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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1025.txt b/1025.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f7612ec --- /dev/null +++ b/1025.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13154 @@ +The Project Gutenberg Etext of Essays, Political, etc. Vol. 1 +by Benjamin Rumford + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. 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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + +ESSAYS, political, economical and philosophical + +by Benjamin Count of Rumford + +Knight of the orders of the white eagle, and St. Atanislaus; +Chamberlain, Privy Counsellor of State, and Lieutenant-General +in the Service of his Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, +Reigning Duke of Bavaria; Colonel of his Regiment of Artillery, +and Commander in Chief of the General Staff of his Army; F.R.S. +Acad. R Hiber. Berol. Elec. Boicoe. Palat. et Amer. Soc. + + + + + VOL. I. + + +Contents + +Dedication + +First Essay +An account of an Establishment for the Poor at Munich + +Second Essay +On the Fundamental Principles on which General Establishments for +the Relief of the Poor may be formed in all Countries. + +Third Essay +Of Food and Particularly of Feeding the Poor. + +Fourth Essay +Of Chimney Fire-places with proposals for improving them to save +Fuel; to render dwelling-houses more Comfortable and Salubrious, +and effectually to prevent Chimnies from Smoking. + +Fifth Essay +A Short Account of several public institutions lately formed in +Bavaria. together with the Appendix to the First Volume. + + + + +Dedication + +To his most serene highness THE ELECTOR PALATINE reigning duke +of bavaria. etc. etc. etc. + +SIR, + +In requesting permission to dedicate to you most Serene +Electoral Highness these Essays, I had several important +objects in view: I was desirous of showing to the world that I +had not presumed to publish an account of public measures and +institutions, planned and executed in your Electorial +Highness's dominions,--by your orders,--and under your +immediate authority and protection, without your leave and +approbation. I was also desirous of availing myself of the +illustrious name of a Sovereign eminently distinguished by his +munificence in promoting useful knowledge, and by his solicitude +for the happiness and prosperity of his subjects, to recommend +the important objects I have undertaken to investigate, to the +attention of the Great,--the Wise,--and the Benevolent. +And lastly, I was anxious to have an opportunity of testifying, +in a public manner, my gratitude to your most Serene Electoral +Highness for all your kindness to me; and more especially for +the distinguished honour you have done me by selecting and +employing me as an instrument in your hands of doing good. + +I have the honour to be, with the most profound respect, +and with unalterable attachment, + +SIR, +Your Most Serene ELECTORIAL HIGHNESS's + +Devoted Servant, + +RUMFORD. + +London, + +July, 1st, 1796. + + + +CONTENTS of ESSAY I. + +an ACCOUNT of an ESTABLISHMENT FOR THE POOR AT MUNICH + +together with + +A Detail of various Public Measures, connected with that +Institution, which have been adopted and carried into effect for +putting an End to Mendicity, and introducing Order, and useful +Industry, among the more Indigent of the Inhabitants of Bavaria. + +Introduction + +CHAPTER. I. + Of the prevalence of mendicity in Bavaria at the time when the + measures for putting an end to it were adopted. + +CHAPTER. II. + Various preparations made for putting an end to mendicity in bavaria. + Cantonment of the cavalry in the country towns and villages. + Formation of the committee placed at the head of the institution + for the poor at Munich. + The funds of that institution. + +CHAPTER. III. + Preparations made for giving employment to the poor. + Difficulties attending that undertaking. + The measures adopted completely successful. + The poor reclaimed to habits of useful industry. + Description of the house of industry at Munich. + +CHAPTER. IV. + An account of the taking up of the beggars at Munich. + The inhabitants are called upon for their assistance. + General subscription for the relief and support of the poor. + All other public and private collections for the poor abolished. + +CHAPTER. V. + The different kinds of employment given to the beggars upon their + being assembled in the house of industry. + Their great awkwardness at first. + Their docility, and their progress in useful industry. + The manner in which they were treated. + The manner in which they were fed. + The Precautions used to prevent Abuses in the Public Kitchen from + which they were fed. + +CHAPTER. VI. + Apology for the want of method in treating the subject under + consideration. + Of the various means used for encouraging industry among the poor. + Of the internal arrangement and government of the house of industry. + Why called the military work-house. + Of the manner in which the business is carried on there. + Of the various means used for preventing frauds in carrying on the + business in the different manufactures. + Of the flourishing state of those manufactures. + +CHAPTER. VII. + A further account of the poor who were brought together in the + house of industry:--and of the interesting change which was + produced in their manners and dispositions. + Various proofs that the means used for making them industrious, + comfortable, and happy, were successful. + +CHAPTER. VIII. + Of the means used for the relief of those poor persons who were + not beggars. + Of the large sums of money distributed to the poor in alms. + Of the means used for rendering those who received alms industrious. + Of the general utility of the house of industry to the poor, + and the distressed of all denominations. + Of public kitchens for feeding the poor, united with establishments + for giving them employment; and of the great advantages which + would be derived from forming them in every parish. + Of the manner in which the poor of Munich are lodged. + +CHAPTER. IX. + Of the means used for extending the influence of the institution + for the poor at Munich, to other parts of Bavaria. + Of the progress which some of the improvements introduced at Munich + are making in other countries. + + +INTRODUCTION. + +[ IMAGE ] view of the Military Workhouse at Munich + + Situation of the Author in the Service of His Most Serene + Highness the ELECTOR PALATINE, Reigning Duke of BAVARIA. + Reasons which induced him to undertake to form an Establishment + for the Relief of the Poor. + +Among the vicissitudes of a life chequered by a great variety of +incidents, and in which I have been called upon to act in many +interesting scenes, I have had an opportunity of employing my +attention upon a subject of great importance; a subject +intimately and inseparably connected with the happiness and +well-being of all civil societies; and which, from its nature, +cannot fail to interest every benevolent mind;--it is the +providing for the wants of the Poor, and the securing their +happiness and comfort by the introduction of order and industry +among them. + +The subject, though it is so highly interesting to mankind, has +not yet been investigated with that success that could have been +wished. This fact is apparent, not only from the prevalence of +indolence, misery, and beggary, in almost all the countries of +Europe; but also from the great variety of opinion among those +who have taken the matter into serious consideration, and have +proposed methods for remedying those evils; so generally, and so +justly complained of. + +What I have to offer upon the this subject being not merely +speculative opinion, but the genuine result of actual experiments; +of experiments made upon a very large scale, and under circumstances +which render them peculiarly interesting; I cannot help flattering +myself that my readers will find both amusement, and useful +information, from the perusal of the following sheets. + +As it may perhaps appear extraordinary that a military man should +undertake a work so foreign to his profession, as that of forming +and executing a plan for providing for the Poor, I have thought +it not improper to preface the narrative of my operations, by a +short account of the motives which induced me to engage in this +undertaking. And in order to throw still more light upon the +whole transaction, I shall begin with a few words of myself, +of my situation in the country in which I reside, and of the +different objects which were had in view in the various public +measures in which I have been concerned. This information is +necessary in order to form a clear idea of the circumstances +under which the operations in question were undertaken, and the +different public measures which were adopted at the same time. + +Having in the year 1784, with His Majesty's gracious permission, +engaged myself in the service of His Most Serene Highness the +Elector Palatine, Reigning Duke of Bavaria, I have since been +employed by His Electoral Highness in various public services, +and particularly in arranging his military affairs, and introducing +a new system of order, discipline, and economy among his troops. + +In the execution of this commission, ever mindful of that great and +important truth, that no political arrangement can be really good, +except in so far as it contributes to the general good of society, +I have endeavoured in all my operations to unite the interest of +the soldier with the interest of civil society, and to render the +military force, even in time of peace, subservient to the PUBLIC GOOD. + +To facilitate and promote these important objects, to establish a +respectable standing military force, which should do the least +possible harm to the population, morals, manufactures, and +agriculture of the country, it was necessary to make soldiers +citizens, and citizens soldiers. To this end the situation of +the soldier was made as easy, comfortable, and eligible as +possible; his pay was increased, he was comfortably, and even +elegantly clothed, and he was allowed every kind of liberty not +inconsistent with good order and due subordination; his military +exercises were simplified, his instruction rendered short and +easy, and all obsolete and useless customs and usages were +banished from the service. Great attention was paid to the +external appearance of the buildings; and nothing was left +undone, that could tend to make the men comfortable in their +dwellings. Schools were established in all the regiments, +for arithmetic; and into these schools, not only the soldiers +and their children, but also the children of the neighbouring +citizens and peasants, were admitted gratis, and even school-books, +paper[1], pens, and ink, were furnished for them, at the expense +of the Sovereign. + +Besides these schools of instruction, others, called schools of +industry, were established in the regiments, where the soldiers +and their children were taught various kinds of work, and from +whence they were supplied with raw materials, to work for their +own emolument. + +As nothing is so certain fatal to morals, and particularly to the +morals of the lower class of mankind, as habitual idleness, every +possible measure was adopted, that could be devised, to introduce +a spirit of industry among the troops. Every encouragement was +given to the soldiers to employ their leisure time, when they +were off duty, in working for their own emolument; and among +other encouragements, the most efficacious of all, that of +allowing them full liberty to dispose of the money acquired by +their labour in any way they should think proper, without being +obliged to give any account of it to any body. They were even +furnished with working dresses, (a canvas frock and trousers,) +gratis, at their enlisting, and were afterwards permitted to +retain their old uniforms for the same purpose; and care was +taken, in all cases where they were employed, that they should be +well paid. + +They commonly received from sixteen to eighteen creutzers[2] a-day +for their labour; and with this they had the advantage of being +clothed and lodged, and, in many cases, of receiving their full pay +of five creutzers, and a pound and a half (1 lb. 13 1/2; oz. +Avoirdupois) of bread per day from the Sovereign. When they did +their duty in their regiments, by mounting guard regularly +according to their tour (which commonly was every fourth day,) +and only worked those days they happened to be off guard, in that +case, they received their full pay; but when they were excused +from regimental duty, and permitted to work every day for their +own emolument, their pay (at five creutzers per day,) was +stopped, but they were still permitted to receive their bread, +and to lodge in the barracks. + +In all public works, such as making and repairing highways, +--draining marshes,--repairing the banks of rivers, etc. +soldiers were employed as labourers; and in all such cases, +the greatest care was taken to provide for their comfortable +subsistence, and even for their amusement. Good lodgings were +prepared for them, and good and wholesome food, at a reasonable +price; and the greatest care was taken of them when they happened +to fall sick. + +Frequently, when considerable numbers of them were at work +together, a band of music was ordered to play to them while at +work; and on holidays they were permitted, and even encouraged, +to make merry, with dancing and other innocent sports and +amusements. + +To preserve good order and harmony among those who were detached +upon these working parties, a certain proportion of officers and +non-commissioned officers were always sent with them, and those +commonly served as overseers of the works, and as such were paid. + +Besides this permission to work for hire in the garrison towns, +and upon detached working parties, which was readily granted to +all those who desired it, or at least to as many as could +possibly be spared from the necessary service of the garrison; +every facility and encouragement was given to the soldier who was +a native of the country, and who had a family of friends to go +to, or private concerns to take care of, to go home on furlough, +and to remain absent from his regiment from one annual exercise +to the other, that is to say, ten months and a half each year. +This arrangement was very advantageous to the agriculture and +manufactures, and even to the population of the country, +(for the soldiers were allowed to marry,) and served not a little +to the establishment of harmony and a friendly intercourse +between the soldiers and the peasantry, and to facilitate +recruiting. + +Another measure which tended much to render the situation of the +soldier pleasant and agreeable, and to facilitate the recruiting +service, was the rendering the garrisons of the regiments permanent. +This measure might not be advisable in a despotic, or odious +government; for where the authority of the Sovereign must be +supported by the terror of arms, all habits of social intercourse +and friendship between the soldiers and the subjects must be +dangerous; but in all well-regulated governments, such friendly +intercourse is attended with many advantages. + +A peasant would more readily consent to his son's engaging +himself to serve as a soldier in a regiment permanently stationed +in his neighbourhood, than in one at a great distance, or whose +destination was uncertain; and when the station of a regiment is +permanent, and it receives its recruits from the district of +country immediately surrounding its head-quarters, the men who go +home on furlough have but a short journey to make, and are easily +assembled in case of any emergency; and it was the more necessary +to give every facility to the soldiers to go home on furlough in +Bavaria, as labourers are so very scarce in that country that the +husbandman would not be able without them to cultivate his ground. + +The habits of industry and of order which the soldier acquired +when in garrison, rendered him so much the more useful as a +labourer when on furlough; but not contented with merely +furnishing labours for the assistance of the husbandman, I was +desirous of making use of the army, as a means of introducing +useful improvements into the country. + +Though agriculture is carried to the highest perfection in some +parts of the Elector's dominions, yet in others, and particularly +in Bavaria, it is still much behind-hand. Very few of the new +improvements in that art, such as the introduction of new and +useful plants--the cultivation of clover and of turnips--the +regular succession of crops, etc. have yet found their way into +general practice in that country; and even the potatoe, that most +useful of all the products of the ground, is scarcely known there. + +It was principally with a view to introduce the culture of +potatoes in that country that the military gardens were formed. +These gardens (of which there is one in every garrison belonging +to the Elector's dominion, Dusseldorf and Amberg only +excepted[3]) are pieces of ground, in, or adjoining to the +garrison towns, which are regularly laid out, and exclusively +appropriated to the use of the non-commissioned officers and +private soldiers belonging to the regiments in garrison. +The ground is regularly divided into districts of regiments, +battalions, companies, and corporalities (corporalschafts,) +of which last divisions there are four to each company; and the +quantity of ground allotted to each corporality is such that each +man belonging to it, whether non-commissioned officer or private, +has a bed 365 square feet in superficies. + +This piece of ground remains his sole property as long as he +continues to serve in the regiment, and he is at full liberty to +cultivate it in any way, and to dispose of the produce of it in +any manner he may think proper. He must however cultivate it, +and plant it, and keep it neat and free from weeds; otherwise, +if he should be idle, and neglect it, it would be taken from him +and given to one of his more industrious comrades. + +The divisions of these military gardens are marked by broader and +smaller alleys, covered with gravel, and neatly kept; and in +order that every one who chooses it, may be a spectator of this +interesting scene of industry, all the principal alleys, which +are made large for that purpose, are always open as a public +walk. The effect which this establishment has already produced +in the short time (little more than five years) since it was +begun, is very striking, and much greater and more important than +I could have expected. + +The soldiers, from being the most indolent of mortals, and from +having very little knowledge of gardening, or of the produce of a +garden, for use, are now becoming industrious and skilful +cultivators, and they are grown so fond of vegetables, +particularly of potatoes, which they raise in great quantities, +that these useful and wholesome productions now constitutes a +very essential part of their daily food. And these improvements +are also spreading very fast among the farmers and peasants, +throughout the whole country. There is hardly a soldier that +goes on furlough, or that returns home at the expiration of his +time of service, that does not carry with him a few potatoes for +planting, and a little collection of garden-seeds; and I have no +doubt but in a very few years we shall see potatoes as much +cultivated in Bavaria as in other countries; and that the use of +vegetables for food will be generally introduced among the common +people. I have already had the satisfaction to see little +gardens here and there making their appearance, in different +parts of the country, and I hope that very soon no farmer's house +will be found without one. + +To assist the soldiers in the cultivation of their gardens, +they are furnished with garden utensils gratis; they are likewise +furnished from time to time with a certain quantity of manure, +and with an assortment of garden-feeds; but they do not rely +solely upon these supplies; those who are industrious collect +materials in their barracks, and in the streets, for making +manure, and even sometimes purchase it, and they raise in their +own gardens most of the garden-seeds they stand in need of. +To enable them to avail themselves of their gardens as early in +the spring as possible, in supplying their tables with green +vegetables, each company is furnished with a hot-bed for raising +early plants. + +To attach the soldiers more strongly to these their little +possessions, by increasing their comfort and convenience in the +cultivation and enjoyment of them, a number of little summer-houses, +or rather huts, one to each company, have been erected for the +purpose of shelter, where they can retire when it rains, or when +they are fatigued. + +All the officers of the regiments, from the highest to the lowest, +are ordered to give the men every assistance in the cultivation +of these their gardens; but they are forbidden, upon pain of the +severest punishment, to appropriate to themselves any part of the +produce of them, or even to receive any part of it in presents. + + +CHAPTER. I. + + Of the prevalence of mendicity in Bavaria at the time when the + measures for putting an end to it were adopted. + +Among the various measures that occurred to me by which the +military establishment of the country might be made subservient +to the public good in time of peace, none appeared to be of so +much importance as that of employing the army in clearing the +country of beggers, thieves and other vagabonds; and in watching +over the public tranquillity. + +But in order to clear the country of beggers, (the number of whom +in Bavaria had become quite intolerable,) it was necessary to +adopt general and efficacious measures for maintaining and +supporting the Poor. Laws were not wanting to oblige each +community in the country to provide for its own Poor; but these +laws had been so long neglected, and beggary had become so +general, that extraordinary measures, and the most indefatigable +exertions, were necessary to put a stop to this evil. The number +of itinerant beggars, of both sexes, and all ages, as well +foreigners as natives, who strolled about the country in all +directions. levying contributions from the industrious +inhabitants, stealing and robbing, and leading a life of +indolence, and the most shameless debauchery, was quite +incredible; and so numerous were the swarms of beggars in all the +great towns, and particularly in the capital, so great their +impudence, and so persevering their importunity, that it was +almost impossible to cross the streets without being attacked, +and absolutely forced to satisfy their clamorous demands. +And these beggars were in general by no means such as from age +or bodily infirmities were unable by their labour to earn their +livelihood; but they were for the most part, stout, strong, +healthy, sturdy beggars, who, lost to every sense of shame, +had embraced the profession from choice, not necessity; and who, +not unfrequently, added insolence and threats to their importunity, +and extorted that from fear, which they could not procure by +their arts of dissimulation. + +These beggars not only infested all the streets, public walks, +and public places, but they even made a practice of going into +private houses, where they never failed to steal whatever fell in +their way, if they found the doors open, and nobody at home; and +the churches were so full of them that it was quite a nuisance, +and a public scandal during the performance of divine service. +People at their devotions were continually interrupted by them, +and were frequently obliged to satisfy their demands in order to +be permitted to finish their prayers in peace and quite. + +In short, these detestable vermin swarmed every where, and not +only their impudence and clamorous importunity were without any +bounds, but they had recourse to the most diabolical arts, +and most horrid crimes, in the prosecution of their infamous trade. +Young children were stolen from their parents by these wretches, +and their eyes put out, or their tender limbs broken and distorted, +in order, by exposing them thus maimed, to excite the pity and +commiseration of the public; and every species of artifice was +made use of to agitate the sensibility, and to extort the +contributions of the humane and charitable. + +Some of these monsters were so void of all feeling as to expose +even their own children, naked, and almost starved, in the streets, +in order that, by their cries and unaffected expressions of +distress, they might move those who passed by to pity and relieve +them; and in order to make them act their part more naturally, +they were unmercifully beaten when they came home, by their +inhuman parents, if they did not bring with them a certain sum, +which they were ordered to collect. + +I have frequently seen a poor child of five or six years of age, +late at night, in the most inclement season, sitting down almost +naked at the corner of a street, and crying most bitterly; if he +were asked what was the matter with him, he would answer, "I am +cold and hungry, and afraid to go home; my mother told me to +bring home twelve creutzers, and I have only been able to beg +five. My mother will certainly beat me if I don't carry home +twelve creutzers." Who could refuse so small a sum to relieve +so much unaffected distress?--But what horrid arts are these, +to work upon the feelings of the public, and levy involuntary +contributions for the support of idleness and debauchery! + +But the evils arising from the prevalence of mendicity did not +stop here. The public, worn out and vanquished by the numbers +and persevering importunity of the beggars; and frequently +disappointed in their hopes of being relieved from their +depredations, by the failure of the numberless schemes that were +formed and set on foot for that purpose, began at last to +consider the case as quite desperate; and to submit patiently to +an evil for which they saw no remedy. The consequences of this +submission are easy to be conceived; the beggars, encouraged by +their success, were attached still more strongly to their +infamous profession; and others, allured by their indolent lives, +encouraged by their successful frauds, and emboldened by their +impunity, joined them. The habit of submission on the part of +the public, gave them a sort of right to pursue their +depredations;-- their growing numbers and their success gave a +kind of eclat to their profession; and the habit of begging +became so general, that it ceased to be considered as infamous; +and was by degrees in a manner interwoven with the internal +regulations of society. Herdsmen and shepherds, who attended +their flocks by the road-side, were known to derive considerable +advantage from the contributions which their situation enabled +them to levy from passengers; and I have been assured, that the +wages they received from their employers were often regulated +accordingly. The children in every country village, and those +even of the best farmers, made a constant practice of begging from +all strangers who passed; and one hardly ever met a person on +foot upon the road, particularly a woman, who did not hold out +her hand and ask for charity. + +In the great towns, besides the children of the poorer sort, +who almost all made a custom of begging, the professional beggars +formed a distinct class, or cast, among the inhabitants; and in +general a very numerous one. There was even a kind of political +connection between the members of this formidable body; +and certain general maxims were adopted, and regulations observed, +in the warfare they carried on against the public. Each beggar had +his particular beat, or district, in the possession of which it +was not thought lawful to disturb him; and certain rules were +observed in disposing of the districts in case of vacancies by +deaths or resignations, promotions or removals. A battle, it is +true, frequently decided the contest between the candidates; but +when the possession was once obtained, whether by force of arms, +or by any other means, the right was ever after considered as +indisputable. Alliances by marriage were by no means uncommon in +this community; and, strange as it may appear, means were found +to procure legal permission from the civil magistrates for the +celebration of these nuptials! The children were of course +trained up in the profession of their parents; and having the +advantage of an early education, were commonly great proficients +in their trade. + +As there is no very essential difference between depriving a +person of his property by stealth, and extorting it from him +against his will, by dint of clamorous importunity, or under +false pretence of feigned distress and misfortune; so the +transition from begging to stealing is not only easy, +but perfectly natural. That total insensibility to shame, +and all those other qualifications which are necessary in the +profession of a beggar, are likewise essential to form an +accomplished thief; and both these professions derive very +considerable advantages from their union. A beggar who goes +about from house to house to ask for alms, has many opportunities +to steal, which another would not so easily find; and his +profession as a beggar gives him a great facility in disposing of +what he steals; for he can always say it was given him in +charity. No wonder then that thieving and robbing should be +prevalent where beggars are numerous. + +That this was the case in Bavaria will not be doubted by those +who are informed that in the four years immediately succeeding +the introduction of the measures adopted for putting an end to +mendicity, and clearing the country of beggars, thieves, robbers, +etc. above TEN THOUSAND of these vagabonds, foreigners and +natives, were actually arrested and delivered over to the civil +magistrates; and that in taking up the beggars in Munich, and +providing for those who stood in need of public assistance, +no less than 2600 of the one description and the other, were +entered upon the lists in one week; though the whole number of +the inhabitants of the city of Munich probably does not amount +to more than 60,000, even including the suburbs. + +These facts are so very extraordinary, that were they not +notorious, I should hardly have ventured to mention them, +for fear of being suspected of exaggeration; but they are perfectly +known in the country, by every body; having been published by +authority in the news-papers at the time, with all their various +details and specifications, for the information of the public. + +What has been said, will, I fancy, be thought quite sufficient to +show the necessity of applying a remedy to the evils described; +and of introducing order and a spirit of industry among the lower +classes of the people. I shall therefore proceed, without any +farther preface, to give an account of the measures which were +adopted and carried into execution for that purpose. + + +CHAPTER. II. + + Various preparations made for putting an end to mendicity in bavaria. + Cantonment of the cavalry in the country towns and villages. + Formation of the committee placed at the head of the institution + for the poor at Munich. + The funds of that institution. + +As soon as it was determined to undertake this great and +difficult work, and the plan of operations was finally settled, +various preparations were made for its execution. + +The first preliminary step taken, was to canton four regiments of +cavalry in Bavaria and the adjoining provinces, in such a manner +that not only every considerable town was furnished with a +detachment, but most of the large villages were occupied; +and in every part of the country small parties of threes, fours, +and fives, were so stationed; at the distance of one, two, and +three leagues from each other; that they could easily perform +their daily patroles from one station to another in the course of +the day, without ever being obliged to stop at a peasant's house, +or even at an inn, or ever to demand forage for their horses, +or victuals for themselves, or lodgings, from any person whatever. +This arrangement of quarters prevented all disputes between the +military and the people of the country. The head-quarters of +each regiment, where the commanding officer of the regiment +resided, was established in a central situation with respect to +the extent of country occupied by the regiment;--each squadron +had its commanding officer in the centre of its district,-- +and the subalterns and non-commissioned officers were so distributed +in the different cantonments, that the privates were continually +under the inspection of their superiors, who had orders to keep a +watchful eye over them;--to visit them in their quarters very +often;--and to preserve the strictest order and discipline among +them. + +To command these troops, a general officer was named, who, +after visiting every cantonment in the whole country, took up his +residence at Munich. + +Printed instructions were given to the officer, or non-commissioned +officer, who commanded a detached post, or patrole;--regular +monthly returns were ordered to be made to the commanding +officers of the regiment, by the officers commanding squadrons;-- +to the commanding general, by the officers commanding regiments;-- +and by the commanding general, to the council of war, and to the +Sovereign. + +To prevent disputes between the military and the civil authorities, +and, as far as possible, to remove all grounds of jealousy and +ill-will between them; as also to preserve peace and harmony +between the soldiery and the inhabitants, these troops were +strictly ordered and enjoined to behave on all occasions to +magistrates and other persons in civil authority with the utmost +respect and deference;--to conduct themselves towards the +peasants and other inhabitants in the most peaceable and friendly +manner;-- to retire to their quarters very early in the evening;-- +and above all, cautiously to avoid disputes and quarrels with the +people of the country. They were also ordered to be very +diligent and alert in making their daily patroles from one +station to another;-- to apprehend all thieves and other +vagabonds that infested the country, and deliver them over to the +civil magistrates;-- to apprehend deserters, and conduct them +from station to station to their regiments;--to conduct all +prisoners from one part of the country to another;--to assist the +civil magistrate in the execution of the laws, and in preserving +peace and order in the country, in all cases where they should be +legally called upon for that purpose;--to perform the duty of +messengers in carrying government dispatches and orders, civil as +well as military, in cases of emergency;-- and to bring accounts +to the capital, by express, of every extraordinary event of +importance that happens in the country;--to guard the frontiers, +and assist the officers of the revenue in preventing +smuggling;--to have a watchful eye over all soldiers on furlough +in the country, and when guilty of excesses, to apprehend them +and transport them to their regiments;--to assist the inhabitants +in case of fire, and particularly to guard their effects, and +prevent their being lost of stolen, in the confusion which +commonly takes place on those occasions;--to pursue and apprehend +all thieves, robbers, murderers, and other malefactors;--and in +general, to lend their assistance on all occasions where they +could be useful in maintaining peace, order, and tranquillity in +the country. + +As the Sovereign had an undoubted right to quarter his troops +upon the inhabitants when they were employed for the police and +defence of the country, they were on this occasion called upon to +provide quarters for the men distributed in these cantonments; +but in order to make this burden as light as possible to the +inhabitants, they were only called upon to provide quarters for +the non-commissioned officers and privates; and instead of being +obliged to take THESE into their houses, and to furnish them with +victuals and lodgings, as had formerly been the practice, (and +which was certainly a great hardship,) a small house or barrack +for the men, with stabling adjoining to it for the horses, was +built, or proper lodgings were hired by the civil magistrate, in +each of these military stations, and the expense was levied upon +the inhabitants at large. The forage for the horses was provided +by the regiments, or by contractors employed for that purpose; +and the men, being furnished with a certain allowance of fire-wood, +and the necessary articles of kitchen furniture, were made to +provide for their own subsistence, by purchasing their provisions +at the markets, and cooking their victuals in their own quarters. + +The officers provided their own lodgings and stabling, being +allowed a certain sum for that purpose in addition to their +ordinary pay. + +The whole of the additional expence to the military chest, +for the establishment and support of these cantonments, amounted to +a mere trifle; and the burden upon the people, which attended the +furnishing of quarters for the non-commissioned officers and +privates, was very inconsiderable, and bore no proportion to the +advantages derived from the protection and security to their +persons and properties afforded by these troops[4]. + +Not only this cantonment of the cavalry was carried into +execution as a preliminary measure to the taking up of the +beggars in the capital, but many other preparatives were also +made for that undertaking. + +As considerable sums were necessary for the support of such of the +poor as, from age or other bodily infirmities, were unable by their +industry to provide for their own subsistence; and as there were +no public funds any way adequate to such an expence, which could +be applied to this use, the success of the measure depended entirely +upon the voluntary subscriptions of the inhabitants; and in order +to induce these to subscribe liberally, it was necessary to +secure their approbation of the plan, and their confidence in +those who were chosen to carry it into execution. And as the +number of beggars was so great in Munich, and their importunity +so very troublesome, there could have been no doubt but any +sensible plan for remedying this evil would have been gladly +received by the public; but they had been so often disappointed +by fruitless attempts from time to time made for that purpose, +that they began to think the enterprize quite impossible, and to +consider every proposal for providing for the poor, and preventing +mendicity, as a mere job. + +Aware of this, I took my measures accordingly. To convince the +public that the scheme was feasible, I determined first, by a +great exertion, to carry it into complete execution, and THEN to +ask them to support it. And to secure their confidence in those +employed in the management of it, persons of the highest rank, +and most respected character were chosen to superintend and +direct the affairs of the institution; and every measure was +taken that could be devised to prevent abuses. + +Two principle objects were to be attended to, in making these +arrangements; the first was to furnish suitable employment to +such of the poor as were able to work; and the second, to provide +the necessary assistance for those who, from age, sickness, or +other bodily infirmities, were unable by their industry to +provide for themselves. A general system of police was likewise +necessary among this class of miserable beings; as well as +measures for reclaiming them, and making them useful subjects. +The police of the poor, as also the distribution of alms, and all +the economical details of the institution, were put under the +direction of a committee, composed of the president of the +council of war,--the president of the council of supreme +regency,--the president of the ecclesiastical council,--and the +president of the chamber of finances; and to assist them in this +work, each of the above-mentioned presidents was accompanied by +one counsellor of his respective department, at his own choice; +who was present at all the meetings of the committee, and who +performed the more laborious parts of the business. This committee, +which was called The Armen Instituts Deputation, had convenient +apartments fitted up for its meetings; a secretary, clerk, +and accountant, were appointed to it; and the ordinary guards of +the police were put under its immediate direction. + +Neither the presidents nor the counsellors belonging to this +committee received any pay or emolument whatever for this service, +but took upon themselves this trouble merely from motives of +humanity, and a generous desire to promote the public good; +and even the secretary, and other inferior officers employed in +this business, received their pay immediately from the Treasury; +or from some other department; and not from the funds destined +for the relief of the poor: and in order most effectually remove +all suspicion with respect to the management of this business, +and the faithful application of the money destined for the poor, +instead of appointing a Treasurer to the committee, a public +banker of the town, a most respectable citizen[5], was named to +receive and pay all monies belonging to the institution, upon the +written orders of the committee; and exact and detailed accounts +of all monies received and expended were ordered to be printed +every three months, and distributed gratis among the inhabitants. + +In order that every citizen might have it in his power to assure +himself that the accounts were exact, and that the sums expended +were bona fide given to the poor in alms, the money was publicly +distributed every Saturday in the town-hall, in the presence of a +number of deputies chosen from among the citizens themselves; and +an alphabetical list of the poor who received alms;--in which was +mentioned the weekly sum each person received;--and the place of +his or her abode, was hung up in the hall for public inspection. + +But this was not all. In order to fix the confidence of the public +upon the most firm and immoveable basis, and to engage their good +will and cheerful assistance in support of the measures adopted, +the citizens were invited to take an active and honourable part +in the execution of the plan, and in the direction of its most +interesting details. + +The town of Munich, which contains about 60,000 inhabitants, +had been formerly divided into four quarters. Each of these was +now subdivided into four districts, making in all sixteen +districts; and all the dwelling-houses, from the palace of the +sovereign to the meanest hovel, were regularly numbered, +and inscribed in printed lists provided for that purpose. +For the inspection of the poor in each district, a respectable +citizen was chosen, who was called the commissary of the +district, (abtheilungs commissaire,) and for his assistance, +a priest; a physician; a surgeon; and an apothecary; all of whom, +including the commissary, undertook this service without fee or +reward, from mere motives of humanity and true patriotism. +The apothecary was simply reimbursed the original cost of the +medicines he furnished. + +To give more weight and dignity to the office of commissary of a +district, one of these commissaries, in rotation, was called to +assist at the meetings of the supreme committee; and all +applications for alms were submitted to the commissaries for +their opinion; or, more properly, all such applications went +through them to the committee. They were likewise particularly +charged with the inspection and police of the poor in their +several districts. + +When a person already upon the poor list, or any other, in distress, +stood in need of assistance, he applied to the commissary of his +district, who, after visiting him, and enquiring into such the +circumstances of his case, afforded him such immediate assistance +as was absolutely necessary; or otherwise, if the case was such +as to admit of the delay, he recommended him to the attention of +the committee, and waited for their orders. If the poor person +was sick, or wounded, he was carried to some hospital; or the +physician, or surgeon of the district was sent for, and a nurse +provided to take care of him in his lodgings, If he grew worse, +and appeared to draw near his end, the priest was sent for, to +afford him such spiritual assistance as he might require; and if +he died, he was decently buried. After his death, the commissary +assisted at the inventory which was taken of his effects, a copy +of which inventory was delivered over to the committee. These +effects were afterwards sold;--and after deducting the amount of +the different sums received in alms from the institution by the +deceased during his lifetime, and the amount of the expenses of +his illness and funeral, the remainder, if any, was delivered +over to his lawful heirs; but when these effects were insufficient +for those purposes; or when no effects were to be found, +the surplus in the one case, and the whole of these expences in +the other, was borne by the funds of the institution. + +These funds were derived from the following sources, viz. + +First, from stated monthly allowances, from the sovereign out of +his private purse,--from the states,--and from the treasury, +or chamber of finances. + +Secondly, and principally, from the voluntary subscription of the +inhabitants. + +Thirdly, from legacies left to the institution, and + +Fourthly, from several small revenues arising from certain tolls, +fines, etc. which were appropriated to that use[6]. + +Several other, and some of them very considerable public funds, +originally designed by their founders for the relief of the poor, +might have been taken and appropriated to this purpose; but, as +some of these foundations had been misapplied, and others nearly +ruined by bad management, it would have been a very disagreeable +task to wrest them out of the hands of those who had the +administration of them; and I therefore judged it most prudent +not to meddle with them, avoiding, by that means, a great deal of +opposition to the execution of my plan. + + +CHAPTER. III. + + Preparations made for giving employment to the poor. + Difficulties attending that undertaking. + The measures adopted completely successful. + The poor reclaimed to habits of useful industry. + Description of the house of industry at Munich. + +But before I proceed to give a more particular account of the +funds of this institution, and of the application of them, it +will be necessary to mention the preparations which where made +for furnishing employment to the poor, and the means which were +used for reclaiming them from their vicious habits, and rendering +them industrious and useful subjects. And this was certainly the +most difficult, as well as the most curious and interesting part +of the undertaking. To trust raw materials in the hands of +common beggars, certainly required great caution and management; +--but to produce so total and radical a change in the morals, +manners, and customs of this debauched and abandoned race, as was +necessary to render them orderly and useful members of society, +will naturally be considered as an arduous, if not impossible, +enterprize. In this I succeeded; --for the proof of this fact I +appeal to the flourishing state of the different manufactories in +which these poor people are now employed,--to their orderly and +peaceable demeanour--to their cheerfulness--to their industry,-- +to the desire to excel, which manifests itself among them upon +all occasions,--and to the very air of their countenances. +Strangers, who go to see this institution, (and there are very +few who pass through Munich who do not take that trouble,) cannot +sufficiently express their surprise at the air of happiness and +contentment which reigns throughout every part of this extensive +establishment, and can hardly be persuaded, that among those they +see so cheerfully engaged in that interesting scene of industry, +by far the greater part were, five years ago, the most miserable +and most worthless of beings,--common beggars in the streets. + +An account of the means employed in bringing about this change +cannot fail to be interesting to every benevolent mind; and this +is what has encouraged me to lay these details before the public. + +By far the greater number of the poor people to be taken care of +were not only common beggars, but had been up from their very +infancy in that profession; and were so attached to their +indolent and dissolute way of living, as to prefer it to all +other situations. They were not only unacquainted with all kinds +of work, but had the most insuperable aversion to honest labour; +and had been so long familiarized with every crime, that they had +become perfectly callous to all sense of shame and remorse. + +With persons of this description, it is easy to be conceived that +precepts;--admonitions;--and punishments, would be of little or +no avail. But where precepts fail, HABITS may sometimes be +successful. + +To make vicious and abandoned people happy, it has generally been +supposed necessary, FIRST to make them virtuous. But why not +reverse this order? Why not make them first HAPPY, and then +virtuous? If happiness and virtue be INSEPARABLE the end will be +as certainly obtained by the one method as by the other; and it +is most undoubtedly much easier to contribute to the happiness +and comfort of persons in a state of poverty and misery, than, +by admonitions and punishments, to reform their morals. + +Deeply struck with the importance of this truth, all my measures +were taken accordingly. Every thing was done that could be +devised to make the poor people I had to deal with comfortable +and happy in their new situation; and my hopes, that a habit of +enjoying the real comforts and conveniences which were provided +for them, would in time, soften their hearts;--open their +eyes;--and render them grateful and docile, were not +disappointed. + +The pleasure I have had in the success of this experiment is much +easier to be conceived than described. Would God that my success +might encourage others to follow my example! If it were generally +known how little trouble, and how little expence, are required to +do much good, the heart-felt satisfaction which arises from +relieving the wants, and promoting the happiness of our +fellow-creatures, is so great, that I am persuaded, acts of the +most essential charity would be much more frequent, and the mass +of misery among mankind would consequently be much lessened. + +Having taken my resolution to make the COMFORT of the poor +people, who were to be provided for, the primary object of my +attention, I considered what circumstance in life, after the +necessaries, food and raiment, contributes most to comfort, +and I found it to be CLEANLINESS. And so very extensive is the +influence of cleanliness, that it reaches even to the brute +creation. + +With what care and attention do the feathered race wash +themselves and put their plumage in order; and how perfectly +neat, clean and elegant do they ever appear! Among the beasts of +the field we find that those which are the most cleanly are +generally the most gay and cheerful; or are distinguished by a +certain air of tranquillity and contentment; and singing birds +are always remarkable for the neatness of their plumage. And so +great is the effect of cleanliness upon man, that it extends even +to his moral character. Virtue never dwelt long with filth and +nastiness; nor do I believe there ever was a person SCRUPULOUSLY +ATTENTIVE TO CLEANLINESS who was a consummate villain[7]. + +Order and disorder--peace and war--health and sickness, cannot +exist together; but COMFORT and CONTENTMENT the inseparable +companions of HAPPINESS and VIRTUE, can only arise from order, +peace, and health. + +Brute animals are evidently taught cleanliness by instinct; and +can there be a stronger proof of its being essentially necessary +to their well-being and happiness?--But if cleanliness is +necessary to the happiness of brutes, how much more so must it be +to the happiness of the human race? + +The good effects of cleanliness, or rather the bad effects of +filth and nastiness, may, I think, be very satisfactorily +accounted for. Our bodies are continually at war with whatever +offends them, and every thing offends them that adheres to them, +and irritates them,--and through by long habit we may be so +accustomed to support a physical ill, as to become almost +insensible to it, yet it never leaves the mind perfectly at peace. +There always remains a certain uneasiness, and discontent;-- +an indecision, and an aversion from all serious application, +which shows evidently that the mind is not at rest. + +Those who from being afflicted with long and painful disease, +suddenly acquire health, are best able to judge of the force of +this reasoning. It is by the delightful sensation they feel, +at being relieved from pain and uneasiness, that they learn to +know the full extent of their former misery; and the human heart +is never so effectually softened, and so well prepared and disposed +to receive virtuous impressions, as upon such occasions. + +It was with a view to bring the minds of the poor and unfortunate +people I had to deal with to this state, that I took so much +pains to make them comfortable in their new situation. The state +in which they had been used to live was certainly most wretched +and deplorable; but they had been so long accustomed to it, that +they were grown insensible to their own misery. It was therefore +necessary, in order to awaken their attention, to make the contrast +between their former situation, and that which was prepared for +them, as striking as possible. To this end, every thing was done +that could be devised to make them REALLY COMFORTABLE. + +Most of them had been used to living in the most miserable +hovels, in the midst of vermin, and every kind of filthiness; or +to sleep in the streets, and under the hedges, half naked, and +exposed to all the inclemencies of the seasons. A large and +commodious building, fitted up in the neatest and most +comfortable manner, was now provided for their reception. +In this agreeable retreat they found spacious and elegant +apartments, kept with the most scrupulous neatness; well warmed +in winter; well lighted; a good warm dinner every day, gratis; +cooked and served up with all possible attention to order and +cleanliness;-- materials and utensils for those who required +instruction;--the most generous pay, IN MONEY, for all the labour +performed; and the kindest usage from every person, from the +highest to the lowest, belonging to the establishment. Here, +in this asylum for the indigent and unfortunate, no ill usage;-- +no harsh language, is permitted. During five years that the +establishment has existed, not a blow has been given to any one; +not even to a child by his instructor. + +As the rules and regulations for the preservation of order are +few, and easy to be observed, the instances of their being +transgressed are rare; and as all the labour performed, is paid +for by the piece; and not by the day; and is well paid; and as +those who gain the most by their work in the course of the week, +receive proportional rewards on the Saturday evening; these are +most effectual encouragements to industry. + +But before I proceed to give an account of the internal economy +of this establishment, it will be necessary to describe the +building which was appropriated to this use; and the other local +circumstances, necessary to be known, in order to have a clear +idea of the subject. + +This building, which is very extensive, is pleasantly situated in +the Au, one of the suburbs of the city of Munich. It had +formerly been a manufactory, but for many years had been deserted +and falling to ruins. It was now completely repaired, and in +part rebuilt. A large kitchen, with a large eating-room +adjoining it, and a commodious bake-house, were added to the +buildings; and such other mechanics as were constantly wanted in +the manufactory for making and repairing the machinery were +established, and furnished with tools. Large halls were fitted +up for spinners of hemp;--for spinners of flax;--for spinners of +cotton;--for spinners of wool;--and for spinners of worsted; and +adjoining to each hall a small room was fitted up for a clerk or +inspector of the hall, (spin-schreiber). This room, which was at +the same time a store-room, and counting-house, and a large +window opening into the hall, from whence the spinners were +supplied with raw materials;--where they delivered their yarn +when spun;--and from whence they received an order upon the +cashier, signed by the clerk, for the amount of their labour. + +Halls were likewise fitted up for weavers of woollens;-- +for weavers of serges and shalloons;--for linen weavers;-- +for weavers of cotton goods, and for stocking weavers;-- +cloth shearers;--dryers;--sadlers;--wool-combers;--knitters;-- +sempstresses, etc. Magazines were fitted up as well for finished +manufactures, as for raw materials, and rooms for counting-houses, +--store-rooms for the kitchen and bake-house,--and dwelling-rooms +for the inspectors and other officers who were lodged in the house. + +A very spacious hall, 110 feet long, 37 feet wide, and 22 feet +high, with many windows on both sides, was fitted up as a +drying-room; and in this hall tenters were placed for stretching +out and drying eight pieces of cloth at once. The hall was so +contrived as to serve for the dyer and for the clothier at the +same time. + +A fulling-mill was established upon a stream of water which runs +by one side of the court round which the building is erected; +and adjoining to the fulling-mill, is the dyers-shop; and the +wash-house. + +This whole edifice, which is very extensive, was fitted up, +as has already been observed, in the neatest manner possible. +In doing this, even the external appearance of the building was +attended to. It was handsomely painted; without, as well as +within; and pains were taken to give it an air of ELEGANCE, as +well as of neatness and cleanliness. A large court in the middle +of the building was levelled, and covered with gravel; and the +approach to it from every side was made easy and commodious. +Over the principal door, or rather gate, which fronts the street, +is an inscription, denoting the use to which the building is +appropriated; and the passage leading into the court, there is +written in large letters of gold upon a black ground-- +"NO ALMS WILL BE RECEIVED HERE." + +Upon coming into the court you see inscriptions over all the +doors upon the ground floor, leading to the different parts of +the building. These inscriptions, which are all in letters of +gold upon a black ground, denote the particular uses to which the +different apartments are destined. + +This building having been got ready, and a sufficient number of +spinning-wheels, looms, and other utensils made use of in the +most common manufactures being provided; together with a +sufficient stock of raw materials, I proceeded to carry my plan +into execution in the manner which will be related in the +following Chapter. + + +CHAPTER. IV. + + An account of the taking up of the beggars at Munich. + The inhabitants are called upon for their assistance. + General subscription for the relief and support of the poor. + All other public and private collections for the poor abolished. + +New-Year's-Day having, from time immemorial, been considered in +Bavaria as a day peculiarly set apart for giving alms; and the +beggars never failing to be all out upon that occasion; I chose +that moment as being the most favourable for beginning my +operations. Early in the morning of the first of January 1790, +the officers and non-commissioned officers of the three regiments +of infantry in garrison, were stationed in the different streets, +where they were directed to wait for further orders. + +Having, in the mean time, assembled, at my lodgings, the +field-officers, and all the chief magistrates of the town, I made +them acquainted with my intention to proceed that very morning to +the execution of a plan I had formed for taking up the beggars, +and providing for the poor; and asked their immediate assistance. + +To show the public that it was not my wish to carry this measure +into execution by military force alone, (which might have +rendered the measure odious,) but that I was disposed to show all +becoming deference to the civil authority, I begged the +magistrates to accompany me, and the field-officers of the +garrison, in the execution of the first and most difficult part +of the undertaking, that of arresting the beggars. This they +most readily consented to, and we immediately sallied out into +the street, myself accompanied by the chief magistrate of the +town, and each of the field-officers by an inferior magistrate. + +We were hardly got into the street when we were accosted by a +beggar, who asked us for alms. I went up to him, and laying my +hand gently upon his shoulder, told him, that from thenceforwards +begging would not be permitted in Munich;--that if he really +stood in need of assistance, (which would immediately be enquired +into,) the necessary assistance should certainly be given him, +but that begging was forbidden; and if he was detected in it +again he would be severely punished. I then delivered him over +to an orderly serjeant who was following me, with directions to +conduct him to the Town-hall, and deliver him into the hands of +those he should find there to receive him; and then turning to +the officers and magistrates who accompanied me, I begged they +would take notice, that I had myself, WITH MY OWN HANDS, arrested +the first beggar we had met; and I requested them not only to +follow my example themselves, by arresting all the beggars they +should meet with, but that they would also endeavour to persuade +others, and particularly the officers, non-commissioned officers, +and soldiers of the garrison, that it was by no means derogatory +to their character as soldiers, or in anywise disgraceful to them, +to assist in so USEFUL and LAUDABLE an undertaking. +These gentlemen having cheerfully and unanimously promised to do +their utmost to second me in this business, dispersed into the +different parts of the town, and with the assistance of the +military, which they found every where waiting for orders, +the town was so thoroughly cleared of beggars IN LESS THAN AN HOUR, +that not one was to be found in the streets. + +Those who were arrested were conducted to the Town-hall, +where their names were inscribed in printed lists provided for +that purpose, and they were then dismissed to their own lodgings, +with directions to repair the next day to the newly erected +"Military Work-house" in the Au; where they would find +comfortable warm rooms;--a good warm dinner every day; and work +for all those who were in a condition to labour. They were +likewise told that a commission should immediately be appointed +to enquire into their circumstances, and to grant them such +regular weekly allowances of money, in alms, as they should stand +in need of; which was accordingly done. + +Orders were then issued to all the military guards in the +different parts of the town, to send out patroles frequently into +the streets in their neighbourhood, to arrest all the beggars +they should meet with, and a reward was offered for each beggar +they should arrest and deliver over to the civil magistrate. +The guard of the police was likewise directed to be vigilant; +and the inhabitants at large, of all ranks and denominations, +were earnestly called upon to assist in completing a work of so +much public utility, and which had been so happily begun[8]. +In an address to the public, which was printed and distributed +gratis among the inhabitants, the fatal consequences arising +from the prevalence of mendicity were described in the most +lively and affecting colours,--and the manner pointed out in +which they could most effectually assist in putting an end to +an evil equally disgraceful and prejudicial to society. + +As this address, (which was written with great sprit, by a man +well known in the literary world, Professor Babo,) gives a very +striking and a very just picture of the character, manners, and +customs, of the hords of idle and dissolute vagabonds which +infested Munich at the time the measure in question was adopted, +and of the various artifices they made use of in carrying on +their depredations; I have thought it might not be improper to +annex it, at full length, in the Appendix, No. I. + +This address, which was presented to all the heads of families in +the city, and to many by myself, having gone round to the doors of +most of the principal citizens for that purpose, was accompanied +by printed lists, in which the inhabitants were requested to set +down their names;--places of abode;--and the sums they chose to +contribute monthly, for the support of the establishment. These +lists, (translations of which are also inserted in the Appendix, +No. II.) were delivered to the heads of families, with duplicates, +to the end that one copy being sent in to the committee, +the other might remain with the master of the family. + +These subscriptions being PERFECTLY VOLUNTARY, might be augmented +or diminished at pleasure. When any person chose to alter his +subscription, he sent to the public office for two blank +subscription lists, and filling them up anew, with such +alterations as he thought proper to make, he took up his old list +at the office, and deposited the new one in its stead. + +The subscription lists being all collected, they were sorted, +and regularly entered according to the numbers of the houses +of the subscribers, in sixteen general lists[9], answering to +the sixteen subdivisions or districts of the city; and a copy of +the general list of each district was given to the commissary +of the district. + +These copies, which were properly authenticated, served for the +direction of the commissary in collecting the subscriptions in +his district, which was done regularly the last Sunday morning of +every month. + +The amount of the collection was immediately delivered by the +commissary into the hands of the banker of the institution, +for which he received two receipts from the banker; one of which +he transmitted to the committee, with his report of the collection, +which he was directed to send in as soon as the collection was +made. + +As there were some persons who, from modesty, or other motives, +did not choose to have it known publicly how much they gave in +alms to the poor, and on that account were not willing to have +put down to their names upon the list of the subscribers, the +whole sum they were desirous of appropriating to that purpose; +to accommodate matters to the peculiar delicacy of their feelings, +the following arrangement was made, and carried into execution +with great success. + +Those who were desirous of contributing privately to the relief +of the poor, were notified by an advertisement published in the +news-papers, that they might send to the banker of the +institution any sums for that purpose they might think proper, +under any feigned name, or under any motto or other device; +and that not only a receipt would be given to the bearer, for the +amount, without and questions being asked him, but, for greater +security, a public acknowledgement of the receipt of the sum +would be published by the banker, with a mention of the feigned +name of device under which it came, IN THE NEXT MUNICH GAZETTE. + +To accommodate those who might be disposed to give trifling sums +occasionally, for the relief of the poor, and who did not choose +to go, or to send to the banker, fixed poor-boxes were placed in +all the churches, and most of the inns; coffee-houses; and other +places of public resort; but nobody was ever called upon to put +any thing into these boxes, nor was any poor's-box carried round, +or any private collection or alms-gathering permitted to be made +upon any occasion, or under any pretence whatever. + +When the inhabitants had subscribed liberally to the support of +the institution, it was but just to secure them from all further +importunity in behalf of the poor. This was promised, and it was +most effectually done; though not without some difficulty, +and a very considerable expence to the establishment. + +The poor students in the Latin German schools;--the sisters of +the religious order of charity;--the directors of the hospital of +lepers;--and some other public establishments, had been so long +in the habit of making collections, by going round among the +inhabitants from house to house at stated periods, asking alms, +that they had acquired a sort of right to levy those periodical +contributions, of which it was not thought prudent to dispossess +them without giving them an equivalent. And in order that this +equivalent might not appear to be taken from the sums subscribed +by the inhabitants for the support of the poor, it was paid out +of the monthly allowance which the institution received from the +chamber of finances, or public treasury of the state. + +Besides these periodical collections, there were others, still +more troublesome to the inhabitants, from which it was necessary +to free them; and some of these last were even sanctioned by +legal authority. It is the custom in Germany for apprentices in +most of the mechanical trades, as soon as they have finished +their apprenticeships with their masters, to travel, during three +or four years, in the neighbouring countries and provinces, to +perfect themselves in their professions by working as journeymen +wherever they can find employment. When one of those itinerant +journeymen-tradesmen comes into a town, and cannot find employment +in it, he is considered AS HAVING A RIGHT to beg the assistance +of the inhabitants, and particularly of those of the trade he +professes, to enable him to go to the next town; and this +assistance it was not thought just to refuse. This custom was +not only very troublesome to the inhabitants, but gave rife to +innumerable abuses. Great numbers of idle vagabonds were +continually strolling about the country under the name of +travelling journeymen-tradesmen; and though any person, who +presented himself as such in any strange place was obliged to +produce (for his legitimation) a certificate from his last +master, in whose service he had been employed, yet such +certificates were so easily counterfeited, or obtained by fraud, +that little reliance could be placed in them. + +To remedy all these evils, the following arrangement was made: +those travelling journeymen-tradesmen who arrive at Munich, and +do not find employment, are obliged to quit the town immediately, +or to repair to the military work-house, where they are either +furnished with work, or a small sum is given them to enable them +to pursue their journey farther. + +Another arrangement by which the inhabitants have been relieved +from much importunity, and by which a stop has been put to many +abuses, is the new regulation respecting those who suffer by +fire; such sufferers commonly obtain from government special +permission to make collections of charitable donations among the +inhabitants in certain districts, during a limited time. Instead +of the permission to make collections in the city of Munich, +the sufferers now receive certain sums from the funds of the +institution for the poor. By this arrangement, not only the +inhabitants are relieved from the importunity which always +attends public collections of alms, but the sufferers save a +great deal of time, which they formerly spent in going about from +house to house; and the sale of these permissions to undertakers, +and many other abuses, but too frequent before this arrangement +took place, are now prevented. + +The detailed account published in the Appendix, No. III. of the +receipts and expenditures of the institution during five years, +will show the amount of the expense incurred in relieving the +inhabitants from the various periodical and other collections +before mentioned. + +But not to lose sight too long of the most interesting object of +this establishment, we must follow the people who were arrested +in the streets, to the asylum which was prepared for them, but +which no doubt appeared to them at first a most odious prison. + + +CHAPTER. V. + + The different kinds of employment given to the beggars upon their + being assembled in the house of industry. + Their great awkwardness at first. + Their docility, and their progress in useful industry. + The manner in which they were treated. + The manner in which they were fed. + The Precautions used to prevent Abuses in the Public Kitchen from + which they were fed. + +As by far the greater part of these poor creatures were totally +unacquainted with every kind of useful labour, it was necessary +to give them such work, at first, as was very easy to be +performed, and in which the raw materials were of little value; +and then, by degrees, as they became more adroit, to employ them +in manufacturing more valuable articles. + +As hemp is a very cheap commodity, and as the spinning of hemp is +easily learned, particularly when it is designed for very coarse +and ordinary manufactures, 15,000 pounds of that article were +purchased in the palatinate, and transported to Munich; +and several hundred spinning wheels, proper for spinning it, +were provided; and several good spinners, as instructors, +were engaged, and in readiness, when this house of industry was +opened for the reception of the poor. + +Flax and wool were likewise provided, and some few good spinners +of those articles were engaged as instructors; but by far the +greater number of the poor began with spinning of hemp; and so +great was their awkwardness at first, that they absolutely ruined +almost all the raw materials that were put into their hands. +By an exact calculation of profit and loss, it was found that the +manufactory actually lost more than 3000 florins upon the +articles of hemp and flax, during the first three months; but we +were not discouraged by these unfavourable beginnings; they were +indeed easy to be foreseen, considering the sort of people we had +to deal with, and how necessary it was to pay them at a very high +rate for the little work they were able to perform, in order to +persevere with cheerfulness in acquiring more skill and address +in their labour. If the establishment was supported at some +little expence in the beginning, it afterwards richly repaid +these advances, as will be seen in the sequel of this account. + +As the clothing of the army was the market upon which I +principally depended, in disposing of the manufactures which +should be made in the house, the woollen manufactory was an +object most necessary to be attended to, and from which I +expected to derive most advantage to the establishment; but still +it was necessary to begin with the manufacture of hemp and flax, +not only because those articles are less valuable than wool, +and the loss arising from their being spoiled by the awkwardness +of beginners is of less consequence, but also for another reason, +which appears to me to be of so much more importance as to require +a particular explanation. + +It was hinted above that it was found necessary, in order to +encourage beginners in these industrious pursuits, to pay them at +a very high rate for the little work they were able to perform; +but every body knows that no manufacture can possibly subsist +long, where exorbitant prices are paid for labour; and it is easy +to conceive what discontent and disgust would be occasioned among +the workmen upon lowering the prices which had for a length of +time been given for labour, By employing the poor people in +question at first in the manufactures of hemp and flax, +manufactures which were not intended to be carried on to any +extent, it was easy afterwards, when they had acquired a certain +degree of address in their work, to take them from these +manufactures, and put them to spinning of wool, worsted, or +cotton; care having been taken to fix the price of labour in +these last-mentioned manufactures at a reasonable rate. + +The dropping the manufacture of any particular article altogether, +or pursuing it less extensively, could produce no bad effect upon +the general establishment; but the lowering of the price of labour, +in any instance, could not fail to produce many. + +It is necessary, in an undertaking like this, cautiously to avoid +every thing that could produce discouragement and discontent +among those upon whose industry alone success must depend. + +It is easy to conceive that so great a number of unfortunate +beings, of all ages and sexes, taken as it were out of their very +element, and placed in a situation so perfectly new to them, +could not fail to be productive of very interesting situations. +Would to God I were able to do justice to this subject! but no +language can describe the affecting scenes to which I was a +witness upon this occasion. + +The exquisite delight which a sensible mind must feel, upon +seeing many hundreds of wretched being awaking from a state of +misery and inactivity, as from a dream; and applying themselves +with cheerfulness to the employments of useful industry;--upon +seeing the first dawn of placid content break upon a countenance +covered with habitual gloom, and furrowed and distorted by misery;-- +this is easier to be conceived than described. + +During the first three or four days that these poor people were +assembled, it was not possible entirely to prevent confusion: +there was nothing like mutinous resistance among them; but their +situation was so new to them, and they were so very awkward in it, +that it was difficult to bring them into any tolerable order. +At length, however, by distributing them in the different halls, +and assigning to each his particular place, (the places being all +distinguished by numbers,) they were brought into such order as +to enable the inspectors, and instructors, to begin their +operations. + +Those who understood any kind of work, were placed in the +apartments where the work they understood was carried on; and the +others, being classed according to their sexes, and as much as +possible according to their ages, were placed under the immediate +care of the different instructors. By much the larger number were +put to spinning of hemp;--others, and particularly the young +children from four to seven years of age, were taught to knit, +and to sew; and the most awkward among the men, and particularly +the old, the lame, and the infirm, were put to the carding of wool. +Old women, whose sight was too weak to spin, or whose hands +trembled with palsy, were made to spool yarn for the weavers; +and young children, who were too weak to labour, were placed upon +seats erected for that purpose round the rooms where other +children worked. + +As it was winter, fires were kept in every part of the building, +from morning till night; and all the rooms were lighted up till +nine o'clock in the evening. Every room and every stair-case was +neatly swept and cleaned twice a day; one early in the morning, +before the people were assembled, and once while they were at +dinner.