to the chief medical
+examiner of the city referred is the thymo-centric personality
+(status lymphaticus is another technical name for it), we have been
+considering. The persistence of the thymus after adolescence makes for
+an arrest of masculinization or feminization, the end-point arrived
+at by the processes of puberty. That is, a partial castration takes
+place. Now, as the experiments of Steinach upon the transplantation of
+ovaries into males deprived of their testes and of testes into females
+deprived of their ovaries have demonstrated, the removal of the
+interstitial cells of one sex assists enormously in arousing the
+opposite sex traits that have been latent, homosexuality. In a
+thymo-centric, tendencies to homosexuality and masochism appear.
+And so all the remarkable after-effects of those processes that the
+Freudians have so lovingly traced: the father complex in men, the
+inferiority complex, and the feminoid complex in general.
+
+The feminoid complex introduces again the character of the functional
+hermaphrodite, the mixed male-female. The sex index will certainly
+come in time as a measurement of sexuality. But until then some more
+available classification of sex tendency is necessary. Including
+sex intergrades, one may divide sex types into six classes:
+male, _male_-female, male-_female_, female, _female_-male, and
+female-_male_. The sex intergrades, the four hyphenated classes,
+nearly all have some degree of persistent thymus. If its influence is
+partial, the emphasis is before the hyphen, upon the ostensible. If
+its influence is unchecked, the emphasis is after the hyphen upon the
+apparently latent sex. The sex difficulties produced in these people
+by the conflict between their conscious sex and their subconscious
+sex, the sex duel in the same mind, Siamese twins pulling in
+diametrically opposite directions, are comprehensible only from the
+viewpoint of the internal secretions.
+
+Homosexuality, in one form or another, frank or concealed, haunts
+the thymo-centric and spoils his life. The persistent thymus, like a
+vindictive Electra, stalks the footsteps of its victim, its possessor.
+He wishes to live, according to society's remorselessly rigid
+expectations, for virility and happiness. But his thymus condition
+forces him also to live for femininity and misery. That homosexuality
+is not purely a psychic matter, of complexes and introversion, as
+the newest psychology would have us believe, has been proved by
+observations of its development in animals with internal secretion
+disturbances, acquired or experimental. Thus it has been recorded that
+a male dog showed a large goitrous swelling of the thyroid in the
+neck, with a rapid heart, staring eyes, the loss of flesh and fat and
+the nervousness of a hyperthyroid condition. Therewith he became an
+absolute homosexual. Observations on the primates along the same
+lines have been made. In goitrous hyperthyroids thymus persistence is
+common.
+
+What complicates his sex difficulties, and makes social adjustment
+almost impossible or completely impossible, is that his pituitary
+frequently cannot react to assist him. Often, as emphasized, it
+is bound in by bone on all sides and neither ante-pituitary nor
+post-pituitary can adequately secrete for his needs. So social
+instinct and the capacity for inhibition, the ability to control
+himself conceptually and somatically, are poor. As a child it is
+difficult to train him along the lines of the elementary habits and
+customs. He is into late childhood a bed-wetter, and steals and lies
+quasi-unconsciously.
+
+His mother realizes soon that he cannot be made to acquire a sense of
+responsibility either for himself or for others. She becomes afraid to
+let him go into the street because of his inability to take care of
+himself, to acquire the right attitude toward street cars, autos,
+strangers, in short, danger. She dreads to take him to places because
+no sooner would they be out of them, than she would discover that he
+had taken something that did not belong to him, quite as a matter of
+course. He will fabricate stories with no motive, fabricate them
+out of whole cloth for the pure fun of it. In a word, moral
+irresponsibility is the keynote of the volitional traits of the
+thymo-centric personality from childhood up.
+
+With so much against them, physical inferiorities, mental defects,
+moral lacks of every sort, it is little wonder that the thymo-centrics
+die young. Infections hit them badly. The cases of flu that went off
+in twenty-four hours belonged to the type. Fulminant meningitis,
+pneumonia, diphtheria, scarlet fever, the varieties that are supposed
+to kill in twenty-four to forty-eight hours because of the terrible
+virulence of the attacking microbe, are probably so malignant only
+because the organism attacked is a thymus subject.
+
+In the alcohol and drug habitue wards of hospitals as well as in
+medicolegal cases of degenerates, gunmen and other criminals,
+the characteristic conformation and diagnostic stigmata of the
+thymo-centric are often encountered. Life treats them badly.
+Misunderstood and misjudged, they are the hopeless misfits of society.
+If the pituitary and the thyroid can enlarge to compensate for their
+defects, they may become the queer brilliants, the eccentric geniuses
+of the arts and sciences. Should they not, mental deficiency and
+delinquency are their portion. Epilepsy, then, is sometimes their mode
+of escape from the terrors of an utterly foreign world. Should they
+survive all other hazards, suicide may still be their most frequent
+fate. A study of 122 cases of suicide by one observer showed that the
+status lymphaticus was practically constant and often pronounced.
+
+Certain of them, after a stormy life in the twenties, become adapted
+to their surroundings in the thirties because the pituitary gradually
+emerges and becomes dominant in their personalities. They are then
+recessive thymocentrics. An increase in size, a broadening, together
+with a greater mental tranquillity and stability, accompany the
+adaptation. Historically, the thymocentrics who combined brilliancy
+and instability played a great part as some of the famous adventurers
+and restless experimentalists.
+
+THE SEX GLAND CENTERED OR GONADO-CENTRIC PERSONALITIES
+
+(The Eunuchoid Personality)
+
+Among the individuals whose personality is dominated by their sex
+glands the physiognomy, physique and life reactions are so distinctive
+that no better examples exist of our main thesis: that the whole life
+of man is controlled primarily by his internal secretions. These
+gonado-centric types are not all necessarily sex gland deficient, as
+the term eunuchoid implies. They may be rather gonad unstable with a
+corresponding instability of the entire endocrine system.
+
+About the face of the eunuchoid the striking feature is the
+incomplete, irregular, or absent hair development. Below thirty it is
+chubby and ruddy, and rather childish in its texture; after thirty,
+there is an effect of premature senility: the skin is yellowish,
+leathery, and wrinkled as the faces of old women are wrinkled: the
+upper lip is traversed by vertical wrinkles, and wrinkles come around
+corners of the mouth. The expression is juvenile, effeminate or
+plaintive.
+
+Invariably the voice is higher pitched than the usual masculine tones.
+It may be gentle and subdued, like a genteel female's, or strident and
+rasping. Occasionally it is a pleasant high tenor. The Adam's apple,
+poetic popular name for the thyroid cartilage, is never prominent,
+because it is not ossified, as it should be in the normal male.
+
+Tall and slender, or generally undersized, the muscles are soft
+and flabby as a woman's. The hands and feet are small and gracile
+typically. Viewed in profile, the lines of the body are feminine. The
+breasts may reach almost the size of the female's and there may be a
+well-marked area of pigmentation around the nipple. The hair growth
+under the shoulders and on the lower abdomen tends to be scanty and to
+approximate the opposite sex in quality and distribution, as do the
+reproductive organs themselves.
+
+These traits of physiognomy and physique indicate functional
+hermaphroditism in the underlying feminoid constitution. The feminoid
+constitution appears again in the supposedly masculine. The feminoid
+constitution should not be confused with the infantiloid constitution.
+The former, the gonado-centric personality, is a digression of growth,
+a deviated evolution of the individual because of the conflicting
+forces, some masculine and some feminine, in his make-up. The
+infantiloid constitution is one of arrested development, and may
+center around the arrested function in childhood or adolescence of
+any one or a number of endocrine glands. Yet the two may resemble one
+another pretty closely, at times. A cretin imitates the extreme grade
+of infantiloid constitution. The infantiloid is a sort of enlarged and
+lengthened child. The feminoid is ostensibly a man, with a good deal
+of woman in him. The infantiloid is a quite general type, but of
+course when typical is a freak, recognized and treated as such. How
+far the eunuchoid may deviate from the normal is suggested by the
+following description of one.
+
+"Face rounded, moon-like, chubby, devoid of hair. Eyes puffed. Lips
+protruding and fleshy. Cheeks round and thick. Nose little developed.
+Skin thick and of clear color. Disproportion between the size of head
+and body. Hair of scalp fine. Brows and lashes scarce, trunk elongated
+and cylindrical. Limbs thick and plump, tapering from the root to the
+extremities. Good fat layers over the entire body. Reproductive organs
+those of a little boy. Infantile mental state: light-heartedness,
+naivete, timidity, easily evoked tears and laughter, promptly aroused
+but fugitive wrath: excessive tenderness, but unreasonable dislikes."
+
+An almost wholly mental infantiloid state or one purely physical
+may occur. Certain rather large Tom Thumbs belong to the group. In
+everyday life we see doll creatures, overgrown children, on every
+hand. Mental measurements of any large group of population reveal a
+remarkable percentage of it as below the mental age of 12. Juvenile
+traits and juvenile mind, separate or combined, should always suggest
+the possibility of the infantiloid constitution of one type of
+thymocentric also.
+
+The eunuchoid or feminoid personality is also found often among
+artists. One must carefully distinguish the two because the ensemble
+of characteristics of the one may easily stimulate the other. Yet
+fundamentally they are as far apart as the poles. The infantiloid
+type never rises above the subnormal, which is its habitat, while the
+feminoid type (or masculinoid, in woman) often produces an abnormal
+personality which rises above the normal. The infantiloids become the
+slaves and the weaklings of society, the Mark Tapleys, and the Tom
+Pinches, while the eunuchoids have created splendid literature and
+immortal music.
+
+The life reactions, and especially the sex reactions of the
+gonado-centric, are as complex and difficult as those of the
+thymo-centric. Straightforward homosexuality and the eunuchoid
+constitution have always been intimate. The homosexuality of the
+thymo-centric is more subtle and disguised, often buried under the
+stronger masculine component of the personality.
+
+Homosexuality as a cult has appeared correlated with the production of
+the functional hermaphrodite by artificially creating the eunuchoid
+type of constitution. Among the Aztecs, homosexuals were produced
+in quantity for religious purposes by a deliberate fostering of the
+eunuchoid constitution. They called them the Mujerados. Their method
+consisted in making a healthy man ride horseback constantly, until an
+irritable weakness of the reproductive organs ensued, and a paralytic
+impotence followed. The exhausted testes would then atrophy, and the
+voice ring falsetto, muscular tone and energy diminish, inclinations
+and habits become feminine. The Mujerado lost his position in society
+as a man, assumed female clothing, manners and customs, and to all
+intents and purposes was treated as a woman. Their large breasts were
+said to be capable of lactation. Their only reward was the high honor
+paid them as religious consecrates.
+
+Among the Phoenicians there was a similar sect, devoted to the worship
+of Astarte. Known as the Galli, they were men who had transformed
+themselves into the closest possible resemblance to women. At all
+times they were prepared to engage with members of either sex in
+sexual relations of the most depraved kind. They lived in idleness as
+prostitutes, cultivating and extending their skill in sex perversions
+as specialists. Their initiation into their professional careers was
+a part of a religious ritual. During the revels of great festivals,
+apprentices to the trade, wrought up by certain traditional songs and
+music, would be hypnotised into a frenzy, run amuck, throw off every
+garment, and, snatching up swords, deliberately placed in convenient
+spots, castrate themselves at one blow. In a wilder hysteria,
+screaming loudly, the self-made eunuchs would then run through the
+streets holding the severed organs high above their heads. At last,
+faint through loss of blood, they brought their madness to its climax
+by hurling the organs in their hands into the nearest houses, so
+forcing the owners to take them in, and provide them with female
+wearing apparel, and the other feminine accoutrements of war.
+Henceforth, this manner of dress was not to be changed. The physical
+changes followed. The hair of the face was lost, the breasts enlarged,
+the voice became high-pitched, and the other type-characters of the
+eunuchoid complex appeared.
+
+These constitutions thus may be either congenital or acquired.
+Individuals apparently normal during childhood and adolescence may
+be transformed. Injuries to the reproductive glands, sometimes the
+slightest bruises, may lead to atrophy, and a change of personality
+follows in less than six weeks. Mumps may achieve the same results
+because of the inflammation of the gonads that may accompany or follow
+it.
+
+Whole family and races may show some of the signs of the eunuchoid
+constitution for generations. According to Darwin (Descent of Man)
+"the development of the beard and the hairiness of the body differ
+remarkably in the men of distinct races, and even in different tribes,
+and families of the same race. On the European-Asiatic continent,
+beards prevail, until we pass beyond India, although with the
+natives of Ceylon they are often absent.... Eastward of India beards
+disappear, as with the Siamese, Kalmuks, Malays, Chinese, and
+Japanese. Throughout the great American continent the men may be said
+to be beardless: but in almost all tribes a few short hairs are apt to
+appear on the face, especially in old age...." Hair being an adrenal
+cortex trait, it is to be inferred that hairless families and races
+are more eunuchoid, and possess less of the adrenal cortex secretion
+than the more hairy.
+
+Whatever the exceptions--and there have been eunuch generals in
+history--Marces, Chancellor of Justinian, who beat the Goths at
+Nocera, and Ali the Gallant who commanded the Turkish Army after the
+invasion of Hungary in 1856--the eunuchoid generally runs to type in
+his mentality and his sexuality. He is an introvert, his personality
+is shut in, he isolates himself from the world.
+
+The lower eunuchoids exhibit a curiously child-like personality.
+Naively confiding, communicating to all comers all their joys and
+sorrows, they ask diffidently for confirmation of their statements,
+and they pass quickly from tears to laughter. About sexual matters
+they are extremely timid. A moral innocence pervades their speech and
+conduct. Usually they have no true conception of crimes of jealousy
+or passion. The occupations they go in for are those without
+responsibility away from crowds or observation, such as ship cooks,
+stewards, and so on. They marry to find a home, without the object of
+establishing sexual relations. When they are asked whether they think
+their wives will be pleased to look at the matter in the same light,
+and be contented to live with a man upon such conditions, they are
+puzzled or perplexed, as if they had never thought seriously about
+the matter before. Their simplicity has even extended to proposing to
+their wives to seek gratification from some other man. Naturally, such
+an arrangement often proves unsatisfactory, and desertion follows.
+
+Concerning the children sometimes the offspring of these unions,
+scepticism as to the identity of the father is decidedly permissible.
+Still in some cases the best of evidence exists that fertility occurs.
+The vitality of the children then is subnormal and the mortality
+rate high. The eunuchoid tendency is transmitted. Variations and
+transitions of every kind are found among the undersexed eunuchoid
+personalities, depending upon the quality and degree of the secretions
+lacking.
+
+When there is an excess of these sex secretions, a turbulent,
+tempestuous, sexually sensitive temperament, that may go on to
+satyriasis or nymphomania, is created. It has been shown that doves
+can be rendered overfeminine in their behaviour and characteristics
+by injections of ovarian material. Oversexed types of personality
+therefore may exist as well as undersexed.
+
+COMBINATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS
+
+The types of personality sketched--the thyrocentric, the
+pituitocentric, the adrenocentric, the thymocentric, the
+gonadocentric--are really prototypes, the great kingdoms of
+personality, to which individuals can be assigned, by hall marks which
+facilitate their classification. They may also be described as the
+pure endocrine types, which include a minority of a population. But
+the majority consist of dominant mixtures, hyphenates, groups which
+are the species and varieties of the greater classes. Combinations and
+variations of control among the adrenals and thyroid, pituitary or
+thymus, and so on, occur, with effects that are sometimes additive,
+reinforcing a particular trait of the person, and at others
+conflicting, and neutralizing. Quantitative variations of the same
+secretion may occur periodically in the same individual, which
+explains the multiplicity and complexity, the inconsistency and
+contradictions of conduct in a man or woman at the different episodes
+and crises of life, to a certain extent.
+
+There should be a stable balance between the various endocrines, the
+stability expressing itself in what we are pleased to call the normal.
+There should also be a balance between the antagonistic elements in
+the same gland; for instance, the pituitary. The pituitary, built
+of two distinct portions, the anterior and the posterior, is in
+equilibrium when the two are nicely adjusted. But the accidents and
+vicissitudes of life (pregnancy for example) will upset the balance.
+And so there will result changes of physique, conduct and character.
+Like possibilities apply to all the other glands of internal
+secretion. In our ability to exercise a control over these
+disturbances of balance, to be developed in the future, lies one
+of the great hopes for a chemical perfectability of human life and
+nature.
+
+NATURE'S EXPERIMENTS VS. MAN'S
+
+The kinds of personality described, as prototypes and variants and the
+fundamental facts supporting the view that they are the reaction types
+of the human beings we meet in everyday life, represent simply a
+beginning of the work to be done. Putting into our hands a new
+powerful searchlight that penetrates the interiors of body and soul, a
+fresh attitude toward the complicated problems of Man in society grows
+imminent. The normal and the abnormal become illuminated with an
+effect as if our retinas were suddenly to get sensitive to the
+ultraviolet rays to which we are now blind. An apparatus is put in our
+hands which shows us not only a static condition at a given moment,
+but the whole life process of an individual, normal or abnormal, his
+past and his future.
+
+Upon that fetich of the biologists, the struggle for existence, the
+struggle for survival, the struggle for possessions and satisfactions,
+for happiness, victory and virility, in short, for success, as success
+is measured by the biologists, a searching spectroscope can play, with
+a yield for our understanding and control of life, that will stand
+comparison with the astronomer's analysis of the stars. Toward the
+process of adjustment and adaptation, of the environment to the
+individual, as well as of the individual to the environment, attitudes
+will change from _hopeless acquiescence in the inevitable to a
+complete self-determination of the self and its surroundings._ The
+adventures of the personality, strung along as the episodes of his
+career, his friendships and sex reactions, his mishaps and diseases,
+and the final fate or fortune that overtakes him, be he normal,
+subnormal, supernormal, or abnormal, begin to become comprehensible,
+and hence controllable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+SOME HISTORIC PERSONAGES
+
+
+THE INTERNAL SECRETIONS IN HISTORY
+
+According to the views, facts and guesses concerning human
+personality, as a body-mind complex dominated by the internal
+secretions, outlined in the preceding pages, biography, and human
+history as the interaction of biographies, become capable of
+interpretation from a new standpoint. If human life, in its
+essentials, is so much the product of the internal messenger system we
+speak of as the endocrines, then biography should present us with a
+number of illustrations of their power and influence. What is the
+evidence that, as Huxley anticipated, "the introduction into the
+economy of a molecular mechanism which, like a cunningly contrived
+torpedo, shall find its way to some particular group of living
+elements, and cause an explosion among them, leaving the rest
+untouched," and the multiplication of such cunningly contrived
+mechanisms, were responsible for those personalities, magnificent
+chemical compounds, with whose adventures historians are concerned?
+
+THE CASE OF NAPOLEON
+
+As a unique will and intelligence, Napoleon Bonaparte the First must
+be classed as one of the Betelegeuses of the race. H.G. Wells has
+called his career the "raid of an intolerable egotist across the
+disordered beginning of a new time." "The figure of an adventurer and
+wrecker." "This saturnine egotist." "Are men dazzled simply by the
+scale of his flounderings, by the mere vastness of his notoriety?"
+"This dark little archaic personage, hard, compact, capable,
+unscrupulous, imitative and neatly vulgar." There are other opinions.
+The Man of Destiny was worshipped by millions. Napoleona bring
+fortunes today. Interest in the man as a man has multiplied with every
+year. And certainly no one can deny him the quality of individuality
+in its most exaggerated form.
+
+In the second place he belongs among the moderns. Modern science and
+methods of observation have had their chance at him, and have left a
+conscious record of their results. Napoleon was the central figure of
+his time, and was watched by trained medical eyes during his life,
+and after his death. Protocols of the examination of his body are
+accessible, and Napoleonic specimens, preserved by fixing agents,
+may still be viewed at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons,
+England. Dr. Leonard Guthrie has worked up the material at hand in
+a report which he presented to the historical section of the
+International Congress of Medicine, in London in 1913. I propose to
+relate his findings to some other facts and the general principles
+roughly sketched in this book.
