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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Santo Domingo
+       A Country with a Future
+
+Author: Otto Schoenrich
+
+Posting Date: December 10, 2011 [EBook #9813]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: October 20, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANTO DOMINGO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Michael Lockey
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+A COUNTRY WITH A FUTURE
+
+BY
+
+OTTO SCHOENRICH
+
+
+1918
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is remarkable how little has been written about the Dominican
+Republic, a country so near to our shores, which has for years had
+intimate commercial and political relations with our country, which is
+at present under the provisional administration of the American
+Government, and which is destined to develop under the protection and
+guidance of the United States. The only comprehensive publications on
+the Dominican Republic, in the English language, are the Report of the
+United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo, published in
+1871, Hazard's "Santo Domingo, Past and Present," written about the
+same time, and Professor Hollander's notable Report on the Debt of
+Santo Domingo, published in 1905. The first and the last of these
+publications are no longer obtainable; hence, Hazard's book, written
+almost half a century ago, is still the chief source of information.
+
+These considerations prompted me to indite the following pages, in
+which I have essayed to give a bird's-eye view of the history and
+present condition of Santo Domingo. The task has been complicated by
+two circumstances. One is the extraordinary difficulty of obtaining
+accurate data. The other is the fact that the country has arrived at a
+turning point in its history. Any description of political, financial
+and economic conditions can refer only, or almost only, to the past;
+the American occupation has already introduced fundamental innovations
+which will shortly be further developed, and a rapid and radical
+transformation is in progress. Santo Domingo at this moment is a
+country which has no present, only a past and a future.
+
+My personal acquaintance with Santo Domingo and Dominican affairs is
+derived from observations on several trips to the Dominican Republic
+and Haiti, from friendships formed with prominent Dominican families
+during a residence of many years in Latin America, and from experience
+as secretary to the special United States commissioner to investigate
+the financial condition of Santo Domingo in 1905, and as secretary to
+the Dominican minister of finance during the 1906 loan negotiations.
+
+In compiling this work I have endeavored to read all books of any
+consequence which have been published with reference to Santo Domingo
+and Haiti and have especially consulted the following:
+
+José Ramón Abad,
+  "La República Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1886.
+
+Rudolf Cronau,
+  "Amerika, die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+Enrique Deschamps,
+  "La República Dominicana, Directorio y Guía General";
+  Barcelona, 1906.
+
+José Gabriel García,
+  "Compendio de la Historia de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1896.
+
+H. Harrisse,
+  "Christophe Colomb";
+  Paris, 1884.
+
+Samuel Hazard,
+  "Santo Domingo, Past and Present, with a Glance at Haiti";
+  New York, 1873.
+
+Jacob H. Hollander,
+  "Report on the Debt of Santo Domingo";
+  59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Document;
+  Washington, 1905.
+
+Antonio López Prieto,
+  "Informe sobre los Restos de Colón";
+  Habana, 1878.
+
+Fernando A. de Meriño,
+  "Elementos de Geografía Física, Política e Histórica
+      de la República Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1898.
+
+Médéric Louis Elie Moreau de Saint-Méry,
+  "Description
+  de la partie espagnole de l'isle Saint-Domingue";
+  Philadelphia, 1796.
+
+Casimiro N. de Moya,
+  "Bosquejo Histórico del Descubrimiento y Conquista
+      de la Isla de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1913.
+
+F.A. Ober,
+  "A Guide to the West Indies and Panama";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+Publications of the Dominican Government.
+
+Publications of the Bureau of American Republics
+      and the Pan-American Union.
+
+Annual Reports of the General Receiver of Customs of the
+      Dominican Republic to the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+      War Department, Washington, 1907 to 1917.
+
+"Report of the United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo";
+  42d Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document,
+  Washington, 1871.
+
+Emiliano Tejera,
+  "Los Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1878;
+      and
+  "Los dos Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1879.
+
+L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
+  "Die Insel Haiti";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+A. Hyatt Verrill,
+  "Porto Rico, Past and Present, and San Domingo of To-Day";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+William Walton, Jr.,
+  "Present State of the Spanish Colonies, including a particular
+      report of Hispañola";
+  London, 1810.
+
+O. S.
+
+New York, _January_, 1918.
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. Historical Sketch-Days of the Conquest--1492 to 1533
+
+Aborigines--Discovery--Founding of Isabela--Disaffection of the
+  colonists--Indian wars--Oppression of the Indians--Founding of
+  Santo Domingo City--Roldan's insurrection--Humiliation of
+  Columbus--Ovando's administration--Extermination of the
+  natives--Administrations of Diego Columbus--Treaty with Indian
+  survivors.
+
+CHAPTER II. Historical Sketch--Colonial Vicissitudes--1533 to 1801
+
+Decline of the colony--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+  City--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters--French settlements in
+  western Santo Domingo--Border wars--Cession of western coast to
+  France--Return of prosperity--Effect of French Revolution--Negro
+  uprising in French Santo Domingo--Rise of Toussaint
+  l'Ouverture--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France--Evacuation
+  by Spain.
+
+CHAPTER III. Historical Sketch--Changes of Government--1801 TO 1844
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture--Exodus of whites--Capture of Santo
+  Domingo by French--War with negroes--Government of
+  Ferrand--Incursion of Dessalines--Insurrection of Sanchez
+  Ramirez--Reestablishment of Spanish rule--Proclamation of Colombian
+  State of Spanish Haiti--Conquest by Haiti--Haitian rule--Duarte's
+  conspiracy--Declaration of Independence.
+
+CHAPTER IV. Historical Sketch--First Republic and Spanish
+Annexation--1844 TO 1865.
+
+Constitution of the government--Santana's first administration--Wars
+  with the Haitians--Administration of Jimenez--Victory of Las
+  Carreras--Baez' first administration--Santana's second
+  administration--_Repulse of Soulouque_--Baez' second
+  administration--Period of the two governments--Santana's third
+  administration--Annexation negotiations--Annexation to Spain--War of
+  the Restoration.
+
+Chapter V. Historical Sketch--Second Republic-Revolutions and
+Dictatorships--1863 TO 1904.
+
+Restoration of the Republic--Military presidents--Cabral's
+  administration--Baez' fourth administration--Annexation negotiations
+  with the United States--Civil wars--Heureaux's rule--Administrations
+  of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil--Election of Morales.
+
+Chapter VI. Historical Sketch--American Influence-1904 to date (1918)
+
+Financial difficulties--Fiscal convention with the United
+ States--Caceres' administration--Provisional presidents--Civil
+  disturbances--Jimenez' second administration--American intervention.
+
+Chapter VII. Area and Boundaries
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo--Boundary
+  disputes--Harbors on north coast--Character of shore--Samana
+  Bay--Character of east and south coast--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+  Domingo--Ocoa Bay--Islands--Haitian frontier.
+
+Chapter VIII. Topography and Climate
+
+Mountains--Valleys and plains--Rivers--Lakes--Temperature and
+  Rainfall--Hurricanes--Health conditions.
+
+Chapter IX. Geology and Minerals
+
+Rock formation--Mineral
+  deposits--Gold-Copper--Iron--Coal--Silver--Salt--Building
+  stone--Petroleum--Mineral springs--Earthquakes.
+
+Chapter X. Flora and Fauna
+
+Agricultural conditions--Land titles and measures--Wet and arid
+  regions--Exports--Sugar--Cacao--Tobacco--Coffee--Tropical
+  fruits--Forest products--Insects--Reptiles--Fishery--Birds--Cattle
+  raising.
+
+Chapter XI. The People
+
+Population--Distribution--Race--Descendants of American
+  negroes--Language--Physical traits--Mental
+  traits--Amusements--Dances, theatres, clubs,
+  carnivals--Gaming--Morality--Homes.
+
+CHAPTER XII. Religion
+
+Catholic religion--Concordat--Ownership of church
+  buildings--Clergy--Religious sentiment--Shrines--Religious customs
+  and holidays--Religious toleration--Protestant sects.
+
+CHAPTER XIII. Education and Literature
+
+Education in Spanish times--Work of Hostos--School
+  organization--Professional institute--Primary and secondary
+  education--Literacy--Libraries--Newspapers--Literature--Fine arts.
+
+CHAPTER XIV. Means of Transportation and Communication
+
+Railroads-Samana--Santiago Railroad--Central Dominican
+  Railway--Roads--Mode of traveling--Inns--Principal highways--Steamer
+  lines--Postal facilities--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+CHAPTER XV. Commerce
+
+Exports and imports--Foreign trade--Trade with the United
+  States--Ports of entry--Wharf concessions--Domestic
+  trade--Business houses--Banks--Manufactures.
+
+CHAPTER XVI. Cities and Towns
+
+General condition of municipalities--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+  churches, streets, popular legends--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+  Province--San Pedro de Macoris--Seibo--Samana and
+  Sanchez--Pacificador Province--Conceptión de la Vega--Moca--Santiago
+  de los Caballeros--Puerto Plata--Monte Cristi--Azua--Barahona.
+
+CHAPTER XVII. The Remains of Columbus
+
+Burial of Columbus--Disappearance of epitaph--Removal of remains in
+  1795--Discovery of remains in 1877--Resting-place of Discoverer
+  of America.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. Government
+
+Form of
+  government--Constitutions--Presidents--Election--Powers--Executive
+  Secretaries--Land and sea forces--Congress--Local
+  subdivisions--Provincial governors--Communal governments.
+
+CHAPTER XIX. Politics and Revolutions
+
+Political parties--Elections--Relation between politics and
+  revolutions--Conduct of revolutions--Casualties--Number of
+  revolutions--Effect of revolutions.
+
+CHAPTER XX. Law and Justice
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo--Legal system--Judicial
+  organization-Observance of law--Prisons--Character of offenses.
+
+CHAPTER XXI. The dominican debt and the fiscal treaty with the United
+States.
+
+Financial situation in 1905--Causes of debt--Amount of debt--Bonded
+  debt--Liquidated debt--Floating debt--Declared claims--Undeclared
+  claims--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house--Fiscal convention of
+  1905--Modus vivendi--Negotiations for adjustment of debt--New bond
+  issue--Fiscal treaty of 1907--Adjustment with creditors--19l2
+  loan--Present financial situation.
+
+CHAPTER XXII. Finances
+
+Financial system--National revenues--Customs tariff--National
+  budget--Legal tender--Municipal income--Municipal budgets.
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. The Future of Santo Domingo
+
+Attraction by the United States--Political future of Santo
+  Domingo-Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+APPENDIX A. Chiefs of State of Santo Domingo, 1492-1918
+
+APPENDIX B. Old Weights and Measures in Use in Santo Domingo
+
+APPENDIX C. American-Dominican Fiscal Convention of 1907
+
+INDEX
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Columbus Monument on Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City.
+
+Map of Santo Domingo
+
+Historic Gateway "La Puerta del Conde," where
+    the independence of the Dominican Republic
+    was declared:
+        View from within the city
+        View from without, during a revolution
+
+The Strongest Presidents of Santo Domingo:
+        President Pedro Santana
+        President Buenaventura Baez
+        President Ulises Heureaux
+        President Ramon Caceres
+
+Four Prominent Dominicans:
+        President Juan Isidro Jimenez
+        President Horacio Vasquez
+        Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez
+        Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel
+
+One of the Many Beautiful Spots on the Shores
+    of Samana Bay
+
+Partaking of Cocoanut-water
+
+Street in Bani
+
+Street in Puerto Plata
+
+A Roadside Store
+
+Building a House with the Products of the Palm-tree
+
+Room in "Casino de la Juventud," Santo Domingo City
+
+A Holiday Gathering, Santo Domingo City
+
+Ruins of San Francisco Church, Santo Domingo City
+
+A "Calvario" in the Road
+
+Road Scene: A Mudhole
+
+Wharf and Harbor of San Pedro de Macoris
+
+Entrance to Cathedral of Santo Domingo
+
+"House of Columbus," Ruins of Diego Columbus' Palace
+
+The "Tower of Homage," the oldest fortification erected by white men
+  in America:
+        View from mouth of Ozama River
+        View from within fort
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: Milkmen
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: The Ox as a Riding Animal
+
+Sanctuary of Santo Domingo Cathedral
+
+Diagram of Sanctuary of Cathedral
+
+Lead Box found in 1877 with Remains of Columbus
+
+Inscription on Lid of Lead Box
+
+Obverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+Reverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+The Bane of Santo Domingo: Intrenchment at Puerta del Conde during a
+  revolution
+
+Independence Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--DAYS OF THE CONQUEST.--1492 to 1533
+
+
+Aborigines.--Discovery.--Founding of Isabela.--Disaffection of the
+colonists.--Indian wars.--Oppression of the Indians.--Founding of
+Santo Domingo City.--Roldan's insurrection.--Humiliation of
+Columbus,--Ovando's administration.--Extermination of the
+natives.--Administrations of Diego Columbus.--Treaty with Indian
+survivors.
+
+When Columbus, in December, 1492, sailed along the northern coast of
+the island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, he was more enchanted with what
+he saw than he had been with any of his previous discoveries. Giant
+mountains, covered with verdant forests, seemed to rise precipitately
+from the blue waters and lift their heads to the very clouds.
+Beautiful rivers watered fertile valleys, luscious fruits hung from
+the trees, fragrant flowers carpeted the ground, and the air was
+filled with the songs of birds of gay plumage. There were scenes of
+nature's magnificence such as are found only in the tropics. Columbus,
+as he gazed upon them in admiration, little thought that this
+beautiful island was to witness his greatest sorrows, that it was to
+be his final resting place, and that it was in later generations to
+become the theater of long years of war and carnage.
+
+At the time of its discovery the island of Santo Domingo was thickly
+inhabited. The native Indians were Arawaks belonging to the same race
+as those who occupied the other larger West India Islands. Unlike the
+fierce Caribs who inhabited some of the smaller Antilles, the Arawaks
+were of a gentle and meek disposition. They were inclined to idleness
+and sensuality. Columbus lauded their kindliness and generosity; the
+possession of these traits, however, did not prevent them from
+fighting bravely when exasperated.
+
+Living in the stone age, they knew none of the useful metals, but gold
+ornaments were used for adornment. Older men and married women wore
+short aprons of cotton or feathers; all other persons went entirely
+nude. Their favorite amusements were ball games and savage dances with
+weird, monotonous music; their religion was the worship of a great
+spirit and of subordinate deities represented by idols, called
+"zemis," carved of wood and stone in grotesque form, and of which some
+are still occasionally found in caverns or tombs. They dwelt in rude
+palm-thatched huts, the principal article of furniture being the
+hammock. Simple agriculture, hunting and fishing provided their means
+of livelihood.
+
+The natives called the island Haiti, signifying "high ground," but the
+western portion was also called Babeque or Bohio, meaning "land of
+gold" and the eastern part Quisqueya, meaning "mother of the earth."
+The name Quisqueya is the one by which Dominican poets now refer to
+their country. The inhabitants lived in communities ruled by local
+caciques, and the country was divided into five principal regions,
+each under an absolute chief cacique, as follows:
+
+Magua, signifying "watered plain," the northeastern part of the island
+and comprising most of what is to-day known as the Cibao--that part of
+the Dominican Republic lying north of the central mountain-range. The
+chief was Guarionex.
+
+Marien, or Mariel, comprised the northwestern portion of the island
+and was ruled by Guacanagari.
+
+Jaragua comprised the southwestern part, its chief being Bohechio, the
+oldest of the caciques.
+
+Maguana extended from the center of the island to the south coast near
+Azua and was ruled by the proud Caonabo.
+
+Higuey, or Higuayagua, the most bellicose portion of the country,
+comprised the entire southeast and was ruled by Cayacoa.
+
+Columbus happened upon the island on his first voyage. After
+discovering Guanahani on October 12, 1492, and vainly searching for
+Japan among the Bahama Islands, he discovered Cuba and while skirting
+along the north shore of what he supposed to be the mainland heard of
+an island said to be rich in gold, lying to the east. Taking an
+easterly course, he was abandoned by the Pinta, one of his caravels,
+whose captain, disregarding the admiral's signals, sailed away to seek
+his fortune alone. Continuing with his remaining caravels, the Santa
+Maria and the Niña, Columbus reached Cape Maisi, the easternmost point
+of Cuba, where he sighted a high mountainous land lying in a
+southeasterly direction. On the following day, December 6, 1492, he
+reached this land, which he called la Española, because it reminded
+him of Andalusia. In English histories the name is modified to
+Hispaniola. The port Columbus called San Nicolas, as he had entered it
+on St. Nicholas day, and it is now known as Mole St. Nicolas.
+
+Columbus then sailed along the north coast of the island and entered
+the pretty little port known to-day as Port-à-l'Ecu. Here, on December
+12, he solemnly took possession of the country in the name of his
+sovereigns, erecting a wooden cross on a high hill on the western
+side of the bay. He then visited Tortuga Island, to the north, giving
+it this name on account of its shape and the great number of turtles
+in the water near its coast. After stopping in a harbor which he
+called Puerto de Paz, Port of Peace, because of the harmony which
+prevailed at the meetings with the natives, Columbus continued in an
+easterly direction, but adverse winds compelled him to put into the
+bay of Santo Tomas, to-day bay of l'Acul, where the cordial
+intercourse with the natives was renewed. Here he received an embassy
+from the chief of the district, Guacanagari, inviting him to visit the
+cacique's residence, further along the coast, and bringing him as
+presents a wampum belt artistically worked and a wooden mask with
+eyes, tongue and nose of gold.
+
+To accept the invitation Columbus set sail on the morning of December
+24. In the evening when the admiral had retired the helmsman committed
+the indiscretion of confiding the helm to a ship's boy. About midnight
+when off Cape Haitien, near their destination, the vessel was caught
+in a current and swept upon a sandbank where she began to keel over.
+During the confusion which followed, Columbus had the mainmast chopped
+down but all efforts to right the ship were in vain, and Columbus and
+the crew were obliged to take refuge on the little Niña.
+
+As soon as Guacanagari received news of the disaster he sent large
+canoes filled with men to help the strangers transport their stores to
+the shore. The relations between the Spaniards and the Indians became
+most cordial, especially as the Spaniards were gratified to obtain
+much gold in exchange for articles of insignificant value, owing to
+which circumstances and to the natural advantages of the location,
+Columbus determined to build a fort with the wreckage of his vessel.
+The fort was on a hill east of the site of the present town of Cape
+Haitien. Columbus gave it the name of La Navidad because he had
+entered the bay on Christmas day, and leaving thirty-nine men as
+colonists set out on the Niña on January 4, 1493, on his return
+trip to Spain.
+
+Near the great yellow promontory on the north of the island, to which
+Columbus gave the name it still retains of Monte Cristi, the Pinta,
+which had deserted the other vessels off Cuba, was sighted. Columbus
+having heard the excuses of the Pinta's captain, took no action with
+respect to the latter's delinquency, but set about exploring a large
+river in the vicinity to which he gave the name of Rio de Oro and
+which to-day is called the Yaque. Continuing the journey along the
+coast of the island the vessels rounded the giant promontory of Cape
+Cabron and that of Samana and entered the great bay of Samana which
+Columbus at first took to be an arm of the sea. Here it was that the
+first armed encounter between sons of the old world and the new took
+place. The Indians set upon the Spaniards when they landed but were
+quickly driven to flight, one of their number being severely wounded.
+On the following day, however, a more pleasant meeting took place and
+presents were exchanged. On January 16 the two vessels set sail
+for Spain.
+
+The immense excitement produced in Spain by the discoveries of
+Columbus made the preparation of another expedition an easy matter,
+and on September 25, 1493, the admiral again set out from Spain, this
+time with sixteen ships and some 1300 men. After touching at several
+of the Leeward Islands and Porto Rico, the fleet sighted the Samana
+peninsula on November 22, 1493, and three days later arrived at Monte
+Cristi. Here the finding of two corpses of Spaniards filled the
+members of the expedition with grave apprehensions, which proved
+justified when two days later they arrived at La Navidad and found the
+fort completely destroyed, the Indian village burnt to the ground, and
+the whole neighborhood silent and desolate.
+
+Guacanagari was found at a village further inland and according to his
+story and that of other Indians, a number of Spaniards had succumbed
+to disease, others were killed in brawls among themselves and the
+remainder died at the hands of the inland caciques Caonabo and
+Guarionex and their warriors, who attacked and destroyed both the fort
+and the village of Guacanagari. At the same time it was stated that
+the Spaniards had made themselves hateful to the natives by their
+domineering disposition and their lewdness and covetousness. The
+finding in some of the native huts of objects that had belonged to the
+colonists, as well as other suspicious circumstances, caused Father
+Boil and other companions of Columbus to doubt the chief's story and
+insist that sanguinary vengeance be taken. Columbus, however, affected
+to be satisfied with the explanation given and determined to take no
+further action, but to seek a new location for the colony. From this
+time forward discord divided not only the Spaniards and Indians but
+also the Spaniards themselves.
+
+As the fleet was sailing east the weather obliged it to put into an
+indentation of the coast fifty miles east of Monte Cristi. The place
+so charmed the Spaniards that it was decided to found a town here. The
+first city of the new world was therefore laid out and Columbus gave
+it the name of Isabela, in honor of his royal patron. During the
+construction of the city Columbus sent two expeditions to the Cibao
+mountains, both of which succeeded in collecting a large amount
+of gold.
+
+It soon became evident that the neighborhood of Isabela was not a
+healthy one. Fever invaded the colony; Columbus himself was not
+exempt. Discontent came and an uprising among the soldiers was nipped
+in the bud. On recovering from his illness Columbus resolved to make
+an exploration of the interior; and with drums beating and flags
+flying a brilliant expedition left Isabela. The beautiful Royal Plain
+was soon reached and friendly relations established with its peaceful
+inhabitants, whose wonder at the Spaniards and terror at their horses
+knew no bounds. A fortress was founded on the banks of the Janico
+river and called Santo Tomas. Columbus then returned to Isabela to
+find the town in a state of excitement on account of petty quarrels
+and the general sickness. Picking out the principal malcontents he
+sent them to Santo Tomas, and ordered that another fortress be
+founded. On April 24, 1494, he left the island with three vessels for
+a voyage of exploration to the west, entrusting the government of the
+colony to his brother Diego and an executive council.
+
+But a short time elapsed before new dissensions broke out, followed by
+troubles with the Indians. A military expedition dispatched to the
+interior committed numerous depredations and drove the natives into
+the ranks of Caonabo, who was planning the expulsion of the strangers.
+The commander of the expedition, Moisen Pedro de Margarite, was called
+to account by Diego Columbus; but conspiring with Father Boil, the
+religious head of the colony, the two contrived to excite a popular
+insurrection against the governor, which may be regarded as the first
+Dominican revolution. At this time Bartholomew Columbus, another
+brother of the admiral, arrived with provisions, and the
+insurrectionists, taking possession of the ships, returned in them to
+Spain where they lost no opportunity to disparage the achievements of
+Columbus and to slander him and his brothers.
+
+The principal caciques of the island now formed an alliance and
+uniting their forces laid siege to Santo Tomas. Only Guacanagari
+refused to join them and hurried to Isabela to offer his services to
+the Spaniards. At this juncture, on September 29, 1494, Columbus, sick
+and weary, returned from his voyage, during which, after other
+discoveries, he had explored a portion of the south coast of the
+island. As soon as he had recovered sufficient strength he led an
+expedition into the interior, relieved Santo Tomas, won numerous
+victories over the natives and founded another fortress, La
+Concepcion, in the Vega Real, or Royal Plain. Caonabo, however,
+assembled a vast number of warriors and forced Columbus to renewed
+efforts. The Spaniards and Indians met where the ruins of the old city
+of Concepcion de la Vega now are, and the famous battle of the Royal
+Plain was fought on March 25, 1495. The natives are alleged by the
+Spanish historians to have numbered 100,000, while the Spaniards had
+but 200 men and 20 horses, besides the warriors of Guacanagari. In the
+battle, a bloody one, the Indians were completely beaten, their
+discomfiture being due principally to the superior arms of the
+Europeans and the fear inspired by the horses and by twenty
+blood-hounds brought into the fight by the Spaniards. On the occasion
+of this battle the miracle of the Santo Cerro, or Holy Hill, is said
+to have occurred, when, according to the Spanish chroniclers, the
+Indians captured an eminence on which the Spaniards had erected a
+wooden cross, but were unable to destroy the cross with fire or
+hatchet, and were finally frightened away by the apparition of the
+Virgin Mary.
+
+This one crushing defeat definitely broke the Indians' power, for
+though there were subsequent outbreaks they were only sporadic and,
+with one exception, of comparatively little importance. Caonabo still
+remained at large and the Spaniards secured possession of his person
+by one of those feats of individual prowess which mark the history of
+the conquest. The Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda went out in search of the
+cacique, and having found him with his warriors, suggested that they
+repair to Isabela together to arrange terms of peace with Columbus.
+The suggestion being accepted, they set out and on crossing the Yaque
+river Ojeda pressed the Indian to put on a pair of handcuffs,
+asserting that these bracelets were a distinction of the king of
+Castile. Caonabo acceded, whereupon the Spaniard sprang upon his horse
+and swinging the chief upon the croup, fled from the midst of the
+astonished warriors and bore him a prisoner to Isabela. Caonabo was
+later embarked for Spain but died on the voyage.
+
+A beginning was now made of the harsh oppression which was soon to
+cause the entire disappearance of the native race. A quarterly tribute
+was imposed on every Indian above the age of fourteen. Those who lived
+in the auriferous region of the Cibao were obliged to deliver as much
+gold dust as could be held in a small bell, others were to give
+twenty-five pounds of cotton. Many natives fled to the mountains to
+escape the onerous tax and new settlements were established by the
+Spaniards.
+
+The enemies of Columbus had in the meantime been sufficiently
+successful in Spain to cause one de Aguado to be sent out with the
+object of investigating conditions in the colony. His conduct from the
+very first was so arrogant that the admiral determined to return at
+once to justify himself before the court. On March  10, 1496, he
+embarked for Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew as governor of
+the colony.
+
+Before his departure the news arrived of the discovery of several rich
+gold mines in the southern part of the island. They were found by a
+soldier named Miguel Diaz, who having fled to the wilderness to escape
+punishment for wounding a comrade, had established conjugal relations
+with an Indian woman near the present site of Santo Domingo City.
+Noticing that her consort was tiring of her, the lady tried to retain
+him by revealing the existence of gold deposits in the region; and
+Diaz promptly secured his pardon and promotion by reporting the find
+to Isabela. The romance had a sad ending, for the Indian, shocked at
+the cruel treatment accorded her countrymen by the Spaniards who came
+to the place, abandoned her husband and children and disappeared in
+the forest.
+
+On arriving in Spain, Columbus wrote his brother to found a town on
+the south coast at the mouth of the Ozama. Bartholomew Columbus
+immediately set out to select a site and on August 4, 1496, laid the
+first stone of the new city on the left bank of the Ozama, calling it
+Nueva Isabela, in honor of the queen. The name was afterwards changed
+to Santo Domingo in honor, so tradition has it, of the saint to whom
+the day of its foundation was dedicated. As the location of this city
+was much healthier than that of fever-ridden Isabela on the north
+coast, the settlers in an ever increasing stream removed to the new
+town which flourished as the other decayed, until after a few years
+Isabela was entirely abandoned. The only vestiges now remaining of it
+are a few ruined foundation walls and shapeless heaps of stone
+overgrown with rank tropical vegetation.
+
+Bartholomew Columbus busied himself with further explorations of the
+interior, founding a number of strongholds, among them Santiago de los
+Caballeros, which commanded the Royal Plain. While at Concepcion de la
+Vega he was informed that several Indians had burned an altar erected
+by friars in the interior, and had buried the sacred images. The
+bigoted governor had the Indians apprehended and burnt alive in the
+public square. This cruel act induced fourteen caciques to conspire
+for an uprising; but their designs being betrayed, they were captured
+by a bold stroke and two of them executed. Determined to crush the
+spirit of the natives, Bartholomew Columbus invaded and devastated the
+district of Monte Cristi, driving the Indians into the remote forests
+and capturing and imprisoning their chiefs.
+
+His severity was not confined to the Indians, but the Spaniards,
+naturally restive under the government of a Genovese, were also made
+to feel it until their disaffection developed into open rebellion.
+
+At the head of the conspiracy was Francisco Roldan, the judge of the
+colony, a man ambitious and seditious by nature, but who owed Columbus
+many favors. Others, disgusted because their dreams of gold had not
+been realized, followed him and the insurrection was soon well under
+way. The rebels took Isabela and sacked the government storehouse and
+then took steps to besiege Bartholomew Columbus at Concepcion de la
+Vega. The arrival of fresh troops and stores from Spain enabled the
+governor to hold the rebels in check.
+
+Such was the deplorable state of affairs when Columbus returned to the
+island on August 30, 1498. Realizing Roldan's strength, he consented
+to make terms under which the insurgents were to receive stores and
+other property and return to Spain. By the time their vessels were
+ready most of them had changed their mind and declined to go, but
+they wrote letters to Spain bitterly complaining of the admiral and
+his brothers, and accusing them of oppression and despotism. Columbus
+found himself obliged to agree to the most humiliating terms with the
+rebels, conceding a complete pardon, restoring them to their official
+posts, promising to pay their salary in arrears and distributing lands
+and Indians among them. Nevertheless, other quarrels followed,
+Columbus was forced to take severe measures and the complaints
+against him grew.
+
+Little by little the stories of arrogance and oppression circulated
+with reference to the Columbus brothers undermined the esteem in which
+they were held by the sovereigns, who were also disappointed at not
+seeing the fabulous wealth they had expected from the new discoveries.
+They determined to send to the island of Española a person authorized
+to investigate conditions and decide all disputes.
+
+Their choice for the mission was unfortunate; it fell on Francisco
+Bobadilla, a spiteful, arrogant and tactless man. On arriving in Santo
+Domingo on August 23, 1500, he immediately began to annul dispositions
+made by Columbus and sent for the admiral who was in the interior. As
+soon as Columbus appeared, Bobadilla, far exceeding his authority,
+caused him to be put in chains and confined in a cell of the fortress
+of Santo Domingo. He also imprisoned the brothers of Columbus and sent
+them to Spain together with the Discoverer, all chained like infamous
+criminals. At the same time he made a report attributing malfeasance,
+injustice and fraud to all.
+
+The administration of Bobadilla was disastrous. In his efforts to
+ingratiate himself with Columbus' enemies he heaped favors on Roldan
+and his followers and gave them franchises and lands. He made the
+slavery of the Indians more galling than ever, obliging them to labor
+in the fields and mines. Columbus' property and papers were
+confiscated and Columbus' friend, the explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas,
+was imprisoned and his property seized.
+
+The captain of the vessel bearing Columbus treated his distinguished
+prisoner with all possible deference and offered to take off the
+chains, but the Discoverer, whose heart was breaking under the
+indignities heaped upon him and the injustice of which he was the
+victim, proudly refused. When the vessel arrived in Spain the
+sovereigns, shocked at Bobadilla's proceedings, commanded the
+immediate release of Columbus, ordered that his property be restored
+and overwhelmed him with distinctions, though providing that his
+dignities as viceroy were to remain temporarily suspended; probably
+because the calculating spirit of King Ferdinand believed that too
+much power had been vested in his subject. Bobadilla was removed from
+office, and Nicolas de Ovando, a member of the religious-military
+order of Alcantara, was appointed governor in his place.
+
+Ovando arrived in Santo Domingo on April 15, 1502, with a fleet of
+thirty vessels, the largest which up to that time had arrived in the
+new world, carrying stores of every kind and over 1500 persons, among
+them many who later attained distinction in conquests on the mainland.
+He was courteous to Bobadilla, but took measures to send Roldan and
+the most turbulent of his companions back to Spain on the return of
+his fleet, the largest vessel of which was placed at the disposition
+of Bobadilla.
+
+Just before the sailing of the fleet, on June 30, 1502, Columbus
+unexpectedly appeared before the city on his fourth voyage, and asked
+permission to enter the port for protection from a hurricane which he
+believed was approaching. Ovando, either because he had secret orders,
+or perhaps because he feared Columbus' presence might cause renewed
+disturbances, denied the request, and the great man, deeply wounded by
+the refusal, sought shelter further up the coast.
+
+The pilots of the great fleet derided Columbus' prediction and the
+ships set sail. They had not reached the easternmost point of the
+island when a terrific hurricane broke loose. All but two of the
+vessels were lost, and by a strange coincidence one of these two bore
+Rodrigo de Bastidas, the friend of Columbus, while the other, the
+smallest and weakest vessel of the fleet, was the one that carried
+Columbus' property. Bobadilla, Roldan and other enemies of the
+admiral, and many other passengers and Indian captives perished and
+large stores of gold were lost. Columbus' squadron rode out the storm
+in safety in a cove of the bay of Azua, whereupon he continued
+his voyage.
+
+On land, too, the hurricane wrought great destruction. The houses of
+the town of Santo Domingo were demolished and as the right bank of the
+Ozama was higher and seemed more suitable, Ovando ordered that the
+town be rebuilt on that side, where it now stands.
+
+Ovando now inaugurated a period of general prosperity. He established
+peace and order, issued rules for the different branches of the public
+service, placed honest men in the posts of responsibility and
+encouraged industry and agriculture. Yet, strange mixture of energy
+and cruelty, of valor and bigotry that he was, his treatment of the
+Indians was most oppressive. To each Spanish landholder was assigned a
+number of Indians under the pretext that they were to be given
+religious instruction and accustomed to work; but so onerous and
+unremitting was the labor imposed that they succumbed to disease by
+thousands, while thousands of others perished by their own hand in an
+epidemic of suicide which swept through the country, and many fled to
+almost inaccessible mountain regions.
+
+But two Indian chieftains still reigned in the island, one the Indian
+queen Anacaona in the district of Jaragua, the other the chief of
+Higuey. Ovando's severe measures against the natives made him ready to
+believe the tales of conspiracies brought to him. He therefore sent a
+troop of 300 infantry under Diego Velazquez, the future conqueror of
+Cuba, and 70 horsemen, to the territory of Anacaona, where they were
+received with every mark of kindness. The Spaniards invited the
+natives to witness a military drill and when the queen, her principal
+caciques and a great crowd of Indians were assembled, the exercises
+commenced. The Indians were awed by the spectacle so new and imposing
+to them, when suddenly the trumpets gave a signal, the infantry opened
+fire and the cavalry charged on the defenseless spectators. All the
+Indians who could not escape by flight were massacred without respect
+to age or sex. Anacaona alone was spared and carried off to Santo
+Domingo where she was shortly afterwards ignominiously executed, on
+the pretext that she was not sufficiently sincere in the Catholic
+religion which she had recently professed! A tenacious persecution of
+the Indians who would not become slaves was instituted and but few
+were able to hide in the mountains of the interior.
+
+In 1503 the subjugation of the last remaining independent chieftain,
+Cotubanama, lord of Higuey, in the extreme eastern part of the island,
+was undertaken. Near this province a Spaniard wantonly set his hound
+upon one of the principal natives, and the Indian was torn to pieces,
+whereupon the chief, indignant at his friend's death, caused a
+boatload of Spaniards to be killed, thus giving Ovando a welcome
+excuse for the invasion. Four hundred Spaniards dealt death and
+desolation throughout the region, pursuing the Indians into the
+mountains and forests and sparing neither women nor children. When at
+last they captured and hung an aged Indian woman revered as a
+prophetess, the terrified aborigines sued for peace and agreed to pay
+a heavy tribute. A fortress was erected at Higuey, but the conduct of
+the Spanish garrison was so outrageous that the Indians in desperation
+again rose, and killed every Spaniard in the district. Ovando then
+began a war of extermination and the Indians were killed off by
+thousands, Cotubanama resisted heroically but in vain, and after being
+beaten in a number of desperate battles he withdrew to the island of
+Saona, southeast of Santo Domingo. Here he was surprised and captured
+by the Spaniards, his remaining warriors mercilessly shot and he
+himself taken to the city of Santo Domingo and hung. With his death
+the island was thoroughly pacified, though at a bloody cost, and the
+conquest proper ended.