--Care was taken, by placing ventilators, and occasionally +opening the windows, to keep the air of the rooms perfectly +sweet, and free from all disagreeable smells; and the rooms +themselves were not only neatly white-washed and fitted up, and +arranged in every respect with elegance, but care was taken to +clean the windows very often;--to clean the courtyard every day;-- +and even to clear away the rubbish from the street in front of +the building, to a considerable distance on every side. + +Those who frequented this establishment were expected to arrive +at the fixed hour in the morning, which hour varied according to +the season of the year; if they came too late, they were gently +reprimanded; and if they persisted in being tardy, without being +able to give a sufficient excuse for not coming sooner, they were +punished by being deprived of their dinner, which otherwise they +received every day gratis. + +At the hour of dinner, a large bell was rung in the court, when +those at work in the different parts of the building repaired to +the dining-hall; where they found a wholesome and nourishing +repast; consisting of about A POUND AND A QUARTER, Avoirdupois +weight, of a very rich soup of peas and barley, mixed with +cuttings of fine white bread; and a piece of excellent rye bread, +weighing SEVERN OUNCES; which last they commonly put in their +pockets, and carried home for their supper. Children were allowed +the same portion as grown persons; and a mother, who had one or +more young children, was allowed a portion for each of them. + +Those who, from sickness, or other bodily infirmities, were not +able to come to the work-house;--as also those who, on account of +young children they had to nurse, or sick persons to take care +of, found it more convenient to work at their own lodgings, +(and of these there were many,) were not on that account deprived +of their dinners. Upon representing their cases to the committee, +tickets were granted them, upon which they were authorized to +receive from the public kitchen, daily, the number of portions +specified in the ticket; and these they might send for by a child, +or by any other person they thought proper to employ; it was +necessary, however that the ticket should always be produced, +otherwise the portions were not delivered. This precaution was +necessary, to prevent abuses on the part of the poor. + +Many other precautions were taken to prevent frauds on the part +of those employed in the kitchen, and in the various other +offices and departments concerned in feeding the poor. + +The bread-corn, peas, barley, etc. were purchased in the public +market in large quantities, and at times when those articles were +to be had at reasonable prices, and were laid up in store-rooms +provided for that purpose, under the care of the store-keeper of +the Military Work-house. + +The baker received his flour by weight from the store-keeper, +and in return delivered a certain fixed quantity of bread. +Each loaf, when well baked, and afterwards dried, during four days, +in a bread-room through which the air had a free passage, weighed +two pounds ten ounces Avoirdupois. Such a loaf was divided into +six portions; and large baskets filled with these pieces being +placed in the passage leading to the dining-hall, the portions +were delivered out to the poor as they passed to go into the hall, +each person who passed giving a medal of tin to the person who +gave him the bread, in return for each portion received. +These medals, which were given out to the poor each day in the +halls where they worked, by the steward, or by the inspectors of +the hall, served to prevent frauds in the distribution of the +bread; the person who distributed it being obliged to produce +them as vouchers of the quantity given out each day. + +Those who had received these portions of bread, held them up in +their hands upon their coming into the dining-hall, as a sign +that they had a right to seat themselves at the tables; and as +many portions of bread as they produced, so many portions of soup +they were entitled to receive; and those portions which they did +not eat they were allowed to carry away; so that the delivery of +bread was a check upon the delivery of soup, and VICE VERSA. + +The kitchen was fitted up with all possible attention, as well to +conveniences, as to the economy of fuel. This will readily be +believed by those who are informed, that the whole work of the +kitchen is performed, with great ease, by three cook-maids; and +that the daily expence for fire-wood amounts to no more than +twelve creutzers, or FOUR-PENCE HALFPENNY sterling, when dinner +is provided for 1000 people. The number of persons who are fed +DAILY from this kitchen is, at a medium, in summer, about +ONE THOUSAND, (rather more than less,) and in winter, about 1200. +Frequently, however, there have been more than 1500 at table. +As a particular account of this kitchen, with drawings; together +with an account of a number of new and very interesting +experiments relative to the economy of fuel, will be annexed to +this work, I shall add nothing more now upon the subject; except +it be the certificate, which may be seen in the Appendix, No. IV; +which I have thought prudent to publish, in order to prevent +my being suspected of exaggeration in displaying the advantages +of my economical arrangements. + +The assertion, that a warm dinner may be cooked for 1000 persons, +at the trifling expence of four-pence halfpenny for fuel; and +that, too, where the cord, five feet eight inches and nine-tenths +long, five feet eight inches and nine-tenths high, and five feet +three inches and two-tenths wide, English measure, of pine-wood, +of the most indifferent quality, costs above seven shillings; +and where the cord of hard wood, such as beech and oak, of equal +dimensions, costs more than twice that sum, may appear incredible; +yet I will venture to assert, and I hereby pledge myself with the +public to prove, that in the kitchen of the Military Academy at +Munich, and especially in a kitchen lately built under my +direction at Verona, in the Hospital of la Pieta, I have carried +the economy of fuel still further. + +To prevent frauds in the kitchen of the institution for the poor +at Munich, the ingredients are delivered each day by the +store-keeper, to the chief cook; and a person of confidence, not +belonging to the kitchen, attends at the proper hour to see that +they are actually used. Some one of the inspectors, or other +chief officer of the establishment, also attends at the hour of +dinner, to see that the victuals furnished to the poor are good; +well dressed; and properly served up. + +As the dining-hall is not large enough to accommodate all the +poor at once, they dine in companies of as many as can be seated +together, (about 150); those who work in the house being served +first, and then those who come from the town. + +Though most of those who work in their own lodgings send for +their dinners, yet there are many others, and particularly such +as from great age or other bodily infirmities are not able to +work, who come from the town every day to the public hall to +dine; and as these are frequently obliged to wait some time at +the door, before they can be admitted into the dining-hall;--that +is to say, till all the poor who work in the house have finished +their dinners;--for their more comfortable accommodation, a large +room, provided with a stove for heating it in winter, has been +constructed, adjoining to the building of the institution, but +not within the court, where these poor people assemble, and are +sheltered from the inclemency of the weather while they wait for +admittance into the dining-hall. + +To preserve order and decorum at these public dinners, and to +prevent crowding and jostling at the door of the dining-hall, +the steward, or some other officer of the house of some authority, +is always present in the hall during dinner; and two privates of +the police guards, who know most of the poor personally, take post +at the door of the hall, one on each side of it; and between them +the poor are obliged to pass singly into the hall. + +As soon as a company have taken places at the table, (the soup +being always served out and placed upon the tables before they +are admitted,) upon a signal given by the officer who presides at +the dinner, they all repeat a short prayer. Perhaps I ought to +ask pardon for mentioning so old-fashioned a custom; but I own I +am old-fashioned enough myself to like such things. + +As an account in detail will be given in another place, of the +expence of feeding these poor people, I shall only observe here, +that this expense was considerably lessened by the voluntary +donations of bread, and offal meat, which were made by the bakers +and butchers of the town and suburbs. The beggars, not satisfied +with the money which they extorted from all ranks of people by +their unceasing importunity, had contrived to lay certain classes +of the inhabitants under regular periodical contributions of +certain commodities; and especially eatables; which they +collected in kind. Of this nature were the contributions which +were levied by them upon the bakers, butchers, keepers of +eating-houses, ale-house keepers, brewers, etc. all of whom were +obliged, at stated periods;--once a-week at least;--or oftener;-- +to deliver to such of the beggars as presented themselves at the +hour appointed, very considerable quantities of bread, meat, +soup, and other eatables; and to such a length were these +shameful impositions carried, that a considerable traffic was +actually carried on with the articles so collected, between the +beggars, and a number of petty shop-keepers, or hucksters, who +purchased them of the beggars, and made a business of selling +them by retail to the indigent and industrious inhabitants. +And though these abuses were well known to the public, yet this +custom had so long existed, and so formidable were the beggars +became to the inhabitants, that it was no means safe, or advisable, +to refuse their demands. + +Upon the town being cleared of beggars, these impositions ceased +of course; and the worthy citizens, who were relieved from this +burthen, felt so sensibly the service that was rendered them, +that, to show their gratitude, and their desire to assist in +supporting so useful an establishment, they voluntarily offered, +in addition to their monthly subscriptions in money, to +contribute every day a certain quantity of bread, meat, soup, etc. +towards feeding the poor in the Military Work-house. And these +articles were collected every day by the servants of the +establishment; who went round the town with small carts, neatly +fitted up, and elegantly painted, and drawn by single small +horses, neatly harnessed. + +As in these, as well as in all other collections of public +charity, it was necessary to arrange matters so that the public +might safely place the most perfect confidence in those who were +charged with these details; the collections were made in a manner +in which it was EVIDENTLY IMPOSSIBLE for those employed in making +them to defraud the poor of any part of that which their +charitable and more opulent fellow-citizens designed for their +relief.--And to this circumstance principally it may, I believe, +be attributed, that these donations have for such a length of +time (more than five years,) continued to be so considerable. + +In the collection of the soup, and the offal meat at the butchers' +shops, as those articles were not very valuable and not easily +concealed or disposed of, no particular precautions were necessary, +other than sending round PUBLICLY and at a CERTAIN HOUR the carts +destined for those purposes. Upon that for collecting the soup, +which was upon four wheels, was a large cask neatly painted with +an inscription on each side in large letters, "for the "Poor." +That for the meat held a large tub with a cover, painted with the +same colours, and marked on both sides with the same inscription. + +Beside this tub, other smaller tubs, painted in like manner, +and bearing the same inscription, "for the Poor," were provided +and hung up in conspicuous situations in all the butchers' shops in +the town. In doing this, two objects were had in view, first the +convenience of the butchers; that in cutting up their meat they +might have a convenient place to lay by that which they should +destine for the poor till it should be called for; and secondly, +to give an opportunity to those who bought meat in their shops to +throw in any odd scraps, or bones, they might receive, and which +they might not think worth the trouble of carrying home. + +These odd pieces are more frequently to be met with in the lots +which are sold in the butchers' shops in Munich than in almost +any other town; for the price of meat is fixed by authority, the +butchers have a right to sell the whole carcase, the bad pieces +with the good, so that with each good lot there is what in this +country is called the zugewicht, that is to say, an indifferent +scrap of offal meat, or piece of bone, to make up the weight;-- +and these refuse pieces were very often thrown into the poor's +tub; and after being properly cleaned and boiled, served to make +their soup much more savoury and nourishing. + +In the collection of the daily donations of bread, as that +article is more valuable, and more easily concealed and disposed +of, more precautions were used to prevent frauds on the parts of +the servants who were sent round to make the collection. + +The cart which was employed for this purpose was furnished with a +large wooden chest, firmly nailed down upon it, and provided with +a good lock and key; and this chest, which was neatly painted, +and embellished with a inscription, was so contrived, by means of +an opening in the top of a large vertical wooden tube fixed in +its lid, and made in the form of a mouse-trap, that when it was +locked, (as it always was when it was sent round for the +donations of bread,) a loaf of bread, or any thing of that size, +could be put into it; but nothing could be taken out of it by the +same opening. Upon the return of the cart, the bread-chest was +opened by the steward, who keeps the key of it; and its contents, +after being entered in a register kept for that purpose, were +delivered over to the care of the store-keeper. + +The bread collected was commonly such as not having been sold in +time, had become too old, hard, and stale for the market; +but which, being cut fine, a handful of it put into a basin of +good pease-soup, was a great addition to it. + +The amount of these charitable donations in kind, may be seen in +the transactions of the original returns, which are annexed in +the Appendix, No. III. + +The collections of soup were not long continued, it being found +to be in general of much too inferior a quality to be mixed with +the soup made in the kitchen of the poor-house; but the +collections of bread, and of meat, continue to this time, and are +still very productive. + +But the greatest resource in feeding the poor, is one which I am +but just beginning to avail myself of,--the use of potatoes[10]. +Of this subject, however, I shall treat more largely hereafter. + +The above-mentioned precautions used in making collections in kind, +may perhaps appear trifling, and superfluous; they were +nevertheless very necessary. It was also found necessary to +change all the poor's-boxes in the churches, to prevent their +being robbed; for though in those which were first put up, the +openings were not only small, but ended in a curved tube, so that +it appeared almost impossible to get any of the money out of the +box by the same opening by which it was put into it; yet means +were found, by introducing into the opening thin pieces of +elastic wood, covered with bird-lime, to rob the boxes. This was +prevented in the new boxes, by causing the money to descend +through a sort of bag, with a hold in the bottom of it, or rather +a flexible tube, made of chain-work, with iron wire, suspended in +the middle of the box. + + +CHAPTER. VI. + + Apology for the want of method in treating the subject under + consideration. + Of the various means used for encouraging industry among the poor. + Of the internal arrangement and government of the house of industry. + Why called the military work-house. + Of the manner in which the business is carried on there. + Of the various means used for preventing frauds in carrying on the + business in the different manufactures. + Of the flourishing state of those manufactures. + +Though all the different parts of a well arranged establishment +go on together, and harmonize, like the parts of a piece of music +in full score, yet, in describing such an establishment, it is +impossible to write like the musician, in score, and to make all +the parts of the narrative advance together. Various movements, +which exist together, and which have the most intimate connection +and dependence upon each other, must nevertheless be described +separately; and the greatest care and attention, and frequently +no small share of address, are necessary in the management of +such descriptions, to render the details intelligible; and to +give the whole its full effect of order;--dependence;-- +connection;--and harmony. And in no case can these difficulties +be greater, than in descriptions like those in which I am now +engaged; where the number of the objects, and of the details, is +so great, that it is difficult to determine which should be +attended to first; and how far it may safely be pursued, without +danger of the others being too far removed from their proper +places;--or excluded;-- or forgotten. + +The various measures adopted, and precautions taken, in arresting +the beggars,--in collecting and distributing alms,--in establishing +order and police among them,--in feeding and clothing the poor,-- +and in establishing various manufactures for giving them +employment, are all subjects which deserve, and require, the most +particular explanation; yet those are not only operations which +were begun at the same time; and carried on together; but they +are so dependent upon each other, that it is almost impossible to +have a complete idea of the one, without being acquainted with +the others; or of treating of the one, without mentioning the +others at the same time.--This, therefore, must be my excuse, +if I am taxed with want of method, or of perspicuity in the +descriptions; and this being premised, I shall proceed to give an +account of the various objects and operations which yet remain to +be described. + +I have already observed how necessary it was to encourage, +by every possible means, a spirit of industry and emulation among +those, who, from leading a life of indolence and debauchery, were +to be made useful members of society; and I have mentioned some +of the measures which were adopted for that purpose. It remains +for me to pursue this interesting subject, and to treat it, +in all its details, with that care and attention which its +importance so justly demands. + +Though a very generous price was paid for labour, in the different +manufactures in which the poor were employed, yet, that alone was +not enough to interest them sufficiently in the occupations in +which they were engaged. To excite their activity, and inspire +them with a true spirit of persevering industry, it was necessary +to fire them with emulation;--to awaken in them a dormant passion, +whose influence they had never felt;--the love of honest fame;-- +and ardent desire to excel;--the love of glory;--or by what other +more humble or pompous name this passion, the most noble, and +most beneficent that warms the human heart, can be distinguished. + +To excite emulation;--praise;--distinctions;--rewards are +necessary; and these were all employed. Those who distinguished +themselves by their application,--by their industry,--by their +address,--were publicly praised and encouraged;--brought forward, +and placed in the most conspicuous situations;--pointed out to +strangers who visited the establishment; and particularly named +and proposed as models for others to copy. A particular dress, +a sort of uniform for the establishment, which, though very +economical, as may be seen by the details which will be given of +it in another place, was nevertheless elegant, was provided; and +this dress, as it was given out gratis, and only bestowed upon +those who particularly distinguished themselves, was soon looked +upon as an honourable mark of approved merit; and served very +powerfully to excite emulation among the competitors, I doubt +whether vanity, in any instance, ever surveyed itself with more +self-gratification, than did some of these poor people when they +first put on their new dress. + +How necessary is it to be acquainted with the secret springs of +action in the human heart, to direct even the lowest and most +unfeeling class of mankind!--The machine is intrinsically the same +in all situations;--the great secret is, FIRST TO PUT IT IN TUNE, +before an attempt is made to play upon it. The jarring sounds of +former vibrations must first be stilled, otherwise no harmony can +be produced; but when the instrument is in order, the notes +CANNOT FAIL to answer to the touch of a skilful master. + +Though every thing was done that could be devised to impress the +minds of all those, old and young, who frequented this establishment, +with such sentiments as were necessary in order to their becoming +good and useful members of society; (and in these attempts I was +certainly successful, much beyond my most sanguine expectations;) +yet my hopes were chiefly placed on the rising generation. + +The children, therefore, of the poor, were objects of my peculiar +care and attention. To induce their parents to send them to the +establishment, even before they were old enough to do any kind of +work, when they attended at the regular hours, they not only +received their dinner gratis, but each of them was paid THREE +CREUTZERS a day for doing nothing, but merely being present where +others worked. + +I have already mentioned that these children, who were too young +to work, were placed upon seats built round the halls where other +children worked. This was done in order to inspire them with a +desire to do that, which other children, apparently more favoured, +--more caressed,--and more praised than themselves, were permitted +to do; and of which they were obliged to be idle spectators; +and this had the desired effect. + +As nothing is so tedious to a child as being obliged to sit still +in the same place for a considerable time, and as the work which +the other more favoured children were engaged in, was light and easy, +and appeared rather amusing than otherwise, being the spinning of +hemp and flax, with small light wheels, turned with the foot, +these children, who were obliged to be spectators of this busy +and entertaining scene, became so uneasy in their situations, +and so jealous of those who were permitted to be more active, +that they frequently solicited with the greatest importunity to +be permitted to work, and often cried most heartily if this favour +was not instantly granted them. + +How sweet these tears were to me, can easily be imagined! + +The joy they showed upon being permitted to descend from their +benches, and mix with the working children below, was equal to +the solicitude with which they had demanded that favour. + +They were at first merely furnished with a wheel, which they +turned for several days with the foot, without being permitted to +attempt any thing further. As soon as they were become dexterous +in the simple operation, and habit had made it so easy and +familiar to them that the foot could continue its motion +mechanically, without the assistance of the head;--till they +could go on with their work, even though their attention was +employed upon something else;--till they could answer questions, +and converse freely with those about them upon indifferent +subjects, without interrupting or embarrassing the regular motion +of the wheel, then,--and not till then,--they were furnished with +hemp or flax, and were taught to spin. + +When they had arrived at a certain degree of dexterity in +spinning hemp and flax, they were put to spinning of wool; +and this was always represented to them, and considered by them, +as an honorable promotion. Upon this occasion they commonly +received some public reward, a new shirt,--a pair of shoes,-- +or perhaps the uniform of the establishment, as an encouragement +to them to persevere in their industrious habits. + +As constant application to any occupation for too great a length +of time is apt to produce disgust, and in children might even be +detrimental to health, beside the hour of dinner, an hour of +relaxation from work, (from eight o'clock till nine,) in the +forenoon, and another hour, (from three o'clock till four,) in +the afternoon, were allowed them, and these two hours were spent +in a school; which, for want of room elsewhere in the house, was +kept in the dining-hall, where they were taught reading, writing, +and arithmetic, by a school-master engaged and paid for that +purpose[11]. Into this school other persons who worked in the +house, of a more advanced age, were admitted, if they requested it; +but few grown persons seemed desirous of availing themselves of +this permission. As to the children, they had no choice in the +matter; those who belonged to the establishment were obliged to +attend the school regularly every day, morning and evening. The +school books, paper, pens, and ink, were furnished at the expence +of the establishment. + +To distinguish those among the grown persons that worked in the +house, who showed the greatest dexterity and industry in the +different manufactures in which they were employed, the best +workman were separated from the others, and formed distinct +classes, and were even assigned separate rooms and apartments. +This separation was productive of many advantages; for, beside +the spirit of emulation which it excited, and kept alive, in +every part of the establishment, if afforded an opportunity of +carrying on the different manufactures in a very advantageous +manner. The most dexterous among the wool-spinners, for instance, +were naturally employed upon the finest wool, such as was used in +the fabrication of the finest and most valuable goods; and it was +very necessary that these spinners should be separated from the +others, who worked upon coarser materials; otherwise, in the +manipulations of the wool, as particles of it are unavoidably +dispersed about in all directions when it is spun, the coarser +particles thus mixing with the fine would greatly injure the +manufacture. It was likewise necessary, for a similar reason, +to separate the spinners who were employed in spinning wool of +different colours. But as these, and many other like precautions +are well known to all manufacturers, it is not necessary that I +should insist upon them any farther in this place; nor indeed is +it necessary that I should enter into all the details of any of +the manufactures carried on in the establishment I am describing. +It will be quite sufficient, if I merely enumerate them, +and others, who were employed in carrying them on. + +In treating this subject it will however be necessary to go back +a little, and give a more particular account of the internal +governments of this establishment; and first of all I must observe, +that the government of the Military Work-house, as it is called, +is quite distinct from the government of the institution for the +poor; the Work-house being merely a manufactory, like any other +manufactory, supported upon its own private capital; which capital +has no connection whatever with any fund destined for the poor. +It is under the sole direction of its own particular governors +and overseers, and is carried on at the sole risk of the owner. +The institution for the poor, on the other hand, is merely an +institution of charity, joined to a general direction of the police, +as far as it relates to paupers. The committee, or deputation, +as it is called, which is at the head of this institution, has +the sole direction of all funds destined for the relief of the +poor in Munich, and the distribution of alms. This deputation +has likewise the direction of the kitchen, and bake-house, which +are established in the Military Work-house; and of the details +relative to the feeding of the poor; for it is from the funds +destined for the relief of the poor that these expences are +defrayed: the deputation is also in connection with the Military +Work-house relative to the clothing of the poor, and the +distribution of rewards to those of them who particularly +distinguished themselves by their good behaviour and their +industry, but this is merely a mercantile correspondence. +The deputation has no right to interfere in any way whatever in +the internal management of this establishment, considered as a +manufactory. In this respect it is to all intents and purposes a +perfectly distinct and independent establishment. +But notwithstanding this, the two establishments are so dependent +on each other in many respects, that neither of them could well +subsist alone. + +The Military Work-house being principally designed as a +manufactory for clothing the army, its capital, which at first +consisted in about 150,000 florins, but which has since increased +to above 250,000 florins, was advanced by the military chest, +and hence it is, that it was called the Military Work-house, +and put under the direction of the council of war. + +For the internal management of the establishment, a special +commission was named, consisting of, one counsellor of war, +of the department of military economy, or of the clothing of the +army,--one captain, which last is inspector of the house, and has +apartments in it, where he lodges; --and the store-keeper of the +magazine of military clothing. + +These commissioners, who have the magazine of military clothing +at the same time under their direction, have, under my immediate +superintendence, the sole government and direction of this +establishment;--of all the inferior officers;--servants;-- +manufacturers;--and workmen, belonging to it; and of all mercantile +operations;--contracts;-- purchases;--sales;, etc. And it is +with these commissioners that the regiments correspond, in order +to be furnished with clothing, and other necessaries; and into +their hands they pay the amount of the different articles +received. + +The cash belonging to this establishment is placed in a chest +furnished with three separate locks, of one of which each of the +commissioners are jointly, and severally, answerable for the +contents of the chest. + +These commissioners hold their sessions regularly twice a week, +or oftener if circumstances require it, in a room in the Military +Work-house destined for that purpose, where the correspondence, +and all accounts and documents belonging to the establishment, +and other records, are kept; and where the secretary of the +commission constantly attends. + +When very large contracts are made for the purchase of raw +materials, particularly when they are made with foreigners, +the conditions are first submitted by the commissioners to the +council of war for their approbation; but in all concerns of less +moment, and particularly in all the current business of the +establishment;--in the ordinary purchases,--sales,--and other +mercantile transactions; the commissioners act by their own +immediate authority: but all the transactions of the +commissioners BEING ENTERED REGULARLY IN THEIR JOURNALS, and the +most particular account of all sales, and purchases, and other +receipts and expenditures being kept; and inventories being taken +every year, of all raw materials;--manufactures upon hand;--and +other effects, belonging to the establishment; and an annual +account of profit and loss, regularly made out; all peculation, +and other abuses, are most effectually prevented. + +The steward, or store-keeper of raw materials, as he is called, +has the care of all raw materials, and of all finished +manufactures destined for private sale. The former are kept in +magazines, or store-rooms, of which he alone has the keys,-- +the latter are kept in rooms set apart as a store,--or shop,-- +where they are exposed for public inspection, and sale. +To prevent abuses in the sales of these manufactures, their prices, +which are determined upon a calculation of what they cost, and a +certain per cent. added for the profits of the house, are marked +upon the goods, and are never altered; and a regular account is +kept of all, even of the most inconsiderable articles sold, +in which not only the commodity, with its quality, quantity, +an price, is specified; but the name of the purchaser, and the day +of the month when the purchase was made, are mentioned. + +All articles of clothing destined for the army which are made up +in the house; as well as all goods in the piece, destined for +military clothing, are lodged in the Military Magazine; which is +situated at some distance from the Military Work-house; and is +under the care and inspection of the Military store-keeper. + +From this Military Magazine, which may be considered as an +appendix to the Military Work-house, and is in fact under the +same direction, the regiments are supplied with every article of +their clothing. But in order that the army accounts may be more +simple, and more easily checked, and that the total annual +expence of each regiment may be more readily ascertained, the +regiments pay, at certain fixed prices, for all the articles they +receive from the Military Magazine, and charge such expenditures +in the annual account which they send in to the War Office. + +The order observed with regard to the delivery of the raw +materials by the store-keeper or steward of the Military +Work-house to those employed in manufacturing them, is as +follows: + +In the manufactures of wool, for instance, he delivers to the +master-clothier a certain quantity, commonly 100 pounds, of wool, +of a certain quality and description; taken from a certain +division, or bin, in the Magazine; bearing a certain number; +in order to its being sorted. And as a register is kept of the +wool that is put into these bins from time to time, and as the +lots of wool are always kept separate, it is perfectly easy at +any time to determine when,--and where,--and from whom, the wool +delivered to the sorted was purchased; and what was paid for it; +and consequently, to trace the wool from the stock where it was +grown, to the cloth into which it was formed; and even to the +person who wore it. And similar arrangements are adopted with +regard to all other raw materials used in the various +manufactures. + +The advantages arising from this arrangement are too obvious to +require being particularly mentioned. It not only prevents +numberless abuses on the part of those employed in the various +manufactures, but affords a ready method of detecting any frauds +on the part of those from whom the raw materials are purchased. + +The wool received by the master-clothier is by him delivered to +the wool-sorters to be sorted. To prevent frauds on the part of +the wool-sorters, not only all the wool-sorters work in the same +room, under the immediate inspection of the master wool-sorter, +but a certain quantity of each lot of wool being sorted in the +presence of some one of the public officers belonging to the +house, it is seen by the experiment how much per cent. is lost +by separation of dirt and filth in sorting; and the quantity of +sorted wool of the different qualities, which the sorter is +obliged to deliver for each HUNDRED POUNDS weight of wool +received from the magazine, is from hence determined. + +The great secret of the woollen manufactory is in the sorting of +the wool, and if this is not particularly attended to; that is to +say, if the different kinds of wool of various qualities which +each fleece naturally contains, are not carefully separated; +and if each kind of wool is not employed for that purpose, +and FOR THAT ALONE, for which it is best calculated, no woollen +manufactory can possibly subsist with advantages. + +Each fleece is commonly separated into five or six different +parcels of wool, of different qualities, by the sorters in the +Military Work-house; and of these parcels, some are employed for +warp;-- others for wool;--others for combing;--and that which is +very coarse and indifferent, for coarse mittens for the +peasants;--for the lists of broad cloths, etc. + +The wool, when sorted, is delivered back by the master-clothier +to the steward, who now places it in the sorted-wool magazines, +where it is kept in separate bins, according to its different +qualities and destinations, till it is delivered out to be +manufactured. As these bins are all numbered, and as the quality +and destination of the wool which is lodged in each bin is always +the same, it is sufficient in describing the wool afterwards as +it passes through the hands of the different manufacturers, +merely to mention ITS NUMBER; that is to say, the number of the +bin the sorted-wool magazine from whence it was taken. + +As a more particular account of these various manipulations, +and the means used to prevent frauds, may not only be interesting +to all who are curious in these matters, but may also be of real +use to such as may engage in similar undertakings, I shall take +the liberty to enlarge a little upon this subject. + +From the magazine of sorted wool, the master-clothier receives +this sorted wool again, in order to its being wolfed,--greased, +--carded;--and spun, under his inspection, and then delivered +into the store-room of woollen yarn. As woollen yarn he receives +it again, and delivers it to the cloth-weaver. --The cloth-weaver +returns it in cloth to the steward.--The steward delivers it to +the fuller;--the fuller to the cloth-shearer;--the cloth-shearer +to the cloth-presser;--and the cloth-presser to the steward;-- +and by this last it is delivered into the Military Magazine, +if destined for the army; if not, it is placed in the shop for sale. +The master-clothier is answerable for all the sorted wool he +receives, till he delivers it to the clerk of the wool-spinners; +and all his accounts are settled with the steward once a week.-- +The clerk of the spinners is answerable for the carded and combed +wool he receives from the master-clothier, till it is delivered +in yarn in the store-room; and his accounts are likewise settled +with the master-clothier, and with the clerk of the store-room, +(who is called the clerk of the control,) once a week. +The spinners wages are paid by the clerk of the control, upon the +spin-ticket, signed by the clerk of the spinners; in which ticket, +the quantity, and quality of the yarn spun being specified, +together with the name of the spinner, the weekly delivery of +yarn by the clerk of the spinners into the store-room, must +answer to the spin-tickets received and paid by the clerk of the +control. More effectually to prevent frauds, each delivery of +yarn to the clerk of the spinners is bound up in a separate +bundle, to which is attached an abstract of the spin-ticket, +in which abstract is specified, the name of the spinner;--the date +of the delivery;--the number of the spin-ticket;--and the +quantity and quality of the yarn. This arrangement not only +facilitates the settlement of the weekly account between the +clerk of the spinners and the clerk of the control, when the +former makes his weekly delivery of yarn into the store-room, +but renders it easy also to detect any frauds committed by the +spinners. + +The wages of the spinners are regulated by the fineness of the +yarn; that is, by the number of skains, or rather knots, which +they spin from the pound of wool. Each knot is composed of 100 +threads, and each thread, or turn of the reel, is two Bavarian +yards in length; and to prevent frauds in reeling, clock-reels, +proved and sealed, are furnished by the establishment to all the +spinners. It is possible, however, notwithstanding this +precaution, for the spinners to commit frauds, by binding up +knots containing a smaller number of threads than 100.--It is +true they have little temptation to do so, for as their wages are +in fact paid by the WEIGHT of the yarn delivered, and the number +of knots serving merely to determine the price BY THE POUND which +they have a right to receive, and advantages they can derive from +frauds committed in reeling are very trifling indeed. +But trifling as they are, such frauds would no doubt sometimes be +committed, were it not known that it is absolutely IMPOSSIBLE for +them to escape detection. + +Not only the clerk of the spinners examines the yarn when he +receives it, and counts the threads in any of the knots which +appear to be too small, but the name of the spinner, with a note +of the quantity of knots, accompanies the yarn into the store-room, +as was before observed, and from thence to the spooler, by whom +it is wound off; any frauds committed in reeling cannot fail to +be brought home to the spinner. + +The bundles of carded wool delivered to the spinners, though they +are called pounds, are not exact pounds. They contain each as +much more than a pound, as is necessary, allowing for wastage in +spinning, in order that the yarn when spun may weigh a pound. +If the yarn is found to be wanting in weight, a proportional +deduction is made from the wages of the spinner; which deduction, +to prevent frauds, amounts to a trifle more than the value of the +yarn which is wanting. + +Frauds in weaving are prevented by delivering the yarn to the +weavers by weight, and receiving the cloth by weight from the loom. +In the other operations of the manufactures, such as fulling, +shearing, pressing, etc. no frauds are to be apprehended. + +Similar precautions are taken to prevent frauds in the linen;-- +cotton;--and other manufactures carried on in the house; and so +effectual are the means adopted, that during more than five years +since the establishment was instituted, no one fraud of the least +consequence has been discovered; the evident impossibility of +escaping detection in those practices, having prevented the +attempt. + +Through the above-mentioned details may be sufficient to give +some idea of the general order which reigns in every part of this +extensive establishment; yet, as success in an undertaking of +this kind depends essentially on carrying on the business in all +its various branches in the most methodical manner, and rendering +one operation a check upon the other, as well as in making the +persons employed absolutely responsible for all frauds and +neglects committed in their various departments, I shall either +add in the Appendix, or publish separately, a full account of the +internal details of the various trades and manufactures carried +on in the Military Work-house, and copies of all the different +tickets,--returns,--tables,--accounts, etc. made use of in +carrying on the business of this establishment. + +Though these accounts will render this work more voluminous than +I could have wished, yet, as such details can hardly fail to be +very useful to those, who, either upon a larger, or smaller +scale, may engage in similar undertakings, I have determined to +publish them. + +To show that the regulations observed in carrying on the various +trades and manufactures in the Military Work-house are good, +it will, I flatter myself, be quite sufficient to refer to the +flourishing state of the establishment;--to its growing +reputation;--to its extensive connections, which reach even to +foreign countries;--to the punctuality with which all its +engagements are fulfilled;-- to its unimpeached credit;--and to +its growing wealth. + +Notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which it laboured in +its infant state, the net profits arising from it during the six +years it has existed, amount to above 100,000 florins; after the +expences of every kind,--salaries,--wages,--repairs, etc. have +been deducted; in consequence of the augmentation of the amount +of the orders received and executed the last year, did not fall +much short of HALF A MILLION of florins. + +It may be proper to observe, that, not the whole army of the +Elector, but only the fifteen Bavarian regiments, are furnished +with clothing from the Military Work-house at Munich. The troops +of the Palatinate, and those of the Duchies of Juliers and Bergen, +receive their clothing from a similar establishment at Manheim. + +The Military Work-house at Manheim was indeed erected several +months before that at Munich; but as it is not immediately +connected with any institution for the poor,--as the poor are not +fed in it,--and as it was my first attempt, or coup d'essai,-- +it is, in many respects, inferior in its internal arrangements +to that at Munich. I have therefore chosen this last for the +subject of my descriptions; and would propose it as a model for +imitation, in preference to the other. + +As both these establishments owe their existence to myself, +and as they both remain under my immediate superintendence, +it may very naturally be asked, why that at Manheim has not been +put upon the same footing with that at Munich?--My answer to +this question would be, that a variety of circumstances, too +foreign to my present subject to be explained here, prevented the +establishment of the Military Work-house at Manheim being carried +to that perfection which I could have wished[12]. + +But it is time that I should return to the poor of Munich; +for whose comfort and happiness I laboured with so much pleasure, +and whose history will ever remain by far the most interesting part +of this publication. + + +CHAPTER. VII. + + A further account of the poor who were brought together in the + house of industry:--and of the interesting change which was + produced in their manners and dispositions. + Various proofs that the means used for making them industrious, + comfortable, and happy, were successful. + +The awkwardness of these poor creatures, when they were first +taken from the streets as beggars, and put to work, may easily +conceived; but the facility with which they acquired address in +the various manufactures in which they were employed, was very +remarkable, and much exceeded my expectation. But what was quite +surprising, and at the same time interesting in the highest +degree, was the apparent and rapid change which was produced in +their manners,--in their general behaviour,--and even in the very +air of their countenances, upon being a little accustomed to +their new situations. The kind usage they met with, and the +comforts they enjoyed, seemed to have softened their hearts, and +awakened in them sentiments as new and surprising to themselves, +as they were interesting to those about them. + +The melancholy gloom of misery, and air of uneasiness and +embarrassment, disappeared by little and little from their +countenances, and were succeeded by a timid dawn of cheerfulness, +rendered most exquisitely interesting by a certain mixture of +silent gratitude, which no language can describe. + +In the infancy of this establishment, when these poor creatures +were first brought together, I used very frequently to visit +them,--to speak kindly to them,--and to encourage them;--and I +seldom passed through the halls where they were at work, without +being a witness to the most moving scenes. + +Objects, formerly the most miserable and wretched, whom I had +seen for years as beggars in the streets;-young women,--perhaps +the unhappy victims of seduction, who, having lost their +reputation, and being turned adrift in the world, without a +friend and without a home, were reduced to the necessity of +begging, to sustain a miserable existence, now recognized me as +their benefactor; and, with tears dropping fast from their +cheeks, continued their work in the most expressive silence. + +If they were asked, what the matter was with them? their answer +was, ("nichts") "nothing;" accompanied by a look of affectionate +regard and gratitude, so exquisitely touching as frequently to +draw tears from the most insensible of the bystanders. + +It was not possible to be mistaken with respect to the real state +of the minds of these poor people; every thing about them showed +that they were deeply affected with the kindness shown them;-- +and that their hearts were really softened, appeared, not only +from their unaffected expressions of gratitude, but also from the +effusions of their affectionate regard for those who were dear +to them. In short, never did I witness such affecting scenes as +passed between some of these poor people and their children. + +It was mentioned above that the children were separated from the +grown persons. This was the case at first; but as soon as order +was thoroughly established in every part of the house, and the +poor people had acquired a certain degree of address in their +work, and evidently took pleasure in it, as many of those who had +children expressed an earnest desire to have them near them, +permission was granted for that purpose; and the spinning halls, +by degrees, were filled with the most interesting little groups +of industrious families, who vied with each other in diligence +and address; and who displayed a scene, at once the most busy, +and the most cheerful, that can be imagined. + +An industrious family is ever a pleasing object; but there was +something peculiarly interesting and affecting in the groups of +these poor people. Whether it was, that those who saw them +compared their present situation with the state of misery and +wretchedness from which they had been taken; --or whether it was +the joy and exultation which were expressed in the countenances +of the poor parents in contemplating their children all busily +employed about them;--or the air of self-satisfaction which these +little urchins put on, at the consciousness of their own dexterity, +while they pursued their work with redoubled diligence upon being +observed, that rendered the scene so singularly interesting,-- +I know not; but certain it is, that few strangers who visited the +establishment, came out of these halls without being much affected. + +Many humane and well-disposed persons are often withheld from +giving alms, on account of the bad character of beggars in general; +but this circumstance, though it ought undoubtedly to be taken +into consideration in determining the mode of administering our +charitable assistance, should certainly not prevent our +interesting ourselves in the fate of these unhappy beings. +On the contrary, it ought to be an additional incitement to us +to relieve them;--for nothing is more certain, than that their +crimes are very often the EFFECTS, not the CAUSES of their +misery; and when this is the case, by removing the cause, the +effects will cease. + +Nothing is more extraordinary and unaccountable, than the +inconsistency of mankind in every thing; even in the practice of +that divine virtue benevolence; and most of our mistakes arise +more from indolence and from inattention, than from any thing else. +The busy part of mankind are too intent upon their own private +pursuits; and those who have leisure, are too averse from giving +themselves trouble, to investigate a subject but too generally +considered as tiresome and uninteresting. But if it be true, that +we are really happy only in proportion as we ought to be so;-- +that is, in proportion as we are instrumental in promoting the +happiness of others; no study surely can be so interesting, +as that which teaches us how most effectually to contribute to +the well-being of our fellow-creatures. + +If LOVE be blind, SELF-LOVE is certainly very short-sighted; +and without the assistance of reason and reflection, is but a +bad guide in the pursuit of happiness. + +Those who take pleasure in depreciating all the social virtues +have represented pity as a mere selfish passion; and there are +some circumstances which appear to justify this opinion. +It is certain that the misfortunes of others affect us, not in +proportion to their greatness, but in proportion to their +nearness to ourselves; or to the chances that they may reach us +in our turns. A rich man is infinitely more affected at the +misfortune of his neighbour, who, by the failure of a banker with +whom he had trusted the greater part of his fortune;--by an +unlucky run at play,--or by other losses, is reduced to a state +of affluence, to the necessity of laying down his carriage;-- +leaving the town;--and retiring into the country upon a few +hundreds a-year;--than by the total ruin of the industrious +tradesman over the way, who is dragged to prison, and his +numerous family of young and helpless children left to starve. + +But however selfish pity may be, BENEVOLENCE certainly springs +from a more noble origin. It is a good-natured,--generous +sentiment, which does not require being put to the torture in +order to be stimulated to action. And it is this sentiment, +not pity, or compassion, which I would wish to excite. + +Pity is always attended with pain; and if our sufferings at being +witnesses of the distresses of others, sometimes force us to +relieve them, we can neither have much merit, nor any lasting +satisfaction, from such involuntary acts of charity; but the +enjoyments which result from acts of genuine benevolence are as +lasting as they are exquisitely delightful; and the more they +contribute to that inward peace of mind and self-approbation, +which alone constitute real happiness. This is the "soul's calm +sun-shine, and the heart-felt joy," which is virtue's prize. + +To induce mankind to engage in any enterprise, it is necessary, +first, to show that success will be attended with real advantage; +and secondly, that is may be obtained without much difficulty. +The rewards attendant upon acts of benevolence have so often been +described and celebrated, in every country and in every language, +that it would be presumption in me to suppose I could add any +thing new upon a subject already discussed by the greatest +masters of rhetoric, and embellished with all the irresistible +charms of eloquence; but as EXAMPLE OF SUCCESS are sometimes more +efficacious in stimulating mankind to action, than the most +splendid reasonings and admonitions, it is upon my SUCCESS in the +enterprise of which I have undertaken to give an account, that my +hopes of engaging others to follow such an example are chiefly +founded; and hence it is, that I so often return to that part of +my subject, and insist with so much perseverance upon the +pleasure which this success afforded me. I am aware that I +expose myself to being suspected of ostentation, particularly by +those who are not able to enter fully into my situation and +feelings; but neither this, nor any other consideration, shall +prevent me from treating the subject in such a manner as may +appear best adapted to render my labours of public utility. + +Why should I not mention even the marks of affectionate regard +and respect which I received from the poor people for those +happiness I interested myself, and the testimonies of the public +esteem with which I was honored?--Will it be reckoned vanity, +if I mention the concern which the Poor of Munich expressed in so +affecting a manner when I was dangerously ill?--that they went +publicly in a body in procession to the cathedral church, where +they had divine service performed, and put up public prayers for +my recovery?--that four years afterwards, on hearing that I was +again dangerously ill at Naples. they, of their own accord, set +apart an hour each evening, after they had finished their work in +the Military Work-house, to pray for me? + +Will it be thought improper to mention the affecting reception I +met with from them, at my first visit to the Military Work-house +upon my return to Munich last summer, after an absence of fifteen +months; a scene which drew tears from all who were present?--and +must I refute myself the satisfaction of describing the fete I +gave them in return, in the English Garden, at which 1800 poor +people of all ages, and above 30,000 of the inhabitants of +Munich, assisted? and all this pleasure I must forego, merely +that I may not be thought vain and ostentatious?--Be it so +then;-- but I would just beg leave to call the reader's attention +to my feelings upon the occasion; and then let him ask himself, +if any earthly reward can possibly be supposed greater;--any +enjoyments more complete, than those I received. Let him figure +to himself, if he can, my situation, sick in bed, worn out by +intense application, and dying, as every body thought, a martyr +in the cause to which I had devoted myself;--let him imagine, +I say, my feelings, upon hearing the confused noise of the prayers +of a multitude of people, who were passing by in the streets, +upon being told, that it was the Poor of Munich, many hundreds in +number, who were going in procession to the church to put up +public prayers for me:--public prayers for me!--for a private +person!--a stranger!--a protestant!--I believe it is the first +instance of the kind that ever happened;--and I dare venture to +affirm that no proof could well be stronger than this, that the +measures adopted for making these poor people happy, were really +successful;--and let it be remembered, that this fact is what I +am most anxious to make appear, IN THE CLEAREST AND MOST +SATISFACTORY MANNER. + + +CHAPTER. VIII. + + Of the means used for the relief of those poor persons who were + not beggars. + Of the large sums of money distributed to the poor in alms. + Of the means used for rendering those who received alms industrious. + Of the general utility of the house of industry to the poor, + and the distressed of all denominations. + Of public kitchens for feeding the poor, united with establishments + for giving them employment; and of the great advantages which + would be derived from forming them in every parish. + Of the manner in which the poor of Munich are lodged. + +In giving an account of the Poor of Munich. I have hitherto +confined myself chiefly to one class of them,--the beggars; but I +shall now proceed to mention briefly the measures which were +adopted to relieve others, who never were beggars, from those +distresses and difficulties in which poverty and the inability to +provide the necessaries of life had involved them. + +An establishment for the Poor should not only provide for the +relief and support of those who are most forward and clamorous in +calling out for assistance;--humanity and justice require that +peculiar attention should be paid to those who are bashful and +silent.--To those, who, in addition to all the distresses arising +from poverty and want, feel, that is still more insupportable to +their unfortunate and hopeless situation. + +All those who stood in need of assistance were invited and +encouraged to make known their wants to the committee placed at +the head of the institution; and in no case was the necessary +assistance refused.--That this relief was generously bestowed, +will not be doubted by those who are informed that the sums +distributed in alms, IN READY MONEY to the Poor of Munich in FIVE +YEARS, exclusive of the expences incurred in feeding and clothing +them, amounted to above TWO HUNDRED THOUSAND FLORINS[13]. + +But the sums of money distributed among the Poor in alms was not +the only, and perhaps not the most important assistance that was +given them.--THEY WERE TAUGHT AND ENCOURAGED TO BE INDUSTRIOUS; +and they probably derived more essential advantages from the +fruits of their industry, than from all the charitable donations +they received. + +All who were able to earn any thing by their labour, were +furnished with work, and effectual measures taken to excite them +to be industrious.--In fixing the amount of the sums in money, +which they receive weekly upon stated days, care was always taken +to find out how much the person applying for relief was in a +condition to earn, and only just so much was granted, as, +when added to these earnings, would be sufficient to provide the +necessaries of life, or such of them as were not otherwise +furnished by the institution. --But even this precaution would +not alone have been sufficient to have obliged those who were +disposed to be idle, to become industrious; for, with the +assistance of the small allowances which were granted, they might +have found means, by stealing, or other fraudulent practices, +to have subsisted without working, and the sums allowed them would +have only served as an encouragement to idleness.--This evil, +which is always much to be apprehended in establishments for the +Poor, and which is always most fatal in its consequences, +is effectually prevented at Munich by the following simple +arrangement:--A long and narrow slip of paper, upon which is +printed, between parallel lines, in two or more columns, all the +weeks in the year, or rather the month, and the day of the month, +when each week begins, is, in the beginning of every year, given +to each poor perform entitled to receive alms; and the name of +the person,--with the number his name bears in the general list +of the Poor;--the weekly sum granted to him,--and the sum he is +able to earn weekly by labour, are entered in writing at the head +of this list of the weeks.--This paper, which must always be +produced by the poor person as often as he applies for his weekly +allowance of alms, serves to show whether he has, or has not +fulfilled the conditions upon which the allowance was granted him;-- +that is to say, whether he has been industrious, and has earned +by his labour, and received, the sum he ought to earn weekly.-- +This fact is ascertained in the following manner: when the poor +person frequents the house of industry regularly, or when he +works at home, and delivers regularly at the end of every week, +the produce of the labour he is expected to perform; when he has +thus fulfilled the conditions imposed on him, the column, or +rather parallel, in his paper, (which may be called his +certificate of industry,) answering to the week in question, +is marked with a stamp, kept for that purpose at the Military +Work-house; or, if he should be prevented by illness, or any +other accident, from fulfilling those conditions, in that case, +instead of the stamp, the week must be marked by the signature of +the commissary of the district to which the poor person belongs.-- +But, if the certificate be not marked, either by the stamp of the +house of industry, or by the signature of the commissary of the +district, the allowance for the week in question is not issued. + +It is easy to be imagined how effectually this arrangement must +operate as a check to idleness.-- But, not satisfied with +discouraging and punishing idleness, we have endeavoured, by all +the means in our power, and more especially by rewards and +honorable distinctions of every kind, to encourage extraordinary +exertions of industry. Such of the Poor who earn more in the +week than the sum imposed on them, are rewarded by extraordinary +presents, in money, or in some useful and valuable article of +clothing; or they are particularly remembered at the next public +distribution of money, which is made twice a year to the Poor, +to assist them in paying their house-rent: and so far is this from +being made a pretext for diminishing their weekly allowance of +alms, that it is rather considered as a reason for augmenting them. + +There are great numbers of persons, of various descriptions, +in all places, and particularly in great towns, who, though they +find means just to support life, and have too much feeling ever +to submit to the disgrace of becoming a burthen upon the public, +are yet very unhappy, and consequently objects highly deserving +of the commiseration and friendly aid of the humane and generous.-- +it is hardly possible to imagine a situation more truly deplorable +than that of a person born to better prospects, reduced by +unmerited misfortunes to poverty, and doomed to pass his whole +life in one continued and hopeless struggle with want, shame, +and despair. + +Any relief which it is possible to afford to distress that +appears under this respectable and most interesting form, +ought surely never to be withheld.--But the greatest care and +precaution are necessary in giving assistance to those who have +been rendered irritable and suspicious by misfortunes, and who +have too much honest pride not to feel themselves degraded by +accepting an obligation they never can hope to repay. + +The establishment of the house of industry at Munich has been a +means of affording very essential relief to many distressed +families, and single persons in indigent circumstances, who, +otherwise, most probably never would have received any assistance. +--Many persons of distinguished birth, and particularly widows +and unmarried ladies with very small fortunes, frequently send +privately to this house for raw materials,--flax or wool, +-- which they spin, and return in yarn,--linen for soldiers +shirts, which they make up, etc. and receive in money, (commonly +through the hands of a maid-servant, who is employed as a +messenger upon these occasions,) the amount of the wages at the +ordinary price paid by the manufactory, for the labour performed. + +Many a common soldier in the Elector's service wears shirts made +up privately by the delicate hands of persons who were never seen +publicly to be employed in such coarse work;--and many a +comfortable meal has been made in the town of Munich, in private, +by persons accustomed to more sumptuous fare, upon the soup +destined for the Poor, and furnished gratis from the public kitchen +of the house of industry. Many others who stand in need of +assistance, will, in time, I hope, get the better of their pride, +and avail themselves of these advantages. + +To render this establishment for the Poor at Munich perfect, +something is still wanting.--The house of industry is too remote +from the center of the town, and many of the Poor live at such a +distance from it, that much time is lost in going and returning. +--It is situated, it is true, nearly in the center of the +district in which most of the Poor inhabit, but still there are +many who do not derive all the advantages from it they otherwise +would do were it adjacent to their dwellings. The only way to +remedy this imperfection would be, to establish several smaller +public kitchens in different parts of the town, with two or three +rooms adjoining to each, where the Poor might work.--They might +then either fetch the raw materials from the principal house of +industry, or be furnished with them by the persons who superintend +those subordinate kitchens; and who might serve at the same time +as stewards and inspectors of the working rooms, under the +direction and control of the officers who are placed at the head +of the general establishment. This arrangement is in +contemplation, and will be put in execution as soon as convenient +houses can be procured and fitted up for the purpose. + +In large cities, these public kitchens, and rooms adjoining to +them for working, should be established in every parish; and, +it is scarcely to be conceived how much this arrangement would +contribute to the comfort and contentment of the Poor, and to the +improvement of their morals. These working rooms might be fitted +up with neatness; and even with elegance; and made perfectly +warm, clean, and comfortable, at a very small expence; +and, if nothing were done to disgust the Poor, either by treating +them harshly, or using FORCE to oblige them to frequent these +establishments, they would soon avail themselves of the +advantages held out to them; and the tranquillity they would +enjoy in these peaceful retreats, would, by degrees, calm the +agitation of their minds,--remove their suspicions,--and render +them happy,--grateful, and docile. + +Though it might not be possible to provide any other lodgings for +them than the miserable barracks they now occupy, yet, as they +might spend the whole of the day, from morning till late at +night, in these public rooms, and have no occasion to return to +their homes till bed-time, they would not experience much +inconvenience from the badness of the accommodation at their own +dwellings. + +Should any be attached with sickness, they might be sent to some +hospital, or rooms be provided for them, as well as for the old +and infirm, adjacent to the public working rooms. Certain hours +might also be set apart for instructing the children, daily, in +reading and writing, in the dining-hall, or in some other room +convenient for that purpose. + +The expence of forming such an establishment in every parish +would not be great, in the first outset, and the advantages +derived from it would very soon repay that expence, with interest. +--The Poor might be fed from a public kitchen for LESS THAN HALF +what it would cost them to feed themselves;--they would turn +their industry to better account, by working in a public +establishment, and under proper direction, than by working at +home;--a spirit of emulation would be excited among them, +and they would pass their time more agreeably and cheerfully.-- +They would be entirely relieved from the heavy expense of fuel for +cooking; and, in a great measure, from that for heating their +dwellings; and, being seldom at home in the day-time, would want +little more than a place to sleep in; so that the expence of +lodging might be greatly diminished.--It is evident, that all +these saving together would operate very powerfully to lessen the +public expence for the maintenance of the Poor; and, were proper +measures adopted, and pursued with care and perseverance, I am +persuaded the expence would at last be reduced to little or +nothing. + +With regard to the lodgings for the Poor, I am clearly of opinion +that it is in general best, particularly in great towns, that +these should be left for themselves to provide. This they +certainly would like better than being crowded together, +and confined like prisoners in poor-houses and hospitals; +and I really think the difference in the expence would be +inconsiderable; and though they might be less comfortably +accommodated, yet the inconvenience would be amply compensated +BY THE CHARMS WHICH LIBERTY DISPENSES. + +In Munich, almost all the Poor provide their own lodgings; +and twice a year have certain allowances in money, to assist them +in paying their rent.--Many among them who are single, have indeed, +no lodgings they can call their own. They go to certain +public-houses to sleep, where they are furnished with what is +called a bed, in a garret, for one creutzer, (equal to about +one-third of a penny,) a-night; and for two creutzers a-night +they get a place in a tolerably good bed in a decent room in a +public-house of more repute. + +There are, however, among the Poor, many who are infirm, and not +able to shift for themselves in the public-houses, and have not +families, or near relations, to take care of them. For these, +a particular arrangement has lately been made at Munich. Such of +them as have friends or acquaintances in town with whom they can +lodge, are permitted to do so; but if they cannot find out +lodgings themselves, they have the option, either to be placed in +some private family to be taken care of, or go to a home which +has lately been purchased and fitted up as an hospital for +lodging them[14]. + +This house is situated in a fine airy situation, on a small +eminence upon the banks of the Isar, and overlooks the whole of +the town;--the plain in which it is situated;--and the river.-- +It is neatly built, and has a spacious garden belonging to it. +There are seventeen good rooms in the house; in which it is +supposed about eighty persons may be lodged. These will all be +fed from one kitchen; and such of them who are very infirm, will +have others less infirm placed in the same room with them, to +assist them, and wait upon them.--The cultivation of the garden +will be their amusement, and the produce of it their property. +--They will be furnished with work suitable to their strength; +and for all the labour they perform, will be paid in money, which +will be left at their own disposal.--They will be furnished with +food, medicine, and clothing, gratis; and to those who are not +able to earn any thing by labour, a small sum of money will be +given weekly, to enable them to purchase tobacco, snuff, or any +other article of humble luxury to which they may have been +accustomed. + +I could have wished that this asylum had been nearer to the house +of industry. It is indeed not very far from it, perhaps not more +than 400 yards; but still that is too far.