+
+There are a number of word portraits of Napoleon extant. But for our
+purposes certain of the notable features of his face and physique are
+to be considered. The first characteristic that struck everyone about
+him was the matter of his height. He was definitely sub-average,
+at death being about five feet six inches in height. As has been
+emphasized several times, deficiency or excess of growth will always
+direct attention to the pituitary. His sharply outlined features and
+a powerful lower jaw, combined with oddly small plump hands, long
+straight black hair, and dark complexion, all point to the pituitary,
+with a secondary adrenal effect. His pulse was slow, according to
+Corvisart, his personal physician, rarely above 50 to the minute. His
+sexual life, his libido, was abnormal. Curiously explosive in their
+appearance and manifestations were his sexual impulses. They "beset
+him on occasions which were sometimes inconvenient, and a peculiarity
+about them was that they subsided with equal suddenness if not
+immediately gratified, or if meanwhile something occurred to
+discourage his attention. All women were to him 'filles de joie.'
+Sexual rather than social attractions in women appealed to him."
+He was never in love, never possessed of permanent affection or
+tenderness for any woman. This explosive periodicity of the sexual
+life, "with a tendency to compression of it to the merely physical,"
+is another mark of some pituitary-centered personalities.
+
+Two other phenomena that persisted throughout his life throw light
+upon his endocrine constitution. One was trouble with his bladder
+which he told Antommarchi, another physician, bothered him as long as
+he could remember. Irritability of the bladder was so pronounced that
+he could not sleep for more than a few hours at a time. After battles,
+the trouble became worse so that it interfered with his riding.
+Constitutional difficulties in urination have been connected
+definitely with the function of the pituitary. The other pituitary
+disturbances which tinctured his life were certain "brain storms,"
+attacks of vomiting followed by "stupor verging on unconsciousness"
+brought on by outbursts of temper, physical overexertion, mental
+strain, or sexual excitement. It has been shown that such epileptic
+tendencies are present in subjects of pituitary disease, particularly
+those with pituitary instability. In Napoleon's case the brain attacks
+may have been crises of pituitary insufficiency in a hyper-pituitary
+type. This supposition is borne out by the headache which followed
+them, the headache of an oversecreting pituitary compensating for
+a defect in its formation. During his prime, his intellect was
+mathematical, logical, and rational, and remarkable for a prodigious
+memory. Such an intellect is the product of an extraordinary
+ante-pituitary. That he never permitted feeling to interfere with
+the dictates of his judgment, a quality which rendered him the
+most unscrupulous careerist of history, must be put down to an
+insufficiency of the post-pituitary. What post-pituitary does to the
+brain cells and the organism as a whole to render them susceptible
+to sympathy and suggestion, the social sublimations of the maternal
+instinct, with its offsprings of religion and art, we have seen.
+Napoleon lacked a chemical trace of the religious instinct, his
+sympathy was nil, and his conquests were made possible only because he
+was blind to the suffering and misery his greed for glory and dominion
+generated. Post-pituitary insufficients of this type, patent or
+concealed, gradually become corpulent as they grow older. The
+increasing corpulency of Napoleon was commented upon by all observers.
+
+A student of his make-up, and acquainted with present developments
+concerning the internal secretions, given an opportunity to observe
+him as we have when he was alive, and at the height of his success,
+would have had every reason for classing him a pituitary-centered,
+ante-pituitary superior, post-pituitary inferior, with an instability
+of both that would lead to his final degeneration. Besides, his
+insatiable energy indicated an excellent thyroid, his pugnacity,
+animality and genius for practical affairs a superb adrenal. Given the
+kind of pituitary he possessed, with its great intellectual potential
+energy and the relation between the two parts which would further the
+objects of an intellectual machine, plus a remarkable thyroid and
+adrenal, plus the military education Napoleon had, and the character
+of the Revolution into which he was plunged, and we have the
+conditions out of which his career emerged as inevitable.
+
+That it was his pituitary which first failed him, rather than the
+thyroid or adrenal, which might have, is demonstrated by a number of
+considerations. Before he made himself Emperor, it was noticed that he
+was becoming fat, a pituitary symptom. A comparison of portraits at
+different stages of his rise and fall shows an increasing abdominal
+paunch, and a laying down of fat in the pituitary areas, around the
+hips, the legs and so on. The beginning of weakness in judgment that
+he was to exhibit soon in the invasion of Russia manifested itself at
+the same time. His keen calculating ability attained the peak of its
+curve at Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland. Thereafter, the descent
+begins. A rash, grandiose, speculative quality enters his projects,
+and divorces the elaborate coordination of means and end from his
+plans. That his thyroid energy capacity did not fail him is indicated
+by the fact that at St. Albans he would ride for three hours at the
+end of the day to tire himself sufficiently for sleep. That his
+adrenals were not affected is indicated by the brutality which
+remained characteristic to the end of his life.
+
+The findings after death confirm the view of him as an unstable
+pituitocentric who succumbed to pituitary insufficiency toward the
+latter half of his life. We possess the account of the postmortem by
+Dr. Henry, who performed it. "The whole surface of the body was deeply
+covered with fat. Over the sternum, where generally the bone is very
+superficial, the fat was upwards of an inch deep, and an inch and a
+half or two inches on the abdomen. There was scarcely any hair on the
+body, and that of the head was thin, fine and silky. The whole genital
+system (very small) seemed to exhibit a physical cause for the absence
+of sexual desire, and the chastity which had been stated to have
+characterized the deceased (during his stay at St. Helena). The skin
+was noticed to be very white and delicate as were the hands and arms.
+Indeed the whole body was slender and effeminate. The pubis much
+resembled the Mons Veneris in women. The muscles of the chest were
+small, the shoulders were narrow and the hips wide." In other words,
+the typical feminization of the body which accompanies pituitary
+insufficiency was found. He died of a cancer of the stomach. But
+before his death there were noted the mental transformations that
+succeed deficiency of his central endocrine. Apathy, indolence,
+fatigability, and frilosity were what impressed his associates at St.
+Helena. The deterioration of his mentality was also exemplified in his
+literary diversions, the "Siege of Troy" and the "Essay on Suicide."
+The puerility of these productions, as well as of his conduct, a
+sulking before his captors, and the decline of his physical energy,
+once a bottomless well, all point to the same conclusion.
+
+The rise and fall of Napoleon followed the rise and fall of his
+pituitary gland. No better illustration exists of the fundamental
+determination of a personality and its career by an endocrine,
+aside from other factors of education, environment, accident and
+opportunity. Without the sort of endocrine equipment he was born with,
+however, none of the other factors would have found the material to
+work upon. Born, say, with more of a posterior pituitary than he had,
+which would have rendered him more sensitive to the sufferings of his
+fellow-creatures, if nothing else, and the forces of the Revolution
+probably would have swamped him from the very first moment of his
+emergence at Toulon, when the whiff of grape-shot, symptom of an
+inexorable, merciless intellect and will, started him upon the road
+that led to the Napoleonic Era. Destiny is always ironic. For the
+deficiency of the internal secretions which made him eligible for
+glory was responsible as well as for his downfall.
+
+EPILEPSY AND MIGRAINE IN GENIUS
+
+In the annals of genius, there occur a number of instances of those
+who suffered from attacks that have been diagnosed epilepsy
+or migraine. Because their ailment was associated with their
+extraordinary ability, they attracted an attention that concerned
+itself not at all with the circumstance that genius has also been
+liable to measles, scarlet fever, and so on. Epilepsy and migraine
+certainly occur in people of no supernormal gifts, and often in
+degenerates and subnormals. Yet the fact remains that these affections
+of the nervous system, so terrible to feel and to behold, have
+afflicted the finest brains of the race.
+
+About forty years ago the idea established itself that epilepsy,
+exhibiting itself in one form or another as "fits," and migraine, the
+severe periodic sick headache, were interconvertible manifestations of
+the same underlying morbid process in the brain. Nothing in the way
+of a concrete cause, attackable on the material side, was elicited by
+this generalization. Then the investigations of the pituitary in the
+last decade produced evidence of epilepsy-like and migraine-like
+symptoms in sufferers from tumors or other enlargements of it.
+Reasoning back, cases of epilepsy and migraine began to be examined
+for evidences of involvement of the pituitary in their troubles.
+These accumulated rapidly. The physiognomy and physique of the
+pituito-centric were discovered in them. The phenomena noted in
+Napoleon's case were often present: lowering of the pulse, chilliness,
+and an increased irritability of the bladder. In women the attack
+often coincides with the menstrual period, a typical time of endocrine
+unbalance. Finally X-ray examinations of the sella turcica, the bony
+lodging of the pituitary, clinched the matter: it often appeared
+small, or enlarged, with erosions of the bone, signifying a desperate
+attempt of the gland to grow, and meet the needs of the organism. The
+complex of appearances called migraine now becomes understandable.
+There are a number of factors, such as fatigue, intense cold, or high
+sugar food like chocolate, which will cause an engorgement of the
+gland with blood and swelling of it. But they do not concern us now.
+Intense mental occupation, concentration as the popular term has it,
+acts as a patent excitor of the attack.
+
+Brain work drives more blood into the brain and the gland. Besides,
+mental activity is accompanied by increased function of the
+ante-pituitary, if intellectual, or of the post-pituitary if
+emotional. Brain work then causes a temporary enlargement of the
+gland. If, now, the bone container of the endocrine is too small to
+permit of much swelling, the bone will be pressed against or even worn
+into. This means headache, severe, easily going on to the kind known
+as sick-headache. The nerves which move the eyes in various directions
+lie next to the pituitary. If, in its expansion, it moves sufficiently
+outward, it may press upon, irritate them or paralyze, and so evolve
+various eye disturbances in association with the headache. No one can
+overrate this conception of migraine, for a number of men of genius
+have suffered from sick-headache and eye symptoms.
+
+As for epilepsy, the problem is more complex. One has to rule out
+first those who have organic destructive disease of the brain. But
+they are out of our field: genius predicates at least an intact brain.
+Of the others a number may be interpreted upon an endocrine basis. At
+least they will, in their physiognomy, physique, mentality, conduct
+and character, document the glandular constellation under which they
+live, and a proper understanding of which is necessary for them to be
+helped. One frequently seen is the thymo-centric, with small enclosed
+sella turcica. The latter fact explains the occurrence of the
+epilepsy. Periodic variations in the secretory tides of the other
+endocrines, the ovaries, the thyroid, and so on, may determine the
+onset of the attack of "fits." The point is that when epilepsy plays a
+constant part in the life history of a man of genius, we are justified
+in assuming a disturbed balance among his hormones, and so a reasoned
+picture perhaps of the foundations for the erratic in his behaviour or
+his productions.
+
+THE NEURASTHENIC GENIUS
+
+The fin de siecle intelligentsia of the nineteenth century were quite
+stirred up by a publication of Max Nordau on "Degeneration," in which
+a number of revered artists and intelligents were held up to public
+scorn as degenerates and neurasthenics. So wrought up were they, in
+fact, that Bernard Shaw was moved to compose a defense entitled "The
+Sanity of Art." In spite of the Great Vegetarian's dialectics, it
+remains to be explained why a certain species of creative ability has
+been combined with the fatigability, variability and general wretched
+irritability of every organ and tissue in the body which taught them
+that they were sensitive souls imprisoned in the flesh. Going from
+doctor to doctor as from pillar to post, from this medical creed to
+that hygienic cult, lucky to escape the worst, often landing upon the
+bosom of New Thought for succor. We have noted in previous chapters
+the relation of neurasthenia to the glands of internal secretion
+in general, and to adrenal insufficiency in particular. A closer
+examination of neurasthenic genius will show it to consist essentially
+of a pituitocentric in whom for one reason or another, congenital (the
+persistence of the thymus) or acquired (shocks, accidents, diseases)
+there has been failure of the adrenals, thyroid or the interstitial
+cells, about in the order of their occurrence.
+
+THE CASE OF NIETZSCHE
+
+Friedrich Nietzsche is about as good a case as there is on record of a
+genius blasted by migraine. The originality and force of his mind, as
+well as the articulate music of an imaginative poet, places Nietzsche
+among the philosophic elect of the race. Showing that he was an
+unstable pituitary-centered of a certain type will throw light upon
+his malady, as well as upon his life and work.
+
+In a set of volumes, entitled Biographic Clinics, Dr. George M. Gould
+of Philadelphia contended that the ill health of a number of men and
+women of genius of the nineteenth century was due to unconnected eye
+troubles. In attempting to bolster up his thesis he has collected
+biographic material useful to the student of personality. He never
+appears to have asked himself what was behind the eye trouble. The
+evidence relating to Nietzsche's endocrine personality is derived from
+some of the data he collected, as well as from the two volume life of
+the philosopher written by his sister, and the other biographies of
+him extant.
+
+To reconstruct the endocrine formula or equation of Nietzsche
+inductively, one should analyze first the information available
+concerning his parents and relatives. His grandfather was a
+conservative bourgeois of a superior type, who was the author of
+treatises designed to narcotize the forces of rebellion of his time.
+What he was like physically, no epitaph declares. His father was a
+clergyman. A description of him reads ... "tall and slender, with a
+noble and poetic personality, and a peculiar talent for music ...
+short-sighted." That ranks him at once as a pituito-centric.
+The mother was dark and had a fiery temper and came of a family
+distinguished for the powerfully built anatomy of its members. In
+the heredity of Nietzsche, the father appears therefore to supply
+a pituitary predominating element, the mother an adrenal-pituitary
+predominating element.
+
+Nietzsche himself worked strenuously at the intellectual life (after
+20, when he probably stopped growing, and the brain tonic action of
+the ante-pituitary could manifest itself). Early distinction rewarded
+him with a professorship in philology at 24. One of Prussia's wars
+of conquest entangled him, and presented him with diphtheria. A
+friendship with Richard Wagner marked the turning point of his life,
+and the point of departure for his works on the most fundamental
+values of human life. Meanwhile, attacks of sick-headache of varying
+degrees of severity made him miserable periodically--they came about
+every two weeks and lasted two to three days--and left him wretched
+and exhausted. At last, at 44, a species of stroke terminated his
+sufferings, causing him to lose his speech and memory, and thenceforth
+there was progressive deterioration, physical and spiritual, with
+repeated attacks.
+
+In the sister's biography there are several good photographs and
+reproductions of sculptures of Nietzsche at different ages. An
+examination of the frontispiece picture, which shows him in profile
+(profile views are the best for physiognomy), as well as of the bust
+of Nietzsche by Donndorf, exhibit the most striking traits of the
+head. To the student of internal secretions, the most prominent
+feature of the face, emphasized by both the camera and the artist,
+is the remarkable prominence of the supra-orbital arches, the bony
+protuberances from which the eyebrows spring. This is a definite
+pituitary character. The eyebrows themselves are luxurious and slope
+to meet, the bony development of the face as a whole is sharp and
+clean-cut, the skull tends to be long and narrow and the chin is
+square. All these point to a pituitary-centered personality. It is to
+be regretted that we have no picture or record of Nietzsche caught
+smiling, which would have preserved the state of his teeth for us. At
+any rate, considered as checks to my interpretation, his physiognomy
+and physique, the nature of his genius and the attacks which finally
+ruined his life, all fit into the conception of him as one whose life
+centered, like Napoleon's, around what was happening in his sella
+turcica.
+
+The attacks of sick-headache, diagnosable symptomatically as
+migraine, were so devastating that in 1883, after the printing of his
+masterpiece, "Also Sprach Zarathustra," he wrote "My life has been
+a complete failure." Extracts from his letters, collected by Gould,
+provide some idea of his suffering. In 1888, just before his stroke,
+he said, "I have in my eyes a dynamometer of my entire condition."
+
+The history of Nietzsche's eye trouble makes it probable that not
+simply a defect in his eyes themselves, but a deeper condition behind
+them was responsible. Up to the age of 15 he was a model scholar.
+Essential eye defects of refraction should make themselves felt during
+childhood. Then, with adolescence, he changed. Adolescence is one
+of the red-letter epochs for the pituitary, when its growth and
+enlargement precedes and stimulates the ripening of the sex cells
+in the reproductive organs. Until adolescence ended and physical
+development ceased, his intellectual interests were nil, and he was
+particularly backward in mathematics. Colds and coughs, and recurring
+pains in the head and eyes bothered him (colds and coughs are frequent
+in those whose pituitary expansion is limited by the bony sella
+turcica to any extent). After his puberty, migraine definitely became
+his demon companion. Following the diphtheria in the army (which
+must have damaged his adrenals), the attacks grew much worse, and
+complaints about them more bitter because the pituitary now, in
+addition to its own burden, had to compensate for the insufficient
+adrenals. So "his frequent illness made him more and more a subject of
+treatment and commiseration.... If only my eyes would hold out ...
+it seems to me at the age of 30 as if I had lived 60 years ... very
+frequent sufferings of stomach, head and eyes ... acidity oppresses
+me, and everything except the tenderest food becomes acid.... I cannot
+doubt that I am the victim of a serious cerebral disease, and that
+stomach and eyes suffer only from this central cause ... half-dead
+with pain and exhaustion." In December 1888, he fell, had to be
+helped home, lay silent for two days, then became loud, active and
+unbalanced. The attack was preceded by the drinking of much water.
+
+The specific quality of the Nietzsche genius also directs attention to
+a pituitocentric, to a pituitocentric in whom both ante-pituitary and
+post-pituitary are extraordinarily well-functioning, but are in a
+state of unbalance in which the post-pituitary gets the upper hand.
+Now, as we have seen, the post-pituitary makes for that instability
+of association between the brain cells which must be at the bottom of
+originality and creative thought, as well as of phobias, obsessions,
+hysterias and hallucinations. Persons in whom the post-pituitary
+predominates have a lively fancy and are liable to suffer from the
+tricks of association. Nietzsche, as we have noted, was poor in
+mathematics and in the calm cool proportioned forward march of
+scientific thought in general. His most brilliant ideas came to him in
+flashes and gleams. That is why so much of his work has come down to
+us in the form of aphorisms and paragraphs. He was, essentially, a
+poet among the metaphysicians, which again favors the conception of
+him as a pituitary-centered with a dominant post-pituitary. Yet his
+incisive critical faculty, as well as his love of music, also document
+the supernormal ante-pituitary.
+
+To sum up, the physique and physiognomy of Nietzsche, his migraine
+attacks and the later fate which overtook him, his likes and
+dislikes, his tastes, abilities and accomplishments followed from his
+composition as one pituitary-centered, with post-pituitary domination,
+a superior thyroid, and inferior adrenals.
+
+DARWIN AS A NEURASTHENIC GENIUS
+
+Charles Darwin, as the author of the "Origin of Species" and the
+greatest revolutionist of the nineteenth century, has naturally had
+a great deal of attention paid to his life and personality. Yet not
+until the publication of his Autobiography and his son's Reminiscences
+was it generally known that he suffered from chronic ill health for
+most of his adult life. Dr. W.A. Johnston, in an article in the
+_American Anthropologist_, 1901, has marshalled a number of available
+facts, to sustain his thesis that Darwin was a victim of neurasthenia.
+Now neurasthenia, it is now accepted, is simply a waste-basket word,
+corresponding to the class miscellaneous in a classification of any
+group of real objects. And, as has been emphasized in preceding
+chapters, most neurasthenia rises upon a disturbed endocrine
+foundation, most often, an insufficiency of the adrenals. That is, a
+defect in the chain of co-operation, balance and compensation among
+the internal secretions is the basis for the weakness of the nervous
+system the term neurasthenia is supposed to explain, actually only
+names. Darwin's case was pretty certainly that.