+
+On August 13, 1504, Columbus once more arrived in Santo Domingo. On
+his ill-fated fourth voyage he had been shipwrecked in Jamaica and one
+of his men crossed the ocean in an open boat, to solicit aid of
+Ovando. The latter, after dallying for months, finally yielded to the
+murmurings of the colony and sent for the Discoverer. He received
+Columbus well, but subjected him to humiliation by arbitrarily
+liberating a mutineer imprisoned by the admiral. Disappointed and sad,
+the great navigator left the shores of the island he loved and
+returned to Spain where his death occurred two years later. The
+golden age of the colony was now at hand. Ovando built up the city of
+Santo Domingo, constructed forts and other defences, and laid the
+foundations of most of its public buildings. Fine private residences
+and great churches and convents were erected. Sugar-cane was
+introduced in 1506 and gave rich returns, the production of the gold
+mines continued to increase, and cattle raising brought large profits.
+The Indians were dying out under the rigorous treatment, and others
+were imported from the surrounding islands under the pretense of
+converting them to Christianity; and when these also succumbed, the
+importation of negroes from Africa was commenced. About 1508 the
+island began to be called Santo Domingo, but for almost three
+centuries royal decrees continued to refer to it as Espanola. So
+flourishing was its state at this time that thirteen of its towns were
+granted coats of arms and three were declared cities. The colony was
+and for many years continued to be a starting point for voyages of
+discovery and conquest in the islands and along the shores of the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+After the death of Christopher Columbus his son Diego made fruitless
+efforts to recover the honors of which his father had been despoiled,
+but it was not until he married Maria de Toledo, the beautiful niece
+of the Duke of Alba, that he met with partial success, probably more
+because of the influence of his wife's family than because of the
+justice of his claims. In 1509 he was appointed governor of Santo
+Domingo to succeed Ovando and arrived in the colony with his wife, his
+uncles, and a brilliant suite.
+
+Diego Columbus inaugurated his administration with a splendor till
+then unknown in the new world, establishing a kind of vice-regal
+court. He built the castle of which the ruins are still to be seen
+near the San Diego gate in the city of Santo Domingo, and which in its
+glory must have been an imposing structure. Unfortunately many persons
+transferred to the son the hatred they had borne the father and he
+found his plans balked. Intending to carry into effect the royal
+dispositions relative to the release of the Indians from slavery he
+incurred the hostility of the planters and when he desisted owing to
+their opposition, he was attacked by the friars. Complaints poured in
+upon King Ferdinand; the accusation most calculated to arouse the
+suspicious monarch's fears was that the second admiral, as Diego
+Columbus was called, harbored the intention of proclaiming himself
+sovereign of Santo Domingo. Ferdinand accordingly instituted the
+audiencia or high court of justice of Santo Domingo, which was
+invested with a comprehensive jurisdiction, being authorized to hear
+appeals even from decisions of the governor, whose powers were thus
+materially curtailed.
+
+This circumstance, as well as a new distribution of the Indians, made
+over the head of the governor, induced Diego Columbus to return to
+Spain in 1515 in order to defend his interests. During the term of the
+two governors who succeeded him, various dispositions were made for
+the protection of the natives whose numbers were rapidly diminishing
+notwithstanding importations from the other islands and from South
+America. The only result of these orders was a change of masters; for
+when Diego Columbus returned as governor in 1520, he found the Indians
+exploited by the priests and officers of the crown to whom they had
+been intrusted ostensibly for religious instruction, while the
+mine-owners and planters now employed negro slaves.
+
+Almost simultaneously with the return of the second admiral began the
+insurrection of a young Indian cacique known as Enrique. This noble
+Indian, a relative of Anacaona, had been converted to Christianity and
+educated by the Spaniards, but was nevertheless enslaved in one of the
+"repartimientos," or distributions. His wife having been gravely
+offended by the Spaniard to whom they were assigned, he retired to the
+almost inaccessible mountains in the center of the island, and many of
+the remaining natives fled to join him. Efforts to dislodge him were
+in vain and negotiations only elicited from him the promise to act on
+the defensive alone, which was equivalent to an indefinite truce. The
+number of negro slaves had in the meantime increased, and the
+treatment given them was as harsh as that which had been accorded the
+aborigines. As a result an insurrection, the first negro uprising in
+the new world, began near Santo Domingo City on December 27, 1522.
+Several Spaniards were murdered, but the troops overpowered the
+mutineers and a number were hung.
+
+Diego Columbus continued in his efforts to promote the welfare of the
+colony, but became involved in a quarrel with the royal audiencia and
+found himself obliged in March, 1524, to return to Spain where he died
+two years later. The new governor, Bishop Sebastian Ramirez de
+Fuenleal, was appointed president of the royal court, and the offices
+of governor and president of the court were thenceforth consolidated.
+Both he and his successor used their best efforts to promote
+immigration into the colony which was beginning to suffer on account
+of the draughts of men that left for the mainland. An army was
+dispatched against the insurgent chief Enrique who still menaced the
+tranquillity of the colonists from his mountain fastnesses. When it was
+found impossible to reach him, peaceful methods were employed.
+Negotiations were opened, and a treaty of peace signed in 1533, on an
+island in the beautiful lake still known as Lake Enriquillo. By this
+treaty the Indians, now reduced to not more than 4000 in number, were
+freed from slavery and assigned lands in Boya, in the mountains to the
+northeast of Santo Domingo City. From this time forward there is no
+further mention of the Indians in the island's history; they
+disappeared completely by dying out and by assimilation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--COLONIAL VICISSITUDES.--1533 TO 1801
+
+
+Decline of the colony.--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+City.--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters.--French settlements in
+western Santo Domingo.--Border wars.--Cession of western coast to
+France.--Return of prosperity.--Effect of French revolution.--Negro
+uprising in French Santo Domingo.--Rise of Toussaint l'Ouverture.
+--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France.--Evacuation by Spain.
+
+Within forty years after its discovery Santo Domingo had passed the
+zenith of its glory. The vast and wealthy countries discovered and
+conquered on the mainland of America absorbed the attention of
+colonists and of the government, and Santo Domingo quickly sank to a
+position of economic and political insignificance. So little
+importance was given the island by chroniclers during the ensuing two
+hundred and fifty years and so few are the records remaining, that not
+even the names of all the governors and the periods of their rule can
+be accurately determined. The colony barely existed, the monotony of
+its life was interrupted only by occasional attacks or menaces of
+attacks by pirates or other foes.
+
+Every effort was made to prevent decay. Decrees were issued forbidding
+emigration or the recruiting of troops for expeditions of discovery,
+but they were evaded. Thus Louis Columbus, the grandson of the
+Discoverer and one of the most influential men of the colony, fitted
+out an expedition against Veragua. African slaves continued to be
+imported to take the place of the exterminated Indians, but as their
+importation was expensive the mines were abandoned and the number of
+sugar estates declined. For the greater part of the period from 1533
+to 1556 the government was in the hands of an energetic man,
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo and La Vega,
+and later first Archbishop of Santo Domingo. He pushed to a conclusion
+the work on the cathedral and other religious edifices then building,
+repaired the edifices belonging to the state and constructed the walls
+and bastions which still surround the city. He was able to ward off
+the attacks of corsairs, who multiplied in West Indian waters to such
+an extent that in 1561 the Spanish Government forbade vessels to
+travel to and from the new world except under convoy.
+
+In 1564 the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepcion de la
+Vega were completely destroyed by an earthquake and the few remaining
+inhabitants reestablished the towns at short distances from the
+original sites. The entire intercourse of the colony with Spain was
+reduced to two or three caravels a year and the revenues sank so low
+that the salaries of state officials were paid and continued to be
+paid for over two hundred years, from the treasury of Mexico.
+
+The year 1586 was marked by the capture of Santo Domingo City by the
+noted English navigator, Sir Francis Drake, during the celebrated
+cruise on which he took the strongest towns on the Spanish main. On
+the morning of January 11, 1586, the inhabitants of Santo Domingo City
+were thrown into consternation at seeing eighteen foreign vessels in
+the roadstead, in a line which stretched from Torrecilla Point to the
+slaughterhouse. To the joy of the people the fleet set sail for the
+west, but their joy was short lived, for the next morning messengers
+arrived with the news that the enemy had landed at the mouth of the
+Jaina River and was marching on the city. Preparations were made for
+defense, but terror gained the upper hand and soon the civil and
+religious authorities, the monks and nuns and the entire population
+were fleeing in confusion on foot, in carts and in canoes, leaving
+their belongings behind. Some one hundred and fifty men remained to
+dispute the passage of Lieutenant-General Carliell who appeared at the
+head of a thousand men. They were quickly dispersed by the invaders
+who entered the gates with little loss and proceeded to the plaza
+where they encamped. For twenty-five days Drake held the deserted
+city, carrying on negotiations meanwhile for its ransom. When these
+flagged he ordered the gradual destruction of the town and every
+morning for eleven days a number of buildings were burned and
+demolished, a work of some difficulty on account of the solidity of
+the houses. Not quite one-third of the city was so destroyed when the
+residents paid a ransom of 25,000 ducats, about $30,000, for the
+remainder. Drake thereupon embarked, carrying with him the bronze
+cannon of the fort and whatever of value he found in the churches and
+private houses. He also ordered the hanging of several friars, held by
+him as prisoners, in retaliation for the murder of a negro boy whom he
+had sent with a flag of truce.
+
+Seventy years later Santo Domingo was again attacked by English
+forces, this time with the object of making a permanent landing.
+Oliver Cromwell after declaring war against Spain sent a fleet to the
+West Indies under the command of Admiral William Penn, having on board
+an army of 9000 men. The fleet appeared off Santo Domingo City on May
+14, 1655, and a landing was effected in two bodies, the advance guard
+under Col. Buller going ashore at the mouth of the Jaina River while
+the main body under General Venables disembarked at Najayo, much
+further down the coast. Buller met with strong resistance at Fort San
+Geronimo and was forced to retire to Venables' intrenchments. The
+united English forces made several attempts to march on the capital,
+but fell into ambuscades and sustained heavy losses. Despairing of
+success, the fleet and army left the island on June 3 and proceeded to
+Jamaica, which they captured.
+
+The rovers of the sea and the restrictive trade regulations imposed by
+the Spanish government, which limited trade with the new world to the
+single port of Seville in Spain, made development of the island's
+commerce impossible. The trade restrictions had the effect of
+encouraging a brisk contraband traffic with Dutch vessels on the north
+coast, to stop which the Spanish government adopted the incredible
+expedient of shutting up every port except Santo Domingo City and
+ordering the destruction of the north coast towns. Puerto Plata, Monte
+Cristi and two villages on the coast of what is now Haiti were thus
+destroyed in 1606 and the inhabitants transferred to towns almost in
+the center of the island, where they were far removed from temptation
+to smuggle. The measure temporarily stopped contraband trade on the
+north coast, but destroyed all legitimate trade in that region,
+transformed the coast into a desert and furnished an opportunity for
+the settlement of the buccaneers in the northwest.
+
+The English, French and Dutch, in resisting Spain's claim to sole
+trading rights in the new world, authorized the fitting out of
+privateers that often degenerated into pirates. The bays and inlets of
+the coast of Santo Domingo became favorite resorts for such ships. The
+depot of the corsairs on the island of St. Christopher having been
+destroyed by the Spaniards in 1630, a number of refugees sought
+shelter on the island of Tortuga, on the northwest coast of Haiti.
+Some of them began to cultivate the soil, others took to hunting wild
+cattle on the mainland of Haiti, while others indulged in piracy.
+Tortuga soon became the busy headquarters of reckless freebooters of
+all nations, who here fitted out daring expeditions and returned to
+waste their gains in wild carousals. In 1638 the Spanish governor of
+Santo Domingo made a descent on the island and destroyed the
+settlement, but most of the buccaneers were absent at the time and the
+only result of the raid was to cause them to organize under the
+captaincy of an Englishman named Willis. French national pride
+asserted itself, however, and with the assistance of a French force
+from St. Christopher, the English inhabitants of Tortuga, who were in
+a minority, were persuaded to leave for Jamaica, and Tortuga
+thenceforth continued under French governors.
+
+In 1648 the Spaniards of Santo Domingo made another fruitless attempt
+to expel the buccaneers; but in 1653 the Spanish governor, the Count
+of Peñalva, collected a force which caught the island unawares and was
+strong enough to overawe the inhabitants, who were permitted to leave,
+though abandoning all their property. The Spaniards left a garrison
+but the persistent Frenchmen returned and drove it out. In 1664 the
+French West India Company took possession, established a garrison, and
+appointed as governor an energetic man, D'Ogeron, under whom the
+country rapidly advanced in prosperity and commerce. With the idea of
+encouraging permanent settlement, D'Ogeron had women brought over from
+the slums of Paris and portioned out as wives to the rude colonists.
+
+The rapidly increasing population caused settlements to be made on
+the Haitian mainland, and the city of Port-de-Paix was founded on a
+beautiful bay opposite Tortuga. The city flourished to such an extent
+and the advantages of settlement on the mainland were so superior that
+the settlers of Tortuga gradually left the smaller island and settled
+along the Haitian coast. Within twenty years Tortuga was practically
+deserted and it so continues to this day.
+
+A better class of people now arrived from France. Families were
+brought in from Anjou and Brittany, and the French settlements
+continued to spread all the way down the western coast of the island,
+the French settlement at Samana being withdrawn. Slaves were imported
+from Africa, and in 1678 a rising took place among them, which was
+easily put down. In 1684 the French government formally sent out
+commissioners to provide for the regular government of the colony, and
+churches and courts of justice were established.
+
+The Spanish inhabitants of Santo Domingo meanwhile made attack after
+attack on the French, but the Spanish colony was in such reduced
+straits that no extended efforts were possible. Where the French were
+repulsed the Spaniards were too few numerically to hold the territory
+and it was soon reoccupied. Angered at the repeated aggressions,
+D'Ogeron sent out an expedition under Delisle in 1673, which landed at
+Puerto Plata and marched inland to Santiago. The inhabitants fled to
+La Vega and only avoided the burning of their city by paying a ransom
+of 25,000 pesos, whereupon Delisle returned to the French colony.
+D'Ogeron at this time proposed to the French government the conquest
+of the entire island for France, and would probably have attempted to
+carry out this plan, had not his death occurred shortly after.
+
+Cordial relations existing between France and Spain in 1685,
+tentative boundary agreements were made between the French and Spanish
+authorities, but each side accused the other of violations and the
+strife continued as before. When in 1689, war broke out between Spain
+and France, the French governor organized an expedition to invade the
+Spanish section. He reached Santiago where some of his men died after
+consuming meat and wine found in the deserted houses. Believing them
+poisoned, he ordered the torch to be applied to the city and retired
+after seeing it reduced to ashes. Admiral Perez Caro, the Spanish
+governor, thereupon made preparations for a telling blow on the
+French. The colony's militia and regular troops sent by the viceroy of
+Mexico invaded the French section and on January 21, 1692,
+administered a crushing defeat on the opposing force in the plain of
+La Limonade, killing the French governor and his principal officers.
+The victorious army marched through the French settlements, desolating
+the fields and putting all prisoners to the sword. At the same time a
+new settlement the French had made at Samana was exterminated.
+
+The new French governor found the affairs of his colony in very bad
+condition; but with the assistance of refugees from other islands he
+sent an expedition to Jamaica, from where over 3,000 slaves together
+with stores of indigo and other property were carried off. In
+retaliation the English and Spanish fleets combined and with 4,000 men
+aboard set sail from Manzanillo Bay in 1695, and sacked and burned
+Cape Français and Port-de-Paix, the English carrying off all the men
+they took prisoners and the Spaniards the women and children.
+Hostilities were ended in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick by which Spain
+recovered territory conquered from her by the French and ceded the
+western part of the island of Santo Domingo to France. The occupation
+of the western coast by France, so long resented as an intrusion, was
+thus formally recognized.
+
+The French colony immediately entered upon an era of prosperity which
+soon made it the richest country of the West Indies. Great plantations
+of tobacco, indigo, cacao, coffee and sugar were established. The
+country came to be known as the paradise of the West Indies and the
+wealth of the planters became proverbial. The grave defect was that
+this prosperity was built on the false foundation of slavery. In 1754
+the population numbered 14,000 whites, 4000 free mulattoes and
+172,000 negroes.
+
+The Spanish colony on the other hand sank lower than ever. Practically
+abandoned by the mother country, there was no commerce beyond a little
+contraband and only the most indispensable agriculture, the
+inhabitants devoting themselves almost entirely to cattle raising. The
+ports were the haunts of pirates, and a number of Dominicans also
+became corsairs. By the year 1730 the entire country held but 6000
+inhabitants, of whom about 500 lived in the ruined capital and the
+remaining urban population was disseminated among the vestiges of
+Cotui, Santiago, Azua, Banica, Monte Plata, Bayaguana, La Vega, Higuey
+and Seibo. Such was the poverty prevailing that a majority of the
+people went in rags; and the arrival of the ship from Mexico, which
+brought the salaries of the civil officials and the military, was
+hailed with the joyful ringing of church bells.
+
+To how great an extent this depression was due to trade restrictions
+is evident from the circumstance that when in 1740 several ports were
+opened to foreign commerce there was an immediate change for the
+better. Agriculture expanded, exports and imports increased, money
+circulated, the cost of the necessaries of life fell, the population
+rapidly increased and many new towns sprang up. According to an
+ecclesiastical census the population had in 1785 advanced to 152,640
+inhabitants. Of these only 30,000 were slaves, owing to the Spanish
+laws which made it easy for a slave to purchase his freedom. Many of
+the freemen were negroes or mulattoes.
+
+In 1751 the colony was visited by a severe hurricane, which caused the
+Ozama to leave its banks, and by a destructive earthquake which
+overthrew the cities of Azua and Seibo and did much damage to the
+church buildings of Santo Domingo. Azua and Seibo were reestablished
+on their present sites. Another earthquake in 1770 destroyed several
+towns in the French part of the island.
+
+From the beginning of the century the boundary between the French and
+Spanish colonies of Santo Domingo had been a source of constant
+friction and bickerings. A preliminary agreement had been made in
+1730, but in 1776 a permanent treaty was drafted, it was ratified at
+Aranjuez in 1777, and the boundary was marked with stone monuments.
+
+When the French revolution broke out in 1789 both the Spanish and
+French colonies of Santo Domingo were enjoying a high degree of
+prosperity. In the French colony there were about 30,000 whites, and
+the haughty white planters were wont to indulge in every form of
+luxury and sybaritic pleasure; the negro slaves, whose number had
+grown to almost half a million, were subjected to the most barbarous
+ill-treatment; and a class of about 30,000 ambitious free mulattoes
+had arisen, many of whom where cultured and wealthy, but who were all
+rigidly excluded from participation in public affairs. It was evident
+that but a spark was needed to produce what might turn out to be a
+general conflagration.
+
+The spark came in the formation of the National Assembly in France and
+its declaration of the rights of man. The mulattoes at once petitioned
+the National Assembly for civil and political rights, which were in
+1790 equivocally denied and in 1791 finally granted them. The whites
+resisted the government decrees and uprisings began. The first of
+these was a revolt of the mulattoes under Ogé, which was quickly
+suppressed. Ogé fled to Spanish Santo Domingo, but was surrendered by
+the Spaniards on condition that his life be spared, a promise that was
+not kept for he was publicly broken on the wheel. Jean François,
+another mulatto, then raised an insurrection of the negroes in the
+north, marching on Cape Français, burning and murdering, with the body
+of a white infant carried on a spear-head at the head of his troops.
+His forces were defeated by the whites, who commenced an
+indiscriminate slaughter of their victims. The negroes thereupon rose
+in every direction and the paradise of the West Indies became a hell.
+The great plantation houses were burned, the wide estates desolated,
+white women were ravished and murdered and white men put to death with
+horrible tortures, while the liberated slaves indulged in orgies at
+which the beverage was rum mixed with human blood. It was a fearful
+day of reckoning.
+
+In 1793, France went to war with England and Spain. The Spanish
+authorities of Santo Domingo made overtures to negro leaders of whom a
+number entered the Spanish army as officers of high rank, among them
+Toussaint, an intelligent ex-slave who later assumed the surname of
+l'Ouverture and who showed remarkable military and administrative
+qualities. The French government sent commissioners to the colony,
+whose tactless handling of a difficult situation fanned the flames of
+civil war. The English attacked the colony, captured Port-au-Prince,
+and enlisted the aid of the revolted slaves in overrunning the
+surrounding country. When they besieged Port-de-Paix the French
+commander sent secret emissaries to Spanish Santo Domingo and induced
+Toussaint to desert from the Spanish ranks and with his negro
+followers help to drive out the English. Killing the Spanish soldiers
+he found in his way, Toussaint went to fight the English, with such
+success that in 1797 he was made general-in-chief of all the French
+troops. The English, decimated by disease, were obliged to leave in
+1798 and sign a treaty of peace with Toussaint by which the island was
+recognized as an independent and neutral state during their war with
+France. The operations in Santo Domingo are said to have cost the
+English $100,000,000 in money and 45,000 lives.
+
+In the meanwhile border fights were going on in Spanish Santo Domingo
+between Toussaint's troops and forces collected from the various
+Spanish possessions on the Caribbean Sea. They continued until 1795,
+when by the treaty of Basle peace was declared between France and
+Spain and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was--to the dismay of
+its inhabitants--ceded to France, the whole island thus passing under
+French control. Toward the end of that year part of the Spanish troops
+and members of religious orders embarked and an emigration of the
+better families began, many taking their slaves with them. The
+Spaniards also exhumed what they supposed to be the remains of
+Columbus in the cathedral of Santo Domingo and carried them to Havana.
+One of the terms of the treaty was that the colony should formally be
+delivered when French troops were sent to occupy it, but as the
+French were at this time kept busy in the western portion, the Spanish
+governor and authorities continued to administer the country for
+several years. Little by little troops and civil officials were
+withdrawn and in 1799 the royal audiencia or high court was
+transferred to Puerto Principe, in Cuba, most of the lawyers of the
+colony leaving at the same time with their families.
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture was now in supreme command in the west, though
+nominally holding under the French republic. He displayed considerable
+ability in promoting peace, ordered the blacks to return to work and
+gave protection to the whites. It was evident, however, that he aimed
+to make himself absolute master of the whole island. Pursuant to this
+plan he called on the Spanish governor, General Joaquin Garcia, to
+surrender the Spanish colony in accordance with the stipulations of
+the treaty of Basle, Governor Garcia prepared to resist, but Toussaint
+invaded the colony with an army, was successful in a skirmish on the
+Nizao River and appearing before the capital protested that he came as
+a French general in the name of the French republic. Garcia had no
+alternative but to comply with the negro chief's demands. On the 27th
+of January, 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture entered the capital with his
+troops and formally took possession. Amid the booming of cannon the
+Spanish ensign was lowered and the French tricolor raised; and
+Toussaint invited the authorities to the cathedral where a Te Deum was
+chanted. Governor Garcia immediately embarked for Cuba with the
+remaining Spanish civil and military authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT.-18O1 TO 1844
+
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture.--Exodus of whites.--Capture of Santo
+Domingo by French.--War with negroes.--Government of Ferrand.
+--Incursion of Dessalines.--Insurrection of Sanchez Ramirez.
+--Reestablishment of Spanish rule.--Proclamation of Colombian
+State of Spanish Haiti.--Conquest by Haiti.--Haitian rule.--Duarte's
+conspiracy.--Declaration of Independence.
+
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture's occupation of Santo Domingo occasioned a new
+exodus of white families who were fearful of what might happen under
+negro rule. From the French portion of the island the whites had been
+emigrating since the first uprisings; a number had fled into the
+Spanish colony and these now also left. It is estimated that in the
+decade beginning with 1795 the Spanish portion lost over 40,000
+inhabitants, more than one-third of its population. Most of the
+persons who abandoned the island during these troublous times settled
+in Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela, where they established coffee and
+sugar plantations, to the great advantage of these countries. Some of
+the most prominent families of Cuba to-day are descendants of families
+which left Santo Domingo at this time.
+
+Toussaint tried to stem the tide of emigration by issuing conciliatory
+proclamations; but when he found his efforts in vain, it is claimed
+that he conceived the idea of a general massacre of the whites
+remaining in the capital. He ordered the entire population, without
+distinction of age or sex to gather on the plaza and the men, women
+and children to be separated into different groups, the whole plaza
+being surrounded by strong forces of cavalry. Appearing before the
+terrified people Toussaint declared slavery abolished and began to
+walk up and down and ask the women in broken Spanish whether they were
+French or Spanish, touching them with his cane in an ever more
+insolent manner. It was too much for one high-spirited young woman,
+who commenced to upbraid him for daring to touch her. At this critical
+moment a severe storm, that had been gathering since he appeared on
+the plaza, broke, and Toussaint, apparently regarding it as a sign of
+divine disapproval, ordered the children removed, then permitted the
+women to retire and finally sent the soldiers to their barracks,
+leaving the men to disperse of themselves.
+
+Toussaint divided the Spanish part of the island into two departments,
+making his brother Paul l'Ouverture governor of the south with
+headquarters at Santo Domingo and General Clervaux governor of the
+Cibao, with headquarters at Santiago. He then made a journey through
+the country, being everywhere received by the frightened inhabitants
+with every mark of distinction. Upon his return to the French section
+he promulgated, in July, 1801, a constitution for the island, by which
+he was declared governor for life and commander-in-chief, with the
+right of appointing his successor and with an annual salary of 300,00
+francs. At the same time he confiscated the property of persons who
+had emigrated.
+
+Toussaint's constitution was a challenge to Napoleon Bonaparte, who
+having temporarily made peace with England, determined to reestablish
+French authority in the island. He accordingly dispatched to Santo
+Domingo a fleet with a well-equipped army of 25,000 men under his
+brother-in-law, General Le Clerc. Upon arriving in Samana Bay the
+force was divided into several bodies which were to operate in
+different parts of the island. The reconquest of the Spanish part was
+confided to Generals Kerverseau and Ferrand.
+
+General Ferrand landed in Monte Cristi and without difficulty took
+possession of the Cibao while the colored chief, Clervaux, knowing the
+hostility of the population toward him, retired without giving battle.
+General Kerverseau took Samana by assault and then sailed for Santo
+Domingo City. The negro Governor Paul l'Ouverture prepared to resist,
+but a brave Dominican, Colonel Juan Baron, organized an
+insurrectionary force and placed himself in communication with
+Kerverseau. The first attempt at uprising was a failure, as his plans
+were betrayed, and a rough sea prevented the French from landing. His
+enemies took the opportunity to sack the town of San Carlos, outside
+the city gates, and to murder a number of Dominicans. Baron gathered a
+larger force and in unison with Kerverseau demanded the surrender of
+the city. Paul l'Ouverture reluctantly capitulated and the French thus
+assumed command of the Spanish portion of the island, with Kerverseau
+as governor. When Toussaint heard of what had occurred he ordered the
+murder of a battalion of Dominican soldiers whom he had retained
+as hostages.
+
+The war waged between the French and the blacks in the old French
+Colony of St. Domingue was characterized by nameless atrocities
+committed on both sides. The last vestiges of former prosperity were
+swept away and the country converted into a wilderness. Toussaint was
+captured through treachery and died in a European prison, but yellow
+fever invaded the French ranks and did great havoc. Le Clerc died, and
+Rochambeau, his successor, was unable, even with reinforcements, to
+hold his own. England, again at war with France, impeded further
+reinforcements and actively assisted the insurgent negroes. Death by
+disease and wounds made the great French army melt away, and towards
+the end of 1803 the last remnant was forced off the island. On January
+1, 1804, the negro generals proclaimed the island an independent
+republic under the name of Haiti, one of the island's Indian names.
+Jean Jacques Dessalines, a rough, illiterate negro, but of
+indefatigable energy, was made governor for life, with dictatorial
+powers. One of his first acts was to order the extermination of such
+whites as still remained. Dessalines a year later assumed the title
+of emperor.
+
+Ferrand, the French general in the Cibao, conceived the project of
+disobeying his orders to evacuate and of trying to hold Spanish Santo
+Domingo for France. Finding that Kerverseau was ready to capitulate,
+he determined to assume command himself, feeling sure that the French
+government would approve his action, if his plans were successful. He
+therefore marched to Santo Domingo City and after a few days'
+parleying deposed Kerverseau, placed him aboard a vessel that carried
+him to Mayaguez, in Porto Rico, and assumed the governorship.
+
+Dessalines did not long keep him waiting. Desiring to extend his
+authority over the whole island, and angered by an injudicious decree
+of Ferrand, which permitted the enslaving of Haitians of over fourteen
+years found beyond their frontier, he invaded the country with a horde
+of 25,000 men. The population of the border towns fled before him in
+terror, the very slaves remaining with their masters rather than join
+him. Victorious in an engagement on the Yaque river, he laid siege to
+the capital on March 5, 1805. In the meantime his lieutenant,
+Christophe, overran the Cibao, sacking the towns and committing
+horrors. Santiago was captured before the inhabitants had time to
+flee, and a large number were murdered by the savage invaders. The
+members of the municipal council were hung, naked, on the balcony of
+the city hall; the people who had sought refuge in the main church
+were put to the sword and their bodies mutilated; and the priest was
+burnt alive in the church, the furniture of the edifice constituting
+his funeral pyre.
+
+Santo Domingo City had been placed in a state of defense and artillery
+mounted on the tower of Mercedes church and the roofs of the San
+Francisco and Jesuit churches. The garrison consisted of some 2,000
+men, but to maintain these and the 6,000 inhabitants of the city as
+well as the refugees there were only limited supplies on hand. Food
+quickly ran low when, providentially, a French fleet appeared before
+the city. The admiral, who thought the entire island abandoned by the
+French, was delighted to find the French flag still flying and gladly
+rendered assistance. A desperate sortie was made on March 28, the
+twenty-third day of the siege, with such success that Dessalines
+precipitately retired, abandoning his stores. The main body of the
+Haitians retreated by way of the Cibao, the others through the south,
+all devastating the country as far as they could. Azua, San José de
+las Matas, Monte Plata, Cotui, San Francisco de Macoris, La Vega,
+Santiago and Monte Cristi were reduced to ashes. In Moca 500
+inhabitants, deceived by the promises of Christophe, returned from
+their hiding places in the hills and assembled for divine service in
+the parish church, where they were butchered by the negro soldiers. In
+La Vega and Santiago the Haitian troops made prisoners of numerous
+families, aggregating 900 persons among men, women and children in La
+Vega and probably more in Santiago, and forced them to accompany the
+army to northern Haiti, where they were kept in captivity, working
+practically as slaves for their captors, for four years. The march was
+full of horrors for the poor prisoners, who were prohibited from
+wearing hats or shoes and were brutally treated by their guards.
+
+As a civil administrator Ferrand did excellent work. He encouraged the
+resettlement of the abandoned fields, persuaded emigrated families to
+return, established schools and began to build water-works for the
+capital, a work which he nearly completed, but which was abandoned by
+his successors and has never been realized in the century that has
+since transpired. Napoleon on hearing of Ferrand's conduct not only
+approved everything he had done but sent him the cross of the Legion
+of Honor and financial assistance. Ferrand was especially impressed
+with the importance of Samana Bay and made plans for a city to be
+located west of the town of Samana, to which he intended to give the
+name of Napoleon. The peaceful conditions to which the country
+returned were only troubled by British vessels which occasionally
+attempted to establish blockades. On February 6, 1806, a British
+squadron of eight vessels under Sir John Duckworth badly defeated a
+French squadron, also of eight vessels, in a hotly contested fight off
+Point Palenque to the southwest of Santo Domingo City.
+
+Although Ferrand was personally liked, discontent began to brew in the
+country. The inhabitants were loyal to Spain and chafed under foreign
+rule; many believed there was danger of Haitian invasion so long as
+the French remained; certain tax exactions stirred up animosity; and
+the stories of Spain's resistance to Napoleon's aggressions inflamed
+the spirits of the leading men. Conspiracies ensued, fomented
+principally by a Cotui planter named Juan Sanchez Ramirez, who had
+emigrated in 1803, but returned after four years of exile, and the
+Spanish flag was formally raised in Seibo in October, 1808. Ferrand
+immediately set out to quell the uprising and on November 7, 1808, met
+Sanchez Ramirez at Palo Hincado, about two miles west of Seibo. He was
+vigorously attacked by the revolutionists, his native troops deserted,
+and his other troops were cut to pieces. Seeing that all was lost and
+that all his work was ruined, Ferrand blew out his brains with
+a pistol.
+
+The revolutionists received assistance from the governor-general of
+Porto Rico and from their former enemy Christophe, who had made
+himself king of northern Haiti; a British squadron took Samana, the
+only post held by the French outside of Santo Domingo City, and raised
+the Spanish flag; and Sanchez Ramirez laid siege to the capital, where
+the French general Barquier had assumed command, while British vessels
+blockaded it by sea. The siege lasted almost nine months, during which
+the besieged suffered greatly from want of provisions, being reduced
+to eating dogs and cats, and the surrounding country was devastated by
+sorties and foraging parties. The severest fighting took place about
+San Geronimo castle, on the shore three miles west of the city, which
+was taken and retaken. In the sixth and seventh months of the siege
+the city was repeatedly bombarded from land and sea, but without
+result. At length Sanchez applied to the governor of Jamaica and a
+British force under Sir Hugh Lyle Carmichael was sent to his
+assistance. It landed at Palenque and took up a position in San
+Carlos. A general assault had been determined upon, when the brave
+little defender of the city, realizing the hopelessness of further
+resistance, agreed to capitulate to the English. On July 9, 1809, the
+French flag was lowered and the country again became a dependency of
+Spain, and in 1814 Spain's dominion was confirmed by the treaty
+of Paris.
+
+Spain had been busy fighting the French within her own borders, and
+when normal conditions were restored had her hands full in keeping
+order and in trying to bring her revolting colonies of America back to
+obedience. She had little time for affairs in Santo Domingo, and did
+nothing to ameliorate conditions. The colony was left to vegetate in
+absolute poverty. This second Spanish era came to be known as the
+period of "Espana boba," "stupid Spain," as the home government
+remained so indifferent to the colony's affairs. The only redeeming
+feature was the return of a number of exiled families. Sanchez
+Ramirez, who had been proclaimed governor-general, was confirmed in
+the office and held the same until his death in 1811, being succeeded
+by Spanish military officers.
+
+In the first years of the new Spanish colony there was an undefined
+attempt at uprising on the part of a few white hotheads, and an
+attempt to incite the slaves against their masters on the part of a
+few black ones, but in both cases the ringleaders were captured and
+put to death. The great struggle for independence in South America
+gradually influenced the minds of the inhabitants of Santo Domingo;
+Bolivar's brief visit to Haiti also had its effect, and secret
+separatist societies began to be founded. In the beginning of 1821 a
+conspiracy was discovered and numerous arrests made. Plotting
+continued nevertheless, stimulated by a prominent lawyer, José Nuñez
+de Caceres, who dreamed of making the country a state of Bolivar's
+Colombian Republic. On the night of November 30, 1821, the conspiracy
+culminated in an uprising in the capital; most of the troops had been
+won over to the cause of independence and offered no resistance; the
+rest were taken by surprise; and the revolutionists without difficulty
+made themselves masters of the gateway "Puerta del Conde" and of the
+other gates and forts. The Spanish governor was placed under arrest
+and put aboard a vessel sailing for Europe, and the Colombian flag was
+raised. Public proclamation was made of the independent and sovereign
+State of Spanish Haiti, affiliated with the Republic of Colombia, and
+José Nuñez de Caceres assumed the office of political governor and
+president of the State, while the provincial assembly became a
+provisional junta of government.
+
+The State of Spanish Haiti lasted barely nine weeks. An emissary sent
+to Colombia for assistance in maintaining independence was
+unsuccessful. Another emissary sent to President Boyer of Haiti, for
+the negotiation of a treaty, brought back the answer that "the whole
+island should constitute a single republic under the flag of Haiti."
+For several years Boyer, a dark mulatto, who had united Haiti under
+his rule, had been endeavoring to influence the colored people on the
+Spanish side of the border, to such an extent that the activities of
+his agents repeatedly provoked protests from the Spanish governors,
+and he now recognized that his opportunity had come. Invading the
+country in the north and south his forces captured the most important
+points. He met with no resistance, due to the fact that the temporary
+government was entirely unprepared, that the population feared a
+repetition of the horrors of 1805, and that many were in sympathy with
+him while others were indifferent. On February 9, 1822, Nuñez de
+Caceres was obliged to deliver the keys of Santo Domingo City to the
+invader and the whole island came under the dominion of Haiti.