--Had it been under the +same roof, or adjoining to it, those who are lodged in it might +have been fed from the public kitchen of the general establishment, +and have been under the immediate inspection of the principal +officers of the house of industry. It would likewise have +rendered the establishment very interesting to those who visit +it; which is an object of more real importance than can well be +imagined by those who have not had occasion to know how much the +approbation and applause of the public facilitate difficult +enterprizes. + +The means of uniting the rational amusement of society, with the +furtherance of schemes calculated for the promotion of public +good, is a subject highly deserving the attention of all who are +engaged in public affairs. + + +CHAPTER. IX. + + Of the means used for extending the influence of the institution + for the poor at Munich, to other parts of Bavaria. + Of the progress which some of the improvements introduced at Munich + are making in other countries. + +Though the institution of which I have undertaken to give an account, +was confined to the city of Munich and its suburbs, yet measures +were taken to extend its influence to all parts of the country. +The attempt to put an end to mendicity in the capital, and to +give employment to the Poor, having been completely successful, +this event was formally announced to the public, in the news-papers; +and other towns were called upon to follow the example. Not only +a narrative in detail, was given of all the different measures +pursued in this important undertaking, but every kind of +information and assistance was afforded on the part of the +institution at Munich, to all who might be disposed to engage in +forming similar establishments in other parts of the country. + +Copies of all the different lists, returns, certificates, etc. +used in the management of the Poor, were given gratis to all, +strangers as well as inhabitants of the country, who applied for +them; and no information relative to the establishment, or to any +of its details, was ever refused. The house of industry was open +every day from morning till night to all visitors; and persons +were appointed to accompany strangers in their tour through the +different apartments, and to give the fullest information +relative to the details, and even to all the secrets of the +various manufactures carried on; and printed copies of the +different tables, tickets, checks, etc. made use of in carrying +on the current business of the house, were furnished to every one +who asked for them; together with an account of the manner in +which these were used, and of the other measures adopted to +prevent frauds and peculation in the various branches of this +extensive establishment. + +As few manufactures in Bavaria are carried on to any extent; +the more indigent of the inhabitants are, in general, so totally +unacquainted with every kind of work in which the Poor could be +most usefully employed, that that circumstance alone is a great +obstacle to the general introduction throughout the country of +the measures adopted in Munich for employing the Poor. To remove +this difficulty, the different towns and communities who are +desirous of forming establishments for giving employment to the +Poor, are invited to send persons properly qualified to the house +of industry at Munich, where they may be taught, gratis, spinning, +in its various branches; knitting; sewing, etc. in order to +qualify them to become instructors to the Poor on their return home. +And even instructors already formed, and possessing all the +requisite qualifications for such an office, are offered to be +furnished by the house of industry in Munich to such communities +as shall apply for them. + +Another difficulty, apparently not less weighty than that just +mentioned, but which is more easily and more effectually removed, +is the embarrassment many of the smaller communities are likely +to be under in procuring raw materials, and in selling to +advantage the goods manufactured, or, (as is commonly the case,) +IN PART ONLY MANUFACTURED, by the Poor. The yarn, for instance, +which is spun by them in a country-town or village, far removed +from any manufacture of cloth, may lie on hand a long time before +it can be sold to advantage. To remedy this, the house of +industry at Munich is ordered to furnish raw materials to such +communities as shall apply for them, and receive in return the +goods manufactured, at the full prices paid for the same articles +in Munich. Not only these measures, and many others of a similar +nature, are taken, to facilitate the introduction of industry +among the Poor throughout the country; but every encouragement is +held out to induce individuals to exert themselves in this +laudable undertaking. Those communities which are the first to +follow the example of the capital, are honourably mentioned in +the news-papers; and such individuals as distinguished themselves +by their zeal and activity upon those occasions, are praised and +rewarded. + +A worthy curate, (Mr. Lechner,) preacher in one of the churches +in Munich, who, of his own accord, had taken upon himself to +defend the measures adopted with regard to the Poor, and to +recommend them in the most earnest manner from the pulpit, +was sent for by the Elector, into his closet, and thanked for +his exertions. + +This transaction being immediately made known, (an account of it +having been published in the news-papers,) tended not a little to +engage the clergy in all parts of the country to exert themselves +in support of the institution. + +It is not my intention to insinuate that the clergy in Bavaria +stood in need of any such motive to stimulate them to action in a +cause so important to the happiness and well-being of mankind, +and consequently so nearly connected with the sacred duties of +their office;--on the contrary, I should be wanting in candour, +as well as gratitude, were I not to embrace this opportunity of +expressing publicity, the obligations I feel myself under to them +for their support and assistance. + +The number of excellent sermons which have been preached, +in order to recommend the measures adopted by the government for +making provision for the Poor, show how much this useful and +respectable body of men have had it at heart to contribute to the +success of this important measure; and their readiness to +co-operate with me, (a Protestant,) upon all occasions where +their assistance has been asked, not only does honour to the +liberality of their sentiments, but calls for my personal +acknowledgments, and particular thanks. + +I shall conclude this Essay with an account of the progress which +some of the improvements introduced at Munich are now making in +other countries. During my late journey in Italy for the +recovery of my health, I visited Verona; and becoming acquainted +with the principal directors of two large and noble hospitals, +la Pieta, and la Misericorde, in that city, the former containing +about 350, and the latter near 500 Poor, I had frequent occasions +to converse with them upon the subject of those establishments, +and to give them an account of the arrangements that had been +made in Munich. I likewise took the liberty of proposing some +improvements, and particularly in regard to the arrangements for +feeding these Poor; and in the management of the fires employed +for cooking. Fire-wood, the only fuel used in that country, +is extremely scarce and dear, and made a very heavy article in +the expences of those institutions. + +Though this scarcity of fuel, which had prevailed for ages in +that part of Italy, had rendered it necessary to pay attention to +the economy of fuel, and had occasioned some improvements to be +made in the management of heat; yet I found, upon examining the +kitchens of these two hospitals, and comparing the quantities of +fuel consumed with the quantities of victuals cooked, that +SEVERN-EIGHTHS of the fire-wood they were then consuming might be +saved[15]. Having communicated the result of those enquiries to +the directors of these two hospitals, and offered my service to +alter the kitchens, and arrange them upon the principles of that +in the house of industry at Munich, (which I described to them,) +they accepted my offer, and the kitchens were rebuilt under my +immediate direction; and have both succeeded, even beyond my +most sanguine expectations. That of the hospital of la Pieta is +the most complete kitchen I have ever built; and I would +recommend it as a model, in preference to any I have ever seen. +I shall give a more particular description of it, with plans and +estimates, in my Essay on the Management of Heat. + +During the time I was employed in building the new kitchen in the +hospital of la Pieta, I had an opportunity of making myself +acquainted with all the details of the clothing of the Poor +belonging to that establishment; and I found that very great +savings might be made in that article of expence. I made a +proposal to the directors of that hospital, to furnish them with +clothing for their Poor, ready made up, from the house of +industry at Munich; and upon my return to Munich I sent them +TWELVE complete suits of clothing of different sizes as a sample, +and accompanied them with an estimate of the prices at which we +could afford to deliver them at Verona. + +The success of this little adventure has been very flattering, +and has opened a very interesting channel for commerce, and for +the encouragement of industry in Bavaria. This sample of +clothing being approved, and, with all the expences of carriage +added, being found to be near TWENTY PER CENT. cheaper than that +formerly used, orders have been received from Italy by the house +of industry at Munich, to a considerable amount, for clothing +the Poor. In the beginning of September last, a few days before +I left Munich to come to England, I had the pleasure to assist in +packing up and sending off, over the Alps, by the Tyrol, SIX +HUNDRED articles of clothing of different kinds for the Poor of +Verona; and hope soon to see the Poor of Bavaria growing rich, +by manufacturing clothing for the Poor of Italy. + +END OF THE FIRST ESSAY. + + +Footnotes to Essay I. + +[1] +This paper, as it could afterwards be made use of for making +cartridges, in fact cost nothing. + +[2] +A creutzer is 11/33 of an English penny. + +[3] +Particular local reasons, which it is not necessary here to +explain, have hitherto prevented the establishment of military +gardens in these two garrison towns. + +[4] +The whole amount of this burden was not more than 30,000 florins, +or about 2721L. sterling a year. + +[5] +Mons. Dallarmi. + +[6] +The annual amount of these various receipts may be seen in the +accounts published in the Appendix. + +[7] +Almost all the great law-givers, and founders of religions, from +the remotest antiquity, seem to have been aware of the influence +of cleanliness upon the moral character of man; and have strongly +inculcated it. In many cases it has been interwoven with the +most solemn rites of public and private worship, and is so still +in many countries. The idea that the soul is defiled and +depraved by every thing UNCLEAN, or which defies the body, has +certainly prevailed in all ages; and has been particularly +attended to by those great benefactors of mankind, who, by the +introduction of PEACE and ORDER in society, have laboured +successfully to promote the happiness of their fellow-creatures. +Order and disorder--peace and war--health and sickness, cannot +exist together; but COMFORT and CONTENTMENT, and the inseparable +companions of HAPPINESS and VIRTUE, can only arise from order, +peace, and health. + +[8] +Upon this occasion I must not forget to mention a curious +circumstance, which contributed very much towards clearing the +town effectually of beggars. It being found that some of the +most hardened of these vagabonds were attempting to return to +their old practices, and that they found means to escape the +patroles, by keeping a sharp look-out, and avoiding them, to hold +them more effectually in check, the patroles sent out upon this +service were ordered to go without arms. In consequence of this +arrangement, the beggars being no longer able to distinguish who +were in search of them, and who were not, saw a patrole in every +soldier they met with in the streets, (and of these there were +great numbers, Munich being a garrison town,) and from +thenceforward they were kept in awe. + +[9] +Upon a new division of the town, when the suburbs were included, +the number of subdivisions (abtheilungs) were augmented to twenty +three. + +[10] +This was written in the summer of the year 1795. + +[11] +As these children were not shut up and confined like prisoners +in the house of industry, but all lodged in the town, with their +parents or friends, they had many opportunities to recreate +themselves, and take exercise in the open air; not only on +holidays, of which there are a very large number indeed kept in +Bavaria; but also on working-days, in coming and going to and +from the house of industry. Had not this been the case, +a reasonable time would certainly have been allowed them for play +and recreation. The cadets belonging to the Military Academy at +Munich are allowed no less than THREE HOURS a day for exercise +and relaxation, viz ONE HOUR immediately after dinner, which is +devoted to music, and TWO HOURS, later in the afternoon, +for walking in the country, or playing in the open fields near +the town. + +[12] +Since the publication of the first edition of the Essay, +the Author has received an account of the total destruction of the +Military Work-house at Manheim. It was set on fire, and burnt +to the ground, during the last siege of that city by the Austrian +troops. + +[13] +Above 18,000 pounds sterling. + +[14] +The committee, at the head of the establishment, has been enabled +to make this purchase, by legacies made to the institution. +These legacies have been numerous, and are increasing every day; +which clearly shows, that the measures adopted with regard to the +Poor have met with the approbation of the public. + +[15] +I found upon examining the famous kitchen of the great hospital +at Florence, that the waste of fuel there is still greater. + + +CONTENTS of ESSAY II. + +of the FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES on which GENERAL ESTABLISHMENTS for +the RELIEF of the POOR may be formed in all Countries. + +CHAPTER. I. + General View of the Subject. + Deplorable State of those who are reduced to Poverty. + No Body of Laws can be so framed as to provide effectually for + their Wants. + Only adequate Relief that can be afforded them must be derived + from the voluntary Assistance of the Humane and Benevolent, + How that Assistance is to be secured. + Objections to the Expense of taking care of the Poor answered. + Of the Means of introducing a Scheme for the Relief of the Poor. + +CHAPTER. II. + Of the Extent of an Establishment for the Poor. + Of the Division of a Town or City into Districts. + Of the Manner of carrying on the Business of a public + Establishment for the Poor. + Of the Necessity of numbering all the Houses in a Town where an + Establishment for the Poor is formed. + +CHAPTER. III. + General Direction of the Affairs of an Institution for the Poor + attended with no great Trouble. + Of the best Method of carrying on the current Business, and of + the great Use of printed Forms, or Blanks. + Of the necessary Qualifications of those who are placed at the + Head of an Establishment for the Relief of the Poor. + Great Importance of this Subject. + Cruelty and Impolicy of putting the Poor into the Hands of + Persons they cannot respect and love. + The Persons pointed out who are more immediately called upon to + come forward with Schemes for the Relief of the Poor, and to + give their active Assistance in carrying them into Effect. + +CHAPTER. IV. + Of the Necessity of effectual Measures for introducing a Spirit + of Industry among the Poor in forming an Establishment for + their Relief and Support. + Of the Means which may be used for that Purpose; and for setting + on foot a Scheme for forming an Establishment for feeding the + Poor. + +CHAPTER. V. + Of the Means which may be used by Individuals in affluent + Circumstances for the Relief of the Poor in their Neighbourhood. + + +ESSAY II. + +CHAPTER. I. + + General View of the Subject. + Deplorable State of those who are reduced to Poverty. + No Body of Laws can be so framed as to provide efficaciously for + their Wants. + Only adequate Relief that can be afforded them must be derived + from the voluntary Assistance of the Humane and Benevolent. + How that Assistance is to be secured. + Objections to the Expence of taking care of the Poor answered + Of the Means of introducing a Scheme for the Relief of the Poor. + +Though the fundamental principles upon which the Establishment +for the Poor at Munich is founded, are such as I can venture to +recommend; and notwithstanding the fullest information relative +to every part of that Establishment may, I believe, be collected +from the account of it which is given in the foregoing Essay; +yet, as this information is so dispersed in different parts of +the work, and so blended with a variety of other particulars, +that the reader would find some difficulty in bringing the whole +into one view, and arranging it systematically in a complete +whole; I shall endeavour briefly to resume the subject, and give +the result of all my enquiries relative to it, in a more concise, +methodical, and useful form: and as from the experience, I have +had in providing for the wants of the Poor, and reclaiming the +indolent and vicious to habits of useful industry, I may venture +to consider myself authorised to speak with some degree of +confidence upon the subject; instead of merely recapitulating +what has been said of the Establishment for the Poor at Munich, +(which would be at best but a tiresome repetition,) I shall now +allow myself a greater range in these investigations, and shall +give my opinions without restraint which may come under +consideration. And though the system I shall propose, is founded +upon the successful experiments made at Munich, as may be seen by +comparing it with the details of that Establishment; yet, as a +difference in the local circumstances under which an operation is +performed, must necessarily require certain modifications of the +plan, I shall endeavour to take due notice of every modification +which may appear to me to be necessary[1]. + +Before I enter upon those details, it may be proper to take a +more extensive survey of the subject, and investigate the general +and fundamental Principles on which an Establishment for the +Relief of the Poor, in every country, ought to be founded. +At the same time I shall consider the difficulties which are +generally understood to be inseparable from such an undertaking, +and endeavour to show that they are by no means insurmountable. + +That degree of poverty which involves in it the inability to +procure the necessaries of life without the charitable assistance +of the Public, is, doubtless, the heaviest of all misfortunes; +as it not only brings along with it the greatest physical evils, +pain,--and disease, but is attended by the most mortifying +humiliation, and hopeless despondency. It is, moreover, +an incurable evil; and is rather irritated than alleviated by the +remedies commonly applied to remove it. The only alleviation, +of which it is capable, must be derived from the kind and soothing +attentions of the truly benevolent. This is the only balm which +can sooth the anguish of a wounded heart, or allay the agitations +of a mind irritated by disappointment, and rendered ferocious by +despair. + +And hence it evidently appears that no body of laws, however +wisely framed, can, in any country, effectually provide for the +relief of the Poor, without the voluntary assistance of individuals; +for though taxes may be levied by authority of the laws for the +support of the Poor, yet, those kind attentions which are so +necessary in the management of the Poor, as well to reclaim the +vicious, as to comfort and encourage the despondent--those +demonstrations of concern which are always so great a consolation +to persons in distress--cannot be COMMANDED BY FORCE. On the +contrary, every attempt to use FORCE in such cases, seldom fails +to produce consequences directly contrary to those intended[2]. + +But if the only effectual relief for the distress of the Poor, +and the sovereign remedy for the numerous evils to society which +arise from the prevalence of mendicity, indolence, poverty, +and misery, among the lower classes of society, must be derived +from the charitable and voluntary exertions of individuals;-- +as the assistance of the Public cannot be expected, unless the +most unlimited confidence can be placed, not only in the wisdom +of the measures proposed, but also, and MORE ESPECIALLY, in the +UPRIGHTNESS, ZEAL, and PERFECT DISINTERESTEDNESS of the persons +appointed to carry them into execution; it is evident that the +first object to be attended to, in forming a plan of providing +for the Poor, is to make such arrangements as will COMMAND THE +CONFIDENCE OF THE PUBLIC, and fix it upon the most solid and +durable foundation. + +This can most certainly, and most effectually be done; +first by engaging persons of high rank and + the most respectable character to place themselves + at the head of the Establishment: +secondly, by joining, in the general administration of the + affairs of the Establishment, a certain number of persons chosen + from the middling class of society; reputable tradesmen, in easy + circumstances;--heads of families;--and others of known integrity + and of humane dispositions[3]: +thirdly, by engaging all those who are employed in the + administration of the affairs of the Poor, to serve without fee + or reward: +fourthly, by publishing, at stated periods, such particular and + authentic accounts of all receipts and expenditures, that no + doubt can possibly be entertained by the Public respecting the + proper application of the monies destined for the relief of the + Poor: +fifthly, by publishing an alphabetical list of all who receive + alms; in which list should be inserted, not only the name of + the person, his age; condition; and place of abode; but also + the amount of the weekly assistance granted to him; in order + that those who entertain any doubts respecting the manner in + which the Poor are provided for, may have the opportunity of + visiting them at their habitations, and making enquiry into + their real situations: +and lastly, the confidence of the Public, and the + continuance of their support, will most effectually be secured + by a prompt and successful execution of the plan adopted. + +There is scarcely a greater plague that can infest society, than +swarms of beggars; and the inconveniencies to individuals arising +from them are so generally, and so severely felt, that relief +from so great an evil cannot fail to produce a powerful and +lasting effect upon the minds of the Public, and to engage all +ranks to unite in the support of measures as conducive to the +comfort of individuals, as they are essential to the national +honor and reputation. And even in countries where the Poor do not +make a practice of begging, the knowledge of their sufferings +must be painful to every benevolent mind; and there is no person, +I would hope, so callous to the feelings of humanity, as not to +rejoice most sincerely when effectual relief is afforded. + +The greatest difficulty attending the introduction of any measure +founded upon the voluntary support of the Public, for maintaining +the Poor, and putting an end to mendicity, is an opinion +generally entertained, that a very heavy expence would be +indispensably necessary to carry into execution such an +undertaking. But this difficulty may be speedily removed by +showing, (which may easily be done,) that the execution of a +well-arranged plan for providing for the Poor, and giving useful +employment to the idle and indolent, so far from being expensive, +must, in the end, be attended with a very considerable saving, +not only to the Public collectively, but also to individuals. + +Those who now extort their subsistence by begging and stealing, +are, in fact, already maintained by the Public. But this is not +all; they are maintained in a manner the most expensive and +troublesome, to themselves and the Public, that can be conceived; +and this may be said of all the Poor in general. + +A poor person, who lives in poverty and misery, and merely from +hand to mouth, has not the power of availing himself of any of +those economical arrangements, in procuring the necessaries of life, +which other, in more affluent circumstances, may employ; +and which may be employed with peculiar advantage in a public +Establishment.--Added to this, the greater part of the Poor, +as well those who make a profession of begging, as other who do not, +might be usefully employed in various kinds of labour; +and supposing them, one with another, to be capable of earning +ONLY HALF as much as is necessary to their subsistence, +this would reduce the present expence to the Public for their +maintenance at least one half; and this half might be reduced +still much lower, by a proper attention to order and economy in +providing for their subsistence. + +Were the inhabitants of a large town where mendicity is prevalent, +to subscribe only half the sums annually, which are extorted from +them by beggars, I am confident it would be quite sufficient, +with a proper arrangement, for the comfortable support of the +Poor of all denominations. + +Not only those who were formerly common street-beggars, but all +others, without exception, who receive alms, in the city of +Munich and its suburbs, amounting at this time to more than 1800 +persons, are supported almost entirely by voluntary subscriptions +from the inhabitants; and I have been assured by numbers of the +most opulent and respectable citizens, that the sums annually +extorted from them formerly by beggars alone, exclusive of +private charities, amounted to more than three times the sums now +given by them to the support of the new institution. I insist the +more upon this point, as I know that the great expence which has +been supposed to be indispensably necessary to carry into +execution any scheme for effectually providing for the Poor, +and putting an end to mendicity, has deterred many well-disposed +persons from engaging in so useful an enterprise. I have only to +add my most earnest wishes, that what I have said and done, +may remove every doubt, and re-animate the zeal of the Public, +in a cause in which the dearest interests of humanity are so +nearly concerned. + +In almost every public undertaking, which is to be carried into +effect by the united voluntary exertions of individuals, without +the interference of government, there is a degree of awkwardness +in bringing forward the business, which it is difficult to avoid, +and which is frequently not a little embarrassing. This will +doubtless be felt by those who engage in forming and executing +schemes for providing for the Poor by private subscription; +they should not, however, suffer themselves to be discouraged by +a difficulty which may so easily be surmounted. + +In the introduction of every scheme for forming an Establishment +for the Poor, whether it be proposed to defray the expense by +voluntary subscriptions, or by a tax levied for the purpose, +it will be proper for the authors or promoters of the measure to +address the Public upon the subject; to inform them of the nature +of the measures proposed;-- of their tendency to promote the +public welfare, and to point out the various ways in which +individuals may give their assistance to render the scheme +successful. + +There are few cities in Europe, I believe, in which the state of +the Poor would justify such an address as that which was +published at Munich upon taking up the beggars in that town; +but something of the kind; with such alterations as local +circumstances may require, I am persuaded, would in most cases +produce good effects. With regard to the assistance that might +be be given by individuals to carry into effect a scheme for +providing for the Poor, though measures for that purpose may, +and ought to be so taken, that the Public would have little or +no trouble in their execution, yet there are many things which +individuals must be instructed cautiously to avoid; otherwise +the enterprise will be extremely difficult, it not impracticable; +and, above all things, they must be warned against giving alms to +beggars. + +Though nothing would be more unjust and tyrannical, than to +prevent the generous and humane from contributing to the relief of +the Poor and necessitous, yet, as giving alms to beggars tends so +directly and so powerfully to encourage idleness and immorality, +to discourage the industrious Poor, and perpetuate mendicity, +with all its attendant evils, too much pains cannot be taken to +guard the Public against a practice so fatal in its consequences +to society. + +All who are desirous of contributing to the relief of the Poor, +should be invited to send their charitable donations to be +distributed by those who, being at the head of a public +Institution established for taking care of the Poor, must be +supposed best acquainted with their wants. Or, if individuals +should prefer distributing their own charities, they ought at +least to take the trouble to enquire after fit objects; and to +apply their donations in such a manner as not to counteract the +measures of a public and useful Establishment. + +But, before I enter farther into these details, it will be +necessary to determine the proper extent and limits of an +Establishment for the Poor; and show how a town or city ought to +be divided in districts, in order to facilitate the purposes of +such an institution. + + +CHAPTER. II. + Of the Extent of an Establishment for the Poor. + Of the Division of a Town or City into Districts. + Of the Manner of carrying on the Business of a public + Establishment for the Poor. + Of the Necessity of numbering all the Houses in a Town where an + Establishment for the Poor is formed. + +However large a city may be, in which an Establishment for the +Poor is to be formed, I am clearly of opinion, that there should +be but ONE ESTABLISHMENT;--with ONE committee for the general +management of all its affairs;--and ONE treasurer. This unity +appears essentially necessary, not only because, when all the +parts tend to one common centre, and act in union to the same +end, under one direction, they are less liable to be impeded in +their operations, or disordered by collision;--but also on +account of THE VERY UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH, as well as of +misery and poverty, in the different districts of the same town. +Some parishes in great cities have comparatively few Poor, +while others, perhaps less opulent, are overburthened with them; +and there seems to be no good reason why a house-keeper in any town +should be called upon to pay more or less for the support of the +Poor, because he happens to live on one side of a street or the +other. Added to this, there are certain districts in most great +towns where poverty and misery seem to have fixed their +head-quarters, and where it would be IMPOSSIBLE for the +inhabitants to support the expence of maintaining their Poor. +Where that is the case, as measures for preventing mendicity in +every town must be general, in order to their being successful, +the enterprise, FROM THAT CIRCUMSTANCE ALONE, would be rendered +impracticable, were the assistance of the more opulent districts +to be refused. + +There is a district, for instance, belonging to Munich, (the Au,) +a very large parish, which may be called the St. Giles's of that +city, where the alms annually received are TWENTY TIMES as much +as the whole district contributes to the funds of the public +Institution for the Poor.--The inhabitants of the other parishes, +however, have never considered it a hardship to them, that the +Poor of the Au should be admitted to share the public bounty, in +common with the Poor of the other parishes. + +Every town must be divided, according to its extent, into a +greater or less number of districts, or subdivisions; and each of +these must have a committee of inspection, or rather a commissary, +with assistants, who must be entrusted with the superintendance +and management of all affairs relative to the relief and support +of the Poor within its limits. + +In very large cities, as the details of a general Establishment +for the Poor would be very numerous and extensive, it would +probably facilitate the management of the affairs of the +Establishment, if, beside the smallest subdivisions or districts, +there could be formed other larger divisions, composed of a +certain number of districts, and put under the direction of +particular committees. + +The most natural, and perhaps the most convenient method of +dividing a large city or town, for the purpose of introducing a +general Establishment for the Poor, would be, to form of the +parishes the primary divisions; and to divide each parish into so +many subdivisions, or districts, as that each district may +consist of from 3000 to 4000 inhabitants. Though the immediate +inspection and general superintendance of the affairs of each +parish were to be left to its own particular committee, yet the +supreme committee at the head of the general Institution should +not only exercise a controlling power over the parochial +committees, but these last should not be empowered to levy money +upon the parishioners, by setting on foot voluntary subscriptions, +or otherwise; or to dispose of any sums belonging to the general +Institution, except in cases of urgent necessity;--nor should +they be permitted to introduce any new arrangements with respect +to the management of the Poor, without the approbation and +consent of the supreme committee: the most perfect uniformity in +the mode of treating the Poor, and transacting all public +business relative to the Institution, being indispensably +necessary to secure success to the undertaking, and fix the +Establishment upon a firm and durable foundation. + +For the same reasons, all monies collected in the parishes should +not be received and disposed of by their particular committees, +but ought to be paid into the public treasury of the Institution, +and carried to the general account of receipts;--and, in like +manner, the sums necessary for the support of the Poor in each +parish should be furnished from the general treasury, on the +orders of the supreme committee. + +With regard to the applications of individuals in distress for +assistance, all such applications ought to be made through the +commissary of the district to the parochial committee;--and where +the necessity is not urgent, and particularly where permanent +assistance is required, the demand should be referred by the +parochial committee to the supreme committee, for their decision. +In cases of urgent necessity, the parochial committees, and even +the commissaries of districts, should be authorized to administer +relief, ex officio, and without delay; for which purpose they +should be furnished with certain sums in advance, to be afterwards +accounted for by them. + +That the supreme committee may be exactly informed of the real +state of those in distress who apply for relief, every petition, +forwarded by a parochial committee, or by a commissary of a +district, where there are no parochial committees, should be +accompanied with an exact and detailed account of the +circumstances of the petitioner, signed by the commissary of the +district to which he belongs, together with the amount of the +weekly sum, or other relief, which such commissary may deem +necessary for the support of the petitioner. + +To save the commissaries of districts the trouble of writing the +descriptions of the Poor who apply for assistance, printed forms, +similar to that which may been seen in the Appendix, No. V. may +be furnished to them;--and other printed forms, of a like nature, +may be introduced with great advantage in many other cafes in the +management of the Poor. + +With regard to the manner in which the supreme and parochial +committees should be formed;-- however they may be composed, +it will be indispensably requisite, for the preservation of order +and harmony in all the different parts of the Establishment, +that one member at least of each parochial committee be present, +and have a seat, and voice, as a member of the supreme committee. +And, that all the members of each parochial committee may be +equally well informed with regard to the general affairs of the +Establishment, it may perhaps be proper that those members +attended the meetings of the supreme committee in rotation. + +For similar reasons it may be proper to invite the commissaries +of districts to be present in rotation at the meetings of the +committees of their respective parishes, where there are +parochial committees established, or otherwise, at the meetings +of the supreme committee[4]. + +It is, however, only in very large cities that I would recommend +the forming parochial committees. In all towns where the +inhabitants do not amount to more than 100,000 souls, I am +clearly of opinion that it would be best merely to divide the +town into districts, without regard to the limits of parishes; +and to direct all the affairs of the institution by one simple +committee. This mode was adopted at Munich, and found to be easy +in practice, and successful; and it is not without some degree of +diffidence, I own, that I have ventured to propose a deviation +from a plan, which has not yet been justified by experience. + +But however a town may be divided into districts, it will be +absolutely necessary that ALL the houses be regularly numbered, +and an accurate list made out of all the persons who inhabit +them. The propriety of this measure is too apparent to require +any particular explanation. It is one of the very first steps +that ought to be taken in carrying into execution any plan for +forming an Establishment for the Poor; it being as necessary to +know the names and places of abode of those, who, by voluntary +subscription, or otherwise, assist in relieving the Poor, as to +be acquainted with the dwellings of the objects themselves; and +this measure is as indispensable necessary when an institution +for the Poor is formed in a small country-town or village, as +when it is formed in the largest capital. + +In many cases, it is probable, the established laws of the country +in which an institution for the Poor may be formed, and certain +usages, the influence of which may perhaps be still more powerful +than the laws, may render modifications necessary, which it is +utterly impossible for me to foresee; still the great fundamental +principles upon which every sensible plan for such an +Establishment must be founded, appear to me to be certain and +immutable; and when rightly understood, there can be no great +difficulty in accommodating the plan to all those particular +circumstances under which it may be carried into execution, +without making any essential alteration. + + +CHAPTER. III. + + General Direction of the Affairs of an Institution for + the Poor attended with no great Trouble. + Of the best Method of carrying on the current Business, + and the great Use of printed Forms, or Blanks. + Of the necessary qualifications of those who are placed at the + Head of an Establishment for the Relief of the Poor. + Great Importance of this Subject. + Cruelty and Impolicy of putting the Poor into the Hands of + Persons they cannot respect and love. + The Persons pointed out who are more immediately called upon to + come forward with Schemes for the Relief of the Poor, and to + give their active Assistance in carrying them into Effect. + +Whatever the number of districts into which a city is divided, +may be, or the number of committees employed in the management of +a public Establishment for the relief of the Poor, it is +indispensably necessary that all individuals who are employed in +the undertaking be persons of known integrity;--for courage is +not more necessary in the character of a general, than unshaken +integrity in the character of a governor of a public charity. +I insist the more upon this point as the whole scheme is founded +upon the voluntary assistance of individuals, and therefore to +ensure its success the most unlimited confidence of the public +must be reposed in those who are to carry it into execution; +besides, I may add, that the manner in which the funds of the +various public Establishments for the relief of the Poor already +instituted have been commonly been administered in most countries, +does not tend to render superfluous the precautions I propose for +securing the confidence of the public. + +The preceding observations respecting the importance of +employing none but persons of known integrity at the head of an +institution for the relief of the Poor, relates chiefly to the +necessity of encouraging people in affluent circumstances, and +the public at large, to unite in the support of such an +Establishment.--There is also another reason, perhaps equally +important, which renders it expedient to employ persons of the +most respectable character in the details of an institution of +public charity,--the good effects such a choice must have upon +the minds and morals of the Poor. + +Persons who are reduced to indigent circumstances, and become +objects of public charity, come under the direction of those who +are appointed to take care of them with minds weakened by adversity, +and soured by disappointment; and finding themselves separated +from the rest of mankind, and cut off from all hope of seeing +better days, they naturally grow peevish, and discontented, +suspicious of those set over them, and of one another; and the +kindest treatment, and most careful attention to every +circumstance that can render their situation supportable, +are therefore required, to prevent their being very unhappy. +And nothing surely can contribute more powerfully to soothe the +minds of persons in such unfortunate and hopeless circumstances, +than to find themselves under the care and protection of persons +of gentle manners;--humane dispositions;--and known probity and +integrity; such as even THEY,--with all their suspicions about +them, may venture to love and respect, + +Whoever has taken the pains to investigate the nature of the +human mind, and examine attentively those circumstances upon +which human happiness depends, must know how necessary it is to +happiness, that the mind should have some object upon which to +place its more tender affections--something to love,--to cherish, +--to esteem,--to respect,--and to venerate; and these resources +are never so necessary as in the hour of adversity and +discouragement, where no ray of hope is left to cheer the +prospect, and stimulate to fresh exertion. + +The lot of the Poor, particularly of those who, from easy +circumstances and a reputable station in society, are reduced by +misfortunes, or oppression, to become a burthen on the Public, +is truly deplorable, after all that can be done for them:-- +and were we seriously to consider their situation, I am sure we +should think that we could never do too much to alleviate their +sufferings, and soothe the anguish of wounds which can never be +healed. + +For the common misfortunes of life, HOPE is a sovereign remedy. +But what remedy can be applied to evils, which involve even the +loss of hope itself? and what can those have to hope, who are +separated and cut off from society, and for ever excluded from +all share in the affairs of men? To them, honours;--distinctions; +--praise;--and even property itself;--all those objects of +laudable ambition which so powerfully excite the activity of man +in civil society, and contribute so essentially to happiness, +by filling the mind with pleasing prospects of future enjoyments, +are but empty names; or rather, they are subjects of +never-ceasing regret and discontent. + +That gloom must indeed be dreadful, which overspreads the mind, +when HOPE, that bright luminary of the soul, which enlightens and +cheers it, and excites and calls forth into action all its best +faculties, has disappeared! + +There are many, it is true, who, from their indolence or +extravagance, or other vicious habits, fall into poverty and +distress, and become a burthen on the public, who are so vile and +degenerate as not to feel the wretchedness of their situation. +But these are miserable objects, which the truly benevolent will +regard with an eye of peculiar compassion;--they must be very +unhappy, for they are very vicious; and nothing should be +omitted, that can tend to reclaim them;--but nothing will tend so +powerfully to reform them, as kind usage from the hands of +persons they must learn to love and to respect at the same time. + +If I am too prolix upon this head, I am sorry for it. It is a +strong conviction of the great importance of the subject, which +carries me away, and makes me, perhaps, tiresome, where I would +wish most to avoid it. The care of the Poor, however, I must +consider as a matter of very serious importance. It appears to me +to be one of the most sacred duties imposed upon men in a state +of civil society;--one of those duties imposed immediately by +the hand of God himself, and of which the neglect never goes +unpunished. + +What I have said respecting the necessary qualifications of those +employed in taking care of the Poor, I hope will not deter +well-disposed persons, who are willing to assist in so useful an +undertaking, from coming forward with propositions for the +institution of public Establishments for that purpose; or from +offering themselves candidates for employments in the management +of such Establishments. The qualifications pointed out, integrity, +and a gentle and humane disposition,--honesty, and a good heart;-- +are such as any one may boldly lay claim to, without fear of +being taxed with vanity or ostentation.--And if individuals in +private stations, on any occasion are called upon to lay aside +their bashfulness and modest dissidence, and come forward into +public view, it must surely be, when by their exertions they can +essentially contribute to promote measures which are calculated +to increase the happiness and prosperity of society. + +It is a vulgar saying, that, what is everybody's business, is +nobody's business; and it is very certain that many schemes, +evidently intended for the public good, have been neglected, +merely because nobody could be prevailed on to stand forward and +be the first to adopt them. This doubtless has been the case in +regard to many judicious and well arranged proposals for +providing for the Poor; and will probably be so again. I shall +endeavour, however, to show, that though in undertakings in which +the general welfare of society is concerned, persons of all ranks +and conditions are called upon to give them their support, yet, +in the INTRODUCTION of such measures as are here recommended,-- +a scheme of providing for the Poor,--there are many who, by their +rank and peculiar situations, are clearly pointed out as the most +proper to take up the business at its commencement, and bring it +forward to maturity; as well as to take an active part in the +direction and management of such an institution after it has been +established: and it appears to me, that the nature and the end of +the undertaking evidently point out the persons who are more +particularly called upon to set an example on such an occasion. + +If the care of the Poor be an object of great national importance, +--if it be inseparably connected with the peace and tranquillity +of society, and with the glory and prosperity of the state;-- +if the advantages which individuals share in the public welfare +are in proportion to the capital they have at stake in this great +national fund--that is to say, in proportion to their rank, +property, and connexions, or general influence;--as it is just +that every one should contribute in proportion to the advantages +he receives; it is evident who ought to be the first to come +forward upon such an occasion. + +But it is not merely on account of the superior interest they +have in the public welfare, that persons of high rank and great +property, and such as occupy places of importance in the +government, are bound to support measures calculated to relieve +the distresses of the Poor;--there is still another circumstance +which renders it indispensably necessary that they should take an +active part in such measures, and that is, the influence which +their example must have upon others. + +It is impossible to prevent the bulk of mankind from being swayed +by the example of those to whom they are taught to look up as +their superiors; it behoves, therefore, all who enjoy such high +privileges, to employ all the influence which their rank and +fortune give them, to promote the public good. And this may +justly be considered as a duty of a peculiar kind;--a PERSONAL +service attached to the station they hold in society, and which +cannot be commuted. + +But if the obligations which persons of rank and property are +under, to support measures designed for the relief of the Poor, +are so binding, how much more so must they be upon those who have +taken upon themselves the sacred office of public teachers of +virtue and morality;--the Ministers of a most holy religion;-- +a religion whose first precepts inculcate charity and universal +benevolence, and whose great object is, unquestionably, +the peace, order, and happiness of society. + +If there be any whose peculiar province it is to seek for objects +in distress and want, and administer to them relief;--if there be +any who are bound by the indispensable duties of their profession +to encourage by every means in their power, and more especially +by EXAMPLE, the general practice of charity; it is, doubtless, +the Ministers of the gospel. And such is their influence in +society, arising from the nature of their office, that their +example is a matter of VERY SERIOUS IMPORTANCE. + +Little persuasion, I should hope, would be necessary to induce +the clergy, in any country, to give their cordial and active +assistance in relieving the distresses of the Poor, and providing +for their comfort and happiness, by introducing order and useful +industry among them. + +Another class of men, who from the station they hold in society, +and their knowledge of the laws of the country, may be highly +useful in carrying into effect such an undertaking, are the civil +magistrates; and, however a committee for the government and +direction of an Establishment for the Poor may in other respects +be composed, I am clearly of opinion, that the Chief Magistrate +of the town, or city, where such an Establishment is formed, +ought always to be one of its members. The Clergyman of the +place who is highest in rank or dignity ought, likewise, to be +another; and if he be a Bishop, or Archbishop, his assistance is +the more indispensable. + +But as persons who hold offices of great trust and importance in +the church, as well as under the civil government, may be so much +engaged in the duties of their stations, as not to have +sufficient leisure to attend to other matters; it may be +necessary, when such distinguished persons lend their assistance +in the management of an Establishment for the relief of the Poor, +that each of them be permitted to bring with them a person of his +own choice into the committee, to assist him in the business. +The Bishop, for instance, may bring his chaplain;--the Magistrate, +his clerk;--the Nobleman, or private gentleman, his son, +or friend, etc. But in small towns, of two or three parishes, +and particularly in country-towns and villages, which do not +consist of more than one or two parishes, as the details in the +management of the affairs of the Poor in such communities cannot +be extensive, the members of the committee may manage the +business without assistants. And indeed in all cases, even in +great cities, when a general Establishment for the Poor is formed +upon a good plan, the details of the executive and more laborious +parts of the management of it will be so divided among the +commissaries of the districts, that the members of the supreme +committee will have little more to do than just hold the reins, +and direct the movement of the machine. Care must however be +taken to preserve the most perfect uniformity in the motions of +all its parts, otherwise confusion must ensue; hence the +necessity of directing the whole from one center. + +As the inspection of the Poor;--the care of them when they are +sick;--the distribution of the sums granted in alms for their +support;--the furnishing them with clothes;--and the collection +of the voluntary subscriptions of the inhabitants,--will be +performed by the commissaries of the districts, and their +assistants;--and as all the details relative to giving employment +to the Poor, and feeding them, may be managed by particular +subordinate committees, appointed for those purposes, the current +business of the supreme committee will amount to little more than +the exercise of a general superintendance. + +This committee, it is true, must determine upon all demands from +the Poor who apply for assistance; but as every such demand will +be accompanied with the most particular account of the +circumstances of the petitioner, and the nature and amount of +assistance necessary to his relief, certified by the commissary +of the district in which the petitioner resides,--and also by +the parochial committee, where such are established,--the matter +will be so prepared and digested, that the members of the supreme +committee will have very little trouble to decide on the merits +of the case, and the assistance to be granted. + +This assistance will consist--in a certain sum to be given WEEKLY +in alms to the petitioner, by the commissary of the district, out +of the funds of the Institution;--in an allowance of bread +only;--in a present of certain articles of clothing, which will +be specified;--or, perhaps, merely in an order for being +furnished with wood, clothing, or fuel, from the public kitchens +or magazines of the Establishment, AT THE PRIME COST of those +articles, AS AN ASSISTANCE to the petitioner, and to prevent the +NECESSITY OF HIS BECOMING A BURTHEN ON THE PUBLIC. + +The manner last mentioned of assisting the Poor,--that of +furnishing them with the necessaries of life at lower prices than +those at which they are sold in the public markets, is a matter +of such importance, that I shall take occasion to treat of it +more fully hereafter. + +With respect to the petitions presented to the committee;-- +whatever be the assistance demanded, the petition received ought +to be accompanied by a duplicate; to the end that, the decision +of the committee being entered upon the duplicate, as well as +upon the original, and the duplicate sent back to the commissary +of the district, the business may be finished with the least +trouble possible; and even without the necessary of any more +formal order relative to the matter being given by the committee. + +I have already mentioned the great utility of PRINTED FORMS, +for petitions, returns, etc. in carrying on the business of an +Establishment for the Poor, and I would again most earnestly +recommend the general use of them. Those who have not had +experience in such matters, can have no idea how much they +contribute to preserve order, and facilitate and expedite +business. To the general introduction of them in the management +of the affairs of the Institution for the Poor at Munich, I +attribute, more than to any thing else, the perfect order which +has continued to reign throughout every part of that extensive +Establishment, from its first existence to the present moment. + +In carrying on the business of that Establishment, printed forms +or blanks are used, not only for petitions;--returns;--lists of +the Poor;-- descriptions of the Poor;--lists of the inhabitants; +--lists of subscribers to the support of the Poor;--orders upon +the banker or treasurer of the Institution;--but also for the +reports of the monthly collections made by the commissaries of +districts;--the accounts sent in by the commissaries, of the +extraordinary expences incurred in affording assistance to those +who stand in need of immediate relief;--the banker's receipts; +--and even the books in which are kept the accounts of the +receipts and expenditures of the Establishment. + +In regard to the proper forms for these blanks; as they must +depend, in a great measure, upon local circumstances, no general +directions can be given, other than, in all cases, the shortest +forms that can be drawn up, consistent with perspicuity, are +recommended; and that the subject-matter of each particular or +single return, may be so disposed as to be easily transferred to +such general tables, or general accounts, as the nature of the +return and other circumstances may require. Care should likewise +be taken to make them of such a form, SHAPE and dimension, that +they may be regularly folded up, and docketed, in order to their +being preserved among the public records of the Institution. + + +CHAPTER. IV. + + Of the Necessity of effectual Measures for introducing a Spirit + of Industry among the Poor in forming an Establishment for + their Relief and Support. + Of the Means which may be used for that Purpose; and for setting + on foot a Scheme for forming an Establishment for feeding the + Poor. + +An object of the very first importance in forming an Establishment +for the relief and support of the Poor, is to take effectual +measures for introducing a spirit of industry among them; for it +is most certain, that all sums of money, or other assistance, +given to the Poor in alms, which do not tend to make them +industrious, never can fail to have a contrary tendency, and to +operate as an encouragement to idleness and immorality. + +And as the merit of an action is to be determined by the good it +produces, the charity of a nation ought not to be estimated by +the millions which are paid in Poor's taxes, but by the pains +which are taken to see that the sums raised are properly applied. + +As the providing useful employment for the Poor, and rendering +them industrious, is, and ever has been, a great DESIDERATUM in +political economy, it may be proper to enlarge a little here, +upon that interesting subject. + +The great mistake committed in most of the attempts which have +been made to introduce a spirit of industry, where habits of +idleness have prevailed, has been the too frequent and improper +use of coercive measures, by which the persons to be reclaimed +have commonly been offended and thoroughly disgusted at the very +out-set.--Force will not do it.--Address, not force, must be used +on those occasions. + +The children in the house of industry at Munich, who, being +placed upon elevated seats round the halls where other children +worked, were made to be idle spectators of that amusing scene, +cried most bitterly when their request to be permitted to descend +from their places, and mix in that busy crowd, was refused;--but +they would, most probably, have cried still more, had they been +taken abruptly from their play and FORCED to work. + +"Men are but children of a larger growth;"-- and those who +undertake to direct them, ought ever to bear in mind that +important truth. + +That impatience of control, and jealousy and obstinate +perseverance in maintaining the rights of personal liberty and +independence, which so strongly mark the human character in all +the stages of life, must be managed with great caution and +address, by those who are desirous of doing good;--or, indeed, +of doing any thing effectually with mankind. + +It has often been said, that the Poor are vicious and profligate, +and that THEREFORE nothing but force will answer to make them +obedient, and keep them in order;--but, I should say, that +BECAUSE the Poor are vicious and profligate, it is so much the +more necessary to avoid the appearance of force in the management +of them, to prevent their becoming rebellious and incorrigible. + +Those who are employed to take up and tame the wild horses +belonging to the Elector Palatine, which are bred in the forest +near Dusseldorf, never use force in reclaiming that noble animal, +and making him docile and obedient. They begin with making a +great circuit, in order to approach him; and rather decoy than +force him into the situation in which they wish to bring him, and +ever afterwards treat him with the greatest kindness; it having +been found by experience, that ill-usage seldom fails to make him +"a man-hater," untameable, and incorrigibly vicious.--It may, +perhaps, be thought fanciful and trifling, but the fact really +is, that an attention to the means used by these people to gain +the confidence of those animals, and teach them to like their +keepers, their stables, and their mangers, suggested to me many +ideas which I afterwards put in execution with great success, in +reclaiming those abandoned and ferocious animals in human shape, +which I undertook to tame and render gentle and docile. + +It is however necessary in every attempt to introduce a spirit of +order and industry among the idle and profligate, not merely to +avoid all harsh and offensive treatment, which, as has already +been observed, could only serve to irritate them and render them +still more vicious and obstinate, but it is also indispensably +necessary to do every thing that can be devised to encourage and +reward every symptom of reformation. + +It will likewise be necessary sometimes to punish the obstinate; +but recourse should never be had to punishments till GOOD USAGE +has first been fairly tried and found to be ineffectual. +The delinquent must be made to see that he has deserved the +punishment, and when it is inflicted, care should be taken to +make him feel it. But in order that the punishment may have the +effects intended, and not serve to irritate the person punished, +and excite personal hatred and revenge, instead of disposing the +mind to serious reflection, it must be administered in the most +solemn and most DISPASSIONATE manner; and it must be continued no +longer than till the FIRST DAWN of reformation appears. + +How much prudence and caution are necessary in dispensing rewards +and punishments;--and yet--how little attention is in general +paid to those important transactions! + +REWARDS and PUNISHMENTS are the only means by which mankind can +be controlled and directed; and yet, how often do we see them +dispensed in the most careless--most imprudent--and most improper +manner!--how often are they confounded!--how often misapplied!-- +and how often do we see them made the instruments of gratifying +the most sordid private passions! + +To the improper use of them may be attributed all the disorders +of civil society.--To the improper or careless use of them may, +most unquestionably, be attributed the prevalence of poverty, +misery, and mendicity in most countries, and particularly in +Great Britain, where the healthfulness and mildness of the +climate--the fertility of the soil--the abundance of fuel--the +numerous and flourishing manufactures--the extensive commerce-- +and the millions of acres of waste lands which still remain to be +cultivated, furnish the means of giving useful employment to all +its inhabitants, and even to a much more numerous population. + +But if instead of encouraging the laudable exertions of useful +industry, and assisting and relieving the unfortunate and the +infirm--(the only real objects of charity,)--the means designed +for those purposes are so misapplied as to operate as rewards to +idleness and immorality, the greater the sums are which are +levied on the rich for the relief of the poor, the more numerous +will that class become, and the greater will be their profligacy, +their insolence, and their shameless and clamorous importunity. + +There is, it cannot be denied, in man, a natural propensity to +sloth and indolence; and though habits of industry,--like all +habits,--may render those exertions easy and pleasant which at +first are painful and irksome, yet no person, in any situation, +ever chose labour merely for its own sake. It is always the +apprehension of some greater evil,--or the hope of some enjoyment, +by which mankind are compelled or allured, when they take to +industrious pursuits. + +In the rude state of savage nature the wants of men are few, +and these may all be easily supplied without the commission of +any crime; consequently industry, under such circumstances, +is not necessary, nor can indolence be justly considered as a vice; +but in a state of civil society, where population is great, +and the means of subsistence not to be had without labour, +or without defrauding others of the fruits of their industry, +idleness becomes a crime of the most fatal tendency, +and consequently of the most heinous nature; and every means +should be used to discountenance, punish, and prevent it. + +And we see that Providence, ever attentive to provide remedies +for the disorders which the progress of society occasions in the +world, has provided for idleness--as soon as the condition of +society renders it a vice, but not before--a punishment every way +suited to its nature, and calculated to prevent its prevalency +and pernicious consequences:--This is WANT,--and a most +efficacious remedy it is for the evil,--when the WISDOM OF MAN +does not interfere to counteract it, and prevent its salutary +effects. + +But reserving the father investigation of this part of my subject +--that respecting the means to be used for encouraging industry-- +to some future opportunity, I shall now endeavour to show, in a +few words, how, under the most unfavourable circumstances, +an arrangement for putting an end to mendicity, and introducing +a spirit of industry among the Poor, might be introduced and +carried into execution. + +If I am obliged to take a great circuit, in order to arrive at my +object, it must be remembered, that where a vast weight is to be +raised by human means, a variety of machinery must necessarily be +provided; and that it is only by bringing all the different +powers employed to act together to the same end, that the purpose +in view can be attained. It will likewise be remembered, that as +no mechanical power can be made to act without a force be applied +to it sufficient to overcome the resistance, not only of the vis +inertia, but also of friction, so no moral agent can be brought +to act to any given end without sufficient motives; that is to +say, without such motives as THE PERSON WHO IS TO ACT may deem +sufficient, not only to decide his opinion, but also to OVERCOME +HIS INDOLENCE. + +The object proposed,--the relief of the Poor, and the providing +for their future comfort and happiness, by introducing among them +a spirit of order and industry, is such as cannot fail to meet +with the approbation of every well-disposed person.--But I will +suppose, that a bare conviction of the UTILITY of the measure is +not sufficient alone to overcome the indolence of the Public, and +induce them to engage ACTIVELY in the undertaking;--yet as people +are at all times, and in all situations, ready enough to do what +they FEEL to be their interest, if, in bringing forward a scheme +of public utility, the proper means be used to render it so +interesting as to awaken the CURIOSITY, and fix the attention of +the Public, no doubts can be entertained of the possibility of +carrying it into effect. + +In arranging such a plan, and laying it before the Public, +no small degree of knowledge of mankind, and particularly of the +various means of acting on them, which are peculiarly adapted to +the different stages of civilization, or rather of the political +refinement and corruption of society, would, in most cases, +be indispensably necessary; but with that knowledge, and a good +share of zeal, address, prudence, and perseverance, there are few +schemes, in which an honest man would wish to be concerned, that +might not be carried into execution in any country. + +In such a city as London, where there is great wealth;--public +spirit;--enterprize;--and zeal for improvement; little more, +I flatter myself, would be necessary to engage all ranks to unite +in carrying into effect such a scheme, than to show its public +utility; and, above all, to prove that there IS NO JOB at the +bottom of it. + +It would, however, be advisable, in submitting to the Public, +Proposals for forming such an Establishment, to show that those +who are invited to assist in carrying it into execution, would +not only derive from it much pleasure and satisfaction, but also +many real advantages; for too much pains can never be taken to +interest the Public individually, and directly, in the success of +measures tending to promote the general good of society. + +The following Proposals, which I will suppose to be made by some +person of known and respectable character, who has courage enough +to engage in so arduous an undertaking, will show my ideas upon +this subject in the clearest manner.--Whether they are well +founded, must be left to the reader to determine.--As to myself, +I am so much persuaded that the scheme here proposed, by way of +example, and merely for illustration, might be executed, that, +had I time for the undertaking, (which I have not,) I should not +hesitate to engage in it. + + PROPOSALS for forming by private subscription, an ESTABLISHMENT + for feeding the Poor, and giving them useful Employment; + +And also for furnishing Food at a cheap Rate to others who may +stand in need of such Assistance. Connected with an INSTITUTION +for introducing, and bringing forward into general Use, new +Inventions and Improvements, particularly such as relate to the +Management of Heat and the saving of Fuel; and to various other +mechanical Contrivances by which DOMESTIC COMFORT and ECONOMY may +be promoted. + Submitted to the Public, + By A. B. + +The Author of these Proposals declares solemnly, in the face of +the whole world, that he has no interested view whatever in +making these Proposals; but is actuated merely and simply by a +desire to do good, and promote the happiness and prosperity of +society, and the honour and reputation of his country.--That he +never will demand, accept, or receive any pay or other recompence +or reward of any kind whatever from any person or persons, +for his services or trouble, in carrying into execution the proposed +scheme, or any part thereof, or for anything he may do or perform +in future relating to it, or to any of its details or concerns. + +And, moreover, that he never will avail himself of any +opportunities that may offer in the execution of the plan +proposed, for deriving profit, emolument, or advantage of any +kind, either for himself, his friends, or connections;--but that, +on the contrary, he will take upon himself to be personally +responsible to the Public, and more immediately to the +Subscribers to this Undertaking, that NO PERSON shall FIND MEANS +to make a job of the proposed Establishment, or of any of the +details of its execution, or of its management, as long as the +Author of these Proposals remains charged with its direction. + +With respect to the particular objects and extent of the proposed +Establishment, these may be seen by the account which is given of +them at the head of these Proposals; and as to their utility, +there can be no doubts. They certainly must tend very powerfully +to promote the comfort, happiness, and prosperity of society, +and will do honour to the nation, as well as to those individuals +who may contribute to carry them into execution. + +With the regard to the possibility of carrying into effect the +proposed scheme;--the facility with which this may be done, will +be evident when the method of doing it, which will now be pointed +out, is duly considered. + +As soon as a sum shall be subscribed sufficient for the purposes +intended, the Author of these Proposals will, by letters, request +a meeting of the TWENTY-FIVE persons who shall stand highest on +the list of subscribers, for the purpose of examining the +subscription-lists, and of appointing, by ballot, a committee, +composed of five persons, skilled in the details of building, +and in accounts, to collect the subscriptions, and to superintend +the execution of the plan.--This committee, which will be chosen +from among the subscribers at large, will be authorised and +directed, to examine all the works that will be necessary in +forming the Establishment, and see that they are properly +performed, and at reasonable prices;--to examine and approve of +all contracts for work, or for materials;--to examine and check +all accounts of expenditures of every kind, in the execution of +the plan;--and to give orders for all payments. + +The general arrangement of the Establishment, and of all its +details, will be left to the Author of these Proposals; who will +be responsible for their success.--He engages, however, in the +prosecution of this business, to adhere faithfully to the plan +here proposed, and never to depart from it on any pretence +whatever. + +With regard to the choice of a spot for erecting this Establishment, +a place will be chosen within the limits of the town, and in a +convenient and central a situation as possible, where ground +enough for the purpose is to be had at a reasonable price[5]. +--The agreement for the purchase, or hire of this ground, and of +the buildings, if there be any on it, will, like all other +bargains and contracts, be submitted to the committee for their +approbation and ratification. + +The order in which it is proposed to carry into execution the +different parts of the scheme is as follows:--First, to establish +a public kitchen for furnishing Food to such poor persons as +shall be recommended by the subscribers for such assistance. + +This Food will be of four different sorts, namely, +No. I. A nourishing soup composed of barley--pease--potatoes, +and bread; seasoned with salt, pepper, and fine herbs.--The +portion of this soup, one pint and a quarter, weighing about +twenty ounces, will cost ONE PENNY. + +No. II. A rich pease-soup, well seasoned;--with fried bread;-- +the portion (twenty ounces) at TWO PENCE. + +No. III. A rich and nourishing soup, or barley, pease, and +potatoes, properly seasoned;--with fried bread; and two ounces of +boiled bacon, cut fine and put into it.--The portion (20 ounces) +at FOUR PENCE. + +No. IV. A good soup; with boiled meat and potatoes or cabbages, +or other vegetables; with 1/4 lb. of good rye bread, the portion +at SIX PENCE. + +Adjoining to the kitchen, four spacious eating-rooms will be +fitted up, in each of which one only of the four different kinds +of Food prepared in the kitchen will be served. + +Near the eating-rooms, other rooms will be neatly fitted up, +and kept constantly clean, and well warmed; and well lighted in +the evening; in which the Poor who frequent the Establishment +will be permitted to remain during the day, and till a certain +hour at night.--They will be allowed and even ENCOURAGED to bring +their work with them to these rooms; and by degrees they will be +furnished with utensils, and raw materials for working for their +own emolument, by the Establishment. Praises and rewards will be +bestowed on those who most distinguish themselves by their +industry, and by their peaceable and orderly behaviour. + +In the fitting up of the kitchen, care will be taken to introduce +every useful invention and improvement, by which fuel may be +saved, and the various processes of cookery facilitated, and +rendered less expensive; and the whole mechanical arrangement +will be made as complete and perfect as possible, in order that +it may serve as a model for imitation; and care will be likewise +be taken in fitting up the dining-halls, and other rooms +belonging to the Establishment, to introduce the most approved +fire-places,--stoves,--flews, and other mechanical contrivances +for heating rooms and passages;--as also in lighting up the house +to make use of a variety of the best, most economical, and most +beautiful lamps; and in short, to collect together such an +assemblage of useful and elegant inventions, in every part of the +Establishment, as to render it not only an object of public +curiosity, but also of the most essential and extensive utility. + +And although it will not be possible to make the Establishment +sufficiently extensive to accommodate all the Poor of so large a +city, yet it may easily be made large enough to afford a +comfortable asylum to a great number of distressed objects; and +the interesting and affecting scene it will afford to spectators, +can hardly fail to attract the curiosity of the Public; and there +is great reason to hope that the success of the experiment, +and the evident tendency of the measures adopted to promote the +comfort, happiness, and prosperity of society, will induce many +to exert themselves in forming similar Establishments in other +places.--It is even probable that the success which will attend +this first essay, (for successful it must, and will be, as care +will be taken to limit its extent to the means furnished for +carrying it into execution,) will encourage others, who do not +put down their names upon the lists of the subscribers at first, +to follow with subscription for the purpose of augmenting the +Establishment, and rendering it more extensively useful. + +Should this be the case, it is possible that in a short time +subordinate public kitchens, with rooms adjoining them for the +accommodation of the industrious Poor, may be established in +all the parishes;--and when this is done, only one short step +more will be necessary in order to complete in the management +of the Poor. Poor rates may then be entirely abolished, +and VOLUNTARY SUBSCRIPTIONS, which certainly need never amount to +one half what the Poor rates now are, may be substituted in the +room of them, and one general establishment may be formed for the +relief and support of the Poor in this capital. + +It will however be remembered that it is by no means the +intention of the Author of these Proposals that those who +contribute to the object immediately in view, the forming A MODEL +for an Establishment for feeding and giving employment to the Poor, +should be troubled with any future solicitations on that score; +very far from it, measures will be so taken, by limiting the +extent of the undertaking to the amount of the sums subscribed, +and by arranging matters so that the Establishment. once formed, +shall be able to support itself, that no farther assistance from +the subscribers will be necessary.--If any of them should, of +their accord, follow up their subscription by other donations, +these additional sums will be thankfully received, and faithfully +applied, to the general or particular purposes for which they may +be designed; but the subscribers may depend upon never being +troubled with any future SOLICITATIONS on any pretence whatever, +on account of the present undertaking. + +A secondary object in forming this Establishment, and which will +be attended to as soon as the measures for feeding the Poor, +and giving them employment, are carried into execution, is the +forming of a grand repository of all kinds of USEFUL MECHANICAL +INVENTIONS, and particularly of such as relate to the furnishing +of houses, and are calculated to promote domestic comfort and +economy. + +Such a repository will not only be highly interesting, +considered as an object of public curiosity, but it will be +really useful, and will doubtless contribute very powerfully to +the introduction of many essential improvements. + +To render this part of the Establishment still more complete, +rooms will be set apart for receiving, and exposing to public +view, all such new and useful inventions as shall, from time to +time, be made, in this, or in any other country, and sent to the +institution; and a written account, containing the name of the +inventor,--the place where the article may be bought,--and the +price of it, will be attached to each article, for the +information of those who may be desirous of knowing any of these +particulars. + +If the amount of the subscriptions should be sufficient to defray +the additional expence which such an arrangement would require, +models will be prepared, upon a reduced scale, for showing the +improvements which may be made in the construction of the +coppers, or boilers, used by brewers, and distillers, as also of +their fire-places; with a view both to the economy of the fuel, +and to convenience. + +Complete kitchens will likewise be constructed, of the full size, +with all their utensils, as models for private families.-- +And that these kitchens may not be useless, eating rooms may be +fitted up adjoining to them, and cooks engaged to furnish to +gentlemen, subscribers, or others, to whom subscribers may +delegate that right, good dinners, at the prime cost of the +victuals, and the expense of cooking, which together certainly +would not exceed ONE SHILLING A HEAD. + +The public kitchen from whence the Poor will be fed will be so +constructed as to serve as a model for hospitals, and for other +great Establishments of similar nature. + +The expense of feeding the Poor will be provided for by selling +the portions of Food delivered from the public kitchen at such a +price, that those expenses shall be just covered, and no more:-- +so that the Establishment, when once completed, will be made to +support itself. + +Tickets for Food (which may be considered as drafts upon the +public kitchen, payable at sight) will be furnished to all +persons who apply for them, in as far as it shall be possible to +supply the demands; but care will be taken to provide, first, +for the Poor who frequent regularly the working rooms belonging +to the Establishment; and secondly, to pay attention to the +recommendations of subscribers, by furnishing Food immediately, +or with the least possible delay, to those who come with +subscribers' tickets. + +As soon as the Establishment shall be completed, every subscriber +will be furnished gratis with tickets for Food, to the amount of +ten per cent. of his subscription; the value of the tickets +being reckoned at what the portions of Food really cost, which +will be delivered to those who produce the tickets at the public +kitchen.--At the end of six months, tickets to the amount of ten +per cent. more, and so on, at the end of every six succeeding +months, tickets to the amount of ten per cent. of the sum +subscribed will be delivered to each subscriber till he shall +actually have received in tickets for Food, or drafts upon the +public kitchen, to the full amount of ONE HALF of his original +subscription.--And as the price at which this Food will be +charged, will be at the most moderate computation, at least FIFTY +PER CENT. cheaper than it would cost any where else, the +subscribers will in fact receive in these tickets the full value +of the sums they will have subscribed; so that in the end, the +whole advance will be repaid, and a most interesting, and most +useful public institution will be completely established WITHOUT +ANY EXPENSE TO ANYBODY--And the Author of these Proposals will +think himself most amply repaid for any trouble he may have in +the execution of this scheme, by the heartfelt satisfaction he +will enjoy in the reflection of having been instrumental in doing +essential service to mankind. + +It is hardly necessary to add, that although the subscribers will +receive in return for their subscriptions the full value of them, +in tickets, or orders upon the public kitchen, for Food, yet the +property of the Whole Establishment, with all its appurtenances, +will nevertheless remain vested solely and entirely in the +subscribers, and their lawful heirs; and that they will have +power to dispose of it in any way they may think proper, as also +to give orders and directions for its future management. + (Signed) + "A. B." +London, 1st January +1796. + +These Proposals, which should be printed, and distributed gratis, +in great abundance, should be accompanied with subscription-lists +which should be printed on fine writing-paper; and to save +trouble to the subscribers, might be of a peculiar form.--Upon +the top of a half-sheet of folio writing-paper might be printed, +the following Head of Title, and the remainder of that side of +the half-sheet, below this Head, might be formed into different +columns, thus: + + SUBSCRIPTIONS, + +For carrying into execution the scheme for forming an +Establishment for feeding the Poor from a Public KITCHEN, +and giving them useful employment, etc. proposed by A. B. +and particularly described in the printed paper, dated London, +1st January 1796, which accompanies this Subscription List. + +N.B. No part of the money subscribed will be called for, unless +it be found that the amount of the subscriptions will be quite +sufficient to carry the scheme proposed into complete execution +without troubling the subscribers a second time for further +assistance. + +----------------------------------------------------------- +Subscribers Names. I Place of Abode. I Sums subscribed. +----------------------------------------------------------- + I I pound. s. d. + I I + I I + I I + I I + I I + I I + +that this list is authentic, and that the persons mentioned in it +have agreed to subscribe the sums placed against their names, is +attested by [ ]. The person who is so good as to take +charge of this list, is requested to authenticate it by signing +the above certificate, and then to seal it up and send it +according to the printed address on the back of it. + +The address upon the back of the subscription lists, (which may +be that of the author of the Proposal, or of any other person he +may appoint to receive these lists,) should be printed in such a +manner that, when the list is folded up in the form of a letter, +the address may be in its proper place. This will save trouble to +those who take charge of these lists; and too much pains cannot +be taken to give as little trouble as possible to persons who are +solicited to contribute IN MONEY towards carrying into execution +schemes of public utility. + +As a public Establishment like that here proposed would be highly +interesting, even were it to be considered in no other light than +merely as an object of curiosity, there is no doubt but it would +be much frequented; and it is possible that this concourse of +people might be so great as to render it necessary to make some +regulations in regard to admittance: but, whatever measures might +be adopted with respect to others, SUBSCRIBERS ought certainly to +have free admittance at all times to every part of the +Establishment,--They should even have a right individually to +examine all the details of its administration, and to require +from those employed as overseers, or managers, any information or +explanation they might want.--They ought likewise to be at +liberty to take drawings, or to have them taken by others, +(at their expense,) for themselves or for their friends, +of the kitchen, stoves, grates, furniture, etc. and in general of +every part of the machinery belonging to the Establishment. + +In forming the Establishment, and providing the various machinery, +care should be taken to employ the most ingenious and most +respectable tradesmen; and if the name of the maker, and the +place of his abode were to be engraved or written on each +article, this, no doubt, would tend to excite emulation among the +artizans, and induce them to furnish goods of the best quality, +and at as low a price as possible.--It is even possible, that in +a great and opulent city like London, and where public spirit and +zeal for improvement pervade all ranks of society, many +respectable tradesmen in easy circumstances might be found, +who would have real pleasure in furnishing gratis such of the +articles wanted as are in their line of business: and the +advantages which might, with proper management, be derived from +this source, would most probably be very considerable. + +With regard to the management of the Poor who might be collected +together for the purpose of being fed and furnished with +employment, in a Public Establishment like that here recommended, +I cannot do better than refer my reader to the account already +published (in my First Essay) of the manner in which the Poor at +Munich were treated in the house of industry established in that +city, and the means that were used to render them comfortable, +HAPPY, and industrious. + +As soon as the scheme here recommended is carried into execution, +and measures are effectually taken for feeding the Poor at a +cheap rate, and giving them useful employment, no farther +difficulties will then remain, at least none certainly that are +insurmountable, to prevent the introduction of a general plan for +providing for all the Poor, founded upon the principles explained +and recommended in the preceding Chapters of this Essay. + + +CHAPTER. V. + + Of the Means which may be used by Individuals in affluent + Circumstances for the Relief of the Poor in their Neighbourhood. + +As nothing tends more powerfully to encourage idleness and +immorality among the Poor, and consequently to perpetuate all the +evils to society which arise from the prevalence of poverty and +mendicity, than injudicious distributions of alms; individuals +must be very cautious in bestowing their private charities, +and in forming schemes for giving assistance to the distressed; +otherwise they will most certainly do more harm than good.