+
+There can be no doubt that Darwin had an abnormal fatigability, a lack
+of stamina and endurance in mental as well as physical application
+which plagued him from the late twenties to the sixties. As a child,
+he was strong and healthy, fond of outdoors, and though underrated by
+his teachers, noted to be possessed of intense curiosity, especially
+concerning natural objects. At school he was a fleet runner and
+cultivated a habit of long walks. Then he was surely no neurasthenic.
+Three years which, he himself afterwards said, were worse than wasted,
+at Cambridge, were filled with shooting, riding and hunting. His good
+health lasted until the time he probably stopped growing at 21 or 22.
+Thereafter his troubles began.
+
+What was Darwin, so far as his endocrine composition was concerned?
+In the first place his father was a variety of pituitocentric, of the
+post-pituitary inferior type, six feet two inches tall, exceedingly
+corpulent, and, in the eyes of his son, the sharpest of observers and
+the most sympathetic of men. He wished to make a physician out of his
+son in order to carry on the medical tradition of the family: Erasmus
+Darwin was a physician before him. His son, however, showed no
+inclination for so learned and confining a profession and had to
+be reproached by his father in these immortal words: "You care for
+nothing but shooting dogs, and rat-catching, and you will be a
+disgrace to yourself and all your family."
+
+Cambridge came after Edinburgh, as he was rushed from medicine into
+the clergy. But in vain. A friendship struck up with a naturalist,
+Henslow, settled his career for him. Henslow heard of a trip of
+general exploration the ship _Beagle_ was to take and recommended
+Darwin as naturalist. The captain at first would not hear of the
+proposal because of Darwin's nose, a typical pituitary proboscis. But
+his prejudices were overcome, and Darwin sailed.
+
+It was upon this voyage that Darwin made himself the greatest
+naturalist of all time, and at the same time infected himself with
+the virus of neurasthenia. At Plymouth, while waiting for the ship to
+sail, he complained of palpitation and pain about the heart, probably
+due to a transient hyperthyroidism, brought on by excitement. During
+the voyage, which lasted five years, he was afflicted often by
+sea-sickness. A ship-mate relates that after spending an hour with the
+microscope he would say "Old Fellow, I must take the horizontal for
+it" and lie down. He would stretch out on one side of the table, then
+resume his labors for a while when he again had to lie down. Already
+fatigability had to be fed with rest. A serious illness that Darwin
+claimed affected every secretion of his body acted probably as the
+exhausting drain upon his adrenal potential.
+
+The return to England was the date of onset for a record of continuous
+illness, aggravated by his marriage, apparently, for his misery
+increased progressively after it. So much so that he was forced to
+leave London altogether so as to avoid the strain of social life, even
+that of meeting his scientific friends or attending scientific society
+meetings fatiguing him to exhaustion. After such occasions there would
+be attacks of violent shivering, with vomiting and giddiness. It was
+necessary for him to impose upon himself an absolute regime of daily
+routine. Any interference with it upset him completely, and made it
+impossible for him to do any work. Early morning was the only time for
+physical as we; as mental exertion. Evening found him thoroughly used
+up, with every move an effort. Insomnia made him its prey. A curious
+sensitiveness to heat and cold distressed him. In 1859, when the
+"Origin of Species" appeared, he wrote to a friend that his health had
+quite failed, and that indigestion, headaches, with a looming hopeless
+breakdown of body and mind made his life a burden and a curse. The
+twenty years of research he devoted to the problems of evolution were
+one long torture. For sixteen more years, during which he worked upon
+and produced immortal classics of biology, he was the most wretched
+and unhappy sufferer from neurasthenia. His life was a continuous
+alternation of small doses of work and large doses of rest. So he
+was enabled to publish twenty-three volumes of original writing and
+fifty-one scientific papers. Living a sort of quasi-sanitarium life,
+with the rules and regulations of one undergoing a rest cure for
+thirty-six years, he thus accomplished infinitely more than the
+millions who have led the strenuous life. That he thus survived, as a
+genius, among the perils of an intellectual nature in an environment
+for which his adrenals sentenced him to destruction, must be put down
+in large measure to the ministrations and good sense of wife and
+children who supplied him with the endocrine energy he lacked. All
+these details I have given in the attempt to analyze the internal
+secretion constitution of this great man of genius, to establish that
+he really suffered from inadequate function of his adrenal glands, for
+the symptoms of chronic though benign adrenal insufficiency coincide
+in their mass effect with the story of his life. He was not a good
+animal, as Herbert Spencer declared was a first sine qua non of the
+successful life. He was a poor animal, the poorest of animals, because
+he possessed poor adrenals. What saved him was his congenitally
+superior pituitary (the nidus of genius) and the overacting thyroid,
+which combined to compensate to some extent for his fundamental lack.
+According to his son he rose early because he could not lie in bed,
+and he would have liked to get up earlier than he did.
+
+What other hints have we that in spite of his fatigue disease he was
+a pituitocentric? The record of his physique and physiognomy,
+documentary and that left in portraits and photographs. He was tall
+and thin and his frame was naturally strong and large. Face was ruddy,
+and his grey eyes looked out from under deep overhanging brows and
+bushy eyebrows. The ears were large and prominent, the hair straight,
+the nose broad and well developed. All these are distinctive pituitary
+traits. The photograph of him taken by Maull and Fox in 1854 shows his
+chin to be the square firm kind that goes with the ante-pituitary type
+physique. (This photo is the frontispiece of the collection of essays
+entitled "Darwinism and Modern Science," edited by A.C. Seward and
+published in 1909). Charles Darwin, we may say, then, lived the
+life of one with a hyperfunctioning pituitary, the anterior portion
+dominating the posterior, a thyroid excess, and an adrenal much
+deficient, the combination settling the fate of a grand intellect
+in an invalid. It is interesting to note that an extant portrait
+of Erasmus Darwin, Darwin's distinguished grandfather, shows a
+pituitocentric, but with a rounder head and a fatter face, which point
+to a predominance of the post-pituitary over the ante-pituitary.
+Correspondingly, he was more speculative and poetic intellectually
+than his grandson, and more irascible and imperious in his moods.
+
+After 1872, when Charles Darwin was sixty-three years old, a marked
+change for the better occurred in his health. For the last ten years
+of his life the condition of his health was a cause of satisfaction
+and hope to his family. "He was able to work more steadily with less
+fatigue and distress afterwards." This is probably to be explained as
+following the gonadopause hi him--the cessation of activity of the
+interstitial cells. After this event, the adrenals in the male nearly
+always function more efficiently, and well being is improved even
+though the blood pressure often rises coincidently. In the relative
+vigor of that decade we have another bit of evidence that the adrenals
+had much to say over Darwin's life.
+
+EPILEPTIC GENIUS
+
+  He had a fever when he was in Spain
+  And, when the fit was on him, I did mark
+  How he did shake: 'tis true, this god did shake
+  His coward lips did from their color fly;
+  And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world,
+  Did lose his lustre: I did hear him groan.
+
+  --Julius Caesar.
+
+Epilepsy, the "falling sickness" or "fits," is generally associated
+with a deterioration or degeneration of mentality, and an inferior
+personality is frequently an ingredient. Progressively increasing data
+accumulate to incriminate more and more a disturbance of the endocrine
+balance, on the side of multiple deficiencies, as the basic mechanism
+at the bottom of a good many of them. Concurrent studies reveal that
+abnormalities of the thyroid, the parathyroids, the ovaries and
+testes, and even the thymus exist behind the attack. Investigation of
+the content of the consciousness of the different kinds of epilepsies
+from this point of view will doubtless bring to light some interesting
+information. There is much to be done for the epileptic with this new
+method of approach.
+
+Epilepsy, just the same, may occur in men gifted with the sort of
+transcendent ability called genius. Mohammed, Lord Byron, Dostoyevsky,
+Flaubert, to name a few cases, are famous instances. The point to be
+settled is whether epileptic genius, that is epilepsy with superior
+ability, occurs most often in pituitocentrics, the epilepsy being
+symptomatic of a pituitary struggling against barriers, tugging
+against bonds. As mentioned, in such cases epilepsy appears as the
+twin brother of migraine in genius. Should that be established,
+we should have more evidence for the pituitary dominance of most
+specimens of intellectual power. As a case in point let us take the
+most famous of the epileptic geniuses--Julius Caesar, "When the fit
+was on I marked how he did shake; tis true, this god did shake."
+
+According to Plutarch, Julius Caesar was of slender build,
+fair-complexioned, pale, emaciated, of a delicate constitution
+(reminding us of Darwin), subject to severe headache and violent
+attacks of epilepsy. In view of the work of Cushing, the concurrence
+of "severe headache and violent attacks of epilepsy" is sharply
+suggestive of a pituitary origin for both. In his seventeenth year
+he was already engaged to be married, which proves his precocity. An
+overactive, erratic pituitary could here also be held responsible.
+Soon after he was proscribed by the dictator Sulla, and the first of
+a series of epileptic convulsions is recorded. Shock tries the
+pituitary, as well as the adrenals.
+
+His sexual libido was of the quality that stimulated his soldiers to
+sing celebrations of his exploits. The first woman he was engaged to
+be jilted. Cornelia, his first wife, he divorced on the ground that
+"Caesar's wife must be above suspicion." Matrimony committed twice
+thereafter landing him in the divorce court, he devoted himself to
+liaisons, one with Cleopatra. This sexual hyperactivity was probably
+another pituitary trait.
+
+The compound of intellectual and practical ability he realized was
+of the rarest. It meant a most delicate balance between his
+ante-pituitary, post-pituitary, adrenals and thyroid. He was an
+orator, politician, historian, conqueror, and statesman. That his
+thyroid functioned well can be deduced from a career which involved
+more than three hundred personal triumphs as recognition from his
+native city. On horseback, riding without using his hands, he would
+often dictate to two or three secretaries at once. The masculine love
+of glory and ambition, expression of a well-working ante-pituitary,
+was combined with the effeminate echoes of an equally well-evolved
+post-pituitary. No prima donna was more concerned with the care of
+her skin, complexion and hair than he. The analogy extends even to
+superfluous hair which he had removed, not by the modern electrolysis,
+but by depilation with forceps and main force. The attendants at
+his bath would polish his epidermis, for his satisfaction, until it
+resembled alabaster or marble.
+
+Caesar was not the kind of great man that Darwin was, and only
+a rather muddled careerist because he had too much adrenal and
+post-pituitary. But he was pituitocentric of a certain type. We
+possess no authentic portraits or busts of him to go by. But the bust
+in the Museum of Naples, for which he probably sat (some, H.G. Wells
+among them, will not accept this), presents the sort of face that is
+often seen in pituitary epileptics, and the features and skull of a
+pituitocentric: long, large, well-modeled head eyebrows prominent,
+with tendency to meet, aquiline nose and strong chin.
+
+In these three, Napoleon, Nietzsche and Caesar, we have male
+pituitocentrics, exhibiting diversities of life and tastes because of
+differences in the co-working endocrine glands in their makeup. We
+shall consider now a female pituitocentric who presents the strangest
+contrasts in physique, physiognomy, conduct and character, dependent
+upon a variation in the balance between the two portions of the
+pituitary.
+
+THE LEGEND OF FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE
+
+All biographies consist of prevarications and all autobiographies
+of fiction. That summing up of a mass of literature over which
+industrious students have ruined their eyes, held good until after the
+War, when things changed. Then Mr. Lytton Strachey, at one fell blow,
+and with one magnificent masterpiece, hurdled the old idols and
+established a new standard of deliberate accuracy in print. In his
+"Eminent Victorians" he set the pace for the host of those who have
+been stimulated by his good example, like Lady Margot Asquith.
+
+Of the four Victorian respectable worthies Strachey has dissected as
+ruthlessly as the anatomist a post-mortem, his portrait of Florence
+Nightingale, the founder of the modern science and art of nursing, is
+most interesting because it provides data of the utmost value to
+the student of the endocrine basis of human personality. In the
+conventional two-volume biography of this superwoman, she is pictured
+as an intellectual saint, stepped from a stained glass window upon her
+wonderful visit to a clay-smeared earth. The biographer, presenting
+all the ins and outs of her body and soul as he has, makes her live
+before us with a fresh vitality that is startling.
+
+The species of life Florence Nightingale lived, involving as it did
+struggle with a masculine world, and conquest of it, implies the
+existence in her of certain masculine traits and marks, for the normal
+feminine psyche is submissive rather than aggressive toward its
+environment, human and otherwise. Belonging to a family in the highest
+circles, it was upon the table d'hote of her destiny that she should
+become a regulation debutante, careeristina, and successful wife and
+mother. Instead, she chose to question the whole routine of the life
+of her class, and in her diary she records her doubts and cravings,
+and her revolt against what is assumed by her family and friends to be
+the normal course of existence for her. The attitudes and questionings
+in these passages, the religious feeling displayed, are distinctly
+masculine. Most easily could the following, for instance, pass as
+having been written by a man: "I desire for a considerable time only
+to lead a life of obscurity and toil, for the purpose of allowing
+whatever I may have received of God to ripen, and turning it some day
+to the glory of His Name. Nowadays people are too much in a hurry
+both to produce and consume themselves. It is only in retirement, in
+silence, in meditation that are formed the _men_ who are called to
+exercise an influence upon society." In a note-book she puts May 7,
+1852, as the date upon which she was conscious of a call from God
+to be a saviour. Now the vast majority of women who have remained
+spinsters at 32, in spite of considerable personal attractions and
+high natural ability, are visited by waves of emotional fervor for a
+de-personalization of the self. But in the case of the subject, as
+Strachey has so well shown, the call was pursued with a self-willed,
+pitiless, unscrupulous determination, worthy of Satan himself upon the
+most ferocious evil bent. In its pursuit indeed she became what her
+latest biographer has called a "woman possessed by a Demon." All
+necessary, not alone because if she had been meek and mild she would
+have existed in futility, but because of the high percentage of the
+masculine endocrines in her composition. It is most regrettable that
+we have no statement of the findings of a gynecologic examination of
+her. That she was almost consciously masculine may be inferred not
+only from the way she bullied Lord Pannure and worked to death her
+dearest friend with the angelic temper, Sidney Herbert, who was so
+amiable that he could be driven by one who wrote: "I have done with
+being amiable. It is the mother of all mischief." She could also
+write, "I attribute my success to this: I never gave or took an
+excuse. Yes, I do see the difference now between me and _other men_.
+When a disaster happens, I act, and they make excuses."
+
+Lytton Strachey has painted superbly all this in his essay. But for us
+his most significant passage is the following: "When old age actually
+came, something curious happened. Destiny, having waited patiently,
+played a queer trick upon Miss Nightingale. The benevolence and public
+spirit of that long life had only been equaled by its acerbity. Her
+virtue had dwelt in hardness, and she had poured forth her unstinted
+usefulness with a bitter smile upon her lips. And now the sacredness
+of years brought the proud woman her punishment. She was not to die
+as she had lived. The sting was to be taken out of her: she was to be
+made soft; she was to be reduced to compliance and complacency. The
+change came gradually, but at last it was unmistakable."
+
+"_There appeared a corresponding alteration in her physical mould._
+The _thin, angular_ woman, with her haughty eye, and her acrid mouth,
+had vanished, and in her place was the _rounded, bulky form_ of a _fat
+old lady_, smiling all day long. Then something else became visible.
+The brain which had been steeled at Scutari was, indeed,
+literally growing soft. Senility--an ever more and more amiable
+senility--descended."
+
+We have here an absolutely typical pituitary history, with another
+case of pituitocentric natural ability. What happens when pituitary
+hyperfunction or superiority becomes underfunction or inferiority is
+precisely as Strachey has described so cleverly of the "ministering
+angel": the acrid, thin and keen degenerate every time into the
+amiable, fat and dull. Just as Napoleon was transformed by the
+mutations of his pituitary, so was the Saint with the Lamp. And in
+both instances the contrasting modifications, from one extreme of
+glandular function to the other, supply us with the clue to the secret
+hand of their inner being and becoming, which worked upon the twists
+and turns of circumstance about them as a sculptor upon clay.
+
+The official biography by Sir Edward Cook contains three portraits,
+representing three different stages, which bear out the pituitocentric
+thesis of her personality and life history. One as she was at 25, and
+pictured by Mrs. Gaskell: "She is tall; very straight and willowy in
+figure; thick and shortish rich brown hair; very delicate complexion
+... perfect teeth ... perfect grace and lovely appearance ... she is
+so like a saint." The face is long and oval, of the post-pituitary
+kind. Then gradually the ante-pituitary gained an ascendency in the
+concert of her internal secretions, so coloring her life with its
+masculine tints, and altering her face as well as her disposition. The
+photograph of her taken when she was 38 shows a quadrangular outline,
+and all the acridity that impressed Strachey. The last picture of her,
+a water color drawing made in 1907, shows a round visaged old dame,
+who might be the peasant grandmother of two dozen descendants. Little
+patches of red over the cheek bones remind one of myxedema and
+indicate that toward the very end of her life her thyroid failed her
+as well as her pituitary. So that our biographer relates: "Then by
+Royal Command, the Order of Merit was brought to South Street, and
+there was a little ceremony of presentation. Sir Douglas Dawson, after
+a short speech, stepped forward and handed the order of the insignia
+to Miss Nightingale. Propped up by pillows, she dimly recognized
+that some compliment was being paid her. 'Too kind--too kind!' she
+murmured; and she was not ironical." In the days of pituitary and
+thyroid hyperfunction we may be sure she would have been caustically
+and penetratingly ironical.
+
+THE EXPLANATION OF OSCAR WILDE
+
+The case of Oscar Wilde, as one of the high tragedies of English
+Literature and Life, attracted the attention of the whole world in its
+heyday, and even today evokes controversy. As a literary figure and
+artist, the poet of the Portrait of Dorian Gray, and "De Profundis,"
+belongs without a doubt to the immortals. As a convicted criminal, who
+served for two years at hard labor in Reading jail, and afterwards,
+a prey to chronic alcoholism, died in obscurity in Paris, he still
+remains a subject of whispered conversation in private, and his crime
+a taboo to the public, mentionable only at the risk of arousing the
+terrible odium sexicum of the prurient majority. Oscar Wilde was a
+homosexual of a certain type. In view of the previously laid down
+considerations concerning the endocrine genesis of homosexuality, how
+are we to explain him, and his natural history?
+
+As with the other exemplars of genius examined we need here, too, to
+gain some insight into his "internal secretion heredity." His father,
+Sir William Wilde, was a surgeon. Photographs of him show the long
+and broad face of a pituito-adrenal centered individual, with
+a corresponding duplex incarnation in the face, the upper half
+strikingly spiritual, the lower curiously animal.
+
+He was active, practical and eminently successful. His wife recalls
+Florence Nightingale, in face, figure and conduct (people who are
+built alike as regards their internal secretions are those whom we
+recognize as similar physically and psychically). She, too, was a
+pituito-adrenal, and in so far resembled her husband. But as in a
+woman ante-pituitary and adrenal superiority make for masculinity,
+she must be classed as a masculinoid type of woman. She was socially
+aggressive, and took part in the revolutionary movement of her time in
+Ireland. Thus we find that Oscar Wilde was the result of a mating of
+internal secretions acting in the same direction. The process might be
+compared to parthenogenesis.