+
+The twenty-two years of Haitian rule marked a period of social and
+economic retrogression for the old Spanish portion of the island. Most
+of the whites, especially the more prominent families, the principal
+representatives of the community's wealth and culture, definitely
+abandoned the country, some immediately upon the advent of the
+Haitians, others in 1824, when a hopeless conspiracy in favor of a
+restoration of Spanish rule was quenched in blood, and others in 1830,
+when a quixotic demand of the Spanish king for a return of his domain
+was refused by Boyer. The Haitians, anxious to eliminate the whites,
+encouraged such emigration and confiscated the property left by the
+emigrants. The policy of the Haitian government was to build up a
+strong African state in the whole island, and in pursuance of this
+policy it emancipated all slaves, colonized Haitian negroes on the
+Samana peninsula and in other parts of the Spanish-speaking territory
+and brought in colored people from the United States. Some of these
+remained in Puerto Plata, others in Santo Domingo City, but the larger
+number settled on the Samana peninsula, where their descendants still
+form the bulk of the population. Every effort was made to Haitianize
+the country by extending the Haitian laws, and imposing Haitian
+governors. Representation was also accorded in the Haitian congress.
+In 1825 the French government recognized the independence of the
+French part of the island in consideration of the payment of an
+indemnity, toward which the Haitians forced the Spanish part to
+contribute.
+
+The wanton acts of the Haitian authorities, their hostility to whites
+and lighter colored mulattoes, their opposition to the Spanish
+language and customs, and their neglect of the country's development,
+caused much discontent, and the idea of separating from Haiti began to
+be entertained. An enthusiastic young man, Juan Pablo Duarte, who had
+been educated in Europe, in 1838 founded a secret revolutionary
+society, called "La Trinitaria," to work for the country's
+independence. In May, 1842, an earthquake destroyed Santiago and La
+Vega, as well as Cape Haitien and other towns in the western part of
+the island, and with lesser earthquakes which followed caused a panic
+throughout the country, which in turn made conditions more favorable
+for a change of government.
+
+In the meantime opposition to Boyer had spread in Haiti also, and in
+1843 gave rise to a revolution, as a result of which Boyer was driven
+from the country and Charles Hérard installed as dictator-president.
+Duarte redoubled his activities for independence, struggling against
+the opinion of many who thought such an aspiration hopeless, but his
+plans were discovered and he and others obliged to flee. His work had
+been well done, however; his ideas continued to spread, and it was
+determined to proclaim the independence of Santo Domingo on February
+27, 1844. Late that night a large group of Dominicans under Francisco
+del Rosario Sanchez appeared at the principal gateway of Santo Domingo
+City, "Puerta del Conde," and received the surrender of the guard, and
+on the following morning the Dominican flag, as designed by Duarte,
+was waving over the gate.
+
+Dessalines, the emperor of Haiti, had adopted red and blue, two of the
+colors of the French Republic's flag, for the flag of Haiti, leaving
+out white, because to this hated color he attributed all the
+misfortunes of his country and his race. Duarte took the Haitian
+colors, arranged them in four alternate squares and placed a white
+cross in the center to signify the union of the races through
+Christianity and civilization.
+
+The other points of vantage were quickly occupied and the Haitian
+general, finding himself shut up in the fort "La Fuerza" without hope
+of successful resistance, surrendered and was permitted to withdraw
+with his officers. On the same day or within a few days afterward the
+flag of the new republic was raised in every town of the old Spanish
+colony of Santo Domingo, except certain towns in the west which are
+still in possession of the Haitians, and the country entered upon the
+period of independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--FIRST REPUBLIC AND SPANISH ANNEXATION.--1844 TO
+1865.
+
+
+Constitution of the government.--Santana's first administration.--Wars
+with the Haitians.--Administration of Jimenez.--Victory of Las
+Carreras.--Baez' first administration.--Santana's second
+administration.--Repulse of Soulouque.--Baez' second administration.
+--Period of the two governments.--Santana's third administration.
+--Annexation negotiations.--Annexation to Spain.--War of the
+Restoration.
+
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of independence a central council of
+government was formed for the provisional administration of the
+country's affairs. The new republic assumed the name of Dominican
+Republic and the people were thenceforth known as Dominicans. The
+first business before the central council of government was to prepare
+for the defense of the territory against the Haitian president,
+Hérard, who was advancing with an army to reestablish his authority.
+An encounter took place near Azua, in which the Dominican forces,
+under General Pedro Santana, were victorious, but instead of following
+up his victory, Santana fell back on Bani and permitted the enemy to
+occupy Azua. In the meantime another Haitian army was advancing in the
+north. In the midst of his operations Hérard was interrupted by the
+news of a revolutionary movement against him in Haitian territory, and
+hastily recalling his troops, retired to combat it, burning Azua and
+devastating the country through which he passed.
+
+Many prominent Dominicans were in doubt as to whether the republic
+would be able to maintain a stable government and resist the
+incursions of the Haitians, and believed that the best course for the
+safety and prosperity of the country would be to seek the protection
+of a foreign power. These men, who came to be known as conservatives
+and who counted Santana among their number, began to spread their
+doctrines and were bitterly opposed by a different element, calling
+themselves liberals, among whom were Duarte, returned from exile, and
+the members of the central council of government. A number of
+prominent conservatives were obliged to go into hiding in order to
+escape imprisonment, and the central council of government appointed
+Duarte its representative in the north and ordered that General
+Francisco del Rosario Sanchez supersede Santana in command of the
+troops in the south. Duarte was proclaimed president of the republic
+by the people of the north, but Santana's soldiers refusing to
+recognize any other leader, marched on the capital, which they entered
+on July 12, 1844, and deposed the central council of government,
+declaring Santana chief of state with dictatorial powers. Thus the
+unhappy series of revolutions which have done such harm to the
+Dominican Republic was inaugurated within five months after the
+declaration of independence.
+
+Santana organized a new central council of government and sent
+emissaries to the Cibao, or northern part of the republic, where he
+won over the army and the principal leaders. Duarte, Sanchez and
+others who had risked their lives and spent their fortunes in behalf
+of Dominican independence were arrested, imprisoned in irons in the
+ancient "Tower of Homage" of Santo Domingo and exiled as traitors to
+their country!
+
+A constitutional convention was called, which met at San Cristobal
+and drafted the first constitution of the Republic, taking the
+constitution of the United States as a model. It was promulgated on
+November 6, 1844. In accordance with a provision of the constitution
+that the convention elect the president for the first two terms,
+General Santana was chosen, as was to be expected. General Pedro
+Santana, who thus became the first constitutional president, was a
+rough, uncouth and uneducated man, but possessed of keen perception
+and great personal bravery. He had a strong strain of negro and
+probably also of Indian blood. Born in Hincha, he had left his native
+town during the troubles of the early part of the century and settled
+in the province of Seibo, where he acquired an ascendency over the
+population that made him a kind of local demigod.
+
+Conspiracies against Santana's government were immediately set on foot
+by the liberals, but were discovered and three ringleaders were
+executed on the first anniversary of the Republic's independence. In
+the spring of 1845 the first Congress met and proceeded to organize
+the government.
+
+In the meantime a guerilla warfare had been going on with the Haitians
+along the border, and President Pierrot, who had overthrown Hérard,
+was preparing to invade the Dominican Republic. His two armies were at
+first successful and captured several border towns, but that which
+entered in the south was repulsed at Estrelleta, while that which
+invaded the north was defeated at Beler. A small Haitian fleet which
+set out to attack Puerto Plata blundered on a shoal where it was left
+high and dry and captured by the Dominicans.
+
+Steps were now taken to secure the recognition of the republic by
+foreign powers. The government soon found itself in financial
+difficulties, as it was expensive to maintain the country in a state
+of defense against the Haitians, and an issue of paper money without
+sufficient guarantees made matters worse. Revolutionary mutterings
+were heard, and though a number of leaders were shot, the public
+discontent grew greater and more apparent. Santana comprehended the
+situation and determined to resign the presidency, which he did on
+August 4, 1848. The cabinet officers temporarily carried on the
+government and called an election, as a result of which General Manuel
+Jimenez, who had fought the Haitians and had been secretary of war
+under Santana, was declared president, entering upon office on
+September 8, 1848.
+
+In his efforts to face the economic troubles of the government Jimenez
+disbanded part of the army and reduced military expenses. The moment
+was inopportune, for the implacable Haitians, who continued to
+consider Santo Domingo as Haitian territory in revolt, were preparing
+for another invasion. Soulouque, who had attained the presidency of
+the black republic, made a sudden incursion and marched victoriously
+as far as Azua. The Dominican government observed a vacillating policy
+which provoked general distrust and protests from the friends of
+Santana, whose partisans in the Congress called on him to take command
+of the army. Jimenez at first demurred but finally consented, and
+Santana, emerging from retirement, collected a few hundred ragged
+troops at Sabana Buey, near Azua. Soulouque attempted to move eastward
+by way of the canon of El Número, but was prevented by a Dominican
+force under General Duvergé; he then tried the pass of Las Carreras
+and was met and utterly defeated on April 21, 1849, by General
+Santana. The Haitians retreated to their own territory, burning Azua
+and other towns on the way.  Quarrels between President Jimenez and
+Congress continued meanwhile, and his opponents induced the army to
+declare itself against the president and request General Santana "not
+to lay down his arms until a government was established which would
+respect the constitution and the laws and forever banish discord from
+Dominican soil." The Congress called the president to appear before
+it, and some of the officers of his staff, hearing him harshly
+criticised, drew swords and pistols to punish the offending
+congressman, and only the energy of the speaker, Buenaventura Baez,
+averted a bloody conflict. Congress adjourned to San Cristobal, the
+most important towns of the country rose against the administration,
+and Santana laid siege to the capital. After the siege had lasted a
+week, and the suburban town of San Carlos had been destroyed by fire,
+President Jimenez yielded to the arguments of the British, French and
+American consuls and agreed to resign the presidency and leave the
+country on a British warship. Santana entered the city at the head of
+his army on May 30, 1849, and assumed the reins of government, one of
+his first measures being a wholesale expulsion of Jimenez followers.
+He was crowned with honors by Congress and given the title of
+"Libertador."
+
+The electoral college having been convened, Santiago Espaillat was
+chosen president, but refused to accept, realizing that Santana would
+expect to manage him as a puppet. Colonel Buenaventura Baez was then
+chosen and on December 24,1849, entered upon his first term as
+president of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Baez, who was to play a leading part in the history of his country
+during the next thirty years, was the antithesis of Santana in manners
+and education. Born in Azua in 1812, the oldest of a family of seven
+children, his father had sent him to Europe to study and he returned
+one of the most polished and best educated Dominicans of his day.
+Under Haitian rule he was a member of the Haitian congress and of one
+of the Haitian constitutional assemblies. Almost white himself, he
+here distinguished himself by his boldness in opposing measures
+restricting the rights of whites in Haiti. After the declaration of
+independence of Santo Domingo he was a member of the first
+constitutional assembly and speaker of the first congress, being
+elected from the province of Azua, where his influence was similar to
+that enjoyed by Santana in Seibo. Until he became president he was a
+close friend of Santana.
+
+Baez determined to take the offensive against Haiti, and a small naval
+campaign was undertaken in which Dominican government schooners
+captured Anse-à-Pitre and one or two other villages on the southern
+coast of Haiti, which were sacked and burned by the Dominicans. At the
+same time Baez requested the mediation of the United States, France
+and England to put an end to the struggle between Haiti and the
+Dominican Republic. Soulouque, who had meanwhile proclaimed himself
+Emperor of Haiti, offered to agree to peace and recognize Baez, but on
+condition that the Haitian flag be raised in Santo Domingo and the
+sovereignty of Haiti be admitted. His conditions were naturally
+rejected by the Dominicans, and the mediating powers informed the
+negro emperor that if he persisted in his plans of invading Santo
+Domingo they would be obliged to impose a suspension of hostilities
+for ten years. Nevertheless his forces continued to mass on the
+frontiers and small bodies actually entered Dominican territory, but
+were driven back. Upon the protests of the three powers Soulouque
+explained the incursions as having been due to disobedience to orders,
+and under pressure agreed to a truce for one year, during which
+negotiations were to continue for a definite treaty of peace or an
+armistice of ten years. In December, 1852, the minister of foreign
+affairs of France notified Haiti that the maritime nations of Europe
+were disposed to maintain the independence of Santo Domingo.
+
+A period of peace now began which afforded a breathing-spell to the
+country. Upon the expiration of Baez' four year term, Santana was
+again elected president and entered upon the office on February 15,
+1853. It was one of the occasions, only too rare in Dominican history,
+on which a president served out his term and personally delivered up
+the office to his successor.
+
+The domineering spirit of Santana gave rise to serious dissensions. He
+quarrelled with the clergy, which had been taking an active part in
+politics since the declaration of independence, forced the archbishop,
+under penalty of expulsion, to take the oath of allegiance to the
+constitution, and banished several priests. One of the reasons for his
+stand was perhaps the circumstance that Baez had sought to attract the
+church. For several years Santana had become jealous of the extension
+of Baez' influence and wrathful at the independent spirit displayed by
+his former protegé. It soon became apparent that the retirement of
+Baez was equivalent to a fall from power. In July, 1853, Santana
+issued a proclamation in which he accused Baez of treason and of
+playing into the hands of the Haitians, and ordered his banishment.
+Baez fled from the country and answered with a fiery counter-appeal,
+justifying himself and accusing Santana of despotism, whereupon the
+breach between the two strong men was complete. Santana also quarrelled
+with Congress and banished or shot his principal adversaries.  In
+1854 a constitutional convention assembled to draft a constitution
+more to Santana's taste than the existing one. The presidential term
+was extended to six years and the office of vice-president was
+introduced, General Manuel de Regla Mota being elected to this office
+when General Felipe Alfau declined it. This constitution did not last
+six months, for before the end of the year Santana had it further
+restricted.
+
+Under fear of foreign complications Haiti had remained quiet for
+several years, but in 1855, when England and France were engaged in
+the Crimean war, the emperor Soulouque made a last determined effort
+to subjugate Santo Domingo. One army advanced by way of the south,
+another through the central valley; both captured the border towns and
+drove the Dominican outposts before them; and both were defeated on
+the same day, December 22, 1855, the southern army at Cambronal, near
+Neiba, by a Dominican force under General Sosa, and the other on the
+savanna of Santomé, by a force under General José Maria Cabral. Not to
+be deterred, Soulouque rallied his men within Haitian territory, shot
+a few of his generals, and, believing all the Dominican forces
+collected in the south, marched north to invade the Cibao. Here he was
+met by another band of Dominicans at Sabana Larga and again defeated,
+retreating precipitately to his dominions. It was the last Haitian
+invasion, but Haiti did not formally recognize the independence of the
+Dominican Republic until 1874.
+
+The harsh measures of Santana had provoked general dissatisfaction and
+the friends of Baez seized the opportunity to conspire in his favor.
+Santana realized that the days of his government were numbered, and
+resigned the presidency as he had done in 1849, retiring to his farm
+near Seibo. Manuel de Regla Mota, the vice-president, thereupon on
+March 26, 1856, became president. Baez soon after arrived in the
+country and was elected vice-president; thereupon Regla Mota resigned
+as president and Baez thus slid into the presidency in a perfectly
+legal manner.
+
+The second administration of Baez opened with a revolution against him
+in the Neiba district, which was promptly put down. Baez then had
+Santana arrested and exiled, feeling uncomfortable while his former
+chief remained in the country. But he was not destined to have peace.
+An ill-considered issue of more paper money, when the rate of exchange
+with gold was already fifty to one, created indignation in the tobacco
+region of the Cibao and on July 7, 1857, Santiago declared itself in
+revolution. The movement rapidly spread, a provisional government was
+set up in the Cibao, the forces of Baez were repulsed, and soon the
+president held only Santo Domingo City and Samana. The revolutionists
+called a constitutional convention which met at Moca and in February,
+1858, promulgated another constitution, designating Santiago as the
+capital. An election was held in the midst of the war and General José
+Desiderio Valverde was declared elected president. For months there
+were thus two governments in the country. The revolutionists began the
+siege of Santo Domingo City towards the end of July, 1857, and later
+Santana arrived and took charge of military operations. There were
+frequent artillery duels, the fourteenth anniversary of Dominican
+independence, February 27, 1858, being celebrated by a cannonade along
+the Ozama River lasting all day. Fortunately the most distinctive
+feature of the combats was the noise, but the Baez family suffered,
+two of the president's brothers being killed in the war. Baez held out
+for eleven months, but after the fall of Samana and when Santo
+Domingo was reduced to starvation he at length yielded to the
+entreaties of the foreign consuls and capitulated on June 12, 1858. As
+soon as he had embarked for Curaçao, General Santana marched into the
+city with the victorious army.
+
+It was not compatible with Santana's character to be subordinate to
+anyone else, and by the end of July he had with the government
+at Santiago and set up a government of his own "in order
+that the lovers of liberty be not disquieted, in order that peace
+prevail, and in order that the nation be saved," as he said in his
+proclamation. The Santiago government attempted to resist but was
+overcome and its members banished. Santana declared the constitution
+of December, 1854, in force again and called an election at which he
+was, of course, chosen president, taking the oath of office on January
+31, 1859. He thereupon crushed a revolution in Azua, executing the
+leaders. As the large amount of paper in circulation caused
+difficulties, he coolly repudiated the greater part, upon which a
+number of European countries temporarily broke off diplomatic
+relations because of the injury done their citizens and forced him to
+retire the paper by issuing in lieu thereof certificates acceptable
+for customs dues. This trouble removed, he devoted himself to securing
+the annexation of Santo Domingo to Spain.
+
+From the earliest days of the Dominican Republic the most prominent
+men had believed that the happiness of the country depended upon
+securing the protection of a strong power, capable of preserving
+order, and the years of warfare confirmed them in their opinion. The
+hope of remaining in power was also an incentive to the party which
+happened to be in control. Spain and France were preferred, for
+reasons of identity or similarity of language, customs and religion.
+Many also favored the United States, but while the republican form of
+government and the probability of commercial advantages were
+attractions, the existence of slavery and of prejudice against the
+colored race inspired misgivings. As early as 1843, even before the
+declaration of independence, an attempt was made to secure a French
+protectorate, and during the first war with Haiti, Santana continued
+the negotiations. In 1846 an attempt was made to obtain a Spanish
+protectorate. In 1849 President Baez in his message to Congress
+referred to the advisability of "hastening a solution of the matter by
+obtaining the intervention and protection of a strong nation which
+would offer the most advantageous terms, for on this depends public
+prosperity."
+
+On October 18, 1849, the Dominican minister of foreign affairs in a
+note to the French consul, stated that "the present situation of the
+country and the barbarous wars with the Haitians, obliged him to beg,
+in the name of his government, that the government of France give a
+definite solution to the important matter of the protectorate; and if
+the decision of France should unfortunately be in the negative, that
+it at least be not deferred too long to prevent him from addressing
+himself to the special representative of the United States, who had
+just arrived." The United States was mentioned as a bogey, for when
+France declined, the Dominican government stated that it could not
+consider the negative as final and appealed to the French sentiments
+of humanity. In 1854 another strong attempt was made to secure a
+Spanish protectorate. Neither France nor Spain was anxious to annex a
+hornet's nest, and Spain was fearful that any uprising against her
+authority would find an echo in Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1855
+negotiations were opened with General William L. Cazneau, special
+agent of President Pierce, for the lease of the Samana peninsula to
+the United States, and in the following year Captain (later
+Major-General) George B. McClellan, of the United States Army, made an
+examination of Samana Bay. Nothing came of this matter owing to
+opposition by foreign powers and the fall of the Santana government.
+Most annexation negotiations were secret, as the opponents of the
+party that happened to be in power never failed to stigmatize them as
+treasonable.
+
+The fear of American influence was one of the reasons given by the
+Haitian emperor Soulouque for his invasion of 1855, and for an
+invitation issued by him in 1858 to the Dominican people, calling upon
+them to return to the Haitian flag. It had its influence on the
+Spanish government also, which began to look more kindly upon
+annexation propositions and agreed to furnish arms, ammunition and
+military instructors to Santo Domingo. In 1860 Santana addressed
+himself directly to the Queen of Spain, and proposed a closer union.
+Bases for annexation were drawn up, founded "on the free and
+spontaneous wish of the Dominican people." Santana was careful to win
+over the local military chiefs to his ideas. His opponents vainly
+combatted the proposition from Curaçao and from Haiti, which was now a
+republic again.
+
+On March 18, 1861, the people of the capital assembled on the main
+plaza pursuant to a call issued on the day before, General Santana and
+the members of his government appeared on the gallery of the palace of
+justice, a document was read to the public proclaiming the
+reincorporation of the country as a part of the Spanish dominions, and
+thereupon the red and gold flag of Spain was raised on the fort and on
+the gate "Puerta del Conde" and saluted with 101 guns. On the same day
+and during the week following, the Spanish flag was raised with
+similar ceremonies in most of the other towns. A few days later
+Spanish troops were disembarked at different points. Santana was
+appointed governor and captain-general of the colony, with the rank of
+lieutenant-general in the Spanish army.
+
+The Dominican conspirators in Haiti, comprising General Sanchez and
+others who had distinguished themselves in securing independence for
+their country, crossed the boundary and endeavored to stir up an
+insurrection, but with such misfortune that they were surrounded and
+the majority captured. Santana ordered the prisoners shot and twenty
+were executed on July 4, 1861, notwithstanding the protests of General
+Pelaez, the Spanish officer second in command. The act provoked
+bitterness against Spain and made the men so killed martyrs in the
+eyes of their countrymen. It also marked the beginning of strained
+relations between Santana and Pelaez, made worse by Santana's
+arrogance. The friction resulted in Santana's resignation on January
+7, 1862. He evidently hoped the queen would ask him to reconsider and
+give him carte blanche in Dominican affairs, but the resignation was
+accepted, though sweetened by the grant to him of the title of Marques
+de las Carreras and a life pension of $12,000 per annum. His
+successors in the governorship were high officers of the Spanish army.
+
+Discontent was not slow in spreading among the people. Injudicious
+measures enacted by the Spanish authorities, the importation of hordes
+of foreign officials, the overbearing manners of several local Spanish
+commanders, increases in the budget, intolerance on the part of the
+Spanish priests, and the natural unrest of the Dominicans, all
+combined to give rise to small revolts which were put down, until, on
+August 16, 1863, a farmer named Cabrera with a small band of
+followers, at Capotillo, near Guayubin in the Cibao, began an
+insurrection which quickly became general and is known in Dominican
+history as the War of the Restoration. The Spanish forces of the Cibao
+valley were obliged to concentrate in Fort San Luis, at Santiago de
+los Caballeros, where they were besieged by the insurgents. The
+Dominicans also captured Puerto Plata, but the city was retaken by
+Spanish troops from Cuba. Reinforcements were sent to the besieged
+garrison of Santiago, and in the fight which the Dominicans made to
+prevent the joining of the Spanish forces, the city of Santiago was
+set on fire and reduced to ashes. The Spaniards determined to evacuate
+the place, and marched down to the coast, being constantly harassed by
+Dominican guerillas, so that they lost over a thousand men before
+reaching Puerto Plata. The Dominicans established a provisional
+government with its capital at Santiago and the country continued to
+be devastated with fire and sword.
+
+General Santana was given command of a Spanish force to put down the
+insurrection in the east, but insisting on carrying out his own plan
+of campaign, he disobeyed orders and so rudely answered the
+governor-general's remonstrances that he was summarily removed from
+his position. In high dudgeon he retired to the capital, and it is
+stated that the governor intended to ship him off to Cuba; but on June
+14, 1864, he suddenly died, after an illness of only a few hours.
+
+If the Spaniards had displayed energy in opposing the revolutionists
+they would probably have carried off the victory, but the whole number
+of their troops on the island available for military service at any
+one time rarely reached eight thousand men. A campaign in the Monte
+Cristi district which might have ended the war was rendered sterile
+by the lack of troops. Finally the Spaniards, unable to garrison the
+towns they won, were reduced to the possession of Santo Domingo City
+and a few other places near the seacoast, all practically in a state
+of siege. Meanwhile the military operations were costing the home
+government large sums of money, and it became evident that, owing to
+the failure to strike at the right time, the subjugation of the
+country would entail enormous expenditures. Political conditions in
+Spain were not favorable to such a war of conquest, and the Spanish
+government determined to withdraw from Santo Domingo, alleging that
+Spain had taken possession only because she believed the Dominicans
+were anxious for annexation but that she did not wish to remain
+against their will. Possible complications with the United States,
+just emerging from the Civil War, were probably also taken into
+account. On May 1, 1865, the Queen of Spain sanctioned a law of the
+Spanish Cortes providing for the relinquishment of the colony. The
+Spanish forces were brought together at Santo Domingo City, and on
+July 11, 1865, after the guns in the forts had been spiked and the
+military stores on hand had been destroyed, the troops and the
+authorities embarked in a fleet assembled for that purpose and the
+Spanish flag was lowered, for the last time, in Santo Domingo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--SECOND REPUBLIC.--REVOLUTIONS AND
+DICTATORSHIPS.--1863 TO 1904.
+
+
+Restoration of the republic.--Military presidents.--Cabral's
+administration.--Baez' fourth administration.--Annexation negotiations
+with the United States.--Civil wars.--Heureaux's rule.--Administrations
+of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil.--Election of Morales.
+
+
+From the very beginning of the War of the Restoration and for several
+years afterwards, the principal Dominican military chiefs were engaged
+in a disgraceful squabble for leadership. As soon as the Spanish
+forces retired from Santiago the revolutionists, on September 14,
+1863, proclaimed the restoration of the republic and set up a
+provisional government under the presidency of General José Antonio
+Salcedo. The other generals accused Salcedo of lack of energy in
+pushing the war and on October 10, 1864, deposed him and made General
+Gaspar Polanco president in his stead. Poor Salcedo tried to resist,
+but was captured, hurried by a friend from one camp to another to keep
+him from being shot, and at last foully murdered. Polanco did not
+enjoy his triumph long. A reaction set in, a revolution was initiated
+against him, his troops deserted, he was captured and imprisoned, and
+on January 24, 1865, a superior council of government was formed by
+the insurgents, presided over by General Benigno Filomeno de Rojas.
+The council called a constitutional convention which proclaimed the
+constitution of Moca of 1858 and in March, 1865, elected General Pedro
+Antonio Pimentel president. It was he who entered Santo Domingo City
+after the evacuation by the Spaniards.
+
+Hardly had the evacuation taken place when Generals Cabral and
+Manzueta raised an insurrection which overthrew Pimentel's government
+while he was absent on the Haitian border, and General José Maria
+Cabral, an educated mulatto, was proclaimed Protector of the Republic.
+Cabral had formerly been one of the most enthusiastic followers of
+Baez but it soon became evident that he was working for himself. He
+convoked a constitutional assembly which was convening when General
+Pedro Guillermo rose in the east and proclaimed General Buenaventura
+Baez president. The movement was successful and the Congress,
+completely convinced by the sight of a sword unsheathed in its
+presence by one of the victorious generals, elected Baez to the
+presidency.
+
+Since his overthrow in 1858 Baez had been in exile, but he had
+accepted Spanish sovereignty and the rank of fieldmarshal in the
+Spanish army. On the outbreak of the War of the Restoration, he sent
+Cabral to join the Dominican forces as his representative. He was now
+living in Curaçao and a commission journeyed there to invite him back
+to Santo Domingo, a council inaugurated on October 25, 1865, meanwhile
+taking charge. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated on
+November 14, 1865, and on the same day Baez entered upon his office.
+Neither he nor the constitution lasted long. The constitution being
+too liberal, he had it abrogated on April 19, 1866, and Santana's
+constitution of December 16, 1854, was adopted in its stead. This
+action was the excuse for an insurrection which broke out in Santiago
+on May 1, 1866, under the leadership of Pimentel in combination with
+Cabral, and quickly assumed such alarming proportions that Baez found
+it prudent to resign before the end of the month and retire
+to Curaçao.
+
+As usual a constitutional assembly was called, and a new constitution
+was promulgated on September 26, 1866. An election was held and Cabral
+chosen president by a practically unanimous vote. Nevertheless his
+government had scarcely a day's peace from insurrections. It found
+time, however, to resume amicable relations with Spain, to make a
+commercial treaty with the United States and to found a professional
+institute. Other relations with the United States were also planned;
+for as Spain and France were eliminated from the annexation idea and
+the United States had abolished slavery, this country was looked upon
+with greater favor. The cost of the government's military activities
+was such that a strong attempt was made to lease Samana Bay to the
+United States for two million dollars; but as complete control was not
+offered the plan fell through. Later a special commissioner was sent
+to Washington to negotiate for the absolute lease of the Samana
+peninsula and Samana Bay, which negotiations were the prelude to the
+later annexation negotiations, but they were interrupted by a
+revolution in favor of Baez which broke out in Monte Cristi on October
+7, 1867. and deposed Cabral on January 31, 1868. A council of generals
+administered affairs until Baez took charge for the fourth time, on
+May 4, 1868.
+
+In accordance with established usage, the existing constitution was
+abrogated and Baez' pet constitution, that of December, 1854, placed
+in force, but with amendments. Baez then began to rule with a firm
+hand, and though occasionally bothered by small uprisings on the
+Haitian border, promoted by Cabral, Luperon and other unruly spirits,
+managed to sustain himself in power for almost his full term of six
+years. He was able to realize what had been the golden dream of
+administrations since the birth of the Republic, the contracting of a
+foreign loan. Hartmont & Co., a firm of London bankers, agreed to
+issue bonds of the Republic to the amount of £757,700, though at a
+ruinous rate, and actually paid over £38,095. The dream turned to a
+nightmare, for when the government annulled the contract on the ground
+of failure to comply with conditions, the bankers continued to issue
+bonds and kept the proceeds themselves; and the bonds thus
+fraudulently issued constituted the nucleus of the enormous debt which
+later led to American intervention.
+
+Though Baez had, for political reasons, protested against Cabral's
+negotiations with the United States, he was too sagacious a statesman
+to fail to recognize the value of American protection. It was now
+Cabral's turn to indulge in tirades full of patriotic indignation, for
+Baez actively pursued negotiations for the annexation of the country
+to the United States. On November 29, 1869, two treaties were signed
+in Santo Domingo City by representatives of the American and Dominican
+governments: by one the Samana peninsula and Samana Bay were leased to
+the United States for fifty years at an annual rental of $150,000, and
+by the other the Dominican Republic was annexed to the United States.
+Baez submitted the annexation treaty to a plebiscite in his country in
+February, 1870, and an overwhelming vote was cast in favor thereof.
+While the adversaries of the treaty did not dare to oppose it actively
+within the country, it is probable that the vote represented the true
+sentiment of the Dominican people, for aside from the evident economic
+advantages of annexation, the influence of Baez was such that the
+people were ready to follow blindly whatever he advised.  Both
+treaties lapsed, but the annexation treaty was renewed and President
+Grant in his messages to Congress strongly urged its passage. Powerful
+opposition developed in the United States Senate, led by Senator
+Sumner, and the treaty failed of ratification. By a resolution of
+Congress, approved January 12, 1871, the President of the United
+States was authorized to send a commission of inquiry to Santo
+Domingo. President Grant appointed three eminent men, Benjamin F.
+Wade, Andrew D. White and Samuel G. Howe, who were assisted by
+Frederick Douglas, Major-General Franz Sigel and a number of
+scientists. The commission proceeded to Santo Domingo, travelled
+across the country in several directions and made an extensive report,
+which is still an important source of information as to the
+characteristics of the island. The commission's report was transmitted
+to Congress, and President Grant made another earnest plea for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo. Congress took no further action, however,
+and the United States thus deliberately rejected an opportunity to
+obtain control of a most important strategical position and to secure
+peace and prosperity to the Dominican people.
+
+It is interesting to speculate on what the future of Santo Domingo
+would have been if annexation had been realized. The power of the
+United States would have maintained peace; salutary laws would have
+educated the people in self-government; liberal tariff concessions
+would have stimulated agriculture and industry; the influx of a good
+stock of immigrants would have developed and settled the interior;
+honest administration would have provided roads and schools, and soon
+the country would have attained a high degree of development and
+prosperity. The failure of the United States to extend a helping hand
+condemned Santo Domingo to long years of anarchy and dictatorships.
+
+When it became apparent that nothing would come of the annexation
+plans, the Baez administration, on December 28, 1872, rented the
+Samana peninsula to an American corporation, the "Samana Bay Company,"
+for ninety-nine years, at an annual rental of $150,000. The company,
+which intended to found a large city on Samana Bay, actually paid the
+sum of $147,229.91, the greater part in gold and the remainder in arms
+and ammunition. This payment, with that received on account of the
+Hartmont bonds, and with the higher customs receipts due to quiet
+conditions, afforded relief to the treasury; while peace brought the
+country a prosperity further increased by the immigration of numerous
+Cubans driven from their homes by the ten years' war that had begun
+in 1869.
+
+President Baez did not lose hope in the ultimate realization of
+annexation, and it was also his intention to have himself reelected
+for another term of six years. These circumstances were used against
+him by his ambitious enemies, and on November 25, 1873, a revolution
+broke out in Puerto Plata which spread so rapidly that Baez was
+obliged to capitulate on December 31 of the same year. A new
+generation, grown up since the independence of the country and which
+had come to look upon civil disorder as a normal condition, now came
+into power, and the question of foreign annexation ceased to be
+an issue.
+
+A period of constant revolutionary ferment and frequent changes of the
+constitution followed, with a wearisome succession of military
+presidents. General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez became provisional
+president in 1874, took advantage of the non-payment of an annuity by
+the Samana Bay Company to rescind the contract with the company,
+called a national assembly, which formulated the constitution of March
+24, 1874, and had himself elected president, entering upon office on
+April 6 of that year. As the constitution did not suit him, he called
+a new national convention and had another constitution promulgated on
+March 9, 1875. This was too much even for Santo Domingo, and his
+enemies formed a powerful league in Santiago with a view to having him
+impeached, but the Congress rejected the charges. Another civil war
+was imminent when Gonzalez resigned on February 23, 1876.
+
+The council of ministers took charge of the government and held an
+election at which Ulises F. Espaillat was designated president. He
+entered upon office on April 29, 1876, and as he was an excellent man
+would have given a good account of himself under different conditions;
+but General Gonzalez started a revolution on the Haitian frontier, and
+on October 5, 1876, Espaillat was ousted. A superior council of
+government was formed, which appointed General Gonzalez president in
+the beginning of November, 1876. Gonzalez had been in power for just
+one month when he was overthrown, in December, 1876, by a revolution
+that originated in the Cibao, and General Buenaventura Baez became
+president for the fifth time. The Republic thus had four presidents in
+1876: Gonzalez twice, Espaillat and Baez. Baez called a constitutional
+convention and the constitution of May 14, 1877, was promulgated.
+Under the influence of the younger element he was less autocratic than
+in his previous administrations, but perhaps for that very reason his
+whole term was one prolonged struggle with insurrections, until he was
+obliged to surrender on February 24, 1878. He retired to Porto Rico
+and died near Mayaguez in 1884.  Two governments were now
+established, General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez being proclaimed president
+in the Cibao, and General Cesareo Guillermo in Santo Domingo. An
+agreement was reached by them on April 13, 1878, and Guillermo became
+provisional president of the entire country. The constitution of 1877
+was reproclaimed with amendments, an election was held and General
+Gonzalez was declared constitutional president, entering upon office
+on July 6, 1878. Guillermo immediately started a revolution with
+General Ulises Heureaux and compelled Gonzalez to abdicate on
+September 2, 1878. It was the end of Gonzalez' meteoric presidential
+flights, but after a period of retirement he ventured into public life
+again, and for many years was Dominican minister to Haiti.
+
+Jacinto de Castro, the president of the supreme court, acted as
+president until September 29,1878, when he was succeeded by the
+council of ministers of which Guillermo was chief. The constitution of
+1878 was promulgated, with amendments, on February 11, 1879, and on
+February 28, Guillermo, after going through the form of an election,
+became constitutional president. He did not last long. On October 6,
+1879, a revolution broke out at Puerto Plata and a provisional
+government was formed under the presidency of General Gregorio
+Luperon, an intelligent negro, who had been imprisoned for larceny
+under Spanish rule, but had redeemed himself by signal services in the
+War of the Restoration. Guillermo resisted two months, but was
+compelled to surrender on December 6, 1879.
+
+Luperon did not depart from the usual custom, but called a
+constitutional assembly which, in 1880, adopted with amendments the
+constitution of 1879, and fixed the presidential term at two years.