-- +The evil tendency of giving alms indiscriminately to beggars is +universally acknowledged; but it is not, I believe, so generally +known how much harm is done by what are called the PRIVATE CHARITIES +of individuals.--Far be it from me to wish to discourage private +charities; I am only anxious that they should be better applied. + +Without taking up time in analyzing the different motives by +which persons of various character are induced to give alms to +the Poor, or of showing the consequences of their injudicious or +careless donations; which would be an unprofitable as well as a +disagreeable investigation; I shall briefly point out what appear +to me to be the most effectual means which individuals in +affluent circumstances can employ for the assistance of the Poor +in their neighbourhood. + +The most certain and efficacious relief that can be given to the +Poor is that which would be afforded them by forming a general +Establishment for giving them useful employment, and furnishing +them with the necessaries of life at a cheap rate; in short, +forming a Public Establishment similar in all respects to that +already recommended, and making it as extensive as circumstances +will permit. + +An experiment might first be made in a single village, or in a +single parish; a small house, or two or three rooms only, +might be fitted up for the reception of the Poor, and +particularly of the children of the Poor; and to prevent the bad +impressions which are sometimes made by names which have been +become odious, instead of calling it a Work-house, it might be +called "A School of Industry," or, perhaps, Asylum would be a +better name for it.--One of these rooms should be fitted up as a +kitchen for cooking for the Poor; and a middle-aged women of +respectable character, and above all of a gentle and humane +disposition, should be placed at the head of this Establishment, +and lodged in the house.--As she should serve at the same time as +chief cook, and as steward of the institution, it would be +necessary that she should be able to write and keep accounts; and +in cases where the business of superintending the various details +of the Establishment would be too extensive to be performed by +one person, one or more assistants may be given her. + +In large Establishments it might, perhaps, be best to place a +married couple, rather advanced in life, and without children, +at the head of the institution; but, whoever are employed in that +situation, care should be taken that they should be persons of +irreproachable character, and such as the Poor can have no reason +to suspect of partiality. + +As nothing would tend more effectually to ruin an Establishment +of this kind, and prevent the good intended to be produced by it, +than the personal dislikes of the Poor to those put over them, +and more especially such dislikes as are founded on their +suspicions of their partiality, the greatest caution in the +choice of these persons will always be necessary: and in general +it will be best not to take them from among the Poor, or at least +not from among those of the neighbourhood, nor such as have +relations, acquaintances, or other connexions among them. + +Another point to be attended to in the choice of a person to be +placed at the head of such an Establishment, (and it is a point +of more importance than can well be imagined by those who have +not considered the matter with some attention)-- is the looks or +EXTERNAL APPEARANCE of the person destined for this employment. + +All those who have studied human nature, or have taken notice of +what passes in themselves when they approach for the first time a +person who has any thing very strongly marked in his countenance, +will feel how very important it is that a person placed at the +head of an asylum for the reception of the Poor and the +unfortunate should have an open, pleasing countenance, such as +inspires confidence and conciliates affection and esteem. + +Those who are in distress, are apt to be fearful and apprehensive, +and nothing would be so likely to intimidate and discourage them +as the forbidding aspect of a stern and austere countenance in +the person they were taught to look up to for assistance and +protection. + +The external appearance of those who are destined to command +others is always a matter of real importance, but it is +peculiarly so when those to be commanded and directed are objects +of pity and commiseration. + +Where there are several gentlemen who live in the neighbourhood +of the same town or village where an Establishment, or Asylum, +(as I would wish it might be called,) for the Poor is to be +formed, they should all unite to form ONE ESTABLISHMENT, instead +of each forming a separate one; and it will likewise be very +useful in all cases to invite all ranks of people resident within +the limits of the district in which an Establishment is formed, +except those who are actually in need of assistance themselves, +to contribute to carry into execution such a public undertaking; +for though the sums the more indigent and necessitous of the +inhabitants may be able to spare may be trifling, yet their being +invited to take part in so laudable an undertaking will be +flattering to them, and the sums they contribute, however small +they may be, will give them a sort of property in the +Establishment, and will effectually engage their good wishes at +least, (which are of more importance in such cases than is +generally imagined,) for its success. + +How far the relief which the Poor would receive from the +execution of a scheme like that here proposed ought to preclude +them from a participation of other public charities, (in the +distribution of the sums levied upon the inhabitants in Poor's +taxes, for instance, where such exist,) must be determined in +each particular case according to the existing circumstances. +It will, however, always be indispensably necessary where the same +poor person receives charitable assistance from two or more +separate institutions, or from two or more private individuals, +at the same time, for each to know exactly the amount of what the +others give, otherwise too much or too little may be given, +and both tend to discourage INDUSTRY, the only source of effectual +relief to the distresses and the misery of the Poor.--And hence +may again be seen the great importance of what I have so often +insisted on, the rendering of measures for the relief of the Poor +as general as possible. + +To illustrate in the clearest manner, and in as few words as +possible, the plan I would recommend for forming an Establishment +for the Poor on a small scale--such as any individual even of +moderate property, might easily execute; I will suppose that a +gentleman, resident in the country upon his own estate, has come +to a resolution to form such an Establishment in a village near +his house, and will endeavour briefly to point out the various +steps he would probably find it necessary to take in the +execution of this benevolent and most useful undertaking. + +He would begin by calling together at his house the clergyman of +the parish, overseers of the Poor, and other parish officers, to +acquaint them with his intentions, and ask their assistance and +friendly co-operation in the prosecution of the plan; the details +of which he would communicate to them as far as he should think +it prudent and necessary at the first outset to entrust them +indiscriminately with that information.--The characters of the +persons, and the private interest they might have to promote or +oppose the measures intended to be pursued, would decide upon the +degree of confidence which ought to be given them. + +At this meeting, measures should be taken for forming the most +complete and most accurate lists of all the Poor resident within +the limits proposed to be given to the Establishment, with a +detailed account of every circumstance, relative to their +situation, and their wants.--Much time and trouble will be saved +in making out these lists, by using printed forms or blanks +similar to those made use of at Munich; and these printed forms +will likewise contribute very essentially to preserve order and +to facilitate business, in the management of a private as well as +of a public charity;--as also to prevent the effects of +misrepresentation and partiality on the part of those who must +necessarily be employed in these details. + +Convenient forms or models for these blanks will be given in the +Appendix to this volume. + +At this meeting, measures may be taken for numbering all the +houses in the village or district, and for setting on foot +private subscriptions among the inhabitants for carrying the +proposed scheme into execution. + +Those who are invited to subscribed should be made acquainted, +by a printed address accompanying the subscription lists, with the +nature, extent, and tendency of the measures adopted; and should +be assured that, as soon as the undertaking shall be completed, +the Poor will not only be relieved, and their situation made more +comfortable, but mendicity will be effectually prevented, and at +the same time the Poor's rates, or the expense to the public for +the support of the Poor, very considerably lessened. + +These assurances, which will be the strongest inducements that +can be used to prevail on the inhabitants of all descriptions to +enter warmly into the scheme, and assist with alacrity in +carrying it into execution, should be expressed in the strongest +terms; and all persons of every denomination, young and old, and +of both sexes, (paupers only excepted,) should be invited to put +down their names in the subscription lists, and this even, +HOWEVER SMALL THE SUMS MAY BE WHICH THEY ARE ABLE TO CONTRIBUTE. +--Although the sums which day-labourers, servants, and other in +indigent circumstances may be able to contribute, may be very +trifling, yet there is one important reason why they ought always +to be engaged to put down their names upon the lists as subscribers, +and that is the goods effects which their taking an active part +in the undertaking will probably produce ON THEMSELVES.--Nothing +tends more to mend the heart, and awaken in the mind a regard for +character, than acts of charity and benevolence; and any person +who has once felt that honest pride and satisfaction which result +from a consciousness of having been instrumental in doing good by +relieving the wants of the Poor, will be rendered doubly careful +to avoid the humiliation of becoming himself an object of public +charity. + +It was a consideration of these salutary effects, which may +always be expected to be produced upon the minds of those who +take an active and VOLUNTARY part in the measures adopted for the +relief of the Poor, that made me prefer voluntary subscriptions, +to taxes, in raising the sums necessary for the support of the +Poor, and all the experience I have had in these matters has +tended to confirm me in the opinion I have always had of their +superior utility,--Not only day-labourers and domestic servants, +but their young children, and all the children of the nobility +and other inhabitants of Munich, and even the non-commissioned +officers and private soldiers of the regiments in garrison in +that city, were invited to contribute to the support of the +institution for the Poor; and there are very few indeed of any +age or condition (paupers only excepted) whose names are not to +be found on the lists of subscribers. + +The subscriptions at Munich are by families, as has elsewhere +been observed; and this method I would recommend in the case +under consideration, and in all others.--The head of the family +takes the trouble to collect all the sums subscribed upon his +family list, and to pay them into the hands of those who +(on the part of the institution) are sent round on the first Sunday +morning of every month to receive them; but the names of all the +individuals who compose the family are entered on the list at +full length, with the sum each contributes. + +Two lists of the same tenor must be made out for each family; +one of which must be kept by the head of the family for his +information and direction, and the other sent in to those who +have the general direction of the Establishment. + +These subscription-lists should be printed; and they should be +carried round and left with the heads of families, either by the +person himself who undertakes to form the Establishment, +(which will always be best,) or at least by his steward, or some +other person of some consequence belonging to his household. +--Forms or models for these lists may be seen in the Appendix. + +When these lists are returned, the person who has undertaken to +form the Establishment will see what pecuniary assistance he is +to expect; and he will either arrange his plan, or determine the +sum he may think proper to contribute himself, according to that +amount.--He will likewise consider how far it will be possible +and ADVISABLE to connect his scheme with any Establishment for +the relief of the Poor already existing; or to act in concert +with those in whose hands the management of the Poor is vested by +the laws.--These circumstances are all important; and the manner +of proceeding in carrying the proposed scheme into execution +must, in a great measure, be determined by them. Nothing, +however, can prevent the undertaking from being finally +successful, provided the means used for making it so are adopted +with caution, and pursued with perseverance. + +However adverse those may be to the scheme who, were they well +disposed, could most effectually contribute to its success--yet +no opposition which can be given to it by INTERESTED PERSONS,-- +such as find means to derive profit to themselves in the +administration of the affairs of the Poor;--no opposition, I say, +from such persons, (and none surely but these can ever be +desirous of opposing it,) can prevent the success of a measure so +evidently calculated to increase the comforts and enjoyments of +the Poor, and to promote the general good of society. + +If the overseers of the Poor, and other parish officers, and a +large majority of the principal inhabitants, could be made to +enter warmly into the scheme, it might, and certainly would, +in many cases, be possible, even without any new laws or acts of +parliament being necessary to authorize the undertaking, +to substitute the arrangements proposed in the place of the old +method of providing for the Poor;--abolishing entirely, or in so +far as it should be found necessary,--the old system, and +carrying the scheme proposed into execution as a GENERAL MEASURE. + +In all cases where this can be effected, it ought certainly to be +preferred to any private or less general institution; and +individuals, who, by their exertions, are instrumental in +bringing about so useful a change, will render a very essential +service to society:--But even in cases where it would not be +possible to carry the scheme proposed into execution in its +fullest extent, much good may be done by individuals in affluent +circumstances to the Poor, by forming PRIVATE ESTABLISHMENTS for +feeding them and giving them employment. + +Much relief may likewise be afforded them by laying in a large +stock of fuel, purchased when it is cheap, and retailing it out +to them in small quantities, in times of scarcity, at the prime +cost. + +It is hardly to be believed how much the Poor of Munich have been +benefited by the Establishment of the Wood-magazine, from whence +they are furnished in winter, during the severe frosts, +with fire-wood at the price it costs when purchased in summer, +in large quantities, and at the cheapest rate. And this arrangement +may easily be adopted in all countries, and by private individuals +as well as by communities. Stores may likewise be laid in of +potatoes, peas, beans, and other articles of food, to be +distributed to the Poor in like manner, in small quantities, +and at low prices; which will be a great relief to them in times +of scarcity. It will hardly be necessary for me to observe, +that in administering this kind of relief to the Poor it will +often be necessary to take precautions to prevent abuses. + +Another way in which private individuals may greatly assist the +Poor, is, by showing them how they may make themselves more +comfortable in their dwellings. Nothing is more perfectly +miserable and comfortless than the domestic arrangement of poor +families in general; they seem to have no idea whatever of order +or economy in any thing; and every thing about them is dreary, +sad, and neglected, in the extreme. A little attention to order +and arrangement would contribute greatly to their comfort and +conveniences, and also to economy. They ought in particular to +be shown how to keep their habitations warm in winter, and to +economise fuel, as well in heating their rooms, as in cooking, +washing, etc. + +It is not to be believed what the waste of fuel really is, in the +various processes in which it is employed in the economy of human +life; and in no case is this waste greater than in the domestic +management of the Poor. Their fire-places are in general +constructed upon the most wretched principles; and the fuel they +consume in them, instead of heating their rooms, not unfrequently +renders them really colder, and more uncomfortable, by causing +strong currents of cold air to flow in from all the doors and +windows to the chimney. This imperfection of their fire-places +may be effectually remedied;--these currents of cold air +prevented,--above half their fuel saved,--and their dwellings +made infinitely more comfortable, merely by diminishing their +fire-places, and the throats of their chimnies just above the +mantle-piece; which may be done as a very every trifling expence, +with a few bricks, or stones, and a little mortar, by the most +ordinary bricklayer. And with regard to the expence of fuel for +cooking, so simple a contrivance as an earthen pot, broad at top, +for receiving a stew-pan, or kettle, and narrow at bottom, with +holes through its sides near the bottom, for letting in air under +a small circular iron grate, and other small holes near the top +for letting out the smoke, may be introduced with great advantage. +By making use of this little portable furnace, (which is equally +well adapted to burn wood, or coals.)--one eighth part of the +fuel will be sufficient for cooking, which would be required were +the kettle to be boiled over an open fire.--To strengthen this +portable furnace, it may be hooped with iron hoops, or bound +round with strong iron wire:--but I forget that I am anticipating +the subject of a future Essay. + +Much good may also be done to the Poor by teaching them how to +prepare various kinds of cheap and wholesome food, and to render +them savoury and palatable.--The art of cookery, notwithstanding +its infinite importance to mankind, has hitherto been little +studied; and among the more indigent classes of society, where it +is most necessary to cultivate it, it seems to have been most +neglected.--No present that could be made to a poor family could +be of more essential service to them than a thin, light stew-pan, +with its cover, made of wrought, or cast iron, and fitted to a +portable furnace, or close fire-place, constructed to save fuel; +with two or three approved receipts for making nourishing and +savoury soups and broths at a small expence. + +Such a present might alone be sufficient to relieve a poor family +from all their distresses, and make them permanently comfortable; +for the expences of a poor family for food might, I am persuaded, +in most cases be diminished ONE HALF by a proper attention to +cookery, and to the economy of fuel; and the change in the +circumstances of such a family, which would be produced by +reducing their expenses for food to one half what it was before, +is easier to be conceived than described. + +It would hardly fail to re-animate the courage of the most +desponding;--to cheer their drooping spirits, and stimulate them +to fresh exertions in the pursuits of useful industry. + +As the only effectual means of putting an end to the sufferings +of the Poor is the introduction of a spirit of industry among +them, individuals should never lose sight of that great and +important object, in all the measures they may adopt to relieve +them.--But in endeavouring to make the Poor industrious, +the utmost caution will be necessary to prevent their being +disgusted.--Their minds are commonly in a state of great +irritation, the natural consequences of their sufferings, and of +their hopeless situation; and their suspicions of every body +about them, and particularly of those who are set over them, +are so deeply rooted that it is sometimes extremely difficult to +sooth and calm the agitation of their minds, and gain their +confidence. --This can be soonest and most effectually done by +kind and gentle usage; and I am clearly of opinion that no other +means should ever be used, except it be with such hardened and +incorrigible wretches as are not to be reclaimed by any means; +but of these, I believe, there are very few indeed.--I have never +yet found one, in all the course of my experience in taking care +of the Poor. + +We have sometimes been obliged to threaten the most idle and +profligate with the house of correction; but these threats, +added to the fear of being banished from the House of Industry, +which has always been held up and considered as the greatest +punishment, have commonly been sufficient for keeping the unruly +in order. + +If the force of example is irresistible in debauching men's minds, +and leading them into profligate and vicious courses, it is not +less so in reclaiming them, and rendering them orderly, docile, +and industrious; and hence the infinite importance of collecting +the Poor together in Public Establishments, where every thing +about them is animated by unaffected cheerfulness, and by that +pleasing gaiety, and air of content and satisfaction, +which always enliven the busy scenes of useful industry. + +I do not believe it would be possible for any person to be idle +in the House of Industry at Munich. I never saw any one idle; +often as I have passed through the working-rooms; nor did I ever +see any one to whom the employments of industry seemed to be +painful or irksome. + +Those who are collected together in the public rooms destined for +the reception and accommodation of the Poor in the day-time, will +not need to be forced, nor even urged to work;--if there are in +the room several persons who are busily employed in the cheerful +occupations of industry, and if implements and materials for +working are at hand, all the others present will not fail to be +soon drawn into the vortex, and joining with alacrity in the +active scene, their dislike to labour will be forgotten, and they +will become by habit truly and permanently industrious. + +Such is the irresistible power of example!--Those who know how +to manage this mighty engine and have opportunities of employing +it with effect, may produce the most miraculous changes, in the +manners, disposition, and character, even of whole nations. + +In furnishing raw materials to the Poor to work, it will be +necessary to use many precautions to prevent frauds and abuses, +not only on the part of the Poor, who are often but too much +disposed to cheat and deceive whenever they find opportunities, +but also on the part of those employed in the details of this +business:--but the fullest information having already been given +in my First Essay, of all the various precautions it had been +found necessary to take for the purposes in question in the House +of Industry at Munich, it is not necessary for me to enlarge upon +the subject in this place, or to repeat what has already been +said upon it elsewhere. + +With regard to the manner in which good and wholesome food for +feeding the Poor may be prepared in a public kitchen, at a cheap +rate, I must refer my reader to my Essay on Food; where he will +find all the information on that subject which he can require. +--In my Essay on Clothing, he will see how good and comfortable +clothing may be furnished to the Poor at a very moderate +expence; and in that on the Management of Heat, he will find +particular directions for the Poor for saving fuel. + +I cannot finish this Essay, without taking notice of a difficulty +which frequently occur in giving employment to the Poor, that of +disposing to advantage of the produce of their labour:--This is +in all cases a very important object; and too much attention +cannot be paid to it.--A spirit of industry cannot be kept up by +making it advantageous to individuals to be industrious; but +where the wages which the labourer has a right to expect are +refused, it will not be possible to prevent his being discouraged +and disgusted.--He may perhaps be forced for a certain time to +work for small wages, to prevent starving, if he has not the +resource of throwing himself upon the parish, which he most +probably would prefer doing, should it be in his option; but he +will infallibly conceive such a thorough dislike to labour, +that he will become idle and vicious, and a permanent and heavy +burden on the public. + +If "a labourer is worthy of his hire," he is peculiarly so, +where that labourer is a poor person, who, with all his +exertions, can barely procure the first necessaries of life; +and whose hard lot renders him an object of pity and compassion. + +The deplorable situation of a poor family, struggling with +poverty and want,--deprived of all the comforts and conveniences +of life--deprived even of hope; and suffering at the same time +from hunger, disease, and mortifying and cruel disappointment, is +seldom considered with that attention which it deserves, by those +who have never felt these distresses, and who are not in danger +of being exposed to them. My reader must pardon me, if I +frequently recall his attention to these scenes of misery and +wretchedness. He must be made acquainted with the real +situation of the Poor--with the extent and magnitude of their +misfortunes and sufferings, before it can be expected that he +should enter warmly into measures calculated for their relief. +In forming Establishments, public or private, for giving employment +to the Poor, it will always be indispensably necessary to make +such arrangements as will secure to them a fair price for all the +labour they perform. They should not be OVER-PAID, for that +would be opening a door for abuse;--but they ought to be +generously paid for their work; and, above all, they ought never +to be allowed to be idle for the want of employment. The kind of +employment it may be proper to give them will depend much on +local circumstances. It will depend on the habits of the Poor;-- +the kinds of work they are acquainted with;--and the facility +with which the articles they can manufacture may be disposed of +at a good price. + +In very extensive Establishments, there will be little difficulty +in finding useful employment for the Poor; for where the number +of persons to be employed is very great, a great variety of +different manufactures may be carried on with advantage, and all +the articles manufactured, or prepared to be employed in the +manufactures, may be turned to a good account. + +In a small Establishment, circumscribed and confined to the +limits of a single village or parish, it might perhaps be +difficult to find a good market for the yarn spun by the Poor; +but in a general Establishment, extending over a whole country, +or large city, as the quantity of yarn spun by all the Poor +within the extensive limits of the institution will be sufficient +to employ constantly a number of weavers of different kinds of +cloth and stuff, the market for all the various kinds of yarn the +Poor may spin will always be certain. The same reasoning will +hold with regard to various other articles used in great +manufactories, upon which the Poor might be very usefully +employed; and hence the great advantage of making Establishments +for giving employment to the Poor as extensive as possible. +It is what I have often insisted on, and what I cannot too strongly +recommend to all those who engage in forming such Establishments. + +Although I certainly should not propose to BRING TOGETHER, under +one roof, all the Poor of a whole kingdom, as, by the inscription +over the entrance into a vast hospital began, but not finished, +at Naples, it would appear was once the intention of the +government in that country; yet I am clearly of opinion that an +institution for GIVING EMPLOYMENT TO THE POOR can hardly be too +extensive. + +But to return to the subject to which this Chapter was more +particularly appropriated, the relief that may be afforded by +private individuals to the Poor in their neighbourhood; in case it +should not be possible to get over all the difficulties that may +be in the way to prevent the forming of a general Establishment +for the benefit of the Poor, individuals must content themselves +with making such private arrangements for that purpose as they +may be able, WITH SUCH ASSISTANCE AS THEY CAN COMMAND, to carry +into execution. + +The most simple, and least expensive measure that can be adopted +for the assistance of the Poor will be that of furnishing them +with raw materials for working. Flax, hemp, or wool, for instance, +for spinning; and paying them in money, at the market price, for +the yarn spun. This yarn may afterwards be sent to weavers to be +manufactured into cloth, or may be sent to some good market and +sold. The details of these mercantile transactions will be +neither complicated nor troublesome, and might easily be managed +by a steward of house-keeper; particularly if the printed tickets, +and tables, I have so often had occasion to recommend, are used. + +The flax, hemp, or wool, as soon as it is purchased, should be +weighed out into bundles of one or two pounds each, and lodged in +a store-room; and when one of these bundles is delivered out to a +poor person to be spun, it should be accompanied with a printed +spin-ticket, and entered in a table to be kept for that purpose; +and when it is returned spun, an abstract of the spin-ticket +itself, should be bound up with the bundle of yarn, in order that +any frauds committed by the spinner, in reeling, or in any other +way, which may be discovered upon winding off the yarn, may be +brought home to the person who committed them. When it is known +that such effectual precautions to detect frauds are used, no +farther attempts will be made to defraud; and a most important +point indeed will be gained, and one which will most powerfully +tend to mend the morals of the Poor, and restore peace to their +minds. When, by rendering it evidently impossible for them to +escape detection, they are brought to give up all thoughts of +cheating and deceiving; they will then be capable of application, +and of enjoying real happiness, and, with open and placid +countenances, will look every one full in the face who accosts +them: but as long as they are under the influence of temptation +--as long as their minds are degraded by conscious guilt, +and continually agitated by schemes of prosecuting their +fraudulent practices, they are as incapable of enjoying peace or +contentment, as they are of being useful members of society. + +Hence the extreme cruelty of an ill-judged appearance of +confidence, or careless neglect of precautions, in regard to +those employed in places of trust, who may be exposed to +temptations to defraud. + +That prayer, which cannot be enough admired, or too often +repeated, "LEAD US NOT INTO TEMPTATION," was certainly dictated +by infinite wisdom and goodness; and it should ever be borne in +mind by those who are placed in stations of power and authority, +and whose measures must necessarily have much influence on the +happiness or misery of great numbers of people. + +Honest men may be found in all countries; but I am sorry to say, +that the result of all my experience and observation has tended +invariably to prove, (what has often been remarked,) that it is +extremely difficult to KEEP THOSE HONEST who are exposed to +continual and great temptations. + +There is, however, one most effectual way, not only of keeping +those honest who are so already, but also of making those honest +who are not so; and that is, by taking such precautions as will +render it EVIDENTLY impossible for those who commit frauds to +escape detection and punishment: and these precautions are never +impossible, and seldom difficult; and with a little address, they +may always be so taken as to be in nowise offensive to those who +are the objects of them. + +It is evident that the maxims and measures here recommended are +not applicable merely to the Poor, but also, and more especially, +to those who may be employed in the details of relieving them. + +But to return once more to the subject more immediately under +consideration.--If individuals should extend their liberality so +far as to establish public kitchens for feeding the Poor, +(which is a measure I cannot too often, or too forcibly recommend,) +it would be a great pity not to go one easy step further, and fit +up a few rooms adjoining to the kitchen, where the Poor may be +permitted to assemble to work for their own emoluments, and where +schools for instructing the children of the Poor in working, and +in reading and writing, may be established. Neither the fitting +up, or warming and lighting of these rooms, will be attended with +any considerable expense; while the advantages which will be +derived from such an Establishment for encouraging industry, and +contributing to the comfort of the Poor, will be most important; +and from their peculiar nature, and tendency, will be most highly +interesting to every benevolent mind. + +END OF ESSAY TWO. + + +Footnotes for Essay II. + +[1] +This English Reader is desired to bear in mind, that the Author +of this Essay, though an Englishman, is resident in Germany; +and that his connections with that country render it necessary for +him to pay particular attention to its circumstances, in treating +a subject which he is desirous of rendering generally useful. +These is still another reason, which renders it necessary for him +to have continually in view, in the Treatise, the situation of +the Poor upon the Continent, and that it is an engagement which +he has laid himself under to write upon that subject. + +[2] +The only step which, in my opinion, it would be either, +necessary, or prudent, for the legislature to take in any country +where an Establishment for the Poor is to be formed, is to +RECOMMEND to the Public a good plan for such an Establishment, +and repeal, or alter all such of the existing laws as might +render the introduction of it difficult or impossible. + +[3] +This is an object of the utmost importance, and the success of +the undertaking will depend in a great measure on the attention +that is paid to it. + +[4] +This measure has been followed by the most salutary effects at +Munich. The commissaries of districts flattered by this +distinction have exerted themselves with uncommon zeal and +assiduity in the discharge of the important duties of their +office. And very important indeed is the office of a commissary +of a district in the Establishment for the Poor at Munich. + +[5] +It will be best, if it be possible, to mention and describe the +place, in the Proposals. + + +CONTENTS of ESSAY III. + +of FOOD and particularly of FEEDING the POOR + +Introduction. + +CHAPTER. I. + Great importance of the subject under consideration. + Probability that water acts a much more important part in + nutrition than has hitherto been generally imagined. + Surprisingly small quantity of solid food necessary, + when properly prepared, for all the purposes of nutrition. + Great importance of the art of cookery. + Barley remarkably nutritive when properly prepared. + The importance of culinary processes for preparing food shown + from the known utility of a practice common in some parts of + Germany of cooking for cattle. + Difficulty of introducing a charge of cookery into common use. + Means that may be employed for that purpose. + +CHAPTER. II. + Of the pleasure of eating, and of the means that may be + employed for increasing it. + +CHAPTER. III. + Of the different kinds of food furnished to the poor in the + house of industry at Munich, with an account of the cost of them. + Of the Expense of providing the same kinds of food in Great + Britain, as well at the present high prices of provisions, + as at the ordinary prices of them. + Of the various improvements of which these different kinds of + cheap food are capable. + +CHAPTER. IV. + Of the small expense at which the Bavarian soldiers are fed. + Details of their housekeeping, founded on actual experiment. + An account of the fuel expended by them in cooking. + +CHAPTER. V. + Of the great importance of making soldiers eat together in + regular messes. + The influence of such economical arrangements extends even to + the moral character of those who are the objects of them. + Of the expence of feeding soldiers in messes. + Of the surprising smallness of the expence of feeding the poor + at Munich. + Specific proposals respecting the feeding of the poor in Great + Britain, with calculations of the expense, at the present + prices of provisions. + +CHAPTER. VI. + Of INDIAN CORN. + It affords the cheapest and most nourishing food known. + Proofs that it is more nourishing than rice. + Different ways of preparing or cooking it. + Computation of the expense of feeding a person with it, + founded on experiment. + Approved Receipt for making an INDIAN PUDDING. + +CHAPTER. VII. + Receipts for preparing various Kinds of cheap Food. + Of MACCARONI. + Of POTATOES. + Approved receipts for boiling potatoes. + Of potatoe puddings. + Of potatoe dumplings. + Of boiled potatoes with a sauce. + Of potatoe salad. + Of BARLEY + Is much more nutritious than wheat. + Barley meal, a good substitute for pearl barley, for making + soups. + General directions for preparing cheap soups. + Receipt for the cheapest soup that can be made. + Of SAMP + Method of preparing it + Is an excellent Substitute for Bread. + Of brown Soup. + Of RYE BREAD. + + +ESSAY III. + +INTRODUCTION. + +It is a common saying, that necessity is the mother of +invention; and nothing is more strictly or more generally true. +It may even be shown, that most of the successive improvements +in the affairs of men in a state of civil society, of which we +have any authentic records, have been made under the pressure +of necessity; and it is no small consolation, in times of +general alarm, to reflect upon the probability that, upon such +occasions, useful discoveries will result from the united +exertions of those who, either from motives of fear, or +sentiments of benevolence, labour to avert the impending evil. + +The alarm in this country at the present period[1], on account +of the high price of corn, and the danger of a scarcity, has +turned the attention of the Public to a very important subject, +THE INVESTIGATION OF THE SCIENCE OF NUTRITION;--a subject so +curious in itself, and so highly interesting to mankind, that +it seems truly astonishing it should have been so long neglected:-- +but in the manner in which it is now taken up, both by the +House of Commons, and the Board of Agriculture, there is great +reason to hope that it will receive a thorough scientific +examination; and if this should be the case, I will venture to +predict, that the important discoveries, and improvements, +which must result from these enquiries, will render the alarms +which gave rise to them for ever famous in the annals of civil +society. + + +CHAPTER. I. + + Great importance of the subject under consideration. + Probability that water acts a much more important part in + nutrition than has hitherto been generally imagined. + Surprisingly small quantity of solid food necessary, + when properly prepared, for all the purposes of nutrition. + Great importance of the art of cookery. + Barley remarkably nutritive when properly prepared. + The importance of culinary processes for preparing food shown + from the known utility of a practice common in some parts of + Germany of cooking for cattle. + Difficulty of introducing a charge of cookery into common use. + Means that may be employed for that purpose. + +There is, perhaps, no operation of Nature, which falls under +the cognizance of our senses, more surprising, or more curious, +than the nourishment and growth of plants, and animals; and +there is certainly no subject of investigation more interesting +to mankind.--As providing subsistence is, and ever must be, an +object of the first concern in all countries, any discovery or +improvement by which the procuring of good and wholesome food +can be facilitated, must contribute very powerfully to increase +the comforts, and promote the happiness of society. + +That our knowledge in regard to the science of nutrition is +still very imperfect, is certain; but, I think there is reason +to believe, that we are upon the eve of some very important +discoveries relative to that mysterious operation. + +Since it has been known that Water is not a simple element, +but a COMPOUND, and capable of being decomposed, much light has +been thrown upon many operations of nature which formerly were +wrapped up in obscurity. In vegetation, for instance, it has +been rendered extremely probable, that water acts a much more +important part than was formerly assigned to it by philosophers. +--That it serves not merely as the VEHICLE of nourishment, +but constitutes at least one part, and probably an essential part, +of the FOOD of plants.--That it is decomposed by them, and +contributes MATERIALLY to their growth;--and that manures serve +rather to prepare the water for decomposition, than to form of +themselves--substantially, and directly--the nourishment of +the vegetables. + +Now, a very clear analogy may be traced, between the vegetation +and growth of plants, and the digestion and nourishment of animals; +and as water is indispensably necessary in both processes, and as +in one of them, (vegetation,) it appears evidently to serve as +FOOD;--why should we not suppose it may serve as food in the +other?--There is, in my opinion, abundant reason to suspect that +this is really the case; and I shall now briefly state the +grounds upon which this opinion is founded.-- Having been engaged +for a considerable length of time in providing Food for the Poor +at Munich, I was naturally led, as well by curiosity as motives +of economy, to make a great variety of experiments upon that +subject; and I had not proceeded far in my operations, before I +began to perceive that they were very important;--even much more +so than I had imagined. + +The difference in the apparent goodness, of the palatableness, +and apparent nutritiousness of the same kinds of Food, when +prepared of cooked in different ways, struck me very forcibly; +and I constantly found that the richness or QUALITY of a soup +depended more upon a proper choice of the ingredients, and a +proper management of the fire in the combination of those +ingredients, than upon the quantity of solid nutritious matter +employed;--much more upon the art and skill of the cook, than +upon the amount of the sums laid out in the market. + +I found likewise, that the nutritious of a soup, or its power of +satisfying hunger, and affording nourishment, appeared always to +be in proportion to its apparent richness or palatableness. + +But what surprised me not a little, was the discovery of the very +small quantity of SOLID FOOD, which, when properly prepared, will +suffice to satisfy hunger, and support life and health; and the +very trifling expence at which the stoutest, and most laborious +man may, in any country, be fed. + +After an experiment of more than five years in feeding the Poor +at Munich during which time every experiment was made that could +be devised, not only with regard to the choice of the articles +used as Food, but also in respect to their different combinations +and proportions; and to the various ways in which they could be +prepared or cooked; it was found that the CHEAPEST, most SAVOURY, +and most NOURISHING Food that could be provided, was a soup +composed of PEARL BARLEY, PEASE, POTATOES, CUTTINGS OF FINE +WHEATEN BREAD, vinegar--salt and water in certain proportions. + +The method of preparing this soup is as follows; The water and +the pearl barley are first put together into the boiler and made +to boil; the pease are then added, and the boiling is continued +over a gentle fire about two hours;--the potatoes are then added, +(having been previously peeled with a knife, or having been +boiled, in order to their being more easily deprived of their +skins,) and the boiling is continued for about one hour more, +during which time the contents of the boiler are frequently +stirred about with a large wooden spoon, or ladle, in order to +destroy the texture of the potatoes, and to reduce the soup to +one uniform mass.--When this is done, the vinegar and the salt +are added; and last of all, at the moment it is to be served up, +the cuttings of bread. + +The soup should never be suffered to boil, or even to stand long +before it is served up after the cuttings of bread are put into it. +It will, indeed, for reasons which will hereafter be explained, +be best never to put the cuttings of bread into the boiler at +all, but, (as is always done at Munich,) to put them into the +tubs in which the soup is carried from the kitchen into the +dining-hall; pouring the soup hot from the boiler upon them; +and stirring the whole well together with the iron ladles used +for measuring out the soup to the Poor in the hall. + +It is of more importance than can well be imagined, that this +bread which is mixed with the soup should not be boiled. +It is likewise of use that it should be cut as fine or thin as +possible; and if it be dry and hard, it will be so much the +better. + +The bread we use at Munich is what is called semel bread, being +small loaves, weighing from two to three ounces; and as we +receive this bread in donations from the bakers, it is commonly +dry and hard, being that which, not being sold in time, remains +on hand, and becomes stale and unsaleable; and we have found by +experience, that this hard and stale bread answers for our +purpose much better than any other, for it renders mastication +necessary; and mastication seems very powerfully to assist in +promoting digestion: it likewise PROLONGS THE DURATION OF THE +ENJOYMENT OF EATING, a matter of very great importance indeed, +and which has not hitherto been sufficiently attended to. + +The quantity of this soup furnished to each person, at each meal, +or one portion of it, (the cuttings of bread included,) is just +ONE BAVARIAN POUND in weight; and as the Bavarian pound is to the +pound Avoirdupois as 1,123842 to 1, --it is equal to about +nineteen ounces and nine-tenths Avoirdupois. Now, to those who +know that a full pint of soup weighs no more than about sixteen +ounces Avoirdupois, it will not, perhaps, at the first view, +appear very extraordinary that a portion weighing near twenty +ounces, and consequently making near ONE PINT AND A QUARTER of +this rich, strong, savoury soup, should be found sufficient to +satisfy the hunger of a grown person; but when the matter is +examined narrowly, and properly analyzed, and it is found that +the whole quantity of SOLID FOOD which enters into the +composition of one of these portions of soup, does not amount to +quite SIX OUNCES, it will then appear to be almost impossible +that this allowance should be sufficient. + +That it is quite sufficient, however, to make a good meal for a +strong healthy person, has been abundantly proved by long +experience. I have even found that a soup composed of nearly the +same ingredients, except the potatoes, but in different +proportions, was sufficiently nutritive, and very palatable, in +which only about FOUR OUNCES AND THREE QUARTERS of solid Food +entered into the composition of a portion weighing twenty ounces. + +But this will not appear incredible to those who know, that one +single spoonful of salope, weighing less than one quarter of an +ounce, put into a pint of boiling water, forms the thickest and +most nourishing soup that can be taken; and that the quantity of +solid matter which enters into the composition of another very +nutritive Food, hartshorn jelly, is not much more considerable. + +The barley in my soup, seems to act much the same part as the +salope in this famous restorative; and no substitute that I could +ever find for it, among all the variety of corn and pulse of the +growth of Europe, ever produced half the effect; that is to say, +half the nourishment at the same expence. Barley may therefore +be considered as the rice of Great Britain. + +It requires, it is true, a great deal of boiling; but when it is +properly managed, it thickens a vast quantity of water; and, as I +suppose, PREPARES IT FOR DECOMPOSITION. It also gives the soup +into which it enters as an ingredient, a degree of richness which +nothing else can give. It has little or no taste in itself, but +when mixed with other ingredients which are savoury, it renders +them peculiarly grateful to the palate[2]. + +It is a maxim, as ancient, I believe, as the time of Hippocrates, +that "whatever pleases the palate nourishes;" and I have often +had reason to think it perfectly just. Could it be clearly +ascertained and demonstrated, it would tend to place COOKERY in a +much more respectable situation among the arts than it now holds. + +That the manner in which Food is prepared is a matter of real +importance; and that the water used in that process acts a much +more important part than has hitherto been generally imagined, is, +I think, quite evident; for, it seems to me to be impossible, +upon any other suppositions, to account for the appearances. +If the very small quantity of solid Food which enters into the +composition of a portion of some very nutritive soup were to be +prepared differently, and taken under some other form, that of +bread, for instance; so far from being sufficient to satisfy +hunger, and afford a comfortable and nutritive meal, a person +would absolutely starve upon such a slender allowance; and no +great relief would be derived from drinking CRUDE water to fill +up the void in the stomach. + +But it is not merely from an observation of the apparent effects +of cookery upon those articles which are used as Food for man, +that we are led to discover the importance of these culinary +processes. Their utility is proved in a manner equally conclusive +and satisfactory, by the efforts which have been produced by +employing the same process in preparing Food for brute animals. + +It is well known, that boiling the potatoes with which hogs are +fed, renders them much more nutritive; and since the introduction +of the new system of feeding horned cattle, that of keeping them +confined in the stables all the year round, (a method which is +now coming fast into common use in many parts of Germany,) great +improvements have been made in the art of providing nourishment +for those animals; and particularly by preparing their Food, by +operations similar to those of cookery; and to these improvements +it is most probably owing, that stall feeding has, in that +country, been so universally successful. + +It has long been a practice in Germany for those who fatten +bullocks for the butcher, or feed milch-cows, to give them +frequently what is called a drank or drink; which is a kind of +pottage, prepared differently in different parts of the country, +and in the different seasons, according to the greater facility +with which one or other of the articles occasionally employed in +the composition of it may be procured; and according to the +particular fancies of individuals. Many feeders make a great +secret of the composition of their drinks, and some have, to my +knowledge, carried their refinement so far as actually to mix +brandy in them, in small quantities; and pretend to have found +their advantage in adding this costly ingredient. + +The articles most commonly used are, bran, oatmeal, brewers grains, +mashed potatoes, mashed turnips, rye meal, and barley meal, +with a large proportion of water; sometimes two or three or more +of these articles are united in forming a drink; and of whatever +ingredients the drink is composed, a large proportion of salt is +always added to it. + +There is, perhaps, nothing new in this method of feeding cattle +with liquid mixtures, but the manner in which these drinks are +now prepared in Germany is, I believe, quite new; and shows what +I wish to prove, that COOKING RENDERS FOOD REALLY MORE NUTRITIVE. + +These drinks were formerly given cold, but it was afterwards +discovered that they were more nourishing when given warm; and of +late their preparation is, in many places, become a very regular +culinary process. Kitchens have been built, and large boilers +provided and fitted up, merely for cooking for the cattle in the +stables; and I have been assured by many very intelligent farmers, +who have adopted this new mode of feeding, (and have also found +by my own experience,) that it is very advantageous indeed; +that the drinks are evidently rendered much more nourishing and +wholesome by being boiled; and that the expence of fuel, and the +trouble attending this process, are amply compensated by the +advantages derived from the improvement of the Food. We even +find it advantageous to continue the boiling a considerable time, +two or three hours, for instance; as the Food goes on to be still +farther improved, the longer the boiling is continued[3]. + +These facts seem evidently to show, that there is some very +important secret with regard to nutrition, which has not been yet +properly investigated; and it seems to me to be more probable, +that the numbers of inhabitants who may be supported in any +country, upon its internal produce, depends almost as much upon +the state of THE ART OF COOKERY, as upon that of agriculture. +--The Chinese, perhaps, understand both these arts better than +any other nation.--Savages understand neither of them. + +But, if cookery be of so much importance, it certainly deserves +to be studied with the greatest care; and it ought particularly +to be attended to in times of general alarm on account of a +scarcity of provisions; for the relief which may in such cases be +derived from it, is immediate and effectual, while all other +resources are distant and uncertain. + +I am aware of the difficulties which always attend the +introduction of measures calculated to produce and remarkable +change in the customs and habits of mankind; and there is perhaps +no change more difficult to effect, than that which would be +necessary in order to make any considerable saving in the +consumption of those articles commonly used as Food; but still, +I am of opinion, that such a change might, with proper management, +be brought about. + +There was a time, no doubt, when an aversion to potatoes was as +general, and as strong, in Great Britain, and even in Ireland, +as it is now in some parts of Bavaria; but this prejudice has +been got over; and I am persuaded, that any national prejudice, +however deeply rooted, may be overcome, provided proper means be +used for that purpose, and time allowed for their operation. + +But notwithstanding the difficulty of introducing a general use +of soups throughout the country, or of any other kind of Food, +however palatable, cheap, and nourishing, to which people have +not been accustomed, yet these improvements might certainly be +made, with great facility, in all public hospitals and work-houses, +where the Poor are fed at the public expense; and the saving of +provisions, (not to mention the diminution of expence,) which +might be derived from this improvement, would be very important +at all times, and more especially in times of general scarcity. + +Another measure, still more important, and which might, I am +persuaded, be easily carried into execution, is the establishment +of public kitchens in all towns, and large villages, throughout +the kingdom, whence, not only the Poor might be fed gratis, but +also all the industrious inhabitants of the neighbourhood might +be furnished with Food at so cheap a rate, as to be a very great +relief to them at all times; and in times of general scarcity, +this arrangement would alone be sufficient to prevent those +public and private calamities, which never fail to accompany that +most dreadful of all visitations, a famine. + +The saving of Food that would result from feeding a large +proportion of the inhabitants of any country from public +kitchens, would be immense, and that saving would tend, +immediately, and most powerfully, to render provisions more +plentiful and cheap,--diminish the general alarm on account of +the danger of a scarcity, and prevent the hoarding up of +provisions by individuals, which is often alone sufficient, +without any thing else, to bring on a famine, even where there is +no real scarcity: for it is not merely the FEARS of individuals +which operate in these cases, and induce them to lay in a larger +store of provisions than they otherwise would do; and which +naturally increases the scarcity of provisions in the market, +and raises their prices; but there are persons who are so lost to +all the feelings of humanity, as often to speculate upon the +distress of the Public, and all THEIR operations effectually tend +to increase the scarcity in the markets, and augment the general +alarm. + +But without enlarging farther in this place upon these public +kitchens, and the numerous and important advantages which may in +all countries be derived from them, I shall return to the +interesting subjects which I have undertaken to investigate;-- +the science of nutrition, and the art of providing wholesome and +palatable Food at a small expence. + + +CHAPTER. II. + + Of the Pleasure of Eating, and of the Means that may be + employed for increasing it. + +What has already been said upon this subject will, I flatter +myself, be thought sufficient to show that, FOR ALL THE PURPOSES +OF NOURISHMENT, a much smaller quantity of solid Food will +suffice than has hitherto been thought necessary; but there is +another circumstance to be taken into the account, and that is, +the PLEASURE OF EATING;--an enjoyment of which no person will +consent to be deprived. + +The pleasure enjoyed in eating depends first upon the +agreeableness of the taste of the Food; and secondly, upon its +power to affect the palate. Now there are many substances +extremely cheap, by which very agreeable tastes may be given to +Food; particularly when the basis or nutritive substance of the +Food is tasteless; and the effect of any kind of palatable solid +Food, (of meat, for instance,) upon the organs of taste, may be +increased, almost indefinitely, by reducing the size of the +particles of such Food, and causing it to act upon the palate by +a larger surface. And if means be used to prevent its being +swallowed too soon, which may be easily done by mixing with it +some hard and tasteless substance, such as crumbs of bread +rendered hard by toasting, or any thing else of that kind, +by which a long mastrication is rendered necessary, the enjoyment +of eating may be greatly increased and prolonged. + +The idea of occupying a person a great while, and affording him +much pleasure at the same time, in eating a small quantity of +Food, may, perhaps, appear ridiculous to some; but those who +consider the matter attentively, will perceive that it is very +important. It is, perhaps, as much so as any thing that can +employ the attention of the philosopher. + +The enjoyments which fall to the lot of the bulk of mankind are +not so numerous as to render an attempt to increase them superfluous. +And even in regard to those who have it in their power to gratify +their appetites to the utmost extent of their wishes, it is +surely rendering them a very importance service to show them how +they may increase their pleasures without destroying their health. + +If a glutton can be made to gormandize two hours upon two ounces +of meat, it is certainly much better for him, than to give +himself an indigestion by eating two pounds in the same time. + +I was led to meditate upon this subject by mere accident. I had +long been at a loss to understand how the Bavarian soldiers, +who are uncommonly stout, strong, and healthy men, and who, in +common with all other Germans, are remarkably fond of eating, +could contrive to live upon the very small sums they expended for +Food; but a more careful examination of the economy of their +tables cleared up the point, and let me into a secret which +awakened all my curiosity. These soldiers, instead of being +starved upon their scanty allowance, as might have been suspected, +I found actually living in a most comfortable and even luxurious +manner. I found that they had contrived not only to render their +Food savoury and nourishing, but, what appeared to me still more +extraordinary, had found the means of increasing its action upon +the organs of taste so as actually to augment, and even prolong +to a most surprising degree, the enjoyment of eating. + +This accidental discovery made a deep impression upon my mind, +and gave a new turn to all my ideas on the subject of Food.-- +It opened to me a new and very interesting field for investigation +and experimenting inquiry, of which I had never before had a +distinct view; and thenceforward my diligence in making +experiments, and in collecting information relative to the manner +in which Food is prepared in different countries, was redoubled. + +In the following Chapter may be seen the general results of all +my experiments and inquiries relative to this subject.--A desire +to render this account as concise and short as possible has +induced me to omit much interesting speculation which the subject +naturally suggested; but the ingenuity of the reader will supply +this defect, and enable him to discover the objects particularly +aimed at in the experiments, even where they are not mentioned, +and to compare the results of practice with the assumed theory. + + +CHAPTER. III. + + Of the different kinds of food furnished to the poor in the + house of industry at Munich, with an account of the cost of them. + Of the Expense of providing the same kinds of food in Great + Britain, as well at the present high prices of provisions, + as at the ordinary prices of them. + Of the various improvements of which these different kinds of + cheap food are capable. + +Before the introduction of potatoes as Food in the House of +Industry at Munich, (which was not done till last August,) +the Poor were fed with a soup composed in the following manner: + +SOUP No I. + Weight Cost in + Ingredients Avoirdupois sterling money. + lb. oz. L. s. d. +4 viertls[4] of pearl barley, equal +to about 20 1/3 gallons ... ... ... 141 2 0 11 7 1/2 +4 viertls of peas ... ... ... ... 131 4 0 7 3 1/4 +Cuttings of fine wheaten bread ... 69 10 0 10 2 1/4 +Salt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 13 0 1 2 1/2 +24 maass, very weak beer--vinegar, +or rather small beer turned sour, about +24 quarts ... ... ... ... ... ... 46 13 0 1 5 1/2 +Water, about 560 quarts ... ... ... 1077 0 + -------- ------------- + 1485 10 1 11 8 13/22 + + + Brought over 1 11 8 13/22 +Fuel, 88lb. of dry pine wood, the Bavarian +clafter, (weighing 3961 lb. avoirdupois,) +at 8s. 2 1/4d. sterling[5] ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 2 1/4 +Wages of three cook-maids, at twenty florins +(37s. 7 1/2d.) a year, makes daily ... ... ... 0 0 3 2/3 +Daily expence for feeding the three cook-maids, +at ten creutzers (3 2/3 pence sterling) each, +according to an agreement made with them ... ... 0 0 11 +Daily wages of two men servants, employed in +going to market--collecting donations of bread, +etc. helping in the kitchen, and assisting in +serving out the soup to the Poor ... ... ... 0 1 7 1/4 +Repairs of the kitchen, and of the kitchen +furniture, about 90 florins (8L. 3s. 7d. sterling) +a year, makes daily ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 5 1/2 + ------------- +Total daily expense, when dinner is provided for +1200 persons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 15 2 1/4 + +This sum (1L. 15s. 2 1/4d.) divided by 1200, the number of +portions of soup furnished, gives for each portion a mere trifle +more than ONE THIRD OF A PENNY, or exactly 422/1200 of a penny; +the weight of each portion being about 20 ounces. + +But, moderate as these expenses are, which have attended the +feeding of the Poor of Munich, they have lately been reduced +still farther by introducing the use of potatoes.--These most +valuable vegetables were hardly known in Bavaria till very +lately; and so strong was the aversion of the public, and +particularly of the Poor, against them, at the time when we began +to make use of them in the public kitchen of the House of +Industry in Munich, that we were absolutely obliged, at first, +to introduce them by stealth.--A private room in a retired corner +was fitted up as a kitchen for cooking them; and it was necessary +to disguise them, by boiling them down entirely, and destroying +their form and texture, to prevent their being detected:--but the +Poor soon found that their soup was improved in its qualities; +and they testified their approbation of the change that had been +made in it so generally and loudly, that it was at last thought +to be no longer necessary to conceal from them the secret of its +composition, and they are now grown so fond of potatoes that they +would not easily be satisfied without them. + +The employing of potatoes as an ingredient in the soup has +enabled us to make a considerable saving in the other more costly +materials, as may be seen by comparing the following receipt with +that already given. + +SOUP, No II. + +Ingredients. Weight Cost in + Avoirdupois. sterling money. + lb. oz. L. s. d. +2 viertls of pearl barley ... ... 70 9 0 5 9 13/22 +2 viertls of peas ... ... ... 65 10 0 3 7 5/8 +8 viertls of potatoes ... ... 230 4 0 1 9 9/11 +Cuttings of bread ... ... ... 69 10 0 10 2 4/11 +Salt ... ... ... ... ... ... 19 13 0 1 2 1/2 +Vinegar ... ... ... ... ... 46 13 0 1 5 1/2 +Water ... ... ... ... ... ... 982 15 + --------- + Total weight 1485 10 +Expenses for fuel, servants, repairs, +etc. as before ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 3 5 5/12 + -------------- +Total daily expence, when dinner is provided for +1200 persons ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 7 6 2/3 + +This sum (1L. 7s. 6 2/3.) divided by 1200, the number of portions +of soup, gives for each portion ONE FARTHING very nearly; or +accurately, 1 1/40 farthing. + +The quantity of each of the ingredients contained in one portion +of soup is as follows: + + In avoirdupois weight. +Ingredients. Soup, No I. Soup, No II. + +Of pearl barley 1 1058/1200 0 1129/1200 +Of peas ... ... 1 960/1200 0 1050/1200 +Of potatoes ... ------ 3 84/1200 +Of bread ... ... 0 1114/1200 0 1114/1200 + ----------- -------------- + Total solids 4 772/1200 5 977/1200 +Of salt ... ... 0 316/1200 0 316/1200 +Of weak vinegar 0 748/1200 0 748/1200 +Of water ... ... 14 432/1200 13 127/1200 + ----------- -------------- + Total 19 968/1200 19 968/1200 + +The expence of preparing these soups will vary with the prices of +the articles of which they are composed; but as the quantities of +the ingredients, determined by weight, are here given, it will be +easy to ascertain exactly what they will cost in any case whatever. + +Suppose, for instance, it were required to determine how much +1200 portions of the Soup, No. I. would cost in London at this +present moment, (the 12th of November 1795,) when all kinds of +provisions are uncommonly dear. I see by a printed report of the +Board of Agriculture, of the day before yesterday (November 10), +that the prices of the articles necessary for preparing these +soups were as follows: + +Barley, per bushel weighing 46lb. at 5s. 6d. which gives for each +pound about 1 1/2d; but prepared as pearl barley, it will cost +at least two pence per pound[6]. + +Boiling peas per bushel, weighing 61 1/4lb. (at 10s.) which gives +for each pound nearly 1 1/2d. + +Potatoes, per bushel, weighing 58 1/2lb. at 2s. 6d. which gives +nearly one halfpenny for each pound. + +And I find that a quartern loaf of wheaten bread, weighing 4lb. +5oz. costs now in London 1s. 0 1/4d.;--this bread must therefore +be reckoned at 11 25/69 farthings per pound. + +Salt costs 1 1/2. per pound; and vinegar (which is probably six +times as strong as that stuff called vinegar which is used in the +kitchen of the House of Industry at Munich) costs 1s. 8d. per +gallon. + +This being premised, the computations may be made as follows: + +Expence of preparing in London, in the month of November 1795, +1200 portions of the Soup, No I. + +lb oz s d L. s. d. +141 2 pearl barley, at 0 2 per lb. 1 12 6 +131 4 peas, at 0 1 1/2 ------ 0 16 4 + 69 10 wheaten bread, at 0 11 25/99 ------ 0 16 6 + 19 13 salt, at 0 1 1/2 ------ 0 2 5 1/2 +Vinegar, one gallon, at 1 8 ------ 0 1 8 +Expences for fuel, servants, kitchen +furniture, etc. reckoning three times +as much as those articles of expence amount +to daily at Munich ... ... ... ... ... 0 10 4 1/4 + ------------- + Total 3 9 9 1/4 + +Which sum (3L. 9s. 9 1/4d.) divided by 1200, the number of +portions of soup, gives 2 951/1200 farthings, or nearly 2 3/4 +farthings for each portion. + +For the Soup, No II. it will be, +lb. oz. s. d. L. s. d. + 70 9 pearl barley, at 0 2 ------ 0 11 9 + 65 10 peas, at 0 1 1/2 ------ 0 8 2 +230 4 potatoes, at 0 0 1/2 ------ 0 13 9 + 69 10 bread, at 0 11 25/65 ------ 0 16 6 + 19 13 salt, at 0 1 1/2 ------ 0 2 5 1/2 +Vinegar, one gallon ------ 0 1 8 +Expenses for fuel, servants, etc. ------ 0 10 4 1/4 + ------------- + Total 3 4 7 3/4 + +This sum (3L. 4s. 7 3/4d.) divided by 1200, the number of +portions, gives for each 2 1/2 farthings very nearly. + +This soup comes much higher here in London, than it would do in +most other parts of Great Britain, on account of the very high +price of potatoes in this city; but in most parts of the kingdom, +and certainly in every part of Ireland, it may be furnished, +even at this present moment, notwithstanding the uncommonly high +prices of provisions, at less than ONE HALFPENNY the portion of +20 ounces. + +Though the object most attended to in composing these soups was +to render them wholesome and nourishing, yet they are very far +from being unpalatable.--The basis of the soups, which is water +prepared and thickened by barley, is well calculated to receive, +and to convey to the palate in an agreeable manner, every thing +that is savoury in the other ingredients; and the dry bread +rendering mastication necessary, prolongs the action of the Food +upon the organs of taste, and by that means increases and +PROLONGS the enjoyment of eating. + +But though these soups are very good and nourishing, yet they +certainly are capable of a variety of improvements.--The most +obvious means of improving them is to mix with them a small +quantity of salted meat, boiled, and cut into very small pieces, +(the smaller the better,) and to fry the bread that is put into +them in butter, or in the fat of salted pork or bacon. + +The bread, by being fried, is not only rendered much harder, but +being impregnated with a fat or oily substance it remains hard +after it is put into the soup, the water not being able to +penetrate it and soften it. + +All good cooks put fried bread, cut into small square pieces, in +peas-soup; but I much doubt whether they are aware of the very +great importance of that practice, or that they have any just +idea of the MANNER in which the bread improves the soup. + +The best kind of meat for mixing with these soups is salted pork, +or bacon, or smoked beef. + +Whatever meat is used, it ought to be boiled either in clear water +or in the soup; and after it is boiled, it ought to be cut into +very small pieces, as small perhaps, as barley-corns.--The bread +may be cut in pieces of the size of large peas, or in thin slices; +and after it is fried, it may be mixed with the meat and put into +the soup-dishes, and the soup poured on them when it is served out. + +Another method of improving this soup is to mix it with small +dumplins, or meat-balls, made of bread, flour, and smoked beef, +ham, or any other kind of salted meat, or of liver cut into small +pieces, or rather MINCED, as it is called.--These dumplins may +be boiled either in the soup or in clear water, and put into the +soup when it is served out. + +As the meat in these compositions is designed rather to please +the palate than for any thing else, the soup being sufficiently +nourishing without it, it is or much importance that it be +reduced to very small pieces, in order that it be brought into +contract with the organs of taste by a large surface; and that it +be mixed with some hard substance, (fried bread, for instance, +crumbs, or hard dumplins,) which will necessarily prolong the +time employed in mastication. + +When this is done, and where the meat employed has much flavour, +a very small quantity of it will be found sufficient to answer +the purpose required. + +ONE OUNCE of bacon, or of smoked beef, and ONE OUNCE of fried +bread, added to EIGHTEEN OUNCES of the Soup No. I. would afford +an excellent meal, in which the taste of animal food would +decidedly predominate. + +Dried salt fish, or smoked fish, boiled and then minced, and made +into dumplins with mashed potatoes, bread, and flour, and boiled +again, would be very good, eaten with either of the Soup No. I. +or No. II. + +These soups may likewise be improved, by mixing with them various +kinds of cheap roots and green vegetables, as turnips, carrots, +parsnips, celery, cabbages, sour-crout, etc. as also by seasoning +them with fine herbs and black pepper.--Onions and leeks may +likewise be used with great advantage, as they not only serve to +render the Food in which they enter as ingredients peculiarly +savoury, but are really very wholesome. + +With regard to the barley made use of in preparing these soups, +though I always have used pearl barley, or rolled barley(as it is +called in Germany), yet I have no doubt but common barley-meal +would answer nearly as well; particularly if care were taken to +boil it gently for a sufficient length of time over a slow fire +before the peas are added[7]. + +Till the last year, we used to cook the barley-soup and the +peas-soup separate, and not to mix them till the moment when they +were poured into the tubs upon the cut bread, in order to be +carried into the dining-hall; but I do not know that any +advantages were derived from that practice; the soup being, +to all appearances, quite as good since the barley and the peas +have been cooked together as before. + +As soon as the soup is done, and the boilers are emptied, they +are immediately refilled with water, and the barley for the soup +for the next day is put into it, and left to steep over night; +and at six o'clock the next morning the fires are lighted under +the boilers[8]. + +The peas, however, are never suffered to remain in the water +over-night, as we have found, by repeated trials, that they never +boil soft if the water in which they are boiled is not boiling +hot when they are put into it.--Whether this is peculiar to the +peas which grow in Bavaria, I know not. + +When I began to feed the Poor of Munich, there was also a +quantity of meat boiled in their soup; but as the quantity was +small, and the quality of it but very indifferent, I never +thought it contributed much to rendering the victuals more +nourishing: but as soon as means were found for rendering the +soup palatable without meat, the quantity of it used was +gradually diminished, and it was at length entirely omitted. +I never heard that the Poor complained of the want of it; +and much doubt whether they took notice of it. + +The management of the fire in cooking is, in all cases, a matter +of great importance; but in no case is it so necessary to be +attended to as in preparing the cheap and nutritive soups here +recommended.--Not only the palatableness, but even the strength +or richness of the soup, seems to depend very much upon the +management of the heat employed in cooking it. + +From the beginning of the process to the end of it, the boiling +should be as gentle as possible;--and if it were possible to +keep the soup always JUST BOILING HOT, without actually boiling, +it would be so much the better. + +Causing any thing to boil violently in any culinary process is +very ill judged; for it not only does not expedite, even in the +smallest degree, the process of cooking, but it occasions a most +enormous waste of fuel; and by driving away with the steam many +of the more volatile and more savoury particles of the ingredients, +renders the victuals less good and less palatable. --To those who +are acquainted with the experimental philosophy of heat, and who +know that water once brought to be BOILING HOT, however gently it +may boil in fact, CANNOT BE MADE ANY HOTTER, however large and +intense the fire under it may be made, and who know that it is by +the HEAT--that is to say, THE DEGREE or intensify of it, and the +TIME of its being continued, and not by the bubbling up or +BOILING, (as it is called) of the water that culinary operations +are performed--this will be evident, and those who know that more +than FIVE TIMES as much heat is required to SEND OFF IN STEAM any +given quantity of water ALREADY BOILING HOT as would be necessary +to heat the same quantity of ICE-COLD water TO THE BOILING POINT +--will see the enormous waste of heat, and consequently of fuel, +which, in all cases must result from violent boiling in culinary +processes. + +To prevent the soup from burning to the boiler, the bottom of the +boiler should be made DOUBLE; the false bottom, (which may be +very thin) being fixed on the inside of the boiler, the two +sheets of copper being every where in contact with each other; +but they ought not to be attached to each other with solder, +except only at the edge of the false bottom where it is joined to +the sides of the boiler.--The false bottom should have a rim +about an inch and a half wide, projecting upwards, by which it +should be riveted to the sides of the boiler; but only few +rivets, or nails, should be used for fixing the two bottoms +together below, and those used should be very small; otherwise +where large nails are employed at the bottom of the boiler, where +the fire is most intense, the soup will be apt to BURN TO; at +least on the heads of those large nails. + +The two sheets of metal may be made to touch each other every +where, by hammering them together after the false bottom is fixed +in its place; and they may be tacked together by a few small +rivets placed here and there, at considerable distances from +each other; and after this is done, the boiler may be tinned. + +In tinning the boiler, if proper care be taken, the edge of the +false bottom may be soldered by the tin to the sides of the +boiler, and this will prevent the water, or other liquids put +into the boiler, from getting between the two bottoms. + +In this manner double bottoms may be made to sauce-pans and +kettles of all kinds used in cooking; and this contrivance will, +in all cases, most effectually prevent what is called by the +cooks burning to[9]. + +The heat is so much obstructed in its passage through the thin +sheet of air, which, notwithstanding all the care that is taken +to bring the two bottoms into actual contact, will still remain +between them, the second has time to give its heat as fast as it +receives it, to the fluid in the boiler; and consequently never +acquires a degree of heat sufficient for burning any thing that +may be upon it. + +Perhaps it would be best to double copper sauce-pans and small +kettles throughout; and as this may and ought to be done with a +very thin sheet of metal, it could not cost much, even if this +lining were to be made of silver. + +But I must not enlarge here upon a subject I shall have occasion +to treat more fully in another place.