+
+It is on record that when enceinte his mother often expressed the
+wish that her child be a girl. When a boy was born, she was immensely
+disappointed. To compensate for her disappointment, she brought him up
+a good deal like a little girl. She had him dressed in girls' clothes
+at an age when most boys are violent destroyers of clothing. She would
+hang massive jewelry upon him, for the delight of playing with the
+resultant stage picture as a satisfaction for her discontented
+desires. In the light of modern psychology, and our formulization of
+her endocrine status, we must put down her conduct to a suppressed
+homosexual craving. Had her son been built along the lines of strong
+emphatic masculinity, her influence, though vicious, would probably
+have found no congenial soil, and would have died out altogether after
+his contacts with the outer world, beginning with school. No matter
+how she would have conditioned his vegetative system temporarily,
+his internal secretions, released then from compression, would have
+asserted themselves and determined his fate differently. However, it
+is quite possible that if such had been the case Oscar Wilde, the
+aesthete, the paradoxer, the disciple of Walter Pater and Baudelaire,
+would have stayed in the land of the to be born. I mean that then
+we would not have had Oscar Wilde, but another person, genius or
+commonplace, who also might have borne the name of Oscar Wilde.
+
+That was not to be. The singular assortment of endocrines that mingled
+their activities to make Oscar Wilde shaped a personality which we
+must classify as the thymocentric (thymus-centered). Why this should
+be so is an interesting question. Pituito-adrenal plus pituito-adrenal
+of his heredity should make two pituito-adrenals according to
+elementary arithmetic and the rule of three. A cancellation of the two
+factors of the equation rather than addition seems to have occurred.
+The result was a persistent thymus superiority, with an instability of
+the other two main glands involved.
+
+How do we know that Oscar Wilde was a thymocentric? Because in his
+fullest development he exhibited all the earmarks of the thymus
+pattern. We possess a number of good pictures and descriptions of him,
+as he was really a contemporary, and would probably be alive today
+if he had been put in a hospital for proper treatment instead of in
+prison. An excellent description is that of Henri de Regnier's: "This
+foreigner (Wilde) was _tall_, and of _great corpulence_. A _high_
+complexion seemed to give still greater width to his clean shaven
+face. It was the _unbearded_ (glabre) face that one sees on coins. The
+_hands_ ... were rather _fleshy_ and _plump_." The points of immediate
+interest are the height, the complexion and the beardlessness. One
+classic variety of the thymocentric is tall, has a baby's skin, and
+has little or no hair on the face. A passage from a narrative written
+by one of his warders confirms the last condition decidedly. "Before
+leaving his cell to see a visitor, he was alway careful to conceal, as
+far as possible, his unshaven chin by means of his red handkerchief."
+Bristles on the chin, with little or none on the cheeks, is the
+inference. It is important to stress the thymocentric significance of
+this glabrosity of the face. Another sign to be put in italics was the
+quality of his voice. It has been described as a beautiful tenor, when
+he had it under perfect control, and high pitched and strident when
+under the influence of passion or temper. Such a voice would be the
+product of a larynx remaining partly or completely in the infantile
+state, as in a woman's. That, and the large breasts he is said to have
+had, point again to the thymus-centered constitution. All in
+all, there can be no doubt that Oscar Wilde was a case of status
+lymphaticus, the technical name for the thymus-centered personality.
+
+As happens in a number of thymocentrics, his pituitary must have
+attempted to compensate for the endocrine deficiencies always present
+in them. The exceptional size of his head was a pituitary trait.
+Finding, possibly making, plenty of room for itself to grow, for some
+unknown reason, in an extraordinary fashion, it reinforced the love of
+the beautiful that is part of the feminine post-pituitary nature, with
+an intellectual ability and maturity that was at first all-conquering.
+In the face of a society organized for pure masculine and pure
+feminine types, disgrace and disaster at last overtook him with almost
+the ruthlessness of natural selection wiping out an unadapted sport
+suddenly cropping up in an environment. In prison he suffered from
+severe splitting headaches, which were probably due to changes in his
+pituitary. Described as being directly over the eyes, they haunted him
+until his death, and may have had a good deal to do with the absinthe
+addiction he acquired.
+
+THE TREATMENT OF GENIUS
+
+The problem of Oscar Wilde raises an ethical question that still
+remains to be finally answered. Granting that all of society should
+one day see him and his kind as a peculiar and specific constitutional
+product of an odd intermixture of internal secretions, what should
+be done with him and them? It is easy to play with words like
+"degenerates." But still, we do not condemn imbeciles, idiots or
+defectives, or other substandard, subnormal creatures to the prisons.
+For the sake of the good opinion society would maintain of itself,
+it sends the latter nowadays to hospitals, sanitaria, or their
+equivalents, where protection for itself without punishment for them
+may be practised. But is confinement, or even treatment the solution?
+For we have to consider what society would lose by cutting such
+abnormals off from itself, and them from its stimulations. A number
+of artists have been built like Oscar Wilde, musicians in particular.
+Without them, would there not be a great gap, a yawning absence, in
+the world's culture?
+
+Modern diagnosis and modern therapy might have done a great deal for
+Napoleon, Nietzsche, Julius Caesar, Florence Nightingale, Oscar Wilde.
+Were they alive today, and willing to submit themselves to scientific
+scrutiny, the X-ray would tell us of the state of the pituitary and
+thymus in them, chemical examinations of the blood the condition of
+the thyroid and adrenals, detailed investigation of the body and mind
+a flood of light upon their maladies as well as their personalities.
+Therapy might have relieved Napoleon of his attacks, and so, halting
+the creeping degeneration of his pituitary, made Waterloo impossible.
+But then, would we have had the Emperor at all? Would there have been
+enough of that instability that drives on the genius to his goal?
+Nietzsche might have been relieved of his headaches, and Caesar of
+his epilepsy--but then, would not--with correction of the underlying
+streams of activity on the part of the other glands of the internal
+secretion to compensate--their peculiar superiority and distinction,
+and the fruits of their lives as by-products, have been destroyed.
+Florence Nightingale, too, might have been a softer and more human
+person. But then would she have revolutionized the practice of
+nursing? Oscar Wilde possibly might have been made over into a
+heterosexual. But then would not the world be the poorer without "De
+Profundis," let us ask? To state the problem in the most general
+terms: how much abnormality are we to tolerate (I speak, of course, of
+malignant abnormality, and disregard benign abnormality altogether)
+for the sake of the valuable that is concomitant? How much are we
+to stand of that which degrades the germ-plasm while it raises the
+mind-plasm of the race? The Flowers of Evil. Destroy or modify the
+roots, change the seed, and the buds will bloom, if at all, not
+orchids, but dull brown commonplaces.
+
+What means may be licensed for the attainment of a worthy end is
+perhaps the broadest aspect of the problem. The instruments of Man's
+ascent to divinity may arouse his instinctive repulsions, dislikes,
+and destructive passions. The study of the internal secretions is
+putting and will put the most powerful apparatus for the control of
+the abnormal into our hands. What are we going to do with them?
+
+It does not follow that because we are beginning to understand the
+normal that we are to establish one fixed absolute standard of the
+normal. In view of all the possible mixtures, permutations and
+combinations of the endocrine glands, that may construct an
+individual, it is possible to conceive a million types of normals.
+For normality means harmony, the harmonious equilibrium between the
+hormones, which tends to continue itself, because it does no harm to
+itself. So there are all sorts and conditions of men and women who
+are classed as normals. We need create no inquiry into the value of
+raising the subnormal to the normal level. It is when we come to
+consider the possibility of lowering the supernormal (in certain
+respects) to the normal, that we pause and hesitate. Traditional
+morality assists not, but hinders us here.
+
+Whatever the race may ultimately decide, it is safe to predict that it
+is now somewhat possible, and will become more and more possible, to
+regulate or even check the ills of genius, without interfering with
+its highest evolution and expression. For example, Bernard Shaw, to
+take a living man of genius, is pretty visibly a pituitocentric of the
+well-balanced variety. He has the height, the facial features, the
+hands, and the sort of mentality that run together in his endocrine
+make-up. He also has the headaches. It is quite probable that feeding
+him pituitary gland extract in the proper dosage would relieve him of
+his headaches. A process might be started in his pituitary, however,
+that would diminish its extraordinary output which has assisted
+to make his brain so brilliant. The possibility, nevertheless,
+is excessively remote as the pituitary predominance in him is so
+overwhelming, that nothing short of surgery, nature's or the medical
+graduate's, could really affect that overmastering eminence. The time
+will come, though it is not yet by a long, long road, when we shall
+be able to intervene, and perhaps meddle, in nature's most intimate
+plans. The right of the power to modify, like the power to kill, will
+be defined and limited by common agreement before that goal will be
+reached.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+APPLICATIONS AND POSSIBILITIES
+
+
+The knowledge that the shape and action of a man's body as well as
+his mind depend on the internal secretions inspires the hope of the
+emergence of a hitherto inconceivable controlling power over human
+life in the future. For in the wake of chemical discovery there has
+always come chemical control. The nature of chemical research, the
+necessity for clear thinking, accurate measurement, and experience
+in the actual handling of materials, the fundamental tradition and
+technique of the science, have made and will make the practical
+applications about which we today may only speculate. What the study
+of the internal secretions suffers from, at the beginning of the third
+decade of the twentieth century, is insufficient appreciation of its
+meaning for mankind. It is true that there are thousands of workers
+scattered throughout the world contributing their mites to the general
+store. They increase yearly, almost daily, and their achievements,
+in spite of an uncritical enthusiasm in some quarters and a
+semi-charlatanism in others, have been and continue magnificent. But
+they are pecking at a mountain which requires organized, massive,
+engineering organization for its blasting.
+
+The crying need is for an international institute, endowed and
+equipped for investigation upon the proper scale, with all the
+available appliances and methods already worked out and at hand. Such
+an institution would possess the right chemical laboratories for
+the making of blood analyses, metabolism examinations, and tests of
+endocrine functions. There would be X-ray machines and experts to
+radiograph the pituitary, pineal and thymus glands when possible.
+There would be psychologists to carry out intelligence tests,
+determine emotional reactions, and group mental aberrations,
+deficiencies and defectives. There would be statisticians, trained in
+biometrics, to criticize and compare data obtained. There would be
+anthropoligists to note and measure variations in angles and curves,
+ratios and quotients of the external conformation of the body.
+Internists would record the history and status of the organs and
+viscera. There would be librarians to collect, abstract and collate
+the vast, accumulating literature. In short, the mystery of
+personality, the most marvelous, complex, and variable process in the
+universe, would be attacked and at length penetrated systematically
+and persistently, with the ideal of absolute control of its
+composition as the goal in view.
+
+The nature of the researches? They would be infinite in their variety
+and significance. Their practical by-products, dropped in the pursuit
+of knowledge by the scientist, as Atalanta's lover the golden apples
+in his race, to assuage the scent of the hard-headed business man,
+would be profitable enough for any country in peace or war, to pay
+for itself ten times over and at compound interest. A volume could be
+filled with suggestions for interesting and promising investigations.
+But we may glance at some of the immediately useful aspects that might
+exercise those concerned with the everyday life of men, women and
+children.
+
+THE ENDOCRINE EPOCHS OF LIFE
+
+There is no more famous classifications of the epochs of life
+that mark off the milestones of the individual's evolution than
+Shakespeare's Seven Ages. So different is he at those different stages
+of his development, so changed his body and mind that it has become a
+part of popular physiology that we are entirely made over every seven
+years, and that no cell in the organism lasts longer than that. The
+tradition certainly does not apply to the brain and nervous system,
+for the number of brain cells is fixed at birth, and cannot be
+increased, only decreased, because they are too highly specialized to
+reproduce themselves.
+
+What transfigures the individual as the years go by is no simple wear
+and tear of the tissues, nor the replacement of old cells by new. It
+is the rearrangement of relationships among the ductless glands, the
+shifting of influences from the predominant to the subordinate, and
+vice versa, in the constellation of the internal secretions, that
+determines the unfolding of the personality. The transformations raise
+doubt sometimes as to the reality of personal identity. What actually
+happens in the changes from childhood to adolescence, from adolescence
+to maturity, and so on, is the sloughing of one internal glandular
+dominance for another.
+
+Growth, as a general name for the mutations, the ensemble of somatic
+and psychic differentiation, from year to year, passes through five
+epochs that are standard for the normal. The normal is the being who
+harmonizes with his environment, and yet reacts with it because of
+recurring needs within him. His endocrine equation settles what is
+unique and different in him. But the gland which flourishes during the
+epoch as its time of triumph, when it has its day, determines what
+makes him like his fellows.
+
+From this point of view it becomes permissible to speak of the five
+Endocrine Epochs. Similarities and resemblances of mind and body
+between people at a given period of life, childhood, youth, maturity
+must be put down to their common government by the salient endocrine
+of the epoch. So one may list:
+
+  Infancy as the epoch of the thymus
+  Childhood as the epoch of the pineal
+  Adolescence as the epoch of the gonads
+  Maturity as the epoch of whatever gland is left in control as the
+  result of the life struggle.
+  Senility as the epoch of general endocrine deficiency.
+
+Infancy as the epoch of the thymus explains why, in any given
+geographic locality, the babies look alike and act alike. Specialists
+in the observation and treatment of infants have noted that not until
+after the second year is any tendency to differentiation discernible
+to any extent among them. It is only after the second year, or
+somewhere around that time, that the child begins to individuate, and
+distinct individual traits and a personality manifest their outlines.
+The thymus is the great inhibitor of all the glands of internal
+secretion. By its checking activity upon the other members of the
+endocrine system, the thyroid and pituitary in particular, it gives
+the baby time to grow in bulk, which is its chief business during the
+first two years of its existence. It quadruples its birth weight. The
+brain and nervous system complete their growth in mass by the end of
+the fourth year. Recall the experiments of Gudernatsch working with
+tadpoles, who showed that feeding with thymus produced giant tadpoles
+whose metamorphosis into frogs was inhibited, while feeding thyroid
+produced frogs the size of flies. Differentiation occurred without the
+preliminary increase in mass usual. As differentiation and bulk thus
+appear antagonistic, at least at the beginning of growth, the function
+of the thymus, at a maximum during infancy, seems then to be to
+restrain the differentiating endocrines, until sufficient material
+has been accumulated by the organism upon which the differentiating
+process may work.
+
+After the second year, the thymus begins to shrink. That is to say,
+officially its involution begins. Careful dissection will demonstrate
+some thymus tissue even in a normal subject up to the fourteenth year.
+This refers to the average normal, for the large thymus may continue
+large and grow larger after the second year in the type of individual
+designated in a preceding chapter as the thymocentric.
+
+If the thymus retrogresses after the second year, what takes its place
+as a brake upon the forward driving impulses of the other endocrines?
+We have every reason for assigning that role to the pineal. It
+performs its service mainly, in all probability, by inhibiting the
+sex stimulating effect of light playing upon the skin. Since it is
+especially a sex gland inhibitor, the thyroid and pituitary become
+freer to exert their influences than under the thymus regime. And so
+we find that it is after the second year that thyroid and pituitary
+tendencies manifest their effects. The Pineal Era, from the second
+to the tenth to fourteenth years, remains to be investigated from a
+number of viewpoints interesting to the parent, the educator, and
+the student of puericulture. Precocity is directly related to early
+involution of the pineal. For just as the thymus involutes at the
+second year, the pineal atrophies before the onset of adolescence.
+
+Adolescence is the period of stress and strain throughout the somatic
+and psychic organism because of the volcanic upheavals in the sex
+glands. The history of the individual is dominated by them up to
+twenty-five or so, when maturity commences in the sense of a relative
+sex stability. They continue to exert a powerful pressure throughout
+maturity. But life episodes and crises, diseases, accidents, and
+struggles, experiences of pleasure and pain, as well as climatic
+factors, settle finally which endocrine or endocrines are left in
+control as a consequence of the series of reactions the period of
+maturity may be analyzed into.
+
+THE INTERPRETATION OF SENILITY
+
+Senility inevitably follows maturity, not as night follows day by a
+mathematical necessity, but because of the process of degeneration
+which ultimately overtakes all the glands of internal secretion,
+dominant as well as subordinate. Just why the degeneration must occur
+no one can say. Injury to the endocrine organs of one sort or another,
+ranging all the way from emotional exhaustion to bacterial infection,
+is the reason usually considered sufficient. Just why recuperation and
+regeneration do not preserve them in the elderly as they do in youth
+is a problem to be solved when we understand the laws of regeneration,
+at present almost totally beyond our control. Some say that it is a
+matter of the wear and tear of our blood vessels, those rubber-like
+tubes which transport food and drainage with nonchalant equanimity to
+all cells as long as they last. In the classic phrase: a man is as
+old as his arteries, ergo his ductless glands will be as old as their
+arteries. And the age of arteries is simply a matter of wear and tear,
+the resultant of the function which is universal among molecules.
+Arteriosclerosis, the hardening of arteries, might be the whole story.
+
+But there are certain experiments and considerations which rather
+confute that easy explanation, or at least make clear that the mystery
+is not so simple. The work of Steinach, a Viennese investigator, has
+contributed most to the elucidation of the nonarterial factor in
+senility. No one has asserted more loudly the importance of the
+interstitial cells that fill in the spaces between the tubules of the
+testes in the male, and the follicles of the ovary in females. Rats
+have been his medium of study, for they are most easily procurable,
+live fastest, breed, and withstand experimental and operative
+procedures better than any other animal.
+
+An old rat is like an old man in his dotage. His bald, shrivelled skin
+covers an emaciated body. His eyes are dimmed by cataracts and his
+breathing is labored and difficult because his heart muscle has lost
+its tone. Huddled in a corner, life to him has become concentrated
+into the desire for a little food, and immobility. If now, something
+is done to his sex apparatus, a marvelous transformation may be
+effected. That something no one could predict. It consists in slitting
+the genital duct, which leads from the germinal cells to the exterior.
+After the operation, the germinal cells, which grow into the
+spermatozoa, atrophy and disappear, since they can no longer function.
+As if released from some restraint, the interstitial cells, however,
+multiply enormously. With their multiplication, the miracle of
+rejuvenation is performed.
+
+After some weeks the sluggish currents of being in the rat, which had
+slowed down as a preliminary to stopping altogether, flow fast and
+furious. Waves of new chemical substances inundate his cells. And they
+respond like the fields that border the Nile after the annual flood.
+All his tissues, skin, muscle, nerve, even bone, are restored. A
+vitality is created which makes him bound and dart like a youth of his
+species. In due time, though, senility returns. It is as if a storage
+battery, recharged, runs down and becomes dead again. Slitting the
+genital duct of the other testis, causing its interstitial cells to
+hypertrophy and multiply, repeats the effects of the first experiment.
+The organism responds again to the new waves of vitality that vibrate
+through it. That it is recharged is demonstrated again by a revival of
+sex appetite and sex activity. The female which had become an object
+of indifference is reinstated as a creature to be sought and pursued.
+The second period ends in its turn. And now entirely new interstitial
+glands, in the form of fresh testes removed from a young animal, are
+transplanted into the body of the old rat. Once more youth returns.
+But now it burns itself more quickly than even before. An acute
+exhaustion of the mind appears first. Then all the other phenomena of
+old age steal back upon the old rat, and senility, firmly established
+in the saddle, rides him to the end.
+
+THE POSSIBILITIES OF REJUVENATION
+
+Whatever other deductions may be extracted from these experiments,
+they prove beyond a doubt the existence of an endocrine factor in the
+process of aging, as well as an arterial. They also demonstrate that
+the internal secretion of the sex glands, well advertised as it has
+been as the Elixir of Youth that Ponce de Leon, and Brown-Sequard with
+so many others, pursued in vain, is not the whole story. For if it
+was, the duration of the new youth should be another span of life,
+whereas in actuality it is only a fraction of that time. This fact,
+together with a number of others, make clear that while the gonads may
+be the jeune premier of the drama, the vitality of the plot depends
+upon the other endocrines. Since old age is an exhaustion, permanent
+and irreparable of _all_ the members of the ductless gland
+directorate, the reason becomes clear for the temporary quality of the
+rejuvenation effected by the procedures of Steinach.