+Luperon then held an election and gave the presidency, for the two
+years beginning September 1, 1880, to one of his supporters, Father
+Fernando de Meriño, an eloquent priest who had taken an active part in
+politics since his youth, and who later became archbishop of Santo
+Domingo. The reverend gentleman suppressed all revolutionary uprisings
+with uncompromising severity and did not hesitate to execute the
+conspirators that fell into his hands.
+
+During Meriño's administration General Ulises Heureaux served as
+minister of the interior and began to wield the power which he was to
+retain for twenty years. Heureaux was born in Puerto Plata about 1846.
+Both of his parents were negroes, his father being a Haitian who
+followed the sea and afterwards became a merchant, and his mother a
+St. Thomas woman. He received a mercantile education and took part as
+a subordinate in the War of the Restoration against the Spaniards. On
+the withdrawal of the Spaniards, in 1865, he became a bandit on the
+Haitian border and practised horse stealing on a large scale. Later he
+obtained a position in the Puerto Plata custom-house and took a more
+and more prominent part in the civil disturbances of his country,
+until he became well known as a politician and a revolutionist. He
+distinguished himself by his bravery and was many times wounded.
+Throughout these civil wars he remained a sturdy follower of General
+Luperon, the successor of Santana as leader of the "Blue" party and an
+implacable opponent of General Buenaventura Baez, the chief of the
+"Reds" and of General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, the leader of the
+"Greens." When General Luperon overthrew President Cesareo Guillermo,
+in 1879, Heureaux was closely associated with the revolutionary movement.
+
+Heureaux was able to strengthen himself to such an extent that when,
+in 1882, Luperon determined to become president himself he found that
+his former follower had outgrown him in power. The result was that
+Heureaux became president and served from September 1, 1882, to
+September 1, 1884. When his term expired a bitter struggle ensued with
+Luperon, who still retained considerable influence. Luperon's
+candidate was Segundo Imbert, while Heureaux supported General
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, who was ultimately victorious. Luperon
+went into exile, but later became reconciled with Heureaux and
+returned to die in Santo Domingo.
+
+Billini entered upon the presidency on September 1, 1884, but became
+restive under the demands of Heureaux and his friends and resigned on
+May 15, 1885. The vice-president, Alejandro Woss y Gil, succeeded to
+the chief office. His term was to have expired in September of the
+following year, but a formidable insurrection broke out in July, 1886,
+under General Casimiro N. de Moya, with the object of preventing
+Heureaux from carrying out his design of succeeding Gil. After six
+months of fighting, during which the number of fatalities was happily
+remarkably small, Heureaux was victorious, and having had himself
+re-elected, resumed the presidency on January 6, 1887, until which
+time Woss y Gil remained in office.
+
+The biennial elections were a source of annoyance even to one who was
+sure of victory, and Heureaux therefore called a constitutional
+convention which amended the constitution then in force and lengthened
+the presidential term to four years, beginning in 1889. As General
+Cesareo Guillermo, Heureaux's former companion in arms and later
+opponent, was understood to be nursing aspirations for the presidency,
+Heureaux sought to apprehend him. Guillermo fled, but finding himself
+pressed, committed suicide. No further obstacle opposed Heureaux's
+election, and he was again inaugurated on February 27, 1889.
+
+In the meantime negotiations had been undertaken for the contracting
+of new foreign loans, and one was floated in 1888 and another in 1892.
+The government's fiscal agent who secured these loans in Europe was
+General Eugenio Generoso Marchena, a man of much influence. In 1892
+General Marchena announced himself as a candidate for the presidency.
+Heureaux won without difficulty, but still uneasy, he arrested
+Marchena in Santo Domingo, imprisoned him for a year and sent him to
+Azua to be shot.
+
+During Heureaux's new term, beginning in 1893, the country by
+improvident bond issues and debt contraction, made rapid strides in
+the direction of bankruptcy. In 1893, the San Domingo Improvement
+Company, an American corporation, under contract with the government
+took charge of the customs collections for the purpose of providing
+for the services of the loans. The illegal imprisonment of several
+Frenchmen gave rise to friction with the French government and in 1894
+a French fleet appeared before Santo Domingo City, but the matter was
+adjusted by the payment of an indemnity. As the 1889 constitution
+forbade a president from holding office for more than two terms in
+succession, Heureaux, wishing to continue in the presidency, obviated
+the difficulty by the simple expedient of promulgating a new
+constitution in 1896, in which the limitation was removed. He was
+declared unanimously elected in 1896 and began his final term on
+February 27, 1897.
+
+The long period of comparative peace enjoyed by the country under the
+rule of President Ulises Heureaux, or "Lilis," as the dictator was
+popularly known, brought seeming progress and prosperity, though at a
+heavy price. Many of his opponents Heureaux was able to buy, and in
+this way he retained the loyalty of hundreds of little military chiefs
+scattered through the country. Those whom he could not buy he
+persecuted, imprisoned, exiled, or executed. While possessing pleasant
+and affable manners, he was unrelenting in his persecution of
+conspirators and many stories are told of his harshness in this
+respect. It is related that when he was minister of the interior under
+Meriño he discovered that his brother-in-law was implicated in a plot;
+he therefore invited him to dinner and after they had dined, asked how
+his guest had enjoyed the meal. "Very well," was the answer. "I am
+glad of that," said Heureaux, "for I am about to have you shot. Take a
+cigar," he added pleasantly, "it will be your last." And it was, for
+the execution followed at once. On another occasion, so the story
+goes, after he had become president, a prominent general was his guest
+and after dinner they took a stroll. Coming to a place in the suburbs
+where workmen were digging a peculiar trench, the general inquired,
+"What are they digging here?" "They are digging your grave," answered
+Heureaux, and before the general could recover from his consternation
+a squad of soldiers appeared. He was shot and buried then and there.
+The governor of Macoris and the minister of war were both powerful men
+whose influence was feared by Heureaux. He therefore cunningly wrought
+up the latter against the former to such an extent that one fine
+morning the minister suddenly appeared in Macoris and had the governor
+summarily shot. An outcry was made by the governor's friends, and
+Heureaux, affecting indignation at the act, had the minister of war
+executed. Many of his prisoners mysteriously disappeared, and popular
+rumor points out one of the lower platforms of the fort "La Fuerza,"
+where an aguacate tree formerly grew, as the place where prisoners
+were shot at night, their bodies being thrown to the sharks at the
+base of the cliff. Some of the dictator's suspects were assassinated
+in the public streets. Even exiles were not secure from his wrath and
+in one instance a Dominican writer named Eugenio Deschamps, who had
+been publishing articles against him in Porto Rico, was seriously
+wounded in the streets of Ponce by an assassin's bullet.
+
+Ability and unscrupulousness, courage and cruelty, resolution and
+cunning were mingled in the character of Heureaux. Over the country he
+exercised the powers of an absolute monarch. He was the fountain head
+of all government and the real chief of every department. The accounts
+of the government and his private accounts were treated by him as one
+and the same thing. His ambition to remain in power necessitated the
+expenditure of large sums which he obtained through improvident
+foreign loans and usurious contracts with local merchants. Those whom
+he favored grew rich; his enemies he ruined. In other ways also his
+morals swerved from the straight and narrow path, and an isolated town
+gloried in the distinction of being the only place in the Republic
+where the president did not have a mistress. He himself stated that he
+had no concern as to what history would say of him, since he would not
+be there to read it.
+
+During the latter part of Heureaux's administration the leaders of the
+opposition were recognized as Juan Isidro Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez,
+Vasquez was the chief of a large landholding family of the Cibao.
+Jimenez had been a prominent merchant, at one time carrying on
+mercantile houses in Monte Cristi, New York, Paris and Hamburg; his
+family had formerly been prominent in Dominican affairs, his father
+having been president of the Republic in 1848 and his grandfather one
+of the leading spirits of the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was
+thrown off. Jimenez was born in Santo Domingo City in 1846 and as a
+boy went to Haiti with his father, growing up in Port-au-Prince. As a
+youth he removed to Monte Cristi, where he established himself in
+business and took part in the War of the Restoration against the
+Spaniards. Having with Heureaux, he resided for a number of
+years in Cape Haitien, Haiti, and from there directed conspiracies
+against the dictator.
+
+In May, 1898, Jimenez made a bold attempt to overthrow the Heureaux
+government. He fitted out a small steamer, the "Fanita," in the United
+States and left ostensibly to aid the Cuban insurgents; and as the
+United States was then at war with Spain the expedition was not
+opposed by the American government. A landing was made at Monte Cristi
+with only twenty-five men, a general uprising being expected as soon
+as his arrival became known. Jimenez' followers took the town, but the
+governor of the district was able to escape to the country and
+returned with a large force, driving Jimenez back to his vessel with a
+loss of one-half of his companions. The "Fanita" had touched in the
+Bahamas on the way down and on returning to Inagua Island, Jimenez was
+arrested by the British authorities as a filibuster. Heureaux sent a
+man-of-war to Nassau and did all he could to have the case pressed.
+Jimenez was tried twice; at the first trial the jury did not agree,
+and the second time he was acquitted.
+
+Though popular hatred against Heureaux was strong on account of his
+tyrannical conduct and his attempts to compel the circulation of a
+large issue of inconvertible bank notes with which he flooded the
+country, the fear in which he was held prevented any general uprising.
+There were many, however, among them Horacio Vasquez, who never ceased
+conspiring against the dictator. When it became known that Heureaux
+was resolved to bring about Vasquez' death, Ramon Caceres, a cousin of
+Vasquez, and other members of the Vasquez clan, were drawn into the
+conspiracies. The father of Caceres, once vice-president under Baez,
+had been killed, it is said, by order of Heureaux. In July, 1899, when
+Heureaux prepared for a trip through the Cibao, he was informed of a
+plot to kill him on the way. When he arrived in Moca he thought that
+no danger awaited him there, as he expected that if any attack were to
+be made on him it would be at some solitary portion of the road and
+not in a town in broad daylight. When about to leave Moca on July 26,
+1899, he ordered the governor of the province to arrest Caceres and
+his companions. Caceres was informed of the order by the secretary of
+the governor, who was his friend, and knowing that the arrest would
+probably be followed by an execution, with several companions he
+repaired to a store where Heureaux was talking with the proprietor,
+the provincial treasurer. As soon as Heureaux appeared in the doorway
+Caceres began to shoot, and the other conspirators continued firing,
+although the first shot had been fatal. Heureaux before falling drew
+his revolver and returned the fire, but the darkness of death clouded
+his vision and the shots went wild, one of them, however, killing a
+beggar to whom he had a few moments before given alms. Caceres and his
+companions fled to the mountains, and the body of Heureaux was taken
+to Santiago, where it was afterwards interred in the cathedral. Juan
+Wenceslao Figuereo, vice-president of the Republic, an aged negro,
+succeeded to the presidency.
+
+The death of Heureaux precipitated a revolution headed by General
+Horacio Vasquez. President Figuereo made no resistance, but at the end
+of August resigned, together with his cabinet, first designating a
+committee of citizens to administer affairs until the arrival of
+Vasquez, who entered the capital on September 5, 1899, and became the
+head of the provisional government. Jimenez in the meantime hastened
+to the country and was everywhere received with rejoicing. The two
+leaders arranged that Jimenez should become president and Vasquez
+vice-president, and an election was held on October 20, by which this
+result was attained, the inauguration taking place November 20, 1899.
+Ramon Caceres, the slayer of Heureaux, was made governor of Santiago
+and delegate of the government in the Cibao.
+
+The Jimenez administration was the reaction of that of Heureaux. It
+deserved, more than any the Republic had had up to that time, the name
+of civil and constitutional government. The executive was not
+absolute, as in the time of Heureaux, nor were there sanguinary
+executions. Almost too little restraint was exercised, and the press,
+so long muzzled, began to convert its liberty into license. Jimenez,
+too, was so good-hearted that at times he yielded to importunities
+which had better been resisted. The financial problems left by the
+Heureaux administration caused considerable trouble and though the
+waste of the public revenues was curtailed, large sums were still
+absorbed in the payment of revolutionary claims and of pensions for
+local military chiefs.
+
+Jealousies soon ripened between Jimenez and Vasquez, who was known to
+long for the presidency and had only temporarily laid aside his
+aspirations on account of the overwhelming popularity of Jimenez. Each
+of the chiefs collected a group of friends about him and in this way
+originated the still existing political parties, Jimenistas and
+Horacistas, the respective followers of Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez.
+Several minor uprisings occurred but were suppressed by the
+government. In the beginning of 1902 the Dominican Congress, which was
+composed largely of Vasquez' friends, considered the advisability of
+impeaching President Jimenez on account of the financial transactions
+of the administration, and a vote of censure was finally passed.
+Jimenez believed Vasquez at the bottom of the agitation and endeavored
+to have the municipalities protest against the action of Congress.
+Rumors became current that Jimenez intended to imprison his
+vice-president and thus insure his own reelection. Vasquez, urged on
+by his friends, therefore started a revolution in the Cibao, and after
+a fight in San Carlos and a four days' siege of the capital entered
+Santo Domingo City on May 2, 1902, and became president of a
+provisional government. Jimenez sought refuge in the French consulate
+and embarked for Porto Rico a few days later.
+
+General Horacio Vasquez was born in Moca and was a ranchman, merchant
+and planter. He possessed military capacity and took a minor part in
+several revolutions. At first a friend of Heureaux, he afterwards
+became one of his bitterest enemies, and for a number of years lived
+as an exile in Cuba and Porto Rico, returning to Moca shortly before
+the death of Heureaux to remain in retirement on his plantation. The
+Vasquez administration had as much difficulty with financial matters
+as that of his predecessor, but the president had little opportunity
+to show what he could do. Local outbreaks began in Monte Cristi and
+became general in October, 1902. Disturbances continued until March
+24, 1903, when, during the absence of President Vasquez in the Cibao,
+the political prisoners in the fort of Santo Domingo City, through
+connivance with the general in charge, broke out, took the fort,
+liberated the convicts, threw the city into a panic with a continued
+fusillade, and proclaimed a revolution. They were for the most part
+Jimenistas and "Lilicistas," or members of the old Heureaux party, and
+their candidate for the presidency would probably have been Jimenez;
+but in Jimenez' absence the presidency was offered to Figuereo and
+others, who declined, and was finally accepted by Alejandro Woss y
+Gil, who had only the week before been liberated from the same
+political prison.
+
+General Vasquez returned with an army, arriving before Santo Domingo
+City at the end of March. The ensuing siege was one long battle,
+during which a portion of the suburban town of San Carlos was
+destroyed by fire. On April 18, 1903, Generals Alvarez and Cordero,
+the best generals of the besiegers, made a violent attack on the city
+and effected an entrance, but fighting continued in the streets and
+these leaders and most of the storming party were killed. Vasquez
+thereupon fled to Santiago, resigned his post, and left the country
+for Cuba. On the triumph of his party a year later, he returned to
+Santo Domingo and retired to his plantation in Moca.
+
+Woss y Gil, who thus became president of the provisional government,
+called a session of Congress and by appointments favorable to his
+interests so intrenched himself that his continuance as president
+became assured. Jimenez, who arrived shortly after, advanced the claim
+that he was still president de jure, since the constitutional term of
+four years for which he had been elected had not expired, and he
+denominated the Vasquez government a temporary and illegal usurpation
+of power. In his efforts to regain office he sent his friend Eugenio
+Deschamps to treat with Gil, but Deschamps, seeing Gil obdurate, made
+an agreement by which Woss y Gil was to become president and Deschamps
+vice-president, Jimenez was obliged to yield to the inevitable and
+returned to Porto Rico in the hope of eventually succeeding Woss y
+Gil. An election was held in which Woss y Gil and Deschamps were the
+only candidates and on June 20, 1903, they were inaugurated.
+
+In General Alejandro Woss y Gil the Republic had a very talented man
+as president. Born in Seibo, he had entered politics in his youth, and
+became a friend and follower of Heureaux. At times he was governor of
+a province, later for a long period Dominican consul at New York, and
+from 1885 to 1887 president of the Republic. He had received a good
+education and traveled extensively, spoke several modern languages,
+had some knowledge of the classic languages, and was a poet, musician
+and writer.
+
+Unfortunately the talents of Woss y Gil did not extend to the securing
+of an honest and efficient administration. The ministers appointed by
+him were exceedingly injudicious selections, and a carnival of fraud
+and dishonesty was soon in progress. Discontent grew general, and by
+the end of October, 1903, General Carlos F. Morales, governor of
+Puerto Plata, raised the standard of revolt and his troops marched on
+the capital. The revolution was supported by both parties, the
+Jimenistas and Horacistas, and was known as the "war of the union."
+Morales, the leader of the insurrection, had been a follower of
+Jimenez and favored the aspirations of the latter to the extent even
+of sending requests to Jimenez to come to Santo Domingo at once. The
+siege of Santo Domingo City lasted for about three weeks. On November
+24, 1903, Woss y Gil, finding himself vanquished, permitted Morales'
+troops to enter the city and sought refuge in the British consulate.
+Three days later a German man-of-war carried him to Porto Rico, and he
+later continued to Cuba, where he long resided in the city
+of Santiago.
+
+For a short time a tripartite revolution was in progress, the
+supporters of Woss y Gil, Horacio Vasquez and Jimenez fighting in
+different parts of the country. Morales, on entering Santo Domingo,
+became president of the provisional government. The new governors of
+the Cibao were Jimenistas, but most of the appointments Morales made
+in the south were Horacistas, and it began to be suspected among the
+Jimenez followers that he had designs on the presidency. When Jimenez
+arrived in Santiago he realized that his ambitions were again
+endangered and he and his friends grew restless. On December 6, 1903,
+Jimenez fled from Santiago to Monte Cristi, claiming that Morales had
+sent a troop of fifty men to assassinate him.
+
+A counter revolution followed at once and swiftly attained large
+proportions. It became the most serious unsuccessful revolution the
+Republic had seen. At one time the whole country was in the hands of
+Jimenez except Santo Domingo City and the small port of Sosua, near
+Puerto Plata. The government forces were able to retake Puerto Plata,
+but the siege of the capital continued uninterruptedly from December
+to February. Attacks and sallies were frequent, every house along the
+walls and in the suburbs soon showed bullet marks and the town of San
+Carlos was again partially destroyed by fire. Finally Morales defeated
+the besiegers,  and in March, Macoris was taken by the government
+forces and the backbone of the revolution was broken. The insurrection
+had spent itself on account of lack of supplies and efficient leaders.
+Jimenez, financially ruined by his attempts to reestablish himself in
+power, again withdrew to Porto Rico. The government forces were unable
+to retake the Monte Cristi district, but an agreement was reached by
+which the Jimenista authorities remained in full control and the
+district became practically independent.
+
+An election was held, as a result of which Carlos F. Morales became
+president and Ramon Caceres vice-president, and they were inaugurated
+on June 19, 1904. The new president, Morales, was an unusually clever
+man, although his conduct sometimes betrayed that he came from a
+family in which there had been mental derangement. He was born in
+Puerto Plata, studied for the priesthood, took orders, and held the
+office of parish priest in various places in the Cibao. After the
+death of a brother who participated in Jimenez' ill-fated "Fanita"
+expedition and was killed in the attack on Monte Cristi, Morales took
+an interest in public affairs and during the administration of Jimenez
+became a member of Congress. At this time he laid aside his religious
+habit, married, and devoted himself exclusively to politics. During
+the Vasquez administration he was an exile in Cuba, but on the
+ascendancy of Woss y Gil he was made governor of Puerto Plata, and in
+this capacity initiated the revolt against the Gil government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--AMERICAN INFLUENCE.--1904 TO DATE (1918)
+
+
+Financial difficulties.--Fiscal convention with the United
+States.--Caceres' administration.-Provisional presidents.--Civil
+disturbances.--Jimenez' second administration.--American intervention.
+
+
+The enormous foreign and internal debt left by the Heureaux
+administration had been constantly increased by ruinous loans to which
+the succeeding governments were obliged to resort during the years of
+civil warfare, until the country was in a condition of hopeless
+bankruptcy. In the beginning of 1904 every item of the debt had been
+in default for months.
+
+Under pressure from foreign governments, the principal debt items due
+foreign citizens had been recognized in international protocols and
+the income from each of the more important custom-houses was
+specifically pledged for their payment, but in no case was payment
+made. One of these protocols, signed with the American chargé
+d'affaires, liquidated the government's accounts with the San Domingo
+Improvement Company, which had been turned out from the administration
+of custom-houses by President Jimenez, and provided for a board of
+arbitration to settle the manner of payment. The arbitrators
+determined the instalments payable and specified the custom-house of
+Puerto Plata and certain others as security, which were to be turned
+over to an American agent in case of failure to pay. No payment being
+made, the American agent demanded compliance with the arbitral award
+and on October 20, 1904, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+The other foreign creditors, principally French, Belgian, and Italian,
+naturally began to clamor for the payment of their credits and for the
+delivery of the custom-houses pledged to them. To have done so would
+have meant absolute ruin, as the government would have been entirely
+deprived of means of subsistence. In face of the imminent likelihood
+of foreign intervention the Dominican government applied to the United
+States for assistance, and in February, 1905, the protocol of an
+agreement between the Dominican Republic and the United States was
+approved, providing for the collection of Dominican customs revenues
+under the direction of the United States, and the segregation of a
+specified portion toward the ultimate payment of the debt. The treaty
+was submitted to the United States Senate, but that body adjourned in
+March, 1905, without final action. The creditors again became
+importunate and an interim modus vivendi was therefore arranged, under
+which the Dominican customs were to be collected by a receiver
+designated by the President of the United States, and the proportion
+mentioned in the pending treaty was reserved as a creditors' fund. The
+temporary arrangement went into effect on April 1, 1905, and the
+effect was immediately apparent. Confidence was restored, the customs
+receipts rose to higher figures than ever before, and the prospects of
+peace became brighter as revolutionists could no longer count on
+captured customhouses to replenish their exchequer.
+
+The position of President Morales was a difficult one. He was an
+ex-Jimenista at the head of an Horacista government, and there was no
+sympathy between him and his council. The Horacistas distrusted him
+and forced him to dismiss his friends from the cabinet and to make
+distasteful appointments. Seeing that he was being reduced to a
+figurehead, Morales secretly tried to form a party for himself or make
+arrangements with the Jimenistas who for months had been conspiring
+and threatening to rise. The friction became more severe until
+Morales, fearing that both his office and his life were in danger, on
+the day before Christmas, 1905, fled from the capital, while the
+Jimenistas rose in Monte Cristi and marched down to attack Santiago
+and Puerto Plata.
+
+It was the anomalous spectacle of a president leading an insurrection
+against his own government. Fortune was against the insurgents from
+the beginning. Morales, while trying to scale a rocky wall near the
+Jaina River, in the neighborhood of the capital, fell and sprained his
+leg, so that he was unable to proceed further but was obliged to
+remain in hiding in the woods, suffering much pain. In the Cibao,
+important dispatches of the revolutionists were captured by the
+government forces, which were thus enabled to make surprise attacks.
+The insurgents attacked Puerto Plata under their best general,
+Demetrio Rodriguez, an intelligent mulatto, and would probably have
+taken the town, had not Rodriguez received a bullet in the temple,
+whereupon his men became panic-stricken and dispersed. Morales saw
+that all was lost and returned to the capital, where he went to the
+American legation for protection. On the following morning, January
+12, 1906, with his foot bandaged and tears rolling down his cheeks, he
+wrote out his resignation. He was immediately conveyed to Porto Rico
+on an American cruiser. The triumph of the government was complete,
+its troops overran Monte Cristi, and an Horacista was made governor of
+the district. Morales fixed his residence in the island of St. Thomas
+and later in France. He continually conspired for a return to the
+presidency, and was once tried for filibustering in Porto Rico, but
+acquitted. A friendly administration made him Dominican minister in
+Paris, where he died in 1914.
+
+Upon the resignation of Morales the vice-president, General Ramon
+Caceres, assumed the presidency. Caceres was born in Moca on December
+15, 1867, and was a prominent cacao-planter. It was he who killed
+Heureaux in 1899, after which he entered public life, being governor
+of Santiago and delegate of the government in the Cibao during the
+administrations of Jimenez and Vasquez, an exile in Cuba during the
+administration of Woss y Gil, and vice-president and governmental
+delegate during the administration of Morales. He had the appearance
+of an honest country squire, large of body and great of heart.
+
+During the years 1906 and 1907 special attention was given to the
+settlement of the debts of the republic. A new bond issue of
+$20,000,000 was made for the purpose of converting the old debts, and
+an arrangement was effected with the principal creditors, by which the
+amounts due were reduced by about one-half. Instead of the still
+pending convention of February, 1905, with the United States, a new
+fiscal treaty was agreed upon, and approved by the United States
+Senate and the Dominican Congress, taking effect on August 1, 1907. In
+similarity with the provisions of the modus vivendi, the customs
+income of the Republic is collected by a General Receiver of Dominican
+Customs, appointed by the President of the United States, and a
+portion of the income is set aside by him for the service of the loan.
+
+For years the various governments had been planning to revise the
+constitution of 1896, Vasquez even calling a constitutional
+convention; but the political kaleidoscope turned before such
+intentions could be realized. Conditions becoming sufficiently stable,
+a new constitution was promulgated on September 9, 1907. It was found
+unsatisfactory and a constitutional convention met in Santiago and on
+February 22, 1908, promulgated the present constitution, by which the
+presidential term was lengthened to six years and the office of
+vice-president abolished. An election was held and General Ramon
+Caceres was chosen president, entering upon his new term on July
+1, 1908.
+
+As a result of the Dominican-American fiscal arrangement the old debt
+was practically all canceled, burdensome concessions were redeemed,
+and a large portion of the surplus from the new bond issue was set
+aside for public works, of which several were undertaken. A few
+uprisings by dissatisfied chiefs remained local and unsuccessful. A
+border clash with Haiti, which in January, 1911, caused the dispatch
+of troops to the frontier, was settled by diplomacy. The hope of
+continued peaceful conditions gave a new impulse to agriculture,
+industry and commerce, and the exports and imports increased year
+by year.
+
+At a time when the future seemed brightest, the Republic was suddenly
+startled by the news of the assassination of President Caceres on
+Sunday afternoon, November 19, 1911. The president, with a single
+companion, was returning from a drive along the new road to San
+Geronimo. At Guibia, a suburb of the capital, a number of conspirators
+rushed for the carriage, seized the reins of the horse and began to
+shoot. The president's companion fled, but Caceres, a fearless man and
+an excellent shot, returned the fire. Almost simultaneously a bullet
+shattered his right wrist. The coachman lashed the horse in an
+attempt to escape, but the horse reared and threw the carriage against
+a hedge. The coachman then dragged Caceres from the carriage and
+assisted him to the stable of a house on the roadside, adjoining the
+American legation, but the conspirators meantime continued to fire
+furiously and several shots struck the president. Seeing their object
+accomplished, the assassins withdrew, and the president, mortally
+wounded, was carried to the American legation, where he expired a few
+minutes later.
+
+The conspirators were a handful of malcontents led by General Luis
+Tejera, a young man of prominent family, at one time governor of the
+capital under Caceres, but lately estranged. Caceres had known of
+Tejera's seditious sentiments but refused to take them seriously.
+Immediately after the shooting, the conspirators hastened away in a
+waiting automobile, carrying with them their leader Tejera, who had
+been wounded in the leg during the affray. At the Jaina ferry the
+automobile was accidentally precipitated into the river, and the
+wounded man was fished out half drowned. The other conspirators left
+him in a hut by the road and escaped. Tejera was found by the
+pursuers, taken to the fort in Santo Domingo City, and summarily
+executed.
+
+The commandant of arms of the capital, General Alfredo M. Victoria,
+who controlled the military forces, permitted his own ambitions to
+influence him more than the welfare of his country. Being only
+twenty-six years old, he was not of the constitutional age to be
+president, but listening to the counsel of scheming politicians, he
+dominated the situation by force of arms and brought about the
+selection of his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as provisional president. The
+latter was a senator from Santiago province, and had at one time been
+a member of Caceres' cabinet, but he was not regarded as of
+presidential calibre and his selection provoked general surprise and
+indignation. General Victoria's army was a potent argument; it
+withered the ambition of other aspirants to the presidency, and
+Senator Victoria was elected provisional president and entered upon
+office December 6, 1911. In the following February the usual form of
+public election was gone through and on February 27, 1912, he took the
+oath of office as constitutional president. His nephew occupied
+important cabinet positions under the new administration.
+
+The general opposition to President Victoria and to the method of
+electing him found expression in revolutionary uprisings throughout
+the country, especially in the Cibao and Azua. Ex-President Vasquez,
+ex-President Morales and several Jimenista generals took the field
+independently. Morales was captured, but the others continued the
+fight. Beginning early in December, 1911, the war dragged on for
+months, both sides sustaining heavy losses and extensive sections of
+the country being devastated.
+
+It became apparent that there was a deadlock, the government being
+powerless to subdue the revolutionists, while the revolutionists were
+unable to carry on an active campaign against the government. The
+American government eventually extended its good offices with a view
+to the reestablishment of peace and order. A special commission
+appointed by the President of the United States and consisting of an
+official of the War Department and another of the State Department
+arrived in Santo Domingo in October, 1912, and initiated a series of
+conferences with government and revolutionary leaders. An agreement
+was concluded and in accordance therewith the Dominican Congress
+assembled on November 26, 1912, accepted the resignation of President
+Victoria, and elected the archbishop of Santo Domingo, Monsignor
+Adolfo A. Nouel, as provisional president for a period of two years.
+He was inducted into office on December 1, 1912.
+
+Archbishop Nouel, a man of great learning, beloved and respected
+throughout the country, entered upon his duties with the announced
+purpose of giving an impartial administration and governing with both
+parties. The difficulties of the plan were soon impressed upon him,
+particularly as he relied entirely upon moral suasion to carry his
+policies into effect. Pressure was applied for favors which he could
+not grant, his appointments were bitterly criticised as savoring of
+nepotism or as unduly favoring one side or the other, and some of the
+fiercer military chiefs assumed a menacing attitude. Sick and
+disgusted, Monsignor Nouel resigned the presidential office on March
+31, 1913, and embarked for Europe.
+
+The Dominican Congress immediately considered the choice of a
+temporary successor and after many ballots elected a compromise
+candidate, General José Bordas Valdez, an Horacista senator from Monte
+Cristi, as provisional president for a period of one year. He assumed
+office April 14, 1913. His designation did not please the Jimenistas,
+and the Horacistas also became hostile when it appeared that President
+Bordas contemplated forming a party of his own. His opponents promptly
+rose in the Cibao and took possession of the ports of Puerto Plata,
+Sanchez and Samana, which were thereupon blockaded by the government
+forces. In the latter part of September, 1913, the revolutionists laid
+down their arms on the promise of the American minister that free
+elections for presidential electors and members of a constitutional
+convention would be guaranteed. A municipal election was in fact
+held, but President Bordas, alleging that conditions were too
+unsettled for a general presidential election, held on as president de
+facto beyond the term for which he had been provisionally elected. On
+the day his term ended, April 13, 1914, another revolution broke out
+and rapidly spread to all parts of the Republic. Puerto Plata was
+occupied by the insurgents and blockaded for several months by
+government vessels, the blockade being accompanied by a siege of the
+city under the direction of the president himself. On the other hand,
+the insurgents laid siege to the capital. The government contracted
+heavy debts to carry on the war and the commerce of the country
+suffered greatly.
+
+Again the American government lent its good offices for the
+restoration of order. In August, 1914, a commission of three delegates
+of the United States arrived in Santo Domingo to present a plan for
+the resignation of Bordas, the selection of a provisional president by
+the chiefs of the several political parties, a revision of the
+election law, and the holding of general elections. The plan was
+agreed to, President Bordas resigned, and Dr. Ramon Baez, a son of
+former President Buenaventura Baez, was elected by the Dominican
+Congress as provisional president on August 27, 1914.
+
+Popular elections were held in October, at which there were four
+candidates: ex-President Juan Isidro Jimenez, ex-President Horacio
+Vasquez, ex-Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez, and a fourth of
+little consequence. The Jimenez and Velazquez forces effected a
+combination, as a result of which Juan Isidro Jimenez was elected
+president a second time, and took the oath of office on December
+5, 1914.
+
+For a moment it seemed as though the country was at last entering upon
+an era of peace and prosperity. The government made efforts to solve
+the financial problems left by the recent civil wars and to resume
+public improvements. Investments of foreign capital increased, and
+agriculture and commerce expanded.
+
+The elements of disorganization were present, however, in as strong a
+degree as ever. Corruption was general in the administration of the
+public funds, but attempts at reform had no result further than to
+stimulate violent opposition. The old leaven of sedition was at work,
+and disgruntled military chiefs found a willing leader in the minister
+of war, General Desiderio Arias, a chronic revolutionist from Monte
+Cristi, who had for years used the popularity of Jimenez as a cloak
+for his own aspirations. The president, aged and infirm, was unable to
+meet the situation with energy, and disinclined to adopt
+severe measures.
+
+In the early part of 1916 Arias had his friends in Congress vote to
+impeach President Jimenez for alleged frauds. The matter was still
+under discussion, and the president was ill at his country place on
+the San Cristobal road, near Santo Domingo City, when in April, 1916,
+General Arias suddenly seized the military control of the capital and
+issued a proclamation by which he practically deposed Jimenez and
+assumed the executive power himself.
+
+Another civil war was imminent when deliverance came in an unexpected
+manner. For many years past in previous disturbances, one or both of
+the warring factions had looked to the United States government for
+help in restoring order, and diplomatic assistance had time after time
+put an end to strife. The endless succession of revolts had at length
+exhausted the patience of the American government. In the face of
+another general war with its attendant destruction of life and
+property, harm to American and other foreign interests, and danger of
+international complications (a British and a French man-of-war were
+already solicitously hovering off the capital), the American
+government took decisive action. With the consent of President
+Jimenez, it landed marines at old San Geronimo castle, on the Guibia
+road, near Santo Domingo City.
+
+Though Jimenez approved of this action and recognized that his country
+could not emerge from the slough of revolution without American
+assistance, he was depressed at the condition of affairs, and in view
+of his physical feebleness felt himself unequal to the task of guiding
+the country through impending difficulties. He therefore on May 6,
+1916, resigned the presidency of the Republic, and subsequently
+returned to Porto Rico to live. The council of ministers temporarily
+assumed the administration.
+
+Arias, dismayed at the action of the United States, made protest, but
+the American government refused to admit the legality or sincerity of
+his conduct. Its troops advanced on Santo Domingo City and
+Rear-Admiral Caperton, the American commander, gave Arias twenty-four
+hours to evacuate. He promptly obeyed, and on May 15 the Americans
+occupied the city.
+
+American troops continued to be landed, at Puerto Plata on June 5; at
+Monte Cristi on June 19; and at other seaports as necessity demanded,
+until a total of about 1800 marines had been disembarked. They
+proceeded into the interior, taking over the preservation of public
+order and disarming the inhabitants. They advanced on foot, in
+improvised motor trucks, and as real "horse marines," in accordance
+with a plan to secure thorough pacification by having them appear in
+all parts of the country.  The American marines met with no serious
+opposition except in the Cibao, in the section between Monte Cristi,
+Puerto Plata and Santiago, where the following of Arias was strongest.
+To clear this section two columns were launched from the seacoast with
+Santiago as the objective, the first of 800 men from Monte Cristi, the
+second of about 200 men from Puerto Plata, the entire force being
+under command of Brigadier-General Joseph H. Pendleton. The
+expeditionary force from Monte Cristi, under Colonel Dunlop, advanced
+along the highway, which was little more than a muddy trail through a
+jungle of cactus and thorny brush, and several Americans were shot
+from ambush. Repeatedly small detachments of rebels made a stand upon
+some favorable piece of ground, until routed by the marines. The
+decisive encounter took place on July 1, 1916, at Guayacanes, near
+Esperanza, where a force of 400 marines after a stubborn fight carried
+a strongly entrenched position defended by about 300 rebels. The
+American losses were 1 enlisted man killed and 1 officer and 7
+enlisted men wounded; the rebels are estimated to have lost several
+score between killed and wounded, their leader, Maximito Cabral, being
+killed fighting in the trenches after all his men were dead or
+driven off.