--To return, therefore, +to the subject more immediately under consideration, Food. + + +CHAPTER. IV. + + Of the small expense at which the Bavarian soldiers are fed. + Details of their housekeeping, founded on actual experiment. + An account of the fuel expended by them in cooking. + +It has often been matter of surprise to many, and even to those +who are most conversant in military affairs, that soldiers can +find means to live upon the very small allowances granted them +for their subsistence; and I have often wondered that nobody has +undertaken to investigate that matter, and to explain a mystery +at the same time curious and interesting, in a high degree. + +The pay of a private soldier is in all countries very small, +much less than the wages of a day-labourer; and in some countries +it is so mere a pittance, that it is quite astonishing how it can +be made to support life. + +The pay of a private foot-soldier in the service of His Most +Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, (and it is the same for a +private grenadier in the regiment of guards,) is FIVE CREUTZERS +a-day, and no more.--Formerly the pay of a private foot-soldier +was only four creutzers and a half a-day, but lately, upon the +introduction of the new military arrangements in the country, his +pay has been raised to five creutzers;--and with this he receives +one pound thirteen ounces and a half, Avoirdupois weight, of +rye-bread, which, at the medium price of grain in Bavaria and the +Palatinate, costs something less than three creutzers, or just +about ONE PENNY sterling. + +The pay which the soldier receives in money,-- (five creutzers +a-day,) equal to one penny three farthings sterling, added to his +daily allowance of bread, valued at one penny, make TWO PENCE +THREE FARTHINGS a-day, for the sum total of his allowance. + +That it is possible, in any country, to procure Food sufficient +to support life with so small a sum, will doubtless appear +extraordinary to an English reader;--but what would be his +surprise upon seeing a whole army, composed of the finest, +stoutest, and strongest men in the world, who are fed upon that +allowance, and whose countenances show the most evident marks of +ruddy health, and perfect contentment? + +I have already observed, how much I was struck with the domestic +economy of the Bavarian soldiers. I think the subject much too +interesting, not to be laid before the Public, even in all its +details; and as I think it will be more satisfactory to hear from +their own mouths an account of the manner in which these soldiers +live, I shall transcribe the reports of two sensible +non-commissioned officers, whom I employed to give me the +information I wanted. + +These non-commissioned officers, who belong to two different +regiments of grenadiers in garrison at Munich, were recommended +to me by their colonels as being very steady, careful men, +are each at the head of a mess consisting of twelve soldiers, +themselves reckoned in the number. The following accounts, +which they gave me of their housekeeping, and of the expenses of +their tables, were all the genuine results of actual experiments +made at my particular desire, and at my cost. + +I do not believe that useful information was ever purchased +cheaper than upon this occasion; and I fancy my reader will be +of the same opinion when he has perused the following reports, +which are literally translated from the original German. + +"In obedience to the orders of Lieut. General Count Rumford, the +following experiments were made by Serjeant Wickenhof's mess, in +the first company of the first (or Elector's own) regiment of +grenadiers, at Munich, on the 10th and 11th of June 1795. + +June 10th, 1795. +BILL OF FARE +Boiled beef, with soup and bread dumplins. +Details of the expence, etc. +For the boiled beef and the soup. + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 2 0 beef[10] ... ... ... 16 + 0 1 sweet herbs ... ... ... 1 + 0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 1 14 1/2 ammunition bread, cut fine 2 7/8 + 9 20 water ... ... ... ... 0 + ------- ------ +Total 13 10 Cost 20 7/8 + +All these articles were put together into an earthen pot, and +boiled two hours and a quarter. The meat was then taken out of +the soup and weighed, and found to weigh 1 lb. 30 loths; which, +divided into twelve equal portions, gave FIVE LOTHS for the +weight of each. + +The soup, with the bread, etc. weighed 9 lb. 30 1/2 loths; which, +divided into twelve equal portions, gave for each 26 7/12 loths. + +The cost of the meat and soup together, 20 7/8 creutzers, divided +by twelve, gives 1 3/4 creutzers, very nearly, for the cost of +each portion. + +For the bread dumplins. + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 1 13 of fine semel bread 10 + 1 0 of fine flour ... 4 1/2 + 0 6 salt ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 3 0 of water ... ... 0 + -------- ------ +Total 5 19 Cost 15 + +This mass was made into dumplins, and these dumplins were boiled +half an hour in clear water. Upon taking them out of the water, +they were found to weigh 5 lb. 24 loths; and dividing them into +twelve equal portions, each portion weighed 15 1/3 loths; and the +cost of the whole (15 creutzers), divided by twelve, gives 1 1/4 +creutzers for the cost of each portion. + +The meat, soup, and dumplins were served all at once in the same +dish, and were all eaten together; and with this meal, (which was +their dinner, and was eat at twelve o'clock,) each person +belonging to the mess was furnished with a piece of rye-bread, +weighing ten loths, and which cost 5/16 of a creutzer. +--Each person was likewise furnished with a piece of this bread, +weighing ten loths, for his breakfast;--another piece, of equal +weight, in the afternoon at four o'clock; and another in the +evening. + +Analysis of this Day's Fare. + +Each person received in the Amount of cost in +course of the day Bavarian money. + + In solids. In fluids. + lb. loths. lb. loths. Creutzers. + Boiled beef 0 5 ... ... ... ....... 1 1/6 +In the soup. + Rye-bread 0 3 7/8 ] + Sweet herbs 0 0 1/12 ] + Salt ... ... 0 0 1/24 ].... 0 7/16 + Pepper ... ... 0 0 1/24 ] + Water ... ... 0 23 1/2 ] + ---------- --------- ] + Total 0 4 2/24 0 23 1/2 ] + +In dumplins. + Wheaten-bread 0 3 3/4 ] + Ditto flour 0 2 2/3 ] + Salt ... ... 0 0 1/24 ].... 1 1/4 + Water ... ... 0 7 1/12 ] + ---------- --------- ] + Total 0 6 11/24 0 7 7/12 ] + +Dry bread. + For breakfast 0 10 ] + At dinner 0 10 ] + In the afternoon 0 10 ].... 2 1/2 + At supper 0 10 ] + ------ ] + Total 1 8 ] + ------ ---------- + General total 2 24 13/24 0 31 1/2 which cost 5 17/48 + +The ammunition bread is reckoned in this estimate at two +creutzers the Bavarian pound, which is about what it costs at a +medium; and as the daily allowance of the soldiers is 1 1/2 +Bavarian pounds of the bread, this reckoned in money amounts to +three creutzers a-day; and this added to his pay at five +creutzers a-day, makes eight creutzers a-day, which is the whole +of his allowance from the sovereign for his subsistence. + +But it appears from the foregoing account, that he expends for +Food no more than 5 17/48 creutzers a-day, there is therefore a +surplus amounting to 2 31/48 creutzers a-day, or very near +ONE-THIRD OF HIS WHOLE ALLOWANCE, which remains; and which he can +dispose of just as he thinks proper. + +This surplus is commonly employed in purchasing beer, brandy, +tobacco, etc. Beer in Bavaria costs two creutzers a pint, +brandy, or rather malt-spirits, from fifteen to eighteen +creutzers; and tobacco is very cheap. + +To enable the English reader to form, without the trouble of +computation, a complete and satisfactory idea of the manner in +which these Bavarian soldiers are fed, I have added the following +Analysis of their fare; in which the quantity of each article is +expressed in Avoirdupois weight, and its cost in English money. + +Analysis. + +Each person belonging to the mess +received in the course of the day, Cost in English +June 11th, 1795. money. + + lb. oz. s. d. +Dry ammunition bread 1 8 76/100 0 0 10/11 +Ammunition bread cooked + in the soup ... ... ... 0 2 4/10 0 0 23/264 +Fine wheaten (semel) + bread in the dumplins ... 0 2 3/10 0 0 10/33 + ---------- + Total bread 1 13 46/100 + +Fine flour in the dumplins 0 1 65/100 0 0 18/33 +Boiled beef ... ... ... 0 3 1/10 0 0 72/198 +In seasoning; fine herbs, + salt and pepper ... ... 0 0 13/100 0 0 2/33 + ----------- + Total solids 2 2 34/100 + +Water prepared by cooking. +In the soup ... ... ... 0 14 52/209 +In the dumplins ... ... 0 4 32/100 + ----------- + Total prepared water 1 2 84/100 + ----------- + Total solids and fluids 3 5 18/100 + +Total expense for each person 5 17/48 creutzers, equal to TWO PENCE +sterling, very nearly. + +But as the Bavarian soldiers have not the same fare every day, +the expences of their tables cannot be ascertained from one +single experiment. I shall therefore return to Serjeant +Wickenhof's report. + +11th of June 1795. +Bill of Fare. +Bread, dumplins, and soup. +Details of expenses, etc. + + For the dumplins. +lb. loths. Creutzers. + 2 13 wheaten bread ... ... 14 + 0 16 butter ... ... ... 9 + 1 0 fine flour ... ... 4 1/2 + 0 11 eggs ... ... ... ... 3 + 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 3 16 water ... ... ... ... +------- ------- + 7 30 1/2 Cost 31 1/2 creutzers. + +This made into dumplins;--the dumplins, after being boiled, were +found to weigh eight pounds eight loths, which, divided among +twelve persons, gave for each twenty-two loths.--And the cost of +the whole (31 1/2 creutzers), divided by 12, gives 2 15/24 +creutzers for each portion. + + For the soup. +lb. loths. Creutzers. + 1 14 1/2 ammunition bread ... 2 7/8 + 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 0 1 sweet herbs ... ... 1 +12 0 water ... ... ... ... +------- ------- +13 21 1/2 Cost 4 3/8 creutzers. + +This soup, when cooked, weighed 11 lb, 26 loths; which, divided +among the twelve persons belonging to the mess, gave for each 31 +1/2 loths; and the cost (4 3/8 creutzers), divided by twelve, +gives nearly THREE-NINTHS of a creutzer for each portion. + +For bread. + +Four pieces of ammunition bread, weighing each ten loths, for +each person,--namely, one piece for breakfast--one at dinner--one +in the afternoon,--and one at supper; in all, 40 loths, or one +pound and a quarter, costs two creutzers and a half. + +Details of expenses, etc. for each person. + + lb. loths. Creutzers +For 1 8 dry bread ... ... 2 1/2 +For 0 22 bread dumplins ... 2 15/24 +For 0 31 1/2 bread soup ... ... 0 3/8 + --------- ----- + 2 30 1/2 of Food Cost 5 1/2 creutzers. + +The same details expressed in Avoirdupois weight, and English +money: + +For each person + lb. oz. Pence + 1 8 76/100 dry ammunition bread 0 10/11 + 0 13 6/10 bread dumplins ... 0 693/792 + 1 3 1/2 bread soup ... ... 0 36/264 + ------------ --------- + 3 9 86/100 of Food Cost 2 pence. + + +June 20th, 1795. +Serjeant Kein's mess, second regiment of grenadiers. + +Bill of Fare. + +Boiled beef--bread soup--and liver dumplins. +Details of expenses, etc. +For the boiled beef and soup. + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 2 0 beef ... ... ... 15 + 0 6 1/2 salt ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... 0 1/2 + 0 2 sweet herbs ... 0 1/2 + 2 24 ammunition bread 3 1/4 + 17 0 water... ... ... + ---------- ------- + 22 1 Cost 19 1/2 creutzers. + +These ingredients were all boiled together two hours and five +minutes; after which the beef was taken out of the soup and +weighed, and was found to weigh 1 lb. 22 loths; the soup weighed +15 lb.; and these divided equally among the twelve persons +belonging to the mess, gave for each portion, 4 1/2 loths of +beef, and 1 lb. 8 loths of soup; and the cost of the whole (19 +3/4 creutzers), divided by 18, gives 1 31/48 creutzers for the +cost of each portion. + +Details of expenses, etc. for the liver dumplins. + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 2 28 of fine semel bread 15 + 1 0 of beef liver ... ... ... 5 + 0 18 of fine flour ... ... ... 2 1/2 + 0 6 of salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 2 24 of water ... ... ... ... --- + -------- -------- +Total 7 12 Cost 23 creutzers. + +These ingredients being made into dumplins, the dumplins after +being properly boiled were found to weigh 8 lb.--This gave for +each portion 21 1/3 loths; and the amount of the cost +(23 creutzers), divided by 12, the number of the portions, +gives for each 1 11/12 creutzers. + +The quantity of dry ammunition bread furnished to each person +was 1 lb. 8 loths; and this, at two creutzers a pound, amounts to +2 1/2 creutzers. + + Recapitulation. + +For each person + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 0 4 1/2 of boiled beef, and ] ... 1 31/48 + 1 8 of bread soup ] + 0 21 1/4 of liver dumplins ... ... 1 11/12 + 1 8 of dry bread ... ... ... 2 1/2 + ---------- --------- + 3 9 5/6 of Food Cost 6 3/48 creutzers. + +In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it +is,--for each person: + + lb. oz. + 0 2.78 of boiled beef, and ] ... 0 948/1584 + 1 8.91 of bread soup ] + 0 13.19 of liver dumplins ... ... 0 276/306 + 1 8.76 of dry bread ... ... ... 0 10/11 + ------- ----------- + 4 1.54 of Food Cost 2 1/5 pence. + +June 21st, 1795. +Bill of Fare. +Boiled beef, and bread soup, with bread dumplins. +Details of expenses, etc. for the boiled beef and bread soup. +The same as yesterday, +For the dumplins. + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 2 30 semel bread ... ... ... 15 1/2 + 0 18 fine flour ... ... ... 3 + 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 + 3 0 water ... ... ... ... + ------- ------- + 6 22 Cost 19 creutzers. + +These dumplins being boiled, were found to weigh 7 lb. which gave +for each person 18 2/3 loths; and each portion cost 1 7/12 +creutzers. + +Dry ammunition bread furnished to each person 1 lb. 8 loths, +which cost 2 1/2 creutzers. + + Recapitulation. + +Each person belonging to the mess received this day: + + lb. loths. Creutzers. + 0 4 1/2 of boiled beef, and ] ... 1 31/48 + 1 8 of bread soup ] + 0 18 2/3 of bread dumplins ... ... 1 7/12 + 1 8 of dry bread ... ... ... 2 1/2 + --------- ------- + 3 7 1/6 of Food Cost 5 35/42 creutzers + +In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it is, + + lb. oz. + 0 2.78 of boiled beef, and ] ... 0 948/1584 + 1 8.76 of bread soup ] + 0 11.54 of bread dumplins ... ... 0 228/396 + 1 8.76 of dry bread ... ... ... 0 10/11 + ------- ---------- + 4 0 of Food Cost 2 1/12 pence. + +June 22d, 1795. +Bill of Fare. +Bread soup and meat dumplins. +Details of expenses, etc. + + lb. loths. + 2 0 of beef ... ... ... 15 + 2 30 of semel bread ... 15 1/2 + 0 18 of fine flour ... ... 3 + 0 1 of pepper ... ... 1 + 0 12 of salt ... ... ... 1 + 0 2 of sweet herbs ... 0 1/2 + 2 24 of ammunition bread 3 1/4 + 2 16 of water to the dumplins + ------ + Cost 39 1/4 creutzers. + +The meat being cut fine, or minced, was mixed with the semel or +wheaten bread; and these with the flour, and a due proportion of +salt, were made into dumplins, and boiled in the soup.--These +dumplins when boiled, weighed 10 lb. which, divided into 12 equal +portions, gave 20 2/3 loths for each. + +The soup weighed 15 lb. which gave 1 lb. 8 loths for each portion. +--Of dry ammunition bread, each person received 1 lb. 8 loths, +which cost 2 1/2 creutzers. + +Recapitulation. + +Each person received this day + + lb. loths. Creutzers + 0 20 2/3 of meat dumplins, and ] ... 3 13/48 + 1 8 of bread soup ] + 1 8 of ammunition bread 2 1/2 + --------- ------- + 3 4 2/3 of Food Cost 5 37/48 creutzers. + +In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it is, + + lb. oz. Pence. + 0 12.77 of meat dumplins, and ] ... 1 300/1584 + 1 8.76 of bread soup ] + 1 8.76 of ammunition bread ... ... 0 10/11 + -------- ---------- + 3 14.29 of Food Cost 2 1/10 pence. + +The results of all these experiments, (and of many more which I +could add,) show that the Bavarian soldier can live,--and the +fact is that he actually does live,--upon a little more than +TWO THIRDS of his allowance.--Of the five creutzers a-day which +he receives in money, he seldom puts more than two creutzers and +a half, and never more than three creutzers into the mess; +so that at least TWO-FIFTHS of his pay remains, after he has +defrayed all the expenses of his subsistence; and as he is +furnished with every article of his clothing by the sovereign, +and no stoppage is ever permitted to be made of any part of his +pay, on any pretence whatever, THERE IS NO SOLDIER IN EUROPE +WHOSE SITUATION IS MORE COMFORTABLE. + +Though the ammunition bread with which he is furnished is rather +coarse and brown, being made of rye-meal, with only a small +quantity of the coarser part of the bran separated from it, yet +it is not only wholesome, but very nourishing; and for making +soup it is even more palatable than wheaten bread. Most of the +soldiers, however, in the Elector's service, and particularly +those belonging to the Bavarian regiments, make a practice of +selling a great part of their allowance of ammunition bread, and +with the money they get for it, buy the best wheaten bread that +is to be had; and many of them never taste brown bread but in +their soup. + +The ammunition bread is delivered to the soldiers every fourth +day, in loaves, each loaf being equal to two rations; and it is +a rule generally established in the messes, for each soldier to +furnish one loaf for the use of the mess every twelfth day, +so that he has five-sixths of his allowance of bread, which remains +at his disposal. + +The foregoing account of the manner in which the Bavarian +soldiers are fed, will, I think, show most clearly the great +importance of making soldiers live together in messes.--It may +likewise furnish some useful hints to those who may be engaged +in feeding the Poor, or in providing Food for ships's companies, +or other bodies of men who are fed in common. + +With regard to the expense of fuel in these experiments, +as the victuals were cooked in earthen pots, over an open fire, +the consumption of fire-wood was very great. + +On the 10th of June, when 9 lb. 30 1/2 loths of soup, 1 lb. 28 +loths of meat, and 5 lb. 24 loths of bread dumplins, in all 17 lb. +18 1/2 of Food were prepared, and the process of cooking, +from the time the fire was lighted till the victuals were done, +lasted two hours and forty-five minutes, and twenty-nine pounds, +Bavarian weight, of fire-wood were consumed. + +On the 11th of June, when 11 lb. 26 loths of bread soup, and 8 lb. +8 loths of bread dumplins, in all 20 lb. 2 loths of Food were +prepared, the process of cooking lasted one hour and thirty +minutes;--and seventeen pounds of wood were consumed. + +On the 20th of June, in Serjeant Kein's mess, 15 lb. of soup; +1 lb. 22 loths of meat, and 8 lb. of liver dumplins, in all 24 lb. +22 loths of Food were prepared, and through the process of +cooking lasted two hours and forty-five minutes, only 27 1/2 lb. +of fire-wood were consumed. + +On the 21st of June, the same quantity of soup and meat, and 7 lb. +of bread dumplins, in all 23 lb. 22 loths of Food were prepared +in two hours and thirty minutes, with the consumption of 18 1/2 lb. +of wood. + +On the 22nd of June, 15 lb. of soup, and 10 lb. of meat dumplins, +in all 25 lb. of Food, were cooked in two hours and forty-five +minutes, and the wood consumed was 18 lb. 10 loths. + +The following table will show, in a striking and satisfactory +manner, the expense of fuel in these experiments: + +Date of the Time employed Quantity Quantity Quantity +Experiments. in cooking. of Food of Wood of Wood to + prepared. consumed. 1 lb. of Food. + +June 1795. Hours. min. lb. loths. lb. + 10th 2 45 17 18 1/2 29 + 11th 1 30 20 2 17 + 20th 2 45 24 22 17 1/2 + 21st 2 30 23 22 18 1/2 + 22d 2 45 25 0 18 1/4 + -------- ----------- ------- + Sums 5 12 15 111 0 1/2 100 1/4 + -------- ----------- ------- + Means 2 23 22 0 1/5 20 1/20 10/11 lb. + +The mean quantity of Food prepared daily in five days being 22 lb. +very nearly, and the mean quantity of fire-wood consumed being 20 +1/20 lb.; this gives 10/11 lb. of wood for each pound of Food. + +But it has been found by actual experiment, made with the utmost +care, in the new kitchen of the House of Industry at Munich, and +often repeated, that 600 lb. of Food, (of the Soup No. I. given +to the Poor,) may be cooked with the consumption of only 44 lb. +of pine-wood. And hence it appears how very great the waste of +fuel must be in all culinary processes, as they are commonly +performed; for though the time taken up in cooking the soup for +the Poor is, at a medium, more than FOUR HOURS AND A HALF, +while that employed by the soldiers in their cooking is less than +TWO HOURS AND A HALF; yet the quantity of fuel consumed by the +latter is near THIRTEEN TIMES greater than that employed in the +public kitchen of the House of Industry. + +But I must not here anticipate here a matter which is to be the +subject of a separate Essay; and which, from its great importance, +certainly deserves to be carefully and thoroughly investigated. + + +CHAPTER. V. + + Of the great importance of making soldiers eat together in + regular messes. + The influence of such economical arrangements extends even to + the moral character of those who are the objects of them. + Of the expence of feeding soldiers in messes. + Of the surprising smallness of the expence of feeding the poor + at Munich. + Specific proposals respecting the feeding of the poor in Great + Britain, with calculations of the expense, at the present + prices of provisions. + +All those who have been conversant in military affairs must have +had frequent opportunities of observing the striking difference +there is, even in the appearance of the men, between regiments in +which messes are established, and Food is regularly provided +under the care and inspection of the Officers; and others, in +which the soldiers are left individually to shift for themselves. +And the difference which may be observed between soldiers who +live in messes, and are regularly fed, and others who are not, +is not confined merely to their external appearance: +the influence of these causes extends much farther, and even the +MORAL CHARACTER of the man is affected by them. + +Peace of mind, which is as essential to contentment and happiness +as it is to virtue, depends much upon order and regularity in +the common affairs of life; and in no case are order and method +more necessary to happiness, (and consequently to virtue,) than +in that, where the preservation of health is connected with the +satisfying of hunger; an appetite whose cravings are sometimes as +inordinate as they are insatiable. + +Peace of mind depends likewise much upon economy, or the means +used for preventing pecuniary embarrassments; and the savings to +soldiers in providing Food, which arise from housekeeping in +messes of ten or twelve persons who live together, is very great +indeed. + +But great as these savings now are, I think they might be made +still more considerable; and I shall give my reasons for this +opinion. + +Though the Bavarian soldiers live at a very small expense, little +more than TWO-PENCE sterling a-day, yet when I compare this sum, +small as it is, with the expense of feeding the Poor in the +House of Industry at Munich, which does not amount to more than +TWO FARTHINGS a-day, even including the cost of the piece of dry +rye-bread, weighing seven ounces Avoirdupois[11], which is given +them in their hands, at dinner, but which they seldom eat at dinner, +but commonly carry home in their pockets for their suppers;--when +I compare, I say, this small sum, with the daily expence of the +soldiers for their subsistence, I find reason to conclude, either +that the soldiers might be fed cheaper, or that the Poor must be +absolutely starved upon their allowance. That the latter is not +the case, the healthy countenances of the Poor, and the air of +placid contentment which always accompanies them, as well in the +dining-hall as in their working-rooms, affords at the same time +the most interesting and most satisfactory proof possible. + +Were they to go home in the course of the day, it might be +suspected that they got something at home to eat, in addition to +what they receive from the public kitchen of the Establishment;-- +but this they seldom or ever do; and they come to the house so +early in the morning, and leave it so late at night, that it does +not seem probable that they could find time to cook any thing at +their own lodgings. + +Some of them, I known, make a constant practice of giving +themselves a treat of a pint of beer at night, after they have +finished their work; but I do not believe they have any thing +else for their suppers, except it be the bread which they carry +home from the House of Industry. + +I must confess, however, very fairly, that it always appeared to +me quite surprising, and that it is still a mystery which I do +not clearly understand, how it is possible for these poor people +to be so comfortably fed upon the small allowances which they +receive.--The facts, however, are not only certain, but they are +notorious. Many persons of the most respectable characters in +this country, (Great Britain,) as well as upon the Continent, who +have visited the House of Industry at Munich, can bear witness to +their authenticity; and they are surely not the less interesting +for being extraordinary. + +It must however be remembered, that what formerly cost TWO FARTHINGS +in Bavaria, at the mean price of provisions in that country, +costs THREE farthings at this present moment; and would probably +cost SIX in London, and in most other parts of Great Britain: but +still, it will doubtless appear almost incredible, that a +comfortable and nourishing meal, sufficient for satisfying the +hunger of a strong man, may be furnished in London, and at this +very moment, when provisions of all kinds are so remarkably dear, +at LESS THAN THREE FARTHINGS. The fact, however, is most certain, +and may easily be demonstrated by making the experiment. + +Supposing that it should be necessary, in feeding the Poor in +this country, to furnish them with three meals a-day, even that +might be done at a very small expence, were the system of feeding +them adopted which is here proposed. The amount of that expence +would be as follows: + + Pence. Farths. +For breakfast, 20 ounces of the Soup No, II. + composed of pearl barley, peas, potatoes, + and fine wheaten bread (See page 210.) 0 2 1/2 +For dinner, 20 ounces of the same Soup, and + 7 ounces of rye-bread ... ... ... ... 1 2 +For supper, 20 ounces of the same Soup ... 0 2 1/2 + ------------ +In all 4 lb. 3 oz. of Food[12], which would cost 2 3 + +Should it be thought necessary to give a little meat at dinner, +this may best be done by mixing it, cut fine, or minced, in bread +dumplins; or when bacon, or any kind of salted or smoked meat is +given, to cut it fine and mix it with the bread which is eaten in +the soup. If the bread be fried, the Food will be much improved; +but this will be attended with some additional expence. +--Rye-bread is as good, if not better, for frying, than bread +made of wheat flour; and it is commonly not half so dear.-- +Perhaps rye-bread fried might be furnished almost as cheap as +wheaten bread not fried; and if this could be done, it would +certainly be a very great improvement. + +There is another way by which these cheap soups may be made +exceedingly palatable and savoury;--which is by mixing with them +a very small quantity of red herrings, minced very fine or +pounded in a mortar.--There is no kind of cheap Food, I believe, +that has so much taste as red herrings, or that communicates its +flavour with so much liberality to other eatables; and to most +palates it is remarkably agreeable. + +Cheese may likewise be made use of for giving an agreeable relish +to these soups; and a very small quantity of it will be +sufficient for that purpose, provided it has a strong taste, +and is properly applied.--It should be grated to a powder with a +grater, and a small quantity of this powder thrown over the soup, +AFTER IT IS DISHED OUT.--This is frequently done at the sumptuous +tables of the rich, and is thought a great delicacy; while the +Poor, who have so few enjoyments, have not been taught to avail +themselves of this, which is so much within their reach. + +Those whole avocations call them to visit distant countries, +and those whose fortune enables them to travel for their +amusement or improvement, have many opportunities of acquiring +useful information; and in consequence of this intercourse with +strangers, many improvements, and more REFINEMENTS, have been +introduced into this country; but the most important advantages +that MIGHT be derived from an intimate knowledge of the manners +and customs of differing nations,--the introduction of +improvements tending to facilitate the means of subsistence, and +to increase the comforts and conveniences of the most necessitous +and most numerous classes of society,--have been, alas! little +attended to. Our extensive commerce enables us to procure, and +we do actually import most of the valuable commodities which are +the produce either of the foil of the ocean, or of the industry +of man in all the various regions of the habitable globe;--but +the result of the EXPERIENCE OF AGES respecting the use that can +be made of those commodities has seldom been thought worth +importing! I never see maccaroni in England, or polenta in +Germany, upon the tables of the rich, without lamenting that +cheap and wholesome luxuries should be monopolized by those who +stand least in need of them; while the Poor, who, one would +think, ought to be considered as having almost an EXCLUSIVE right +to them, (as they were both invented by the Poor of a +neighbouring nation,) are kept in perfect ignorance of them. + +But these two kinds of Food are so palatable, wholesome, +and nourishing, and may be provided so easily, and at so very +cheap a rate in all countries, and particularly in Great Britain, +that I think I cannot do better than to devote a few pages to the +examination of them;--and I shall begin with Polenta, or Indian +corn, as it is called in this country. + + +CHAPTER. VI. + + Of INDIAN CORN. + It affords the cheapest and most nourishing food known. + Proofs that it is more nourishing than rice. + Different ways of preparing or cooking it. + Computation of the expense of feeding a person with it, + founded on experiment. + Approved Receipt for making an INDIAN PUDDING. + +I cannot help increasing the length of this Essay much beyond the +bounds I originally assigned to it, in order to have an +opportunity of recommending a kind of Food which I believe to be +beyond comparison the most nourishing, cheapest, and most +wholesome that can be procured for feeding the Poor.--This is +Indian Corn, a most valuable production; and which grows in +almost all climates; and though it does not succeed remarkably +well in Great Britain, and in some parts of Germany, yet it may +easily be had in great abundance, from other countries; +and commonly at a very low rate. + +The common people in the northern parts of Italy live almost +entirely upon it; and throughout the whole Continent of America +it makes a principal article of Food.--In Italy it is called +Polenta, where it is prepared or cooked in a variety of ways, +and forms the basis of a number of very nourishing dishes.-- +The most common way however of using it in that country is to +grind it into meal, and with water to make it into a thick kind +of pudding, like what in this country is called a hasty-pudding, +which is eaten with various kinds of sauce, and sometimes without +any sauce. + +In the northern parts of North America, the common household +bread throughout the country is composed of one part of Indian +meal and one part of rye meal; and I much doubt whether a more +wholesome, or more nourishing kind of bread can be made. + +Rice is universally allowed to be very nourishing,--much more so +even than wheat; but there is a circumstance well known to all +those who are acquainted with the details of feeding the negro +slaves in the southern states of North America, and in the West +Indies, that would seem to prove, in a very decisive and +satisfactory manner, that INDIAN CORN IS EVEN MORE NOURISHING +THAN RICE.--In those countries, where rice and Indian Corn are +both produced in the greatest abundance, the negroes have +frequently had their option between these two kinds of Food; and +have invariably preferred the latter.--The reasons they give for +this preference they express in strong, though not in very +delicate terms.--They say that "Rice turns to water in their +bellies, and runs off;"--but "Indian Corn stays with them, and +makes strong to work." + +This account of the preference which negroes give to Indian Corn +for Food, and of their reasons for this preference, was +communicated to me by two gentlemen of most respectable +character, well known in England, and now resident in London, who +were formerly planters; one in Georgia, and the other in Jamaica. + +The nutritive quantity which Indian Corn possessed, in a most +eminent degree, when employed for fattening hogs and poultry, +and for giving strength to working oxen, has long been universally +known and acknowledged in every part of North America; and nobody +in that country thinks of employing any other grain for those +purposes. + +All these facts prove to a demonstration that India Corn +possesses very extraordinary nutritive powers; and it is well +known that there is no species of grain that can be had so cheap, +or in so great abundance;--it is therefore well worthy the +attention of those who are engaged in providing cheap and +wholesome Food for the Poor,--or in taking measures for warding +off the evils which commonly attend a general scarcity of +provisions, to consider in time, how this useful article of Food +may be procured in large quantities, and how the introduction of +it into common use can be most easily be effected. + +In regard to the manner of using Indian Corn, there are a vast +variety of different ways in which it may be prepared, or cooked, +in order to its being used as Food.--One simple and obvious way +of using it, is to mix it with wheat, rye, or barley meal, in +making bread; but when it is used for making bread, and +particularly when it is mixed with wheat flour, it will greatly +improve the quality of the bread if the Indian meal, (the coarser +part of the bran being first separated from it by sifting,) be +previously mixed with water, and boiled for a considerable length +of time,--two or three hours for instance, over a slow fire, +before the other meal or flour is added to it.--This boiling, +which, if the proper quantity of water is employed, will bring +the mass to the consistency of a thin pudding, will effectually +remove a certain disagreeable RAW TASTE in the Indian Corn, which +simple baking will not entirely take away; and the wheat flour +being mixed with this pudding after it has been taken from the +fire and cooked, and the whole well kneaded together, may be made +to rise, and be formed into loaves, and baked into bread, with +the same facility that bread is made of wheat flour alone, or of +any mixtures of different kinds of meal. + +When the Indian meal is previously prepared by boiling, in the +manner here described, a most excellent, and very palatable kind +of bread, not inferior to wheaten bread, may be made of equal +parts of this meal and of common wheat flour. + +But the most simple, and I believe the best, and most economical +way of employing Indian Corn as Food, is to make it into +puddings.--There is, as I have already observed, a certain +rawness in the taste of it, which nothing but long boiling can +remove; but when that disagreeable taste is removed, it becomes +extremely palatable; and that it is remarkably wholesome, has +been proved by so much experience that no doubts can possibly be +entertained of that fact. + +The culture of it required more labour than most other kinds of +grain; but, on the other hand, the produce is very abundant, +and it is always much cheaper than either wheat or rye.-- +The price of it in the Carolinas, and in Georgia, has often been +as low as eighteen pence, and sometimes as one shilling sterling +per bushel;--but the Indian Corn which is grown in those southern +states is much inferior, both in weight and in its qualities, to +that which is the produce of colder climates.--Indian Corn of the +growth of Canada, and the New England states, which is generally +thought to be worth twenty per cent. more per bushel than that +which is grown in the southern states, may commonly be bought for +two and sixpence, or three shillings a bushel. + +It is now three shillings and sixpence a bushel at Boston; but +the prices of provisions of all kinds have been much raised of +late in all parts of America, owing to the uncommonly high prices +which are paid for them in the European markets since the +commencement of the present war. + +Indian Corn and rye are very nearly of the same weight, but the +former gives rather more flour, when ground and sifted, than the +latter.--I find by a report of the Board of Agriculture, of the +10th of November 1795, that three bushels of Indian Corn weighed +1 cwt. 1 qr. 18 lb. (or 53 lb. each bushel), and gave 1 cwt. 20 lb. +of flour and 26 lb. of bran; while three bushels of rye, weighing +1 cwt. 1 qr. 22 lb. (or 54 lb. the bushel), gave only 1 cwt. 17 lb. +of flour and 28 lb. of bran.-- But I much suspect that the Indian +Corn used in these experiments was not of the best quality[13]. + +I saw some of it, and it appeared to me to be of that kind which +is commonly grown in the southern states of North America.-- +Indian Corn of the growth of colder climates is, probably, at +least as heavy as wheat, which weights at a medium about 58 lb. +per bushel, and I imagine it will give nearly as much flour[14]. + +In regard to the most advantageous method of using Indian Corn as +Food, I would strongly recommend, particularly when it is +employed for feeding the Poor, a dish made of it that is in the +highest estimation throughout America, and which is really very +good, and very nourishing. This is called hasty-pudding; and it +is made in the following manner: A quantity of water, +proportioned to the quantity of hasty-pudding intended to be +made, is put over the fire in an open iron pot, or kettle, +and a proper quantity of salt for seasoning the pudding being +previously dissolved in the water, Indian meal is stirred into +it, by little and little, with a wooded spoon with a long handle, +while the water goes on to be heated and made to boil;-- great +care being taken to put in the meal by very small quantities, +and by sifting it slowly through the fingers of the left hand, +and stirring the water about very briskly at the same time with +the wooden spoon, with the right hand, to mix the meal with the +water in such a manner as to prevent lumps being formed.-- +The meal should be added so slowly, that, when the water is +brought to boil, the mass should not be thicker than water-gruel, +and half an hour more, at least, should be employed to add the +additional quantity of meal necessary for bringing the pudding to +be of the proper consistency; during which time it should be +stirred about continually, and kept constantly boiling.-- +The method of determining when the pudding has acquired the +proper consistency is this;--the wooden spoon used for stirring +it being placed upright in the middle of the kettle, if it falls +down, more meal must be added; but if the pudding is sufficiently +thick and adhesive to support it in a vertical position, it is +declared to be PROOF; and no more meal is added.--If the boiling, +instead of being continued only half an hour, be prolonged to +three quarters of an hour, or an hour, the pudding will be +considerably improved by this prolongation. + +This hasty-pudding, when done, may be eaten in various ways.-- +It may be put, while hot, by spoonfuls into a bowl of milk, +and eaten with the milk with a spoon, in lieu of bread; and used +in this way it is remarkably palatable.--It may likewise be +eaten, while hot, with a sauce composed of butter and brown +sugar, or butter and molasses, with or without a few drops of +vinegar; and however people who have not been accustomed to this +American cookery may be prejudiced against it, they will find +upon trial that it makes a most excellent dish, and one which +never fails to be much liked by those who are accustomed to it. +--The universal fondness of Americans for it proves that it must +have some merit;--for in a country which produces all the +delicacies of the table in the greatest abundance, it is not to +be supposed that a whole nation should have a taste so depraved +as to give a decided preference to any particular species of Food +which has not something to recommend it. + +The manner in which hasty-pudding is eaten with butter and sugar, +or butter and molasses, in America, is as follows: The hasty-pudding +being spread out equally upon a plate, while hot, an excavation +is made in the middle of it, with a spoon, into which excavation +a piece of butter, as large as a nutmeg, is put; and upon it, +a spoonful of brown sugar, or more commonly of molasses.-- +The butter being soon melted by the heat of the pudding, mixes +with the sugar, or molasses, and forms a sauce, which, being +confined in the excavation made for it, occupies the middle of +the plate.--The pudding is then eaten with a spoon, each spoonful +of it being dipt into the sauce before it is carried to the mouth; +care being had in taking it up, to begin on the outside, or near +the brim of the plate, and to approach the center by regular +advances, in order not to demolish too soon the excavation which +forms the reservoir for the sauce. + +If I am prolix in these descriptions, my reader must excuse me; +for persuaded as I am that the action of Food upon the palate, +and consequently the pleasure of eating, depends very much indeed +upon the MANNER in which the Food is applied to the organs of +taste, I have thought it necessary to mention, and even to +illustrate in the clearest manner, every circumstance which +appeared to me to have influence in producing those important +effects. + +In the case in question, as it is the sauce alone which gives +taste and palatableness to the Food, and consequently is the +cause of the pleasure enjoyed in eating it, the importance of +applying, or using it, in such a manner as to produce the +greatest and most durable effect possible on the organs of taste, +is quite evident; and in the manner of eating this Food which has +here been described and recommended, the small quantity of sauce +used, (and the quantity must be small, as it is the expensive +article,) is certainly applied to the palate more immediately;-- +by a greater surface;--and in a state of greater condensation;-- +and consequently acts upon it more powerfully;--and continues to +act upon it for a greater length of time, than it could well be +made to do when used in any other way.--Were it more intimately +mixed with the pudding, for instance, instead of being merely +applied to its external surface, its action would certainly be +much less powerful; and were it poured over the pudding, or was +proper care not taken to keep it confined in the little +excavation or reservoir made in the midst of the pudding to +contain it, much of it would attach itself and adhere to the +surface of the plate, and be lost. + +Hasty-pudding has this in particular to recommend it;--and which +renders it singularly useful as Food for poor families,--that +when more of it is made at once than is immediately wanted, +what remains may be preserved good for several days, and a number +of very palatable dishes may be made of it.--It may be cut in +thin slice, and toasted before the fire, or on a gridiron, and +eaten instead of bread, either in milk, or in any kind of soup or +pottage; or with any other kind of Food with which bread is +commonly eaten; or it may be eaten cold, without any preparation, +with a warm sauce made of butter, molasses, or sugar, and a +little vinegar.--In this last-mentioned way of eating it, +it is quite as palatable, and I believe more wholesome, than when +eaten warm; that is to say, when it is first made.--It may +likewise be put cold, without any preparation, into hot milk; +and this mixture is by no means unpalatable, particularly if it +be suffered to remain in the milk till it is warmed throughout, +or if it be boiled in the milk for a few moments. + +A favourite dish in America, and a very good one, is made of cold +boiled cabbage chopped fine, with a small quantity of cold boiled +beef, and slices of cold hasty-pudding, all fried together in +butter or hog's lard. + +Though hasty-puddings are commonly made of Indian meal, yet it is +by no means uncommon to make them of equal parts of Indian, +and of rye meal;--and they are sometimes made of rye meal alone; +or of rye meal and wheat flour mixed. + +To give a satisfactory idea of the expence of preparing +hasty-puddings in this country, (England,) and of feeding the +Poor with them, I made the following experiment:--About 2 pints +of water, which weighed just 2 lb. Avoirdupois, were put over +the fire in a saucepan of a proper size, and 58 grains in weight +or 1/120 of a pound of salt being added, the water was made to +boil.--During the time that is was heating, small quantities of +Indian meal were stirred into it, and care was taken, by moving +the water briskly about, with a wooden spoon, to prevent the meal +from being formed into lumps; and as often as any lumps were +observed, they were carefully broken with the spoon;--the boiling +was then continued half an hour, and during this time the pudding +was continually stirred about with the wooden spoon, and so much +more meal was added as was found necessary to bring the pudding +to be of the proper consistency. + +This being done, it was taken from the fire and weighed, and was +found to weigh just 1 lb. 11 1/2 oz.--Upon weighing the meal +which remained, (the quantity first provided having been exactly +determined by weight in the beginning of the experiment,) it was +found that just HALF A POUND of meal had been used. + +From the result of this experiment it appears, that for each +pound of Indian meal employed in making hasty-pudding, we may +reckon 3 lb. 9 oz. of the pudding.--And expence of providing this +kind of Food, or the cost of it by the pound, at the present high +price of grain in this country, may be seen by the following +computation: + + L. s. d. +Half a pound of Indian meal, (the quantity) ] + used in the foregoing experiment,) at 2d ] + a pound or 7s. 6d. a bushel for the corn, ]... 0 0 1 + (the price stated in the report of the ] + Board of Agriculture of the 10th of ] + November 1795, so often referred to,) costs] + +58 grains or 1/120 of a pound of salt, at ] +2d. per pound ]... 0 0 0 1/60 + ------------ + Total, 0 0 1 1/60 + +Now, as the quantity of pudding prepared with these ingredients +was 1 lb. 11 1/2 oz. and the cost of the ingredients amounted to +ONE PENNY AND ONE SIXTIETH OF A PENNY, this gives for the cost of +one pound of hasty-pudding 71/120 of a penny, or 2 1/3 farthings, +very nearly.--It must however be remembered that the Indian Corn +is here reckoned at a very exorbitant price indeed[15]. + +But before it can be determined what the expence will be of +feeding the Poor with this kind of Food, it will be necessary to +ascertain how much of it will be required to give a comfortable +meal to one person; and how much the expence will be of providing +the sauce for that quantity of pudding.--To determine these two +points with some degree of precision, I made the following +experiment:-- Having taken my breakfast, consisting of two dishes +of coffee, with cream, and a dry toast, at my usual hour of +breakfasting, (nine o'clock in the morning,) and having fasted +from that time till five o'clock in the afternoon, I then dined +upon my hasty-pudding, with the American sauce already described, +and I found, after my appetite for Food was perfectly satisfied, +and I felt that I had made a comfortable dinner, that I had eaten +just 1 lb. 1 1/2 oz. of the pudding; and the ingredients, +of which the sauce which was eaten with it was composed, were half +an ounce of butter; three quarters of an ounce of molasses; +and 21 grains or 1/342 of a pint of vinegar. + +The cost of this dinner may be seen by the following +computation: + + For the Pudding + Farthings. + 1 lb. 1 1/2 oz. of hasty-pudding, at + 2 1/3 farthings a pound ... ... ... ... 2 1/2 + ------ + For the Sauce + + Half an ounce of butter, at 10d. per pound 1 1/4 + Three quarters of an ounce of molasses, + at 6d. per pound ... ... ... ... 1 + 1/352 of a pint of vinegar, at 2s 8d. + the gallon ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 1/16 + ------ + Total for the Sauce, 2 5/16 farthings. + + Sum total of expences for this dinner, + for the pudding and its sauce... ... ... 4 13/16 farthings. + Or something less than one penny farthing. + +I believe it would not be easy to provide a dinner in London, at +this time, when provisions of all kinds are so dear, equally +grateful to the palate and satisfying to the cravings of hunger, +at a smaller expence.--And that this meal was sufficient for all +the purposes of nourishment appears from hence, that though I +took my usual exercise, and did not sup after it, I neither felt +any particular faintness, nor any unusual degree of appetite for +my breakfast next morning. + +I have been the more particular in my account of this experiment, +to show in what manner experiments of this kind ought, in my +opinion, to be conducted;--and also to induce others to engage in +these most useful investigations. + +It will not escape the observation of the reader, that small as +the expence was of providing this dinner, yet very near one-half +of that sum was laid out in purchasing the ingredients for the +sauce.--But it is probable that a considerable part of that +expence might be saved.--In Italy, polenta, which is nothing more +than hasty-pudding made with Indian meal and water, is very +frequently, and I believe commonly eaten without any sauce, and +when on holidays or other extraordinary occasions they indulge +themselves by adding a sauce to it, this sauce is far from +expensive.--It is commonly nothing more than a very small +quantity of butter spread over the flat surface of the hot +polenta which is spread out thin in a large platter; with a +little Parmezan or other strong cheese, reduced to a coarse +powder by grating it with a grater, strewed over it. + +Perhaps this Italian sauce might be more agreeable to an English +palate than that commonly used in America. It would certainly be +less expensive, as much less butter would be required, and as +cheese in this country is plenty and cheap. But whatever may be +the sauce used with Food prepared of Indian Corn, I cannot too +strongly recommend the use of that grain. + +While I was employed in making my experiment upon hasty-pudding, +I learnt from my servant, (a Bavarian,) who assisted me, a fact +which gave me great pleasure, as it served to confirm me in the +opinion I have long entertained of the great merit of Indian +Corn.--He assured me that polenta is much esteemed by the +peasantry in Bavaria, and that it makes a very considerable +article of their Food; that it comes from Italy through the +Tyrol; and that it is commonly sold in Bavaria AT THE SAME PRICE +AS WHEAT FLOUR! Can there be stronger proofs of its merit? + +The negroes in America prefer it to rice; and the Bavarian +peasants to wheat.--Why then should not the inhabitants of this +island like it? It will not, I hope, be pretended, that it is in +this favoured soil alone that prejudices take such deep root that +they are never to be eradicated, or that there is any thing +peculiar in the construction of the palate of an Englishman. + +The objection that may be made to Indian Corn,--that it does not +thrive well in this country,--is of no weight. The same +objection might, with equal reason, be made to rice, and twenty +other articles of Food now in common use. + +It has ever been considered, by those versed in the science of +political economy, as an object of the first importance to keep +down the prices of provisions, particularly in manufacturing and +commercial countries;--and if there be a country on earth where +this ought to be done, it is surely Great Britain:--and there is +certainly no country which has the means of doing it so much in +its power. + +But the progress of national improvements must be very slow, +however favorable other circumstances may be, where those +citizens, who, by their rank and situation in society, are +destined to direct the public opinion, AFFECT to consider the +national prejudices as unconquerable[16].--But to return to the +subject immediately under consideration. + +Though hasty-pudding is, I believe, the cheapest Food that can be +prepared with Indian Corn, yet several other very cheap dishes +may be made of it, which in general are considered as being more +palatable, and which, most probably, would be preferred in this +country; and among these, what in America is called a plain +Indian pudding certainly holds the first place, and can hardly +fail to be much liked by those, who will be persuaded to try +it.--It is not only cheap and wholesome, but a great delicacy; +and it is principally on account of these puddings that the +Americans, who reside in this country, import annually for their +own consumption Indian Corn from the Continent of America. + +In order to be able to give the most particular and satisfactory +information respecting the manner of preparing these Indian +puddings, I caused one of them to be made here, (in London,) +under my immediate direction, by a person born and brought up in +North America, and who understands perfectly the American art of +cookery in all its branches[17]. This pudding, which was allowed +by competent judges who tasted it to be as good as they had ever +eaten, was composed and prepared in the following manner: + +Approved Receipt for making a plain Indian Pudding. + +Three pounds of Indian meal (from which the bran had been +separated by sifting it in a common hair sieve) were put into a +large bowl, and five pints of boiling water were put to it, +and the whole well stirred together; three quarters of a pound of +molasses and one ounce of salt were then added to it, and these +being well mixed, by stirring them with the other ingredients, +the pudding was poured into a fit bag; and the bag being tied up, +(an empty space being left in the bag tying it, equal to about +one-sixth of its contents, for giving room for the pudding to +swell,) this pudding was put into a kettle of boiling water, +and was boiled six hours without intermission; the loss of the +water in the kettle by evaporation during this time being +frequently replaced with boiling water from another kettle. + +The pudding upon being taken out of the bag weighed ten pounds +and one ounce; and it was found to be perfectly done, not having +the smallest remains of that raw taste so disagreeable to all +palates, and particularly to those who are not used to it, which +always predominates in dishes prepared of Indian meal when they +are not sufficiently cooked. + +As this raw taste is the only well-founded objection that can be +made to this most useful grain, and is, I am persuaded, the only +cause which makes it disliked by those who are not accustomed to it, +I would advise those who may attempt to introduce it into common +use, where it is not known, to begin with Indian (bag) puddings, +such as I have here been describing; and that this is a very +cheap kind of Food will be evident from the following +computation: + +Expense of preparing the Indian Pudding above mentioned. + + Pence. Pence. + 3 lb. of Indian meal at ... ... 1 1/2 ... 4 1/2 +3/4 lb. of molasses at ... ... 6 ... 4 1/2 + 1 oz. of salt at 2d. per lb. ... ... ... 0 1/8 + ------ + Total for the ingredients, 9 1/8 + +As this pudding weighed 10 1/16 lbs. and the ingredients cost +nine pence and half a farthing, this gives three farthings and a +half for each pound of pudding. + +It will be observed, that in this computation I have reckoned the +Indian meal at no more than 1 1/2d per pound, whereas in the +calculation which was given to determine the expense of preparing +hasty-pudding it was taken at two pence a pound. I have here +reckoned it at 1 1/2d. a pound, because I am persuaded it might +be had here in London for that price, and even for less.--That +which has lately been imported from Boston has not cost so much; +and were it not for the present universal scarcity of provisions +in Europe, which has naturally raised the price of grain in North +America, I have no doubt but Indian meal might be had in this +country for less than one penny farthing per pound. + +In composing the Indian pudding above mentioned, the molasses is +charged at 6d. the pound, but that price is very exorbitant. +A gallon of molasses weighing about 10 lb. commonly costs in the +West Indies from 7d. to 9d. sterling; and allowing sufficiently +for the expenses of freight, insurance, and a fair profit for the +merchant, it certainly ought not to cost in London more than 1s. 8d. +the gallon[18]; and this would bring it to 2d. per pound. + +If we take the prices of Indian meal and molasses as they are +here ascertained, and compute the expense of the ingredients for +the pudding before mentioned, it will be as follows:-- + + Pence. Pence. + 3 lb. of Indian meal at ... ... 1 1/4 ... 3 3/4 +3/4 lb. of molasses at ... ... 2 ... 1 1/2 + 1 oz. of salt at 2d. per lb. ... ... ... 0 1/8 + ------ + Total for the ingredients, 5 3/8 + +Now as the pudding weighed 10 1/16 lbs. this gives two farthings, +very nearly, for each pound of pudding; which is certainly very +cheap indeed, particularly when the excellent qualities of the +Food are considered. + +This pudding, which ought to come out of the bag sufficiently +hard to retain its form, and even to be cut into slices, is so +rich and palatable, that it may very well be eaten without any +sauce; but those who can afford it commonly eat it with butter. +A slice of the pudding, about half an inch, or three quarters of +an inch in thickness, being laid hot upon a plate, an excavation +is made in the middle of it, with the point of the knife, into +which a small piece of butter, as large perhaps as a nutmeg, +is put, and where it soon melts. To expedite the melting of +the butter, the small piece of pudding which is cut out of the +middle of the slice to form the excavation for receiving the +butter, is frequently laid over the butter for a few moments, +and is taken away (and eaten) as soon as the butter is melted. +If the butter is not salt enough, a little salt is put into it +after it is melted. The pudding is to be eaten with a knife and +fork, beginning at the circumference of the slice, and +approaching regularly towards the center, each piece of pudding +being taken up with the fork, and dipped into the butter, or +dipped into it IN PART ONLY, as is commonly the case, before it +is carried to the mouth. + +To those who are accustomed to view objects upon a great scale, +and who are too much employed in directing what ought to be done, +to descend to those humble investigations which are necessary to +show HOW it is to be effected, these details will doubtless +appear trifling and ridiculous; but as my mind is strongly +impressed with the importance of giving the most minute and +circumstantial information respecting the MANNER OF PERFORMING +any operation, however simple it may be, to which people have not +been accustomed, I must beg the indulgence of those who may not +feel themselves particularly interested in these descriptions. + +In regard to the amount of the expence for sauce for a plain +Indian (bag) pudding, I have found that when butter is used for +that purpose, (and no other sauce ought ever to be used with it,) +half an ounce of butter will suffice for one pound of the pudding. +--It is very possible to contrive matters so as to use much +more;--perhaps twice, or three times as much;--but if the +directions relative to the MANNER of eating this Food, which have +already been given, are strictly followed, the allowance of +butter here determined will be quite sufficient for the purpose +for which it is designed; that is to say, for giving an agreeable +relish to the pudding.--Those who are particularly fond of butter +may use three quarters of an ounce of it with a pound of the +pudding; but I am certain, that to use an ounce would be to waste +it to no purpose whatever. + +If now we reckon Irish, or other firkin butter, (which, as it is +salted, is the best that can be used,) at eight pence the pound, +the sauce for one pound of pudding, namely, half an ounce of +butter, will cost just one farthing; and this, added to the cost +of the pudding, two farthings the pound, gives three farthing for +the cost by the pound of this kind of food, with its sauce; and, +as this food is not only very rich and nutritive, but satisfying +at the same time in a very remarkable degree, it appears how well +calculated it is for feeding the Poor. + +It should be remembered, that the molasses used as an ingredient +in these Indian puddings, does not serve merely to give taste to +them;--it acts a still more important part;--it gives what, in +the language of the kitchen, is called lightness.--It is a +substitute for eggs, and nothing but eggs can serve as a +substitute for it, except it be treacle; which, in fact, is a +kind of molasses; or perhaps coarse brown sugar, which has nearly +the same properties.-- It prevents the pudding from being heavy, +and clammy; and without communicating to it any disagreeable +sweet taste, or any thing of that flavour peculiar to molasses, +gives it a richness uncommonly pleasing to the palate. And to +this we may add, that it is nutritive in a very extraordinary +degree.--This is a fact well known in all countries where sugar +is made. + +How far the laws and regulations of trade existing in this +country might render it difficult to procure molasses from those +places where it may be had at the cheapest rate, I know +not;--nor can I tell how far the free importation of it might be +detrimental to our public finances;--I cannot, however, help +thinking, that it is so great an object to this country to keep +down the prices of provisions, or rather to check the alarming +celerity with which they are rising, that means ought to be found +to facilitate the importation, and introduction into common use, +of an article of Food of such extensive utility. It might serve +to correct in some measure, the baleful influence of another +article of foreign produce, (tea,) which is doing infinite harm +in this island. + +A point of great importance in preparing an Indian pudding, is to +boil it PROPERLY and SUFFICIENTLY. The water must be actually +boiling when the pudding is put into it; and it never must be +suffered to cease boiling for a moment, till it is done; and if +the pudding is not boiled full six hours, it will not be +sufficiently cooked.--Its hardness, when done, will depend on the +space left in the bag its expansion. The consistency of the +pudding ought to be such, that it can be taken out of the bag +without falling to pieces;--but it is always better, on many +accounts, to make it too hard than too soft. The form of the +pudding may be that of a cylinder; of rather of a truncated cone, +the largest end being towards the mouth of the bag, in order +that it may be got out of the bag with greater facility; or it +may be made of a globular form, by tying it up in a napkin.--But +whatever is the form of the pudding, the bag, or napkin in which +it is to be boiled, must be wet in boiling water before the +pudding, (which is quite liquid before it is boiled,) is poured +into it; otherwise it will be apt to run through the cloth. + +Though this pudding is so good, perfectly plain, when made +according to the directions here given, that I do not thing it +capable of any real improvement; yet there are various additions +that may be made to it, and that frequently are made to it, which +may perhaps be thought by some to render it more palatable, or +otherwise to improve it. Suet may, for instance, be added, and +there is no suet pudding whatever superior to it; and as no sauce +is necessary with a suet pudding, the expence for the suet will +be nearly balanced by the saving of butter. To a pudding of the +size of that just described, in the composition of which three +pounds of Indian meal were used, one pound of suet will be +sufficient; and this, in general, will not cost more than from +five pence to six pence, even in London;--and the butter for +sauce to a plain pudding of the same size would cost nearly as +much. The suet pudding will indeed be rather the cheapest of the +two, for the pound of suet will add a pound in weight to the +pudding;--whereas the butter will only add five ounces. + +As the pudding, made plain, weighing 10 1/16 lb. cost 5 3/8 pence, +the same pudding, with the addition of one pound of suet, would +weigh 11 1/16 lb. and would cost 11 1/8 pence,--reckoning the +suet at six pence the pound.--Hence it appears that Indian suet +pudding may be made in London for about one penny a pound. +Wheaten bread, which is by no means so palatable, and certainly +not half so nutritive, now costs something more than three pence +the pound: and to this may be added, that dry bread can hardly be +eaten alone; but of suet pudding a very comfortable meal may be +made without any thing else. + +A pudding in great repute in all parts of North America, is what +is called an apple pudding. This is an Indian pudding, sometimes +with, and sometimes without suet, with dried cuttings of sweet +apples mixed with it; and when eaten with butter, it is most +delicious Food. These apples, which are pared as soon as they +are gathered from the tree, and being cut into small pieces, are +freed from their cores, and thoroughly dried in the sun, may be +kept good for several years. The proportions of the ingredients +used in making these apple puddings are various; but, in general, +about one pound of dried apples is mixed with three pounds of +meal,--three quarters of a pound of molasses,--half an ounce of +salt, and five pints of boiling water. + +In America, various kinds of berries, found wild in the woods, +such as huckle-berries, belberries, whortle-berries, etc. are +gathered and dried, and afterwards used as ingredients in Indian +puddings: and dried cherries and plums may be made use of in the +same manner. + +All these Indian puddings have this advantage in common, that +they are very good WARMED UP.--They will all keep good several +days; and when cut into thin slices and toasted, are an excellent +substitute for bread. + +It will doubtless be remarked, that in computing the expence of +providing these different kinds of puddings, I have taken no +notice of the expence which will be necessary for fuel to cook +them.--This is an article which ought undoubtedly to be taken +into the account. The reason of my not doing it here is this:-- +Having, in the course of my Experiments on Heat, found means to +perform all the common operations of cookery with a surprisingly +small expence of fuel, I find that the expence in question, when +the proper arrangements are made for saving fuel, will be very +trifling. And farther, as I mean soon to publish my Treatise on +the Management of Heat, in which I shall give the most ample +directions relative to the mechanical arrangements of kitchen +fire-places, and the best forms for all kinds of kitchen utensils, +I was desirous not to anticipate a subject which will more +naturally find its place in another Essay.--In the mean time I +would observe, for the satisfaction of those who may have doubts +respecting the smallness of the expence necessary for fuel in +cooking for the Poor, that the result of many experiments, +of which I shall hereafter publish a particular account, has proved +in the most satisfactory manner, that when Food is prepared in +large quantities, and cooked in kitchens properly arranged, the +expense for fuel ought never to amount to more than two per cent. +of the cost of the Food, even where victuals of the cheapest kind +are provided, such as is commonly used in feeding the Poor. +In the Public Kitchen of the House of Industry at Munich the +expence for fuel is less than one per cent. of the cost of the +Food, as may be seen in the computation, page 206, Chapter III. +of this Essay: and it ought not to be greater in many parts of +Great Britain. + +With regard to the price at which Indian Corn can be imported +into this country from North America in time of peace, the +following information, which I procured through the medium of a +friend, from Captain Scott, a most worthy man, who has been +constantly employed above thirty years as master of a ship in the +trade between London and Boston in the State of Massachusetts, +will doubtless be considered as authentic[19]. + +The following are the questions which were put to him,--with his +answers to them: + +Q. What is the freight, per ton, of merchandise from Boston in +North America to London in time of peace?----A. Forty shillings +(sterling). + +Q. What is the freight, per barrel, of Indian Corn?----A. Five +shillings. + +Q. How much per cent. is paid for insurance from Boston to +London in time of peace?---- A. Two per cent. + +Q. What is the medium price of Indian Corn, per bushel, +in New England?----A. Two shillings and sixpence. + +Q. What is the price of it at this time?----A. Three shillings +and sixpence. + +Q. How many bushels of Indian Corn are reckoned to a barrel? +----A. Four + +From this account it appears that Indian Corn might, in time of +peace, be imported into this country and sold here for less than +four shillings the bushel;--and that it ought not to cost at this +moment much more than five shillings a bushel. + +If it be imported in casks, (which is certainly the best way of +packing it,) as the freight of a barrel containing four bushels +is five shillings, this gives 1s. 3d. a bushel for freight; and +if we add one penny a bushel for insurance, this will make the +amount of freight and insurance 1s. 4d. which, added to the prime +cost of the Corn in America, (2s. 6d. per bushel in the time of +peace, and 3s. 6d. at this time,) will bring it to 3s. 10d. per +bushel in time of peace, and 4s. 10d at this present moment. + +A bushel of Indian Corn of the growth of New England was found to +weigh 61 lb.; but we will suppose it to weigh at a medium only 60 +lb. per bushel; and we will also suppose that to each bushel of +Corn when ground there is 9 lb. of bran, which is surely a very +large allowance, and 1 lb. of waste in grinding and sifting;-- +this will leave 50 lb. of flour for each bushel of the Corn; +and as it will cost, in time of peace, only 3s. 10d. or 46 pence, +this gives for each pound of flour 46/50 of a penny, or 3 3/4 +farthings very nearly. + +If the price of the Indian Corn per bushel be taken at 4s. 10d. +what it ought to cost at this time in London, without any bounty +on importation being brought into the account,--the price of the +flour will be 4s. 10d equal to 58 pence for 50 lb. in weight, +or 1 1/6 penny the pound, which is less than one third of the +present price of wheat flour. Rice, which is certainly not more +nourishing than Indian Corn, costs 4 1/2 pence the pound. + +If 1/13 of the value of Indian Corn be added to defray the +expence of grinding it, the price of the flour will not even then +be greater in London than one penny the pound in time of peace, +and about one penny farthing at the present high price of that +grain in North America. Hence it appears, that in stating the +mean price in London of the flour of Indian Corn at one penny +farthing, I have rather rated it too high than too low. + +With regard to the expense of importing it, there may be, +and doubtless there are frequently other expences besides those +of freight and insurance; but, on the other hand, a very +considerable part of the expences attending the importation of it +may be reimbursed by the profits arising from the sale of the +barrels in which it is imported, as I have been informed by a +person who imports it every year, and always avails himself of +that advantage. + +One circumstance much in favour of the introduction of Indian +Corn into common use in this country is the facility with which +it may be had in any quantity. It grows in all quarters of the +globe, and almost in every climate; and in hot countries two or +three crops of it may be raised from the same ground in the +course of a year.--It succeeds equally well in the cold regions +of Canada;--in the temperate climes of the United States of +America;--and in the burning heats of the tropics; and it might +be had from Africa and Asia as well as from America. And were it +even true,--what I never can be persuaded to believe,--that it +would be impossible to introduce it as an article of Food in this +country, it might at least be used as fodder for cattle, whose +aversion to it, I will venture to say, would not be found to be +UNCONQUERABLE. + +Oats now cost near two pence the pound in this country. +Indian Corn, which would cost but a little more than half as much, +would certainly be much more nourishing, even for horses, as well +as for horned cattle;--and as for hogs and poultry, they ought +never to be fed with any other grain. Those who have tasted the +pork and the poultry fatted on Indian Corn will readily give +their assent to this opinion. + + +CHAPTER. VII. + + Receipts for preparing various Kinds of cheap Food. + Of MACCARONI. + Of POTATOES. + Approved receipts for boiling potatoes. + Of potatoe puddings. + Of potatoe dumplings. + Of boiled potatoes with a sauce. + Of potatoe salad. + Of BARLEY + Is much more nutritious than wheat. + Barley meal, a good substitute for pearl barley, for making + soups. + General directions for preparing cheap soups. + Receipt for the cheapest soup that can be made. + Of SAMP + Method of preparing it + Is an excellent Substitute for Bread. + Of brown Soup. + Of RYE BREAD. + +When I began writing the foregoing Chapter of this Essay, I had +hopes of being able to procure satisfactory information +respecting the manner in which the maccaroni eaten by the Poor in +Italy, and particularly in the kingdom of Naples, is prepared;-- +but though I have taken much pains in making these inquiries, my +success in them has not been such as I could have wished:-- +The process, I have often been told, is very simple; and from +the very low price at which maccaroni is sold, ready cooked, to +the Lazzaroni in the streets of Naples, it cannot be expensive. +--There is a better kind of maccaroni which is prepared and sold +by the nuns in some of the convents in Italy, which is much dearer; +but this sort would in any country be too expensive to be used as +Food for the Poor.--It is however not dearer than many kinds of +Food used by the Poor in this country; and as it is very +palatable and wholesome, and may be used in a variety of ways, +a receipt for preparing it may perhaps not be unacceptable to +many of my readers. + +A Receipt for making that Kind of Maccaroni called in Italy +TAGLIATI. + +Take any number of fresh-laid eggs and break them into a bowl or +tray, beat them up with a spoon, but not to a froth,--add of the +finest wheat flour as much as is necessary to form a dough of the +consistence of paste.--Work this paste well with a rolling-pin;-- +roll it out into very thin leaves;--lay ten or twelve of these +leaves one upon the other, and with a sharp knife cut them into +very fine threads.--These threads (which, if the mass is of a +proper consistency, will not adhere to each other) are to be laid +on a clean board, or on paper, and dried in the air. + +This maccaroni, (or cut paste as it is called in Germany, where +it is in great repute,) may be eaten in various ways; but the +most common way of using it is to eat it with milk instead of +bread, and with chicken broth, and other broths and soups, +with which it is boiled. With proper care it may be kept good +for many months. It is sometimes fried in butter, and in this way +of cooking it, it forms a most excellent dish indeed; inferior, +I believe, to no dish of flour that can be made. It is not, +however, a very cheap dish, as eggs and butter are both expensive +articles in most countries. + +An inferiour kind of cut paste is sometimes prepared by the Poor +in Germany, which is made simply of water and wheat flour, +and this has more resemblance to common maccaroni than that just +described; and might, in many cases, be used instead of it. I do +not think, however, that it can be kept long without spoiling; +whereas maccaroni, as is well known, may be kept good for a great +length of time.--Though I have not been able to get any +satisfactory information relative to the process of making +maccaroni, yet I have made some experiments to ascertain the +expense of cooking it, and of the cost of the cheese necessary +for giving it a relish. + +Half a pound of maccaroni, which was purchased at an Italian shop +in London, and which cost ten pence[20], was boiled till it was +sufficiently done, namely, about one hour and an half, when, +being taken out of the boiling water and weighed, it was found to +weigh thirty-one ounces and an half, or one pound fifteen ounces +and an half. The quantity of cheese employed to give a relish to +this dish of boiled maccaroni, (and which was grated over it +after it was put into the dish,) was one ounce, and cost two +farthings. + +Maccaroni is considered as very cheap Food in those countries +where it is prepared in the greatest perfection, and where it is +in common use among the lower classes of society; and as wheat, +of which grain it is always made, is a staple commodity in this +country, it would certainly be worth while to take some trouble +to introduce the manufacture of it, particularly as it is already +become an article of luxury upon the tables of the rich, and as +great quantities of it are annually imported and sold here at a +most exorbitant price[21]:--But maccaroni is by no means the +cheapest Food that can be provided for feeding the Poor, in this +island;--nor do I believe it is so in any country.--Polenta, +or Indian Corn, of which so much has already been said,-- +and Potatoes, of which too much cannot be said,--are both much +better adapted, in all respects, for that purpose.--Maccaroni +would however, I am persuaded, could it be prepared in this +country, be much less expensive than many kinds of Food now +commonly used by our Poor; and consequently might be of +considerable use to them. + +With regard to Potatoes they are now so generally known and +their usefulness is so universally acknowledged, that it would be +a waste of time to attempt to recommend them.--I shall therefore +content myself with merely giving receipts for a few cheap dishes +in which they are employed as a principal ingredient. + +Though there is no article used as Food of which a greater +variety of well-tasted and wholesome dishes may be prepared than +of potatoes, yet it seems to be the unanimous opinion of those +who are most acquainted with these useful vegetables, that the +best way of cooking them is to boil them simply, and with their +skins on, in water.--But the manner of boiling them is by no +means a matter of indifference.--This process is better +understood in Ireland, where by much the greater part of the +inhabitants live almost entirely on this Food, than any where else. + +This is what might have been expected;--but those who have never +considered with attention the extreme slowness of the progress of +national improvements, WHERE NOBODY TAKES PAINS TO ACCELERATE +THEM, will doubtless be surprised when they are told that in most +parts of England, though the use of potatoes all over the country +has for so many years been general, yet, to this hour, few, +comparatively, who eat them, know how to dress them properly.-- +The inhabitants of those countries which lie on the sea-coast +opposite to Ireland have adopted the Irish method of boiling +potatoes; but it is more than probable that a century at least +would have been required for those improvements to have made +their way through the island, had not the present alarms on +account of a scarcity of grain roused the public, and fixed their +attention upon a subject too long neglected in this enlightened +country. + +The introduction of improvements tending to increase the comforts +and innocent enjoyments of that numerous and useful class of +mankind who earn their bread by the sweat of their brow, is an +object not more interesting to a benevolent mind than it is +important in the eyes of an enlightened statesman. + +There are, without doubt, GREAT MEN who will smile at seeing +these observations connected with a subject so humble and obscure +as the boiling of potatoes, but GOOD MEN will feel that the +subject is not unworthy of their attention. + +The following directions for boiling potatoes, which I have +copied from a late Report of the Board of Agriculture, I can +recommend from my own experience: + + On the boiling of Potatoes so as to be eat as Bread. + +There is nothing that would tend more to promote the consumption +of potatoes than to have the proper mode of preparing them as +Food generally known.