+
+Practically, then, the question at once arises: which of the glands in
+particular are involved? There is first that ubiquitous agent in the
+system, the thyroid. Chemical analysis of it has shown that the
+iodine content decreases with the age of the individual, and becomes
+specially low after forty. It is after the menopause in women that
+myxedema, the disease of complete degeneration of the thyroid, and of
+the physical and mental faculties, is most frequent. The thyroid
+of old people exhibits, in varying degrees, signs of a similar
+degeneration. Thyroid feeding, properly controlled, will clear up
+certain of the deteriorations of mind and body observable in the aged.
+The grossness of the features lessens, a number of the pains go,
+muscular endurance increases, memory and intelligence do not remind
+one so forcibly of the old dotard in his second childhood. Of course
+the improvement at present achievable is only relative. But in the
+prematurely aging, decay invading a half accomplished maturity,
+marvels have been achieved at times with feeding of the gland.
+
+The pituitary, too, begins to retrogress after the period of maturity.
+And an early retrogression means a short maturity. In women, the onset
+of an obesity, and coincidently, of a lazy and dull morale, coincides
+with this declension of the pituitary powers. All the glands of
+internal secretion, in fact, shrink and shrivel as old age advances.
+Only, as in other relationships, the predominating endocrine stamps
+its signature more visibly upon the documents of decadence than the
+others. Pituitary types, as said, get fat and slow, thyroidal become
+bulky and stupid or thin and sour, the adrenal dark, shrunken and
+forever tired of life. So type emerges, even in all-around glandular
+deficiency.
+
+The problem of rejuvenation is the problem of recharging, or replacing
+all of the glands of internal secretion, at least the most important,
+the thyroid, the pituitary and the adrenals, as well as the gonads.
+Longevity is perhaps largely a matter of preventing, or postponing
+their wane. Beside, there is the prophylaxis of bacterial infections,
+and their all embracing corrosions--which, too, have an endocrine
+aspect.
+
+Persistence of youth or juvenility may be manufactured by nature in
+two ways. There may be a persistence of early glandular predominances.
+We have seen what happens to the thymocentric. That a pineal-centered
+juvenile or infantile type exists may be safely predicted. Nature's
+only other mode of securing perpetual youth seems to be by prolonging
+the time allotted to the sex gland crescendo.
+
+As for the golden age of maturity itself, what humdrum people and
+poets have despised as middle age, the margin of reserve of the ruling
+hormone is a quantity almost malleable in our hands, but still to be
+regarded with respect as a hard cold proposition by the physiologist.
+In general, the continuance of any stage of development means the
+maintaining of the glandular administration peculiar to it. So the
+chubby debonair irresponsible whom nothing can touch is happy in the
+possession of a pineal uncorrupted by the years, while the genius who
+can turn out his best work at sixty-five must thank his pituitary for
+standing by him to the end.
+
+THE SCIENCE OF PUERICULTURE
+
+There is a specialty now growing in the womb of science which in its
+own good time will come to fruition as the study of the child's needs
+or puericulture. Even today there exists a scientific basis for the
+formulation of the principles upon which every child should be brought
+up. Though we have had marvelous results from the campaigns to lower
+infantile mortality, most of what has been done has been medical in
+its interest, and so largely negative in its accomplishments. The
+removal of the causes of evil no doubt gives the good its opportunity.
+But how to raise a child, endowed with satisfactory ancestral stuff,
+as a Grade A normal or supernormal, still remains to be erected into
+an exact science.
+
+A number of attempts have been abortive in this field. Why they have
+failed to arouse the ardor of the parent has puzzled some of the
+pioneers. Child-culture as the foundation of all systems of education
+has continued more or less of a hope rather than an achievement
+because of a lack of appreciation of the different constitutional
+varieties of children. A certain amount of attention has been lavished
+upon children needing special attention, those mainly suffering from
+insufficient development of one sort or another. In the last decade or
+so, an endeavour to focus upon the exceptional child, exceptional
+in intelligence or some special creative endowment, has started an
+interesting movement. All of them have suffered from the fallacies and
+troubles of the pure psychologist who would handle mind as an entity
+in a vacuum.
+
+A realization of the different physical and psychic educational
+needs of various children will arrive only when we see them as built
+differently. Just as shoddy and silk, cotton and wool, alone or in
+combination, all possess different qualities as wearing material, so
+different children have varying capacities for the wear and tear of
+education. The endocrine classification of the human race, applied
+to children, will here yield a harvest to the educator and to the
+country. Nothing is more evident than the diversified nature of the
+needs of the various internal secretion types, once they are realized
+as such.
+
+The history of a thymocentric type, for instance, is predictable from
+the very first few months of his life. Difficulties in feeding, in
+habit formation and adaptation, in the reaction to infections, in
+social play and so on, one may expect for him. The course of events
+for the other endocrine types also follow laws of their own. It will
+be above all in the _understanding_ of children, their make-up,
+reactions and powers, that the biologist will achieve some of his
+finest triumphs.
+
+The educator will have to take account of the state of the pituitary
+in estimating the normal intelligence, or influencing the abnormal or
+subnormal intelligence. As well will he have to consider the thyroid
+in the child whose conduct is refractory, even though his proficiency
+in his studies is excellent. And the condition of the adrenal will be
+ascertained in the types that tire easily, and that seem unable to
+make the effort necessary or desirable. Periodic seasonal and critical
+fluctuations in the equilibrium among the hormones will have to be
+taken into account in the explanation of what have hitherto been put
+down to laziness, naughtiness, stupidity, or obstinacy.
+
+A child's capacity for education, essentially its capacity for the
+highest and most productive kind of life, is limited by inherent
+factors. These factors are two: the quality of the nerve tissue, its
+ability to make a number of associations, and the quantity of the
+internal secretions, measured by the maximum obtainable in a given
+situation. These inherent factors explain, too, why children born
+and bred in virtually the same environment show the most extreme
+differences in educability. That the differences are inherited was
+made evident by Galton's finding that the chance of the son of an
+eminent man exhibiting eminent ability was 500 times as great as that
+of the son of a man taken at random.
+
+Every baby, then, is born with a combination of nerve cells and
+ductless glands which determine its capacity for mental development,
+that might never be realized, but could never be exceeded. If, in any
+family, minor differences in educability are observed, they can be
+put down to disturbance of these two factors occurring after the
+fertilized germ cell had started to divide and reproduce itself. But
+any marked falling off in either the nervous or endocrine factors has
+to be considered pathologic, due to an impairment of them by adverse
+environment.
+
+Recent studies have amply established that the proportion of
+certifiable mental defectives, and of a much larger class, the
+subnormal but not certifiable class, is progressing by leaps and
+bounds. It is perhaps the most absurd frailty of our present system
+of education that it takes almost no account of innate differences in
+educability. To spend money upon the teaching of these children along
+lines where they are unteachable is not only waste pure and simple,
+but crime, for it deprives the educables of their just due.
+
+These, of course, are the crude and simple lines upon which the finer
+and more complex evolution of the endocrine problems of the school
+child will build. The fine art of education itself is crude and gross
+and simple compared with what it might be, even as a beginning. The
+science of education has yet to begin, as the offspring of that
+science of the future, to which knowledge of the internal secretions
+will contribute no little, the science of puericulture.
+
+VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
+
+It is difficult, indeed, to avoid becoming merely enthusiastic upon
+the possibilities of the applications of the endocrines to the
+educational domain. Happiness for the average individual consists of
+a double success--success in his vocation (chosen or forced upon him)
+and success in his sex life. A certain hue and cry has been raised in
+the last few years concerning the vast and overwhelming importance of
+sex in the happiness and even in the successes of a man's everyday
+life. And no doubt there is a relation. Sublimation plays its part in
+the explanation of vocational idiosyncrasies. The fact, however, that
+perfect success in sex may occur with absolute failure in the career,
+however, splits the problem for good into its realities: a physiologic
+aspect as well as a psychologic.
+
+So, as school education will have to take serious account of endocrine
+anomalies and possibilities, will the institution which selects and
+trains for a career. Vocational misfits have aroused the ardor of our
+efficiency experts. And again, the sweeping psychological attack has
+beaten its head against the stonewall of ignorance of constitutional
+predispositions and tendencies of material. The attempt to erect
+psychologic types for vocational selections could never make much
+headway because it could only flounder in a swamp of metaphors,
+product of the vices of its methods. Not that anyone would wish to
+discard at all the psychologic mode of approach. But no science, in
+the sense of accurate examination, was possible, in the matter of
+classification for vocation, without the insight into the physiology
+of the candidate that the analysis of his endocrine formula will
+provide.
+
+One need not dilate upon the value of such an examination.
+Civilization has not yet learned how to pick its personnel. And so
+artists and scientists, philosophers and politicians, financiers and
+religious leaders, arise and survive by the operation of the laws of
+probabilities and chances, rather than by any intelligent selection
+and cultivation of material. The case, indeed, is simply a subdivision
+of the vast subject: haphazard muddle in the conduct of life. A cry
+has been raised for the superman, and a cry has been raised for a
+method of anthropometry. For the lack of these two, it has been
+said, all governments have been doomed to defeat. The study of the
+endocrines will by no means supply a panacea. But as it will furnish a
+means of approach to the determination of how men and women are built,
+and why they are built differently, no one can gainsay the tremendous
+advantages to the nation that will proceed to classify its population
+accordingly, and know its strength and weakness in terms of the actual
+generators of success and failure.
+
+Suggestions have been offered in the preceding pages of concrete
+applications of endocrine knowledge to the understanding of behaviour,
+of the genius and commonplace, criminal and Puritan. And in the
+chapter on historic personages, we tracked some of the story in
+detail. This vein when explored will quarry untold riches. It has been
+observed that financiers of mark, like great musicians, are special
+pituitary types. Also that the financiers are voracious meat eaters
+and the musicians inordinately fond of sweets. Differences in anterior
+and posterior predominances might account for this. That we are
+playing here with no phantasy is proven by the fact that we can effect
+changes of tastes as well as of intellectual direction by appropriate
+feeding of various glandular extracts. Just as much, indeed, as we can
+influence sex susceptibility, and the reaction to sex stimulation, by
+the artificial introduction from without of the proper hormones.
+
+FATIGUE AND INDUSTRY
+
+In industry, business and profession, the biologist will come more and
+more to be called as consultant. Labor unions as well as the large
+employers of labor, and their employment managers have given much
+thought to the problem of fatigue. Just what fatigue is, why different
+individuals tire at different rates, why some are constructed for
+monotonous routine while others must have constant variety and change,
+the relation to accidents and to quantity output, are a few of the
+major lines of inquiry upon which the endocrines obviously have a
+large bearing. To the employment manager, labor turnover and the
+selection of personnel are adjacent fields of research.
+
+Fatigue as an endocrine deficiency--a depressed state of one or
+more of the glands of internal secretion, abolished when its normal
+functioning is restored--is a general principle from which departures
+of exploration of sub-problems will proceed. An endocrine organ will
+secrete at a certain rate. When it is stimulated excessively, it will
+eject extra amounts of its secretion. How long the period of excessive
+stimulation may last must depend upon the secretion potential or
+margin of reserve of the cells, varying from organ to organ, and from
+individual to individual. After that, exhaustion and failure follows,
+with the onset of the symptoms of fatigue.
+
+A pretty demonstration of this process has been worked out in the
+electrical stimulation of muscle. If a muscle, say the biceps, is
+irritated by an electric current, it will contract. As the strength of
+the current is increased, the degree of contraction becomes greater.
+A sort of stepladder effect of increasing contractions may be thus
+obtained. After a time, the electric shocks cannot cause a greater
+contraction, but only a lesser. And if continued, the muscle will
+cease to function because of fatigue. If now, when the muscle begins
+to lag in its response, and its contractions to decrease, one injects
+into a vein extracts of thyroid, parathyroid, or adrenal glands, they
+will immediately reinvigorate the failing contractions. The injections
+must be made before the fatigue is carried to the point of absolute
+exhaustion. It follows that these glands normally pour into the
+circulation substances which counteract the effect of fatigue
+substances, and in fact make possible muscular recuperation from
+fatigue throughout the day as well as in emergencies and crises.
+
+Fatigue, conventionally recognized, is something acute and urgent. As
+such it means a violent draining of the endocrine wells. But there
+is also a chronic fatigue, which has been dignified with the name of
+Fatigue Disease. Bernard Shaw once asked for someone to tell him
+the name of the germ causing the symptoms of overwork. That being
+impossible, he will have to be satisfied with the answer that it is
+not a germ, but an internal secretion, or rather a defect of internal
+secretion that is the cause.
+
+Whether or not the adrenals have been damaged by past experiences,
+and upon their capacity to respond to the necessities of an occasion,
+fatigue reactions primarily depend. A quotation from Sir James
+MacKenzie, most distinguished of modern English students of medicine,
+summarizes the matter neatly. "Abelous, and Langlois and Albanese have
+studied the relation of the adrenal bodies to fatigue.... They infer
+that the muscular weakness following removal of the adrenals is due
+to toxic substances. In view of our present knowledge of the
+physiological action of adrenaline in its various forms, it seems more
+probable that the weakness is to be explained by the absence of the
+normal tone producing internal secretions of the bodies in question."
+In other words, the adrenals regulate muscle tone. They produce
+nature's tonics for weary tissues. The chronic lassitude of thousands
+of our generation, suffering from "that tired feeling," may be put
+down to chronic adrenal insufficiency.
+
+It requires no superlative imagination to see that an adrenal poor
+subject does not belong upon a job that involves muscle stress over a
+long period, or indeed fatiguing conditions of any sort. Nor that a
+thyroid poor individual is not the best choice for a position that
+demands a keen, alert body and mind. In the selection of executives,
+the nature and stamina of the pituitary will undoubtedly be taken very
+seriously in the near future.
+
+A certain hocus-pocus concerning character reading, a perverted
+revival of the ancient phrenology and physiognomy, has invaded the
+employment territory in America as the newest charlatanism. The study
+of the internal secretions, including blood and X-ray examinations,
+will surely assist the demand for a truly scientific estimate
+of constitution and character that can be relied upon in the
+classification and distribution of personnel.
+
+THE PROSPECTS FOR PUBLIC HEALTH
+
+By their effects upon the endocrines, public health influences like
+food, clothing, sleep and overpressure and last but not least,
+_disease_, the so-called diseases of childhood, possess a tremendous
+importance in limiting the output of the educable. They act to
+subtract from and so to lower the rating, the capacity of the
+germ-plasm. Most material and vital of these influences are the common
+diseases of children, for they strike directly at the glands of
+internal secretion.
+
+Measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, mumps, and the others have long
+been accepted as providential visitations for sins known or unknown.
+That children had to have them and were better off when they had them
+has become part of the tradition of the laity, fostered by the lazy
+ignorance of previous medical generations. But today we are beginning
+to ask ourselves why children must have these endemic infections
+of their age. The pathologist goes farther and asks the reason for
+certain apparent immunities. He asks why the little boy who sleeps
+with his brother sick with scarlet fever does not contract the
+disease, even though not protected by a previous attack.
+
+Determining why susceptibility to a special disease in a particular
+case exists will constitute the greatest line of advance for the
+understanding and prevention of disease, and so the perfection of
+public health. In the last influenza epidemic countless physicians
+were puzzled by the spectacle of men and women in the pink of
+condition carried off in twenty-four hours while puny associates were
+either passed over, or pooh-poohed their colds. Pathologists have
+spent their energies fruitfully upon the infectious causes of disease,
+the microbes and parasites especially. But now, having solved most of
+those problems, the vital question of why an organism permits itself
+to be attacked is pushing itself to the front. Why a peculiar ailment
+selects its victim, why the bacillus finds a fertile soil, is the
+neglected problem, which must be solved before the abolition of
+disease and its carriers will be remotely conceivable.
+
+Long ago, Hippocrates, revered founder of the art of medicine,
+recognized that there was a specific affinity of disease for
+individuals with more or less the same characteristic somatic and
+psychic traits and trends. Tuberculosis, for instance, was noted for
+its frequency in long-skeletoned, thin persons, remarkably optimistic.
+And the plethoric, choleric nature of the sufferer from gout has
+become proverbial. Before the era of the great bacteriologic
+discoveries of the eighties and nineties, the concordance of esoteric
+racial and personal markings was a great help in diagnosis to the
+physician. For he realized, though he sometimes credited it to his
+clinical intuition, that it was a certain type of personality that was
+liable to the specific disease.
+
+But personality and its reactions, normal and abnormal, are determined
+by the endocrines. So we should find that particular infections
+run with special internal glandular predominances. For the picture
+presented by an infection, temperature, rash, prostration, are the
+details of the general reaction of the organism in the face of a
+new situation, the presence of a powerful, destructive invader.
+Information has accumulated that the invader is powerful and
+destructive, as well as selective, because of endocrine deficiency of
+one sort or another in the body it has attacked. Work of a number of
+investigators has indicated that an individual's susceptibility or its
+reverse, resistance, is intimately subjected to the derangements or
+harmonies of the endocrine system.
+
+Comparison of the endocrine type and the disease assaulting has
+yielded an even more interesting principle. Knowing the state of the
+internal secretion reservoirs enables us to predict the liability to
+certain of these infections of childhood. Diphtheria has been found to
+occur most virulently among adrenal poor individuals. Moreover, they
+are left poorer in adrenal afterwards. It follows that they would be
+assisted by the feeding of adrenal. Mumps is a sickness that sometimes
+permanently injures the gonads: the testes or ovaries. The thyroid
+dominant, whose system is rich in thyroid, will rarely suffer from any
+of the common diseases of children--if at all, from measles. Op the
+other hand, those who have every infection of the period, and who, as
+their mothers say, seem to get everything, are those whose system
+is thyroid poor. Thyroid poverty is a splendid enticement to the
+universal microbe. The thymocentric stands all diseases poorly. The
+pituitary type is more liable to epidemic meningitis and infantile
+paralysis, typhoid and scarlet fever.
+
+The public health officer of the future will be armed with a new
+weapon in his fight against the spread of an epidemic. He will be able
+to classify the endocrine traits of the population exposed, and to
+advise a course of glandular feeding for the types specially liable.
+The Schick test for diphtheria susceptibility is an illustration
+of one method of approach to the problem of the epidemiologist in
+settling who needs protection. The endocrines will assist him in the
+great body of diseases for which no immunity test is at hand. Should
+another influenza epidemic come along, for instance, the proper
+handling, from the endocrine standpoint, of the thymocentrics and
+the related adrenocentrics would help considerably in lowering the
+mortality.
+
+Endocrine types have other tendencies, which when studied and
+controlled, will decimate the great assassins of middle age: heart
+disease and kidney disease, with accompanying degenerations of the
+blood vessels and circulation. The adrenocentric tends to get up a
+hyperacidity of the stomach and a high blood pressure, besides certain
+forms of diseases of the lungs. The thyrocentric is predisposed to
+heart disease, as well as intestinal disturbances. The pituitocentric
+is liable to periodic and cyclic upsets in his health.
+
+Narcotism, the craving for narcotic or stimulant drugs, and its
+subvariety, alcoholism, has been found most often among the
+thymocentrics. Any type of endocrine inferiority, interfering with
+success in life, may lead to the habit of drug addiction as one way
+out. But the blood and tissues of the thymocentric appear to become
+habituated to the narcotic stimulant more easily than the other types,
+and so to demand it with a physical imperative comparable to the food
+or sex urge. Among artists, philosophers and statesmen, on the other
+hand, actively productive and so contrasted with criminals and
+degenerates drug addiction has frequently been a mode of endocrine
+compensation. That is, the drug produced temporarily the effects of
+the internal secretion lacking or insufficient. Thus the effects of
+cocaine may be compared with the effects of thyroid. But while there
+is a normal mechanism for thyroid detoxication, the cocaine or heroin
+derivatives mark the tissues permanently with their scars and deform
+the personality.