+
+The second column, from Puerto Plata, under Major Bearss, opened up
+the railroad, encountering its principal resistance at the tunnel
+south of Altamira. The two columns joined forces at Navarrete and then
+occupied Santiago. All the insurgents eventually dispersed or
+surrendered, and Arias himself submitted to the American military
+control, which became absolute throughout the country. The total
+American losses in occupying the country were 3 officers killed and 3
+wounded and 4 enlisted men killed and 12 wounded; the losses of the
+insurgents are estimated at between 100 and 300 killed and wounded.
+
+The Dominican Congress proceeded on July 25, 1916, to elect a
+temporary president, and chose Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, a
+distinguished physician and highly cultured man. It was understood
+that he was to hold for six months and was not to seek reelection at
+the general election to be held within that time. The United States
+government, however, was loath to extend recognition unless assured
+that Santo Domingo would enter upon a path of order and progress. The
+fiscal treaty of 1907 had not secured the peace expected of it; the
+prohibition against the contracting of further indebtedness had been
+frequently violated; disorder and corruption had continued; and the
+American government deemed its task uncompleted if it should surrender
+the country to the same chaotic conditions. It accordingly required,
+as a condition of recognizing Henriquez, that a new treaty between the
+two countries be adopted, similar to the recently approved treaty
+between the United States and Haiti, where a series of revolutions
+culminating in a massacre of prisoners had the year before obliged the
+American government to intervene. The principal features of this
+treaty were the collection of customs under American auspices, the
+appointment of an American financial adviser, and the establishment of
+a constabulary force officered by Americans.
+
+Henriquez, jealous of his country's sovereignty and fearful that the
+proposed arrangement would make the Dominican government a puppet
+controlled by all-powerful and not sufficiently responsible American
+officials, refused to accede to the American demands. The American
+authorities thereupon declined to pay over any of the Republic's
+revenues to a government which they did not recognize. Inasmuch as
+they not only collected the customs and port dues, but had assumed
+control of the other revenues as well, the Henriquez government was
+left penniless. Nevertheless, the American demands continued to be
+rejected. As a result, no salaries were paid in any part of the
+Republic; the officials who continued in their duties did so with the
+hope of being compensated at some future date; some services, such as
+the mail service, were discontinued almost entirely; and the whole
+machinery of the government was paralyzed.
+
+This tension and anomalous condition lasted for several months. As the
+term for which Henriquez had been elected drew to a close, it became
+evident that he had no idea of retiring from the presidency, but, on
+the contrary, intended to hold general elections, in which he expected
+to be the successful candidate. The deadlock thus threatened to
+continue indefinitely, and the American government thereupon
+determined to cut the Gordian knot.
+
+On November 29, 1916, Captain (later Rear-Admiral) H. S. Knapp, of the
+United States navy, commander of the American cruiser force in
+Dominican waters, and of the forces of occupation of the Dominican
+Republic, issued a proclamation, declaring the Dominican Republic
+under the military administration of the United States. The
+proclamation recited that the Dominican Republic had failed to live up
+to the terms of the treaty of 1907; that the American government had
+patiently endeavored to aid the Dominican government, but that the
+latter was not inclined or able to adopt the measures suggested,
+wherefore the American government believed the time at hand to take
+steps to assure the execution of said Convention and to maintain
+domestic tranquillity in the Republic. He therefore declared that the
+Dominican Republic was placed in a state of military occupation by the
+forces under his command; that the object of the occupation was not to
+destroy Dominican sovereignty, but to restore order; that Dominican
+laws were to continue in effect so far as they did not conflict with
+the objects of the occupation or the decrees of the military
+government; that the Dominican courts were to continue in their
+functions, except that offenses against the military government were
+to be judged by military courts; and that all the revenues of the
+Dominican government were to be paid over to the military government,
+which would administer the same. He called on all inhabitants to
+cooperate with the forces of the United States.
+
+The military government so established took full possession of the
+country. The chiefs of the executive departments not having appeared
+in their offices, their posts were declared vacant and filled with
+officers of the American navy. In the country at large, there was
+little open opposition, and such as appeared was suppressed without
+difficulty. The inhabitants quickly reconciled themselves to the
+situation, realizing that it was to the best interests of their
+country. Dr. Henriquez, the ex-president, left for Cuba in the early
+part of December.
+
+The military government thereupon proceeded to organize the finances,
+to pay arrears of salaries, to subdue several bandits who refused
+allegiance, and to confiscate all arms. Absolute order and security,
+greater than have prevailed in Santo Domingo since colonial days, were
+soon established. The military government then devoted itself to the
+construction of public works, especially roads, the organization of a
+police force, and in general to the improvement of the country.
+
+ After the Washington government determined to participate in the
+European war, the American military governor on April 12, 1917,
+connected Santo Domingo with the war by canceling the exequaturs of
+the German consular representatives in the Dominican Republic; there
+was no formal rupture, as no diplomatic representative of either
+country was at the time residing in the other. German residents were
+subjected to surveillance by the American authorities.
+
+The Dominican Republic is still (January, 1918) being administered by
+American naval officers and the work of reorganization continues.
+Eventually--in all likelihood after the European war--the government
+is to be turned back to the Dominican people, and it is probable that
+such devolution will be under conditions that will assure a stable
+government, peace and progress.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+AREA AND BOUNDARIES
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo.--Boundary
+disputes.--Harbors on north coast.--Character of shore.--Samana
+Bay.--Character of east and south coast.--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+Domingo.--Ocoa Bay.--Islands.--Haitian frontier.
+
+
+Of the great chain of islands which extends in a vast semi-circle from
+the southern coast of Florida to the northeastern coast of Venezuela,
+the second largest is the Island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, situated
+midway between Cuba and Porto Rico, and lying between latitude
+17°36'40" and 19°58'20" north and longitude 68°18' and 74°51' west of
+Greenwich. The island is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north,
+the Mona Channel on the east, the Caribbean Sea on the south, and the
+Windward Passage on the west. The nearest point of Porto Rico is 54
+miles distant, of Cuba 50 miles, of Jamaica 90 miles and of Venezuela,
+the nearest country on the South American continent, 480 miles. The
+distance from Puerto Plata, on the north coast of the island, to New
+York is 1255 miles, to Havana 710 miles, and to Southampton 3925
+miles. The distance from Santo Domingo City to San Juan, Porto Rico,
+is 230 miles, to La Guayra 500 miles, and to Colon 810 miles.
+
+The island is divided between two political entities, the western one,
+comprising one-third of its surface, being the Republic of Haiti,
+while the eastern one is popularly known as Santo Domingo or San
+Domingo, though it is officially termed the Dominican Republic. These
+two republics present at once interesting resemblances and contrasts.
+They are separated by no natural bounds; their soil, resources, and
+political conditions are similar; but while in Haiti the language and
+historical associations are French and the numerically predominant
+race stock is black, in Santo Domingo, on the other hand, the language
+and historical associations are Spanish, and the mulatto rather than
+the black is most in evidence.
+
+The area of the island is generally stated at 28,249 square miles, of
+which Haiti is credited with 10,204 square miles and the Dominican
+Republic with 18,045 square miles. Since no part of the island has
+ever been carefully surveyed, such figures can be regarded as only
+approximately correct. The Dominican Republic is therefore about as
+large as the States of New Hampshire and Vermont together, less than
+half as large as Cuba and more than five times the size of Porto Rico.
+
+In the above estimate of the area of the two Republics no account is
+taken of their reciprocal claims to further lands. Each claims about
+1500 square miles occupied by the other. The Dominicans affirm they
+have a right to the plain of Hinche and St. Raphael, comprising some
+of the finest agricultural lands on the island. They contend that
+Haiti is entitled only to the territory embraced in the confines of
+the old French colony of Saint-Domingue. Under the treaty of Aranjuez,
+of June 3, 1777, the boundaries of the French and Spanish colonies on
+the Island of Santo Domingo were carefully defined and marked by
+monuments. In 1795 the Spanish colony was ceded to France; but when in
+1804 the Haitians declared the independence of the island, they were
+able to control little more than the old French portion, most of the
+old Spanish portion remaining in the possession of France. The
+boundary line remained unchanged when the old Spanish portion again
+came under the rule of Spain in 1809. In 1822 Haitian rule was
+extended over the entire island, but in 1844, when the inhabitants of
+the eastern portion proclaimed their independence their declaration
+comprised the whole of the old Spanish part of the island. The Haitian
+government made strenuous efforts to reconquer the revolting
+provinces, with the final result that it was able to retain and still
+retains 1500 square miles more than belonged to the former French
+colony. This is the portion still claimed by Santo Domingo.
+
+On the other hand, the Haitians, based on alleged boundary conditions
+and tentative arrangements in 1856 and 1874, claim a strip of land now
+occupied by Santo Domingo lying along the border and also aggregating
+about 1500 square miles. Maps published in Haiti always show the
+boundary line from five to forty miles further east than it is
+in reality.
+
+Arbitration has repeatedly been suggested to determine the boundary,
+and efforts were made in 1895 to submit the question to the Pope and
+in 1911 to resort to The Hague, but without success.
+
+The Haitians have not only peopled and carefully guarded the territory
+controlled by them, but have attempted to push the frontier further
+east toward the line they claim. In 1911 and a year later, alleged
+encroachments by Haiti almost led to war between the two countries.
+The United States interposed its good offices and in 1912 suggested as
+provisional boundary, until otherwise determined by mutual agreement
+between the two countries, the line which was observed as boundary in
+1905 when the American receiver general of customs took charge of the
+frontier custom-houses. Both countries agreeing, the line as suggested
+has since been regarded as the boundary and bids fair to become, with
+perhaps a few unimportant modifications, the permanent boundary
+between Haiti and Santo Domingo. The outlook for arbitration seems to
+be no better now than heretofore, nor is it probable that any court of
+arbitration would divest either Haiti or Santo Domingo of any
+considerable portion of the lands they have so long possessed.
+
+The boundary disputes have not tended to improve the relations between
+the two countries, which formerly regarded each other with a hatred
+that has only in the past fifty years softened down to mutual distrust
+and dislike. It has frequently happened that the authorities of one
+country abetted insurrections in the other; and it was common practice
+for insurgents in either country to retreat across the border to
+recuperate in the other. In the Dominican revolutions of 1912 to 1914
+several bands of revolutionists had permanent headquarters on the
+Haitian side.
+
+The greatest breadth of the Dominican Republic, from the Morro of
+Monte Cristi to Cape Beata, is about 170 miles, the greatest length,
+from Cape Engaño to the Haitian frontier, about 260 miles. The
+Republic has a coast line of about 940 miles, on which there are
+several good ports and large bays.
+
+One of these is Manzanillo Bay, which lies at the extreme northwestern
+point of the Republic. Large and well protected, affording excellent
+anchorage for any class of vessels, it is one of the best harbors and
+perhaps the most important point strategically, on the north coast of
+the island. It receives the waters of the Dajabon or Massacre River,
+which constitutes part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican
+Republic, and of the turbulent Yaque del Norte, which here forms a
+delta of considerable extent. Owing to the proximity of Monte Cristi
+the various projects for the establishment of a port and custom-house
+at this point have hitherto failed of realization.
+
+Fifteen miles to the northeast of Manzanillo Bay is the ancient port
+of Monte Cristi, discovered by Columbus, in his vessel the Niña, on
+his first voyage. The great explorer landed here to examine the plain
+near the shore, and departed at dawn on January 6, 1493. The port of
+Monte Cristi is a large open bay with a fine roadstead, but the
+shallow water near the shore obliges vessels to anchor over a mile
+from land. On the eastern side the harbor is sheltered by a high
+promontory now known as El Morro, to which Columbus gave the name of
+Monte Cristi, after a remarkable profile, recalling the pictures of
+Christ, which is visible in the outlines of the mount to vessels
+entering the harbor. The isolated, treeless mountain under the usually
+cloudless sky of beautiful blue strongly recalls the buttes of our
+Western plains.
+
+The range of mountains known as the Monte Cristi Range, forms a
+background for the entire northern coast of the Republic. From Monte
+Cristi for fifty miles east, to the bay of Isabela, the shore is bleak
+and barren, formed of rocks and cliffs with short intervals of sandy
+beach. Isabela Bay is where the first Spanish settlement in America
+was laid out by Columbus in 1493. Little remains to mark the site, but
+the white palm-fringed strand gleams in the sunlight and is caressed
+by the blue waters just as in Columbus' day. The harbor at the mouth
+of a stream flowing down from the mountains is small and shallow, but
+it is occasionally visited by coastwise vessels in search of cargoes
+of mahogany and other woods from the nearby hills.
+
+Thirty miles east of Isabela lies Puerto Plata. The intervening coast
+possesses a few small ports of little importance, but sometimes
+visited by coasting schooners. The most important one is Blanco,
+which during the War of the Restoration with the Spaniards was the
+insurgents' port of entry and the base of considerable illicit trade
+with Turks Island. The harbor of Puerto Plata, the most important city
+on the north coast, is formed by a small bay, enclosed on the sea side
+by a reef of coral rock. There is plenty of depth within, but little
+room, and only three or four large steamers can with safety anchor
+here at the same time. The harbor is well protected except on the
+north. During gales from that direction it becomes exceedingly
+uncomfortable, and the narrow entrance channel quite dangerous.
+Portions of wrecks rising above the foaming water of the reef--the
+broken bow of one vessel and ship's engine of another--bear witness to
+the perils lurking there at such times. Near the shore the harbor is
+shallow, and though there is little tide, the water recedes some
+distance. To avoid the difficulty there is a long pier for the use of
+small boats and it is no longer necessary, as of yore, for passengers
+to be carried ashore from boats in the arms of the boatmen. A fine
+public dock for large vessels is also nearing completion.
+
+A broad and fertile coast plain extends from Puerto Plata some
+twenty-five miles to the small port of La Goleta. On this plain about
+twelve miles from Puerto Plata, lies the port of Sosua. La Goleta is a
+distributing point for the lumber cut in this district. A considerable
+portion thereof proceeds from the headwaters of the nearby river
+Yásica, being floated down the river and then along the ocean shore.
+From the Yásica River, the mouth of which is about 100 feet wide, an
+uneven rocky stretch of coast extends in a southeasterly direction to
+Cape Frances Viejo, where there is a new lighthouse. Numerous brooks
+traverse this region and leap down to the sea from the rocks, in
+beautiful cascades often twenty and thirty feet in height. Near Cape
+Frances lies the small town formerly called Tres Amarras and now
+Cabrera. The Monte Cristi Range terminates here, its foothills forming
+the promontories of Cape Frances and Point Sabaneta. Travel along this
+rugged part of the coast is difficult; in order to avoid the
+troublesome gullies of the shore, the trail often runs far inland
+through dense jungle. The rocks are of a conglomerate formation, and
+are worn by the waves into the most fantastic shapes. From the
+appearance of the cliffs it seems that at remote periods two distinct
+upheavals of the land took place, the first of which formed the peaks
+which rise about twelve miles in the interior, the second and more
+recent one giving origin to the great rocks along the coast. The
+precipices in the interior, which in ages past were washed by the sea,
+rise to a sheer height of from two hundred to four hundred feet and
+are crowned with trees. The rocky masses in the coast forests are full
+of clefts and caverns which furnish habitation to millions of bees.
+
+The shore now curves southward and becomes low and sandy. There are
+low coast plains covered with trees, especially groves of palm trees,
+which extend far into the interior. Four rivers are crossed, which
+carry comparatively little water, and the mouths of which are
+obstructed by sand bars caused by the prevailing north and east winds.
+As a result of these bars the streams flood the country and form large
+stagnant lakes, that have effectively prevented a settlement of the
+region. Some seven miles before reaching the mouth of the Gran Estero
+there is a little town called Matanzas, a kind of headquarters for
+turtle fishermen and which, though the entrance to its bay is almost
+closed by a sand bank, is often visited by coasting schooners that
+call for cacao from nearby plantations.  What is called the Gran
+Estero is a network of bayous and channels, some upon the surface,
+others subterranean, which extends from the Yuna River to the ocean
+and traverses the marshy plain forming the neck of the Samana
+peninsula. It is apparent that the Yuna River centuries ago emptied
+into the ocean and that what is to-day the Samana peninsula was once
+an island separated by a broad channel from the mainland, to which it
+became united by the gradual rise of the land and by the alluvium
+deposited by the river. The great swamp so formed is in one place as
+much as 18 miles wide, and is covered with stunted mangrove trees and
+rank weeds and bushes. The decaying vegetation gives the water of the
+bayous and stagnant ponds a dirty coffee color and taints the air with
+malarial miasma. The opening of channels and draining of the swamp
+would remedy the defects, at the same time providing important means
+of communication and reclaiming large tracts of the richest
+agricultural land.
+
+From Matanzas the coast extends due east, closely following the
+mountain range which beginning near Port Jackson forms the backbone of
+the Samana peninsula. Spurs of the mountains rise precipitously from
+the sea which foams at their rocky base, and from the summits to the
+water's edge the country is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The few
+rocky coves along the shore were a favorite resort for buccaneers in
+days gone by. One of them is Port Jackson; the entrance is rendered
+dangerous by a coral reef, but once within, the deep waters are always
+tranquil and offer good shelter to the little craft of the turtle
+fishermen. Though the waters of this region are said to teem with the
+finest fish but little attention is paid to fishing. Another cove,
+difficult of access because of the jagged rocks near the entrance, is
+Port Escondido, or Hidden Port, near the most conspicuous feature of
+this coast, the lofty promontory of Cape Cabron, or Cabo del
+Enamorado, Lover's Cape. The easternmost point of the peninsula is the
+rugged double-terraced headland of Cape Samana, reckoned as the
+beginning of Samana Bay, though strictly speaking the Bay begins at
+the majestic cliff known as Balandra Point.
+
+This magnificent bay, one of the great harbors of the world and the
+finest by far of the West Indies, has ever excited the admiration of
+travelers. Securely sheltered against storms, of an extent sufficient
+to accommodate the navies of the world, easily fortified and defended,
+occupying a highly important strategical position, its advantages
+cannot be overestimated. Samana Bay, a submerged extension of the
+great valley of the Yuna River, is thirty-five miles in length and
+from ten to fifteen miles in width. Looking up the Bay from the
+entrance no land is descried on the horizon. Columbus, when he first
+entered, believed he was on an ocean channel dividing two islands. The
+north coast is protected by the low mountain-range of the Samana
+peninsula, in places resembling the Palisades on the Hudson, and the
+southern shore is fringed by a chain of hills, so that the emerald
+green waters of the Bay are perfectly sheltered against all winds
+except those from the east. Even here the effect of the wind is
+modified and it is only during eastern gales that choppy waves oblige
+small boats to seek the coves along the shore. About four miles from
+Point Balandra, is a group of five islets, known as the Cayos
+Levantados. The channel between these Keys and the northern shore of
+the Bay, 2000 yards in width with a maximum depth of 140 and a minimum
+depth of 50 feet, constitutes the principal entrance to the Bay, the
+only one which is available for large vessels. The other channel,
+known as the  Half Moon Channel, lies immediately south of the Keys;
+but being narrow and shallow, is navigable only by vessels of light
+draft. The great expanse of water, fifteen miles in width, between
+this channel and the south shore of the Bay is so dotted with shoals
+as to be absolutely impassable. It will thus be seen that the actual
+entrance to the great Bay is quite narrow and could easily be defended
+by mines or by fortifications on the Cayos and the peninsula. The Bay
+is like a great bottle with a very narrow neck. The Spaniards, in
+fact, established a small fort on the headland, its ruins being now
+hidden by dense underbrush.
+
+It seems surprising that no large and flourishing metropolis should
+have arisen on the shores of this splendid body of water. Apparently
+the principal reason why it did not appeal to the Spaniards was that
+owing to the prevailing easterly breezes their clumsy vessels would
+have encountered difficulty in leaving. Since the days of steam, of
+course, this trouble is obviated. The value of the Bay as a naval
+station has been widely advertised, and France, England and the United
+States have at various times entertained projects of acquiring it. The
+American government in 1869 even negotiated a treaty for the lease of
+Samana peninsula and Samana Bay, but the United States Senate failed
+to act and the treaty was lost by expiration of time. The Bay would
+constitute a military and commercial key to this part of the world for
+any power possessing it.
+
+Near Balandra point is the tiny settlement of Las Flechas, located
+upon the scene of the first encounter marked by bloodshed between the
+Spaniards and Indians. A number of Columbus' men having landed here in
+January, 1493. were attacked by Indians and in the ensuing engagement
+an Indian was wounded.  The occurrence induced Columbus to name the
+Bay Golfo de las Flechas, Gulf of the Arrows. At the end of the main
+channel of entrance to the Bay the north shore is indented by the
+large and commodious basin of Clara, and about two miles further to
+the west is the harbor of the old city of Santa Barbara de Samana, a
+tranquil sheet of water, separated from the Bay proper by several
+small islands, but which can be entered only by vessels drawing less
+than twenty feet. Beyond Samana the coast becomes a little less steep
+and the verdure-covered mountains recede sufficiently to give room to
+narrow coast plains, thickly grown with cocoa-nut palms. Along the
+beach are landscapes of idyllic beauty. Deep water extends up to the
+shore and there are half a dozen points which excel for landing
+places. Some twenty miles from Samana the last offshoots from the
+mountains encompass the town of Sanchez. Beyond in a large
+semi-circle, the end of the Bay is skirted by the great swamp which
+comprises the Gran Estero and the delta of the Yuna River.
+
+The town of Sanchez, the terminus of the railroad from La Vega, is an
+important outlet for the products of the Royal Plain, but though one
+of the principal ports of the Republic its situation on Samana Bay is
+unfavorable. Located where the Samana mountains slope into the Gran
+Estero, the site is ill adapted for the expansion of the settlement;
+the vicinity of the great marsh is not inviting, though the prevailing
+eastern breezes serve to drive back its noxious emanations; and the
+harbor, even now so shallow that vessels are obliged to anchor a mile
+from shore, is gradually silting up with sediment from the Yuna River.
+The story goes that the selection of this unpropitious spot for the
+terminus of the railroad was due to the passion of a moment. A tract
+of land at Point Santa Capuza, five miles down the bay, where a level
+coast plain and deep water up to the very shore invited the
+establishment of a port, had previously been chosen. The railroad had
+been extended to this spot and the foundations of the shops were being
+laid when the principal owner of the road, who was directing the
+construction work, learned that several of his engineers had acquired
+a controlling interest in a portion of the site of the projected town.
+The choleric Scotchman immediately removed his headquarters to Las
+Cañitas, where Sanchez is now located, and though a vast amount of
+digging and filling was necessary the shops were erected here and the
+road to Santa Capuza was abandoned. The railroad has since purchased,
+for a song, almost all the land which caused the trouble, but as it
+has only recently expended £10,000 in the extension of its wharf at
+Sanchez from six to ten feet on water, and made other improvements,
+there is evidently no intention of moving the terminus.
+
+Beginning at Sanchez the entire western shore of Samana Bay is lined
+by swamp land, interspersed with the sandbanks formed by the various
+mouths of the Yuna. Turning east, the coast becomes almost
+inaccessible owing to the reefs and rocks which line it and constitute
+the beginning of low rocky ridges running into the interior. This
+region, known as "Los Haitis," continues until the Bay of San Lorenzo
+is reached. This capacious inlet, the only good harbor on the southern
+coast of Samana Bay is almost completely landlocked by a peninsula
+extending across its mouth, and affords good anchorage. The project of
+establishing a city and free port here was considered in 1883 and a
+comprehensive concession was granted with this object in view, but
+nothing was done and the concession lapsed. San Lorenzo Bay is also
+called Bahia de las Perlas, from the pearls found in its waters in
+the early-days; it is related that in 1531 five pecks were sent to
+Spain as the royal fifth. On the western side of the bay are extensive
+and beautiful stalactitic caves, in pre-Columbian days the abode of
+Indians, and in the seventeenth century a favorite resort for pirates,
+who were well acquainted with every nook and inlet along the shores of
+Samana Bay. Some five miles to the east of the Bay of San Lorenzo lies
+the village of Sabana la Mar. So shallow is the water here that not
+even small vessels can approach near to the low and sandy shore. The
+same condition prevails along the remainder of the southern shore of
+Samana Bay. Branching from the low hills that skirt the coast is the
+headland of Cape Rafael at the end of the Bay, forming a fitting
+counterpart to Cape Samana on the north.
+
+Turning southeasterly along the coast Point Nisibon is reached, where
+a calcareous rock formation and soil suitable for sugar planting
+begins. Forty miles of rocky shore intervene between this point and
+Cape Engaño, the easternmost cape of the island, with a new
+lighthouse, the light of which is visible twenty miles away. The coast
+now leads southwesterly to Point Espada, shaped like a sword, and but
+twenty-five miles distant from the Island of Mona, a dependency of
+Porto Rico. Southwest from Point Espada lies the largest island of the
+Dominican Republic, the Island of Saona, fifteen miles long by four
+miles wide, the low hills of which are covered with abundant
+vegetation. At the time of the conquest it was the home of a numerous
+Indian population; later when owned by the Jesuits it had well-kept
+plantations; to-day it is almost uninhabited. Not far away are the
+smaller islands of Catalina and Catalinita, which possess valuable
+timber but like Saona are uninhabited.  From Point Palmilla opposite
+Saona Island, the shore-line, fringed with coral rocks, turns
+northwest and then due west. It bounds the great flat region of Santo
+Domingo, and to the traveler on passing ships is the most monotonous
+part of the coast, for in the absence of mountains to break the
+sky-line, there is nothing to be seen but a low palm-crowned rocky
+wall with surf beating at its base. The harbors are estuaries of
+rivers; those of La Romana, Soco and San Pedro de Macoris are of this
+description.
+
+San Pedro de Macoris is the principal port for the exportation of
+sugar. Its harbor is commodious, but access thereto is rendered
+difficult by a bar traversed only by a narrow and tortuous channel.
+Extensive harbor improvements were here undertaken under a concession
+which caused considerable litigation and discussion until it was
+redeemed by the government by means of the 1907 bond issue.
+
+In the forty miles intervening between San Pedro de Macoris and Santo
+Domingo City, about the only place of interest is the Bay of Andres,
+midway between the two cities, which is the home of innumerable wild
+ducks. The City of Santo Domingo is situated on the west bank of the
+Ozama River, the mouth of which constitutes the city's harbor. Since
+the town was founded four centuries ago the width of the river here
+seems to have diminished by fully one-fourth owing to accretion along
+the shores. A bar across the entrance renders access impracticable for
+vessels drawing more than fifteen feet of water. This bar has given
+considerable trouble, for at times it has grown in such manner as to
+leave a depth of but five feet. It is now kept open by means of
+jetties and dredging. Within the bar the river is perfectly smooth and
+vessels can without trouble draw up to the dock, but the roadstead
+outside is generally very rough and the embarking and disembarking of
+passengers is attended with experiences more exciting than pleasant.
+At this place more than one passenger has had an involuntary bath and
+many a piece of luggage lies at the bottom of the sea. On two
+occasions on which I disembarked here in stormy weather it seemed an
+even wager that the boat would be swamped before reaching the
+river mouth.
+
+The wall of coral rock girding the coast continues as far as Point
+Palenque, when it is succeeded by sandy beach. This inhospitable shore
+has been the witness of stirring episodes, for it was near Fort San
+Geronimo where the American troops came ashore in 1916; at the mouth
+of the Jaina that Drake disembarked in 1586 to accomplish his bold
+reduction of Santo Domingo City; at the cove of Najayo where Penn and
+Venables landed in 1655 in their unsuccessful descent upon the colony;
+and near Port Palenque where a British force under Carmichael landed
+in 1809 to assist the Dominicans in retaking Santo Domingo City from
+the French. Off Point Palenque, too, in 1806 a British squadron under
+Vice-Admiral Duckworth defeated a French squadron commanded by
+Rear-Admiral Lessiegues, forcing two French ships-of-the-line ashore
+and capturing several other vessels. The ports are all shallow and
+unsheltered, but are occasionally visited by coasting sloops in quest
+of timber and other products of the country.
+
+The lofty mountains which in Santo Domingo City can be discerned on
+the distant horizon have at Palenque become more distinct and
+approached nearer to the shore. On the green plain which slopes from
+their base to the sea, white specks, glittering in the sun, betray the
+presence of the town of Bani. But little further on, the mountains
+rise from the very shore, their spurs in the surf, their peaks capped
+by clouds.  The triangular bay of Ocoa, the second largest of the
+Republic, is now reached. Almost 25 miles in width at its mouth with a
+length of some 13 miles, its extent earned for it, in olden days, the
+name of Puerto Hermoso de los Españoles, the beautiful port of the
+Spaniards. It has plenty of water and is well protected by high hills
+on both sides, but on account of its wide entrance becomes very rough
+in a south wind. There are several good anchorages along its shore,
+and inlets which are used as harbors by various plantations. At its
+southeastern entrance is the landlocked body of water known as Caldera
+or Kettle Bay, claimed to be the best harbor on the southern coast of
+the Republic. It is separated from the ocean by a long narrow tongue
+of land, and being securely sheltered from all winds, its surface is
+always as placid as a lake. Caldera Bay is presumed to be the harbor
+in which Columbus on his fourth voyage rode out the great hurricane of
+1502 which demolished the infant city of Santo Domingo and sunk the
+gold fleet that had just set sail for Spain. This harbor was a
+rendezvous for the Spanish war vessels and transports in 1861 when
+Spain resumed control of Santo Domingo and again in 1865 when she
+relinquished possession. The extent and depth of Caldera Bay are
+claimed to be sufficient to accommodate the largest ships, but vessels
+seldom venture into it, as the charts of this part of the coast are
+deficient.
+
+At the upper end of Ocoa Bay is Port Tortuguero, the harbor of the
+city of Azua, affording good anchorage, but very rough in south winds.
+It. was the scene of one of the few naval engagements in the history
+of Santo Domingo, for here on April 15, 1844, two Dominican schooners
+sustained a drawn battle with three Haitian vessels. The surrounding
+hills appear almost bare of vegetation owing to the aridity of the
+climate. The only buildings at the port are a small custom-house and
+several sheds, the city of Azua lying about three miles inland. The
+former harbor of Azua, Puerto Viejo or Escondido, Old or Hidden Port,
+is a sheltered inlet on the western side of Ocoa Bay, but is available
+only for vessels of light draft.
+
+Point Martin Garcia where the western side of Ocoa Bay is regarded as
+terminating also marks the beginning of another large bay, Neiba Bay,
+which has the form of a cul-de-sac, with a length of eighteen miles
+and an average breadth of seven miles. It is open to the southeast,
+but in all other directions is well protected by high mountains. The
+water is of ample depth and there are several good anchorages, the
+best being the port of the small city of Barahona.
+
+From Neiba Bay to Cape Beata the coast waters are shallow and are only
+visited by small vessels which come to take away lumber or coffee from
+the neighboring heights. At Cape Beata, the southernmost cape of the
+Republic, the coast turns northwest, to the Pedernales River, which
+forms part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
+Several small bays indent this portion of the shore, the one most
+favorable for shipping being Las Aguilas Bay, also known as Bahia sin
+Fondo, or Bottomless Bay. This part of the country, the Baboruco
+peninsula, is very sparsely inhabited. In the beginning of the
+nineteenth century it was the abode of maroons, half-savage fugitive
+slaves and their descendants.
+
+Four miles to the southwest of Cape Beata lies Beata Island, sloping
+down from an elevation in the south to a long point in the north. Its
+greatest length is about 7 miles, its maximum breadth 3 miles, and
+access is difficult as the only anchorage is on the eastern side
+almost two miles from land. The island is covered with dense forests
+in which wild cattle abound. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the island was a convenient resort for the pirates that
+infested the Spanish main; at one time it is said to have contained
+fine plantations, but at present it is only occasionally visited by
+Dominican or Haitian fishermen.
+
+Rising precipitously from the sea, at a distance of about ten miles
+southwest of Beata Island, is a huge bell-shaped mass of rock, 500
+feet in height, almost two miles in length and a mile in width. It
+reminded Columbus of a giant ship under full sail, wherefore he named
+it Alta Vela, or High Sail, sometimes corrupted to Alto Velo. The
+valuable deposits of guano on the rock induced a party of Americans in
+1860 to take possession of it in the name of the United States as an
+ownerless guano island, but upon protest by the Dominican authorities
+the American government promptly recognized the superior rights of
+Santo Domingo. Visible from far out at sea, with a lighthouse on its
+summit, the great granite peak stands like a sentinel guarding the
+southern shore of the Republic.
+
+On the land side the vague boundary has varied constantly, influenced
+by the conflicting Haitian and Dominican claims, the greater or less
+energy of the border authorities on each side, and the tendency of the
+rapidly increasing Haitian population to establish homes in the
+uninhabited frontier region of Santo Domingo. The absolute lack of
+correct maps and the rugged character of the country make it
+difficult, even on the spot, to determine where the boundary line
+should be considered to run. In riding through the region about Lake
+Azuei, I noticed some bad dents in the frontier and came to the
+conclusion that not all the boundary pushing has been done
+by Haitians.
+
+On the frontier as provisionally fixed by the American government in
+1912, the Dajabon, Capotillo or Massacre River constitutes the
+northern end of the boundary. The lower course of this river is the
+only part of the boundary line where Haitian and Dominican claimants
+are able to agree. In the mountains to the west of Restauracion the
+line jumps over to the headwaters of the Libon River, which it follows
+to the upper Artibonite, continuing along this river as far as Banica.
+From here it runs across high mountains between Comendador and Hondo
+Valle on the Dominican side and Belladere and Savanette on the Haitian
+side, to the north shore of Lake Azuei, thence across the lake to the
+headwaters of the Pedernales River--with an indentation to give Haiti
+the post of Bois Tombé--and along that river to the sea. For the
+greater part of its extent the line traverses a wild mountainous
+country, rarely visited on the Dominican side, except by smugglers or
+an occasional frontier guard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
+
+
+Mountains.--Valleys and plains.--Rivers.--Lakes.--Temperature and
+rainfall.--Hurricanes.--Health conditions.
+
+It is related that an English admiral, in endeavoring to illustrate to
+George III the topography of one of the West India Islands crumpled up
+a piece of paper in his hand and laid it on the table before the
+monarch, saying: "That, sir, is the island." The traveler touring the
+West Indies finds the story following him from place to place. Among
+the islands which claim to have given origin to the anecdote is Haiti,
+and however that may be, such description seems to apply admirably.
+Rugged irregular mountain ranges interspersed with valleys form the
+greater part of the surface, while in the southeast a great plain
+extends from the mountains to the coast.
+
+The mountains of the Dominican Republic may be grouped in five
+principal ranges, two along the northern coast, one in the center of
+the island, and two in the southwest. They all extend from east to
+west and present numerous offshoots, especially the central range
+which is the most important one and comprises the highest peaks.
+
+One of the northern ranges is the short Samana Range, beginning at
+Cape Samana, extending the length of the Samana Peninsula, over thirty
+miles, and ending near the Gran Estero. The greatest altitude is
+attained by Mt. Pilon de Azucar and Mt. Diablo which are 1900 and
+1300 feet in height, respectively. This group at first sight appears
+to be an extension of the second chain, the Monte Cristi Range, but
+its geological formation proves it rather to belong to the great
+central range. It was probably at a remote period an island lying off
+from the mainland.
+
+The other northern range has its beginning near Samana Bay and extends
+all the way to Monte Cristi. It is known as the Monte Cristi Range
+though the eastern portion is also called the Sierra de Macoris. It
+sends several branches to the coast, the most important one being that
+which terminates at Puerto Plata. The highest points of the range are
+Mt. Diego de Ocampo, with an altitude of 4000 feet, Nord Peak 3500
+feet, and Mt. Murazo 3400 feet. A notable landmark is Mt. Isabel de
+Torres, 2300 feet in height, which overlooks Puerto Plata. Its head is
+usually shrouded in a cap of clouds, and small mists frequently hover
+about its surface. To Columbus, passing out at sea on his first
+voyage, the cloudcap appeared shining like burnished silver in the
+morning sun. He took it to be snow until closer investigation
+disclosed its true nature, whereupon he named the mountain Monte
+Plata, or Silver Mount, and the port at the base was afterwards called
+Puerto Plata. The mountain is said to have been given its present
+name, Isabel de Torres, in honor of the wife of a prominent settler,
+Diego de Ocampo, domiciled in Santiago in the early days, after whom
+the great mountain near that city was named. According to a local
+legend, this couple, although blessed with worldly goods, was also
+mutually possessed of such a nagging spirit and ungovernable temper
+that a separation became necessary, the husband remaining in Santiago,
+the wife removing to Puerto Plata. When leagues intervened between
+them their conduct was so charming that the inhabitants of the two
+cities gave their names to the high mountains near the respective
+towns. "If you doubt the story," the legend concludes, "there are the
+mountains to prove it."