--In London, this is little attended to; +whereas in Lancashire and Ireland the boiling of potatoes is +brought to very great perfection indeed. When prepared in the +following manner, if the quality of the root is good, they may be +eat as bread, a practice not unusual in Ireland.--The potatoes +should be, as much as possible, of the same size, and the large +and small ones boiled separately.--They must be washed clean, +and, without paring or scraping, put in a pot with cold water, +not sufficient to cover them, as they will produce themselves, +before they boil, a considerable quantity of fluid.--They do not +admit being put into a vessel of boiling water like greens.-- +If the potatoes are tolerably large, it will be necessary, +as soon as they begin to boil, to throw in some cold water, +and occasionally to repeat it, till the potatoes are boiled to +the heart, (which will take from half an hour to an hour and a +quarter, according to their size,) they will otherwise crack, +and burst to pieces on the outside, whilst the inside will be +nearly in a crude state, and consequently very unpalatable and +unwholesome.--During the boiling, throwing in a little salt +occasionally is found a great improvement, and it is certain that +the slower they are cooked the better.--When boiled, pour off the +water, and evaporate the moisture, by replacing the vessel in +which the potatoes were boiled once more over the fire. +--This makes them remarkably dry and mealy.--They should be +brought to the table with the skins on, and eat with a little +salt, as bread.--Nothing but experience can satisfy any one how +superior the potatoe is, thus prepared, if the sort is good and +meally.-- Some prefer roasting potatoes; but the mode above +detailed, extracted partly from the interesting paper of Samuel +Hayes, Esquire, of Avondale, in Ireland, (Report on the Culture +of Potatoes, P. 103.), and partly from the Lancashire reprinted +Report (p.63.), and other communications to the Board, is at +least equal, if not superior.--Some have tried boiling potatoes +in steam, thinking by that process that they must imbibe less +water.--But immersion in water causes the discharge of a certain +substance, which the steam alone is incapable of doing, and by +retaining which, the flavour of the root is injured, and they +afterwards become dry by being put over the fire a second time +without water.--With a little butter, or milk, of fish, they make +an excellent mess. + +These directions are so clear, that it is hardly possible to +mistake them; and those who follow them exactly will find their +potatoes surprisingly improved, and will be convinced that the +manner of boiling them is a matter of much greater importance +than has hitherto been imagined. + +Were this method of boiling potatoes generally known in countries +where these vegetables are only beginning to make their way into +common use,-- as in Bavaria, for instance,--I have no doubt but +it would contribute more than any thing else to their speedy +introduction. + +The following account of an experiment, lately made in one of the +parishes of this metropolis (London), was communicated to me by a +friend, who has permitted me to publish it.--It will serve to +show,--what I am most anxious to make appear,-- that the +prejudices of the Poor in regard to their Food ARE NOT +UNCONQUERABLE + February 25th, 1796. + +The parish officers of Saint Olaves, Southwark, desirous of +contributing their aid towards lessening the consumption of +wheat, resolved on the following succedaneum for their customary +suet puddings, which they give to their Poor for dinner one day +in the week; which was ordered as follows: + + L. s. d. + 200 lb. potatoes boiled, and + skinned and mashed ... ... 0 8 0 + 2 gallons of milk ... ... ... 0 2 4 + 12 lb. of suet, at 4 1/2 ... 0 4 6 + 1 peck of flour ... ... ... 0 4 0 + Baking ... ... ... ... ... 0 1 8 + --------- + Expense 1 0 6 + --------- +Their ordinary suet pudding had been made thus: + + 2 bushels of flour ... ... ... 1 12 0 + 12 lb. suet ... ... ... ... 0 4 6 + Baking ... ... ... ... ... 0 1 8 + --------- + Expense 1 18 2 +Cost of the ingredients for the +potatoes suet pudding ... ... 1 0 6 + --------- + Difference 0 17 8 + --------- + +This was the dinner provided for 200 persons, who gave a decided +perference to the cheapest of these preparations, and with it to +be continued. + +The following baked potatoe-puddings were prepared in the hotel +where I lodge, and were tasted by a number of persons, who found +them in general very palatable. + +Baked Potatoe-puddings. + +No. I. + + 12 ounces of potatoes, boiled, skinned, and mashed; + 1 ounce of suet; + 1 ounce (or 1/16 of a pint) of milk, and + 1 ounce of Gloucester cheese. + -- +Total 15 ounces,--mixed with as much boiling water as was necessary +to bring it to a due consistence, and then baked in an earthen pan. + +No. II. + + 12 ounces of mashed potatoes as before; + 1 ounces of milk, and + 1 ounce of suet, with a sufficient quantity of salt.--Mixed up + with boiling water, and baked in a pan. + +No. III. + + 12 ounces of mashed potatoes; + 1 ounce of suet; + 1 ounce of red herrings pounded fine in a mortar.--Mixed--baked, + etc. as before. + + +No. IV. + + 12 ounces of mashed potatoes; + 1 ounce of suet, and + 1 ounce of hung beef grated fine with a grater.--Mixed and baked + as before. + +These puddings when baked weighed from 11 to 12 ounces each.-- +They were all liked by those who tasted them, but No I and No 3 +seemed to meet with the most general approbation. + + Receipt for a very cheap Potatoe-dumplin. + +Take any quantity of potatoes, half boiled;--skin or pare them, +and grate them to a coarse powder with a grater;--mix them up +with a very small quantity of flour, 1/16, for instance, of the +weight of the potatoes, or even less;--add a seasoning of salt, +pepper, and sweet herbs;--mix up the whole with boiling water to +a proper consistency, and form the mass into dumplins of the size +of a large apple.-- Roll the dumplins, when formed, in flour, to +prevent the water from penetrating them, and put them into +boiling water, and boil them till they rise to the surface of the +water, and swim, when they will be found to be sufficiently done. + +These dumplins may be made very savoury by mixing with them a +small quantity of grated hung beef, or of pounded red herring. + +Fried bread may likewise be mixed with them, and this without any +other addition, except a seasoning of salt, forms an excellent +dish. + +Upon the same principles upon which these dumplins are prepared +large boiled bag-puddings may be made; and for feeding the Poor +in a public establishment, where great numbers are to be fed, +puddings, as these is less trouble in preparing them, are always +to be preferred to dumplins. + +It would swell this Essay, (which has already exceeded the limits +assigned to it,) to the size of a large volume, were I to give +receipts for all the good dishes that may be prepared with +potatoes.--There is however one method of preparing potatoes +much in use in many parts of Germany, which appears to me to +deserve being particularly mentioned and recommended;--it is as +follows: + + A Receipt for preparing boiled Potatoes with a Sauce. + +The potatoes being properly boiled, and skinned, are cut into +slices, and put into a dish, and a sauce, similar to that +commonly used with a fricaseed chicken, is poured over them. + +This makes an excellent and a very wholesome dish, but more +calculated, it is true, for the tables of the opulent than for +the Poor.--Good sauces might however be composed for this dish +which would not be expensive.--Common milk-porridge, made rather +thicker than usual, with wheat flour, and well salted, would not +be a bad sauce for it. + + Potatoe Salad. + +A dish in high repute in some parts of Germany, and which +deserves to be particularly recommended, is a salad of potatoes. +The potatoes being properly boiled and skinned, are cut into thin +slices, and the same sauce which is commonly used for salads of +lettuce is poured over them; some mix anchovies with this sauce, +which gives it a very agreeable relish, and with potatoes it is +remarkably palatable. + +Boiled potatoes cut in slices and fried in butter, or in lard, +and seasoned with salt and pepper, is likewise a very palatable +and wholesome dish. + + Of Barley. + +I have more than once mentioned the extraordinary nutritive +powers of this grain, and the use of it in feeding the Poor +cannot be too strongly recommended.--It is now beginning to be +much used in this country, mixed with wheat flour, for making +bread; but is not, I am persuaded, in bread, but in soups, +that Barley can be employed to the greatest advantage.--It is +astonishing how much water a small quantity of Barley-meal will +thicken, and change to the consistency of a jelly; and, if my +suspicions with regard to the part which water acts in nutrition +are founded, this will enable us to account, not only for the +nutritive quality of Barley, but also for the same quality in a +still higher degree which sago and salope are known to possess.-- +Sago and Salope thicken, and change to the consistency of a +jelly, (and as I suppose, prepare for decomposition,) a greater +quantity of water than Barley, and both sago and salope are known +to be nutritious in a very extraordinary degree. + +Barley will thicken and change to a jelly much more water than +any other grain with which we are acquainted, rice even not +excepted;--and I have found reason to conclude from the result of +innumerable experiments, which in the course of several years +have been made under my direction in the public kitchen of the +House of Industry at Munich, that for making soups, Barley is by +far the best grain that can be employed. + +Were I called upon to give an opinion in regard to the +comparative nutritiousness of Barley-meal and wheat flour, +WHEN USED IN SOUPS I should not hesitate to say that I think the +former at least three or four times as nutritious as the latter. + +Scotch broth is known to be one of the most nourishing dishes in +common use; and there is no doubt but it owes its extraordinary +nutritive quality to the Scotch (or Pearl) Barley, which is +always used in preparing it.--If the Barley be omitted, the broth +will be found to be poor and washy, and will afford little +nourishment;--but any of the other ingredients may be retrenched;-- +even the meat;-- without impairing very sensibly the nutritive +quality of the Food.--Its flavour and palatableness may be impaired +by such retrenchments; but if the water be well thickened with +the Barley, the Food will still be very nourishing. + +In preparing the soup used in feeding the Poor in the House of +Industry at Munich, Pearl Barley has hitherto been used; but I +have found, by some experiments I have lately made in London, +that Pearl Barley is by no means necessary, as common Barley-meal +will answer, to all intents and purposes, just as well.--In one +respect it answers better, for it does not require half so much +boiling. + +In comparing cheap soups for feeding the Poor, the following +short and plain directions will be found to be useful: + + General Directions for preparing cheap Soup. + +First, Each portion of Soup should consist of one pint and a +quarter, which, if the Soup be rich, will afford a good meal to a +grown person.--Such a portion will in general weigh about one +pound and a quarter, or twenty ounces Avoirdupois. + +Secondly, The basis of each portion of Soup should consist of one +ounce and a quarter of Barley-meal, boiled with ONE PINT AND A +QUARTER OF WATER till the whole be reduced to the uniform +consistency of a thick jelly.--All other additions to the Soup do +little else than to serve to make it more palatable; or by +rendering a long mastication necessary, to increase and prolong +the pleasure of eating;--both these objects are however of very +great importance, and too much attention cannot be paid to them; +but both of them may, with proper management, be attained without +much expence. + +Were I asked to give a Receipt for the cheapest Food which +(in my opinion) it would be possible to provide in this country, +it would be the following: + + Receipt for a very cheap Soup. + +Take of water eight gallons, and mixing with it 5 lb. of Barley-meal, +boil it to the consistency of a thick jelly.--Season it with +salt, pepper, vinegar, sweet herbs, and four red herrings, +pounded in a mortar.--Instead of bread, add to it 5 lb. of Indian +Corn made into Samp, and stirring it together with a ladle, serve +it up immediately in portions of 20 ounces. + +Samp, which is here recommended, is a dish said to have been +invented by the savages of North America, who have no Corn-mills. +--It is Indian Corn deprived of its external coat by soaking it +ten or twelve hours in a lixivium of water and wood-ashes.-- +This coat, or husk, being separated from the kernel, rises to the +surface of the water, while the grain, which is specifically +heavier than water, remains at the bottom of the vessel; which +grain, thus deprived of its hard coat of armour, is boiled, or +rather simmered for a great length of time, two days for instance, +in a kettle of water placed near the fire.--When sufficiently +cooked, the kernels will be found to be swelled to a great size +and burst open, and this Food, which is uncommonly sweet and +nourishing, may be used in a great variety of ways; but the best +way of using it is to mix it with milk, and with soups, and broths, +as a substitute for bread. It is even better than bread for +these purposes, for besides being quite as palatable as the very +best bread, as it is less liable than bread to grow too soft when +mixed with these liquids, without being disagreeably hard, it +requires more mastication, and consequently tends more to increase +and prolong the pleasure of eating. + +The Soup which may be prepared with the quantities of ingredients +mentioned in the foregoing Receipt will be sufficient for 64 +portions, and the cost of these ingredients will be as follows: + + Pence. + For 5 lb. of Barley-meal, at 1 1/2 pence, the ] + Barley being reckoned at the present ] + very high price of it in this country, viz ]... 7 1/2 + 5s. 6d. per bushel ] + 5 lb. of Indian Corn, at 1 1/4 pence the pound ... 6 1/4 + 4 red herrings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 + Vinegar... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 + Salt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 + Pepper and sweet herbs ... ... ... ... ... 2 + ------- + Total 20 3/4 + ------- + +This sum, (20 3/4 pence,) divided by 64, the number of portions +of Soup, gives something less than ONE THIRD OF A PENNY for the +cost of each portion.--But at the medium price of Barley in Great +Britain, and of Indian Corn as it may be afforded here, I am +persuaded that this Soup may be provided at one farthing the +portion of 20 ounces. + +There is another kind of Soup in great repute among the poor +people, and indeed among the opulent farmers, in Germany, which +would not come much higher.--This is what is called burnt Soup, +or as I should rather call it, brown Soup, and it is prepared in +the following manner: + + Receipt for making BROWN SOUP. + +Take a small piece of butter and put it over the fire in a clean +frying-pan made of iron (not copper, for that metal used for this +purpose would be poisonous);-- put to it a few spoonfuls of wheat +or rye meal;--stir the whole about briskly with a broad wooden +spoon, or rather knife, with a broad and thin edge, till the +butter has disappeared, and the meal is uniformly of a deep brown +colour; great care being taken, by stirring it continually, to +prevent the meal from being burned to the pan. + +A very small quantity of this roasted meal, (perhaps half an +ounce in weight would be sufficient,) being put into a sauce-pan +and boiled with a pint and a quarter of water, forms a portion of +Soup, which, when seasoned with salt, pepper, and vinegar, and +eaten with bread cut fine, and mixed with it at the moment when +it is served up, makes a kind of Food by no means unpalatable; +and which is said to be very wholesome. + +As this Soup may be prepared in a very short time, an instant +being sufficient for boiling it; and as the ingredients for +making it are very cheap, and may be easily transported, +this Food is much used in Bavaria by our wood-cutters, who go +into the mountains far from any habitations to fell wood.-- +Their provisions for a week, (the time they commonly remain in +the mountains,) consist of a large loaf of rye bread (which, +as it does not so soon grow dry and stale as wheaten bread, +is always preferred to it); a linen bag containing a small +quantity of roasted meal;--another small bag of salt;--and a +small wooden box containing some pounded black pepper;--with a +small frying-pan of hammered iron, about ten or eleven inches in +diameter, which serves them both as an utensil for cooking, and +as a dish for containing the victuals when cooked.--They +sometimes, but not often, take with them a small bottle of +vinegar;--but black-pepper is an ingredient in brown Soup which +is never omitted.--Two table-spoonfuls of roasted meal is quite +enough to make a good portion of Soup for one person; and the +quantity of butter necessary to be used in roasting this quantity +of meal is very small, and will cost very little.--One ounce of +butter would be sufficient for roasting eight ounces of meal; and +if half an ounce of roasted meal is sufficient for making one +portion of Soup, the butter will not amount to more than 1/10 of +an ounce; and, at eight pence the pound, will cost only 1/32 of a +penny, or 1/8 of a farthing.--The cost of the meal for a portion +of this Soup is not much more considerable. If it be rye meal, +(which is said to be quite as good for roasting as the finest +wheat flour,) it will not cost, in this country, even now when +grain is so dear, more than 1 1/2d. per pound;-- 1/2 an ounce, +therefore, the quantity required for one portion of the Soup, +would cost only 6/32 of a farthing;--and the meal and butter +together no more than (1/8 + 6/32) = 10/32, or something less +than 1/3 of a farthing.--If to this sum we add the cost of the +ingredients used to season the Soup, namely, for salt, pepper and +vinegar, allowing for them as much as the amount of the cost of +the butter and the meal, or 1/3 of a farthing, this will give 2/3 +of a farthing for the cost of the ingredients used in preparing +one portion of this Soup; but as the bread which is eaten with it +is an expensive article, this Food will not, upon the whole, +be cheaper than the Soup just mentioned; and it is certainly +neither so nourishing nor so wholesome. + +Brown Soup might, however, on certain occasions, be found to be +useful. As it is so soon cooked, and as the ingredients for +making it are so easily prepared, preserved, and transported from +place to place; it might be useful to travellers, and to soldiers +on a march. And though it can hardly be supposed to be of itself +very nourishing, yet it is possible it may render the bread eaten +with it not only more nutritive, but also more wholesome;-- and +it certainly renders it more savoury and palatable.--It is the +common breakfast of the peasants in Bavaria; and it is infinitely +preferable, in all respects, to that most pernicious wash, TEA, +with which the lower classes of the inhabitants of this island +drench their stomachs, and ruin their constitutions. + +When tea is mixed with a sufficient quantity of sugar and good +cream;--when it is taken with a large quantity of bread and +butter, or with toast and boiled eggs;--and above all,--WHEN IT +IS NOT DRANK TOO HOT, it is certainly less unwholesome; but a +simple infusion of this drug, drank boiling hot, as the Poor +usually take it, is certainly a poison which, though it is +sometimes slow in its operation, never fails to produce very +fatal effects, even in the strongest constitution, where the free +use of it is continued for a considerable length of time. + + Of Rye Bread + +The prejudice in this island against bread made of Rye, is the +more extraordinary, as in many parts of the country no other kind +of bread is used; and as the general use of it in many parts of +Europe, for ages, has proved it to be perfectly wholesome.-- +In those countries where it is in common use, many persons +prefer it to bread made of the best wheat flour; and though +wheaten bread is commonly preferred to it, yet I am persuaded +that the general dislike of it, where it is not much in use, is +more owing to its being BADLY PREPARED, or not well baked, than +to any thing else. + +As an account of some experiments upon baking Rye Bread, which +were made under my immediate care and inspection in the +bake-house of the House of Industry at Munich, may perhaps be of +use to those who wish to known how good Rye Bread may be prepared; +as also to such as are desirous of ascertaining, by similar +experiments, what, in any given case, the profits of a baker +really are; I shall publish an account in detail of these +experiments, in the Appendix to this volume. + +I cannot conclude this Essay, without once more recommending, +in the most earnest manner, to the attention of the Public, +and more especially to the attention of all those who are engaged +in public affairs,--the subject which has here been attempted to +be investigated. It is certainly of very great importance, +in whatever light it is considered; and it is particularly so at +the present moment: for however statesmen may differ in opinion +with respect to the danger or expediency of making any alterations +in the constitution, or established forms of government, in times +of popular commotion, no doubts can be entertained with respect +to the policy of diminishing, as much as possible, at all times, +--and more especially in times like the present,--the misery of +the lower classes of the people. + +END OF THE THIRD ESSAY. + +Footnotes for Essay III. + +[1] +November 1795. + +[2] +The preparation of water is, in many cases, an object of more +importance than is generally imagined; particularly when it is +made use of as a vehicle for conveying agreeable tastes. +In making punch, for instance, if the water used be previously +boiled two or three hours with a handful of rice, the punch made +from it will be incomparably better, than is to say, more full +and luscious upon the palate, than when the water is not prepared. + +[3] +I cannot dismiss this subject, the feeding of cattle, without +just mentioning another practice common among our best farmers in +Bavaria, which, I think, deserves to be known. They chop the +green clover with which they feed their cattle, and mix with it a +considerable quantity of chopped straw. They pretend that this +rich succulent grass is of so clammy a nature, that unless it be +mixed with chopped straw, hay, or some other dry fodder, cattle +which are fed with it do not ruminate sufficiently. The usual +proportion of the clover to the straw, is as two to one. + +[4] +A viertl is the twelfth part of a schafl, and the Bavarian schafl +is equal to 6 31/300 Winchester bushels. + +[5] +The quantity of fuel here mentioned, though it certainly is +almost incredibly small, was nevertheless determined from the +results of actual experiments. A particular account of these +experiments will be given in my Essay on the Management of Heat +and the Economy of Fuel. + +[6] +One Bavarian schafl (equal to 6 31/100 Winchester bushels) of +barley, weighing at a medium 250 Bavarian pounds, upon being +pearled, or rolled (as it is called in Germany), is reduced to +half a schafl, which weighs 171 Bavarian pounds. The 79lb. which +it loses in the operation is the perquisite of the miller, and is +all he receives for his trouble. + +[7] +Since the First Edition of this Essay was published the experiment +with barley-meal has been tried, and the meal has been found to +answer quite as well as pearl barley, if not better, for making +these soups. Among others, Thomas Bernard, Esq. Treasurer of +the Founding Hospital, a gentleman of most respectable character, +and well known for his philanthropy and active zeal in relieving +the distresses of the Poor, has given it a very complete and fair +trial; and he found, what is very remarkable, though not difficult +to be accounted for--that the barley-meal, WITH ALL THE BRAN IN IT, +answered better, that is to say, made the soup richer, and thicker, +than when the fine flour of barley, without the bran, was used. + +[8] +By some experiments lately made it has been found that the soup +will be much improved if a small fire is made under the boiler, +just sufficient to make its contents boil up once, when the +barley and water are put into it, and then closing up immediately +the ash-hole register, and the damper in the chimney, +and throwing a thick blanket, or a warm covering over the cover +of the boiler, the whole be kept hot till the next morning. +This heat so long continued, acts very powerfully on the barley, +and causes it to thicken the water in a very surprising manner. +Perhaps the oat-meal used for making water gruel might be +improved in its effects by the same means. The experiment is +certainly worth trying. + +[9] +This invention of double bottoms might be used with great success +by distillers, to prevent their liquor, when it is thick, from +burning to the bottoms of their stills. But there is another +hint, which I have long wished to give distillers, from which, +I am persuaded, they might derive very essential advantages.--It is +to recommend to them to make up warm clothing of thick blanketing +for covering up their still-heads, and defending them from the +cold air of the atmosphere; and for covering in the same manner +all that part of the copper or boiler which rises above the +brick-work in which it is fixed. The great quantity of heat is +constantly given off to the cold air of the atmosphere in contact +with it by this naked copper, not only occasions a very great +loss of heat, and of fuel, but tends likewise very much to +EMBARRASS and to PROLONG the process of distillation; for all +the heat communicated by the naked still-head to the atmosphere +is taken from the spirituous vapour which rises from the liquor +in the still; and as this vapour cannot fail to be condensed into +spirits whenever and WHEREVER it loses ANY PART of its heat,-- +as the spirits generated in the still-head in consequence of this +communication of heat to the atmosphere do not find their way +into the worm, but trickle down and mix again with the liquor in +the still,--the bad effects of leaving the still-head exposed +naked to the cold air is quite evident. The remedy for this evil +is as cheap and as effectual, as it is simple and obvious. + +[10] +The Bavarian pound (equal to 1.238, or near one pound and a +quarter Avoirdupois,) is divided into 32 loths. + +[11] +For each 100 lb. Bavarian weight, (equal to 123.84 lb. +Avoirdupois,) of rye-meal, which the baker receives from the +magazine, he is obliged to deliver sixty-four loaves of bread, +each loaf weighing 2 lb. 5 1/2 loths; equal to 2 lb. 10 oz. +Avoirdupois;--and as each loaf is divided into six portions, +this gives seven ounces Avoirdupois for each portion. Hence it +appears that 100 lb. of rye-meal give 149 lb. of bread; for +sixty-four loaves, at 2 lb. 5 1/2 loths each, weigh 149 lb. +--When this bread is reckoned at two creutzers a Bavarian pound, +(which is about what it costs at a medium,) one portion costs +just 10/16 of a creutzer, or 120/528 of a penny sterling, which +is something less than one farthing. + +[12] +This allowance is evidently much too large; but I was willing to +show what the expence of feed the Poor would be at THE HIGHEST +CALCULATION. I have estimated the 7 ounces of rye-bread, +mentioned above, at what it ought to cost when rye is 7s. 6d. the +bushel, its present price in London. + +[13] +Farther inquiries which have since been made, have proved that +these suspicions were not without foundation. + +[14] +Since writing the above, I have had an opportunity of ascertaining, +in the most decisive and satisfactory manner, the facts relative +to the weight of Indian Corn of the growth of the northern states +of America. A friend of mine, an American gentleman, resident in +London, (George Erving, Esq. of Great George street, Hanover-square,) +who, in common with the rest of his countrymen, still retains a +liking for Indian Corn, and imports it regularly every year from +America, has just received a fresh supply of it, by one of the +last ships which has arrived from Boston in New England; and at +my desire he weighed a bushel of it, and found it to weigh 61 lb.: +It cost him at Boston three shillings and sixpence sterling the +bushel. + +[15] +The price of Indian meal as it here estimated,--(2d. a pound,) +--is at least twice as much as it would cost in Great Britain in +common years, if care was taken to import it at the cheapest rate. + +[16] +Those who dislike trouble, and feel themselves called upon by +duty and honor to take an active part in undertakings for the +public good, are extremely apt to endeavour to excuse,--to +themselves as well as to the world,--their inactivity and +supineness, by representing the undertaking in question as being +so very difficult as to make all hope of success quite chimerical +and ridiculous. + +[17] +The Housekeeper of my friend and countryman, Sir William Pepperel, +Bart. of Upper Seymour Street, Portman Square. + +[18] +Molasses imported from the French West India Islands into the +American States is commonly sold there from 12d. to 14d. +the gallon. + +[19] +This gentleman, who is as remarkable for his good fortune at sea, +as he is respectable on account of his private character and +professional knowledge, has crossed the Atlantic Ocean the almost +incredible number of ONE HUNDRED AND TEN TIMES! and without +meeting with the smallest accident. He is now on the seas in his +way to North America; and this voyage, which is his HUNDRED AND +ELEVENTH, he intends should be his last. May he arrive +safe,--and may he long enjoy in peace and quite the well-earned +fruits of his laborious life! Who can reflect on the innumerable +storms he must have experienced, and perils he has escaped, +without feeling much interested in his preservation and +happiness? + +[20] +This maccaroni would not probably have cost one quarter of that +sum at Naples.--Common maccaroni is frequently sold there as low +as fourteen grains, equal to five pence halfpenny sterling the +rottolo, weighing twenty-eight ounces and three quarters +Avoirdupois, which is three pence sterling the pound Avoirdupois. +An inferiour kind of maccaroni, such as is commonly sold at +Naples to the Poor, costs not more than two pence sterling the +pound Avoirdupois. + +[21] +If maccaroni could be made in this country as cheap as it is made +in Naples, that is to say, so as to be afforded for three pence +sterling the pound Avoirdupois, for the best sort, (and I do not +see why it should not,) as half a pound of dry maccaroni weighs +when boiled very nearly two pounds, each pound of boiled +maccaroni would cost only three farthings, and the cheese +necessary for giving it a relish one farthing more, making +together one penny; which is certainly a very moderate price for +such good and wholesome Food. + + +CONTENTS of ESSAY IV. + +of CHIMNEY FIRE-PLACES, with PROPOSALS for improving them to save +FUEL; to render dwelling-houses more COMFORTABLE and SALUBRIOUS, +and effectually to prevent CHIMNIES from SMOKING. + +ADVERTISEMENT + +CHAPTER. I. + Fire-places for burning coals, or wood, in an open chimney, + are capable of great improvement. + Smoking chimnies may in all cases be completely cured. + The immoderate size of the throats of chimnies the principal + cause of all their imperfections. + Philosophical investigation of the subject. + Remedies proposed for all the defects that have been discovered + in chimnies and their open fire-places. + These remedies applicable to chimnies destined for burning + wood, or turf, as well as those constructed for burning coals. + +CHAPTER. II. + Practical directions designed for the use of workmen, showing + how they are to proceed in making the alterations necessary to + improve chimney fire-places, and effectually to cure smoking + chimnies. + +CHAPTER. III. + Of the cause of the ascent of smoke. + Illustration of the subject by familiar comparisons and + experiments. + Of chimnies which affect and cause each other to smoke. + Of chimnies which smoke from want of air. + Of the eddies of wind which sometimes blow down chimnies, + and cause them to smoke. + Explanation of the figures. + + +ESSAY IV. + +ADVERTISEMENT + +The Author thinks it his duty to explain the reasons which have +induced him to change the order in which the publication of his +Essays has been announced to the Public.--Being suddenly called +upon to send to Edinburgh a person acquainted with the method of +altering Chimney Fire-places, which has lately been carried into +execution in a number of houses in London, in order to introduce +these improvements in Scotland, he did not think it prudent to +send any person on so important an errand without more ample +instruction than could well be given verbally; and being obliged +to write on the subject, he thought it best to investigate the +matter thoroughly, and to publish such particular directions +respecting the improvements in question as may be sufficient to +enable all those, who may be desirous of adopting them, to make, +or direct the necessary alterations in their Fire-places without +any further assistance. + +The following Letter, which the Author received from Sir John +Sinclair, Baronet, Member of Parliament, and President of the +Board of Agriculture, will explain this matter more fully: + +You will hear with pleasure that your mode of altering Chimnies, +so as to prevent their smoking, to save fuel, and to augment +heat, has answered not only with me, but with many of my friends +who have tried it; and that the Lord Provest and Magistrates of +Edinburgh have voted a sum of money to defray the expences of a +bricklayer, who is to be sent there for the purpose of +establishing the same plan in that city. I hope that you will +have the goodness to expedite your paper upon the management of +Heat, that the knowledge of so useful an art may be as rapidly +and as extensively diffused as possible.--With my best wishes for +your success in the various important pursuits in which you are +now engaged, believe me, with great truth and regard, + Your faithful and obedient servant + John Sinclair +Whitehall, London, +9th February 1796. + + +CHAPTER. I. + + Fire-places for burning coals, or wood, in an open chimney, + are capable of great improvement. + Smoking chimnies may in all cases be completely cured. + The immoderate size of the throats of chimnies the principal + cause of all their imperfections. + Philosophical investigation of the subject. + Remedies proposed for all the defects that have been discovered + in chimnies and their open fire-places. + These remedies applicable to chimnies destined for burning + wood, or turf, as well as those constructed for burning coals. + +The plague of a smoking Chimney is proverbial; but there are many +other very great defects in open Fire-places, as they are now +commonly constructed in this country, and indeed throughout +Europe, which, being less obvious, are seldom attended to; +and there are some of them very fatal in their consequences to +health; and, I am persuaded, cost the lives of thousands every +year in this island. + +Those cold and chilling draughts of air on one side of the body, +while the other side is scorched by a Chimney Fire, which every +one who reads this must often have felt, cannot but be highly +detrimental to health; and in weak and delicate constitutions +must often produce the most fatal effects.--I have not a doubt in +my own mind that thousands die in this country every year of +consumptions occasioned solely by this cause.--By a cause which +might be so easily removed!--by a cause whose removal would tend +to promote comfort and convenience in so many ways. + +Strongly impressed as my mind is with the importance of this +subject, it is not possible for me to remain silent.--The subject +is too nearly connected with many of the most essential +enjoyments of life not to be highly interesting to all those who +feel pleasure in promoting, or in contemplating the comfort and +happiness of mankind.--And without suffering myself to be +deterred, either by the fear of being thought to give the subject +a degree of importance to which it is not entitled, or by the +apprehension of being tiresome to my readers by the prolixity of +my descriptions,--I shall proceed to investigate the subject in +all its parts and details with the utmost care and attention. +--And first with regard to smoking Chimnies: + +There are various causes by which Chimnies may be prevented from +carrying smoke; but there are none that may not easily be +discovered and completely removed.--This will doubtless be +considered as a bold assertion; but I trust I shall be able to +make it appear in a manner perfectly satisfactory to my readers +that I have not ventured to give this opinion but upon good and +sufficient grounds. + +Those who will take the trouble to consider the nature and +properties of elastic fluids,--of air,--smoke,--and vapour,-- +and to examine the laws of their motions, and the necessary +consequences of their being rarified by heat, will perceive that +it would be as much a miracle if smoke should not rise in a +Chimney, (all hindrances to its ascent being removed,) as that +water should refuse to run in a syphon, or to descend in a river. + +The whole mystery, therefore, of curing smoking Chimnies is +comprised in this simple direction. --FIND OUT AND REMOVE THOSE +LOCAL HINDRANCES WHICH FORCIBLY PREVENT THE SMOKE FROM FOLLOWING +ITS NATURAL TENDENCY TO GO UP THE CHIMNEY; or rather, to speak +more accurately, which prevents its being forced up the Chimney +by the pressure of the heavier air of the room. + +Although the causes, by which the ascent of smoke in a Chimney +MAY BE obstructed, are various, yet that cause which will most +commonly, and I may say almost universally be found to operate, +is one which it is always very easy to discover, and as easy to +remove,--the bad construction of the Chimney IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD +OF THE FIRE-PLACE. + +In the course all my experience and practice in curing smoking +Chimnies,--and I certainly have not had less than five hundred +under my hands, and among them many which were thought to be +quite incurable,--I have never been obliged, except in one +single instance, to have recourse to any other method of cure +than merely reducing the Fire-place and the throat of the +Chimney, or that part of it which lies immediately above the +Fire-place, to a proper form, and just dimensions. + +That my principles for constructing Fire-places are equally +applicable to those which are designed for burning coal, as to +those in which wood is burnt, has lately been abundantly proved +by experiments made here in London; for of above an hundred and +fifty Fire-places which have been altered in this city, under my +direction, within these last two months, there is not one which +has not answered perfectly well[1].--And by several experiments +which have been made with great care, and with the assistance of +thermometers, it has been demonstrated, that the saving of fuel, +arising from these improvements of Fire-places, amounts in all +cases to more than HALF, and in many cases to more than TWO THIRDS +of the quantity formerly consumed.--Now as the alterations in +Fire-places which are necessary may be made at a very trifling +expence, as any kind of grate or stove may be made use of, and as +no iron work, but merely a few bricks and some mortar, or a few +small pieces of fire-stone, are required; the improvement in +question is very important, when considered merely with a view +to economy; but it should be remembered, that not only a great +saving is made of fuel by the alterations proposed, but that +rooms are made much more comfortable, and more salubrious;-- +that they may be more equally warmed, and more easily kept at any +required temperature;--that all draughts of cold air from the +doors and windows towards the Fire-place, which are so fatal to +delicate constitutions, will be completely prevented;--that in +consequence of the air being equally warm all over the room, or +in all parts of it, it may be entirely changed with the greatest +facility, and the room completely ventilated, when this air is +become unfit for respiration, and this merely by throwing open +for a moment a door opening into some passage from whence fresh +air may be had, and the upper part of a window; or by opening the +upper part of on window and the lower part of another, and as the +operation of ventilating the room, even when it is done in the +most complete manner, will never require the door and window to +be open more than one minute; in this short time the walls of the +room will not be sensibly cooled, and the fresh air which comes +into the room will, in a very few minutes, be so completely +warmed by these walls that the temperature of the room, though +the air in it be perfectly changed, will be brought to be very +nearly the same as it was before the ventilation. + +Those who are acquainted with the principles of pneumatics, +and know why the warm air in a room rushes out at an opening made +for it at the top of a window when colder air from without is +permitted to enter by the door, or by any other opening situated +lower than the first, will see, that it would be quite impossible +to ventilate a room in the complete and expeditious manner here +described, where the air in a room is partially warmed, or hardly +warmed at all, and where the walls of the room, remote from the +fire, are constantly cold; which must always be the case where, +in consequence of a strong current up the Chimney, streams of +cold air are continually coming in through all the crevices of +the doors and windows, and flowing into the Fire-place. + +But although rooms, furnished with Fire-places constructed upon +the principles here recommended, may be easily and most +effectually ventilated, (and this is certainly a circumstance in +favour of the proposed improvements,) yet such total ventilations +will very seldom, if ever, be necessary.--As long as ANY FIRE is +kept up in the room, there is so considerable a current of air up +the Chimney, notwithstanding all the reduction that can be made +in the size of its throat, that the continual change of air in +the room which this current occasions will, generally, be found +to be quite sufficient for keeping the air in the room sweet and +wholesome; and indeed in rooms in which there is no open Fire-place, +and consequently no current of air from the room setting up the +Chimney, which is the case in Germany, and all the northern parts +of Europe, where rooms are heated by stoves, whose Fire-places +opening without are not supplied with the air necessary for the +combustion of the fuel from the room;--and although in most of +the rooms abroad, which are so heated, the windows and doors are +double, and both are closed in the most exact manner possible, +by slips of paper pasted over the crevices, or by slips of list or +furr; yet when these rooms are tolerably large, and when they are +not very much crowded by company, nor filled with a great many +burning lamps or candles, the air in them is seldom so much +injured as to become oppressive or unwholesome; and those who +inhabit them show by their ruddy countenances, as well as by +every other sign of perfect health, that they suffer no +inconvenience whatever from their closeness.--There is frequently, +it is true, an oppressiveness in the air of a room heated by a +German stove, of which those who are not much accustomed to +living in those rooms seldom fail to complain, and indeed with +much reason; but this oppressiveness does not arise from the air +of the room being injured by the respiration and perspiration of +those who inhabit it;--it arises from a very different cause;-- +from a fault in the construction of German stoves in general, +but which may be easily and most completely remedied, as I shall +show more fully in another place. In the mean time, I would just +observe here with regard to these stoves, that as they are often +made of iron, and as this metal is a very good conductor of heat, +some part of the stove in contact with the air of the room +becomes so hot as to calcine or rather to ROAST the dust which +lights upon it; which never can fail to produce a very +disagreeable effect on the air of the room. And even when the +stove is constructed of pantiles or pottery-ware, if any part of +it in contact with the air of the room is suffered to become very +hot, which seldom fails to be the case in German stoves +constructed on the common principles, nearly the same effects +will be found to be produced on the air as when the stove is made +of iron, as I have very frequently had occasion to observe. + +Though a room be closed in the most perfect manner possible, yet, +as the quantity of air injured and rendered unfit for further use +by the respiration of two or three persons in a few hours is very +small, compared to the immense volume of air which a room of a +moderate size contains; and as a large quantity of fresh air +always enters the room, and an equal quantity of the warm air of +the room is driven out of it every time the door is opened, there +is much less danger of the air of a room becoming unwholesome for +the want of ventilation than has been generally imagined; +particularly in cold weather, when all the different causes which +conspire to change the air of warmed rooms act with increased +power and effect. + +Those who have any doubts respecting the very great change of air +or ventilation which takes place each time the door of a warm room +is opened in cold weather, need only set the door of such a room +wide open for a moment, and hold two lighted candles in the +door-way, one near the top of the door, and the other near the +bottom of it; the violence with which the flame of that above +will be driven outwards, and that below inwards, by the two +strong currents of air which, passing in opposite directions, +rush in and out of the room at the same time, will be convinced +that the change of air which actually takes place must be very +considerable indeed; and these currents will be stronger, +and consequently the change of air greater, in proportion as the +difference is greater between the temperature of the air within +the room and of that without. I have been more particular upon +this subject,--the ventilation of warmed rooms which are +constantly inhabited,--as I know that people in general in this +country have great apprehensions of the bad consequences to +health of living rooms in which there is not a continual influx +of cold air from without. I am as much an advocate for a FREE +CIRCULATION of air as any body, and always sleep in a bed without +curtains on that account; but I am much inclined to think, that +the currents of cold air which never fail to be produced in rooms +heated by Fire-places constructed upon the common principle,-- +those partial heats on one side of the body, and the cold blasts +on the other, so often felt in houses in this country, are +infinitely more detrimental to health than the supposed closeness +of the air in a room warmed more equally, and by a smaller fire. + +All these advantages, attending the introduction of the +improvements in Fire-places here recommended, are certainly +important, and I do not know that they are counterbalanced by any +one disadvantage whatsoever. The only complaints that I had ever +heard made against them was, that they made the rooms TOO warm; +but the remedy to this evil is so perfectly simple and obvious, +that I should be almost afraid to mention it, less it might be +considered as an insult to the understanding of the persons to +whom such information should be given; for nothing surely can be +conceived more perfectly ridiculous than the embarrassment of a +person on account of the too great heat of his room, when it is +in his power to diminish AT PLEASURE the fire by which it is +warmed; and yet, strange as it may appear, this has sometimes +happened! + +Before I proceed to give directions for the construction of +Fire-places, it will be proper to examine more carefully the +Fire-places now in common use;--to point out their faults;-- +and to establish the principles upon which Fire-places ought to +be constructed. + +The great fault of all the open Fire-places, or Chimnies, for +burning wood or coals in an open fire, now in common use, is, +that they are much too large; or rather it is THE THROAT OF THE +CHIMNEY or the lower part of its open canal, in the neighbourhood +of the mantle, and immediately over the fire, which is too large. +This opening has hitherto been left larger than otherwise it +probably would have been made, in order to give a passage to the +Chimney-sweeper; but I shall show hereafter how a passage for the +Chimney-sweeper may be contrived without leaving the throat of +the Chimney of such enormous dimensions as to swallow up and +devour all the warm air of the room, instead of merely giving a +passage to the smoke and heated vapour which rise from the fire, +for which last purpose alone it ought to be destined. + +Were it my intention to treat my subject in a formal scientific +manner, it would be doubtless be proper, and even necessary, to +begin by explaining in the fullest manner, and upon the +principles founded on the laws of nature, relative to the motions +of elastic fluids, as far as they have been discovered and +demonstrated, the causes of the ascent of smoke, and also to +explain and illustrate upon the same principles, and even to +measure, or estimate by calculations, the precise effects of all +those mechanical aids which may be proposed for assisting it in +its ascent, or rather for removing those obstacles which hinder +its motion upwards;--but as it is my wish rather to write an +useful practical treatise, than a learned dissertation, being +more desirous to contribute in diffusing useful knowledge, by +which the comforts and enjoyments of mankind may be increased, +than to acquire the reputation of a philosopher among learned +men, I shall endeavour to write in such a manner as to be easily +understood BY THOSE WHO ARE MOST LIKELY TO PROFIT BY THE +INFORMATION I HAVE TO COMMUNICATE, and consequently most likely +to assist in bringing into general use the improvements I +recommend. This being premised, I shall proceed, without any +further preface or introduction, to the investigation of the +subject I have undertaken to treat. + +As the immoderate size of the throats of Chimnies is the great +fault of their construction, it is this fault which ought always +to be first attended to in every attempt which is made to improve +them; for however perfect the construction of a Fire-place may be +in other respects, if the opening left for the passage of the smoke +is larger than is necessary for that purpose, nothing can prevent +the warm air of the room from escaping through it; and whenever +this happens, there is not only an unnecessary loss of heat, +but the warm air which leaves the room to go up the Chimney being +replaced by cold air from without, the draughts of cold air, +so often mentioned, cannot fail to be produced in the room, to the +great annoyance of those who inhabit it. But although both these +evils may be effectually remedied by reducing the throat of the +Chimney to a proper size, yet in doing this several precautions +will be necessary. And first of all, the throat of the Chimney +should be in its proper place; that is to say, in that place in +which it ought to be, in order that the ascent of the smoke may +be most facilitated; for every means which can be employed for +facilitating the ascent of the smoke in the Chimney must naturally +tend to prevent the Chimney from smoking: now as the smoke and +hot vapour which rise from a fire naturally tend UPWARDS, the +proper place for the throat of the Chimney is evidently +perpendicularly OVER THE FIRE. + +But there is another circumstance to be attended to in +determining the proper place for the throat of a Chimney, +and that is, to ascertain its distance from the fire, or HOW FAR +above the burning fuel it ought to be placed. In determining +this point, there are many things to be considered, and several +advantages and disadvantages to be weighed and balanced. + +As the smoke and vapour which ascend from burning fuel rise in +consequence of their being rarefied by heat, and made lighter +than the air of the surrounding atmosphere; and as the degree of +their rarefaction, and consequently their tendency to rise, is in +proportion to the intensity of their heat; and further, as they +are hotter near the fire than at a greater distance from it, +it is clear that the nearer the throat of a Chimney is to the fire, +the stronger will be, what is commonly called, its DRAUGHT, +and the less danger there will be of its smoking. But on the +other hand, when the draught of a Chimney is very strong, and +particularly when this strong draught is occasioned by the throat +of the Chimney being very near the fire, it may so happen that +the draught of air into the fire may become so strong, as to +cause the fuel to be consumed too rapidly. There are likewise +several other inconveniences which would attend the placing of +the throat of a Chimney VERY NEAR the burning fuel. +In introducing the improvements proposed, in Chimnies already built, +there can be no question in regard to the height of the throat of +the Chimney, for its place will be determined by the height of +the mantle. It can hardly be made lower than the mantle; and it +ought always to be brought down as nearly upon the level with the +bottom of it as possible. If the Chimney is apt to smoke, +it will sometimes be necessary either to lower the mantle or to +diminish the height of the opening of the Fire-place, by throwing +over a flat arch, or putting in a straight piece of stone from +one side of it to the other, or, which will be still more simple +and easy in practice, building a wall of bricks, supported by a +flat bar of iron, immediately under the mantle. + +Nothing is so effectual to prevent Chimnies from smoking as +diminishing the opening of the Fire-place in the manner here +described, and lowering and diminishing the throat of the Chimney; +and I have always found, except in the single instance already +mentioned, that a perfect cure may be effected by THESE MEANS +ALONE, even in the most desperate cases. It is true, that when +the construction of the Chimney is very bad indeed, or its +situation very unfavourable to the ascent of the smoke, and +especially when both these disadvantages exist at the same time, +it may sometimes be necessary to diminish the opening of the +Fire-place, and particularly to lower it, and also to lower the +throat of the Chimney, more than might be wished: but still I +think this can produce no inconveniences to be compared with that +greatest of all plagues, a smoking Chimney. + +The position of the throat of a Chimney being determined, the +next points to be ascertained are its size and form, and the +manner in which it ought to be connected with the Fire-place +below, and with the open canal of the Chimney above. + +But as these investigations are intimately connected with those +which relate to the form proper to be given to the Fire-place +itself, we must consider them all together. + +That these inquiries may be pursued with due method, and that the +conclusions drawn from them may be clear and satisfactory, +it will be necessary to consider, first, what the objects are +which ought principally to be had in view in the construction of +a Fire-place; and secondly, to see how these objects can best be +attained. + +Now the design of a Chimney Fire being simply to warm a room, +it is necessary, first of all, to contrive matters so that the +room shall be actually warmed; secondly, that it be warmed with +the smallest expence of fuel possible; and, thirdly, that in +warming it, the air of the room be preserved perfectly pure, +and fit for respiration, and free from smoke and all disagreeable +smells. + +In order to take measures with certainty for warming a room by +means of an open Chimney Fire, it will be necessary to consider +HOW, or in WHAT MANNER, such a Fire communicates heat to a room. +This question may perhaps, at the first view of it, appear to be +superfluous and trifling, but a more careful examination of the +matter will show it to be highly deserving of the most attentive +investigation. + +To determine in what manner a room is heated by an open Chimney +Fire, it will be necessary first of all to find out, UNDER WHAT +FORM the heat generated in the combustion of the fuel exists, +and then to see how it is communicated to those bodies which are +heated by it. + +In regard to the first of these subjects of inquiry, it is quite +certain that the heat which is generated in the combustion of the +fuel exists under TWO perfectly distinct and very different forms. +One part of it is COMBINED with the smoke, vapour, and heated air +which rise from the burning fuel, and goes off with them into the +upper regions of the atmosphere; while the other part, which +appears to be UNCOMBINED, or, as some ingenious philosophers have +supposed, combined only with light, is sent off from the fire in +rays in all possible directions. + +With respect to the second subject of inquiry; namely, how this +heat, existing under these two different forms, is communicated +to other bodies; it is highly probable that the combined heat can +only be communicated to other bodies by ACTUAL CONTACT with the +body with which it is combined; and with regard to the rays which +are sent off by burning fuel, it is certain that THEY communicate +or generate heat only WHEN and WHERE they are stopped or +absorbed. In passing through air, which is transparent, they +certainly do not communicate any heat to it; and it seems highly +probable that they do not communicate heat to solid bodies by +which they are reflected. + +In these respects they seem to bear a great resemblance to the +solar rays. But in order not to distract the attention of my +reader, or carry him too far away from the subject more +immediately under consideration, I must not enter too deeply into +these inquiries respecting the nature and properties of what has +been called RADIANT HEAT. It is certainly a most curious subject +of philosophical investigation, but more time would be required +to do it justice than we now have to spare. We must therefore +content ourselves with such a partial examination of it as will +be sufficient for our present purpose. + +A question which naturally presents itself here is. +What proportion does the radiant heat bear to the combined +heat?--Though that point has not yet been determined with any +considerable degree of precision, it is, however, quite certain, +that the quantity of heat which goes off combined with the smoke, +vapour, and heated air is much more considerable, perhaps three +of four times greater at least, than that which is sent off from +the fire in rays.--And yet, small as the quantity is of this +radiant heat, it is the only part of the heat generated in the +combustion of fuel burnt in an open Fire-place which is ever +employed, or which can ever be employed, in heating a room. + +The whole of the combined heat escapes by the Chimney, and is +totally lost; and, indeed, no part of it could ever be brought +into a room from an open Fire-place, without bringing along with +it the smoke with which it is combined; which, of course, would +render it impossible for the room to be inhabited. There is, +however, one method by which combining heat, and even that which +arises from an open Fire-place, may be made to assist in warming +a room; and that is by making it pass through something analogous +to a German stove, placed in the Chimney above the fire.--But of +this contrivance I shall take occasion to treat more fully +hereafter; in the mean time I shall continue to investigate the +properties of open Chimney Fire-places, constructed upon the most +simple principles, such as are now in common use; and shall +endeavour to point out and explain all those improvements of +which THEY appear to me to be capable. When fuel is burnt in +Fire-places upon this simple construction, where the smoke +escapes immediately by the open canal of the Chimney, it is quite +evident that all the combined heat must of necessity be lost; and +as it is the radiant heat alone which can be employed in heating +a room, it becomes an object of much importance to determine how +the greatest quantity of it may be generated in the combustion of +the fuel, and how the greatest proportion possible of that +generated may be brought into the room. + +Now the quantity of radiant heat generated in the combustion of a +given quantity of any kind of fuel depends very much upon the +management of the fire, or upon the manner in which the fuel is +consumed. When the fire burns bright, much radiant heat will be +sent off from it; but when it is SMOTHERED UP, very little will +be generated; and indeed very little combined heat, that can be +employed to any useful purpose: most of the heat produced will be +immediately EXPENDED in giving elasticity to a thick dense vapour +or smoke which will be seen rising from the fire; -- and the +combustion being very incomplete, a great part of the inflammable +matter of the fuel being merely rarefied and driven up the +Chimney without being inflamed, the fuel will be wasted to little +purpose. And hence it appears of how much importance it is, +whether it be considered with a view to economy, or to +cleanliness, comfort, and elegance, to pay due attention to the +management of a Chimney Fire. + +Nothing can be more perfectly void of common sense, and wasteful +and slovenly at the same time, than the manner in which Chimney +Fires, and particularly where coals are burned, are commonly +managed by servants. They throw on a load of coals at once, +through which the flame is hours in making its way; and +frequently it is not without much trouble that the fire is +prevented from going quite out. During this time no heat is +communicated to the room; and what is still worse, the throat of +the Chimney being occupied merely by a heavy dense vapour, +not possessed of any considerable degree of heat, and consequently +not having much elasticity, the warm air of the room finds less +difficulty in forcing its way up the Chimney and escaping, +than when the fire burns bright;--and it happens not unfrequently, +especially in Chimneys and Fire-places ill constructed, that this +current of warm air from the room which presses into the Chimney, +crossing upon the current of heavy smoke which rises slowly from +the fire, obstructs it in its ascent, and beats it back into the +room; hence it is that Chimnies so often smoke when too large a +quantity of fresh coals is put upon the fire. So many coals +should never be put on the fire at once as to prevent the free +passage of the flame between them. In short, a fire should never +be smothered; and when proper attention is paid to the quantity +of coals put on, there will be very little use for the poker; +and this circumstance will contribute very much to cleanliness, +and to the preservation of furniture. + +Those who have feeling enough to be made miserable by any thing +careless, slovenly, and wasteful which happens under their +eyes,--who know what comfort is, and consequence are worthy of +the enjoyments of a CLEAN HEARTH and a CHEERFUL FIRE, should +really either take the trouble themselves to manage their fires, +(which, indeed, would rather be an amusement to them than a +trouble,) or they should instruct their servants to manage them +better. + +But to return to the subject more immediately under consideration. +As we have seen what is necessary to the production or generation +of radiant heat, it remains to determine how the greatest +proportion of that generated and sent off from the fire in all +directions may be made to enter the room, and assist in warming +it. How as the rays which are thrown off from burning fuel have +this property in common with light, that they generate heat only +WHEN and WHERE they are stopped or absorbed, and also in being +capable of being reflected WITHOUT GENERATING at the surfaces of +various bodies, the knowledge of these properties will enable us +to take measures, with the utmost certainty, for producing the +effect required,--that is to say, for bringing as much radiant +heat as possible into the room. + +This must be done, first, by causing as many as possible of the +rays, as they are sent off from the fire in straight lines, +to come DIRECTLY into the room; which can only be effected by +bringing the fire as far forward as possible, and leaving the +opening of the Fire-place as wide and as high as can be done +without inconveniences; and secondly, by making the sides and +back of the Fire-place of such form, and constructing them of +such materials, as to cause the direct rays from the fire, +which strike against them, to be sent into the room BY REFLECTION +in the greatest abundance. + +Now it will be found, upon examination, that the best form for +the vertical sides of a Fire-place, or the COVINGS, (as they are +called,) is that of an upright plane, making an angle with the +plane of the back of the Fire-place, of about 135 degrees.-- +According to the present construction of Chimnies this angle is +90 degrees, or forms a right angle; but as in this case the two +sides or covings of the Fire-place (AC, BD, Fig. 1.) are +parallel to each other, it is evident that they are very ill +contrived for throwing into the room by reflection the rays from +the fire which fall on them. + +To have a clear and perfect idea of the alterations I propose in +the forms of Fire-places, the reader need only observe, that, +whereas the backs of Fire-places, as they are now commonly +constructed, are as wide as the opening of the Fire-place in +front, and the sides of it are of course perpendicular to it, and +parallel to each other,--in the Fire-places I recommend, the back +(i k, Fig. 3) is only about one-third of the width of the opening +of the Fire-place in front (a,b), and consequently that the two +sides of covings of the Fire-place (a i and b k), instead of +being perpendicular to the back, are inclined to it at an angle +of about 135 degrees; and in consequence of this position, +instead of being parallel to each other, each of them presents an +oblique front towards the opening of the Chimney, by means of +which the rays which they reflect are thrown into the room. +A bare inspection of the annexed drawings (Fig. 1. and Fig. 3.) +will render this matter perfectly clear and intelligible. + +In regard to the materials which it will be most advantageous to +employ in the construction of Fire-places, so much light has, +I flatter myself, already been thrown on the subject we are +investigating, and the principles adopted have been established +on such clear and obvious facts, that no great difficulty will +attend the determination of that point.--As the object in view is +to bring radiant heat into the room, it is clear that that +material is best for the construction of a Fire-place which +reflects the most, or which ABSORBS THE LEAST of it; for that +heat which is ABSORBED cannot be REFLECTED--Now as bodies which +absorb radiant heat are necessarily heated in consequence of that +absorption, to discover which of the various materials that can +be employed for constructing Fire-places are best adapted for +that purpose, we have only to find out by an experiment, very +easy to be made, what bodies acquire LEAST HEAT when exposed to +the direct rays of a clear fire;--for those which are least +heated, evidently absorb the least, and consequently reflect the +most radiant heat. And hence it appears that iron, and, in +general, metals of all kinds, which are well known to GROW VERY +HOT when exposed to the rays projected by burning fuel, are to be +reckoned among the VERY WORST materials that it is possible to +employ in the construction of Fire-places. + +The best materials I have hitherto been able to discover are +fire-stone, and common bricks and mortar. Both these materials +are, fortunately, very cheap; and as to their comparative merits, +I hardly know to which of them the preference ought to be given. + +When bricks are used they should be covered with a thin coating +of plaster, which, when it is become perfectly dry, should be +white-washed. The fire-stone should likewise be white washed, +when that is used; and every part of the Fire-place, which is not +exposed to being soiled and made black by the smoke, should be +kept as white and clean as possible. As WHITE reflects more +heat, as well as more light than any other colour, it ought +always to be preferred for the inside of a Chimney Fire-place, +and BLACK, which reflects neither light nor heat should be most +avoided. + +I am well aware how much the opinion I have have ventured to +give, respecting the unfitness of iron and other metals to be +employed in the construction of open Fire-places, differs from +the opinion generally received upon that subject;--and I even +know that the very reason which, according to my ideas of the +matter, renders them totally unfit for the purpose, is commonly +assigned for making use of them, namely, that they soon grow very +hot. But I would beg leave to ask what advantage is derived from +heating them? + +I have shown the disadvantage of it, namely, that the quantity of +radiant heat thrown into the room is diminished;--and it is easy +to show that almost the whole of that absorbed by the metal is +ultimately carried up the Chimney by the air, which, coming into +contact with this hot metal, is heated and rarefied by it, +and forcing its way upwards, goes off with the smoke; and as no +current of air ever sets from any part of the opening of a +Fire-place into the room, it is impossible to conceive how the +heat existing in the metal composing any part of the apparatus of +the Fire-place, and situated within its cavity, can come, or be +brought into the room. + +This difficulty may be in part removed, by supposing, what +indeed seems to be true in a certain degree, that the heated +metal sends off rays, the heat it acquires from the fire, even +when it is not heated red hot; but still, as it never can be +admitted that the heat, absorbed by the metal and afterwards +thrown off by it in rays, is INCREASED by this operation, nothing +can be gained by it; and as much must necessary be lost in +consequence of the great quantity of heat communicated by the hot +metal to the air in contact with it, which, as has already been +shown, always makes its way up the Chimney, and flies off into +the atmosphere, the loss of heat attending the use of it is too +evident to require being farther insisted on. + +There is, however, in Chimney Fire-places destined for burning +coals, one essential part, the grate, which cannot well be made +of any thing else but iron; but there is no necessity whatever +for that immense quantity of iron which surrounds grates as they +are now commonly constructed and fitted up, and which not only +renders them very expensive, but injures very essentially the +Fire-place. If it should be necessary to diminish the opening of +a large Chimney in order to prevent its smoking, it is much more +simple, economical, and better in all respects, to do this with +marble, fire-stone, or even with bricks and mortar, than to make +use of iron, which, as has already been shown, is the very worst +material that can possibly be employed for that purpose; and as +to registers, they not only are quite unnecessary, where the +throat of a Chimney is properly constructed, and of proper +dimensions, but in that case would do much harm. If they act at +all, it must be by opposing their flat surfaces to the current of +rising smoke in a manner which cannot fail to embarrass and +impede its motion. But we have shown that the passage of the +smoke through the throat of a Chimney ought to be facilitated as +much as possible, in order that it may be enabled to pass by a +small aperture. + +Register-stoves have often been found to be of use, but it is +because the great fault of all Fire-places constructed upon the +common principles being the enormous dimensions of the throat of +the Chimney, this fault has been in some measure corrected by +them; but I will venture to affirm, that there never was a +Fire-place so corrected that would not have been much more +improved, and with infinitely less expence, by the alterations +here recommended, and which will be more particularly explained +in the next Chapter. + + +CHAPTER. II. + + Practical directions designed for the use of workmen, showing + how they are to proceed in making the alterations necessary to + improve chimney fire-places, and effectually to cure smoking + chimnies. + +All Chimney Fire-places, without exception, whether they are +designed for burning wood or coals, and even those which do not +smoke, as well as those which do, may be greatly improved by +making the alterations in them here recommended; for it is by no +means MERELY to prevent Chimnies from smoking that these +improvements are recommended, but it is also to make them better +in all other respects as Fire-places; and when the alterations +proposed are properly executed, which may be very easily be done +with the assistance of the following plain and simple +directions, the Chimnies will never fail to answer, I will +venture to say, even beyond expectation. The room will be heated +much more equally and more pleasantly with LESS THAN HALF THE +FUEL used before, the fire will be more cheerful and more +agreeable; and the general appearance of the Fire-place more neat +and elegant, and the Chimney WILL NEVER SMOKE. + +The advantages which are derived from mechanical inventions and +contrivances are, I know, frequently accompanied by disadvantages +which it is not always possible to avoid; but in the case in +question, I can say with truth, that I know of no disadvantage +whatever that attends the Fire-places constructed upon the +principles here recommended. --But to proceed in giving +directions for the construction of these Fire-places. + +That what I have to offer on this subject may be the more easily +understood, it will be proper to begin by explaining the precise +meaning of all those technical words and expressions which I may +find it necessary or convenient to use. + +By the THROAT of a Chimney, I mean the lower extremity of its +canal, where it unites with the upper part of its open Fire-place. +--This throat is commonly found about a foot above the level of +the lower part of the mantle, and it is sometimes contracted to a +smaller size than the rest of the canal of the Chimney, +and sometimes not. + +Fig. 5. shows the section of a Chimney on the common +construction, in which d e is the throat. + +Fig. 6. shows the section of the same Chimney altered and +improved, in which d i is the reduced throat. + +The BREAST of a Chimney, is that part of it which is immediately +behind the mantle.--It is the wall which forms the entrance from +below into the throat of the Chimney in front, or towards the +room.--It is opposite to the upper extremity of the back of the +open Fire-place, and parallel to it; in short it may said to be +the back part of the mantle itself.--In the figures 5 and 6, +it is marked by the letter d. The WIDTH of the throat of Chimney +(d e fig. 5, and d i fig. 6,) is taken from the breast of the +Chimney to the back, and its LENGTH is taken at right angles to +its width, or in a line parallel to the mantle (a fig. 5. and 6.). + +Before I proceed to give particular directions respecting the +exact forms and dimensions of the different parts of a Fire-place, +it may be useful to make such general an practical observations +upon the subject as can be clearly understood without the +assistance of drawings; for the more complete the knowledge of +any subject is which can be acquired without drawings, the more +easy will it be to understand the drawings when it becomes +necessary to have recourse to them. + +The bringing forward of the Fire into the room, or rather +bringing it nearer to the front of the opening of the +Fire-place;--and the diminishing of the throat of the Chimney, +being two objects principally had in view in the alterations in +Fire-places here recommended, it is evident that both these may +be attained merely by bringing forward the back of the Chimney. +--The only question therefore is, how far it should be brought +forward?--The answer is short, and easy to be understood;--bring +it forward as far as possible, without diminishing too much the +passage which must be left for the smoke. Now as this passage, +which, in its narrowest part, I have called the THROAT OF THE +CHIMNEY, ought, for reasons which are fully explained in the +foregoing Chapter, to be immediately, or perpendicularly over the +Fire, it is evident that the back of the Chimney must always be +built perfectly upright.--To determine therefore the place for +the new back, or how far precisely it ought to be brought +forward, nothing more is necessary than to ascertain how wide +the throat of the Chimney ought to be left, or what space must be +left, between the top of the breast of the Chimney, where the +upright canal of the Chimney begins, and the new back of the +Fire-place carried up perpendicularly to that height. + +In the course of my numerous experiments upon Chimnies, I have +taken much pains to determine the width proper to be given to +this passage, and I have found, that, when the back of the +Fire-place is of a proper width, the best width for the throat of +a Chimney, when the Chimney and the Fire-place are at the usual +form and size, is FOUR INCHES.--Three inches might sometimes +answer, especially where the Fire-place is very small, and the +Chimney good, and well situated: but as it is always of much +importance to prevent those accidental puffs of smoke which are +sometimes thrown into rooms by the carelessness of servants in +putting on suddenly too many coals at once upon the fire, and as +I found these accidents sometimes happened when the throats of +Chimneys were made very narrow, I found that, upon the whole, all +circumstances being well considered, and advantages and +disadvantages compared and balanced, FOUR INCHES is the best +width that can be given to the throat of a chimney; and this, +whether the Fire-place be destined to burn wood, coals, turf, +or any other fuel commonly used for heating rooms by an open fire. + +In Fire-places destined for heating very large halls, and where +very great fires are kept up, the throat of the Chimney may, +if it should be thought necessary, be made four inches and an half, +or five inches wide;--but I have frequently made Fire-places for +halls which have answered perfectly well where the throats of +the Chimnies have not been wider than four inches. + +It may perhaps appear extraordinary, upon the first view of the +matter, that Fire-places of such different sizes should all +require the throat of the Chimney to be of the same width; but +when it is considered that the CAPACITY of the throat of a +Chimney does not depend on its width alone, but on its width and +LENGTH taken together; and that in large Fire-places, the width +of the back, and consequently the length of the throat of the +Chimney, is greater than in those which are smaller, this +difficulty vanishes. + +And this leads us to consider another important point respecting +open Fire-places, and that is, the width which it will, in each +case, be proper to give to the back.--In Fire-places as they are +now commonly constructed, the back is of equal width with the +opening of the Fire-place in front;--but this construction is +faulty on two accounts.