+
+THE HYGIENE OF THE INTERNAL SECRETIONS
+
+All these protean expressions of endocrine determination may now begin
+to be looked upon with the hopeful and optimistic attitude of him who
+understands cause and effect and can control. The advances made in the
+last ten years in the practical manipulation of the ductless glands
+from without, the introduction of glandular extracts by feeding or
+injection, and the modification of their structure and function by
+surgery, the X-ray and radium, and other procedures, enable us
+to regard more confidently the problems hitherto accepted as the
+insoluble and intricate handiwork of Fate. Fate may have woven the
+patterns of our being. But as we commence to probe the machinery and
+to examine the looms more carefully, we begin to understand why the
+wheels creak, and why there are seconds and odd lots in the product as
+well as the rare and precious firsts. Moreover, we are learning how to
+handle the machinery ourselves. The abdication of Fate can therefore
+be confidently expected in due time.
+
+However, we have yet to begin, and we can begin with prevention. The
+theory of Adler, that some organ inferiority is responsible for much
+unhappiness in life has received much advertisement in conjunction
+with the doctrines of the Freudians. It is a theory of little scope
+when applied to the eyes, ears, heart and so on because only a small
+minority of the cases are of that kind. But as we have seen, a
+deficiency of an internal secretion, an endocrine inferiority,
+reverberates throughout all the cells. Not only the mind, but all of
+the members of the organism must strain and co-operate to make up for
+the break in the balance.
+
+Endocrine inferiority is indeed the most frequent organic inferiority.
+And we may explain a number of mental types upon that basis. Thus the
+inferior gonado-centric, who has something wrong with his reproductive
+organs, will evolve in one of two directions. If his adrenal and
+thyroid are of poor quality, he will become the secluded introvert,
+shut off from the interests of normal life. He will enter the
+borderland of insanity if pituitary difficulties supervenes. If, on
+the contrary, the adrenal, thyroid and pituitary are present in
+a certain proportion, he will become the active, aggressive,
+never-resting, keen, and relentless fanatic reformer. A woman who is
+gonad deficient with a superior adrenal will suffer from virilism
+and specialize in the extreme tactics and mythology of the feminist
+movement. A number of life reactions are classifiable as the strivings
+of endocrine inferior individuals to overcome their sense of
+inferiority. The unconscious vegetative system and the system of
+consciousness are both modified by the weakness of a link in the
+glandular chain.
+
+What, therefore, is to be recommended in the prophylaxis of the
+natural deterioration of the wells of life, the ductless glands? For
+even if we may be able to replenish them when they dry up, would it
+not be better to delay their dessication? The hormones reply to every
+call of life and respond in every reaction. The normal constructive
+process of their cells remanufactures what has been lost, and the
+original capacity to respond is restored. If, though, the rate of
+destruction and loss outruns the rate of repair and construction, they
+will be permanently damaged. This is what occurs in shock, serious,
+severe accidents and injuries, prolonged infections and diseases,
+profound continued emotions, and the wear and tear of overwork. The
+prevention of these excessive fatigues of the endocrine system in one
+or all of its parts, and especially the prevention and enfeeblement of
+the diseases of children which injure them at a period when they are
+most sensitive to injury, is the task of the endocrine hygienist.
+Periodic examinations, to check up the balance sheets of the hormone
+factories and to measure the amount of their damage by means of blood
+analyses, will provide the most valuable method in the campaign to
+lengthen the productive and enjoying span of life.
+
+THE TREATMENT OF CRIME
+
+Endocrine hygiene will discover no wider or more fruitful area for
+exploration and control than that of crime. For more than a generation
+there have been attempts at a criminology, and a new understanding and
+control of crime. In the United States a concomitant sentimentalism
+has concocted measures like the honor system which, naturally failing
+of their purpose, have undermined confidence in the idea of scientific
+diagnosis and treatment of crime. As someone has noted, to ask a
+criminal to promise not to misbehave, when discharged from prison,
+is like asking a typhoid fever patient to promise not to have a
+temperature above ninety-nine degrees the next morning. For a large
+proportion of criminals--the percentage has yet to be determined,
+although the most recent police commissioner of Chicago has estimated
+it at ninety per cent--punishment for a period of time and then
+letting him go free is like imprisoning a diphtheria carrier for a
+while and then permitting him to commingle with his fellows and spread
+the germ of diphtheria.
+
+Of course, the doctrine of responsibility is all tangled up with our
+attitude towards and treatment of crime. Though clear thought makes
+mandatory the recognition of a universal cause and effect law,
+practical common sense has defined free will. Consent or the
+withholding of consent to a given course of action has been the
+criterion of responsibility.
+
+In practice, the limitation of responsibility will depend upon the
+insertion of extraneous factors into the formula of consent. The
+pragmatic test has been and will be the probability that the
+correction of the somatic or psychic condition would have prevented or
+will prevent the consent to the crime. As long as no such condition
+will be demonstrable, society for its own protection will have to
+confine the unfortunate individual.
+
+The character of the confinement, its duration, and the uses to which
+it will be put should be dominated by the idea of discovering
+the unknown criminal predisposition. If crime is an abnormality
+scientifically studiable and controllable like measles, court
+procedure and prison management will have to be transformed radically.
+There is scattered throughout the world now a group of people who are
+applying medical methods to the diagnosis and treatment of crime. They
+are the pioneers who will be remembered in history as the compeers of
+those who transformed the attitudes toward insanity and its therapy.
+The insane were once condemned and handled as criminals are in most
+civilized countries yet. The criminologic laboratory as an adjunct to
+the court of justice, like that associated with the court of
+Chief Justice Olson in Chicago, remains to be universalized. What
+contribution to a more rational treatment of the criminal will the
+study of the internal secretions make?
+
+It has been shown that the greater number of convicts are mentally and
+morally subnormal. To explain the subnormality, the criminologist
+has conducted and will continue to conduct investigations into the
+heredity and early environment of the criminal, his education and
+occupation, the social and religious influences to which he was
+subjected, and the intelligence test quotient. The conditioning of the
+vegetative system and the endocrine status of the prisoner, however,
+will without a doubt come to occupy the leading positions in any
+interpretation of crime in the future.
+
+Introspective observation of pre-criminal states of mind by so-called
+normal persons reveals that in many of them there is an impairment of
+reason and will power, in others an exaltation amounting almost
+to hysteria. What are these but endocrine states of the cells,
+experimentally reproducible by increasing or decreasing the influence
+of the thyroid, the adrenals, the pituitary? Crimes of passion may be
+traced in no small part to disturbances of the thyroid. A psychologic
+examiner of a Pittsburgh court, interested in the subject, has found
+an enlarged thyroid in over ninety per cent of delinquent girls.
+Similarly, crimes of violence may be ascribed to a profound break
+in the adrenal equilibrium. Criminal tendencies in women during
+menstruation and pregnancy, periods of deep-seated mutation in the
+internal glandular system, have long been noted. A kleptomania,
+uncontrollable desire to steal, confined to the duration of pregnancy
+alone, has been described. We have seen how the thymocentric,
+especially if he possesses a small bony case for his pituitary, is
+predisposed to crime. A recent study of twenty murderers in the State
+of West Virginia showed them all to have a persistent thymus and the
+thymocentric constitution. A study of the recidivists, those who
+return for second and third offences, in one institution, disclosed
+that a large majority had a subnormal temperature and an increased
+heart and breathing rate. These are endocrine-controlled functions.
+Conduct, normal or abnormal, being the resultant of the conflict of
+conscious and subconscious impulses and inhibitions, the internal
+secretions as controllers of the susceptibility of the brain cells to
+impulses and inhibitions, must be held accountable for a portion at
+least of the chemical reactions behind crime.
+
+It is possible, by X-ray treatment of the thymus, to cause it to
+shrink to more normal proportions. It is possible, by feeding various
+glandular extracts, to correct deficiencies or excesses of their
+function, and so to remedy the underlying basis for a criminal career.
+Here and there work of this kind has been successfully carried out in
+selected instances. What a suitable drive upon the whole matter would
+yield in happiness to the individual and dollars and cents to society,
+time alone will show.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE EFFECT UPON HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+The ubiquitous and deep-seated influence of the internal secretions
+upon life and personality comprises but a fraction of what is known,
+and only a hint of what is to become known. There is an endocrine
+aspect to every human being and every human activity, normal and
+abnormal, internal process and its external expression, regulated
+by laws of which we are beginning to catch a glimpse. Their control
+promises us now a dominion over the most intimate and inaccessible
+recesses of our lives in a way comparable only to the control we now
+exercise over the forces and energies once revered as the instruments
+of the gods--light, heat, magnetism, electricity. We have learned how
+to control and change our environment. We are now learning, endocrine
+research is now discovering, how to control and change ourselves.
+
+The story of the evolution of the two types of control has many
+analogies. When man ceased looking upon his surroundings as inhabited
+by spirits of good and evil, as he conceived himself, and discovered
+that they were composed of things malleable and analysable in his
+hands, he became their master. When now he drops the old superstitions
+about himself as a spirit, an emulsion of a spirit of good and spirit
+of evil, and sees himself more and more clearly as the most complex
+of chemical reactions, regulated and determined as are the simple
+and complex chemical reactions around him, he will begin to rule and
+modify himself as he rules and modifies them. Whether or not he will
+ultimately come to this final lucidity of thought and action, it
+behooves us to consider some of the uses to which our present
+knowledge might be put.
+
+Since every step of the daily routine or adventure, from waking to
+sleeping, eating, drinking, marrying and giving in marriage, working,
+idling, fighting, playing, feeling, enjoying, sorrowing, every shade
+of emotion and nuance of mood, in short every phase of happiness
+and unhappiness, are endocrine episodes in the life history of the
+individual, the sphere of applications is as long and broad and deep
+as life itself. Not only do the internal secretions open up before us
+the great hope--that Life at last will cease to stumble and grope and
+blunder, manacled by the iron chains of inexorable cause and effect.
+They provide tools, concrete and measurable, that can be handled and
+moved, weighed and seen, for the management of the problems of human
+nature and evolution.
+
+Every department of human life, the questions of labor and industry,
+science and art, education, puericulture, international problems,
+crime and disease, may be illuminated. War and Sex, those two master
+interests of mankind, may be understood and handled sympathetically
+as they have never before. The reactions of man alone, and man in the
+crowd, will be clarified. The red thread of individuality which runs
+through the woof and warp of all human affairs will be unraveled.
+
+Inevitably, customs, morals, codes of procedure and practice,
+institutions, all those expressions of opinion which make conduct,
+all the currents which contrive the infinite variety of life, will be
+transmitted into another set of values.
+
+A remoulding, a remodeling will take place all along the line.
+Manifestly an unstable thymocentric should not be treated as a
+criminal, but treated in a sanitarium. A masculinoid woman needs
+satisfactions not vouchsafed in the old "love, honor and obey" home.
+How absurd it is to found codes of morality upon sermons or even the
+latest psychologies. During the nineteenth century progress in physics
+and mechanics overturned traditions thousands of years had painfully
+toiled to erect. What is to happen when man comes at last to
+experiment upon himself like a god, dealing not only with the
+materials without, but also with the very constituents of his
+innermost being? Will he not then indeed become a god? If he does not
+destroy himself before, that is surely his destiny. For better or for
+worse, we possess now in the endocrines new instruments for swaying
+the individual as individual, and as related to other individuals, as
+a member of a type, family, nation, species and genus.
+
+THE BASIS OF VARIATION
+
+The sense of likeness and the sense of unlikeness plays a decisive
+role in the diurnal schedule of the individual. His sense of
+resemblance to his father and mother, his kin and clan, mark him and
+them off against the cosmos as an alliance of defense and offense. Yet
+no matter how closely he is like them and they like him, he differs
+and varies, they differ and vary, with a sort of mutual forgiveness,
+because the amount of resemblance overtops the degree of variation. In
+a paper on the "Rediscovery of the Unique," H.G. Wells emphasized the
+unique quality of the individual, and how, in spite of the cleverest
+devices of classification, living things ultimately escaped the
+classifying net by virtue of their tendency forever to vary.
+
+The individual is unique. Yet when all is said and done, the fact
+remains that between individuals there is resemblance, and among them
+variation. What is the reason for their resemblances and what is the
+cause of their variation?
+
+The conception of a particular chemical make-up of the individual,
+statable and relatively controllable in terms of the internal
+secretions, supplies a more rational and satisfactory method
+of approach to the problem than any so far suggested as far as
+vertebrates are concerned at any rate. In effect, the differences
+between individuals may fundamentally thus be grouped among the
+differences which distinguish other chemical substances. The
+difference between water, technically known as hydrogen monoxide,
+and the antiseptic fluid labeled hydrogen dioxide lies wholly in the
+possession by the latter of an extra atom of oxygen in its molecules.
+All the peculiarities and qualities by which hydrogen peroxide is
+separated from water are referred to that additional quantum of
+oxygen. So the diversity of constitution and appearance of two
+brothers, alike in that they have inherited the same internal
+secretion trends, may be traced to the superiority of the pituitary of
+the one over the other.
+
+Variation and resemblance are large issues, crucial material of the
+science of biology upon which much has been thought and written. That
+the proportion of the endocrines determines variation and resemblance,
+heredity and evolution is a hypothesis advanced, supported by a large
+amount of facts, and capable of the most interesting experimental
+verification and observation. If a child resembles particularly either
+of its parents, grandparents or relatives, there is good reason for
+believing that it is because their endocrine formulas are very much
+alike. When people apparently not blood-related at all resemble
+one other, the same law must hold. Resemblances may be partial or
+complete, and the degree will depend upon the amount and ratio of the
+internal secretions involved.
+
+The same endocrine constitutions will produce corresponding physiques,
+physiognomies, abilities and characters. Deviations in endocrine type
+from that of the original stock, more of one endocrine and less of
+another, is at the bottom of the phenomenon of variation, basic for
+the origin of new species as well as the extinction of the old. In
+short, viewing the internal secretions as determinants, by their
+quantitative variations, of a host of biologic phenomena furnishes a
+concrete and detailed foundation for Darwin's theory of pangenesis.
+
+INHERITANCE OF ACQUIRED CHARACTERS
+
+Darwin's theory of pangenesis was an attempt to harmonize everything
+known in his time about heredity. It supposed that the various
+organs of the body gave off into the blood substances, themselves
+in miniature, which were taken up by the sex cells, and so became
+responsible for the development of their mother-organ in the newly
+forming individual. Modern knowledge cannot accept all this as a
+whole. But in a modified version, it has become the germ of a theory
+of heredity of which J.T. Cunningham, of Oxford, is the chief backer.
+
+Beginning with the traits and qualities which distinguish the sexes,
+grouped as the secondary sex characters, he showed that they are
+correlated with the special sexual function of the species in which
+they occur. These traits appear only when the hormones occur which
+are present in one sex and that only when the gonads of that sex are
+mature. In some cases they appear only at the period of the year
+when reproduction takes place, disappearing again after the breeding
+season. Their presence makes certain cells develop in excessive
+numbers at a particular spot in the organism (as in the growth of
+breasts from a few sweat glands) or causes them to specialize (to make
+hair on the face in man, or to grow antlers on the head of a stag).
+After castration, the hormones being absent, all these points of
+contrast between the sexes fail to appear. So by analogy we may
+explain all somatic and psychic differentiation as functions of the
+glands of internal secretion. Contemplated from the angle of the
+effect of environment upon the endocrines, and a reflected action
+upon the germ cells, we may outline a mechanism of the inheritance of
+acquired characters at certain times and consequent adaptation. The
+cycle of events would be as follows:
+
+1. A state of lability of cells at a point because of increased or
+decreased use.
+
+2. An increased or decreased appropriation by them of the hormone
+controlling their function.
+
+3. A corresponding increase or decrease in function of the gland of
+internal secretion and so,
+
+4. An increased or decreased representation of it in the reproductive
+sex cells in the gonads.
+
+To take a classic illustration, the long neck of the giraffe. The neck
+of certain animals living in a district populated by trees with high
+branches would be in state of instability. If at the same time the
+pituitary, for some reason, was unstable and reacted with an extra
+supply of its secretion, it would stimulate the neck cells to
+reproduce themselves. In turn the pituitary would become stabilized
+in the direction of increased secretion, and hand on the component of
+increased secretion to the sex cells. That component, in conjunction
+with other factors, would therefore determine the emergence of a
+definite species character. In other words, the glands of internal
+secretion, as intermediaries between the environment and body, and
+between the body and the reproductive sex cells or germplasm, tender
+the clue to a phase of the puzzle of heredity, adaptation and
+evolution. It is only a dotted outline of an explanation to be sure,
+but one certainly capable of being filled in.
+
+THE BEARING ON BREEDING
+
+Since the endocrine glands are so subtly sensitive and responsive to
+environment, and are at the same time so intimately concerned in the
+process of inheritance--a law which sums up their influence upon
+resemblance and variation in animals--there is no need to stress
+their importance for the practical science and art of good breeding,
+eugenics. Another mode of approach to its problems is opened up, and
+fresh enthusiasm instilled into its hopes and aspirations. A method
+of analysis of the factors involved, together with rules for the
+prediction of the outcome of certain matings, when finally worked out,
+will elevate its procedure to the level of the more exact sciences.
+
+A man's chief gift to his children is his internal secretion
+composition. The endocrines are truly the matter of breeding as
+they are of growth. They are the material carriers of the inherited
+physical and psychic dispositions, powers, abilities and disabilities
+from the soma to the germplasm and back from the germplasm to the
+soma. All kinds of questions arise as soon as one attempts to consider
+the bearing of this underlying principle upon concrete situations.
+What happens, say, when a pituitocentric mates with a thyrocentric?
+Or when a pituitocentric marries a pituitocentric? Is there a
+reinforcement or a cancellation of the dominant endocrine? Is there
+a quantitative addition of internal glandular tendencies in the
+germplasm, or a more complex rearrangement dependent upon reactions
+between all the internal secretions?
+
+The term endocrine dominants brings up the inquiries of Mendelism, and
+the relation of Mendelian conceptions of dominant and recessive to the
+internal secretions. The Mendelians have emphasized the role of the
+unit factor in heredity, and the conservation of the unit factor as
+an entity through all the adventures of matings. Also, that when unit
+factors, say of the color of the eyes, come into conflict, brown or
+black being mixed with blue or grey, one, the recessive, is submerged
+and overlaid but not destroyed by the other, the dominant. So brown or
+black eyes, dark hair, curly hair, dark skin, and so on, are dominant,
+while blue or grey eyes, light or straight hair, light skin are
+recessives. A nervous temperament is dominant to the phlegmatic. A
+number of psychic qualities have been declared to be Mendelian unit
+factors: memory, mechanical instinct, mathematical ability, literary
+ability, musical ability, and even handwriting.
+
+As architects of human qualities the endocrines must be involved
+in the Mendelian unit factors. Moreover, they seem to act upon a
+particular locale in different degrees, which is the strongest
+argument against the resolution of a number of structural traits into
+Mendelian unit characters. Most characters, somatic or psychic, are
+the products not of the action of one internal secretion alone, but of
+the interlinked activities of all of them. The amount of fat deposited
+under the skin, for instance, is influenced by the pituitary, the
+thyroid, the pancreas, the liver, the adrenals and the sex glands.
+Other qualities, likewise, are resultants of a compromise between all
+the endocrine factors comprising the equation of the individual. If
+we are to look for unit factors at all in endocrine heredity, we must
+look more deeply into constitution, and measure the hormone potentials
+and their mobilization or suppression.
+
+It will, in all probability, be found that the stability or
+instability of an endocrine will have a good deal to do with the part
+played by it in inheritance as well as in the life of the individual
+An unstable pituitocentric marrying another unstable pituitocentric
+will have children either exceptionally small or tall, or abnormally
+bright or stupid. The instability tends to right itself in the next
+generation, or that following. Genius as a sport, as well as sudden
+degeneration of family stock, the whole problem of mutation, may be
+closely connected with this tendency.