+
+The principal mountain range, the Cordillera Central, begins at the
+extreme eastern point of the island, traverses the center of the
+Republic, crosses into Haitian territory and sinks into the sea at
+Mole St. Nicolas to reappear in Cuba, on the other side of the
+Windward Passage. It constitutes a part of the great ridge which forms
+the backbone of all the islands bounding the Caribbean Sea on the
+north. In the eastern part of Santo Domingo the range consists merely
+of a chain of high hills which rarely reach an altitude of more than
+900 feet, but in the center and west of the Republic it assumes much
+greater magnitude, sending out branches which are important mountain
+chains in themselves, and several of its peaks are over 6000 feet in
+height. The highest point in the island and in the West Indies is Mt.
+Tina, with an altitude of 10,300 feet, a magnificent outpost of that
+branch of the central range which traverses the south-central portion
+of the Republic. The next highest point, is Yaque Peak, 9700 feet
+high, nearly at the center of the island. The dense jungle covering
+the rugged slopes of these giants has so far baffled the few attempts
+at exploration of their summits. To the west of Yaque Peak is Mt.
+Cucurucho, 7400 feet high, and to the northwest Mt. Entre los Rios,
+8000 feet and Mt. Gallo, 8200 feet in height. It must be remembered
+that in the absence of any careful measurements, the altitudes given
+are mere approximations.
+
+The Cordillera Central is peculiar in its numerous branches which are
+often more intricate in their ramifications and comprise loftier peaks
+than the parent range. The most important of these branches are those
+which extend from Mt. Banilejo to the southern coast, and fill the
+district between San Cristobal and Azua with a jumble of mountains.
+Besides Mt. Tina, already mentioned, their principal peaks are Mt. Rio
+Grande, 6900 feet, overlooking the beautiful Constanza Valley, and Mt.
+Valdesia, 5900 feet high. One of the best defined ranges on the south
+is the Sierra del Agua, which runs south from the Central Cordillera
+to the San Juan River. The branches on the north are even more
+numerous and cover a greater area. Among them special reference may be
+made to the Sierra Zamba, which runs parallel to the Yaque del Norte
+River, the Sierra de San José de las Matas, the Santiago Range, the
+Jarabacoa Range and the Cotui Range.
+
+The fourth principal mountain range of the Republic, the Neiba Range,
+is sometimes classed as a part of the Cordillera Central. It rises on
+the western bank of the Neiba River and runs west parallel with the
+central chain, into Haitian territory. Among its principal peaks is
+Mt. Panso, 6200 feet high. The fifth principal range, situated in the
+extreme southwest of the Republic, is known as the Baboruco Range, and
+sometimes as Maniel de los Negros. It begins at the Caribbean coast
+south of Barahona Bay and runs west into Haiti, forming an integral
+portion of the mountain chain that traverses the great peninsula in
+the south of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+These several ranges and their offshoots divide the country into a
+number of distinct regions, which, owing to the difficulty of
+communication, have developed more or less independently of one
+another. The most important division is that effected by the broad
+central belt of mountains which, twelve miles wide in its narrowest
+part, and extending from the shores of the Mona Channel to and beyond
+the Haitian frontier, constitutes a rugged barrier between the north
+and the south of the Republic.
+
+The district to the north of the Central Cordillera, comprising the
+richest portion of the country, still retains its old Indian name
+"Cibao"--a word which awoke fond hopes in the heart of Columbus who
+identified it with "Cipango," the Japan he was so eagerly seeking. The
+Cibao includes the northern slope of the central range with the
+fertile valleys enclosed by branches of that range, the Samana
+peninsula, the Monte Cristi Range with its valleys and coastal plains,
+and particularly the magnificent valley of the Cibao, which lying
+between the central chain and the Monte Cristi Range, extends all the
+way from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay. The length of this remarkable
+valley is about 150 miles, its average breadth is 10 miles in the
+northwestern and 15 miles in the southeastern part, and it comprises
+the most fertile lands and the most populous interior towns of the
+Republic. The highest part of the valley is about 600 feet above
+sea-level and is situated at its middle point, near the city of
+Santiago, where a line of low hills dividing the valley into two parts
+forms a watershed for its rivers. The northwestern of these two
+sections is known as the Santiago or Yaque valley and forms the
+greater portion of the basin of the Yaque del Norte, while the
+southeastern half, through which the Yuna River flows, is the superb
+Royal Valley or Royal Plain.
+
+One of the most beautiful views in the Cibao Valley, and in the world,
+is obtained from the historic eminence of Santo Cerro, an outpost
+hill of the central range, situated about three miles from the city of
+La Vega. From the foot of this hill the great plain stretches into the
+distance, meeting the azure sky on the eastern horizon, and far in
+the north skirting the brown slopes of the lofty Monte Cristi
+mountains, the more remote peaks of which are but faintly perceptible
+in their envelope of blue haze. A rich carpet of dark green
+overspreads the plain, where lighter spots indicate patches of tilled
+land and silver threads betray the presence of streams. The cities of
+Moca and La Vega are easily distinguished and on clear days even San
+Francisco de Macoris can be discerned. Clouds or rainstorms moving
+over portions of the vast expanse, add animation to the landscape.
+Columbus, gazing out upon the enchanting scene, was so impressed by
+its magnificence that he gave the great vale the name it still
+bears--La Vega Real, The Royal Plain.
+
+To the south of the central range the number of plains is greater. The
+largest expanse of level land on the island is the great plain which
+forms the southeastern part of the Dominican Republic. It includes
+almost the entire region east of the Jaina River and south of the
+central range, being about 115 miles long by 30 miles wide. This
+Eastern Valley or Seibo Plain, as it is sometimes called, is covered
+with forests and broad savannas, the most notable of which are
+comprised in the series of prairies known as Los Llanos, the Plains.
+
+Two smaller and irregular plains are the arid Bani coastal plain,
+lying between the Nizao River and the Ocoa, with a length of 25 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 12 miles, and the Azua Valley, winding
+from Mt. Numero, near the Ocoa, to the Neiba River, a distance of 33
+miles with a breadth of from 3 to 30 miles.
+
+The Neiba Valley, situated in the southwestern portion of the Republic
+between the Neiba and the Baboruco Mountains is more regular. It is
+part of the valley which stretches from Neiba Bay, in Santo Domingo,
+to Port-au-Prince in Haiti. The Dominican portion is 65 miles long by
+12 miles wide, and over one-half of its area is covered by the waters
+of Lake Enriquillo. The peninsula south of the Baboruco Mountains is
+an uneven plateau.
+
+In the very center of the Republic, surrounded on all sides by lofty
+mountains of the central group, is Constanza Valley, rich but to-day
+almost inaccessible. No less rich, but many times larger, is the other
+interior plain, known as the Eastern or Central Valley, a succession
+of fertile valleys, extending from the Neiba River to St. Raphael,
+almost 115 miles, with a width of from nine to twenty miles. The
+entire plain is claimed by the Dominican Republic, but more than half
+is in possession of Haiti.
+
+All these various valleys and plains enjoy the advantage of being
+watered by a comprehensive network of rivers of greater or less size.
+Many of the streams are navigable for miles in the lower part of their
+course by boats and canoes, affording means of communication to which
+the wretched condition of the land highways gives added importance.
+
+The largest river of the Republic is the Yaque del Norte, some 240
+miles in length, which rises on the slope of Yaque Peak, describes a
+circuitous northerly course, receiving numerous mountain affluents,
+until it reaches the vicinity of the city of Santiago de los
+Caballeros, whence, turning northwesterly it flows through the
+Santiago Valley, being reinforced by scores of tributaries. Its waters
+are finally discharged partially into Monte Cristi Bay and partly
+through its many mouthed delta into Manzanillo Bay. Detritus and
+driftwood brought down by the river, for many years entirely filled
+the Monte Cristi channel, and still constitute barriers which cause
+large lagoons to form in the delta and to inundate extensive tracts of
+rich farmland. Though the bars at its entrance render the river
+inaccessible for larger boats, it is navigable for canoes over its
+entire course in the Santiago Valley.
+
+Another large river is the yellow Yuna, which waters the eastern part
+of the Cibao Valley. Rising in the mountains near the center of the
+Republic, it directs its course to the Royal Plain where it receives
+the waters of the rapid Camu, and thence flows eastwardly and enters
+Samana Bay through a marshy delta, its total length being over 200
+miles. Part of its waters find their way through the great swamp, the
+Gran Estero, into the Atlantic Ocean. Up to its junction with the
+Camu, a distance of some 30 miles, the Yuna is navigable by boats and
+barges, and above the junction both the Yuna and the Camu are
+navigable by canoes for nearly 30 miles more though there are shallow
+stretches where the streams run rapidly and great care is necessary.
+In former days, the Yuna was one of the chief outlets of the Cibao;
+freight and passengers were transported over its course to Samana Bay
+and on the waters of the Bay to the town of Samana where transshipment
+to larger vessels took place. With the establishment of the railroad
+from La Vega to Sanchez, the river has lost much of its old-time
+importance.
+
+The third largest river is the Neiba or Yaque del Sur, which rises
+near the sources of the Yaque del Norte and pursues a southerly
+direction for some 180 miles, emptying into Neiba Bay. The repetition
+of geographical means is one of the peculiarities of Santo Domingo.
+Thus there are two rivers and a mountain named Yaque, several
+mountains named Cucurucho, a mountain-range and two cities named
+Macoris while in a host of minor instances rivers, mountains and
+districts in different parts of the country have identical names. The
+repetition of names seems all the more curious as the Dominicans have
+not hesitated to change historic names of towns and streets. The Yaque
+del Sur, or Neiba River, receives several copious affluents, the
+largest one being the San Juan River. Much of the lumber exported at
+Barahona is floated down the Yaque and the river is navigable about 20
+miles for flat-bottomed boats, though rapids and rocky ledges
+interpose obstacles.
+
+The other rivers of the southern part of Santo Domingo are much
+smaller. The principal one is the Ozama, at the mouth of which the
+capital city is located. This river is about 60 miles in length and
+carries a surprising amount of water. Being navigable by barges for 9
+miles from its mouth and by canoes for 15 miles, it forms an important
+avenue of supply for Santo Domingo City. In the three miles from its
+junction with the Isabela to the sea, its depth is about 24 feet, but
+over the sandbar at its mouth but 15 feet. Two rivers in the
+southeastern peninsula, the Macoris and the Soco furnish valuable
+outlets for the products of the sugar estates on their banks. A number
+of Dominican streams offer peculiarities. In the mountains there are
+brooks which gush out of the hillside, merrily ripple on for miles and
+vanish into the ground as mysteriously as they came. A number of coast
+streams sink into the sand of the beach, just before reaching the
+ocean. The Brujuelas River, which rises on the edge of the great
+plains, northwest of Bayaguana, flows south 25 miles through the
+plains and disappears in the ground a mile from the sea. Most streams
+ordinarily insignificant and innocent looking, are in a surprisingly
+short space of time converted by rains into raging torrents. The most
+formidable of these torrential rivers is the Nizao which flows into
+the Caribbean Sea near Point Palenque. In the lower part of this
+river's course its bed is about a mile wide, of which only a small
+portion is covered by the several branches of the river, the remainder
+being taken up with sandbanks, gravel beds, marshy tracts and stagnant
+bayous; and so frequently and erratically does the river change its
+channels, and to such sudden rises is it subject, that the local
+authorities are obliged to keep guides stationed on its banks almost
+continuously, in order to direct travelers across.
+
+The rapids and cascades of Dominican streams are pregnant with
+possibilities, but up to the present time they have remained in their
+pristine condition, nor is their energy utilized to drive a single
+piece of machinery. The largest and most beautiful waterfall of the
+island is doubtless that of the Jimenoa River, in the mountains some
+ten miles south of the city of La Vega, where the Jimenoa rushes over
+a precipice one hundred feet in height, producing clouds of spray and
+a roar that can sometimes be perceived as far as Jarabacoa, six miles
+away. Another beautiful fall is that of the Dajabon River, on the
+Haitian frontier, 30 feet in height, and there are notable cascades
+also on the Comate River, near Bayaguana, on the great plains; on the
+Nigua and Higuero Rivers, not many miles from Santo Domingo City; on
+the Inova River, near the town of San José de las Matas; and on the
+Guaranas River, on the Haitian frontier in the commune of Neiba.
+
+The only lakes of any size are two which lie in the Neiba Valley, the
+larger one, Lake Enriquillo, being comprised entirely within Dominican
+territory, while of the smaller one, variously called Etang Saumatre,
+or Lake Azuei, or Laguna del Fondo, through which the frontier line
+passes, less than one-fourth is under Dominican jurisdiction. They are
+both very picturesque, and with the greenish color of their water and
+their arid mountain surroundings recall portions of Lake Titicaca in
+Bolivia. In stormy weather they become as rough as the ocean. Lake
+Enriquillo derives its name from the last Indian cacique of the
+Island, the romantic chieftain Enriquillo, who after fiercely
+resisting the Spaniards finally in 1533 concluded an honorable peace
+with them on the island of Cabras in the center of this lake. The lake
+is over 70 miles in circumference, having a length of about 33 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 9 miles, Cabras Island, 6 miles long by
+one in width, is the home of herds of goats. Lake Azuei is but 15
+miles in length with a width of from 2 to 7 miles.
+
+Though the two lakes are scarcely five miles apart, Lake Enriquillo is
+102 feet below and Lake Azuei 56 feet above sea-level. Both lakes
+receive the waters of several small fresh water creeks, yet they
+apparently have no outlet and their water is salt, that of Lake Azuei
+only slightly, but that of Lake Enriquillo more so than the sea. On
+Cabras Island, however, there is a fresh water spring, and three
+lagoons to the east and south of Lake Enriquillo also contain fresh
+water. Lake Azuei often shows the paradox of going down during the
+rainy season and rising during the dry season; the phenomenon is
+attributed to the presence of springs at the bottom of the lake, which
+are unusually copious at the end of the rainy season. Both lakes have
+at least one variety of ocean fish, though the nearest point of the
+seacoast is some twenty miles distant; turtles abound in both and
+there are many alligators in Lake Enriquillo and a few in Lake Azuei.
+
+The climate of Santo Domingo is that of the torrid zone and is
+characterized by heat and humidity. Yet the heat rarely becomes as
+intense as it sometimes does in the United States in summer and the
+nights are always cool and pleasant. The mean annual temperature of
+Santo Domingo City is between 77° and 78° Fahrenheit, and the
+variation between the mean temperature of the hottest and coolest
+month is hardly more than 6°. The highest temperature recorded in
+Santo Domingo City in a period of seven years was 95°. The average
+highest temperature in July and August is between 91° and 92°. In the
+mountainous regions of the interior there is a noticeable difference
+in temperature; it is necessary to sleep under a blanket every night
+of the year and the temperature sometimes falls below the freezing
+point. The pleasantest months of the year are from December
+to February.
+
+The heat of the climate is tempered and rendered bearable by cooling
+breezes which are seldom absent. During the day the prevailing breeze
+is from the east, but shortly after sunset a breeze sets in from the
+interior, blowing out to the ocean, and continues until after sunrise.
+
+The heavy rains also tend to cool the atmosphere. The island is so cut
+up by mountain ranges running in different directions that there is no
+regular rainy season for the whole country. In the south, the west and
+the interior, the rainy season is generally reckoned as lasting from
+April to November, while in the eastern section the rainy season is
+from May to December. These seasons are not absolute, for at times
+there are heavy rains during what should be the dry season, while
+occasionally there are many days of drouth during the wet months. The
+rains are rarely long-continued drizzles, but instead for several
+hours the floodgates of heaven are opened wide, after which the sky
+clears and remains serene until the following day. The amount of
+rainfall varies in different parts of the country, being lightest in
+the arid districts of Monte Cristi, Azua and Barahona.
+
+The United States Weather Bureau maintained a station at Santo Domingo
+City for a number of years and from the observations made the
+following data are compiled:
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS FOR SANTO DOMINGO CITY
+
+                   Highest     Lowest      Mean              Average
+       Mean        temperature temperature relative Average  number
+       temperature recorded    recorded    humidity rainfall of days
+          °F          °F          °F       per cl.  inches   with rain
+
+January   74          86          61          85      2.01      11
+February  74          88          60          82       .96       8
+March     75          87          59          79      2.15       9
+April     76          91          59          80      6.86      14
+May       78          88          67          83      6.29      13
+June      78          90          67          86      7.42      18
+July      79          92          67          86      8.34      18
+August    80          95          68          84      6.77      17
+September 79          93          69          85      7.63      16
+October   79          92          67          86      9.63      15
+November  78          91          64          85      2.76      11
+December  76          89          61          87      2.09      11
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+Annual    77          95          59          84     62.91     161
+
+
+Santo Domingo has at intervals felt the violence of the destructive
+hurricanes which occasionally ravage the West Indies. They often
+combine the features of a tornado and a cloudburst, and while the
+furious whirlwind wrecks houses, uproots trees and strips forests bare
+of leaves, the accompanying severe rains swell the streams to abnormal
+height and cause extensive inundations. The hurricane season is
+reckoned as beginning in July and ending in October and when during
+this period a sudden fall of the barometer announces the proximity of
+unusual atmospheric disturbances all shipping keeps to the harbors and
+the dwellers on shore take measures to guard against the devastating
+rage of the wind.
+
+The first West Indian hurricane of which we have any record was that
+of 1502 which destroyed the first city of Santo Domingo and sank a
+Spanish fleet. More recent storms felt in Santo Domingo were those of
+1834, 1865, 1876 and 1883. That of September 6, 1883, desolated the
+southwestern provinces of the Republic, and the rise of the Ozama
+River swept away the bridge connecting the capital with the opposite
+shore. The hurricane of 1899 which laid waste the nearby island of
+Porto Rico was scarcely felt in Santo Domingo. The latest unusually
+heavy storm was that which swept over the Republic during the first
+week of November, 1909, and caused much damage, especially in the
+Cibao. A sudden storm in the afternoon of August 29, 1916, accompanied
+by a kind of tidal wave, surprised the American 14,500 ton armored
+cruiser "Memphis" at anchor in the roadstead of Santo Domingo City and
+wrecked it against the rocky shore.
+
+With regard to health conditions, the Dominican Republic has been
+maligned because of the fevers that decimated the English and French
+armies in the Haitian wars of a century ago. It must be remembered,
+however, that the French part of the island being shut out from the
+eastern breezes by high mountain ranges is hotter than the Spanish
+part, and that the European troops, improperly clad and fed, underwent
+great hardships and were ignorant of sanitary precautions. Among
+travelers it is the concensus of opinion that climatic conditions in
+the Dominican Republic are as favorable as in any other tropical
+country. Far from presenting dangers to health there are few districts
+in the Republic which with proper hotel accommodations would not
+offer delightful refuge to invalids seeking to escape the rigors of
+the northern winter. The salubrity of the climate is reflected in the
+sturdy character of the peasantry, and exemplified by numerous cases
+of unusual longevity. In the towns the death-rate is somewhat higher
+than in the country regions; but the very fact that in spite of
+uncleaned streets, reeking garbage heaps, and defiance of sanitary
+precepts by the majority of the inhabitants, there has been so
+comparatively little sickness, bears strong witness to the
+healthfulness of the country. By a law of 1912 boards of health were
+established, and under American impulse more attention is now being
+given to sanitation.
+
+As no census of the Republic has ever been taken and data relative to
+births and deaths have not been collected regularly, it is not
+possible to compile statistics as to the death rate in the various
+provinces. The data so far available seem to indicate that the
+healthiest province is Puerto Plata, followed by Santiago, Azua and
+Monte Cristi, after which come Santo Domingo, La Vega, Espaillat,
+Pacificador, Samana and Barahona. The mortality rate is highest in the
+province of Macoris where the annual number of deaths is reported to
+average about thirty per thousand.
+
+The most frequent endemic diseases are malaria which is to be feared
+near marshes and stagnant waters, pulmonary consumption, which,
+however, is not more common than in the United States, and diseases of
+the digestive organs. Yellow fever is unknown and the sporadic cases
+which have occurred were due to the importation of the disease from
+other countries. The only epidemic in recent years occurred in Puerto
+Plata in 1901 when ten deaths were recorded.
+
+The hookworm disease is very prevalent, but its ravages are not so
+apparent as in certain other tropical countries. Venereal diseases are
+exceedingly common. Evidences of the presence of leprosy and
+elephantiasis are occasionally seen. The measures taken for the
+segregation of lepers are far from thorough; the lepers' asylum of
+Santo Domingo City is situated inside the city walls and is surrounded
+by habitations of the poor. Cases of typhoid fever are sometimes
+registered during the hot spell, from July to October, but the victims
+are usually foreigners who have been careless of climatic
+requirements. The foreigner who will observe temperance and prudence
+in all things, who will be careful of what he eats and drinks, who
+will avoid exposure to rain showers, or to drafts when in
+perspiration, will easily become acclimated. Realizing that many
+tropical disorders originate in a foul stomach, the natives upon the
+slightest provocation have recourse to a purgative, and the custom is
+one which the stranger should not hesitate to adopt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERALS
+
+
+Rock formation.--Mineral
+deposits.--Gold.--Copper.--Iron.-Coal.--Silver.--Salt--Building
+stone.--Petroleum.--Mineral springs.--Earthquakes.
+
+
+The geological formation and the mineral wealth of the Dominican
+Republic have never been thoroughly studied, in part because of the
+physical difficulties and in part as a result of the civil
+dissensions. The government has never had money to spare for such
+objects, and private investigators have suffered much hardship and
+lost many days in opening paths through tangled underbrush, and in
+crossing rugged mountain ranges in uninhabited regions. The physical
+obstacles and the necessarily superficial examination consequent
+thereon may explain the contradictions of detail in different reports.
+About the middle of the nineteenth century several studies were
+published, and three scientists who accompanied the American
+Commission of Inquiry in the year 1871 made a report on geological
+conditions.
+
+From such studies as have been published it appears that the rock
+formations of Santo Domingo correspond to the secondary, the lower and
+middle tertiary and the quaternary epoch. The most ancient part of the
+island is the central mountain range, also a series of protuberances
+in the Samana peninsula, the nucleus of the Baboruco mountains and a
+single point in the northern coast range near Puerto Plata. The
+tertiary lands are those forming the entire northern part of the
+island from the central range to the sea, portions of the Samana
+peninsula between the older rocks, a large area to the southwest of
+the Zamba hills, smaller tracts between the Jaina and Nizao rivers,
+and the region between the salt lakes on the Haitian frontier and
+between Barahona and Neiba. The modern lands are the coast plains and
+the small terraces on the south of the central range and on the south
+of the Baboruco mountains, the Maguana, Azua and Neiba valleys, small
+areas on the north coast at the foot of the mountains, and the marshes
+and Yuna River delta at the head of Samana Bay.
+
+In the central mountain range is found a nucleus of eruptive rocks
+which have raised and twisted sedimentary strata, covering them and
+forcing them aside. This nucleus is not a regular feature of the whole
+length of the chain, but is an irregular mass beginning about at the
+middle, in the region of the Jaina River, and extending in a series of
+parallel lines obliquely across the backbone of the range to the
+border of the Republic and on into Haiti. Among these rocks and bent
+and broken by them are the slates, conglomerates and calcareous rocks
+which are found in the mountains and over the whole surface of the
+island. The character of the central range and the inclination of the
+strata of cretaceous rocks make it probable that the island emerged
+from the sea in the eocene period, its area being then confined to the
+extent of the central mountain chain, with a few small islands to the
+south, one or more islets to the northeast, comprising the older peaks
+of the Samana range, and a small archipelago to the southeast, where
+the hills of Seibo now are. During the miocene period these islands
+became surrounded with coral reefs, the vestiges of which remain in
+strips of calcareous rock found in the same position in which they
+were deposited. Towards the end of the tertiary period, after a time
+of quiet, there was a new rise of the land. While the hills to the
+south of Samana Bay and the bed of the Cibao Valley from Samana Bay to
+Monte Cristi rose slowly, there was an upheaval further to the north,
+and the Monte Cristi Range was formed. Before this period it had been
+a bar at sea-level, covered with a clayey sediment of chalk. At a
+later geological period the great plains to the north and east of
+Santo Domingo City were formed.
+
+Traces of valuable minerals are so general in the Republic that it is
+said there is hardly a commune where a more or less abundant mineral
+deposit is not found. The exceptions are the lands of recent coralline
+formation, such as the municipality of San Pedro de Macoris and the
+southern portion of the commune of Higuey.
+
+The magnet which attracted the Spaniards at the time of the conquest
+was the island's mineral wealth, especially the gold deposits. It is a
+historical fact that large quantities of gold in dust and nuggets were
+collected during the first years of Spanish colonization. According to
+the Spanish writers, from 1502 to 1530 placer gold was produced to the
+value of from $200,000 to $1,000,000 per annum. The fleet which set
+out in 1502 and was wrecked by a hurricane before leaving the coast
+waters of Santo Domingo was laden with gold mined in the island. A
+tribute of a small amount of gold each year was imposed on half the
+Indians of the country. Much of the gold came from the mountains
+behind Santiago and La Vega, from the gold-bearing sands of the Jaina
+River, around Buenaventura, and from the vicinity of Cotui, then
+called "Las Minas." Ancient pits are still to be found in all these
+places. At La Vega a mint was established for coining gold and silver.
+A nugget of extraordinary size was found by an Indian woman in a
+brook near the Jaina River; her Spanish masters in their exultation
+had a roast suckling pig served on it, boasting that never had the
+king of Spain dined from so valuable a table. The Indian received no
+part of the gold: "she was lucky if they gave her a piece of the pig,"
+remarks Father Las Casas. This nugget was purchased by Bobadilla to
+send to Spain, and went down with the 1502 treasure fleet.
+
+The gold deposits found by the Spaniards were the surface
+accumulations of centuries. When these were exhausted and the supply of
+cheap labor fell off owing to the dying out of the Indians, the
+mineral production waned. In 1502 labor difficulties caused a
+temporary cessation in mining. In 1511 many mines were definitely
+closed because of the scarcity of laborers and because the cultivation
+of sugar-cane offered surer profits. Then came the discovery of mines
+of fabulous wealth in Mexico and Peru, and the interest they aroused,
+as well as the lack of labor in Santo Domingo, caused the mines of the
+island to be completely neglected. Finally, in 1543, mining work
+ceased and by a royal decree all mines were ordered closed.
+Prospecting and desultory mining, especially placer mining, have been
+kept up, however, until the present day.
+
+The prospecting has generally been confined to the more accessible
+regions and nothing is known of the mountain valleys in the interior.
+The mineral deposits discovered have been of sufficient richness to
+cause the formation of mining companies for their development or
+further investigation. I do not, however, know of a single case where
+prospectors or mining companies have ever made expenses. The cause of
+failure has most frequently been the lack of transportation facilities
+in the island, on account of which the cost of carrying the ore to a
+place where it might be reduced became prohibitive. Sometimes
+enterprises failed because the deposit turned out to be too small,
+sometimes because the ore did not keep up to the standard, and not
+infrequently mining companies fell by the wayside because of bad
+management. Enough evidence of mineral wealth has been found to
+justify the belief that workable deposits do exist, and to warrant
+careful further investigation, especially as the means of
+communication are extended.
+
+The metals most frequently found are gold, copper and iron. Veins of
+auriferous quartz are found throughout the central chain, the richest
+lodes being encountered in metamorphic rocks near crystalline
+formations. The metal is most abundant in placers formed in the river
+beds. Such placers are common in the Jaina River and its tributaries
+in the province of Santo Domingo; in Bonao creek in Seibo province;
+and in the Verde River, the streams of Sabaneta and a number of other
+streams of the Cibao. On the upper Jaina and on the Verde River there
+are still persons who make their living by washing gold from the river
+sands. Hydraulic mining was attempted in Santiago province, but after
+the construction of an expensive canal the project was abandoned.
+Under the liberal mining law mining privileges have in recent years
+been granted for gold mines reported at numerous places in the
+communes of San Jose de las Matas, San Cristobal, Janico, San Juan de
+la Maguana, Sabaneta and others. Prof. William P. Black, one of the
+scientists accompanying the United States Commission of Inquiry in
+1871, reported:
+
+"There is a very considerable extent of gold-bearing country in the
+interior and gold is washed from the rivers at various points. It is
+found along the Jaina, upon the Verde, and upon the Yaque and its
+tributaries, and doubtless upon the large rivers of the interior.
+Some portions of the gold fields were worked anciently by the
+Spaniards and Indians. There are doubtless many gold deposits, not
+only along the bed of rivers, but on the hills, which have never been
+worked, and there probably is considerable gold remaining among the
+old workings. The appearance of the soil and rocks is such as to
+justify the labor and expense of carefully prospecting the
+gold region."
+
+Copper is next to gold in frequency of occurrence. Some of the best
+deposits have been found in the commune of San Cristobal, province of
+Santo Domingo. A company working lodes at Mount Mateo on the Nigua
+River, encountered ore yielding as high as 33 per cent of copper. On
+the Jaina River near the ruins of Buenaventura, I have seen promising
+ledges of copper ore. Copper carbonates predominated, the green ore
+known as malachite and the beautiful blue ore azurite were quite
+common, and white quartz, which on being broken showed little specks
+of native copper, was also to be found. The asperity of the region,
+the absence of roads and the uncertainty as to the extent of these
+deposits caused the attempts at working them to be but feeble until
+recently, when extensive works of development were undertaken in the
+vicinity. Copper veins have also been reported in the mountains of the
+commune of Bani, province of Santo Domingo; in the communes of Cotui
+and Bonao, province of La Vega; in the canton of Moncion, province of
+Monte Cristi; in the commune of San Juan de la Maguana, province of
+Azua, and at a number of other places.
+
+Iron is reported in large quantities in various parts of the country.
+The largest deposit so far known is on the banks of the Maimon River
+in the municipality of Cotui, being a bed of black magnetic oxide of
+iron, nine miles long. It is said to be excellent in quality and
+inexhaustible in quantity. The difficulties of transportation in this
+case could be obviated by the canalization of the river to its
+confluence with the Yuna River, so as to make it navigable for small
+boats. Iron ore has been discovered on the slope of Mt. Isabel de
+Torres behind the city of Puerto Plata, limonite deposits at various
+places in Santo Domingo province, and a rich black iron oxide on the
+upper Ozama River. A layer of iron pyrites extending from Los Llanos
+all the way to Sabana la Mar was believed by its discoverers to be a
+gold mine. The central ridge of Santo Domingo is part of the same
+mountain chain which extends through Santiago province in Cuba where
+enormous quantities of iron are produced, and it is not improbable
+that some of the Dominican mines will be found to pay.
+
+Coal mines found in the Samana peninsula produced a kind of lignite
+which proved of little commercial value and gave rise to the belief
+that the Republic's coal deposits had not emerged from the formative
+period. Later investigations show that while there is considerable
+undeveloped lignite, coal suitable for fuel is not wanting. Small coal
+deposits have been discovered in the Cibao Valley, between the central
+and the northern mountain chain, in the province of Pacificador and
+that of Santiago. Anthracite coal found at Tamboril, near the city of
+Santiago, was used to run a small motor exhibited at an industrial
+fair in Santiago in 1903. In the commune of Altamira, province of
+Puerto Plata, lignite and anthracite beds have been discovered, and
+traces of anthracite have also been found in San Cristobal commune,
+and in the petroleum region of Azua. In the central mountain chain a
+valuable coal deposit has been found on the Haitian side and similar
+beds may be expected in Santo Domingo.
+
+Silver has been discovered at Tanci, near Yásica, in the commune of
+Puerto Plata. The old chronicles refer to silver mines at Jarabacoa
+and Cotui in La Vega province, also to others near Santiago, near
+Higuey and on the Jaina River. Platinum occurs at Jarabacoa, traces of
+quicksilver have been found near Santiago, Banica and San Cristobal,
+and tin in Seibo and Higuey.
+
+Rock salt is found near Neiba in inexhaustible quantities, there being
+several hills of native salt covered with a thin layer of soil. The
+fact that the waters of Lake Enriquillo are saltier than the sea is
+attributed by some to a deposit of this kind. The salt is so pure that
+it does not attract moisture and deliquesce. The isolation of the
+district has been an obstacle to the development of the salt mines,
+but there is a project for the building of a railroad to the port of
+Barahona. Part of the salt used in the island comes from salt ponds
+near Azua, where salt is obtained from sea water by solar evaporation.
+
+On a hill at the confluence of the Jimenoa and the Yaque del Norte an
+alum deposit reaches the surface and the natives gather alum which
+they sell in Santiago City. A deposit of amber having been reported in
+the Cibao a company was formed several years ago for its development,
+but as the company did nothing, so far as known, except issue stock,
+and no part of the untold millions which were affirmed to be within
+easy reach has materialized, the deposit is not regarded as possessing
+commercial value.
+
+For building purposes there is a large variety of limestone and lime.
+The coral rock is easy to quarry and soft enough to shape with the
+axe, but exposure to the air makes it hard as granite, as is proven by
+the old buildings and city walls of Santo Domingo City, which have
+stood for centuries. In the central range, on the Samana peninsula and
+near Puerto Plata, granite, syenite and other building stones are
+found, but owing to the absence of transportation facilities they are
+not utilized. In the Bani region a sandstone occurs from which
+grindstones are made. Clay of a fine grade, proper for the manufacture
+of bricks and tiles, is abundant. Clays of various colors, found in
+the interior of the island, are suitable for the manufacture of
+paints. Gypsum is found, especially in Azua province, and the presence
+of kaolin and feldspar in the province of Santo Domingo, south of the
+central range, offers a possibility of porcelain manufacture.
+
+Petroleum has been found in large quantities in the vicinity of Azua.
+The presence of the oil is suspected in other parts of the island and
+it is claimed that a petroleum belt which is believed to extend from
+Pennsylvania to Venezuela embraces a considerable portion of the
+Dominican Republic. Near Puerto Plata, during rains, one of the
+streams flowing down from the mountains in the Mameyes section, is
+covered with greasy spots thought to be petroleum that has oozed from
+the subsoil. Traces of petroleum have also been discovered near Neiba,
+and in the provinces of Pacificador and Seibo.
+
+Borings have been made only in the neighborhood of Azua. A pool known
+as "agua hedionda," "stinking water," had long suggested petroleum,
+and an American company known as the West Indies Petroleum Mining and
+Export Company undertook the development of the field. Oil was struck
+on November 14, 1904, the well spouting oil to a height of seventy
+feet and producing about 500 barrels per day. The grade of the oil was
+22 Baume gravity with an asphaltum base. It was better than the
+average of Texas oil and was considered a good fuel and lubricating
+product. The main difficulty in this field was the presence of salt
+water above the oil (as is often the case in oil regions), which here
+came in rapidly at a depth of about 900 to 1000 feet. It was necessary
+to put a gate valve on the first well, keeping it enclosed for a
+period of six months, in order to prevent the damaging of the
+surrounding property from the flow of oil, as there were no storage
+tanks. During this time the continued agitation of the casing by the
+gas pressure and the looseness of the upper soils and shales let in
+the salt water and ruined the well, and, it is to be feared, to some
+extent affected the surrounding territory. The company sunk four wells
+more, all but one of which produced some oil, but as the salt water
+entered in such large quantities they were unable to penetrate below
+the 1200 feet level and were forced to abandon the wells at just about
+the depth where they expected to reach the real oil sand. The fifth
+well showed greater evidence of a genuine oil field than any drilled
+previously but for the same reason it could not be carried to the
+desired depth. At this point dissensions arose in the management of
+the company with regard to the method of drilling, the suggestion
+being made that a combination drilling machinery comprising what is
+known as the rotary process be adopted in combination with the old
+cable rig style. No agreement was reached, and operations were
+discontinued. Since the beginning of 1917 other interests have made
+investigations and it is rumored that development work will shortly
+begin. There are indications that if drilled with the proper
+appliances the field will yield excellent results. How far the Azua
+oil field extends is a matter of conjecture, but it has been estimated
+to cover an area of over 190 square miles.