--First, in a Fire-place, so constructed, +the sides of the Fire-place, or COVINGS, as they are called, are +parallel to each other, and consequently ill-contrived to throw +out into the room the heat they receive from the fire in the form +of rays;--and secondly, the large open corners which are formed +by making the back as wide as the opening of the Fire-place in +front occasion eddies of wind, which frequently disturb the fire, +and embarrass the smoke in its ascent in such a manner as often +to bring it into the room.--Both these defects may be entirely +remedied by diminishing the width of the back of the Fire-place. +--The width which, in most cases, it will be best to give it, +is ONE THIRD of the width of the opening of the Fire-place in +front.--But it is not absolutely necessary to conform rigorously +to this decision, nor will it always be possible.--It will +frequently happen that the back of a Chimney must be made wider +than, according to the rule here given, it ought to be.--This +may be, either to accommodate the Fire-place to a stove, which +being already on hand, must, to avoid the expense of purchasing a +new one, be employed; or for other reasons;--and any small +deviation from the general rule will be attended with no +considerable inconvenience.--It will always be best, however, +to conform to it as far as circumstances will allow. + +Where a Chimney is designed for warming a room of a middling size, +and where the thickness of the wall of the Chimney in front, +measured from the front of the mantle to the breast of the +Chimney, is nine inches, I should set off four inches more for +the width of the throat of the Chimney, which, supposing the back +of the Chimney to be built upright, as it always ought to be, +will give thirteen inches for the depth of the Fire-place, +measured upon the hearth, from the opening of the Fire-place in +front, to the back.--In this case thirteen inches would be a good +size for the width of the back; and three times thirteen inches, +or thirty-nine inches, for the width of the opening of the +Fire-place in front; and the angle made by the back of the +Fire-place and the sides of it, or covings, would be just 135 +degrees, which is the best position they can have for throwing +heat into the room. + +But I will suppose that in altering such a Chimney it is found +necessary, in order to accommodate the Fire-place to a grate or +stove already on hand, to make the Fire-place sixteen inches +wide. -- In that case, I should merely increase the width of the +back, to the dimensions required, without altering the depth of +the Chimney, or increasing the width of the opening of the +Chimney in front. --The covings, it is true, would be somewhat +reduced in their width, by this alteration; and their position +with respect to the plane of the back of the Chimney would be a +little changed; but these alterations would produce no bad +effects of any considerable consequence, and would be much less +likely to injure the Fire-place, than an attempt to bring the +proportions of its parts nearer to the standard, by increasing +the depth of the Chimney, and the width of its opening in +front;--or than an attempt to preserve that particular obliquity +of the covings which is recommended as the best, (135 degrees,) +by increasing the width of the opening of the Fire-place, without +increasing its depth. + +In order to illustrate this subject more fully, we will suppose +one case more.--We will suppose that in the Chimney which is to +be altered, the width of the Fire-place in front is either wider +or narrower than it ought to be, in order that the different +parts of the Fire-place, after it is altered, may be of the +proper dimensions. In this case, I should determine the depth of +the Fire-place, and the width of the back of it, without any +regard to the width of the opening of the Fire-place in front; +and when this is done, if the opening of Fire-place should be +only two or three inches too wide, that is to say, only two or +three inches wider than is necessary in order that the covings +may be brought into their proper position with respect to the +back, I should not alter the width of this opening, but should +accommodate the covings to this width, by increasing their +breadth, and increasing the angle they make with the back of the +Fire-place; but if the opening of the Fire-place should be more +than three inches too wide; --I should reduce it to the proper +width by slips of stone, or by bricks and mortar. + +When the width of the opening of the Fire-place, in front, is +very great, compared with the depth of the Fire-place, and with +the width of the back, the covings in that case being very wide, +and consequently very oblique, and the Fire-place very shallow, +any sudden motion of the air in front of the Fire-place, (that +motion, for instance, which would be occasioned by the clothes +of a woman passing hastily before the fire, and very near it,) +would be apt to cause eddies in the air, WITHIN THE OPENING OF +THE FIRE-PLACE, by which puffs of smoke might easily be brought +into the room. Should the opening of the Chimney be too narrow, +which however will very seldom be found to be the case, it will, +in general, be advisable to let it remain as it is, and to +accommodate the covings to it, rather to attempt to increase its +width, which would be attended with a good deal of trouble, and +probably a considerable expence. + +From all that has been said it is evident, that the points of the +greatest importance, and which ought most particularly to be +attended to, in altering Fire-places upon the principles here +recommended, are, the bringing forward the back to its proper +place, and making it of a proper width.--But it is time that I +should mention another matter upon which it is probable that my +reader is already impatient to receive information.--Provision +must be made for the passage of the Chimney-sweeper up the +Chimney.--This may easily be done in the following manner:-- +In building up the new back of the Fire-place; when this wall, +(which need never be more than the width of a single brick in +thickness,) is brought up so high that there remains no more than +about ten or eleven inches between what is then the top of it, +and the inside of the mantle, or lower extremity of the breast of +the Chimney, an opening, or door-way, eleven or twelve inches +wide, must be begun in the middle of the back, and continued +quite to the top of it, which, according to the height to which +it will commonly be necessary to carry up the back, will make the +opening about twelve or fourteen inches high; which will be quite +sufficient to allow the Chimney-sweeper to pass. When the +Fire-place is finished, this door-way is to be closed by a few +bricks, by a tile, or a fit piece of stone, placed in it, dry, +or without mortar, and confined in its place by means of a rabbet +made for that purpose in the brick-work.--As often as the Chimney +is swept, the Chimney-sweeper takes down this temporary wall, +which is very easily done, and when he has finished his work, he +puts it again into its place.--The annexed drawing (No. 6.) will +give a clear idea of this contrivance; and the experience I have +had of it has proved that it answers perfectly well the purpose +for which it is designed. + +I observed above, that the new back, which it will always be +found necessary to build in order to bring the fire sufficiently +forward, in altering a Chimney constructed on the common +principles, need never be thicker than the width of a common +brick.--I may say the same of the thickness necessary to be given +to the new sides, or covings, of the Chimney; or if the new back +and covings are constructed of stone, one inch and three +quarters, or two inches in thickness will be sufficient.--Care +should be taken in building up these new walls to unite the back +to the covings in a solid manner. + +Whether the new back and covings are constructed of stone, +or built of bricks, the space between them, and the old back and +covings of the Chimney ought to be filled up, to give greater +solidity to the structure.--This may be done with loose rubbish, +or pieces of broken bricks, or stones provided the work be +strengthened by a few layers or courses of bricks laid in mortar; +but it will be indispensably necessary to finish the work, where +these new walls end, that is to say, at the top of the throat of +the Chimney, where it ends abruptly in the open canal of the +Chimney by a horizontal course of bricks well secured with mortar. +--This course of bricks will be upon a level with the top of the +door-way left for the Chimney-sweeper. + +From these descriptions it is clear that where the throat of the +Chimney has an end, that is to say, where it enters into the +lower part of the open canal of the Chimney, THERE the three +walls which form the two covings and the back of the Fire-place +all end abruptly.--It is of much importance that they should end +in this manner; for were they to be sloped outward and raised in +such a manner as to swell out the upper extremity of the throat +of the Chimney in the form of a trumpet, and increase it by +degrees to the size of the canal of the Chimney, this manner of +uniting the lower extremity of the canal of the Chimney with the +throat would tend to assist the winds which may attempt to blow +down the Chimney, in forcing their way through the throat, and +throwing the smoke backward into the room; but when the throat of +the Chimney ends abruptly, and the ends of the new walls form a +flat horizontal surface, it will be much more difficult for any +wind from above, to find, and force its way through the narrow +passage of the throat of the Chimney. + +As the two walls which form the new covings of the Chimney are +not parallel to each other; but inclined, presenting an oblique +surface towards the front of the Chimney, and as they are built +perfectly upright and quite flat, from the hearth to the top of +the throat, where they end, it is evident that an horizontal +section of the throat will not be an oblong square; but its +deviation from that form is a matter of no consequence; and no +attempts should ever be made, by twisting the covings above, +where they approach the breast of the Chimney, to bring it to +that form.--All twists, bends, prominences, excavations, +and other irregularities of form, in the covings of a Chimney, +never fail to produce eddies in the current of air which is +continually passing into, and through an open Fire-place in which +a fire is burning;--and all such eddies disturb, either the fire, +or the ascending currents of smoke, or both; and not unfrequently +cause the smoke to be thrown back into the room.--Hence it appears, +that the covings of Chimneys should never be made circular, or in +the form of any other curve; but always quite flat. + +For the same reason, that is to say, to prevent eddies, +the breast of the Chimney, which forms that side of the throat +that is in front, or nearest to the room, should be nearly +cleaned off, and its surface made quite regular and smooth. + +This may easily be done by covering it with a coat of plaster, +which may be made thicker or thinner in different parts as may be +necessary in order to bring the breast of the Chimney to be of +the proper form. + +With regard to the form of the breast of a Chimney, this is a +matter of very great importance, and which ought always to be +particularly attended to.--The worst form it can have is that of +a vertical plane, or upright flat;--and next to this the worst +form is an inclined plane.--Both these forms cause the current +of warm air from the room, which will, in spite of every +precaution, sometimes find its way into the Chimney, to cross +upon the current of smoke, which rises from the fire, in a manner +most likely to embarrass it in its ascent, and drive it back. +--The inclined plane which is formed by a flat register placed in +the throat of a Chimney produces the same effects; and this is +one reason, among many others, which have induced me to +disapprove of register stoves. + +The current of air, which, passing under the mantle, gets into +the Chimney, should be made GRADUALLY TO BEND ITS COURSE UPWARDS, +by which means it will be QUIETLY with the ascending current of +smoke, and will be less likely to check it, or force it back into +the room.--Now this may be effected with the greatest ease and +certainty, merely by ROUNDING OFF the breast of the Chimney or +back part of the mantle, instead of leaving it flat, or full of +holes and corners; and this of course ought always to be done. + +I have hitherto given no precise directions in regard to the +height to which the new back and covings ought to be carried:-- +This will depend not only on the height of the mantle, but also, +and more especially, on the height of the breast of the Chimney, +or of that part of the Chimney where the breast ends and the +upright canal begins.--The back and covings must rise a few +inches, five or six for instance, higher than this part, +otherwise the throat of the Chimney will not be properly +formed:--but I know of no advantages that would be gained by +carrying them up still higher. + +I mentioned above, that the space between the walls which form +the new back and covings, and the old back and sides of the +Fire-place, should be filled up:--but this must not be understood +to apply to the space between the wall of dry bricks, or the tile +which closes the passage for the Chimney-sweeper, and the old +back of the Chimney; for that space must be left void, otherwise, +though this tile (which at most will not be more than two inches +in thickness,) were taken away, there would not be any room +sufficient for him to pass. + + +In forming this door-way, the best method of proceeding is to +place the tile or flat piece of stone destined for closing it, in +its proper place; and to build round it, or rather by the sides +of it; taking care not to bring any mortar near it, in order that +it may be easily removed when the door-way is finished.--With +regard to the rabbet which should be made in the door-way to +receive it and fix it more firmly in its place, this may either +be formed at the same time when the door-way is built, or it may +be made after it is finished, by attaching to its bottom and +sides, with strong mortar, pieces of thin roof tiles. Such as +are about half an inch in thickness will be best for this use; +if they are thicker, they will diminish too much the opening of +the door-way, and will likewise be more liable to be torn away by +the Chimney-sweeper in passing up and down the Chimney. + +It will hardly be necessary for me to add, that the tile, or flat +stone, or wall of dry bricks, which is used for closing up the +door-way, must be of sufficient height to reach quite up to a +level with the top of the walls which form the new back and +covings of the Chimnies. + +I ought, perhaps, to apologize for having been so very particular +in these description and explanations, but it must be remembered +that this chapter is written principally for the information of +those who, having had few opportunities of employing their +attention in abstruse philosophical researches, are not +sufficiently practised in these intricate investigations, to +seize, with facility, new ideas;--and consequently, that I have +frequently been obliged TO LABOUR to make myself understood. + +I have only to express my wishes that my reader may not be more +FATIGUED with this labour than I have been;--for we shall them +most certainly be satisfied with each other.--But to return once +more to the charge. + +There is one important circumstance respecting Chimney Fire-places, +destined for burning coals, which still remains to be farther +examined;--and that is the Grate. + +Although there are few grates that may not be used in Chimneys +constructed or altered upon the principles here recommended, +yet they are not, by any means, all equally well adapted for that +purpose.--Those whose construction is the most simple, and which +of course are the cheapest, are beyond comparison the best, +ON ALL ACCOUNTS.--Nothing being wanted in these Chimnies but merely +a grate for containing the coals, and in which they will burn +with a clear fire;--and all additional apparatus being, not only +useless, but very pernicious, all complicated and expensive +grates should be laid aside, and such as more simple substituted +in the room of them.--And in the choice of a grate, as in every +thing else, BEAUTY and ELEGANCE may easily be united with the +MOST PERFECT SIMPLICITY.--Indeed they are incompatible with every +thing else. + +In placing the grate, the thing principally to be attended to is, +to make the back of it coincide with the back of the Fire-place;-- +but as many of the grates now in common use will be found to be +too large, when the Fire-places are altered and improved, it +will be necessary to diminish their capacities by filling them up +at the back and the sides with pieces of fire-stone. When this +is done, it is the front of the flat piece of fire-stone which is +made to form a new back to the grate, which must be made to +coincide with, and make part of the back, of the Fire-place.-- +But in diminishing the capacities of grates with pieces of +fire-stone, care must be taken not to make them TOO NARROW. + +The proper width for grates destined for rooms of a middling size +will be from six to eight inches, and their length may be +diminished more or less, according as the room is heated with +more or less difficulty, or as the weather is more or less severe. +--But where the width of a grate is not more than five inches, +it will be very difficult to prevent the fire from going out. + +It goes out for the same reason that a live coal from the grate +that falls upon the hearth soon ceases to be red hot;--it is +cooled by the surrounding cold air of the atmosphere.-- +The knowledge of the cause which produces this effect is important, +as it indicates the means which may be used for preventing it. +--But of this subject I shall treat more fully hereafter. + +It frequently happens that the iron backs of grates are not +vertical, or upright, but inclined backwards.--When these grates +are so much too wide as to render it necessary to fill them up +behind with fire-stone, the inclination of the back will be of +little consequence; for by making the piece of stone with which +the width of the grate is to be diminished in the form of a +wedge, or thicker above than below, the front of this stone, +which in effect will become the back of the grate, may be made +perfectly vertical; and the iron back of the grate being hid in +the solid work of the back of the Fire-place, will produce no +effect whatever; but if the grate be already so narrow as not to +admit of any diminution of its width, in that case it will be +best to take away the iron back of the grate entirely, and fixing +the grate firmly in the brick-work, cause the back of the +Fire-place to serve as a back to the grate.--This I have very +frequently done, and have always found it to answer perfectly +well. + +Where it is necessary that the fire in a grate should be very +small, it will be best, in reducing the grate with fire-stone, +to bring its cavity, destined for containing the fuel, to the form +of one half of a hollow hemisphere; the two semicircular openings +being one above, to receive the coals, and the other in front, +or towards the bars of the grate; for when the coals are burnt in +such a confined space, and surrounded on all sides, except in the +front and above, by fire-stone, (a substance peculiarly well +adapted for confining heat,) the heat of the fire will be +concentrated, and the cold air of the atmosphere being kept at a +distance, a much smaller quantity of coals will burn, than could +possibly be made to burn in a grate where they would be more +exposed to be cooled by the surrounding air, or to have their +heat carried off by being in contact with iron, or with any other +substance through which heat passes with greater facility than +through fire-stone. + +Being persuaded that if the improvements in Chimney Fire-places +here recommended should be generally adopted, (which I cannot +help flattering myself will be the case,) that it will become +necessary to reduce, very considerably, the sizes of grates, +I was desirous of showing how this may, with the greatest safety +and facility, be done. + +Where grates, which are designed for rooms of a middling size, +are longer than 14 or 15 inches, it will always be best, not +merely to diminish their lengths, by filling them up at their two +ends with fire-stone, but, forming the back of the Chimney of a +proper width, without paying any regard to the length of the +grate, to carry the covings through the two ends of the grate in +such a manner as to conceal them, or at least to conceal the back +corners of them in the walls of the covings. + +I cannot help flattering myself that the directions here given in +regard to the alterations which it may be necessary to make in +Fire-places, in order to introduce the improvements proposed, +will be found to be so perfectly plain and intelligible that no +one who reads them will be at any loss respecting the manner in +which the work is to be performed; -- but as order and arrangement +tend much to facilitate all mechanical operations, I shall here +give a few short directions respecting the manner of LAYING OUT +THE WORK, which may be found useful, and particularly to +gentlemen who may undertake to be their own architects, in +ordering and directing the alterations to be made for the +improvement of their Fire-places. + + Directions for laying out the Work. + +If there be a grate in the Chimney which is to be altered, +it will always be best to take it away; and when this is done, +the rubbish must be removed, and the hearth swept perfectly clean. + +Suppose the annexed figure No. 1. to represent the ground plan of +such a Fire-place; A B being the opening of it in front, A C and +B D the two sides or covings, and C D the back. + +Figure 2. shows the elevation of this Fire-place. + +First draw a strait line, with chalk, or with a lead pencil, +upon the hearth, from one jamb to the other,--even with the front +of the jambs. The dotted line A B, figure 3, may represent this +line. + +From the middle C of this line, (A B) another line c d, is to be +drawn perpendicular to it, across the hearth, to the middle d, of +the back of the Chimney. + +A person must now stand upright in the Chimney, with his back to +the back of the Chimney, and hold a plumb-line to the middle of +the upper part of the breast of the Chimney (d, fig. 5,) or +where the canal of the Chimney begins to rise perpendicularly;-- +taking care to place the line above in such a manner that the +plumb may fall on the line c d, draw on the hearth from the +middle of the opening of the Chimney in front to the middle of +the back, and an assistant must mark the precise place e, on that +line where the plumb falls. + +This being done, and the person in the Chimney having quitted his +station, four inches are to be set off the line c d, from e, +towards d; and the point f, where these four inches end, +(which must be marked with chalk, or with a pencil,) will show +how far the new back is to be brought forward. + +Through f, draw the line g h, parallel to the line A B, and this +line g h will show the direction of the new back, or the ground +line upon which it is to be built. + +The line c f will show the depth of the new Fire-place; and if it +should happen that c f is equal to about ONE-THIRD of the line A B; +and if the grate can be accommodated to the Fire-place instead +of its being necessary to accommodate the Fire-place to the +grate, in that case, half the length of the line c f, is to be +set off from f on the line g f h, on one side to k, and on the +other to i, and the line i k will show the ground line of the +fore part of the back of the Chimney. + +In all cases where the width of the opening of the Fire-place in +front (A B) happens to be not greater, or not more than two or +three inches greater than THREE TIMES the width of the new back +of the Chimney (i k), this opening may be left, and lines drawn +from i to A, and from k to B, will show the width and position of +the front of the new covings;--but when the opening of the +Fire-place in front is still wider, it must be reduced; which is +to be done in the following manner: + +From c, the middle of the line A B, c a and c b, must be set off +equal to the width of the back (i k), added to half its width +(f i), and lines drawn from i to a, and from k to b, will show the +ground plan of the fronts of the new covings. + +When this is done, nothing more will be necessary than to build +up the back and covings; and if the Fire-place is designed for +burning coals, to fix the grate in its proper place, according to +the directions already given.--When the width of the Fire-place +is reduced, the edges of the covings a A and b B are to make a +finish with the front of the jambs.--And in general it will be +best, not only for the sake of the appearance of the Chimney, +but for other reasons also, to lower the height of the opening of +the Fire-place, whenever its width in front is diminished. + +Fig. 4. shows a front view of the Chimney after it has been +altered according to the directions here given.--By comparing it +with fig. 2. (which shows a front view of the same Chimney before +it was altered), the manner in which the opening of the +Fire-place in front is diminished may be seen.--In fig. 4. the +under part of the door-way by which the Chimney-sweeper gets up +the Chimney is represented by white dotted lines. The door-way +is represented closed. + +I shall finish this chapter with some general observations +relative to the subject under consideration; with directions how +to proceed where such local circumstances exist as render +modifications of the general plan indispensably necessary. + +Whether a Chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, +or wood, or coals in a grate, the form of the Fire-place is in my +opinion, most perfect when THE WIDTH OF THE BACK is equal to the +DEPTH OF THE FIRE-PLACE, and the opening of the Fire-place in +front equal to THREE TIMES the width of the back, or, which is +the same thing, to THREE TIMES THE DEPTH OF THE FIRE-PLACE. + +But if the Chimney be designed for burning wood upon the hearth, +upon hand irons, or dogs, as they are called, it will sometimes +be necessary to accommodate the width of the back to the length +of the wood; and when this is the case, the covings must be +accommodated to the width of the back, and the opening of the +Chimney in front. + +When the wall of the Chimney in front, measured from the upper +part of the breast of the Chimney to the front of the mantle, is +very thin, it may happen, and especially in Chimnies designed for +burning wood upon the hearth, or upon dogs, that the depth of the +Chimney, determined according to the directions here given, may +be too small. + +Thus, for example, supposing the wall of the Chimney in front, +from the upper part of the breast of the Chimney to the front of +the mantle, to be only four inches, (which is sometimes the case, +particularly in rooms situated near the top of a house,) in this +case, if we take four inches for the width of the throat, this +will give eight inches only for the depth of the Fire-place, +which would be too little, even were coals to be burnt instead of +wood.--In this case I should increase the depth of the Fire-place +at the hearth to 12 or 13 inches, and should build the back +perpendicular to the height of the top of the burning fuel, +(whether it be wood burnt upon the hearth, or coals in a grate,) +and then, sloping the back by a gentle inclination forward, bring +it to its proper place, that is to say, PERPENDICULARLY UNDER THE +BACK OF THE THROAT OF THE CHIMNEY. This slope, (which will bring +the back forward four or five inches, or just as much as the +depth of the Fire-place is encreased,) though it ought not to be +too abrupt, yet it ought to be quite finished at the height of +eight or ten inches above the fire, otherwise it may perhaps +cause the Chimney to smoke; but when it is very near the fire, +the heat of the fire will enable the current of rising smoke to +overcome the obstacle which this slope will oppose to its ascent, +which it could not do so easily were the slope situated at a +greater distance from the burning fuel[2]. + +Fig. 7, 8, and 9, show a plan, elevation, and section of a +Fire-place constructed or altered upon this principal.--The wall +of the Chimney in front at a, fig. 9, being only four inches +thick, four inches more added to it for the width of the throat +would have left the depth of the Fire-place measured upon the +hearth b c only eight inches, which would have been too +little;--a niche c and e, was therefore made in the new back of +the Fire-place for receiving the grate, which niche was six +inches deep in the center of it, below 13 inches wide, (or equal +in width to the grate,) and 23 inches high; finishing above with +a semicirular arch, which, in its highest part, rose seven inches +above the upper part of the grate.--The door-way for the +Chimney-sweeper, which begins just above the top of the niche, +may be seen distinctly in both the figures 8 and 9.--The space +marked g, fig. 9, behind this door-way, may either be filled with +loose bricks, or may be left void.--The manner in which the piece +of stone f, fig. 9, which is put under the mantle of the Chimney +to reduce the height of the opening of the Fire-place, is rounded +off on the inside in order to give a fair run to the column of +smoke in its ascent through the throat of the Chimney, is clearly +expressed in this figure. + +The plan fig. 7, and elevation fig. 8, show how much the width of +the opening of the Fire-place in front is diminished, and how the +covings in the new Fire-place are formed. + +A perfect idea of the form and dimension of the Fire-place in its +original state, as also after its alteration, may be had by +careful inspection of these figures. + +I have added the drawing fig. 10, merely to show how a fault, +which I have found workmen in general whom I have employed in +altering Fire-places are very apt to commit, is to be avoided. +--In Chimneys like that represented in this figure, where the +jambs A and B project far into the room, and where the front edge +of the marble slab, o which forms the coving, does not come so +far forward as the front of the jambs, the workmen in +constructing the new covings are very apt to place them,--not in +the line c A, which they ought to do,--but in the line c o, which +is a great fault.--The covings of a Chimney should never range +BEHIND the front of the jambs, however those jambs may project +into the room;--but it is not absolutely necessary that the +covings should MAKE A FINISH with the internal front corners of +the jambs, or that they should be continues from the back c, +quite to the front of the jambs at A.--They may finish in front +at a and b, and small corners A, o, a, may be left for placing +the shovels, tongs, etc. + +Were the new coving to range with the front edge of the old +coving o, the obliquity of the new coving would commonly be too +great;--or the angle d c o would exceed 135 degrees, WHICH IT +NEVER SHOULD DO,--or at least never by more than a very few +degrees. + +No inconvenience of any importance will arise from making the +obliquity of the covings LESS than what is here recommended; +but many cannot fail to be produced by making it much greater;-- +and as I know from experience that workmen are very apt to do this, +I have thought it necessary to warn them particularly against it. + +Fig. 11. shows how the width and obliquity of the covings of a +Chimney are to be accommodated to the width of the back, and to +the opening in front and depth of the Fire-place, where the width +of the opening of the Fire-place is less than three times the +width of the new back. As all those who may be employed in +altering Chimneys may not, perhaps, known how to set off an angle +of any certain numbers of degrees,--or may not have at hand the +instruments necessary for doing it,--I shall here show how an +instrument may be made which will be found to be very useful in +laying out the work for the bricklayers. + +Upon a board about 18 inches wide and four feet long, or upon the +floor or a table, draw three equal squares A, B, C, fig. 12. of +about 12 or 14 inches each side, placed in a strait line, and +touching each other.--From the back corner c of the center square +B, draw a diagonal line across the square A, to its outward front +corner f, and the adjoining angle formed by the lines d c and c f +will be equal to 135 degrees,--the angle which the plane of the +back of a Chimney Fire-place ought to make with the plane of its +covings.--And a bevel m, n, being made to this angle with thin +slips of hard wood, this little instrument will be found to be +very useful in marking out on the hearth, with chalk, the plans +of the walls which are to form the covings of Fire-places. + +As Chimneys which are apt to smoke will require the covings to be +placed less obliquely in respect to the back than others which +have not that defect, it would be convenient to be provided with +several bevels;--three or four, for instance, forming different +angles.--That already described, which may be called No. 1. will +measure the obliquity of the covings when the Fire-place can be +made of the most perfect form:--another No. 2. may be made to a +smaller angle, d c e,--and another No. 3. for Chimnies which are +very apt to smoke at the still smaller angle d c i.--Or a bevel +may be so contrived, by means of a joint, and an arch, properly +graduated, as to serve for all the different degrees of obliquity +which it may ever be necessary to give to the covings of +Fire-places. + +Another point of much importance, and particularly in Chimneys +which are apt to smoke, is to form the throat of the Chimney +properly, by carrying up the back and covings to a proper +height. This, workmen are apt to neglect to do, probably on +account of the difficulty they find in working where the opening +of the canal of the Chimney is so much reduced.--But it is +absolutely necessary that these walls should be carried up five +or six inches at least above the upper part of the breast of the +Chimney, or to that point where the wall which forms the front of +the throat begins to rise perpendicularly. --If the workman has +intelligence enough to avail himself of the opening which is +formed in the back of the Fire-place to give a passage to the +Chimney-sweeper, he will find little difficulty in finishing his +work in a proper manner. + +In placing the plumb-line against the breast of the Chimney, in +order to ascertain how far the new back is to be brought +forward, great care must be taken to place it at the very top of +the breast, where the canal of the Chimney BEGINS TO RISE +PERPENDICULARLY; otherwise, when the plumb-line is placed too +low, or against the slope of the breast, when the new back comes +to be raised to its proper height, the throat of the Chimney will +found to be too narrow. + +Sometimes, and indeed very often the top of the breast of a +Chimney lies very high, or far above the fire (see the figures 13 +and 14, where d shows the top of the breast of the Chimney); +when this is the case it must be brought lower, otherwise the +Chimney will be very apt to smoke.--So much has been said in the +First Chapter of this Essay of the advantages to be derived from +bringing the throat of a Chimney near to the burning fuel, that I +do not think it necessary to enlarge on them in this place,-- +taking it for granted that the utility and necessity of that +arrangement have already been made sufficiently evident;-- +but a few directions for workmen, to show them how the breast +(and consequently the throat) of a Chimney can most readily be +lowered, may not be superfluous. + +Where the too great height of the breast of a Chimney is owing to +the great height of the mantle, (see fig. 13,) or, which is the +same thing, of the opening of the Fire-place in front, which will +commonly be found to be the case; the only remedy for the evil +will be to bring down the mantle lower;--or rather, to make the +opening of the Fire-place in front lower, by throwing across the +top of this opening, from one jamb to the other, and immediately +under the mantle, a very flat arch;--a wall of bricks and mortar, +supported on straight bars of iron;--or a piece of stone +(h, fig. 13).--When this is done, the slope of the old throat of +the Chimney, or of the back side of the mantle, is to be filled +up with plaster, so as to form one continued flat, vertical, +or upright plane surface with the lower part of the wall of the +canal of the Chimney, and a new breast is to be formed lower +down, care being taken to round it off properly, and make it +finish at the lower surface of the new wall built under the +mantle;--which wall forms in fact a new mantle. + +The annexed drawing fig. 13, which represents the section of a +Chimney in which the breast has been lowered according to the +method here described, will show these various alterations in a +clear and satisfactory manner. In this figure, as well as in +most of the others in this Essay, the old walls are distinguished +from the new ones by the manner in which they are shaded;-- +the old walls being shaded by diagonal lines, and the new ones by +vertical lines. The additions, which are formed of plaster, +are shaded by dots instead of lines. + +Where the too great height of the breast of a Chimney is +occasioned, not by the height of the mantle, but by the too great +width of the breast, in that case, (which however will seldom be +found to occur,) this defect may be remedied by covering the +lower part of the breast with a thick coating of plaster, +supported, if necessary, by nails or studs, driven into the wall +which forms the breast, and properly rounded off at the lower +part of the mantle.--See fig. 14. + + +CHAPTER. III. + + Of the cause of the ascent of smoke. + Illustration of the subject by familiar comparisons and + experiments. + Of chimnies which affect and cause each other to smoke. + Of chimnies which smoke from want of air. + Of the eddies of wind which sometimes blow down chimnies, + and cause them to smoke. + Explanation of the figures. + +Though it was my wish to avoid all abstruse philosophical +investigations in this Essay, yet I feel that it is necessary to +say a few words upon a subject generally considered as difficult +to be explained, which is too intimately connected with the +matter under consideration to be passed over in silence.-- +A knowledge of the cause of the ascent of Smoke being indispensably +necessary to those who engage in the improvement of Fire-places, +or who are desirous of forming just ideas relative to the +operations of fire, and the management of heat, I shall devote a +few pages to the investigation of that curious and interesting +subject.--And as many of those who may derive advantage from +these inquiries are not much accustomed to philosophical +disquisitions, and would not readily comprehend either the +language or the diagrams commonly used by scientific writers to +explain the phaenomena in question, I shall take pains to express +myself in the most familiar manner, and to use such comparisons +for illustration as may easily be understood. + +If small leaden bullets, or large goose shot, be mixed with peas, +and the whole well shaken in a bushel, the shot will separate +from the peas, and will take its place at the bottom of the +bushel; forcing by its greater weight the peas which are lighter, +to move upwards, contrary to their natural tendency, and take +their places above. + +If water and linseed oil, which is lighter than water, be mixed +in a vessel by shaking them together, upon suffering this mixture +to remain quite, the water will descend and occupy the bottom of +the vessel, and the oil, being forced out of its place by the +greater pressure downwards of the heavier liquid, will be obliged +to rise and swim on the surface of the water. + +If a bottle containing linseed oil be plunged in water with its +mouth upwards, and open, the oil will ascent out of the bottle, +and passing upwards through the mass of water, in a continued +stream, will spread itself over its surface. + +In like manner when two fluids of any kind, of different densities, +come into contact, or are mixed with each other, that which is +the lightest will be forced upwards by that which is the +heaviest. + +And as heat rarefies all bodies, fluids as well as solids, air as +well as water, or mercury,--it follows that two portions of the +same fluid, at different temperatures, being brought into contact +with each other, that portion which is the hottest being more +rarefied or specifically LIGHTER than that which is colder, must +be forced upwards by this last.--And this is what always happens +in fact. + +When hot water and cold water are mixed, the hottest part of the +mixture will be found to be at the surface above;--and when cold +air is admitted into a warmed room, it will always be found to +take its place at the bottom of the room, the warmer air being in +part expelled, and in part forced upwards to the top of the room. + +Both air and water being transparent and colourless fluids, +their internal motions are not easily discovered by the sight, +and when these motions are very slow, they make no impression +whatever on any of our senses, consequently they cannot be +detected by us without the aid of some mechanical contrivance:-- +But where we have reason to think that those motions exist, +means should be sought, and may often be found, for rendering +them perceptible. + +If a bottle containing hot water tinged with log-wood, or any +other colouring drug, be immersed, with its mouth open, +and upwards, into a deep glass jar filled with cold water, +the ascent of the hot water from the bottle through the mass of +cold water will be perfectly visible through the glass.-- +Now nothing can be more evident than that both of these fluids are +forced, or PUSHED, and not DRAWN upwards.--Smoke is frequently +said to be drawn up the Chimney;--and that a Chimney draws well, +or ill;--but these are careless expressions, and lead to very +erroneous ideas respecting the cause of the ascent of Smoke; +and consequently tend to prevent the progress of improvements in +the management of fires.--The experiment just mentioned with the +coloured water is very striking and beautiful, and it is well +calculated to give a just idea of the cause of the ascent of +Smoke. The cold water in the jar, which, in consequence of its +superior weight or density, forces the heated and rarefied water +in the bottle to give place to it, and to move upwards out of +its way, may represent the cold air of the atmosphere, while the +rising column of coloured water will represent the column of +Smoke which ascends from a fire. + +If Smoke required a Chimney to DRAW it upwards, how happens it +that Smoke rises from a fire which is made in the open air, +where there is no Chimney? + +If a tube, open at both ends, and of such a length that its upper +end be below the surface of the cold water in the jar, be held +vertically over the mouth of the bottle which contains the hot +coloured water, the hot water will rise up through it, just a +smoke rises in a Chimney. + +If the tube be previously heated before it is plunged into the +cold water, the ascent of the hot coloured water will be +facilitated and accelerated, in like manner as Smoke is known to +rise with greater facility in a Chimney which is hot, than in one +in which no fire has been made for a long time.--But in neither +of these cases can it, with any propriety, be said, that the hot +water is DRAWN up the tube.--The hotter the water in the bottle +is, and the colder that in the jar, the greater will be the +velocity with which the hot water will be forced up through the +tube; and the same holds of the ascent of hot Smoke in a +Chimney.--When the fire is intense, and the weather very cold, +the ascent of the Smoke is very rapid; and under such +circumstances Chimneys seldom smoke. + +As the cold water of the jar immediately surrounding the bottle +which contains the hot water, will be heated by the bottle while +the other parts of the water in the jar will remain cold, this +water so heated, becoming specifically lighter than that which +surrounds it, will be forced upwards; and if it finds its way +into the tube will rise up through it with the coloured hot +water.--The warmed air of a room heated by an open Chimney +Fire-place has always a tendency to rise, (if I may use that +inaccurate expression,) and finding its way into the Chimney +frequently goes off with the Smoke. + +What has been said, will, I flatter myself, be sufficient to +explain and illustrate, in a clear and satisfactory manner, +the cause of the ascent of Smoke; and just ideas upon that subject +are absolutely necessary in order to judge, with certainty, +of the merit of any scheme proposed for the improvement of +Fire-places; or to take effectual measures, in all cases, +for curing smoking Chimnies.--For though the perpetual changes +and alterations which are produced by accident, whim, and caprice, +do sometimes lead to useful discoveries, yet the progress of +improvement under such guidance must be exceedingly slow, +fluctuating, and uncertain. + +As to the causes of the smoking of Chimnies, they are very +numerous, and various; but as a general idea of them may be +acquired from what has already been said upon that subject in +various parts of this Essay, and as they may, in all cases, +(a very few only excepted,) be completely remedied by making the +alterations in Fire-places here pointed out; I do not think it +necessary to enumerate them all in this place, or to enter into +those long details and investigations which would be required to +show the precise manner in which each of them operates, either +alone, or in conjunction with others. + +There is however one cause of smoking Chimnies which I think it +is necessary to mention more particularly.--In modern built +houses, where the doors and windows are generally made to close +with such accuracy that no crevice is left for the passage of the +air from without, the Chimnies in rooms adjoining to each other, +or connected by close passages, are frequently found to affect +each other, and this is easy to be accounted for.--When there is +a fire burning in one of the Chimnies, as the air necessary to +supply the current up the Chimney where the fire burns cannot be +had in sufficient quantities from without, through the very small +crevices of the doors and windows, the air in the room becomes +rarefied, not by heat, but by subtraction of that portion of air +which is employed in keeping up the fire, or supporting the +combustion of the fuel, and in consequence of this rarefaction, +its elasticity is diminished, and being at last overcome by the +pressure of the external air of the atmosphere, this external air +rushes into the room by the only passage left for it, namely, by +the open Chimney of the neighbouring room:--And the flow of air +into the Fire-place, and up the Chimney where the fire is burning +being constant, this expence of air is supplied by a continued +current down the other Chimney. + +If an attempt be made to light fires in both Chimnies at the same +time, it will be found to be very difficult to get the fires to +burn, and the rooms will both be filled with Smoke. + +One of the fires,--that which is made in the Chimney where the +construction of the Fire-place is best adapted to facilitate the +ascent of the Smoke,--or if both Fire-places are on the same +construction,--that which has the wind most favourable, or in +which the fire happens to be soonest kindled,--will overcome the +other, and cause its Smoke to be beat back into the room by the +cold air which descends through the Chimney.--The most obvious +remedy in this case is to provide for the supply of fresh air +necessary for keeping up the fires by opening a passage for the +external air into the room by a shorter road than down one of the +Chimnies; and when this is done, both Chimnies will be found to +be effectually cured. + +But Chimnies so circumstanced may very frequently be prevented +from smoking even without opening any new passage for the +external air, merely by diminishing the draught, (as it is +called,) up the Chimnies; which can best be done by altering +both Fire-places upon the principles recommended and fully +explained in the foregoing Chapters of this Essay. + +Should the doors and windows of a room be closed with so much +nicety as to leave no crevices by which a supply of air can enter +sufficient for maintaining the fire, AFTER THE CURRENT OF AIR UP +THE CHIMNEY HAS BEEN DIMINISHED AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE BY +DIMINISHING THE THROAT OF THE FIRE-PLACE; in that case there +would be no other way of preventing the Chimney from smoking but +by opening a passage for the admission of fresh air from +without;--but this, I believe, will very seldom be found to be +the case. + +A case more frequently to be met with is where currents of air +set down Chimnies in consequence of a diminution and rarefaction +of the air in a room, occasioned by the doors of the room opening +into passages or courts where the air is rarefied by the action +of some particular winds. In such cases the evil may be +remedied, either by causing the doors in question to close more +accurately,--or, (which will be still more effectual,) by giving +a supply of air to the passage or court which wants it, by some +other way. + +Where the top of a Chimney is commanded by high buildings, by +clifts, or by high grounds, it will frequently happen, in windy +weather, that the eddies formed in the atmosphere by these +obstacles will blow down the Chimney, and beat down the smoke +into the room.--This it is true will be much less likely to +happen when the throat of the Chimney is contracted and properly +formed than when it is left quite open, and the Fire-place badly +constructed; but as it is POSSIBLE that a Chimney may be so +much exposed to these eddies in very high winds as to be made to +smoke sometimes when the wind blows with violence from a certain +quarter, it is necessary to show how the effects of those eddies +may be prevented. + +Various mechanical contrivances have been imagined for +preventing the wind from blowing down Chimnies, and many of them +have been found to be useful;--there are, however, many of these +inventions, which, though they prevent the wind from blowing down +the Chimney, are so ill-contrived on other accounts as to +obstruct the ascent of the Smoke, and do more harm than good. + +Of this description are all those Chimney-pots with flat +horizontal plates or roofs placed upon supporters just above the +opening of the pot;--and most of the caps which turn with the +wind are not much better.--One of the most simple contrivances +that can be made use of, and which in most cases will be found to +answer the purpose intended as well or better than more +complicated machinery, is to cover the top of the Chimney with a +hollow truncated pyramid or cone, the diameter of which above, or +opening for the passage of the Smoke, is about 10 or 11 inches. +--This pyramid, or cone, (for either will answer,)--should be of +earthen ware, or of cast iron;--its perpendicular height may be +equal to the diameter of its opening above, and the diameter of +its opening below equal to three times its height.--It should be +placed upon the top of the Chimney, and it may be contrived so as +to make a handsome finish to the brick-work.--Where several +flews come out near each other, or in the same stack of Chimnies, +the form of a pyramid will be better than that of a cone for +these covers. + +The intention of this contrivance is, that the winds and eddies +which strike against the oblique surface of these covers may be +reflected upwards instead of blowing down the Chimney.-- +The invention is by no means new, but it has not hitherto been +often put in practice.--As often as I have seen it tried it has +been found to be of use; I cannot say, however, that I was ever +obliged to have recourse to it, or to any similar contrivance; +and if I forbear to enlarge upon the subject of these inventions, +it is because I am persuaded that when Chimnies are properly +constructed IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THE FIRE-PLACE little more +will be necessary to be done at the top of the Chimney than to +leave it open. + +I cannot conclude this Essay without again recommending, in the +strongest manner, a careful attention to the management of fires +in open Chimnies; for not only the quantity of heat produced on +the combustion of fuel depends much on the manner in which the +fire is managed, but even of the heat actually generated a very +small part only will be saved, or usefully employed, when the +fire is made in a careless and slovenly manner. + +In lighting a coal fire more wood should be employed than is +commonly used, and fewer coals; and as soon as the fire burns +bright, and the coals are well lighted, and NOT BEFORE, more +coals should be added to increase the fire to its proper +size[3]. + +The enormous waste of fuel in London may be estimated by the vast +dark cloud which continually hangs over this great metropolis, +and frequently overshadows the whole country, far and wide; +for this dense cloud is certainly composed almost entirely of +UNCONSUMED COAL, which having stolen wings from the innumerable +fires of this great city has escaped by the Chimnies, and +continues to sail about in the air, till having lost the heat +which gave it volatility, it falls in a dry shower of extremely +fine black dust to the ground, obscuring the atmosphere in its +descent, and frequently changing the brightest day into more than +Egyptian darkness. + +I never view from a distance, as I come into town, this black +cloud which hangs over London, without wishing to be able to +compute the immense number of chaldrons of coals of which it is +composed; for could this be ascertained, I am persuaded so +striking a fact would awaken the curiosity, and excite the +astonishment of all ranks of the inhabitants; and PERHAPS turn +their minds to an object of economy to which they have hitherto +paid little attention. + + Conclusion. + +Though the saving of fuel which will result from the improvements +in the forms of CHIMNEY FIRE-PLACES here recommended will be very +considerable, yet I hope to be able to show in a future Essay, +that still greater savings may be made, and more important +advantages derived from the introduction of improvements I shall +propose in KITCHEN FIRE-PLACES. + +I hope likewise to be able to show in an Essay on COTTAGE FIRE-PLACES, +which I am now preparing for publication, that THREE QUARTERS, +at least, of the fuel which cottagers now consume in cooking their +victuals, and in warming their dwellings, may with great ease, +and without any expensive apparatus, be saved. + +END OF THE FOURTH ESSAY. + + + EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 1. +The plan of a Fire-place on the common construction. +A B, the opening of the Fire-place in front. +C D, the back of the Fire-place. +A C and B D, the covings. +See page 341. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 2. +This figure shows the elevation, or front view of a Fire-place on +the common construction. See page 341. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 3. +This Figure shows how the Fire-place represented by the Fig. 1, +is to be altered in order to its being improved. + +A B is the opening in front,--C D, the back, and A C and B D, +the covings of the Fire-place in its original state. + +a b, its opening in front,--i k, its back,--and a i and b k, its +covings after it has been altered, e is a point upon the hearth +upon which a plum suspended from the middle of the upper part of +the breast of the Chimney falls. The situation for the new back +is ascertained by taking the line e f equal to four inches. +The new back and covings are represented as being built of +bricks;--and the space between these and the old back and covings +as being filled up with rubbish. See page 342. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 4. +This Figure represents the elevation or front view of the +Fire-place Fig. 3. after it has been altered. The lower part of +the door-way left for the Chimney-sweeper is shown in this Figure +by white dotted lines. See page 344. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 5. +This Figure shows the section of a Chimney Fire-place and of a +part of the canal of the Chimney, on the common construction. + +a b is the opening in front; b c, the depth of the Fire-place at +the hearth; d, the breast of the Chimney. + +d e, the throat of the Chimney, and d f, g e, a part of the open +canal of the Chimney. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 6. +Shows a section of the same Chimney after it has been altered. + +k l is the new back of the Fire-place; l i, the tile or stone +which closes the door-way for the Chimney-sweeper; d i, +the throat of the Chimney, narrow to four inches; a, the mantle, +and h, the new wall made under the mantle to diminish the height +of the opening of the Fire-place in front. + +N.B. These two Figures are sections of the same Chimney which is +represented in each of the four preceding Figures. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 7. + +This Figure represents the ground plan of a Chimney Fire-place in +which the grate is placed in a niche, and in which the original +width A B of the Fire-place is considerably diminished. + +a b is the opening of the Fire-place in front after it has been +altered, and d is the back of the niche in which the grate is +placed. See page 347. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 8. +Shows a front view of the same Fire-place after it has been +altered; where may be seen the grate, and the door-way for the +Chimney-sweeper. See page 347. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 9. +Shows a section of the same Fire-place, c d e being a section of +the niche, g the door-way for the Chimney-sweeper, closed by a +piece of the fire-stone, and f the new wall under the mantle by +which the height of the opening of the Fire-place in front is +diminished. See page 347. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 10. +This Figure shows how the covings are to be placed when the front +of the covings (a and b) do not come so far forward as the front +of the opening of the Fire-place, or the jambs (A and B). +See page 348. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 11. +This Figure shows how the width and obliquity of the covings are +to be accommodated to the width of the back of a Fire-place, in +cases where it is necessary to make the back very wide. +See page 349. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 12. +This Figure shows how an instrument called a bevel (m n), useful +in laying out the work, in altering Chimney Fire-places, may be +constructed. See page 349. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 13. +This shows how, when the breast of a Chimney (d) is too high, +it may be brought down by means of a wall (h) placed under the +mantle, and a coating of plaster, which in this Figure is +represented by the part marked by dots. See page 351. + +[ IMAGE ] + +Fig. 14. +This shows how the breast of a Chimney may be brought down merely +by a coating of plaster. See page 351. + + +Footnotes for essay IV. + +[1] +Eves and Sutton, bricklayers, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, have +alone altered above 90 Chimnies.--The experiment was first made +in London at Lord Palmerston's house in Hanover-square;--then two +Chimnies were altered in the house of Sir John Sinclair, Baronet, +President of the Board of Agriculture; one in the room in which +the Board meets, and the other in the Secretary's room; which +last being much frequented by persons from all parts of Great +Britain, it was hoped that circumstances would tend much to +expedite the introduction of these improvements in various parts +of the kingdom. Several Chimnies were altered in the house of +Sir Joseph Banks, Baronet, K. B. President of the Royal Society. +Afterwards a number were altered in Devonshire-house;--in the +house of Earl Besborough, in Cavendish-square, and at his seat at +Roehampton;--at Holywell-house, near St. Alban's, the seat of the +Countess Dowager Spencer:--at Melbourne-house;--at Lady Templeton's +in Portland-place; --at Mrs Montagu's in Portman-square;-- +at Lord Sudley's, in Dover-street:--at the Marquis of Salisbury's +seat at Hatfield, and at his house in town;--at Lord Palmerston's +seat at Broadlands, near Southampton, and at several gentlemen's +houses in that neighbourhood;--and a great many others; but it +would be tiresome to enumerate them all; and even these are +mentioned merely for the satisfaction of those who may wish to +make inquiries respecting the success of the experiments. + +[2] +Having been obliged to carry backward the Fire-place in the +manner here described, in order to accommodate it to a Chimney +whose walls in front were remarkably thin,--I was surprised to +find upon lighting the fire that it appeared to give out more +heat into the room than any Fire-place I had ever constructed.-- +This effect was quite unexpected; but the cause of it was too +obvious not to be immediately discovered.--The flame rising from +the fire broke against the part of the back which sloped forward +over the fire, and this part of the back being soon very much +heated, and in consequence of its being very hot, (and when the +fire burnt bright it was frequently quite red hot,) it threw off +into the room a great deal of radiant heat.--It is not possible +that this oblique surface (the slope of the back of the Fire-place) +could have been heated red-hot MERELY by the radiant heat +projected by the burning fuel, for other parts of the Fire-place +nearer the fire, and better situated for receiving radiant heat, +were never found to be so much heated;--and hence it appears that +the combined heat in the current of smoke and hot vapour which +rises from an open fire MAY BE, at least IN PART, stopped in its +passage up the Chimney, changing into radiant heat, and +afterwards thrown into the room.--This opens up a new and very +interesting field for experiment, and bids fair to lead to +important improvements in the construction of Fire-places.--I +have of late been much engaged in these investigations, and am +now actually employed daily in making a variety of experiments +with grates and Fire-places, upon different constructions, in the +room I inhabit in the Royal Hotel in Pall Mall;--and Mr. Hopkins +of Greek-street Soho, Ironmonger to his Majesty, and Mrs. Hempel, +at her Pottery at Chelsea, are both at work in their different +lines of business, under my direction, in the construction of +Fire-places upon a principle entirely new, and which, I flatter +myself, will be found to be not only elegant and convenient, +but very economical.--But as I mean soon to publish a particular +account of these Fire-places,--with drawings and ample directions +for constructing them, I shall not enlarge farther on the subject +in this place.--It may however not be amiss just to mention here, +that these new-invented Fire-places not being fixed to the walls +of the Chimney, but merely set down upon the hearth, may be used +in any open Chimney: and that Chimnies altered or constructed on +the principles here recommended are particularly well adapted for +receiving them. + +The Public in general, and more particularly those Tradesmen and +Manufacturers whom it may concern, are requested to observe, that +as the Author does not intent to take out himself, or to suffer +others to take out, any patent for any invention of his which may +be of public utility, all persons are at full liberty to imitate +them, and vend them, for their own emolument, when and where, +and in any way they may think proper; and those who may wish for +any further information respecting any of those inventions or +improvements will receive (gratis) all the information they can +require by applying to the Author, who will take pleasure in +giving them every assistance in his power. + +[3] +Kindling balls composed of equal parts of coal,--charcoal, +--and clay, the two former reduced to a fine powder, well mixed +and kneaded together with the clay moistened with water, and then +formed into balls of the size of hens eggs, and thoroughly dried, +might be used with great advantage instead of wood for kindling +fires. These kindling balls may be made so inflammable as to +take fire in an instant and with the smallest spark, by dipping +them in a strong solution of nitre and then drying them again, +and they would neither be expensive nor liable to be spoiled by +long keeping. Perhaps a quantity of pure charcoal reduced to a +very fine powder and mixed with the solution of nitre in which +they are dipped would render them still more inflammable. + +I have often wondered that no attempts should have been made to +improve the fires which are made in the open Chimnies of elegant +apartments, by preparing the fuel; for nothing surely was ever +more dirty, inelegant, and disgusting than a common coal fire. + +Fire balls of the size of goose eggs, composed of coal and +charcoal in powder, mixed up with a due proportion of wet clay, +and well dried, would make a much more cleanly, and in all +respects a pleasanter fire than can be made with crude coals; +and I believe would not be more expensive fuel. In Flanders and +in several parts of Germany, and particular in the Dutchies of +Juliers and Bergen, where coals are used as fuel, the coals are +always prepared before they are used, by pounding them to a +powder, and mixing them up with an equal weight of clay, +and sufficient quantity of water to form the whole into a mass +which is kneaded together and formed into cakes; which cakes are +afterwards well dried and kept in a dry place for use. +And it has been found by long experience that the expense +attending this preparation is amply repaid by the improvement of +the fuel. The coals, thus mixed with the clay, not only burn +longer, but give much more heat than when they are burnt in their +crude state. + +It will doubtless appear extraordinary to those who have not +considered the subject with some attention, that the quantity of +heat produced in the combustion of any quantity of coals should +be increased by mixing the coals with clay, which is certainly an +incombustible body;--but the phenomenon may, I think, be explained +in a satisfactory manner. + +The heat generated in the combustion of any small particle of +coal existing under two distinct forms, namely, in that which is +COMBINED with the flame and smoke which rise from the fire, and +which if means are not found to stop it, goes off immediately by +the Chimney and is lost,--and the RADIANT HEAT which is sent off +from the fire, in all directions in right lines:--I think it +reasonable to conclude, that the particles of clay which are +surrounded on all sides by the flame arrest a part at least of +the combined heat, and prevent its escape; and this combined +heat, so arrested, heating the clay red hot, is retained in it, +and being changed by this operation to radiant heat, is +afterwards emitted, and may be directed, and employed to useful +purposes. + +In composing fire balls, I think it probable that a certain +proportion of chaff--of straw cut very fine, or even saw dust, +might be employed with great advantage. I wish those who have +leisure would turn their thoughts to this subject, for I am +persuaded that very important improvements would result from a +thorough investigation of it. + + +CONTENTS of ESSAY V. + +A SHORT ACCOUNT of SEVERAL PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS +Lately formed in Bavaria. +together with the +APPENDIX to the FIRST VOLUME. + +Account I + A Short Account of the military academy at munich + +Account II + An account of the means used to improve the bread of horses, + and horned cattle, in Bavaria and the Palatinate. + +Account III + An account of the measures adopted for putting an end to usury at + Munich. + +Account IV + An account of a scheme for employing the soldiery in Bavaria in + repairing the highways and public roads. + +APPENDIX + +No. I + Address and petition to all inhabitants and citizens of Munich, + in the name of the real poor and distressed. + +No. II + Subscription lists distributed among the inhabitants of Munich, + in the month of January 1790, when the establishment for the + relief of the poor in that city was formed. + +No. III + An account of the receipts and expenditures of the institution + for the poor at Munich during five years. + +No. IV + Certificate relative to the expence of fuel in the public kitchen + of the military workhouse at Munich. + +No. V + Printed form for the descriptions of the poor. + +No. VI + Printed form for spin-tickets, such as are used at the military + workhouse at Munich. + +No. VII + An Account of experiments made at the bakehouse of the military + workhouse at Munich, November the 4th and 5th, 1794. + +No. VIII + Account of the persons in the house of industry in Dublin the + 30th of April 1796, and of the details of the manner and expence + of feeding them. + +No. IX + An account of an experiment made (under the direction of the + author,) in the kitchen of the house of industry at Dublin, + in cooking for the poor. + + +ESSAY V. + +A short Account of the MILITARY ACADEMY at MUNICH. + +Though it is certain that too much learning is rather +disadvantageous than otherwise to the lower classes of the +people;--that the introduction of a spirit of philosophical +investigation,--literary amusement,--and metaphysical speculation +among those who are destined by fortune to gain their livelihood +by the sweat of their brow, rather tends to make them +discontented and unhappy, than to contribute any thing to their +real comfort and enjoyments; yet there appears, now and then, +a native genius in the most humble stations, which it would be +a pity not to be able to call forth into activity. It was +principally with a view to bring forward such extraordinary +talents, and to employ them usefully in the public service, +that the Military Academy at Munich was instituted. This Academy, +which consists of 180 eleves or pupils, is divided into three +classes. The first class, which is designed for the education of +orphans and other children of the poorer class of Military +Officers, and those employed in the Civil Departments of the +State, consists of thirty pupils, who are received gratis, +from the age of eleven to thirteen years, and who remain in the +Academy for years. The second class, which is designed to assist +the poorer nobility, and less opulent among the merchants, +citizens, and servants of government, in giving their sons a good +general education, consists of sixty pupils, who are received +from the age of eleven to fifteen years, and who pay to the +Academy twelve florins a month; for which sum they are fed, +clothed, and instructed. The third class, consisting of ninety +pupils, from the age of fifteen to twenty years, who are all +admitted gratis, is designed to bring forward such youths among +the lower classes of the people as show evident signs of UNCOMMON +TALENTS and genius, joined to a sound constitution of body, and a +good moral character. + +All Commanding Officers of regiments, and Public Officers in +Civil departments, and all Civil Magistrates, are authorised and +INVITED to recommend subjects for this class of the Academy, +and they are not confined in their choice to any particular ranks +of society, but they are allowed to recommend persons of the lowest +extraction, and most obscure origin. Private soldiers, and the +children of soldiers, and even the children of the meanest +mechanics and day-labourers, are admissible, provided they +possess the necessary requisites; namely, VERY EXTRAORDINARY +NATURAL GENIUS, a healthy constitution, and a good character; +but if the subject recommended should be found wanting in any of +these requisite qualifications, he would not only be refused +admittance into the Academy, but the person who recommended him +would be very severely reprimanded. + +The greatest severity is necessary upon these occasions, otherwise +it would be impossible to prevent abuses. An establishment, +designed for the encouragement of genius, and for calling forth +into public utility talents which would otherwise remain buried +and lost in obscurity, would soon become a job for providing for +relations and dependants. + +One circumstance, relative to the internal arrangement of this +Academy, may, perhaps, be though not unworthy of being +particularly mentioned, and that is the very moderate expence at +which the institution is maintained. By a calculation, founded +upon the experience of four years, I find that the whole Academy, +consisting of 180 pupils, with professors and masters of every +kind, servants, clothing, board, lodging, fire-wood, light, +repairs, and every other article, house-rent alone excepted, +amounts to no more than 28,000 florins a-year, which is no more +than 155 florins, or about fourteen pounds sterling a-year for +each pupil; a small sum indeed, considering the manner in which +they are kept, and the education they receive. + +Though this Academy is called a Military Academy, it is by no +means confined to the education of those who are destined for the +army; but it is rather an establishment of general education, +where the youth are instructed in every science, and taught every +bodily exercise, and personal accomplishment, which constitute a +liberal education; and which fits them equally for the station of +a private gentleman,--for the study of any of the learned +professions,--or for any employment, civil or military, under the +government. + +As this institution is principally designed as a nursery for +genius,--as a gymnasium for the formation of men,--for the +formation of REAL MEN, possessed of strength and character, as +well as talents and accomplishments, and capable of rendering +essential service to the state; at all public examinations of the +pupils, the heads of all the pupil departments are invited to be +present, in order to witness the progress of the pupils, and to +mark those who discover talents peculiarly useful in any +particular departments or public employment. + +How far the influence of this establishment may extend, time must +discover. It has existed only six years; but even in that short +period, we have had several instances of very uncommon talents +having been called forth into public view, from the most obscure +situations. I only wish that the institution may be allowed to +subsist. + + An Account of the Means used to improve the BREED of HORSE, + and HORNED CATTLE, in BAVARIA and the PALATINATE. + +Through many parts of the Elector's dominions are well adapted +for the breeding of fine horses, and great numbers of horses are +actually bred[1]; yet no great attention had for many years been +paid to the improvement of the breed; and most of the horses of +distinction, such as were used by the nobility as saddle-horses +and coach-horses, were imported from Holstein and Mecklenburg. + +Being engaged in the arrangement of a new military system for the +country, it occurred to me that, in providing horses for the use +of the army, and particularly for the train of artillery, such +measures might be adopted as would tend much to improve the breed +of horses throughout the country; and my proposals meeting with +the approbation of his Most Serene Electoral Highness, the plan +was carried into execution in the following manner: + +A number of fine mares were purchased with money take from the +military chest, and being marked with an M (the initial of + +Militaria), in a circle, upon the left hip, with a hot iron, +they were given to such of the peasants, owning or leasing farms +proper for breeding good horses, as applied for them. +The conditions upon which these brood mares were given away were +as follows: + +They were, in the first place, given away gratis, and the person +who received one of these mares is allowed to consider her as his +own property, and use her in any kind of work he thinks proper; +he is, however, obliged not only to keep her, and not to sell her, +or give her away, but he is also under obligations to keep her as +a brood mare, and to have her regularly covered every season, +by a stallion pointed out to him by the commissioners, who are put +at the head of this establishment. If she dies, he must replace +her with another brood mare, which must be approved by the +commissioners, and then marked.