+
+It has been noted that the extinction of species has been preceded by
+a great increase in their size, for example, the case of the great
+reptilia of prehistoric time. That possibly represented pituitary
+stabilization, and so an abeyance of the ability to vary, necessary
+for fresh adaptation to a changing environment. Indeed, endocrine
+instability appears the fundamental condition of the tendency to vary,
+endocrine stability the opposite.
+
+Certain endocrine facts in relation to heredity should be mentioned.
+The daughters of mothers who menstruated early, themselves menstruate
+early. Animals fed upon thyroid during pregnancy, comparable to the
+thyrocentric, give birth to offspring with a very large thymus,
+comparable to the thymocentric. Women with partial thyroid deficiency,
+or myxedema, bear cretins. These are suggestive of what the internal
+secretions may do to an individual in inheritance and development.
+Inherited endocrine potential is the maximum reaction of which a gland
+is capable. This matter of potential is comparable to the factor of
+reserve power or margin of safety demonstrated up to the hilt for
+such organs as the heart and kidney as varying from individual to
+individual. A low potential, like instability of an internal secretion
+gland, may be latent, and not made manifest until the proper stimulus,
+the maximum amount of stress and strain, like accident, disease, shock
+or war, arrives.
+
+When the individual is tested the effects may be purely local because
+there is always in the organism a point of least resistance. Physical
+changes alone may be prominent. Or because somatic changes are minor,
+the psychic will dominate the picture. An attack of the "blues,"
+unaccompanied by any demonstrable transformation of the bodily
+processes, may be the sole symptom of an endocrine failure somewhere
+in the chain due to hereditary weakness or low potential.
+
+So we may account for family trends and streaks, for varieties
+and strains among individuals, upon more precise lines based upon
+endocrine analysis. Family disturbances of the internal secretions of
+the extreme sort denominated disease are well known. Indeed, a number
+of family diseases or predispositions to diseases, have been traced
+to them. Predisposition in any direction will probably be shown to be
+caused by them, within limits. Research here has its opportunity.
+
+THE IMPROVEMENT OF RACIAL STOCK
+
+A vast new territory of inquiry and achievement, as yet totally
+unexplored, is opened by the endocrines to the eugenists, and those
+idealists whose most earnest aspiration is the improvement of racial
+stock as a necessary preliminary to improvement of racial life.
+Beginning with Galton, they have brought to light a great collection
+of data to prove that human traits and faculties, good and bad, are
+inherited. Ability has been shown to run in certain families and
+degeneracy in others. Yet all of the practical net result has been
+summed up in the term "negative eugenics," the eugenics of prohibition
+and warning.
+
+Now the concept of personality, as woven around a system of chemical
+reflexes, handed on from generation to generation, is bound to change
+all that, and to create a structure of positive eugenics. It has been
+said that what radium is to chemistry, the internal secretions are to
+physiology. Just as radium enlightens the chemist about the history of
+matter, and the integrations and disintegrations constituting the life
+of an element--the internal secretions illuminate the history of the
+individual as part of the life of the race, and of its integrations
+and disintegrations. Seeing the individual as a system of chemical
+substances interacting will assist enormously to predict the nature,
+character and constitution of his descendants, which is essentially
+what the eugenist is after.
+
+The study of matings, the heart of the matter, will concern itself
+with the investigation and comparison of the kind of endocrine
+personalities that mate, the internal secretion predominances that
+cross, and the consequent endocrine personality of the offspring.
+Data bearing upon physique and physiognomy, details of anatomy and
+function, mind and behaviour will so be co-ordinated as no eugenist
+has hitherto succeeded in doing. Laws of endocrine inheritance will
+emerge that will bring the control of heredity within measurable
+distance. Standards and norms of a new kind would be obtained.
+
+A beginning of this study of endocrine inheritance, on the pathologic
+side, has been made. Some of these have been along Mendelian lines.
+Following up abnormal growth (making giants and dwarfs) and abnormal
+metabolism (goitre, diabetes, and so on), it has been stated that it
+would seem that abnormal growth is dominant in the male, and recessive
+in the female, while abnormal metabolism is dominant in the female and
+recessive in the male. If an endocrine abnormality like a goitre,
+or cretinism, or a dwarf or giant appear in a family as a sign of
+endocrine instability, other members of that family will very likely
+show internal secretion abnormalities.
+
+If one gland of internal secretion acts as the centre of the system
+and the others as satellites, we should be able to trace what happens
+to it in the different generations. Does it maintain its supremacy? Or
+will it be ousted by another member of the group? The time will come
+when we shall thus be able to advise prospective parents of the
+consequences of procreation and to forecast the meaning for the race
+of a particular marriage. Internal glandular analysis may become
+legally compulsory for those about to mate before the end of the
+present century.
+
+What are desirable and undesirable matings? The general law followed
+by nature in her helterskelter way seems to be the production of the
+greatest number of hybrids and variations possible, whether for
+good or evil does not matter. Certain endocrine types appear to be
+specially attracted to others belonging to the same group. Thus
+thymus-centered types frequently marry. The ante-pituitary type of
+male, the strongly masculine, mates often with the post-pituitary type
+of female, the markedly feminine. The children exhibit the lineaments
+of the pituitary-centered type. The general trend seems to be the
+establishment of a better balanced, equilibrated type. Yet the
+children often are apt to segregate into pituitary dominants or
+pituitary deficients. Happiness and unhappiness in marriage should
+be examined from the standpoint of endocrine compatibility or
+incompatibility. Likewise those divorced or about to be divorced.
+
+The correction of endocrine defects, disturbances, imbalances and
+instabilities, before mating, presents another field. It remains to be
+seen whether we shall thereby, in one generation, be able to affect
+at all the germplasm, hitherto revered by all pious biologists as an
+environment-proof holy of holies. No one can deny, in the face of the
+multitude of evidence available, that internal secretion disturbances
+occur in the mother, which, when grave, offer in the infant gross
+proof of their significance, and therefore when slight must more
+subtly work upon it. Endocrine disturbances in infancy have been
+traced to endocrine disturbances in the mother during pregnancy.
+Pregnant animals fed on thyroid give birth to young with large thymus
+glands. The diet of the mother has been proved conclusively to
+influence the development and constitution of the child. As the
+internal secretions influence the history of the food in the body,
+they affect development in the womb indirectly as well as directly.
+Certainly, whether or no we learn how to change the nature of
+germplasm within a short time, we have in the endocrines the means at
+hand for affecting _the whole individual that is born and sees the
+light of day_.
+
+THE CONTROL OF MUTATIONS
+
+The true physical and intellectual evolution of man depends upon the
+production of mutations of a desirable kind that can survive. The
+information furnished by the study of the endocrines concerning
+the genesis of personality provides the foundations for a positive
+eugenics, a eugenics of the encouragement of desirable matings, with
+the proper legal and social procedures. Selective breeding for the
+production of the best endocrine types should become practicable.
+
+But the biologist should be able to go farther. If the eugenist is to
+limit himself to the method of the animal breeder he will have to rest
+satisfied with the characters or hereditary factors given, that turn
+up spontaneously in an individual. But with the internal secretions
+as the controllable controllers of mutations, the outlook changes.
+It should become possible to produce new mutations, good and bad, to
+speed up their production at any rate. The feeding of thyroid to
+a gifted father before procreation might enhance immeasurably the
+chances of transmission of his gift as well as of its intensification
+in his offspring. A field of investigation is opened that would
+embrace in due time the deliberate control of human evolution.
+
+All the physical traits, stature, color, muscle function, and so on,
+offer themselves for improvement, as well as brain size, and the
+intellectual and emotional factors which have dominated man's social
+evolution. The general prevalence of nervous disorders in civilized
+countries, visible even in the nervous infants the specialist in
+children's diseases is called upon to treat, shows that the nervous
+system of the better part of mankind is in a state of unstable
+equilibrium. It may be another example of the curious coincidences
+that have been called the Fitness of the Environment that the
+investigation of the endocrines promises to put into our hands the
+instruments of the control of the future of the nervous system. In
+general, meanwhile, the eugenist should strive for raising the level
+of the endocrine potential, and discourage its lowering. That means
+the encouragement of matings in which all the internal secretion
+activities are reinforced. On the other hand, those internal secretion
+combinations, generally leading to a deficiency of all of them which
+produce types of mental defectives, delinquency and crime should not
+be allowed to occur.
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT
+
+What suggestions now are there for the euthenist who would control
+the influence of environment upon child culture. There are certain
+pertinent facts and leads that are worth considering.
+
+In analyzing environment, one must distinguish sharply in the jungle,
+the non-living factors from the living. For while the nonliving act
+upon the endocrines directly, the living act upon the vegetative
+system, as a whole. The non-living factors are those with the intimate
+scrutiny of which physics and chemistry have busied themselves: food,
+water, air, light, heat, electricity, magnetism. The living are the
+animals that prowl all over the planet, the predatories spreading the
+gospel of fear.
+
+The dietetic habits of a person, for instance, are known to have an
+influence upon the glands of internal secretion. Meat-eating produces
+a greater call upon the thyroid than any other form of food. In time
+this ought to produce a degree of hyperthyroidism in the carniverous
+populations. Pre-war statistics concerning meat-eating in different
+countries show the greatest meat-eating among the English-speaking
+groups, who all in all must be admitted the most energetic.
+
+                                _Meat per Day per_
+  _Countries_              _Capita in Grams_
+
+  Australia                             306
+  U.S. of America                       149
+  Great Britain                         130
+  France                                 92
+  Belgium and Holland                    86
+  Austria-Hungary                        79
+  Russia                                 59
+  Spain                                  61
+  Italy                                  29
+  Japan                                  25
+
+Sea-water contains iodine. People living in contact with sea-water
+would be apt to get more iodine in their systems, and so a greater
+degree of thyroid activity. On the other hand, certain bodies and
+sources of inland water hold something deleterious to the thyroid, so
+that whole populations in Europe, Asia and America drinking such water
+have become goitrous and cretinous, and a large percentage straight
+imbeciles. Endemic cretinism is the name given to the condition. In
+parts of Switzerland, Savoy, Tyrol and the Pyrenees, in America
+around some of the Great Lakes, there are still such foci. Marco Polo
+described similar areas he encountered in his travels through Asia.
+
+Certain foods with aphrodisiac qualities may act by stimulating the
+internal secretion of the sex glands. A type of pituitocentric has an
+almost uncontrollable craving for sweets. Alcohol and the endocrines
+remain to be studied.
+
+Light, heat and humidity stand in some special relation to the
+adrenals. Pigment deposit in the skin as protection against light
+is controlled by the adrenal cortex. The reaction of the skin blood
+vessels to heat and humidity is regulated by the adrenal medulla. A
+change in the adrenal as a response to changes of temperature and
+humidity in an environment would result in a number of concomitant
+transformations throughout the body. So variation and adaptation are
+probably connected. Most Europeans living for a sufficiently long time
+in the tropics suffer from a combination of symptoms spoken of as
+"Punjab head" or "Bengal head." The condition is probably the result
+of excessive adrenal stimulation by the excessive heat and light of
+the tropical sun, followed by a reaction of exhaustion and failure,
+with the consequent phenomena of a form of neurasthenia. In the
+section on the pineal gland there was mentioned the relation between
+light and the pineal gland in growing animals, and how it serves to
+keep in check the sex-stimulating action of light. The earlier puberty
+and menstruation of the warmer climates may be explained as due to an
+earlier regression of the pineal under the pressure of a great amount
+of light playing upon the skin.
+
+All these, and many more could be cited, are instances of the direct
+influence of environmental factors upon one or more of the endocrines,
+and so upon the organism as a whole. Indeed, stimuli may be considered
+to modify an organism only in so far as they modify the glands of
+internal secretion. Consequently, climatic factors will tend to make a
+population possess certain points of resemblance in common.
+
+Varieties of the human race exist as do varieties of dogs. The
+pekingese and the fox terrier are as different as the Slav and Latin
+are different: because of differences in internal secretion make-up.
+The Slav peasant is definitely subthyroid in his general effect:
+round head, coarse features, stubby hands, and his stolid, brooding
+intellectual and emotional reaction. The Latin shows a pronounced
+adrenal streak in his coloration, his emotivity, his susceptibility to
+neurosis and psychosis. H. Laing Gordon, a Scot physician, reported
+that of 700 cases he studied, more than twice as many of duplex eyed
+individuals (brown or black, i.e., adrenal-centered most often), were
+susceptible to the mental disturbances of war as the simplex (blue or
+gray-eyed, i.e., thyroid-centered most often). He also pointed out
+that such individuals tend to have a narrow and abnormally arched
+palate. The Anglo-Saxon tends to be more sharply pituitarized, his
+features are more clean-cut, his mentality more stable. The Frenchman
+is rather a cross between the Anglo-Saxon pituitary-centered and the
+Italian or Spanish adrenal-centered.
+
+So national resemblances, traceable to climatic influences being
+repeated from generation to generation upon the endocrines, may be
+explained physiologically. The physiologic interpretation of history
+will indeed be found the broadest, including as complementary Buckle's
+climatic theory, Hegel's ideas on the influence of ideas, and Marx's
+on the superiority of the economic motives and forces.
+
+THE RACES OF MANKIND
+
+Arthur Keith, conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of
+Surgeons of England, was the first to apply the principle of endocrine
+differentiation to the problem of the color-lines--the lines which
+have divided mankind crudely into the yellow, the red, the white and
+the brown, the Negro, the Mongol, the Caucasian, the copper tinted
+American. It has long been recognized by anthropologists that the
+differences of color march with differences in every comparable trait.
+Thus the ideal Negro is built upon a pattern in which all the elements
+are specific and singular. When the looms revolve that make him,
+there is produced a gleaming black skin, kinky black hair, squat
+wide-nostriled nose, thick protruding lips, large striking teeth,
+prominent jaws, and staring eyes. As his upright carriage and
+bone-muscle-fat proportions are distinctive, so are his musical voice
+and his easily wrought upon nerves. In contrast the Caucasian has a
+good deal of hair on his body, his skin is a pale tan-pink, his lips
+are thin, and his nose especially has the definite bridge which
+narrows it. The Mongol, like the Negro, has the hairless body and the
+beardless face, but unlike him has lank straight hair on his head,
+while his features are flattened and fore-shortened.
+
+Upon the basis of these structural, functional and mental differences,
+the qualitative and quantitative evolution of which in the race as in
+the individual is guided by the glands of internal secretion, Keith
+presents a very good case for the view that the white man is an
+example of relative excess of the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal and
+gonad endocrines. "The sharp and pronounced nasalization of the
+face, the tendency to strong eyebrow ridges, the prominent chin, the
+tendency to bulk of body, and height of stature in the majority of
+Europeans" are the signs of pituitary dominance. Keith is also of the
+opinion that "the sexual differentiation, the robust manifestations of
+the male characters, is more emphatic in the Caucasian than in
+either the Mongol or Negro racial types ... in certain negro types,
+especially in Nilotic tribes, with their long stork-like legs, we seem
+to have a manifestation of abeyance in the action of the interstitial
+glands." As for the adrenal superiority of the white man, "it is 150
+years since John Hunter came to the conclusion ... that the original
+color of man's skin was black, and all the knowledge that we have
+gathered since his supports the inference he drew. From the fact that
+pigment begins to collect and thus darken the skin when the adrenal
+bodies become the seat of a destructive disease we infer that they
+have to do with the clearing away of pigment, and that we Europeans
+owe the fairness of our skins to some particular virtue resident in
+the adrenal bodies." Finally, as regards the thyroid, a comparison of
+the face of a cretin with that of the Negro or Mongol tells the story.
+A certain variety of idiocy, Mongolian idiocy, in which the face
+simulates cretinism so closely as to deceive practised clinical
+observers, is characterized by a Chinese cast of the features and
+eyes, hence the name. And in the Bushman of South Africa, the cretin's
+face is even more startlingly recalled.
+
+There is every reason then for believing that the white man possesses
+more of pituitary, adrenal, gonad, and thyroid internal secretions as
+compared with the yellow man or black man. And since these endocrines
+control not only physique and physiognomy, anatomic and functional
+minutiae, but also mind and behaviour, we are justified in putting
+down the white man's predominance on the planet to a greater
+all-around concentration in his blood of the omnipotent hormones.
+While the Negro is relatively subadrenal, the Mongol is relatively
+subthyroid. Their relative deficiency in internal secretions
+constitutes the essence of the White Man's Burden.
+
+MAN'S ATTITUDE TOWARD HIMSELF
+
+A last, but by no means least, application we may consider of the
+developing knowledge of the internal secretions in relation to human
+evolution is its effect upon Man's attitude toward himself and so
+toward his fellow men. Whatever else he is, man is a land animal with
+ideas. That makes him a thought-adventurer among materials. In a word,
+he is the last word of mind working upon matter. But persistently he
+has refused to recognize himself as matter and as subject to the laws,
+to the physics and chemistry of matter.
+
+History consists of the protocols that record the high lights of the
+interactions of materials and ideas which is the adventure of man in
+time and space. Materials and ideas have reacted, the record shows;
+materials come upon have begotten strange fantasies. Ideas that
+flashed from nowhere into a consciousness have transformed utterly the
+face of the earth. The herd-brute, agglutinated with his fellows by a
+magnetism beyond his ken, could be infected with thought, and so cast
+in the heroic mould. The possibility of communion,--that possibility
+of possibilities, for without it none other could be possible--has
+rendered man the heir of a divine destiny. For the progressive
+education of the race, a single discoverer here, an inventor there,
+and thinkers everywhere have been inspired. In due time their
+inspiration becomes the possession of even the lowest brain but
+capable of grasping it.
+
+Man's attitude toward himself, his self-consciousness, and his
+attitude toward his fellow creatures has grown and varied and
+evolved with his education about himself. According to the theory he
+formulated concerning his being, his why and wherefore, he directed
+and governed, punished and mutilated himself and them. But the
+pressure of his curiosity, and the inexorable quality of the truth
+would not let him stand still. The poetic genius within him, as Blake
+called it, struggled on from one dogma concerning his nature to
+another. Behaviour malignant or beneficent, horrible in its tragedy
+and pitiable in its comedy, flowed inevitably on. Witchcraft trials
+and the tortures of the Spanish Inquisition belong among the more
+mentionable consequences of some of man's theories about his own
+nature and its requirements.
+
+Heretofore the imaginative spirit has had its day in the matter. And,
+curiously enough, an obsession to subjugate the natural has made it
+exalt the supernatural. Visions, dreams, portents, revelations, all
+symptomatic of an order of things above nature, are the stuff of what
+more than ninety-nine per cent of the millions of the race believe
+about themselves and their fate. Man's cruelty to man, through the
+ages, is a comment upon how vast and ramifying may be the consequences
+of a delusion.
+
+But now for a couple of centuries the critical spirit, which is the
+spirit of science, has been invading the affairs of men. Humble but
+persistent corrosive of delusion, it has infiltrated the furthest
+bounds of ignorance and superstition. It has not dared to assert the
+supremacy of its fundamental views upon the everyday problems of human
+life because it was without concrete means of vindicating its claims.
+That lack is now supplied by the growing understanding of the chemical
+factors as the controllers and dictators of all the legion aspects of
+life.
+
+The profoundest achievement of the physiologist will be the change his
+teachings and discoveries will bring about in man's attitude toward
+himself. When he comes to realize himself as a chemical machine that
+can, within limits, be remodeled, overhauled and repaired, as an
+automobile can be, within limits, when he becomes saturated with the
+significance of his endocrine-vegetative system at every turn and move
+of his life, and when sympathy and pity informed by knowledge and
+understanding will come to regulate his relationships with the lowest
+and most despised of the men, women and children about him, the era of
+the first real civilization will properly be said to be born.