+
+Thermal springs are also found near Azua. At Resoli, about 21 miles
+southwest of Azua City, there are hot sulphur springs of very copious
+flow. Nearby there is one of tepid water, slightly acid and stinging,
+though pleasant to the taste, and with no trace of sulphur. Within a
+radius of a hundred yards there are about a dozen springs of different
+temperatures and medicinal properties, and the place is admirably
+adapted for the location of a health resort. Mineral springs,
+especially sulphur springs, abound along the western frontier of the
+Republic. On the Viajama River, where a sulphur mine is reported,
+there are cold sulphur springs which are said to have gushed forth for
+the first time during the earthquake of 1751. To the east of Santiago
+are the Anibaje springs which contain sulphur and iron. Hot and cold
+sulphur springs are found in the outskirts of San José de las Matas,
+southwest of Santiago, and hot springs at Banica, and to the east and
+west of Lake Enriquillo.
+
+While there are no volcanoes on the island, severe seismic
+disturbances have at times occasioned great havoc and loss of life.
+One of the first and most memorable was that of 1564 which overthrew
+the cities of La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros. La Vega was at
+that time a good sized town with substantial brick houses, and the
+masses of masonry strewn about in the thicket which now covers the
+site of the old city give evidence of the force of the earthquake. In
+1654 and 1673 dwellings and churches in Santo Domingo City were
+damaged by lesser shocks, and in 1751 an earthquake wrecked edifices
+in the capital, and completely destroyed the old city of Azua and the
+town of Seibo. The most recent and perhaps the most disastrous
+earthquake was that of 1842 when a violent commotion in the northern
+part of the island demolished the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros
+on the Dominican side and Cape Haitien on the Haitian side, bringing
+death to hundreds of their inhabitants. Since that date there have
+been no severe shocks, though, as is the case in other West India
+Islands, slight tremblings of the earth are not infrequent. I have
+experienced several of such tremblings in Santo Domingo and have never
+been able to ward off a kind of creepy feeling when the rattling of
+windows and doors indicated their approach and passage. Near the ruins
+of ancient La Vega the natives point out a spot in the woods which
+they call "tembladera" and where they say the earth quakes at the
+approach of man. Investigation discloses that while the earth really
+does tremble when anyone walks at this place the cause is not so
+deep-seated as many imagine, the phenomenon being caused by the fact
+that the rich loamy soil is sustained by the interlaced roots of
+trees, the foundation having been washed away by subterranean waters,
+and the grassy floor is swayed by every motion upon it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+Agricultural conditions.--Land titles and measures.--Wet and arid
+regions.--Exports.--Sugar.--Cacao.--Tobacco.--Coffee.--Tropical
+fruits.--Forest products.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Fishery.--Birds.
+--Cattle raising.
+
+
+Of all the islands visited by Columbus none impressed him so favorably
+as Santo Domingo. His enthusiasm is reflected in the glowing
+description given in his letter to his friend and patron, Luis de
+Santangel, dated February 15, 1493, of which the following forms part:
+
+"In it (la Española) there are many havens on the sea, coast,
+incomparable with any others I know in Christendom--and plenty of
+rivers, so good and great that it is a marvel. The lands there are
+high, and in it there are very many ranges of hills and most lofty
+mountains, incomparably beyond the Island of Cetrefrey (Teneriffe);
+all most beautiful in a thousand shapes and all accessible, and full
+of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the
+sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage, as may be
+imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in
+Spain in May, and some of them were in flower, some in fruit, some in
+another stage, according to their kind. And the nightingale was
+singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of
+November, round about the way I was going. There are palm trees of six
+or eight species, wondrous to see for their beautiful variety; but so
+are the other trees and fruits and plants therein. There are wonderful
+pine groves and very large plains of verdure, and there is honey and
+many kinds of birds and great diversity of fruits. There are many
+mines of metals in the earth, and the population is of inestimable
+number. Española is a marvel; the mountains and hills, and plains, and
+fields, and the soil so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing,
+for breeding cattle of all sorts, for building towns and villages.
+There could be no believing, without seeing, such harbors as are here,
+as well as the many and great rivers and excellent waters, most of
+which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants there is great
+diversity from those of Juana (Cuba). In this island there are many
+species and great mines of gold and other metals."
+
+Columbus' panegyric on the beauty, fertility and resources of the
+Island has been echoed by every writer and traveler who has since
+visited the country. The United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo
+Domingo reported in 1871: "The resources of the country are vast and
+various, and its products may be increased with scarcely any other
+limit than the labor expended upon them.... Taken as a whole, this
+Republic is one of the most fertile regions on the face of the earth.
+The evidence of men well acquainted with the other West India Islands
+declares this to be naturally the richest of them all." Yet the
+country's wonderful resources are to-day in almost virgin condition;
+in the greater part of the Republic's extent they remain absolutely
+untouched; in the remainder the beginning of development has scarcely
+been made.
+
+In the first days of the colony it appeared that agricultural
+prosperity would quickly be attained. Great plantations were set out
+and the remains of palaces and convents in Santo Domingo City testify
+to the wealth they produced. But the prosperity was founded on the
+basis of slavery. The laughing aborigines soon succumbed under forced
+labor, the importation of negroes was found expensive, and hopes of
+better fortune attracted the colonists to the American continent.
+While the country languished under restrictive trade regulations,
+stock raising became almost the sole pursuit of the Spanish section of
+the island. In the meantime the French settled the western coast, and
+the name of their colony, also founded on slavery, became a synonym
+for wealth and luxury. The development of the Spanish section had
+scarcely begun at the end of the eighteenth century when it was
+blocked by wars, the Haitian occupation, and later by the civil
+disturbances. The native had no incentive to accumulate property,
+which would only attract revolutionists, and the foreigner was chary
+of investing his money in so turbulent a community. What progress has
+been made is due to the short periods of peace, principally the period
+of Heureaux's ascendancy, from 1880 to 1899, and the periods from 1905
+to date. The rapid and gratifying strides made since the
+Dominican-American fiscal treaty increased the probabilities of peace
+are an indication of what the country may and will in time attain. As
+an English-speaking resident put it, paraphrasing a familiar saying in
+the United States, "If the people will only raise more cacao and less
+Hades, the country will soon be a paradise." At the present time the
+most serious obstacle to rural development is the lack of adequate
+means of communication--roads and railroads. It is evident that the
+interior cannot be developed so long as the cost of transportation is
+prohibitive or the roads are impassable during a great part of
+the year.
+
+The condition of land titles leaves much to be desired. All titles are
+supposed to be derived from original grants by the crown or the
+government of the Republic. As there is no record extant of such
+grants and as much land has been acquired by adverse possession, the
+amount of land remaining to the state cannot even be the subject of an
+intelligent guess. The greater part of such land passed to the
+Republic as successor to the Spanish crown, another portion was added
+in 1844 by the confiscation of property belonging to Haitians, but no
+attempt has ever been made to survey or even to list state lands.
+According to some estimates the state owns as much as one or even
+two-fifths the area of the Republic, but it is probable that these
+estimates are exaggerated and almost the only tracts remaining to the
+government are situated in the inaccessible mountain region of the
+interior and along the Haitian border. The income of the Republic is
+still insufficient to leave money for the investigation of public
+lands, and every year's delay will permit more of such lands to be
+absorbed by private persons.
+
+A large portion of the rural land is held in common. Tracts originally
+belonging to one owner descended undivided among his heirs for
+generations, individual heirs sometimes sold their shares, and the
+result is that often the tract belongs in common to many persons, some
+of them holding very small shares. The shares of the co-owners are
+known as "pesos de posesión," "dollars of possession," corresponding
+to the value given them at some remote period. The owner of any
+undivided portion of such "comunero" property, though he hold only one
+or two shares or "pesos de posesión," may enter upon and cultivate any
+part of the land he finds unoccupied by other co-owners, and use
+anything growing or existing thereon, except certain timber or unless
+it be the result of the labor of other co-owners. That this peculiar
+mode of enjoying the comunero property has not resulted in friction
+and conflicts may be ascribed to the smallness of the cultivated
+fields, the small population and the enormous expanse of vacant land.
+For the prospective purchaser the doubts surrounding the title to
+comunero lands are enhanced by the existence of fraudulent "peso"
+titles and by the destruction of public offices where title transfers
+should have been recorded. In recent years much division of comunero
+land among the co-owners has been going on and such action is
+facilitated by a law of 1911, but the importance of the matter merits
+additional laws to cheapen and hasten the division.
+
+All the planting of small crops by the poorer countryman is done in
+what are called "conucos," cleared spaces fenced by sticks laid
+tightly against each other in order to keep out the wild pigs which
+infest the country. The construction of the fences is a laborious
+task, yet after one or two years they require extensive repairs, and
+when the repairs are such as to amount to a practical rebuilding, the
+"conuco" is commonly abandoned, and a new one located elsewhere. This
+method is wasteful of fence-material and land. The planting is done in
+the most primitive way, commonly by making a hole in the ground with a
+machete or by using a forked stick as a plow. There are few hoes, and
+among the natives no modern steel plows.
+
+A "conuco" is usually about one acre in extent, or to be precise
+twenty-five varas conuqueras square. Though the metric system is the
+official system of measurement and is gradually coming into use, many
+of the older standards still prevail. A common measure of length is
+the Castilian vara, about equivalent to an English yard; the vara
+conuquera, about two and a half yards; the tarea, used for measuring
+fences, twenty-five varas conuqueras in length, and the league,
+something over three miles. The common units of surface measurement
+are the tarea, of about one-sixth acre, and the caballeria of 1200
+tareas or about 200 acres.
+
+Generally speaking, a line drawn from Cape Isabela on the north coast,
+through Santiago, to the mouth of the Nizao River in the south,
+divides the country into two regions of which the eastern one has
+abundant rainfall and luxuriant tropical vegetation, while in the
+western one there is little rain, and cactus plants and thorny bushes
+betoken the aridity of the soil. The two ends of the Cibao Valley seem
+like different countries, the eastern end covered with palm-trees,
+ferns and other flora of the torrid zone, and the western portion dry
+and dotted with giant cacti of fantastic shape. In the country near
+Azua and Monte Cristi I have imagined myself on the plains of New
+Mexico, with their scorching heat, their cactus, mesquite bushes and
+distant violet mountains fading into the azure sky. While arid, these
+western regions of Santo Domingo are as fertile as the rest of the
+country and when irrigated give remarkable crops. One of the Dominican
+government's projects is an extensive irrigation scheme for the Monte
+Cristi district. The most productive portion of the Republic is
+undoubtedly the Royal Plain in the Cibao Valley, which is of almost
+incredible fertility. It is covered with a rich black loam from three
+to fifteen feet deep, as can be seen wherever brooks have cut ravines
+into the earth, and is referred to as the Mississippi Valley of the
+Dominican Republic.
+
+The greater or less elevation of the land has likewise produced
+different agricultural zones: the lower plains of the southern coast
+are favored for sugar planting; the slightly higher lands are given
+over to cacao and coffee, and the highest part of the country, the
+mountain region, is covered with timber. Broad savannas are a feature
+of the southern portion of the Republic; on the plains to the east of
+Santo Domingo City, all the way to the ocean, there are great seas of
+grass, like the prairies of the United States, with large islands of
+trees, while to the west they constitute lakes in a continent
+of forest.
+
+All tropical fruits grow in profusion and many vegetables, fruits and
+cereals indigenous to countries of the temperate zone are successfully
+grown. Practically all the vegetables and fruits, as well as the
+grains and staples of the Middle States of the American Union may be
+produced, especially in the higher portion of the island. The fact
+that raspberries and delicious grapes grow wild in the highland
+indicates the possibilities of fruit culture. With a view to
+encouraging agriculture the various provinces for years had "boards of
+development" paid from national funds, but the positions on these
+boards were regarded as political plums, and while the members drew
+their salaries, no other result of their activities was apparent. The
+government has also made spasmodic attempts to establish an
+agricultural experiment station, but with its limited resources
+nothing tangible has been accomplished. The establishment and
+extension of large sugar estates was stimulated by a law of
+agricultural franchises, enacted in 1911, granting excessively broad
+privileges and exemptions to sugar, cacao and coffee plantations which
+registered under that law.
+
+The table on the opposite page shows the quantity and value of the
+principal exports of the Dominican Republic since 1913 and is the best
+illustration of the fact that agriculture is the mainstay of
+the country.
+
+
+          EXPORTS OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+                       1913         1914         1915         1916
+Sugar (raw) kilos[1] 78,849,465  101,428,847  102,800,551 122,642,514
+             value   $3,650,556   $4,943,452   $7,676,383 $12,028,297
+Cacao        kilos   19,470,827   20,744,517   20,223,023  21,053,305
+             value   $4,119,955   $3,896,489   $4,863,754  $5,958,669
+Tobacco leaf kilos    9,790,398    3,705,549    6,235,409   7,925,151
+             value   $1,121,775     $394,224     $972,896  $1,433,323
+Coffee       kilos    1,048,922    1,831,938    2,468,435   1,731,718
+             value     $257,076     $345,579     $458,431    $316,827
+Hides and    kilos      541,154      685,042      638,020     616,446
+   skins     value     $241,072     $253,832     $270,356    $334,665
+Sugar cane   value       --        $62,585     $195,782    $295,622
+Bananas      bunches    592,804      114,142      327,169     348,560
+             value     $296,368      $57,044     $166,432    $172,615
+Beeswax and
+   honey     value     $206,749     $207,290     $144,579    $176,144
+Molasses     kilos   12,064,038   17,962,441   15,484,205  18,752,440
+             value      $60,737      $93,787     $100,023    $120,738
+Forest       value     $167,037      $66,464      $64,368     $57,250
+  products
+Cotton       kilos      242,221      167,123     141,623       91,258
+             value      $85,398      $67,830     $60,600      $31,759
+All other    value     $263,224     $200,211    $240,457     $601,964
+  exports
+                     ------------------------------------------------
+Total       value   $10,469,947  $10,588,787  $15,209,061 $21,527,873
+
+[Footnote 1: 1 kilo = 2.2 pounds]
+
+Sugar, the leading export, is the principal product of the southern
+portion of the Republic. In contrast with the cultivation of cacao,
+coffee and tobacco, sugar planting requires a large outlay of capital.
+The fields must be carefully prepared, extensive ditching must be done
+in order to provide irrigation during the dry season; the fields must
+be cleaned repeatedly while the cane is growing; and when the cane
+eventually matures, after fourteen to eighteen months of growth,
+it must upon cutting be immediately transported to the mill,
+where expensive machinery grinds it and fabricates sugar from
+the cane juice. The large sugar plantations of the country
+are all owned by foreigners, principally Americans and Italians,
+but dependent upon them are many small plots, planted under
+contract with the central factory by small native owners or
+contractors. Before the establishment of the first of these
+plantations near Macoris in the early eighties, the apparatus for
+making sugar was as crude as that employed by the first colonists,
+consisting of small presses turned by oxen, and large caldrons to boil
+the cane. The other West India Islands are dotted with the ruins of
+old sugar mills erected in the beginning and middle of the last
+century, but those days were not favorable to investment in Santo
+Domingo and such buildings and ruins are absolutely wanting in
+this island.
+
+Most of the large plantations are located in the vicinity of San Pedro
+de Macoris, and to them the city owes its rapid development. These
+represent a value of millions of dollars, are equipped with plantation
+railroads and modern mills and extend over thousands of acres of the
+plains behind the city. The great Consuelo estate, the Santa Fé
+plantation, the Porvenir and the Puerto Rico estates are owned by
+American capital, and two others, the Quisqueya and Cristobal Colon
+plantations are owned by Americans and Cubans. The Angelina estate is
+an Italian investment, but its owners hold it in the name of the
+General Industrial Company, a corporation organized by them under the
+laws of New Jersey, apparently with a view to claiming American
+protection in case of disturbances. The principal owners of this
+estate as well as of other Italian sugar estates on the south coast
+are heirs of J.B. Vicini, who was a wealthy Italian merchant of Santo
+Domingo City.
+
+One of the largest sugar estates of the Republic is the Central
+Romana, which controls some 40,000 acres near the port of La Romana,
+and is owned by the South Porto Rico Sugar Company. Since the first
+crop in 1911 the cane has been shipped to the mill at Guanica, Porto
+Rico, for grinding, but a huge fifteen-roller mill, which will be the
+largest on the island, is now in course of erection at La Romana.
+
+Two plantations near Santo Domingo City, San Isidro and La Fé, belong
+to Americans. The Italia sugar estate at Yaguate, near the Nizao
+River, the Ocoa estate and the Central Azuano, on the outskirts of
+Azua all belong to the Vicini heirs. At Azua there is another
+plantation, the Ansonia estate, which is the property of Americans.
+The plantations at Azua and Ocoa are watered by irrigation, those of
+Azua deriving their water from artesian wells. American capital is
+also establishing sugar plantations near Barahona. On the north coast
+there are only two small sugar plantations near Puerto Plata, in which
+German and Spanish capital is interested, but another is being
+established at Sosua.
+
+So rich are the Dominican lands that cane will grow from the same root
+for ten and even twenty years, while in Porto Rico and the lesser
+Antilles long cultivation has exhausted the soil and replanting is
+necessary every three years. Near Macoris the planters have had so
+much land available that instead of replanting they have often
+abandoned their old fields and taken up virgin lands instead. The
+busiest time in Macoris is the crop season from November to May. Many
+laborers are then required, and as native labor is not abundant, large
+numbers of negroes come from the British West Indies to work on the
+plantations, returning to their homes when the cane has been cut.
+
+Most of the Dominican sugar goes to the United States and a large
+portion is eventually sold in Canada and England. When the amount of
+sugar produced in little Porto Rico is compared with that grown in
+Santo Domingo, it is evident that the Dominican production might
+easily be increased to twenty times its present figure.
+
+While sugar attracts the foreigner, the Dominican's favorite staple
+has been cacao. The cacao or chocolate tree grows in a number of the
+West India Islands, but in none of them is it cultivated to such an
+extent as in Santo Domingo. Cacao is peculiarly fitted to be a "poor
+man's crop," as little land and labor are required and, while the
+trees are growing, corn, bananas and other crops can be raised on the
+same field. Most of the cacao is raised on small plantations,
+producing from fifty to one hundred barrels, a barrel being worth
+about eight dollars. For the preparation and planting of the field of
+a poor man the whole family turns out and neighbors often come to
+help, regular planting bees being organized. The larger landowner
+makes contracts for the preparation of his lands, paying at the rate
+of $2 or $2.50 a tarea.
+
+The best months for planting cacao are the wet months, which in the
+Cibao are May and October. Small holes are dug in the earth about
+three yards apart and three beans placed in each. When the sprouts
+grow into young trees, two of the three should be cut off, and the
+best developed allowed to remain; but the countrymen generally permit
+all three to grow, with resulting dwarfed trees and poor crops. To
+protect the small plants from the hot sun a yuca or cassava plant is
+set out next to each one. While the trees are growing, corn is planted
+between the rows and three or even four crops are obtained in each
+year. After two years the cacao trees begin to bloom, after three
+years they begin to give fruit, and their production gradually
+increases until their eighth year when they reach mature growth. Each
+tree furnishes about two pounds of cacao per year. On the larger
+plantations less attention is paid to ancillary crops and the cacao
+plants are raised in seedbeds, the seedlings being transplanted to the
+field after six months or a year. When the pods containing the cacao
+beans are ripe the beans are extracted, soaked in water and then dried
+in the sun. During the crop season cacao beans are spread on mats
+before every native hut and in the streets of every town and village
+in the Cibao, and the sourish smell of the drying bean pervades
+the air.
+
+The principal cacao region is the Cibao and the upper Seibo plain, and
+the largest plantation, belonging to the well-known Swiss chocolate
+manufacturer, Suchard, is situated near Sabana la Mar, on the south
+side of Samana Bay. The cacao here produced is not of the finest
+grade, such as that grown in Ecuador, but goes to make the cheaper
+grades of chocolate.
+
+The ease with which cacao is planted and the profits to be derived
+from it often cause the small farmers to neglect everything else for
+cacao and purchase articles of food which they could themselves raise.
+The consequence is that when the cacao crop fails, there is widespread
+want and discontent.
+
+Cacao has been exported since 1888, before which time it was grown for
+local consumption only. For years it led the country's exports, until
+sugar took first place in 1914. The greater portion of the cacao crop
+is exported through the port of Sanchez, on Samana Bay. Formerly
+almost the whole crop went to Europe, Havre being the chief market,
+but of late years the United States has become one of the
+principal buyers.
+
+The cultivation of tobacco is confined to the Cibao region, where it
+was grown by the Indians when the Spaniards landed. It is a crop
+yielding rapid returns, but cacao has paid so much better that the
+progress of tobacco culture has been slow. The effort of the
+countrymen to produce quantity rather than quality has prevented the
+development of the finer grades and the price paid for Dominican
+tobacco is low. While the tobacco grown is of inferior quality, there
+is no reason why it should not be susceptible of improvement as the
+climatic and soil conditions of the interior valleys are very similar
+to those of the tobacco regions of Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+Tobacco is grown mostly by small planters and sold to the large
+commercial houses of Santiago and Puerto Plata. Practically the entire
+crop is exported through Puerto Plata. Before the European war the
+great market for Dominican tobacco was Hamburg. Up to 1907 tobacco was
+exported only in leaf, but since then a small cigarette industry has
+developed.
+
+Coffee is another native crop the development of which has been
+checked by the popularity of cacao. It is also a crop which can be
+grown with profit on small tracts of land. The coffee bushes flourish
+in the mountains and are grown under the shade of larger trees. A
+clearing having been made in the forest, the small coffee trees are
+planted in rows or irregularly and near each a banana or plantain
+tree. The latter reach full height within six months and afford shade
+until guava and other shade trees planted on the field have attained
+sufficient size. A wait of five years is necessary before the coffee
+bushes begin to bear, but after that they continue indefinitely every
+year, the only labor required being that of keeping the plantation
+clear of brush and picking the berries when they are ripe. The trees
+grow to a height of six or eight feet; they bloom with a fragrant,
+white, star-like flower which on withering leaves the green embryo of
+the berry. When the berry has reached the size of a hazel-nut it turns
+red and is picked, much of the picking being done by women.  The
+berries are poured into a simple machine which extracts the two coffee
+beans encased in each berry. The beans are dried in the sun, on the
+largest plantations in drying machines. They are then transported to
+the merchants in town, where they are polished in another machine,
+assorted and bagged for export. The town of Moca owes its name to the
+fact that the principal coffee plantations lie in its vicinity. Other
+important coffee districts are Santiago and Bani. About two-thirds of
+the coffee of the Republic is exported from Puerto Plata.
+
+The coffee of Santo Domingo is of excellent quality. In normal times
+the greater portion was exported to France and Germany, but most of it
+now goes to the United States.
+
+With one exception the limitless resources of Santo Domingo with
+reference to fruit culture have remained untouched. The single
+exception was the United Fruit Company's banana plantation at Sosua,
+about ten miles east of Puerto Plata, and even this estate is at
+present, in consequence of the greater attractiveness of sugar, being
+converted into a sugar plantation. Otherwise there has been no attempt
+to raise fruit for export, though the sweet and bitter orange, the
+lemon, the lime, the grapefruit and the paradoxical sweet lemon, grow
+wild. Pineapples are raised only for the small home consumption. An
+obstacle to the cultivation of such fruits at the present time would
+be the absence of rapid fruit steamers to the United States. The
+fruits peculiar to the torrid zone all grow in profusion and among
+them the native is fondest of the juicy mango, the guava, the aguacate
+or alligator pear, the anon or custard apple, the guanabana or
+soursop, the mamon or sweetsop, the mamey or marmalade fruit, the
+nispero or sapodilla and the tamarind. From the large palm-groves
+about Samana Bay cocoanuts and a little copra are exported,
+principally to the United States.
+
+Small attempts have been made to cultivate other products to which the
+country is adapted. Growers of cotton and hemp are encouraged by
+results, but a rice plantation established in the swamp-lands near the
+head of Samana Bay proved a failure rather on account of errors of
+management than for other reasons.
+
+In the forests which cover her mountains Santo Domingo has hardwoods,
+dyewoods and building timber of inestimable value. Only a generation
+ago mahogany trees grew all the way to the water's edge, but years of
+wasteful cutting have exhausted the nearer supplies and the more
+valuable woods must now be sought in the interior. In the mountains
+and on the high plateaus of the interior there are hundreds of square
+miles of Spanish cedar and longleaf pine. The principal woods exported
+are mahogany, guayacan, known to commerce as lignum vitae (one of the
+hardest woods and so heavy that when in loading the steamer a log
+drops into the sea it sinks to the bottom like iron), bera or bastard
+lignum vitae, espinillo or yellowwood, campeche or logwood (a famous
+dyeing material), sparwood and cedar. Other forest products exported
+are dividivi, a tanning bark, and resins. Most of these exports go to
+the United States and England. For the preparation of lumber for local
+needs there are sawmills in La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros.
+
+With regard to indigenous fauna Santo Domingo occupies a position
+midway between the diverse and abundant fauna of Cuba and the more
+limited species of the Leeward Islands. Insects abound and in all the
+coast towns it is necessary to sleep under a mosquito bar. Wild bees
+are found in many parts of the country and apiculture has met with
+much success.  Of poisonous insects there are few. Those sometimes
+met with are the species of tarantula known as the hairy spider, the
+spider known as guava, and the blue spider, also the scorpion and the
+centipede. Their sting produces intense pain, inflammation and fever.
+They are found in crevices, under stones, in caves, and in rotten
+wood. The last two are often seen in old houses, but daily use of the
+broom and duster will make them appear but rarely. Some of these
+animals grow to a large size. On a ride on the Haitian border my horse
+shied at a tarantula in the trail, and in calling my Dominican
+companion's attention to it, I remarked that it was as large as a
+saucer. "That is nothing," he replied, "there are many around here as
+large as a soup plate."
+
+There are few classes of reptiles. Santo Domingo is a paradise where
+serpents are at a discount, for they are few in number and although
+occasionally some are found of considerable size, they are all
+harmless. Lizards are plentiful in the forests, the largest class
+being known as iguana, which is eaten by some of the country people,
+as it was in former days by the Indians. The lizards are all
+inoffensive. A species of alligator is found in the lower waters of
+the Yaque del Norte and of the Yaque del Sur, and in the salt lakes on
+the Haitian border. Tortoises occur in such numbers that their shell
+forms an article of commerce.
+
+Crustaceans and testaceans are abundant in number though few in
+species. A tiny oyster is found, not much larger than a thumb-nail,
+but very succulent. The marine fauna is the same as that of the
+neighboring Antilles, the sea and rivers teeming with edible fish, to
+which, however, but little attention is paid. Sharks infest the coasts
+and render bathing unsafe except behind protecting reefs.
+Occasionally, too, a manati, or sea-cow, is seen. This strange mammal
+has breasts which resemble those of a human being and emits cries
+that sound almost human. It was probably a party of manati gamboling
+about in the water which induced Columbus gravely to enter in his
+logbook that he had sighted mermaids near Monte Cristi.
+
+Of birds there are over one hundred and fifty species, about
+ninety-five of which are residents and among these several peculiar to
+this island. The forests resound with the cries of parrots and other
+birds of beautiful plumage; from any point on the coast pelicans and
+other ichthyophagous birds can be observed darting into the waters
+after their prey; the lakes and rivers are the home of thousands of
+wild ducks; myriads of wild pigeons breed in the woods; and the number
+of insectivorous birds, including the sweet-singing nightingale,
+jilguero and turpial, the swallow and the small pitirre and colibri,
+is infinite. The caves are inhabited by swarms of bats, the guano of
+which, mingled with the calcareous detritus of the rocky walls, is
+found in great deposits and constitutes a good fertilizer.
+
+At the time of the discovery the Spaniards found very few kinds of
+quadruped mammals. One was the agouti, looking like a large rat and
+inhabiting the forests; another the coati, similar to the squirrel and
+easily domesticated. Three other classes are mentioned, the quemi,
+mohui and perro mudo (dumb dog), but are not now to be found and as
+the description of two of them almost tallies with that of the others
+above mentioned, it is possible that different names were applied to
+the same animals. It is possible, too, that reference was made to the
+solenodon or almiqui, an animal long thought to be extinct but of
+which several specimens have recently been found in Santo Domingo.
+This animal is about two feet, long and resembles a rat, but having a
+long prehensile snout and the habits of an ant-eater, it is considered
+to be a remnant of the early zoölogical type from which diverged both
+the rodents and the insectivorous animals of the present.
+
+The Spaniards introduced the European domestic animals, which
+immediately began to flourish. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
+century the principal and for a long time almost the only industry of
+the Spanish portion of the island was cattle-raising. Some of the
+cattle and pigs escaped to the woods and reverted to the wild state,
+and towards the middle and end of the seventeenth century great herds
+of wild cattle roamed over the island. Such herds no longer exist, but
+wild pigs have found their way to the most remote recesses of the
+mountains and are the plague of the fields. The equine species, sprung
+from the Andalusian horses brought by the Spaniards, has degenerated
+considerably and the best horses in the Republic today are of Porto
+Rican stock, but attention is at last being given to breeding. The
+largest herds of cattle roam about in the unfenced arid regions of the
+northwest. Hides are exported in large quantities, but there is little
+dairying. Of late years attention is being directed to improving the
+stock and several stock farms have been established near San Pedro
+de Macoris.
+
+Sheep raising is followed to some extent in the arid regions of the
+southwest and northwest, but the wool is of coarse grade. An important
+industry in these regions, especially in the neighborhood of Azua, is
+goat-raising. My inquiry as to the population of Azua was answered by
+the purser of the Clyde line steamer: "About three thousand people and
+about three million goats." Though his estimate of the number of goats
+may have been somewhat exaggerated, the fact is that they are
+everywhere in evidence and charge through the streets in droves, and
+at the great Azua church I found a goat in the vestibule looking
+reverently in. Over nine-tenths of the goatskins exported from the
+Republic go to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+THE PEOPLE
+
+Population.--Distribution.--Race.--Descendants of American
+negroes.--Language.--Physical traits.--Mental traits.--Amusements.
+--Dances, theaters, clubs, carnivals.--Gaming.--Morality.--Homes.
+
+
+The estimates of the early Spanish writers as to the Indian population
+of Hispaniola at the time of its first settlement in 1493 range all
+the way from one million to three million inhabitants. While it is
+probable that the former number was nearer to the truth, it is evident
+that the island was well inhabited, for Columbus found every valley
+swarming with natives. The severe labor imposed by the Spaniards made
+such frightful inroads on the native population that within a decade
+labor for the plantations and mines began to grow scarce and forty
+thousand inhabitants of the Bahama Islands were imported to increase
+the supply. They were lured on board the Spanish transports by the
+promise that they were to be conveyed to the beautiful home of their
+departed ancestors and though they did indeed quickly join their
+deceased relatives, it was not until after a taste of purgatory in the
+mines of Santo Domingo. In 1507 the entire Indian population was
+estimated at only 70,000, in 1508 it had fallen to 40,000, and in 1514
+to 14,000. Six years later the remnant of the aborigines united in the
+mountains to resist the Spaniards to the end, but in 1533 a treaty was
+concluded by which the Indians were assigned certain lands near Boya,
+thirty miles northeast of Santo Domingo City. According to some
+authorities 4000 and according to others only 600 natives remained to
+take advantage of this provision. Thereafter all mention of the
+Indians disappears from Dominican annals. Types recalling Indian
+characteristics are sometimes seen, however, and it is probable that
+some Indian blood is still represented in the country.
+
+Father Las Casas, the friend of the Indians, is credited with the
+suggestion that in place of the frail natives negroes be imported for
+labor in the mines and on the plantations. The earliest importations
+seem to have taken place in the opening years of the sixteenth
+century, for as early as 1505 King Ferdinand authorized the shipment
+of more negroes in lots of 100. Later, licenses were issued for the
+importation of negro slaves by the thousands and many more were
+probably smuggled in. The Spanish population also grew rapidly until
+about 1530 when the colony reached the zenith of its wealth and
+prosperity. Twelve years later, when the decline had become marked, it
+was estimated that besides a substantial white population there were
+30,000 negro slaves on the island. The superior attractions of other
+newly discovered countries and the fear of piratical invasions had by
+1591 decreased the total population of the colony to 15,000. This
+number remained almost stationary until about 1663 when it began to
+dwindle further until the low water mark was reached, about 1737, and
+the entire population of the Spanish portion of the island was
+estimated at but 6,000. Timely tariff concessions revived trade and
+encouraged immigration and new importations of slaves the number of
+inhabitants increased rapidly and in 1785 was reckoned at 150,000,
+including 30,000 slaves and a considerable proportion of free colored
+persons.  A decade later saw the beginning of the negro insurrection
+in the French section of Santo Domingo; the horrors attending this
+war, the invasion of the Spanish colony by the Haitians, the menace of
+further invasions, the frequent changes of sovereignty, and adverse
+economic conditions, produced an exodus in the course of which the
+great majority of the white population abandoned the island, many with
+all their slaves and dependents. A few returned, but in 1809 it was
+calculated that the inhabitants of Spanish Santo Domingo numbered
+104,000 and in 1819 but 63,000, of whom the greater number were
+colored. During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, white emigration
+again took place and white immigration was discouraged, while
+settlements of negroes from Haiti and the United States were made in
+different parts of the country. The increase of the population since
+that time has been subject to little outside influence; there has been
+practically no emigration, and immigration has been insignificant, the
+few new settlers being chiefly negroes from the British colonies,
+Haitians, Porto Ricans, Syrians and European merchants. In 1863 an
+ecclesiastical census, based on the returns of the various parish
+priests, placed the population at 207,700. This number may be
+described as little more than a compilation of guesses and was
+probably exaggerated. A similar ecclesiastical census taken in 1888
+gave a total of 382,312 inhabitants.
+
+These ecclesiastical computations were founded to some extent on
+parish records of baptisms and burials, but this basis became more and
+more precarious as the population increased. Probably the records most
+nearly accurate are the baptismal records of the Church, for almost
+every Dominican is baptized at some time in his life. The death
+records are the least complete on account of the obstacles presented
+during the civil disorders and the distance at which many country
+people live from the place of registry. A law of civil registry,
+requiring the inscription of all births, marriages and deaths has been
+only indifferently carried out and during times of insurrection
+entirely suspended. A government census was begun in 1908 but not
+concluded. Any accurate computation is thus out of the question.
+
+Unofficial estimates of the population to-day range all the way from
+400,000 to 920,000. In 1908 an official estimate based on birth
+statistics, placed it at 605,000. An unofficial estimate in 1917, made
+on the assumption that there are 1000 inhabitants for every 37 births
+reported, calculated the total population at 795,432, thus distributed
+among the several provinces:
+
+Santo Domingo ... 127,976
+Santiago ........ 123,972
+La Vega.......... 105,000
+Pacificador......  90,569
+Seibo............  68,135
+Espaillat........  64,108
+Azua ............  59,783
+Puerto Plata  ...  55,864
+Monte Cristi  ...  41,459
+Macoris..........  28,000
+Barahona ........  17,891
+Samana ..........  12,675
+
+The estimate of 37 births per 1000 inhabitants is probably too large
+as the birth-rate in Jamaica is but 34.6, in the Leeward Islands 33,
+and in the birth-registration area of the United States only 24.9. A
+reduction of ten per cent in the above figures would probably make
+them more nearly correct. That would give a total population of about
+715,000. Accepting the number of inhabitants as 715,000 the
+population per square mile is about 39.6. A comparison with the
+surrounding West Indian countries reveals considerable disproportion.
+The Dominican Republic is not quite one-half the size of Cuba but has
+only one-fourth the number of inhabitants; it is almost double the
+size of the Republic of Haiti but has less than one-half the
+inhabitants; it is five times the size of Porto Rico and has but
+one-half the population; it is one hundred and seven times as large as
+Barbados but has only four times the population. If the Dominican
+Republic were as densely populated as the neighboring Republic of
+Haiti, it would have 3,000,000 inhabitants; if the population were as
+dense as that of Porto Rico, it would be 7,000,000; if the Republic
+were as densely inhabited as Barbados it would have over 21,000,000
+people. Though the climatic and topographical conditions of the
+country would not permit it to become as thickly populated as
+Barbados, there is no reason why it should not support a population
+proportional to that of Porto Rico.
+
+As in the other West India Islands the population is principally
+rural. There are probably not more than a dozen towns in the Republic
+with more than 1500 inhabitants. A government census of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital and largest urban center, taken in November, 1908,
+showed a population of 18,626, and the number is now estimated
+as 21,000.