--If one of these mares should be +found not to bring good colts, or to have any blemish, or +essential fault or imperfection, she may be changed for another. + +The stallions which are provided for these mares, and which are +under the care of the commissioners, are provided gratis; +and the foals are the sole property of those who keep the mares, +and they may sell them, or dispose of them, when and where, +and in any way they may think proper, in the same manner as they +dispose of any other foal, brought by any other mare. + +In case the army should be obliged to take the field, AND IN NO +OTHER CASE WHATEVER, those who are in possession of these mares +are obliged either to return them, or to furnish, for the use of +the army, another horse fit for the service of the artillery. + +The advantages of this arrangement to the army are obvious. +In the case of an emergency, horses are always at hand, and these +horses being bought in time of peace cost much less than it would +be necessary to pay for them, were they to be purchased in a +hurry upon the breaking out of a war, upon which occasions they +are always dear, and sometimes not to be had for money. + +It may perhaps be objected, that the money being laid out so long +before the horses are wanted, the loss of the interest of the +purchase-money ought to be taken into account; but as large sums +of money must always be kept in readiness in the military chest, +to enable the army to take the field suddenly, in case it should +be necessary; and as a part of this money must be employed in the +purchase of horses; it may as well be laid out beforehand, as to +lie dead in the military chest till the horses are actually +wanted; consequently the objection is not founded. + +I wish I could say, that this measure had been completely +successful; but I am obliged to own, that it has not answered my +expectations. Six hundred mares only were at first ordered to be +purchased and distributed; but I had hopes of seeing that number +augmented soon to as many thousands; and I had even flattered +myself with an idea of the possibility of placing in this manner +among the peasants, and consequently having constantly in +readiness, without any expence, a sufficient number of horses +for the whole army; for the cavalry as well as for the artillery +and baggage; and I had formed a plan for collecting together and +exercising, every year, such of these horses as were destined for +the service of the cavalry, and for permitting their riders to go +on furlough with their horses: in short, my views went to the +forming of an arrangement, very economical, and in many respects +similar to that of the ancient feudal military system; but the +obstinacy of the peasantry prevented these measures being carried +into execution. Very few of them could be prevailed upon to +accept of these horses; and in proportion as the terms upon which +they were offered to them were apparently advantageous, their +suspicions were increased, and they never would be persuaded that +there was not some trick at the bottom of the scheme to +over-reach them. + +It is possible that their suspicions were not a little increased +by the malicious insinuations of persons, who, from motives too +obvious to require any explanation, took great pains at that +time to render abortive every public undertaking in which I was +engaged. But be that as it may, the fact is, I could never find +means to remove these suspicions entirely, and I met with so much +difficulty in carrying the measure into execution, that I was +induced at last to abandon it, or rather to postpone its +execution to a more favourable moment. Some few mares (two or +three hundred) were placed in different parts of the country; +and some very fine colts have been produced from them, during the +six years that have elapsed since this institution was formed; +but these slow advances do not satisfy the ardour of my zeal for +improvement; and if means are not found to accelerate them, +Bavaria, with all her natural advantages for breeding fine +horses, must be obliged, for many years to come, to continue to +import horses from foreign countries. + +My attempts to improve the breed of horned cattle, though +infinitely more confined, have been proportionally much more +successful. Upon forming the public garden at Munich, as the +extent of the grounds is very considerable, the garden being +above six English miles in circumference, and the soil being +remarkably good, I had an opportunity of making, within the +garden, a very fine and a very valuable farm; and this farm being +stocked with about thirty of the finest cows that could be +procured from Switzerland, Flanders, Tyrol, and other places upon +the Continent famous for a good breed of horned cattle; and this +flock being refreshed annually with new importations of cows as +well as bulls, all the cows which are produced, are distributed +in the country, being sold to any person of the country who +applies for them, AND WITH PROMISE TO REAR THEM, at the same low +prices at which the most ordinary calves of the common breed of +the country are sold to the butchers. + +Though this establishment has existed only about six years, it is +quite surprising what a change it has produced in the country. +As there is a great resort to Munich from all parts of the country, +it being the capital, and the residence of the Sovereign, the new +English garden (as it is called), which begins upon the ramparts +of the town, and extends near two English miles in length, and +is always kept open, is much frequented, and there are few who go +into the garden without paying a visit to the cows, which are +always at home. Their stables, which are concealed in a thick +wood behind a public coffee-house or tavern in the middle of the +garden, are elegantly fitted up and kept with great care; and the +cows, which are not only large, and remarkably beautiful, but are +always kept perfectly clean, and in the highest condition, are an +object of public curiosity. Those who are not particularly +interested in the improvement of cattle, go to see them as +beautiful and extraordinary animals; but farmers and connoisseurs +go to EXAMINE them,--to compare them with each other,--and with +the common breed of the country, and to get information with +respect to the manner of feeding them, and the profits derived +from them; and so rapidly has the flame of improvement spread +throughout every part of Bavaria from this small spark, that I +have no doubt but in a very few years the breed of horned cattle +will be quite changed. + +Not satisfied with the scanty supply furnished from the farm in +the English garden, several of the nobility, and some of the most +wealthy and enterprising of the farmers, are sending to Switzerland, +and other distant countries famous for fine cattle, for cows and +bulls; and the good effects of these exertions are already +visible in many parts of the country. + +How very easy would it be by similar means to introduce a spirit +of improvement in any country! and where sovereigns do not make +public gardens to bring together a concourse of people, +individuals might do it by private subscription, or at least they +might unite together and rent a large farm in the neighbourhood +of the capital, for the purpose of making useful experiments. +If such a farm were well managed, the produce of it would be more +than sufficient to pay all the expenses attending it; and if the +grounds and fields were laid out with taste--if good roads for +carriages and for those who ride on horseback were made round it, +and between all the fields--if the stables were elegantly fitted +up--filled with beautiful cattle, kept perfectly clean and neat; +and if a handsome inn were erected near the buildings of the +farm, where those who visited it might be furnished with +refreshment, it would soon become a place of public resort and +improvements in agriculture would become A FASHIONABLE AMUSEMENT; +the ladies even would take pleasure in viewing from their +carriages the busy and most interesting scenes of rural industry, +and it would no longer be thought vulgar to understand the +mysteries of Ceres. + +Why should not Parliament purchase, or rent such a farm in the +neighbourhood of London, and put it under the direction of the +Board of Agriculture? The expence would be but a mere trifle, +if any thing, and the institution would not only be useful, +but extremely interesting; and it would be an inexhaustible +source of rational and innocent amusement, as well as of +improvement to vast numbers of the most respectable inhabitants +of this great metropolis. + +In former times, statesmen considered the amusement of the public +as an object of considerable importance, and pains were taken to +render the public amusements useful in forming the national +character. + + An Account of the Measures adopted for putting an End to USURY + at MUNICH. + +Another measure, more limited in its operations than those before +mentioned, but which notwithstanding was productive of much good, +was adopted, in which a part of the treasure which was lying dead +in the military chest was usefully employed for the relief of a +considerable number of individuals, employed in subordinate +stations under the government, who stood in great need of +assistance. + +A practice productive of much harm to the public service, as well +as to individuals, had prevailed for many years in Bavaria in +almost all the public departments of the state, that of +appointing a great number of supernumerary clerks, secretaries, +counsellors, etc. who, serving without pay, or with only small +allowances, were obliged, in order to subsist till such time as +they should come into the receipt of the regulated salaries +annexed to their offices, to contract debts to a considerable +amount; and as many of them had no other security to give for the +sums borrowed, than their promise to repay them when it should be +in their power, no money-lender who contented himself with legal +interest for his money would trust them; and of course they were +obliged to have recourse to Jews and other usurers, who did not +afford them the temporary assistance they required, but upon the +most exorbitant and ruinous conditions; so that these unfortunate +people, instead of finding themselves at their ease upon coming +into possession of the emoluments of their offices, were +frequently so embarrassed in their circumstances as to be obliged +to mortgage their salaries for many months to come, to raise +money to satisfy their clamorous creditors; and from this +circumstance, and from the general prevalence of luxury and +dissipation among all ranks of society, the anticipation of +salaries had become so prevalent, and the conditions upon which +money was advanced upon such security was so exorbitant, that +this alarming evil called for the most serious attention of the +government. + +The interest commonly paid for money, advanced upon receipts for +salaries, was 5 PER CENT. PER MONTH, or three creutzers, for the +florin; and there were instances of even much larger interest +being given. + +The severest laws had been made to prevent these abuses, +but means were constantly found to evade them; and, instead of +putting an end to the evil, they frequently served rather to +increase it. + +It occurred to me, that as any tradesman may be ruined by another +who can afford to undersell him, so it might be possible to ruin +the usurers, by setting up the business in opposition to them, +and furnishing money to borrowers upon more reasonable terms. +In order to make this experiment, a caise of advance (Vorschuss +Cassa), containing 30,000 florins, was established at the +military pay-office, where any person in the actual receipt of a +salary or pension under government, in any department of the +state, civil or military, might receive in advance, upon his +personal application, his salary or pension for one or for two +months upon a deduction of interest at the rate of 5 PER CENT. +PER ANNUM, or one twelfth part of the interest commonly extorted +by the Jews and other usurers upon those occasions. + +The great number of persons who have availed themselves of the +advantages held out to them by this establishment, and who still +continue to avail themselves of them, shows how effectually the +establishment has been to remedy the evil it was designed to +eradicate. + +The number of persons who apply to this chest for assistance each +month, is at a medium from 300 to 400, and the sums actually in +advance, amount in general to above 20,000 florins. + +As no money is advanced from this chest but upon government +securities that is to say, upon receipts for salaries, +and pensions, there is no risque attending the operation; +and as the interest arising from the money advanced, is more +than sufficient to defray the expence of carrying on the +business, there is no loss whatever attending it. + + An Account of a SCHEME for employing the SOLDIERY in BAVARIA + in repairing the Highways and Public Roads. + +I had formed a plan, which, if it had been executed, would have +rendered the military posts or patroles of cavalry established in +all parts of the Elector's dominions much more interesting, +and more useful[2]. I wished to have employed the soldiery +exclusively in the repairs of all the highways in the country, +and to have united this undertaking with the establishment of +permanent military stations, on all the high roads, for the +preservation of order and public tranquillity. + +It is a great hardship upon the inhabitants in any country to be +obliged to leave their own domestic affairs, and turn out with +their cattle and servants, when called upon, to work upon the +public roads; but this was peculiarly grievous in Bavaria, where +labourers are so scarce that the farmers are frequently obliged +to leave a great part of their grounds uncultivated for want of +hands. + +My plan was to measure all the public roads from the capital cities +in the Elector's dominions to the frontiers, and all cross country +roads; placing mile-stones regularly numbered upon each road, +at regular distances of one hour, or half a German mile from each +other;--to divide each road into as many stations as it +contained mile-stones; each station extending from one mile-stone +to another; and to erect in the middle of each station, by the +road-side, a small house, with stabling for three or four horses, +and with a small garden adjoining to it;--to place in each of +these houses, a small detachment of cavalry of three or four men, +--a soldier on furlough, employed to take care of the road and +keep it in repair within the limits of the station;--an invalid +soldier to take care of the house, and to receive orders and +messages in the absence of the others,--to take care of the +garden, to provide provisions, and cook for the family. + +If any of the soldiers should happen to be married, his wife +might have been allowed to lodge in the house, upon condition of +her assisting the invalid soldier in this service; or a pensioned +soldier's widow might have been employed for the same purpose. + +To preserve order and discipline in these establishments, it was +proposed to employ active and intelligent non-commissioned +officers as overseers of the highways, and to place these under +the orders of superior officers appointed to preside over more +extensive districts. + +It was proposed likewise to plant rows of useful trees by the +road-side from one station to another throughout the whole +country, and it was calculated that after a certain number of +years the produce of those trees would have been nearly +sufficient to defray all the expences of repairing the roads. + +Such an arrangement, with the striking appearance of order and +regularity that would accompany it, could not have failed to +interest every person of feeling who saw it; and I am persuaded +that such a scheme might be carried into execution with great +advantage in most countries where standing armies are kept up in +time of peace. The reasons why this plan was not executed in +Bavaria at the time it was proposed are too long, and too foreign +to my present purpose to be here related. Perhaps a time may +come when they will cease to exist. + + +APPENDIX. No I. + + ADDRESS and PETITION to all the Inhabitants and Citizens of + MUNICH, in the Name of the real Poor and Distressed. + +(Translated from the German). + +Too long have the public honour and safety, morality and religion, +called aloud for the extirpation of an evil, which, though habit +has rendered it familiar to us, always appears in all its horrid +and disgusting shapes; and whose dangerous effects show +themselves every where, and are increasing every day. + +Too long already have the virtuous citizens of this metropolis +seen with concern the growing numbers of the Beggars, their +impudence, and their open and shameless debaucheries; yet +idleness and mendicity (those pests of society) have been so +feebly counteracted, that, instead of being checked and +suppressed, they have triumphed over those weak attempts to +restrain them and acquiring fresh vigour and activity from +success, have spread their baleful influence far and wide. + +What well-affected citizen can be indifferent to the shame that +devolves upon himself and upon his country, when whole swarms of +dissolute rabble, covered with filthy rags, parade the streets, +and by tales of real or of fictitious distress--by clamorous +importunity, insolence, and rudeness, extort involuntary +contributions from every traveller? When no retreat is to be found, +no retirement where poverty, misery, and impudent hypocrisy, in +all their disgusting and hideous forms, do not continually +intrude; when no one is permitted to enjoy a peaceful moment, +free from their importunity, either in the churches or in public +places, at the tombs of the dead, or at the places of amusement? +What avail the marks of affluence and prosperity which appear in +the dress and equipage of individuals, in the elegance of their +dwellings, and in the magnificence and splendid ornaments of our +churches, while the voice of woe is heard in every corner, +proceeding from the lips of hoary age worn out with labour; from +strong and healthy men capable of labour; from young infants and +their shameless and abandoned parents? What reputable citizen +would not blush, if among the inmates of his house should be +found a miserable wretch, who by tales of real or fictitious +distress should attempt to extort charitable donations from his +friends and visitors? What opinion would he expect would be +formed of his understanding--of his heart--of his circumstances? +What then must the foreigner and traveller think, who, after +having seen no vestige of Beggary in the neighbouring countries, +should, upon his arrival at Munich, find himself suddenly +surrounded by a swarm of groaning winching wretches, besieging +and following his carriage? + +THE PUBLIC HONOUR calls aloud to have a stop put to this +disgraceful evil. + +THE PUBLIC SAFETY also demands it. The dreadful consequences +are obvious, which must ensue when great numbers of healthy +individuals, and whole families, live in idleness, without any +settled abode, concluding every day with schemes for defrauding +the public of their subsistence for the next: where the children +belonging to this numerous society are made use of to impose on +the credulity of the benevolent, and where they are regularly +trained, from their earliest infancy, in all those infamous +practices, which are carried on systematically, and to such an +alarming extent among us. + +Great numbers of these children grow up to die under the hands of +the executioner. The only instruction they receive from their +parents is how to cheat and deceive; and daily practice in lying +and stealing from their very infancy, renders them uncommonly +expert in their infamous trade. The records of the courts of +justice show in innumerable instances, that early habits of +Idleness and Beggary are a preparation for the gallows; and among +the numerous thefts that are daily committed in this capital, +there are very few that are not committed by persons who get into +the houses under the pretext of asking for charity. + +What person is ignorant of these facts? and who can demand +further proofs of the necessity of a solid and durable +institution, for the relief and support of the Poor? + +The reader would be seized with horror, were we to unveil all the +secret abominations of these abandoned wretches. They laugh +alike at the laws of God and of man. No crime is too horrible +and shocking for them, nothing in heaven or on the earth too holy +not to be profaned by them without scruple, and employed with +consummate hyprocrisy to their wicked purposes[3]. + +Whence is it that this evil proceeds? not from the inability of +this great capital to provide for its Poor; for no city in the +world, of equal extent and population, has so many hospitals for +the sick and infirm, and other institutions of public charity. +Neither is it owing to the hard-heartedness of the inhabitants; +for a more feeling and charitable people cannot be found. +Even the uncommonly great and increasing numbers of the Beggars +show the kindness and liberality of the inhabitants; for these +vagabonds naturally collect together in the greatest numbers, +where their trade can be carried on to the greatest advantage. + +THE INJUDICIOUS DISPENSATION OF ALMS is the real and only source +of this evil. + +In every community there are certainly to be found a greater or +less number of poor and distressed persons, who have just claims +on the public charity. This is also the case at Munich; +and nature dictates to us the duty of administering relief to +suffering humanity, and more especially to our poor and distressed +fellow-citizens; and our Holy Religion promises eternal rewards +to him who supports and relieves the poor and needy, and +threatens everlasting damnation to him who sends them away +without relief. + +The Holy Fathers teach, that when there are no other means left +for the relief and support of the Poor, the superfluous ornaments +of the churches may be disposed of, and even the sacred vessels +melted down and sold for that purpose. + +But what shall we think, when we see those very persons, +who profess to live after the rules and precepts laid down in +the word of God, act diametrically contrary to them? + +Such, doubtless, is the fatal conduct of those who are induced by +mistaken compassion to lavish their alms upon Beggars, and +obstruct the relief of the really indigent.--Alms that frustrate +a good and useful institution cannot be meritorious, or +acceptable to God: and no maxim is less founded in truth, than +that the merit of the giver is undiminished by the unworthiness +of the object.-- The truly distressed are too bashful to mix with +the herd of common Beggars; necessity, it is true, will sometimes +conquer their timidity, and compel them publicity to solicit +charity; but their modest appeal is unheard or unnoticed, whilst +a dissolute vagabond, who exhibits an hypocritical picture of +distress,--a drunken wretch, who pretends to have a numerous +family and to be persecuted by misfortune,--or an impudent +unfeeling women, who excites pity by the tears and cries of a +poor child whom she has hired perhaps for the purpose, and +tortured into suffering, steps daringly forward to intercept the +alms of the charitable; and the well-intentioned gift which +should relieve the indigent is the prize of impudence and +imposition, and the support of vice and idleness.--What then +is left for the modest object of real distress, but to retire +dispirited and hide himself in the obscurity of his cottage, +there to languish in misery, whilst the bolder Beggar consumes +the ill-bestowed gift in mirth and riot? And, yet, the charitable +donor flatters himself that he has performed an exemplary duty! + +We earnestly entreat every citizen and inhabitant of this +capital, each in his respective station, no longer to countenance +mendicity by such a misapplication of their well-meant charity; +contributing thus to augment the fatal consequences of the evil +itself, as well as to impede the relief of the real necessitous. + +We are firmly persuaded, that by pointing out to our +fellow-citizens a method by which they may exercise their +benevolence towards the indigent and distressed in a meritorious +manner, we shall gratify their pious zeal and humanity, and at +the same time essentially promote the honour and safety of the +state, and the interests of sound morality and religion. + +And this is the sole object of the Military Workhouse, which has +been instituted by the command of his Electoral Highness, where, +from this time forward, all who are able to work may find +employment and wages, and will be cloathed and fed.--THERE will +be the really indigent find a secure asylum, and those +unfortunate persons who are a prey to sickness and infirmity, +or are worn out with age, will be effectually relieved.-- + +We beg you not to listen to the false representations which may, +perhaps, be made to calumniate this institution, by putting it on +a level with former imperfect establishments.--Why should not an +institution prosper at Munich, which has already been successful +in other places, particularly at Manheim, where above 800 persons +are daily employed in the Military Workhouse, and heap +benedictions on its benevolent founder?--Have the inhabitants of +this town less good sense, less humanity, or less zeal for the +good of mankind? No--it would be an insult on the patriotism of +our fellow-citizens, were we to doubt of their readiness to +concur in our undertaking. + +The only efficacious way of promoting an institution so +intimately connected with the safety, honor, and welfare of the +state, and with the interests of religion and morality, is a +general resolution of the inhabitants to establish a voluntary +monthly contribution, and strictly prohibit the abominable and +degrading practice of street-begging; the unlimited exercise of +which, notwithstanding its fatal and disgraceful consequences, +is perhaps more glaringly indulged in Munich than in any other +city in Germany. + +In vain will the institution be opposed by the prejudices, +or the meanness and malice of persons who are themselves used to +mendicity, or to exercise an insolent dominion over Beggars. + +It will subsist in spite of all their efforts; and we have the +fullest confidence that the generous and well-disposed +inhabitants of this city will be sensible how injurious the +habits of encouraging public mendicity are, when an opportunity +is offered them of contributing to an institution where the +really indigent are sure to find assistance, and where the +benevolent Christian is certain that his neighbours and +fellow-citizens are benefited by his charitable donations. + +The simplest and most effectual way of ascertaining the extent of +such contribution is to form a list of all the citizens and +inhabitants of the town, with the name of the street, and number +of the house they inhabit. This register may be called an Alms +Book. It will be presented to each inhabitant, that he may put +down the sum which he means voluntarily to subscribe every month +towards the support of the Poor. The smallest donation will be +gratefully received, and the objects who are relieved by them +will pray for them to the Almighty Rewarder of all good actions. + +As this charitable contribution is to be absolutely voluntary, +every one, whatever be his rank or property, will subscribe as +he pleases, a greater or a less sum, or none at all. The names +of the benefactors and their donations will be printed and +published quarterly, that every one may know and acknowledge the +zealous friends of humanity, by whose assistance an evil of such +magnitude, so long and so universally complained of, will be +finally rooted out. + +We request that the public will not oppose so sure and effectual +a mode of granting relief to the Poor, but rather give their +generous support to an undertaking, which cannot but be +productive of much good, and acceptable in the sight of Heaven. + +To convince every one of the faithful application of these +contributions, an exact detail both of the receipt and +expenditure of the institution will be printed and laid before +the public every three months; and every subscriber will be +allowed to inspect and examine the original accounts whenever he +shall think proper. + +It must be obvious to every one, even to persons of the most +suspicious dispositions, that this institution is perfectly +disinterested, and owes its origin entirely to pure benevolence, +and an active zeal for the public good, when it is known that a +Committee appointed by his Electoral Highness, under the +direction of the Presidents of the Council of War, the Supreme +Regency, and the Ecclesiastical Council, will have the sole +administration and direction of the affairs of the institution, +and that the monthly collections of alms will be made by +creditable persons properly authorised; and that no salary, +or emoluments of any kind, will be levied on the funds of the +institution, either for salaries for the collectors, or any +other persons employed in the service of the institution, +as will clearly appear by the printed quarterly accounts. By such +precautions, we trust, we shall obviate all possible suspicions, +and inspire every unprejudiced person with a firm confidence in +this useful institution. + +Henceforward, then, the infamous practice of begging in the +streets will no longer tolerated in Munich, and the public are +from this moment exonerated from a burden which is not less +troublesome to individuals than it is disgraceful to the country. +Who can doubt the co-operation of every individual for the +accomplishment of so laudable an undertaking? We trust that no +one will encourage idleness, by an injudicious and pernicious +profusion of alms given to Beggars; and by promoting the most +unbridled licentiousness, make himself a participator in the +dangerous consequences of mendicity, and share the guilt of all +those crimes and offences which endanger the welfare of the +state, injure the cause of religion, and insult the distress of +the really indigent. + +No longer will these vagabonds impose on good-nature and +benevolence, by false pretences, by ill-founded complaints of the +inefficacy of the provision for the Poor, or by any other +artifices; nor can they escape the strict and constant vigilance +with which they will in future be watched; when every person they +meet will direct them to the House of Industry, instead of giving +them money. + +It is this regulation alone which can effectuate our purpose, +a regulation enforced in the days of primitive Christianity, +and sanctioned by Religion itself; the charitable gifts of the +wealthier Christians being in those days all deposited in a +common treasury, for the benefit of their poorer and distressed +Brethren, and not squandered away in the encouragement of +dissolute idleness. + +We therefore entreat and beseech the public in general, in the +name of suffering humanity, and of that Almighty Being who cannot +but regard so laudable an enterprise with an eye of favour, +to give every possible support to our design. And we trust that +the clergy of every denomination, but especially the public +preachers, will exert their splendid abilities to animate their +congregations to co-operate with us in this great and important +undertaking. + + +APPENDIX No II. + +SUBSCRIPTION LISTS distributed among the Inhabitants of MUNICH, +in the Month of JANUARY 1790, when the Establishment for the +Relief of the Poor in that City was formed. + +Translated from the Original German. + + VOLUNTARY SUBSCRIPTIONS + for + The Relief and Support of + The Industrious, Sick, and Helpless POOR, + and + For the total Extirpation of VAGRANTS + and STREET-BEGGARS, + In the City of MUNICH. + + REMARKS. + +These voluntary subscriptions will be collected monthly, namely, +on the last Sunday morning of every month, under the direction of +the Committee of Governors of the Institution for the Poor; +consisting of the President of the Council of War,--the President +of the Council of the Regency,--and the President of the +Ecclesiastical Council[4]; and the amount of these collections +will always be regularly noted down in books kept for that +purpose; and at the end of every three months a particular +detailed account of the application of these sums will be +printed, and given gratis to the subscribers and to the public. + +No part of these voluntary contributions will ever be taken, or +appropriated to the payment of salaries, gratuities, or rewards +to any of those persons who may be employed in carrying on the +business of the institution; but the whole amount of the sums +collected will be faithfully applied to the relief and support of +the Poor, and to that charitable purpose alone, as the accounts +of the expenditures of the institution, which will be published +from time to time, will clearly show and demonstrate.--All the +persons necessary to be employed in the affairs of this +establishment, will either be selected from among such as already +are in the receipt of salaries, sufficient for their comfortable +maintenance from other funds; or they will be such persons, in +easy circumstances, as may offer themselves voluntarily for +these services, from motives of humanity, and a disinterested +wish to be instrumental in doing good. + +As the preparations which have been made, and are making for the +support of the Poor, leave no doubt, but that adequate relief +will be afforded to them in future, they will no longer have any +pretext for begging; and all persons are most earnestly requested +to abstain henceforward from giving alms to Beggars. Instead of +giving money to such persons as they may find begging in the +street, they are requested to direct them to the House of +Industry, where they will, without fail, receive such assistance +and support as they may stand in need of and deserve. + +Those persons whose names are already inserted in other lists, +as subscribers to this institution, are, nevertheless, requested +to enter their names upon these family-sheets; for though their +names may stand on several lists, their contributions will be +called for upon one of them only, and that one will be the +family-sheet. + +Those persons of either sex, who have no families, but occupy +houses or lodging of their own, are, notwithstanding their being +without families, requested to put down the amount of the monthly +contributions they are willing to give to this institution upon +a family-sheet, and to insert their names in the list as +"head of the family." + +Under the column destined for the names of "relations and +friends, living in the house," may be included strangers, +lodgers, boarders, etc. + +The column for "domestics" may, in like manner, serve, +particularly in the houses of the nobility, and other +distinguished persons, for stewards, tutors, governesses, etc. + +Each head of a family will receive two of these family-sheets, +namely, one with these Remarks, which he will keep for his +information,--the other, printed on a half-sheet of paper, +and without remarks, which he will please to return to the public +office of the institution. + +In case of a change in the family, or if one or other of the +members of it should think proper to increase or to lessen their +contribution, this alteration is to be marked upon the half-sheet, +which is kept by the head of the family; and this sheet so +altered is to be sent to the public office of the institution, +to the end that these alterations may be made in the general +lists of the subscribers; or new printed forms being procured +from the public office, and filled up, these new lists may be +exchanged against the old ones. + +For the accommodation of those who may at any time wish to +contribute privately to the support of the institution any sums +in addition to their ordinary monthly donations, the banker of +the institution, Mr. Dallarmi, will receive such sums destined +for that purpose, as may be sent to him privately under any +feigned name, motto, or device; and for the security of the +donors, accounts of all the sums so received, with an account of +the feigned name, motto, or device, under which each of them was +sent to the banker, will be regularly published in the Munich +Gazette. + +The first collection will be made on the last Sunday of the +present month, and the following collections on the last Monday +of every succeeding month; and each head of a family is +respectfully requested to cause the contributions of his family, +and of the inhabitants of his house, to be collected at the end +of every month, by a domestic or a servant, and to keep the same +in readiness against the time of the collection. + +All persons of both sexes, and of every age and condition, +(Paupers only excepted,) are earnestly requested to have their +names inserted in these lists or family-sheets; and they may rest +assured, that any sum, even the most trifling, will be received +with thankfulness, and applied with care to the great object of +the institution--the relief and encouragement of the Poor and +the Distressed. + +And finally, as it cannot fail to contribute very much to improve +the human heart, if young persons at an early period of life are +accustomed to acts of benevolence,--it is recommended to parents, +to cause all their children to put down their names as +subscribers to this undertaking, and this, even though the +donations they may be able to spare may be the most trifling, +or even if the parents should be obliged to lessen their own +contributions in order to enable their children to become +subscribers. + +The foregoing Remarks were printed on the two first pages of a +sheet, 13 inches by 18 inches, of strong writing-paper. +The following Subscription List was printed on the third page of +the same sheet,--and also on a separate half-sheet of the same +kind of paper. + + +Voluntary Contributions for the Support of the Poor at Munich. + + F A M I L Y--S H E E T. + ====================== + +Number of the House District Street Floor. +Head of the Family } Monthly Contributions. +His Character, or } Florins. Creutzers. + +Other Persons belonging to the Family. +------------------------------------------------------------------ +: Wife, Children, Re- :Monthly :Domestics, Journey- :Monthly : +: lations and Friends :Contribu-:man, Menial Servants, :Contribu-: +: of both Sexes living: tions. :etc of both Sexes, the: tions. : +: with the Family. The: :Christian and Sirname : : +: Christian Name and : :of each Individual. : : +: Sirname of each Per-:----:----: :----:----: +: son. : Fl.: Kr.: : Fl.: Kr.: +:---------------------:----:----:----------------------:----:----: +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : : : : +: : : : (At the lower corner : : : +: : : : of this half-sheet : : : +: : : : was printed in small : : : +: : : : type): "This half- : : : +: : : : "sheet is to be sent : : : +: : : : "into the Public : : : +: : : : "Office of the : : : +: : : : "Institution." : : : +------------------------------------------------------------------ + +APPENDIX III. + +[ Etext editor's note...the following table has had to be split + into two parts, with the additional references A) B) etc + through to UK) to link them together. Originally the entire + table was printed in landscape format, with totals carried + forward, brought over, which have been removed. ] + +An Account of the RECEIPTS and EXPENDITURES of the INSTITUTION +for the POOR at MUNICH during Five Years. + + R E C E I P T S. + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + : : : Total in : + : 1790. : 1791. : 1792. : 1793. : 1794. : 5 Years. : + :----------:----------:----------:----------:----------:----------: + : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : + : : : : : : : +A) : 36,640 : 38,024 : 35,847 : 34,424 : 33,880 : 178.815 : + : : : : : : : +B) : 15,400 : 15,400 : 16,800 : 16,800 : 16,800 : 81,200 : + : : : : : : : +C) : 970 : 1,043 : 800 : 800 : 802 : 4,415 : + : : : : : : : +D) : 179 : 388 : 388 : 411 : 390 : 1,756 : + : : : : : : : +E) : ------ : 168 : 392 : 229 : 234 : 1,023 : + : : : : : : : +F) : ------ : ------ : ------ : 3,216 : 2,773 : 5,989 : + : : : : : : : +G) : 318 : 177 : 187 : 610 : 229 : 1,521 : + : : : : : : : +H) : 99 : 153 : 69 : 168 : 176 : 665 : + : : : : : : : +I) : 3,642 : 691 : 825 : 723 : 423 : 6,304 : + : : : : : : : +J) : 2,674 : 1,472 : 3,528 : 1,820 : 12,179 : 21,673 : + : : : : : : : +K) : 48 : 128 : 48 : 48 : ------ : 272 : + : : : : : : : +L) : 3,300 : 4,600 : 1,500 : ------ : ------ : 9,400 : + : : : : : : : +M) : 824 : 3,433 : 910 : 1,752 : 346 : 7,265 : + :==========:==========:==========:==========:==========:==========: + : 64,094 : 65,677 : 61,294 : 61,001 : 70,232 : 320,298 : + + + E X P E N D I T U R E S. + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + : : : Total in : + : 1790. : 1791. : 1792. : 1793. : 1794. : 5 Years. : + :----------:----------:----------:----------:----------:----------: + : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : Florins. : + : : : : : : : +N) : 42,080 : 46,410 : 43,055 : 41,933 : 43,189 : 216,667 : + : : : : : : : +O) : 11,800 : 9,900 : 10,300 : 9,600 : 9,400 : 51,000 : + : : : : : : : +P) : 1,011 : 1,040 : 800 : 861 : 805 : 4,517 : + : : : : : : : +Q) : 450 : 403 : 350 : 1,150 : 1,500 : 3,853 : + : : : : : : : +R) : 217 : 254 : 272 : 336 : 290 : 1,396 : + : : : : : : : +S) : 256 : 183 : 219 : 210 : 226 : 1,094 : + : : : : : : : +TA): 890 : 564 : 418 : 425 : 594 : 2,891 : + : : : : : : : +TB): 160 : 187 : 34 : 35 : 94 : 510 : + : : : : : : : +TC): 960 : 960 : 960 : 960 : 960 : 4,800 : + : : : : : : : +TD): 84 : 72 : 72 : 72 : 72 : 372 : + : : : : : : : +TE): 100 : 360 : 288 : 540 : 300 : 1,588 : + : : : : : : : +TF): 220 : 240 : 240 : 240 : 240 : 1,180 : + : : : : : : : +TG): 480 : 480 : 480 : 480 : 480 : 2,400 : + : : : : : : : +TH): 440 : 480 : 480 : 480 : 480 : 2,360 : + : : : : : : : +UA): 318 : 318 : 159 : ------ : ------ : 795 : + : : : : : : : +UB): ------ : ------ : ------ : 183 : 200 : 383 : + : : : : : : : +UC): 1,672 : 1,824 : 912 : ------ : ------ : 4,408 : + : : : : : : : +UD): 369 : 199 : 189 : 250 : 361 : 1,368 : + : : : : : : : +UE): 506 : 333 : 150 : 227 : 301 : 1,517 : + : : : : : : : +UF): 22 : 6 : ------ : ------ : ------ : 28 : + : : : : : : : +UG): 55 : 60 : 60 : 50 : 75 : 300 : + : : : : : : : +UH): 831 : 300 : ------ : ------ : ------ : 1,131 : + : : : : : : : +UI): ------ : ------ : 40 : 40 : 40 : 120 : + : : : : : : : +UJ): ------ : ------ : ------ : ------ : 1,200 : 1,200 : + : : : : : : : +UK): 172 : 234 : 261 : 645 : 433 : 1,745 : + :==========:==========:==========:==========:==========:==========: + : 63,093 : 64,807 : 59,739 : 58,717 : 61,240 : 307,596 : + ------------------------------------------------------------------- + + + R E C E I P T S. + +A) From monthly voluntary donations of the inhabitants + including 100 Florins given monthly by his Most Serene + Highness the Elector out of his private purse; 50 florins + monthly by the Electress Dowager of Bavaria, and 50 florins + monthly by the States of Bavaria, + +B) From the Public Treasury a stated monthly allowance, intended + principally to defray the expense of the police of the city, + +C) From voluntary donations, particularly destined by the donors + to assist the Poor in paying their house-rent, + +D) From voluntary and unsolicited donations from the foreign + merchants and traders assembled at Munich at the two annual fairs, + +E) From the courts of justice, being fines for certain petty offences, + +F) From the magistrates of the city; being the amount of sums received + from musicians for licence to play in the public houses, + +G) From the poor's boxes in the different churches, + +H) From the poor's boxes at inns and taverns, + +I) From private contributions sent to the banker of the Institution, + under feigned names, devices, etc. + +J) From legacies, + +K) From interest of money due to the Institution, + +L) From cash received in advance, + +M) From sundries, + + + E X P E N D I T U R E S. + + N) Given to the Poor in alms, in ready money, + + O) Expended in feeding the Poor at the Public Kitchen of the Military + Workhouse, and in premiums for the encouragement of industry, + + P) Given to the Poor to assist them in paying their house-rent, + + Q) Paid for medicines administered to the Poor at their own lodgings, + + R) Expended in burials, + + S) Given with poor children when bound apprentices, + +Given as an indemnification for the loss of the right formerly +enjoyed of making collections of alms among the inhabitants: + +------- TA) To persons who have suffered by fires, +------- TB) To travelling journeymen tradesmen, +------- TC) To the sisters of the religious order of charity, +------- TD) To the nuns of the English convent, +------- TE) To the hospital for lepers on the Gasteig, +------- TF) To the hospital at Schwabing, +------- TG) To the poor scholars of the German school, +------- TH) To the poor scholars of the Latin school, + +UA) Paid to the clerks of office of police + +UB) Paid to the accountant of the Institution, + +UC) Paid to the guards of the police[5], + +UD) Paid to writers employed occasionally as clerks, + +UE) Paid to printers and bookbinders, + +UF) Paid to the soldiers of the garrison for arresting Beggars, + +UG) Gratuities to the schoolmaster at Charles's Gate, + +UH) Paid various sums due from the Institution, + +UI) Paid interest of monies due, + +UJ) Money advanced for purchasing grain, + +UK) Sundries, + + +APPENDIX, No IV. + + Certificate relative to the EXPENCE of FUEL in the Public + Kitchen of the Military Workhouse at MUNICH + +We whose Names are underwritten certify, that we have been +present frequently when experiments have been made to +determine the expence of Fuel in cooking for the Poor in the +Public Kitchen of the Military Workhouse at Munich; and that +when the ordinary dinner has been prepared for ONE THOUSAND +persons, the expense for Fuel has not amounted to quite twelve +creutzers (less than 4 1/2d. sterling). + + Baron de Thibout, Heerdan, + Colonel. Councillor of War. + +Munich, +1st September 1795. + + +APPENDIX, No V. + +Printed Form for the DESCRIPTIONS of the POOR. + +Description of the poor Person, No + +Name + +Described Munich, the th of 179 + + ==================================== + +Age Years. Stature Feet Inches + + Bodily Structure Hair + +Eye Complexion + +Bodily Defects + +Other particular Marks + +State of Health + +Place of Nativity + +Lives here since + +Came here from In what Manner + +Profession Religion + +Quality Family + +Supports himself, at present, by + +Lives at present Quarter, District, Street, + +House, No Floor, + +Can be considered as a Pauper belonging to +this City, and ought therefore to be + +Is capable of doing the following Work: + +Could be trained to the following Occupations: + + :fl.:kr.: +Could gain by this Work per Week---- : : : +Wants for his weekly Support-------- : : : +Receives at present per Week from his own } : : : + Means, get by way of Pension, Alms, } : : : + and .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. } : : : +Wants, therefore, a weekly Allowance of Alms of : : : + : : : + --------- + + + :fl.:kr.: + { Income of his own -- -- : : : + { Earned by working -- -- : : : + { Salary -- -- -- -- : : : +Enjoyed heretofore { Pension -- -- -- -- : : : +per Week { { From the Court : : : + { Alms, { From the City -- : : : + { { From private Persons : : : + { Got by begging -- -- : : : + : : : + :---:---: + Total : : : + : : : + --------- + + + :fl.:kr.: + : : : +Pays House-rent -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- : : : + : : : +Has Bed of his own, the Value of which : : : +is about-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- : : : + : : : +Possesses other Utensils necessary for House- : : : +keeping, worth about-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- : : : + : : : +Is provided with the following Working Tools: -- : : : + : : : + --------- + + +Can work at Home + +Could be employed in the Military Workhouse + +Is provided with Raiment, and wants + +Articles of Apparel + +Life and Conduct, according to the Information received + +Is given to and + +Is known to have committed Crimes +and has appeared before the Magistrates + +How long he lives in his present Habitation + Year Month Weeks + +Name and Residence of his present Landlord + +Where he lived before, and how long + + + + Other Remarks. + +Has been settled here + +Received a Licence to marry, from + +Possessed or received, when married + Value about fl. kr. + +Was reduced to Poverty by + +Is poor and in want, since + +Could not extricate himself from his Difficulties, because + +N.B. This Form is printed on a Half-sheet of strong +Writing Paper, folded together so as to make two Leaves in +Quarto; each Leaf being 8 Inches high, and 6 1/2 Inches wide. + +APPENDIX, No VI. + +Printed Form for SPIN-TICKETS, such as are used at the Military +Workhouse at Munich. + + Munich Military Workhouse, + 179 the No + received + lb. of + Delivered back skains knots + of weighing lb. oz. + Is entitled to receive per xrs. + Total, + Attest. this 179 + + +This printed Form is filled up as follows: + + Munich Military Workhouse, + 1795 the 1st Sept. No 134. + Mary Smith received + 1 lb. of Flax, No 3, + Delivered back 2 skains 3 knots + of Thread, weighing 1 lb. --- oz. + Is entitled to receive per lb. xrs. 10. + Total, ten creutzers. + Attest. this 4th Sept. 1795 + + Will Wildmann. + + +An improved Form for a Spin-Ticket, with its Abstract; which +Abstract is to be cut off from the Ticket, and fastened to the +Bundle of Yarn or Thread. + +---------------------------------------------------------------- +: Spin-Ticket. :: Abstract of : +: Munich House of Industry. :: Spin-Ticket. : +: 1795 the 10th Sept. No 230. :: Munich House : +: Mary Smith received :: of : +: 1 lb. of wool, No 14. :: Industry, : +: Delivered back 2 skains 4 knots :: 1795, the 10th Sept. : +: of yarn, weighing 1 lb.--oz. :: No 230. : +: Wages per lb. for spinning 12 xrs. :: 2 skains 4 knots : +: Is entitled to receive twelve xrs. :: of woollen yarn, : +: Attest. this 14th of Sept. 1795. :: Spinner, Mary Smith. : +: J. Schmidt. :: Attest. J. Schmidt. : +: :: : +---------------------------------------------------------------- + +In order that the original entry of the Spin-Tickets in the +general tables, kept by the clerks of the Spinners, may more +readily be found, all the Tickets for the same material, (flax, +for instance,) issued by the same clerk, during the course of +each month, must be regularly numbered. + + +APPENDIX, No VII. + + An Account of EXPERIMENTS made at the BAKE-HOUSE of the + MILITARY WORKHOUSE at MUNICH, November the 4th and 5th, 1794. + +In baking RYE BREAD + +The oven, which is of an oval form, is 12 feet deep, measured +from the mouth to the end; 11 feet 10 inches wide, and 1 foot +11 inches high, in the middle. + +November 4th, at 10 o'clock in the morning, 1736 lbs.[6] of +rye meal were taken out of the store room, and sent to the +bakehouse, where it was worked and baked into bread, at six +different times, in the following manner:-- + +FIRST BATCH + +At 45 minutes after 10 o'clock, the meal was mixed for the +first time, for which purpose 16 quarts (Bavarian measure) of +lukewarm water, weighing 28 lbs. 28 loths, were used. + +At 3 o'clock in the afternoon, the little leaven (as it is called) +was made, for which purpose 24 quarts, or 43 lbs. 10 loths of +water were used; and at half an hour after 7 o'clock, the great +leaven was made with 40 quarts, or 72 lbs. 6 loths, of water. +At 11 o'clock this mass was prepared for kneading, by the +addition of 40 quarts, or 72 lbs. 6 loths, more of water. + +At 15 minutes after 10 o'clock at night, the kneading of the +dough was commenced; 2 1/2 lbs. of salt being first mixed with +the mass. The dough having been suffered to rise till a +quarter before 2 o'clock, it was kneaded a second time, +and then made, in half an hour's time, into 191 loaves, each of +them weighing 2 lbs. 16 loths. These loaves having been +suffered to rise half an hour, they were put into the oven +10 minutes before 3 o'clock, and in an hour after taken out again, +when 25 loaves being immediately weighed, were found to weight +55 lbs. 15 loths. Each loaf, therefore, when baked, weighed 2 lbs. +5 1/2 loths; and as it weighed 2 lbs. 16 loths when it was +put into the oven, it lost 10 1/2 loths in being baked. + +The whole quantity of water used in this experiment, in making +the leaven and the dough, was 216 lbs. 18 loths.--The quantity +of meal used was about 310 lbs. + +First Heating of the Oven + +This was begun 35 minutes after four o'clock, with 220 1/2 lbs. +of pine-wood, which was in full flame 15 minutes after five +o'clock.--At 8 minutes after 8 o'clock, 51 lbs. more of wood +were added;--12 minutes after 11 o'clock, 32 lbs. more were put +into the oven;--51 lbs. at one o'clock, and 12 lbs. more at +30 minutes after 2 o'clock; so that 366 lbs. 16 loths of wood +were used for the first heating. + +SECOND BATCH. + +At 20 minutes after 11 o'clock, the proper quantity of leaven +was mixed with the meal, and 44 quarts, or 79 lbs. 25 loths, +of water added to it. At 10 minutes after 3 o'clock, the meal +was prepared for kneading, by adding to it 52 quarts, or 93 lbs. +27 loths, of water. + +At 30 minutes after 5 o'clock, the kneading of the dough was +begun; 2 1/2 lbs. of salt having been previously added. +At 15 minutes after 6 o'clock, the dough was kneaded a second +time, and formed into 186 loaves, which were put into the oven +at 15 minutes after 7 o'clock, and taken out again 9 minutes +after 8 o'clock, when 25 loaves being immediately weighed, +were found to weigh 55 lbs. 4 loths.--Water used in making the +second dough, 173 lbs. 8 loths. + +Second Heating of the Oven + +This was begun 20 minutes after 4 o'clock in the morning, with +54 1/2 lbs. of wood; 20 lbs. were added 10 minutes after 5 o'clock, +and 60 lbs. more 6 minutes after 6 o'clock; so that the second +heating of the oven required 134 lbs. 16 loths of wood. + +THIRD BATCH + +At 20 minutes after 3 o'clock, the proper quantity of leaven +was mixed with the meal, and 48 quarts, or 86 lbs. 20 loths, +of water were put to it. + +At 6 minutes after 8 o'clock, this mass was prepared for +kneading, by adding to it 48 quarts, or 86 lbs. 20 loths, of +water.--At 30 minutes after 9 o'clock, this dough was mixed +with 2 1/2 lbs. of salt; and at 30 minutes after 10 o'clock, +it was made into 189 loaves, which, after having been suffered +to rise for half an hour were put into the oven 10 minutes after +11 o'clock, and taken out again at 12 o'clock. + +Fifty loaves of bread, which were weighed immediately upon +their being taken out of the oven, were found to weigh 110 lbs. +30 loths; which gives 2 lbs. 5 1/2 loths for the weight of +each loaf. The water used in making this batch of bread was +173 lbs. 8 loths. + +Third Heating of the Oven. + +This was begun 30 minutes after 8 o'clock, with 50 lbs. of +wood; and 50 lbs. more being added 30 minutes after 9 o'clock, +the whole quantity used was 100 lbs. + +FOURTH BATCH. + +At a quarter before 8 o'clock, the proper quantity of leaven +was mixed with the meal, and 48 quarts, or 86 lbs. 20 loths, +of water being added, at 30 minutes past 11 o'clock, this mass +was prepared for kneading, by adding to it 52 quarts, or 93 lbs. +27 loths, of water. + +Four minutes after 1 o'clock, 2 1/2 lbs. of salt were added. +The dough being kneaded at 15 minutes after two o'clock, 188 +loaves of bread were made, which were put into the oven 5 +minutes before 3 o'clock, and taken out again at the end of one +hour, when 25 of them were weighed, and found to weigh, one +with the other, 2 lbs. 5 1/2 loths. + +The water used in making this batch of bread was 180 lbs. 15 loths. + +Fourth Heating of the Oven. + +This was begun 15 minutes after 12 o'clock, with 40 lbs. of wood, +and 50 lbs. more being added at 30 minutes after 1 o'clock, +the total quantity used was 90 lbs. + +FIFTH BATCH. + +At 1/4 before 12 o'clock, the proper quantity of leaven was +mixed with the meal, and 52 quarts, or 93 lbs. 27 loths, +of water put into it.--This mass was prepared for kneading at +15 minutes after 4 o'clock, by the addition of 48 quarts, +or 86 lbs. 20 loths, of water. The kneading of the dough was +begun at 5 o'clock, and at 30 minutes after 5 it was made into +loaves, 2 1/2 lbs. of salt having been previously added. +186 loaves being made out of this dough, they were put into the +oven at 10 minutes before 7 o'clock, and taken out again at the +end of one hour, when 25 loaves were weighed, and found to +weigh 55 lbs. 18 loths.--The quantity of water used in making +the dough for this batch of bread was 180 lbs. 15 loths. + +Fifth Heating of the Oven + +The oven was begun to be heated the fifth time at 15 minutes +after four o'clock, with 40 lbs. of wood, and 40 lbs. more +were added at 6 o'clock; so that in this heating no more than +80 lbs. of wood were consumed. + +SIXTH BATCH. + +The meal was mixed with leaven at 30 minutes after 3 o'clock; +for which purpose 32 quarts, or 57 lbs. 24 loths, of water +were used at 15 minutes after 7 o'clock. This mass was +prepared for kneading, by the addition of 44 quarts, or 79 lbs. +13 loths, of water, and a proportion of salt; at 19 minutes +after 9 o'clock the dough was kneaded the first, and at 1/4 +before 10 the second time; and in the course of half an hour +160 loaves were made out of it, which were put into the oven at +10 minutes before 11 o'clock, and taken out again at 8 minutes +before 12 o'clock at midnight. + +The water used in making the dough for this batch of bread was +137 lbs. 5 loths. + +Sixth Heating of the Oven. + +At 1/4 after 8 o'clock, the sixth and last fire was made with +40 lbs. of wood; to which, at 15 minutes before 10 o'clock at +night, 34 1/2 lbs. more were added; so that in the last +heating 74 1/2 lbs. of wood only were consumed. + +GENERAL RESULTS of these EXPERIMENTS. + +The ingredients employed in making the bread in these six +experiments were as follows: viz. + + lbs. loths. + Of rye meal, -- -- 1736 0 + Of water,-- -- -- 1061 5 + Of salt, -- -- -- 15 0 + ----------- + In all, 2812 5 in weight. + +Of this mass 1102 loaves of bread were formed, each of which, +before it was baked, weighed 2 1/2 lbs.; consequently, these +1102 loaves, before they were put into the oven, weighed 2755 +lbs.: but the ingredients used in making them weighed 2812 lbs. +5 loths. Hence it appears, that the loss of weight in these +six experiments, in preparing the leaven,--from evaporation, +before the bread was put into the oven,--from waste, +etc.--amounted to no less than 57 lbs. 5 loths. + +In subsequent experiments, where less water was used, this loss +appeared to be less by more than one half. + +In these experiments 1061 lbs. 5 loths of water were used to +1736 lbs. of meal, which gives 61 lbs. 4 3/4 loths of water to +100 lbs. of meal. But subsequent experiments showed 56 lbs. +of water to be quite sufficient for 100 lbs. of the meal. + +These 1102 loaves, when baked, weighed at a medium 2 lbs. 5 1/2 +loths each; consequently, taken together, they weighed 2393 lbs. +13 loths: and as they weighed 2755 lbs. when they were +put into the oven, they must have lost 361 lbs. 19 loths in +being baked, which gives 10 1/2 loths, equal to 21/160 or +nearly 1/8 of its original weight before it was baked, for the +diminution of the weight of each loaf. + +According to the standing regulations of the baking business +carried on in the bakehouse of the Military Workhouse at Munich, +for each 100 lbs. of rye meal which the baker receives from the +store-keeper, he is obliged to deliver 139 lbs. of well-baked +bread; namely, 64 loaves, each weighing 2 lbs. 5 1/2 loths. +And as in the before-mentioned six experiments, 1736 lbs. of +meal were used, it is evident that 1111 loaves, instead of 1102 +loaves, ought to have been produced; for 100 lbs. of meal are +to 64 loaves as 1736 lbs, to 1111 loaves. Hence it appears +that 9 loaves less were produced in these experiments than +ought to have been produced. + +There were reasons to suspect that this was so contrived by the +baker, with a design to get the number of loaves he was obliged +to deliver for each 100 lbs. of meal lessened;--but in this +attempt he did not succeed. + +Quantity of Fuel consumed in these Experiments. + + Dry pine-wood. + lbs. loths. +In heating the oven first time, -- -- 366 16 + second time,-- -- 134 16 + third time, -- -- 100 0 + fourth time,-- -- 90 0 + fifth time, -- -- 80 0 + sixth time, -- -- 74 16 + ------------ + Total, 845 16 +Employed in keeping up a small fire +near the mouth of the oven while the +bread was putting into it, -- -- -- 34 16 + +Total consumption of wood in the six +experiments,-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 880 lbs. + +The results of these experiments show, in a striking manner, +how important it is to the saving of fuel in baking bread, +to keep the oven continually going, without ever letting it cool: +for in the first experiment when the oven was cold, when it was +begun to be heated, the quantity of wood required to heat it +was 366 1/2 lbs.; but in the sixth experiment, after the oven +had been well warmed in the preceding experiments, the quantity +of fuel required was only 74 1/2 lbs. + +As in these experiments 2393 lbs. 13 loths of bread were baked +with the heat generated in the combustion of 880 lbs. of wood, +this gives to each pound of bread 11 1/3 loths, or 34/96 of a +pound, of wood. + +In the fifth experiment, or batch, 186 loaves weighing (at 2 lbs. +5 1/2 loths each) 304 lbs. were baked, and only 80 lbs. of wood +consumed, which gives but a trifle more than 1/4 of a pound of +wood to each pound of bread; or 1 pound of wood to 4 pounds of +bread. + +As each loaf weighed 2 lbs. 16 loths when it was put into the +oven, and only 2 lbs. 5 1/2 loths when it came out of it, the +loss of weight each loaf sustained in being baked was 10 1/2 +loths, as has already been observed. Now this loss of weight +could only arise from the evaporation of the superabundant +water existing in the dough; and as it is known how much heat, +and consequently HOW MUCH FUEL is required to reduce any given +quantity of water, at any given temperature, to steam, it is +possible, from these data, to determine how much fuel would be +required to bake any given quantity of bread, upon the +supposition that NO PART OF THE HEAT GENERATED IN THE +COMBUSTION OF THE FUEL WAS LOST, either in heating the +apparatus, or in any other way; but that the whole of it was +employed in baking the bread, and in that process alone. +And though these computations will not show how the heat which +is lost might be saved, yet, as they ascertain what the amount +of this loss really is in any given case, they enable us to +determine, with a considerable degree of precision, not only +the relative merit of different arrangements for economizing +fuel in the process of baking, but they show also, at the sane +time, the precise distance of each from that point of +perfection, where any farther improvements would be impossible: +And on that account, these computations are certainly +interesting. + +In computing how much heat is NECESSARY to bake any given +quantity of bread, it will tend much to simplify the +investigation, if we consider the loaf as being first heated to +the temperature of boiling water, and then baked in consequence +of its redundant water being sent off from it in steam. + +But as the dough is composed of two different substances, viz. +rye meal and water, and as these substances have been found by +experiment to contain different quantities of absolute heat; +or, in other words, to require different quantities of heat, to +heat equal quantities or weights of them to any given temperature, +or any given number of degrees, it will be necessary to +determine how much of each of the ingredients is employed in +forming any given quantity of dough. + +Now, in the foregoing experiments, as 1102 loaves of bread were +formed of 1736 lbs. of rye meal, it appears, that there must +have been 1.47 lb. of the meal in each loaf; and as these +loaves weighed 2 1/2 lbs. each when they were put into the oven, +each of them must, in a state of dough, have been composed of +1.47 lb. of rye meal, and 1.03 lb. of water. + +Supposing these loaves to have been at the temperature of 55 +degrees of Fahrenheit's Thermometer when they were put into the +oven, the heat necessary to heat one of them to the temperature +of 212 degrees, or the point of boiling water, may be thus +computed. + +By an experiment, of which I intend hereafter to give an +account to the Public, I found, that 20 lbs. of ice-cold water +might be made to boil, with the heat generated in the +combustion of 1 lb. of dry pine-wood, such as was used in +baking the bread in the six experiments before mentioned. +Now, if 20 lbs. of water may be heated 180 degrees, +(namely from 32 to 212 degrees,) by the heat generated in the +combustion of 1 lb. of wood, 1.03 lb. of water may be heated +157 degrees, (from 55 degrees, or temperate, to 212 degrees,) +with 0.4436 of a pound of the wood. + +Suppose now that rye meal contained the same quantity of +absolute heat as water,--as the quantity of meal in each loaf, +was 1.47 lb., it appears, that this quantity would have +required, (upon the above supposition,) to heat it from the +temperature of 55 degrees, to that of 212 degrees; a quantity +of heat equal to that which would be generated in the +combustion of 0.06405 of a pound of the wood in question. + +But it appears, by the result of experiments published by +Dr. Crawford, that the quantities of heat required to heat any +number of degrees, the same given quantity (in weight) of water +and of wheat, (and it is presumed, that the specific or +absolute heat of rye cannot be very different from that of wheat,) +are to each other, as 2.9 to 1,--water requiring more heat to +it, than the grain in that proportion: Consequently, the +quantity of wood required to heat from 55 to 212 degrees, the +1.47 lb. of rye meal which entered into the composition of +each loaf, instead of being .06405 of a pound, as above +determined, upon the false supposition that the specific heat +of water and that of rye were the same, would, in fact, amount +to no more than 0.02899; for 2.9 (the specific heat of water) +is to 1 (the specific heat of rye), as 0.06405 is to 0.02899. + +Hence it appears, that the wood required as fuel to heat (from +the temperature of 55 degrees to that of 212 degrees) a loaf of +rye bread (in the state of dough), weighing 2 1/2 lbs., would +be as follows, namely: + + Of pine-wood, +To heat 1.03 lb. of water, which +enters into the composition of the dough, .. 0.04436 + +To heat the rye meal, 1.47 lb in weight, .. 0.02899 + -------- + Total, 0.07335 lb. + +To complete the computation of the quantity of fuel necessary +in the process of baking bread, it remains to determine, how +much heat is required, to send off in steam, from one of the +loaves in question (after it has been heated to the temperature +of 212 degrees), the 10 1/2 loths, equal to 21/64 of a pound of +water, which each loaf is known to lose in being baked. + +Now it appears, from the result of Mr. Watt's ingenious +experiments on the quantity of latent heat in steam, that the +quantity of heat necessary to change any given quantity of +water ALREADY BOILING HOT to steam, is about five times and a +half greater than would be sufficient to heat the same quantity +of water, from the temperature of freezing, to that of boiling +water. + +But we have just observed, that 20 lbs. of ice-cold water may be +heated to the boiling point, with the heat generated in the +combustion of 1 lb. of pine-wood; it appears therefore that 20 lbs. +of boiling water would require 5 1/2 times as much, or 5 1/2 lbs. +of wood to reduce it to steam. + +And if 20 lbs. of boiling water require 5 1/2 lbs. of wood, +21/64 of a pound of water boiling hot will require 0.09023 of a +pound of wood to reduce it to steam. + +If now, to this quantity of fuel,-- -- 0.09023 lb. +we add that necessary for heating the +loaf to the temperature of boiling +water, as above determined, -- -- -- 0.07335 lb. + -------- +this gives the total quantity of fuel +necessary for baking one of these loaves +of bread,-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.16353 lb. + +Now as these loaves, when baked into bread, weighed 2 lbs. 5 +1/2 loths = 2 11/64 lbs. each and required, in being baked, +the consumption of 0.16353 of a pound of wood, this gives for +the expence of fuel in baking bread 0.07532 of a pound of +pine-wood to each pound of rye bread; which is about 13 1/4 +lbs. of bread to each pound of wood. + +But we have seen, from the results of the before-mentioned +experiments, that when the bread was baked under circumstances +the most favourable to the economy of fuel, no less than 80 lbs. +of pine-wood were employed in heating the oven to bake 304 lbs. +of bread, which gives less than 4 lbs. of bread to each pound +of wood; consequently, TWO THIRDS at least of the heat +generated in the combustion of the fuel must, in that case, +have been lost; and in all the other experiments the loss of +heat appears to have been still much greater. + +A considerable loss of heat in baking will always be inevitable; +but it seems probable, that this loss might, with proper +attention to the construction of the oven, and to the +management of the fire, be reduced at least to one half the +quantity generated from the fuel in its combustion. In the +manner in which the baking business is now generally carried +on, much more than three quarters of the heat generated, +or which might be generated from the fuel consumed, is lost. + + +APPENDIX, No VIII. + +The following Account of the Persons in the House of Industry +in Dublin, the 30th of April 1796, and of the Details of the +Manner and Expence of feeding them, was given to the Author, +by order of the Governors of that Institution. + +Average of the Description of Poor for the Week ending +30th of April 1796. + Males. Females. Total. +Employed -- -- -- -- 74 352 426 +Infirm and Incurable -- 172 585 757 +Idiots -- -- -- -- 16 13 29 +Blind-- -- -- -- -- 5 10 16 + ----- ----- ------ + 267 960 1227 + In the Infirmary. +Sick Patients, Servants, etc. 88 200 } + }-- 343 +Lunaticks-- -- -- -- 15 40 } + ------ + Total 1570 + + Employed at actual labour 322 Persons. + Ditto at menial offices 104 ditto + ----- + Total 426 + +Amongst the 1570 Persons above mentioned, are 282 Children and +447 compelled Persons. + +Of the Children, 205 are taught to spell, read, and write. + + + Saturday, April 30, 1796. + + 1227 Persons fed at Breakfast. + + 120 Servants in New-House, + a 8 oz. bread ------ 60 } lbs. loaves lb. value. + 336 Incurables, Children, etc. } 186 is 41 1 1/2 L. 1 14 + a 6 ditto --------126 } + 771 Workers, etc. got Stirabout. +----- +1227 + + Weight of meal for Stirabout 4 cwt. costs L. 3 1 8 + + 120 Servants in New-House } + get 1 quart butter-milk Gal. P.} + each 30 0 } 167 gallons of +1084 Workers, Incurables, etc. } butter-milk + 1 pint ditto 135 4 } value 1 L. + 23 Sucklers get no butter-milk } +----- Allowed for waste -- -- 1 4 } +1227 + + Brought down, L. 5 15 8 + s. d. +Fuel to cook the Stirabout, 3 bush. cost 2 3 } + } 0 3 0 1/2 +Salt for ditto, 1 qr. 3 lb cost-- -- 0 9 1/2 } + ------------- + The Breakfast cost L. 5 18 8 1/2 + + Quantity of water, 5 barrels 6 gallons. + + +1227 Persons fed at Dinner.--BREAD and MEAL POTTAGE. + 120 Servants a 9 oz. -- 68 } + bread } lbs. loaves. lb. value. +1107 Workers, Incurables, } 621 1/2 is 138 0 1/2 L. 5 10 4 + etc. 8 oz. ditto--553 1/2} +Weight of meal for the pottage, 1 cwt. 3 qrs.-- -- -- 0 13 5 +Pepper for ditto, half a pound -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1 +Ginger for ditto, 1 pound -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 3 +Salt for ditto, 21 pound -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 0 7 +Fuel for ditto, 3 bushels 2 pecks-- -- -- -- -- -- 0 2 7 1/2 + ------------- + Dinner cost L. 6 9 3 1/2 + + +SUPPER. + +For 165 Sickly Women on 6 oz, bread. 62 } lbs. loaves lb. value. + 251 Children, 3 oz. do. 47 } 109 is 24 1 0 19 11 + +N.B. The expenses of Food for the Hospital, in which there are +343 persons, is not included in the above account. + + +Sunday, May 1, 1796. +1220 Persons fed at Breakfast. + + + 120 Servants, a 8 oz. bread. + 330 Incurables, Children, etc. 6 oz. do. + 770 Workers, etc. get Stirabout. +----- +1220 Persons. + +The same quantity of provisions delivered this day +for Breakfast as on Saturday, and cost the same: viz. +5L. 18s. 8 1/2d. + + +1220 Persons fed at Dinner.--BREAD, BEEF and BROTH. + Cost + 120 Servants, a 9 oz. bread, 68 } lbs. loaves lbs. L. s. d. +1100 Workers, Incurables, etc. } 618 is 137 1 1/2 5 9 6 + 8 do.-- -- -- -- -- 550 } +----- +1220 Persons. + Cwt. qrs. lbs. + Weight of raw beef, 4 2 10 + Allowed for bone, 1 0 0 + ------------- + 5 2 10 -- 7 19 3 + Meal for the broth, 1 2 0 -- 1 3 1 1/2 + Waste bread for do. 1 0 0 -- 0 0 0 + Salt for do. 0 0 24 -- 0 0 8 + Pepper for do. 0 0 0 1/2 -- 0 1 1 + Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks, -- 0 3 4 1/2 + --------------- + Total L. 14 17 0 + +SUPPER. + +The same number of women and children as yesterday, and the +Supper cost the same: viz. 19s. 11d. + +Wednesday, May 4, 1796. + +1216 Persons fed at Breakfast. + + 120 Servants in New-House, a 8 oz. bread + 334 Incurables, Children, etc. a 6 oz. do. + 762 Workers, etc. get Stirabout. +----- +1216 Persons. + +The same quantity of provisions, etc. delivered this day +for Breakfast as for Saturday, and cost the same: viz. +8L 18s. 8 1/2d. + +1216 Persons fed at Dinner.--CALECANNON and BEER. + + Cost. +Weight of raw potatoes Cwt. qrs. lbs. L. s. d. + for Calecannon,-- -- 19 0 0 -- 3 6 6 +An allowance for waste, 1 0 0 + ------------- + Weight used, 18 0 0 -- +Raw greens for ditto,-- 8 0 0 -- 1 6 0 +Butter for ditto,-- -- 1 0 0 -- 3 12 0 +Pepper for ditto,-- -- 0 0 0 1/2 -- 0 1 1 +Ginger for ditto,-- -- 0 0 1 -- 0 1 3 +Onions for ditto,-- -- 0 0 14 -- 0 2 0 +Salt for ditto, -- -- 0 0 24 -- 0 0 8 +Fuel, 4 bushels 2 pecks, -- 0 3 4 + Time of boiling about four hours. + +1193 Persons get 1 } + pint of beer Galls. p. } Barrs. + each, making 149 1 }Galls. Galls. + 23 On the breast } 151 is 3 31 2 5 3 +---- get no beer. } +1216 } + Allowed for } + waste, -- 1 7 } + +Bread to Incurables and Children on the +breast, 43 loaves,-- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 15 4 + ----------- + Total L. 12 13 5 + + SUPPER. + +The same number of Women and Children as on +Saturday, and cost the same: viz. 19s 11d. + +N.B. All these accounts are in avoirdupois weight, +and Irish money. + + +APPENDIX, No IX. + + An Account of an EXPERIMENT made (under the Direction of the + AUTHOR) in the Kitchen of the HOUSE of INDUSTRY at DUBLIN, + in COOKING for the POOR. + +May the 6th, 1796, a dinner was provided for 927 persons of +Calecannon, a kind of food in great repute in Ireland, composed +of Potatoes, boiled and mashed, mixed with about one-fifth of +their weight of boiled Greens, cut fine with sharp shovels, and +seasoned with butter, onions, salt, pepper, and ginger. The +ingredients were boiled in a very large iron boiler, of a +circular, or rather hemispherical form, capable of containing +near 400 gallons, and remarkably thick and heavy. 273 gallons +of pump water were put into this boiler; and the following +Table will show, in a satisfactory manner, the progress and the +result of the experiment: + + + Heat Contents of the Boiler + Fuel laid of the + Time. on Coals. Liquid Quantity + Pecks Weight Ingredients. Gall. lbs. + 7h 48m 4 106 lb. 55 Water to boil 273 + 8h 15m 1 26 1/2 the Greens + 40m 1 26 1/2 and Potatoes + 9h 0m 1 26 1/2 + 15m 2 53 80 + 30m 1 26 1/2 90 + 45m 2 53 110 +10h 0m 1 26 1/2 150 + 20m 212 The Greens + were now put 295 1/2 + in. + 2m 180 + 30m 1 26 1/2 190 + 45m 212 +11h the Greens + taken out and 1615 + Potatoes put + in. +11h 10m 2 53 180 + 20m 1 26 1/2 200 + 30m 212 + 45m Potatoes done. + + +GENERAL RESULTS of the EXPERIMENT. + +The fuel used was Whitehaven coal: the quantity 17 pecks, +weighing 450 1/2 lbs. + +The potatoes being mashed, (without peeling them,) and the +greens chopped fine with a sharp shovel, they were mixed +together, and 98 lbs of butter, 14 lbs. of onions boiled and +chopped fine, 40 lbs. of salt, 1 lb. of black pepper in powder, +and 1/2 lb. of ginger, being added, and the whole well mixed +together, this food was served out in portions of 1 quart, or +about 2 lbs. each, in wooden noggins, holding each 1 quart when +full. + +Each of these portions of Calecannon (as this food is called in +Ireland) served one person for dinner and supper; and each +portion cost about 2 1/14 pence, Irish money, or it cost +something less than ONE PENNY sterling per pound. + +Twelve pence sterling, make thirteen pence Irish. + +The expence (reckoned in Irish money) of preparing this food, +was as follows: viz. + L. s. d. +Potatoes, 19 cwt. at 3s. 6d. per cwt. -- -- 3 6 6 +(N.B. They weighed no more than 1615 lbs. + when picked and washed.) +Greens, 26 flaskets, at 10d. each, -- -- -- 1 1 10 +Butter, 98 lbs. at 72s. per cwt. -- -- -- 3 3 0 +Onions, 14 lbs. at 2s. per stone, -- -- -- 0 2 0 +Ginger, 1/2 lbs. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 3 +Salt, 40 lbs. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1 +Pepper, 1 lb. -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 0 1 1 + --------- + L. 7 16 9 + +Expence for fuel, 17 pecks of coal, +at 1L. 3s. 3d. per ton, -- -- -- -- -- 0 3 2 1/2 + ------------- + Total L. 7 19 11 1/2 + +With this kind of food there is no allowance of bread, nor is +any necessary. + +It would be hardly possible to invent a more nourishing or more +palatable kind of food, than Calecannon, as it is made in Ireland; +but the expence of it might be considerably diminished, by +using less butter in preparing it. + +Salted herrings (which do not in general cost much more than a +penny the pound) might be used with great advantage to give it +a relish, particularly when a small proportion of butter is used. + +In this experiment, 273 gallons of water, weighing about 2224 lbs. +avoirdupois, and being at the temperature of 55 degrees, +was made to boil, (in two hours and 32 minutes,) with the +combustion of 346 1/2 lbs. of coal; which gives rather less +than 6 1/2 lbs. of water, to each pound of coal consumed; +the water being heated 157 degrees, or from 55 to 212 degrees. + +According to my experiments, 20 lbs. of water may be heated +180 degrees, (namely from 32 degrees the freezing point, +to 212 degrees the temperature of boiling water,) with the +heat generated in the combustion of 1 lb. of pine-wood; +consequently, the same quantity of wood (1 lb.) would heat +23 lb. of water 157 degrees, or from 55 to 212 degrees. + +But M. Lavoisier has shown us by his experiments, that the +quantity of heat generated in the combustion of any given +weight of coal, is greater than that generated in the combustion +of the same weight of dry wood, in the proportion of 1089 to 600; +consequently, 1 lb. of coal ought to make 40 3/4 lbs. of water, +at the temperature 55 degrees, boil. + +But in the foregoing experiment, 1 lb. of coal was consumed in +making 6 1/2 lbs. of water boil; consequently, more than 5/6 +of the heat generated, or which might with proper management +have been generated in the combustion of the coal, was lost, +owing to the bad construction of the boiler and of the +fire-place. + +Had the construction of the boiler and of the fire-place been +as perfect as they were in my experiments, a quantity of fuel +would have been sufficient, smaller than that actually used, in +the proportion of 6 1/2 to 40 3/4, or instead of 450 1/2 lbs. +of coal, 71 3/4 lbs. would have done the business; and, +instead of costing 3s. 2 1/2d., they would have cost less than +6 1/4 Irish money, or 5 3/4d. sterling, which is only about +1/3 per cent. of the cost of the ingredients used in preparing +the food, for the expence of fuel for cooking it. + +These computations may serve to show, that I did not exaggerate, +when I gave it as my opinion, (in my Essay on Food,) that the +expence for the fuel necessary to be employed in cooking ought +never to exceed, even in this country, TWO PER CENT. of the +value of the ingredients of which the food is composed; that is +to say, when kitchen fire-places are well constructed. + +Had the ingredients used in this experiment, viz. + + 2234 lbs. of water + 1615 lbs. of potatoes, + 98 lbs. of butter, + 14 lbs. of onions, + 40 lbs. of salt, + 1 lb. of pepper, and + 0 1/2 lb. of ginger, + ------ +making in all 3992 1/2 lbs., been made into a soup, instead of +being made into Calecannon, this, at 1 1/4 lb. (equal to one +pint and a quarter), the portion would have served to feed 3210 +persons. + +But if I can show, that in Ireland, where all the coals they +burn are imported from England, a good and sufficient meal of +victuals for 3210 persons may be provided with the expence of +only 5 3/4d. for the fuel necessary to cook it; I trust that +the account I ventured to publish in my first Essay, of the +expence for fuel in the kitchen of the Military Workhouse at +Munich, namely, that it did not amount to so much as 4 1/2d. +a day, when 1000 persons were fed, will no longer appear quite +so incredible, as it certainly must appear to those who are not +aware of the enormous waste which is made of fuel in the +various processes in which it is employed. + +I shall think myself very fortunate, if what I have done in the +prosecution of these my favourite studies, should induce +ingenious men to turn their attention to the investigation of a +science, hitherto much neglected, and where every new +improvement must tend directly and powerfully to increase the +comforts and enjoyments of mankind. + +END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. + +Footnotes for Essay V. + +[1] +The number of horses in Bavaria alone amount to above 160,000 + +[2] +A particular account of these military posts is given in the +Second Chapter of the First Essay. + +[3] +Suffice it to mention one among numberless facts, which might +be brought to prove these assertions: The Beggars of our +capital carry on an increasing and very lucrative trade, with +confessional and communion testimonials, which they sell to +people who daringly transgress the holy ecclesiastical laws, +by neglecting to confess and receive the holy sacrament of the +Lord's Supper at Easter. Some of these impious wretches +receive the sacrament, at least twice in a day, in order not to +lose their customers; if the demands for communion testimonials +are great, or come late.----Ye priests and preachers of the +gospel, can you still forbear raising your voices against Beggars? + +[4] +To these the President of the Chamber of Finances has since been added. + +[5] +Since the year 1792 the Elector, to relieve the Institution +from that burden, has ordered the police guards to be paid out +of the Public Treasury of the Chamber of Finances. + +[6] +The Bavarian pound which was used in these experiments, +and which is divided into 32 loths, is to the pound Avoirdupois +as 12,384 is to 10,000,--or nearly as 5 to 4. + +This the end of Volume 1 of Count Rumford's Essays + +***Etext editors notes follow... +Some modernizations of old spellings have been applied, these are: + +show for shew +showed for shewed +showing for shewing +shown for shewn +increased for encreased; +economical for oeconomical +crowded for crouded +control for controul + +Appendix III contains a table that originally appeared landscape +across a number of pages. + +I have split this into two, so it will fit comfortable across a +normal display screen. I have however added letters to match the +two parts together. Also as the concept of pages does not apply, +the various 'Carried forward' and 'Brought over totals' have been +omitted. + + +***End of Etext editor's notes. + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Essays, Vol. 1 by Benjamin Rumford + + diff --git a/1025.zip b/1025.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5902155 --- /dev/null +++ b/1025.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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