+
+Morality, as society's code of conduct for its members, will have
+to change in the direction of a greater flexibility with the
+establishment of organic differences in human types. There is nothing
+that is more emphasized to the pathologist than that one man's meat is
+another man's poison. In the family, as nature's laboratory for
+the manufacture of fresh combinations of the internal secretions,
+allowances will be made for divergences in capacity and deportment
+from a new angle altogether. Schools will function as the developers,
+stimulators and inhibitors of the endocrines, as well as investigators
+of the individuals who have not enough or too much of one or some of
+them. Prisons will have the same function, only they will be named
+detention hospitals. The raising of the general level of intelligence
+by the judicious use of endocrine extracts will mean a good deal to
+the sincere statesman. The average duration of life will be prolonged
+for an enormous mass of the population. If the prevention of war
+depends upon the burning into the imagination of the electorates
+what the consequences of war are, a high intelligence quotient and
+revaluation of life will count for a good deal.
+
+Man is the animal that wants Utopia. So long as human nature was
+looked upon as fixed constant in the ebb and flow of life, a Utopia of
+fine minds could be conceived only by the dreamer and poet. The desire
+for such a Utopia could only be regarded as a tragic aspiration for an
+impossibility. The physiology of the internal secretions teaches that
+human nature does change and can be changed. A relative control of its
+properties is already in view. The absolute control will come.
+
+Nor need anyone fear that the science of the internal secretions in
+its maturity will signify the abolition of the marvelous differences
+between human beings that create the unique personalities of history.
+A derangement of the endocrines has been responsible for masterpieces
+of the human species in the past and will be responsible for them in
+the future. The equality of Utopia can be the equality of the highest
+and fullest development possible for each of its inhabitants. The
+applications of endocrine control will not necessarily interfere
+with the life of the individual. There will be breeding of the best
+mixtures of glands of internal secretion possible. And there will
+be treatment for those born with a handicap, or who have become
+handicapped in the life struggle. There will be a stimulation of
+capacity to the limit. But beyond that, compulsory equalization is a
+theorist's bogey.
+
+The internal secretions are the most hopeful and promising of the
+reagents for control yet come upon by the human mind. They open up
+limitless prospects for the improvement of the race. A few hundreds of
+investigators are engaged upon their study throughout the world. That
+is one of the ironies of our contemporary civilization. A concerted
+effort at the task of understanding them, backed by the labors of tens
+of thousands of workers, would, without a doubt, accomplish as much
+for humanity as the vast armies and navies that consume the substance
+of mankind. If we could not obtain Utopia then, we might, at least by
+abolishing the subnormals and abnormals who constitute the slaves and
+careerists of society, render the human race less contemptible and
+more divine.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+ Ability, natural
+  Acquired characters, inheritance of
+  Acromegaly
+  Addison
+  Addison's disease
+  Adolescence, period of
+  Adrenal glands
+    and anger
+    and courage
+    and emergencies
+    and emotions
+    and fatigue
+    and fear
+    and neuroses
+    and pseudo-hermaphroditism
+    and puberty
+    blood pressure and
+    brain cells and
+    chromaffin cells of
+    cortex of
+    excess of secretion
+    failure of secretion
+    function of
+    glands of combat and fight
+    hair and
+    influence of in hermaphroditism
+    insufficiency of secretion
+    medulla of
+    pigment cells and
+    relation to pineal gland
+    relation to pituitary
+    secretion of
+    sexuality and
+    skin and
+  Adrenal-centered type
+  Adrenal face
+  Adrenal personalities, or types
+    compensated
+    insufficient
+    in pregnancy
+    of brain work
+    of girl
+    of hair
+    of skin
+    of teeth
+  Adrenal personalities, or types of women
+    reactions to modernism in
+  Adrenalin
+  Alcoholism and endocrine types
+  Analysis, endocrine
+  Anger
+    and adrenals
+  Antagonisms
+  Anti-Fate
+  Antitoxic function of thyroid gland
+  Ape-parvenu, the
+  Applications of endocrinology
+  Autonomic system
+
+  Backgrounds of personality
+  Baldness and the thyroid
+  Baumann
+  Bayliss
+  Beard
+  Beard's neurasthenia
+  von Bechterew
+  Behavior
+  Bell, Blair
+  Bernard, Claude
+  Berthold
+  Black races, endocrine control in
+  Blood pressure, and adrenals
+  Body, influence of glands upon
+  Body-mind complex
+  Bones
+    long, development of
+  Bordeau
+  Bossi
+  Brain cells and adrenals
+  Brain, growth of
+  Brainwork, adrenal type of
+  Breakdown, nervous
+  Breeding, bearing of endocrine glands on
+  Brown-Sequard
+
+  Caesar, Julius, an epileptic
+    pituitary in
+  Capacity
+  Careerist
+    as abnormals
+    feminine
+    instincts of
+    masculine
+    super-
+  Carlson
+  Castration
+    effects of
+    effects of, on thymus
+  Character
+  Charcot
+  Charging of wishes, endocrine
+  Check and drive system
+  Chemistry of the soul
+  Child--bearing, transfigurations of
+  Childhood, epoch of the pineal
+  Chromaffin cells of adrenals
+  Chromosomes
+  Climacteric
+  Color, endocrine control of, in races
+  Combat, adrenals and
+  Combinations of types of personality
+  Conduct
+  Constitutions, endocrine
+  Cooperation
+  Corpus luteum
+    and mammary glands
+  Courage and the adrenals
+  Cretinism
+    a thyroid deficiency
+    effect of feeding thyroid in
+  Cretinoid type
+  Cretin
+  Crime, treatment of
+  Criminals and endocrine types
+  Critical ages
+  Curling
+  Cushing, Harvey
+
+  Dangerous age, the
+  Darwin, Charles
+    as a neurasthenic genius
+    his "Descent of Man"
+    his theory of Pangenesis
+  Davenport
+  Deficiency, mental
+  Development
+  Diabetes, and the pancreas
+  Diet, effect of on the endocrine glands
+  Directorate, endocrine glands as a
+  Diseases and endocrine types
+  Division of labor
+  Drug addiction and endocrine types
+  Dwarfs
+
+  Education, of vegetative-system
+    vocational
+  Egomania
+  Elixir of life
+  Emergencies, adrenals glands of
+  Emotions, adrenals glands of
+  Endocrine
+    analysis
+    charging of wishes
+    constitutions
+    control in color of races
+    corporation
+    deficiency in old age
+    epochs of life
+    glands
+      and feeblemindedness
+      and insanity
+      as an interlocking directorate
+      bases of variation
+      bearing on breeding
+      discovery of
+      effect of diet on
+      influence upon body
+      influence upon mind
+    inferiority
+    neurosis
+    personality
+    sex traits
+    types
+      alcoholism and
+      criminals and
+      diseases and
+      drug addiction and
+      narcotism and
+  Endocrines, evolution of
+  Endocrinology, applications of
+    possibilities of
+  Energy
+    and thyroid
+  Enthusiasm and thyroid
+  Environment, influence of
+  Epilepsy, in genius
+  Epochs of life, endocrine
+  Eugenics, negative
+    positive
+    promises of
+  Eunuchoid face
+    personality
+  Eunuchoidism
+  Eunuchs
+  Evolution, human, effect of internal secretions upon
+  Exhibitionism
+  Expressionism
+  Eyes
+
+  Face, adrenal
+    eunuchoid
+    hyperpituitary
+    hyperthyroid
+  Facial types
+  Family, and mixed sex
+  Fat, distribution of
+  Fat people
+  Fate and Anti-Fate
+  Fatigue and industry
+    as an endocrine deficiency
+    relation of adrenals to
+    relation of thymus to
+  Fear
+    mechanism of
+    relation of adrenals to
+  Feeblemindedness and the endocrine glands
+  Feminine pituitary type
+  Feminine precocity
+  Feminoid complex
+    constitution and personality
+  Fertilization
+  Fight, relation of adrenals to
+  Fingers, pituitary and
+    thyroid and
+  Forgetting
+  Freedom
+  Freud
+  Freudianism
+  Freudians
+  Friedleben
+
+  Galli
+  Galton
+  Genius, epilepsy in
+    migraine in
+    neurasthenic
+    treatment of
+  Giants
+  Girl, endocrine types of
+  Glands, definition of
+    endocrine, as an interlocking directorate
+    discovery of
+    influence on body
+    influence on mind
+  Goitre, relation of iodine to
+  Gonads
+    and libido
+    and sexuality
+    and thymus
+  Gonads and thyroid
+    function
+    secretion
+  Gonad-centric personalities
+    homosexuality and
+  Growth
+    relation of thymus to
+  Guilford
+  Gull
+
+  Hair
+    and adrenals
+    and pineal
+    and thymus
+    and thyroid
+  Hands, and pituitary
+    and thyroid
+  Henle
+  Hermaphrodite
+  Hermaphroditism
+    functional
+    influence of adrenals in
+    influence of pituitary in
+  Hibernation
+    and the pituitary
+  Historic personages
+    Darwin, Charles
+    Julius Caesar
+    Napoleon
+    Nietzsche
+    Nightingale, Florence
+    Wilde, Oscar
+  History, internal secretions in
+  von Hochwart
+  Homosexuality, and gonad-centric type
+    and thymus type
+  Hormones
+    harmony of the
+  Horsley
+  Howitz
+  Human nature
+    attitudes towards
+    case against
+    science and
+  Hunger
+  Hunter, John
+  Hygiene of the internal secretions
+  Hyperpituitary face
+    skin
+  Hyperpituitrism,
+  Hyperthyroid face
+    skin
+    type
+      of girl
+      pregnancy in
+      premenstrual molimina in
+  Hyperthyroidism
+  Hysteria
+
+  Imagination, an endocrine gift
+  Improvement of racial stock
+  Industry, and fatigue
+    relation of endocrines to
+  Infancy, epoch of the thymus
+  Infantilism
+  Infantiloid constitution or personality
+  Inferiority, breeding of
+  Inheritance of acquired characters
+  Insanity, and the endocrine glands
+  Instinct
+  Instincts, pituitary
+    thyroid
+  Insuline
+  Intellectuality, and the pituitary
+  Internal secretions, determinants of vegetative pressures
+    effect of, upon human evolution
+    hygiene of
+    in history
+  Interstitial glands, see Gonads
+    type of teeth
+  Iodine, in thyroxin
+    relation of to goitre
+
+  Janet
+  Judgment
+  Julius Caesar, an epileptic
+    pituitary in
+
+  Keith
+  Kendall
+  Kinetic chain
+    drive
+    system
+  Kocher
+
+  Laennec
+  Lanugo
+  Larey
+  Libido and gonads
+    sex
+  Life, well-springs of
+  Lime salts, and sex
+  Lincoln, Abraham
+  Lutein
+
+  MacDougallians
+  Malthusian law of slavery
+  Mammary glands
+    corpus luteum and
+    placenta and
+  Man, a transient
+    attitude of towards himself
+    a product of glands of internal secretion
+    critical age in
+    secondary sex characteristics of
+  Manic depressive psychoses
+  Mankind, races of
+  Marie, Pierre
+  Masculine, the secret of the
+  Masculine and feminine, mechanics of, and see Sex
+  Masculine pituitary type
+  Masculinoid women
+  Masochism
+  Maternal instinct
+    different from sex instinct
+    relation of the pituitary to
+  Matings, desirable and undesirable
+  Megalomania
+  Memory
+  Mendelism
+  Menopause
+  Menstruation
+    and ovaries
+    cycle of
+  Mental deficiency
+  Migraine in genius
+  Mind, influence of glands on
+    oldest part of
+  Mitchell, Weir
+  Mixed sex and the family
+  Mixed types
+  Moebius
+  Modernism, reactions to in adrenal types
+  Moods, and the organic outlook
+  Moral irresponsibility and thymus type
+  Mujerados
+  Mueller, Johann,
+  Murray
+  Muscles
+  Mutations, control of
+  Myxedema
+    operative
+
+  Napoleon, case of
+  Narcotism, and endocrine types
+  Nature's experiments _vs_. Man's
+  "Nerves"
+  Nervous breakdowns
+  Neurasthenia
+  Neurosis
+    adrenals and
+    endocrine
+    war
+  Nietzsche, case of
+  Nightingale, Florence, legend of
+  Normal, what is
+
+  Obesity
+  Operative myxedema
+  Ord, William
+  Ovaries, internal secretion of
+    relation of to menstruation
+    removal of, effect of
+    role of
+  Oversecretion
+
+  Pancreas
+    diabetes and
+    function of
+    removal of
+    secretion of
+  Pangenesis, Darwin's theory of
+  Parathyroids
+    function of
+    secretion of
+  Paulesco
+  Pawlov
+  Permutations, of types of personality,
+  Perry, Caleb
+  Personality, background of
+    combinations of types of
+    determined by the endocrines
+    endocrine
+    eunuchoid
+    types of
+      adrenal
+      combinations of
+      gonad-centric
+      nature's experiments _vs_. man's
+      permutations of
+      pituitary of
+  Philosophers, prejudices of
+  Physics of the wish
+  Physiologists, attitude of
+  role of
+  Pigment cells and the adrenals
+    in skin of various races
+  Pineal gland
+    and hair
+    and childhood
+    feeding of to children
+    function of
+    muscle function of
+  Pineal gland, obesity and
+    puberty and
+    relation of to adrenals
+    to progressive muscular atrophy
+    secretion of
+    type of muscles
+  Pituitary gland
+    action of
+    and fingers
+    and toes
+    compared with thyroid
+    diminished action of
+    extirpation of
+    function of
+    in Julius Caesar
+    in Oscar Wilde
+    instincts
+  overaction of
+    personalities
+    regulator of organic rhythms
+    relation to adrenals
+      to growth
+      to hair
+      to hermaphroditism
+      to hibernation
+      to imagination
+      to intellectuality
+      to judgment
+      to maternal instincts
+      to memory
+      to puberty
+      to rejuvenation
+      to sex difficulties
+      to sexual glands
+      to stature
+      to thymus
+    secretion of
+    secretion, characteristics of inferior
+      characteristics of sufficient
+    type
+      feminine
+      masculine
+      of eyes
+      of hands
+      of muscles
+      pregnancy in
+      premenstrual molimina in
+  Pituitary-centered type
+  Pituitocentrics, Caesar
+    Darwin
+    Napoleon
+    Nietzsche
+    Nightingale
+  Pituitrin
+    function of
+  Placenta
+    and mammary glands
+  Placental gland
+  Plater, Felix
+  Plummer
+  Poise
+  Popielski
+  Possibilities of endocrinology
+  Postpituitary type of girl
+  Precocity, feminine
+    male
+  Pregnancy, in various endocrine types
+  Premenstrual molimina, in various endocrine types
+  Progressive muscular dystrophy and the pineal gland
+  Prostate
+  Pseudo-hermaphroditism and the adrenals
+  Psychanalyst, as a therapeutist
+  Psychology, new
+  Psychopathology of every day life
+  Puberty
+    glands, see Gonads
+    in female
+    significance of
+  Public health, prospects of
+  Pure types
+  Puericulture, science of
+
+  Races of mankind
+  Reactions to modernism in adrenal types
+  Rejuvenation, possibilities of
+  Religion of science
+  Repression
+  Resilience of skin
+  Restelli
+  Reverdin, J.L.
+  Rhythms of sex
+  Robertson
+
+  Sadism
+  Schiff, Moritz
+  Science, and human nature
+    origin of
+    religion of
+  Secondary sex traits
+  Secretin
+  Secretion
+  Sella turcica
+  Semon, Sir Felix
+  Senility, epoch of endocrine deficiency
+    interpretation of
+  Sensitivity
+  Sex
+    and lime salts
+    attitudes towards questions of
+    cause of
+    chemistry of
+    characteristics, secondary
+    conflict
+    crises
+    difficulties, pituitary and
+    glands, see Gonads
+      and hair
+      and puberty
+      and muscles
+      centered
+      chain
+    index
+    instinct
+      different from maternal instinct
+    libido
+    life, determining factors of
+    mixed, and the family
+    rhythms of
+    traits, or characteristics
+      endocrine
+      origin of
+      primary
+    secondary
+  Sexual cravings
+    glands, see Gonads, and Sex glands
+      and pituitary gland
+  Sexuality, and gonads
+    and adrenal glands
+  Shaw, G.B.
+  Shell-shock
+  Skeletal types
+  Skin
+    adrenal type
+    and adrenals
+    hyperpituitary type
+    hyperthyroid type
+    pigmentation
+    subadrenal type
+    subpituitary type
+    subthyroid type
+  Slavery, Malthusian law of
+    origin of
+  Soul, chemistry of the
+  Starling
+  Statesman, problems of
+    why he fails
+  Stature, pituitary and
+  Status lymphaticus, and thymus type
+  Steinach
+  Stirner, Max
+  Subadrenal skin
+  Subpituitary skin
+  Subpituitary type of women
+    premenstrual molimina in
+  Subpituitism
+  Subthyroid face
+    skin
+    type
+      of eyes
+      of women, pregnancy in
+  Subthyroidism
+  Sugar metabolism
+  Super-Careerist
+  Susceptibility
+  Sympathetic system
+
+  Teeth
+  Tethelin
+    action of
+    function of
+  Thymic face
+  Thymo-centric personalities
+  Thymo-centric type
+    Oscar Wilde
+  Thymus
+    and gonads
+    and pituitary
+    and puberty
+    and sexual glands
+    and thyroid
+    effect of castration on
+    effect of feeding thymus to animals
+    extirpation of
+    function of
+    hair and
+    hyperactivity of
+    infancy, epoch of the
+    persistent, skin of
+    relation of fatigue to
+    relation of growth to
+    relation of weight to
+    removal of, effect on gonads
+    secretion
+    type of teeth
+  Thymus type
+    homosexuality and
+    moral irresponsibility and
+    status lymphaticus and
+  Thyroid gland
+    and adrenals
+    and baldness
+    and energy
+    and enthusiasm
+    and intersitial glands
+    and judgment
+    and memory
+    and pancreas
+    and pituitary
+  Thyroid gland and puberty
+    and rejuvenation
+    and skin
+    and thymus
+    antitoxic function of
+    as an accelerator
+    as a catalyser
+    as a differentiator
+    as an energiser
+    compared with pituitary
+    creator of land animals
+    deficiency
+    effect of feeding the gland
+    excess
+    functions of
+    hair and
+    instincts
+    personalities
+    secretion of, and see Thyroxin
+    type, of eyes
+    of hands
+    of muscles
+    of teeth
+  Thyroid-centered type
+  Thyrotoxin
+  Thyroxin
+    and energy mobilization
+    and energy production
+    and speed of living
+  Toes
+    pituitary and
+    thyroid and
+  Tonus
+  Types
+    endocrine
+    adrenal
+    adrenal-centered
+    alcoholism and
+    combinations of
+    cretinoid
+    criminals and
+    diseases and
+    drug addiction and
+    facial
+    hyperthyroid
+    mixed
+    narcotism and
+    of girls
+    pituitary,
+    pituitary-centered
+    pure
+    skeletal,
+    subthyroid
+    thyroid-centered
+  Unconscious, the
+    and the viscera
+    physical basis of
+  Undersecretion
+  Variation
+    endocrine glands as basis of
+  Varieties of internal secretions
+  Vegetative apparatus
+  Vegetative pressures
+    internal secretions
+    determinants of
+  Vegetative system
+    education of
+  Virilism
+  Viscera
+    the unconscious and
+  Vocational education
+
+  War neurosis
+  Weight relation of thymus to
+  White races
+    endocrine control in
+  Wilde, Oscar
+    explanation of
+  Wishes
+    endocrine charging of
+    physics of
+  Women
+    adrenal type of
+    masculinoid
+    secondary sex characteristics in
+
+  X-chromosome
+
+  Yellow races
+    endocrine control in
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glands Regulating Personality
+by Louis Berman, M.D.
+
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