+
+A census of Santiago de los Caballeros, taken by the municipal
+authorities in 1903, showed an urban population of 10,921, the present
+estimate being 14,000. The estimated population of Puerto Plata is
+about 7000; La Vega and San Pedro de Macoris are believed to have
+about 5000 inhabitants each, but in every other case the urban
+population falls below 3000.  The population of the Dominican
+Republic is not scattered uniformly over the country, but is to be
+found chiefly in a fringe along the shore all the way from Monte
+Cristi to Barahona, and in the Cibao Valley. The most densely
+populated region is that part of the Cibao Valley known as the Royal
+Plain. In the mountainous interior there are vast stretches almost or
+entirely uninhabited; and remote valleys which have not been visited
+since the days of the conquest.
+
+The vicissitudes through which Santo Domingo has passed, the departure
+of so large a proportion of whites in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century and the intermingling of blood before and since that time have
+determined the character of the population. At the present time the
+pure negroes are in a minority, constituting probably less than
+one-fourth the entire population. The great majority of the
+inhabitants are of mixed Spanish and African blood, their color
+ranging from black to white. The lighter shades predominate,
+especially in the Cibao. There is also a sprinkling of pure whites,
+the majority of whom are to be found in the Cibao region or are
+foreigners residing in the larger cities. Many families would pass for
+white anywhere, showing absolutely no trace of colored blood, and it
+is difficult to believe confidential assurances of their intimate
+friends, indicating a different condition. A few families trace their
+ancestry back to the first Spanish colonists. As most of the blacks
+live south of the central mountain range the population of this region
+is a good deal darker than that of the northern part of the island.
+The census of Santo Domingo City in 1908 reported 7016 whites, 6934
+colored persons and 4676 blacks, but apart from the circumstance that
+numerous white foreigners reside in the capital, it is probable that
+many persons were classified as white who would have been considered
+colored in the United States under the stricter rules there
+prevailing.
+
+A comparison with Haiti discloses marked racial differences. In the
+French-speaking republic about ninety per cent of the inhabitants are
+pure blacks, the remainder being mulattoes. The distinction between
+the two countries is due to several circumstances: in Santo Domingo
+the pure blacks have never been in a majority; the whites have never
+all left the country; massacres of mulattoes and whites have never
+taken place; there have never been political parties based on color;
+and the relations between the races have always been cordial. In
+company, side by side, mulattoes, blacks and whites have lived,
+worked, enjoyed themselves and fought their revolutions. There is
+absolutely no color line. A friend of mine from Virginia received
+quite a shock the first time he attended a state ball in Santo Domingo
+and saw an immense negro, as black as coal, a member of Congress,
+dancing with a girl as white as any of the foreign ladies present. He
+rushed to the refreshment room and beckoned to a tall mulatto in a
+dress suit: "I'll have something to cool off, here waiter--" He was
+stopped just in time for he was mistaking the secretary of foreign
+affairs for a waiter; but after this experience he was afraid of
+giving his order to anyone else for fear he might be offending some
+other high official. The blacks are commonly the lower laborers, but
+negroes are to be found in all grades of society and are not
+infrequently represented in the cabinet itself. Of the presidents the
+majority have been of mixed blood, but several, like Luperon and
+Heureaux, were full-blood negroes. It appears that the strong strain
+of white blood in the country has elevated all, mulattoes and negroes.
+The negroes have produced men of high ability: Heureaux, for
+instance, though unscrupulous and cruel, was a man of remarkable
+sagacity and energy.
+
+It must not be supposed for a moment that the Dominicans are inimical
+to whites or, like their neighbors, the Haitians, prefer to see their
+country peopled by negroes only. On the contrary they are anxious to
+be considered as belonging to the white race and are not pleased by
+reference to their mixed blood. For this reason the former policy of
+the United States of sending colored men as ministers and consuls to
+Santo Domingo was resented by the Dominicans who saw therein an
+evidence of contempt. I have often heard Dominican statesmen express
+an eager desire for immigration, but only white immigration. This
+sentiment is reflected in immigration laws and in several concessions
+granted in late years in which the concessionnaire was prohibited from
+importing laborers of African or Asiatic descent. The Congress has
+even made appropriations for the introduction of white families and
+their settlement along the Haitian frontier, but the isolation of this
+region and other circumstances made such laws impracticable of
+execution.
+
+During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, a different policy prevailed.
+President Boyer was desirous of seeing every part of the island
+populated by blacks and accordingly settled Haitian negroes in various
+parts of Santo Domingo and encouraged negro immigration from the
+United States by premiums to ship captains bringing such immigrants.
+The American negroes were distributed in Haiti and in Santo Domingo,
+particularly near Puerto Plata and in the Samana peninsula. The Puerto
+Plata settlers have mingled with the rest of the population, but
+around the town of Samana, where the largest settlement, consisting of
+some sixty families, was made, the descendants of the American
+immigrants still form a distinct class. Large portions of the
+peninsula are taken up by their well kept farms, and one of the
+sections or districts into which the commune of Samana is divided, is
+officially named "Sección de los Americanos." The people still
+preserve the English language and proudly proclaim that they are "of
+American abstraction."
+
+They have kept considerably aloof and only in recent years have there
+been marriages between them and their Spanish-speaking neighbors.
+Their exclusiveness has more than once been criticised by Dominicans.
+Of the original settlers all have passed away, their surviving
+children are advanced in age and the third generation is in its prime.
+The Methodist preacher of the district, a kindly black man, presented
+me to the oldest person of the American colony, a woman of about
+eighty years of age who was born only a few years after her parents
+arrived from Virginia. As the old woman stood smiling in the door of
+her little cabin, the walls of which were covered with leafy creepers,
+she looked the picture of an old Southern mammy. Her dialect was
+typical; when I said: "I am glad to meet you, Mrs. Sheppard," she
+answered, beaming, "Me likewise, I'se always glad to meet Americans, I
+is." Several of the American negroes have distinguished themselves in
+military matters, one of the most noted being General Anderson who
+grew gray in many revolutions.
+
+Between the coast towns and the ports of the surrounding countries,
+particularly Porto Rico, there is considerable coming and going. This
+was called to my attention the first time I set foot on Dominican
+soil, when a large negro darted out from a group of loungers on the
+wharf and seized my suit-case, crying: "Let me carry your baggage,
+Judge." Surprised, I inquired how he knew me, whereupon he asked
+reproachfully: "Don't you remember you sent me to jail in Mayaguez
+for shampooing a saucy stevedore's head with a brick?"
+
+Whether as a settler or transient visitor the foreigner may be sure of
+courteous and respectful treatment so long as he himself observes the
+proprieties. The laws grant the foreigner rights as ample as in the
+most advanced countries of the world.
+
+The language of Santo Domingo is Spanish, and the comparative purity
+with which it is spoken is remarkable when the long period of
+isolation of the country and the extended duration of Haitian rule are
+considered. In this particular Haiti offers a contrast, for though
+French is the official language the mass of the people speak Creole
+French, a patois unintelligible to anyone who has not lived in Haiti.
+The Dominicans do not lisp the "c" as do the Spaniards, and other
+peculiarities of Spanish as spoken in America are manifest, but on the
+whole the difference between the Dominican's Spanish and the
+Spaniard's Spanish may be compared to the difference between English
+as spoken in the United States and as spoken in England. Like several
+other Spanish-American nations the Dominicans are to be distinguished
+by their preference for certain words and endings, and by their accent
+and inflection. As everywhere else the unlettered classes are given to
+grammatical faults and provincialisms, but on the whole the vocabulary
+of the Dominican peasant contains fewer archaic expressions and Indian
+roots than that of the Porto Rican "jibaro" and is more easily
+understood by the outsider. Slight differences of pronunciation are
+noticeable in different parts of the country: the people of Seibo are
+inclined to use the vowel "i" instead of the consonant "r" and say
+"poique" instead of "porque," somewhat as the New York street urchin
+says "boid" for "bird"; the people of Santiago sometimes drop the "r"
+entirely and say "poque," as the Southern negro in the United States
+says "fo" for "four"; the peasants of Puerto Plata show a tendency to
+use the "u" instead of "o" and say "tudu" instead of "todo," like some
+of the inhabitants of Catalonia in Spain. The Azuans claim to speak
+the best Spanish of the Republic, but their claim is disputed by other
+provinces.
+
+Besides Spanish, the English and French languages are heard to a
+limited extent. On the Samana peninsula, where the descendants of
+American negroes are in a majority, as much English is spoken as
+Spanish, and in the coast towns, San Pedro de Macoris, Puerto Plata,
+Monte Cristi and Santo Domingo, it is also often heard. In these
+cities it is usually the singsong English of negroes from the British
+colonies. Along the Haitian border and at the extremity of the Samana
+peninsula, where a Haitian colony was planted by President Boyer, the
+French language is spoken. On the wharf at Monte Cristi I have
+encountered fruit-vendors from the interior who spoke no language
+except Creole French. Some persons who have been born and bred on the
+Samana peninsula know not a word of Spanish but only English. Many
+members of the wealthier class of the Republic have studied or
+traveled in Europe or the United States and speak one or more foreign
+languages. In Puerto Plata I was surprised to hear a jet-black negro
+speak German fluently; he had been educated in a commercial school in
+Hamburg. The larger cities have their foreign colonies, consisting
+principally of merchants, and most of the languages of Europe are
+represented.
+
+As a race the Dominicans are robust and sturdy. All the Dominican
+presidents of late years have been men of commanding physique, fitting
+representatives of their people. As far as industry is concerned the
+average Dominican is little more laborious than absolutely necessary
+to support himself and his family. Why should he do more when nature
+has been so bountiful and when in the past any accumulated fruits of
+his toil might have been swept away by the next revolution? The spirit
+of the tropics pervades the country and the tendency not to do to-day
+what can be conveniently left for "mañana" is constantly observed.
+
+The Dominican women are as a rule graceful of body and fair of face,
+with large and beautiful eyes. They make devoted wives and loving
+mothers. The ladies of the better class are quite as susceptible to
+the allurements of Parisian fashions as their American and European
+cousins, and the scenes at balls and at evening promenades on the
+plaza are very attractive. The heat of the climate makes a liberal use
+of powder necessary, and it almost seems as if the darker the color of
+the woman the greater is her fondness for powder, so that some of the
+negresses assume an almost grayish hue. The Dominican woman is very
+domestic, she rarely goes out except to church, to an occasional dance
+or to the band concerts on the plaza. Before her marriage she is
+carefully chaperoned and guarded; all courting takes place in the
+presence of her mother or some other near relative.
+
+Notwithstanding the large mixture of African blood and long isolation
+of the Dominican race, the strong personality of the Spaniard has
+survived unmodified and the population is to-day as thoroughly Spanish
+in character, customs and mode of thinking as the people of Cuba and
+Porto Rico. How completely the Spanish consciousness pervades the
+country was illustrated by a remark made to an American naval officer
+by the mayor of an inland town of Santo Domingo; he was a very black
+negro, but in the course of a discussion observed: "Your arguments
+will fit Anglo-Saxons, but _we Latins_ are a different people." The
+first trait noticeable is the politeness of Dominicans of every
+degree. Only once have I met a rude official and that by a curious
+coincidence was the very first one with whom I had dealings, but after
+this beginning there were no further exceptions to the rule. A
+charming characteristic is the open-hearted hospitality everywhere
+encountered. The stranger who is introduced in any home is immediately
+assured in the customary Spanish way: "This is your house." The words,
+though figuratively spoken, are sincere, and the hosts are glad to
+have their new friend visit their house as though it were his own. As
+companions the Dominicans are delightful, being generally jovial and
+amiable. Some there are, especially among the country people, whose
+natural reticence makes them seem sullen, but once the ice is broken
+they are quite as light-hearted as the others.
+
+In the idealistic tendency of their mind the Dominicans strongly show
+their brotherhood with the other Spanish peoples. In this connection
+the spirit of their renowned kinsman, Don Quixote de la Mancha, is
+often in evidence. When one of them mounts his Rocinante in defense of
+some particularly attractive abstract proposition, nothing less than a
+blow from a windmill will bring him back to reality. And so when any
+person or group of persons become enamored of an idea they are
+unwilling to brook contradiction or compromise. The inclination of the
+majority to do their will irrespective of the wishes of the minority
+and the unwillingness of the minority to bow to the resolutions of the
+majority have been and will continue to be grave problems in the
+government of the country. Even in personal relations a spirit of
+intolerance can frequently be noticed and while almost anything is
+forgiven a friend, not a single redeeming feature is recognized in an
+enemy. To their idealistic tendency may be ascribed the worship of the
+words "patriotism" and "liberty." Unnumbered sins have been committed
+under the cloak of patriotism, and true personal liberty, such as it
+is understood in the United States, has never prevailed in Santo
+Domingo; but the adoration of these conceptions continues and it is to
+be hoped that now, with American assistance, it will bring real and
+lasting liberty to the country. Perhaps it is their idealism, as much
+as their isolation, which causes the Dominicans to take themselves so
+very seriously and renders them so extremely sensitive to criticism or
+jokes on the subject of their country, customs or revolutions.
+
+Foreigners sometimes complain that the affirmations of Dominicans
+cannot be trusted. In many cases investigation has shown that these
+foreigners were misled with regard to some mine, woodland or other
+property they had come to buy. Persons anxious to sell mines and other
+undeveloped properties have not distinguished themselves for veracity
+in any country, and with regard to sincerity in general the Dominicans
+may be regarded as no better but certainly no worse than the general
+run of humanity. With their personal friends they are generally loyal
+and true, but in their political relations the picture is not so
+attractive; for while there have been many cases where subordinates
+have followed their fallen chief into exile rather than submit to the
+victor, it is saddening to note the frequency with which governors of
+provinces and other local authorities have betrayed the confidence
+reposed in them by the chief executive, and have initiated or joined
+revolutionary uprisings. I have heard both ex-President Jimenez and
+ex-President Morales sorrowfully complain that their fall was due to
+the treachery of trusted subordinates. A particularly repulsive case
+of perfidiousness was that of General Luis Felipe Vidal, a prominent
+politician, who participated in the murder of President Caceres,
+though he had only a few hours before visited the President, played
+billiards with him and fondled his infant daughter.
+
+Of all amusements there is none which appeals so strongly to every
+class of the population as dancing. Every public holiday is an excuse
+for the giving of a "baile" or dance, and when holidays are scarce the
+"baile" is arranged anyhow. So, while elsewhere special occasions are
+celebrated by banquets, here the rule is to give a dance. Historical
+anniversaries, political triumphs, religious holidays, weddings,
+birthdays, christenings: all are celebrated by dances. Waltz music is
+popular but the favorite dance music is the pretty Porto Rican
+"danza," which is kin to Mexican airs and to the Cuban "guaracha" and
+may be compared to a flowing brook, now gliding along serenely, now
+rushing in cascades. The dances are often interrupted by the serving
+of sweets and ices.
+
+In the country the dance music is quite different. A rhythmic beating
+is kept up on a drum made of a barrel or hollow log and rude fiddles
+or guitars or an accordion play an accompaniment. To the traveler,
+riding along his road at night, the deep regular rumbling of the drums
+of distant "bailes" comes with indescribable weirdness. In some dances
+the participants engage in a monotonous chant, in others there are
+pauses in which the young men must quickly improvise verses on some
+subject suggested by one of the lassies. In the cities the dances
+begin at ten o'clock at night and last until the wee hours of morning,
+but in the country they begin at almost any time and occasionally last
+two or three days--especially during the Christmas holidays.
+
+These country dances with drum accompaniment are similar to those
+popular among the negroes in Porto Rico and are probably an African
+legacy. But, like Porto Rico, the Dominican Republic is absolutely
+free from the practise of those barbarous negro rites, of which dances
+like these often form part, and which are known in Haiti under the
+name of "voudou," in Cuba under that of "witchcraft" and in the
+British West Indies under that of "obeah," and which sometimes lead
+even to human sacrifices. This is all the more remarkable in Santo
+Domingo as the adjoining Republic of Haiti has been the worst sufferer
+from such practices.
+
+The country dances are occasionally the scenes of violent personal
+altercations. While drunkenness is very rare and a drunkard is
+regarded almost as a social outcast, the countrymen are fond of
+regaling themselves with rum made of cane juice, and at dances where
+such rum is served it is not infrequent for some one to become unduly
+excited. If he happened to meet another in the same condition and a
+controversy arose with reference to some dusky damsel, a frequent
+unfortunate outcome was, until lately, for both to draw revolvers and
+blaze away at each other and if ejected from the house to stand nearby
+and fire through the wooden walls. In Porto Rico such affairs are
+decided with the machete and only the immediate combatants are hurt,
+but revolver bullets are more dangerous to the innocent bystander than
+to those doing the shooting. In Macoris I was told of a dance where
+the casualties were fifteen killed--more than in the average
+revolution. Yet so deep-seated is the fondness for dancing that after
+the smoke has cleared away and the dead or wounded victim been
+removed, it has often happened that the ladies dried their tears and
+men and women continued with the "baile."
+
+Up to the time of American intervention in 1916, the practise of
+carrying weapons was general. In the country a man strapped on his
+pistol or carried his gun as he would in other countries put on his
+necktie or take up his cane. At the railroad stations in the Cibao I
+have sometimes observed everyone congregated about the station wearing
+a revolver more or less visible, except two or three, evidently the
+poorest farm-laborers, who could not afford anything more than a dirk
+and who gazed at the others with envious eyes. Beautiful pearl-handled
+revolvers were proudly exhibited to the public eye, and on one
+occasion I saw a little boy not over ten years old with a revolver
+that reached to his knee. The habit was all the more indefensible as
+it was absolutely unnecessary, Santo Domingo being as safe a country
+to travel in as any other. Governors of provinces sometimes forbade
+the carrying of arms, but the prohibition was rarely enforced with
+reference to their friends and adherents. The American authorities
+have put a stop to the habit, however, and confiscated all the arms
+they could find; some 15,000 rifles and revolvers have thus been
+taken up.
+
+After all, the average Dominican will resent a shot less than a blow.
+A story is told of a prominent youth in the capital who received a
+slap during a quarrel; the aggressor fled, but the young man kept
+holding his handkerchief to his cheek for days until he met his
+assailant and was able to wipe out the insult in blood.
+
+Only in the larger towns are there facilities for the gratification of
+the popular fondness for theatrical performances. Puerto Plata has a
+pretty theatre. In Santo Domingo City the ancient Jesuit church, long
+abandoned, was converted into a theater, the stage being located
+where the altar formerly stood, the boxes occupying the aisles, and
+the chairs of the audience being arranged in the nave; but a new
+open-air theatre, the "Teatro Independencia," is more commodious. The
+Spanish drama is popular, as well as the delightful Spanish "zarzuela"
+or musical comedy. Owing to the isolation of the country it is not
+often visited by good professional troupes, and the interior is
+entirely dependent upon amateur talent.
+
+In social life the clubs are prominent features. A town must be
+unimportant indeed if it has not at least one club where the men can
+meet, read the papers and play cards or billiards. The first attention
+shown the stranger within the gates is to take him to the club and
+enroll him as a visitor, this action being equivalent to a general
+local introduction. The clubs give pleasant musical and literary
+entertainments and dances attended by the best local society. In Santo
+Domingo, Puerto Plata and Santiago the ladies have a club of their own
+where they can meet and chat to their hearts' content. Needless to say
+the most popular entertainments and dances are those given by the
+"Club de Damas." All these clubs have been of great value in the
+social development of the country and many of them have given
+important impulses to education.
+
+Another valuable contribution to civic development is rendered by the
+municipal bands existing in many towns. They are voluntary
+associations and tend to awaken in the inhabitants an interest and
+pride in their city. On Sunday night and sometimes on other nights
+during the week they play on the plaza, while the people, following
+the usual custom in the Spanish cities, promenade up and down. Such
+scenes are very attractive, the ladies, dressed in their best, with
+their light gowns brilliant in the moonlight; the men walking with
+them or watching the promenaders. It is on the plaza and in the
+ball-room where Cupid's arrows do most execution.
+
+Of late years some interest has been shown in athletics, and baseball
+has invaded the island. Bicycle races occasionally form part of public
+celebrations, and horse-races and tournaments have long been popular.
+
+Santo Domingo may be said to have two carnivals, one on St. Andrew's
+day, November 30, the other during the three days preceding Lent. The
+former is the more exciting. Until recent years there was not a person
+in the capital and Santiago, where the populace was most given to the
+typical diversion of the day, who did not voluntarily or involuntarily
+participate therein. The diversion consisted in throwing water or
+flour or both on everyone within reach. The poorer people would arm
+themselves with great syringes and discharge them at every passerby or
+through the keyholes of house-doors. Others would station themselves
+at points of vantage with barrels and tubs of water and duck the
+unwary they were able to entrap. People of the better class would
+place great tubs of water on their balconies or roofs, which the
+servants would assiduously keep filled while their masters emptied
+buckets-full on friends in the street. The young men rode through the
+streets in open carriages, bombarding the ladies on balconies and
+housetops with eggs filled with perfumed water, and receiving
+drenchings in return. Within the last few years the authorities have
+restricted or prohibited the throwing of water, and the principal
+celebration of the day is now what is called a "white dance" given by
+the better society, at which the participants are supposed to come
+dressed in white in order that the many-colored confetti, serpentines
+and gilt powders which those present throw at each other between
+dances, may appear to better effect. During the carnival proper,
+before Lent, the streets are filled with masked persons in groups or
+alone, who dance, make impudent remarks or otherwise indulge in
+nonsense, to the special delight of the ubiquitous small boy. The
+better class celebrate with masquerade balls, where the merry spirit
+of the Dominican is given free rein.
+
+The principal vice of the country is gaming. Men of the better class
+play cards, dominoes, chess, checkers and billiards, for money, but
+they do so rather for pastime than for gain. Among the poorer classes,
+however, the predominant idea is that of making money quickly. Cards
+and dice are often used, but the typical form of gambling, the one at
+which the poor countryman is fondest of staking his hard-earned wages,
+is the cockfight. Every town has its cockpit where on Sundays and
+holidays the barbarous sport is carried on in the presence of crowds
+of whooping, screaming spectators who often ride miles to attend. The
+authorities claim that efforts have been made to stop this sport, but
+that they have all been unavailing. It constitutes a source of
+municipal income, the right to open cockpits being annually conceded
+to the highest bidder by the various municipalities. Raffles and
+lotteries are also permitted by law, being subject to taxation by the
+municipalities, and in one or two cities there are municipal
+lotteries.
+
+With respect to morality the same conditions may be said to prevail in
+Santo Domingo as in other southern countries, the women being in
+general virtuous and pure and the men inclined to amorous intrigues.
+The official statistics relating to marriages and births show that of
+the children born in the Republic almost sixty per cent are
+illegitimate. These figures, while serious, are rendered less alarming
+than would appear at first sight by the large number of what the
+census-takers term "consensual unions" among the humbler classes, or
+cases where a man and woman, though not united by marriage ceremony,
+live together publicly as man and wife, rear a family and are as
+faithful to each other as if they were legitimately married. "Married
+but not parsoned" is the way in which such unions are referred to in
+some of the British West Indies. The considerable number of these
+unions may be explained by the high cost of the marriage
+ceremony,--for while there are some priests ready to waive their fees
+for a religious wedding and some alcaldes who are satisfied with what
+the law allows for the civil ceremony, others are not so
+complaisant--also by the fact that such unions have become so common
+that the parties see nothing wrong in them, and further by the
+circumstance that the parties often believe it more to their advantage
+to remain single rather than to be married. A friend of mine had a
+respectable colored man working on his plantation, the head of a large
+family, but not married to the woman with whom he had been living for
+over a score of years and to whom he was devotedly attached. My friend
+endeavored to persuade him to marry the woman, but the answer was a
+determined negative. "If I marry her she will know I have to support
+her and she may get careless and lazy. Knowing that I can leave her
+when I like she will continue to behave herself." Persuasion was then
+tried with his wife and her refusal was almost identical: "If I marry
+him he will know that I am bound to him and then he may go and fall in
+love with some other woman. Knowing that I can leave him when I like
+he will continue to behave himself."
+
+The homes of the poorer people are mere huts generally built of
+palmwood and covered with palm-thatch. The houses of the country
+people are exactly like the "bohios" used by the Indians at the time
+of the conquest, as pictured and described by the early writers. In
+the towns outside of the capital wooden houses are the rule and some
+of the wealthier people have pretty chalets. In the large cities there
+is a good deal of "mampostería" construction: brick or stone work,
+covered with cement. In the capital the walls of a majority of the
+houses have come down from the early days and are of great
+solidity--here a man's house is literally his fortress. The barred
+windows of the olden days are here still to be seen. One-story
+structures are the rule, and there are few if any of more than two
+stories. The heat of the climate makes window-glass impracticable and
+the windows and doors are fitted with shutters which permit the air to
+pass through. Except in the houses of the wealthiest persons the
+furniture is very simple and of small amount. In the parlors a
+caneseat sofa, several rockers and chairs and a small table with a few
+knicknacks are arranged everywhere in the same way. The bedsteads are
+of iron and the bedroom furniture is reduced to the simplest articles.
+The floors are bare except for a few rugs. The climate is responsible
+for the simplicity of the furniture, as carpets would breed insects,
+and more furniture would mean endless cleaning and dusting, since
+everything must be open all day. The kitchens are not furnished with
+iron stoves, but cooking is done on brick hearths, as in Cuba and
+Porto Rico. The most serious drawback about Dominican houses is the
+want of proper bathing facilities and of sanitary closets, due to lack
+of running water in most cities. The most attractive feature of the
+houses is the patio, or yard, which is often gay with flowers, though
+not so assiduously cared for as in some other Spanish countries. In
+similarity to other tropical lands home life is not nearly so intense
+as in colder climates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+RELIGION
+
+Catholic religion.--Concordat.--Ownership of church
+buildings.--Clergy.--Religious sentiment.--Shrines.--Religious customs
+and holidays.--Religious toleration.--Protestant sects.
+
+The Roman Catholic creed has been the dominant religion of Santo
+Domingo from the time of the conquest. When Columbus arrived on his
+second voyage he brought with him twelve friars, some of whom were as
+holy men as their leader, the vindictive Father Boil, was a nuisance.
+Others were not long in arriving and soon the country had as many
+priests in proportion as Spain herself. Large estates came into
+possession of the church, and in the city of Santo Domingo imposing
+churches and spacious cloisters were erected, which still stand,
+either in ruins or used for religious or secular purposes. There were
+three monasteries, two nunneries, and some ten churches and chapels in
+the capital.
+
+As early as 1511 bishops were appointed for Santo Domingo and
+Concepcion de la Vega and in 1547 the first archbishopric in the new
+world was established in Santo Domingo City. From 1516 to 1519 the
+island was governed directly by three friars, and the licentiate
+Alonso de Fuenmayor, who governed thirty years later, was not only
+governor and captain-general of the island, and president of the royal
+audiencia, but archbishop of Santo Domingo as well. The Inquisition
+was established in Santo Domingo in 1564.
+
+With the decline of the colony the number of churchmen declined also,
+and by the middle of the seventeenth century the majority of the
+church buildings were closed and falling to ruin and the church's vast
+country estates were abandoned. The revival of the country during the
+eighteenth century affected the church as well, but the occupation by
+Haitians and French during the beginning of the nineteenth century
+caused its influence to wane, and restrictive legislation under
+Haitian dominion and the expulsion of the archbishop for political
+reasons in 1830, severed all connection with Rome for many years. The
+first archbishop appointed after the independence of the Republic was
+consecrated in 1848.
+
+The Roman Catholic religion is now the recognized state religion. In
+1884 the Dominican government entered into an agreement with the Holy
+See according to the terms of which the archbishop of Santo Domingo is
+to be appointed by the Pope from a list of three names, native
+Dominicans or residents of the Republic, submitted by the Dominican
+Congress, which in turn engaged to pay the salary of the archbishop
+and certain other officials. The agreement as to the payments
+incumbent upon the Dominican government had the same fate as other
+financial contracts: it was observed for a short time and then
+disregarded, so that for years only small appropriations have been
+made for church purposes.
+
+In the year 1908 a controversy arose with reference to the ownership
+of the buildings and lands occupied by the church. The archbishop and
+church officials claimed that such buildings belong to the church
+absolutely; while the government officials alleged that they are the
+property of the state, possessed by the church with the state's
+consent. Previously few persons had ever given a thought to the
+matter, the church having as many buildings as it could properly care
+for, and more, while other former religious edifices were used by the
+state. Contributions for the erection and repair of churches were
+frequently made by Dominican towns without exciting discussion. The
+controversy of 1908 was precipitated by the determination of the
+church authorities to erect a mausoleum in the cathedral of Santo
+Domingo City for the remains of the late Archbishop Meriño. The
+Executive of Santo Domingo demanded that the government's permission
+be first obtained, but the church officials refused to ask for such
+permission, holding it unnecessary. Neither side lacked historical
+grounds for its contention. In the old colonial days church and state
+were united and the questions of ownership of the church buildings
+never arose. When the Haitians assumed control in 1822 they considered
+the church edifices as the property of the state alone and religious
+services continued only by sufferance of the government. Upon the
+establishment of the independence of Santo Domingo, the new
+government, although friendly towards the Catholic Church, took a
+similar view of the ownership of church edifices and property. By law
+of June 7, 1845, of the Dominican Congress, all "censos" and other
+perpetual rents established in favor of the church were declared
+extinguished and by law of July 2, 1845, all property, real and
+personal, formerly belonging to convents and orders no longer in being
+in the country was formally proclaimed to pertain to the state. In
+1853 burials in churches were prohibited by law of Congress as being
+dangerous to the public health, but in exceptional cases the Executive
+granted permission therefor on the payment of a fee which of late
+years has been $300. On the other hand, it was argued that the church
+has been in uninterrupted possession of its present buildings for
+centuries; that these buildings are not comprised in the laws of
+1845; that a law of 1867 granting the gardens of the archbishop's
+residence to the municipality of Santo Domingo for the establishment
+of a market and cockpit was repealed in 1871 as being a despoilment of
+the church and unconstitutional; and that when the mausoleum of
+Columbus was erected in the cathedral the committee in charge,
+presided over by the vice-president of the Republic, applied for
+permission to the authorities of the church. The dispute regarding the
+mausoleum of Archbishop Meriño came to an end when the government
+receded from its demand, but the main question is not regarded
+as settled.
+
+At the present time the Republic is divided into fifty-seven parishes.
+The episcopal head is the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In 1903, when
+old age had enfeebled Archbishop Meriño, one of his assistants,
+Monsignor Adolfo Nouel, was made titular Archbishop of Metymne, and on
+the death of the venerable churchman in 1906 succeeded him as
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo.
+
+In the olden days many religious orders were represented in the
+island, but to-day the clergy is secular, with the exception of a few
+friars brought over in recent years from Spain and France. The
+majority of the priests are native Dominicans, graduated from the
+seminary in the capital. There are in the clerical body a number of
+black sheep, far too fond of the pleasures of the flesh. Of this stamp
+was a noted prelate, of whom I was told when I asked whether he was
+old: "Yes, quite old, his oldest son is over forty." As a general
+rule, however, the priests of Santo Domingo are earnest, hardworking,
+honorable men. The standard is being raised through the efforts of the
+present Archbishop Nouel.
+
+The unfortunate political history of the country has not been
+conducive to the establishment of eleemosynary institutions or to
+other philanthropic activity, and such work has devolved almost
+exclusively upon the priests. The names of many of these are held in
+grateful remembrance for their efforts in behalf of charity. Perhaps
+the most celebrated was Father Billini, who, a member of one of the
+foremost families of Santo Domingo, consecrated his life to helping
+his fellowmen. He was a father to the poor and through his efforts the
+insane asylum of Santo Domingo, an orphan asylum and a college were
+established. His name became notable in other directions also, for he
+was instrumental in the discovery of the remains of Columbus in the
+Santo Domingo cathedral in 1877. At times the methods of the good
+father were a little spectacular: thus on one occasion when
+supplicating Heureaux in behalf of several prisoners sentenced to
+death, he took off his hat and vowed he would not put it on again
+until the prisoners were pardoned, but the order of execution was
+carried out and ever afterwards Father Billini went hatless. In so
+great esteem is his name held that the only statue in Santo Domingo
+City, besides that of Columbus on the plaza, is erected to his memory.
+
+Practically the entire population of the country is at least nominally
+Roman Catholic. Among the educated classes in the cities the women, as
+a rule, are devout; the men either openly acknowledge themselves free
+thinkers or their religion is very superficial indeed. On one occasion
+a Dominican earnestly assured me he was a Catholic and would always
+remain one, "but," he added, "I cannot accept all the doctrines of the
+church: thus I do not believe in the Virgin Mary, nor the saints, nor
+the power of the priests to forgive sins, nor in the divinity of
+Christ, but I feel almost certain of the existence of a God." The
+fondness for display makes the ornate ceremonies of the Catholic
+Church popular with all, however, and they are observed by officers of
+the state whenever possible. The president always goes to mass after
+taking the oath of office, and the army flags are solemnly blessed.
+
+The less educated people of the cities and most of the country people
+not only hold their priests in great respect, but are blindly
+superstitious. It is common to find crosses in the courtyards of
+country houses, placed there to keep evil spirits away. Frequently
+also, three crosses are seen in conspicuous places near the roadside
+or even in the middle of the road. They are supposed to propitiate the
+Almighty, and pious persons mumble prayers as they pass them. When the
+destruction wrought by the Martinique volcano became known here, the
+dismay of the countrymen was responsible for more than one "calvario"
+(calvary), as these collections of crosses are called. It is
+especially desired by the country people to receive the last
+sacraments from the priests before death. On one occasion far out in
+the country I met a crowd of people engaged in transporting a dying
+man many miles to the priest in the nearest town. When asked why the
+priest was not called to the sick man, they explained innocently: "He
+couldn't come. The priest is too fat."
+
+There are in the territory of the Republic several shrines of more
+than usual renown, which at certain seasons of the year attract crowds
+of worshipers, some coming all the way from Porto Rico. Wonderful
+cures of invalids are registered which recall the miracles of Lourdes.
+The most celebrated of these churches is the one on the Santo Cerro,
+the Holy Hill, built on the exact spot where forces of Columbus
+planted their cross when defending the hill against the Indians. After
+the Indians had stormed the place all their efforts to destroy the
+cross were unavailing, so the story goes, and they were finally driven
+to precipitate flight by the apparition of the Virgin, sitting on the
+cross. A church was founded on the spot and a convent near by. During
+the dark years of the colony the convent was abandoned and fell to
+ruin but at no time was a priest lacking to look after the site of the
+miracle. In the time of Heureaux the humble wooden chapel then
+crowning the hill was replaced by a larger but modest brick church,
+the greater part of the bricks being carried up from the ruins of the
+old city of La Vega which lie at the foot of the hill. The church
+occupies an eminence overlooking the great Royal Plain. Its most
+prized treasure, which is reverently kissed by the priest before he
+shows it to the stranger, consists of two splinters about an inch
+long, of black wood, parts of the original cross of Columbus, enclosed
+in another small cross of gold filigree work. A larger piece of the
+original cross is kept in the cathedral at Santo Domingo City, to be
+exhibited on special occasions. The pieces of the original cross
+carried away by the Spaniards were enough to make a score of crosses,
+yet nevertheless there was always some wood left, which circumstance
+was heralded as an additional miracle.
+
+Within the church on the Holy Hill, in one of the chapels, there is a
+hole in the stone floor a little over two feet square and deep, which
+is pointed out as the exact place where the cross of Columbus stood.
+There is nothing so coveted by pilgrims as to be able to kneel in this
+hole and offer up their prayers. The soil from this spot is credited
+with strange powers, such as that of healing wounds on which it is
+laid, and that of causing floods to subside, when sprinkled on the
+troubled waters. The late Archbishop Meriño assured me that the
+miraculous nature of the spot is evidenced by the fact that however
+much soil is taken out of the hole, the bottom thereof always retains
+the same level, but my later inspection of the dry yellow earth at the
+bottom disclosed nothing unusual. Near the Santo Cerro church is the
+trunk of the nispero tree, gnarled with age, from which Columbus is
+said to have cut the wood for his cross. All around are miserable
+shacks, inhabited, so the pure-minded priest of the church sorrowfully
+told me, by people the conduct of many of whom is quite at variance
+with the holiness supposed to pervade the place.
+
+The town of Bayaguana, to the northeast of Santo Domingo City, also
+attracts the faithful, especially about the first of the year, by
+reason of the fame of the "Cristo de Bayaguana," a very ancient figure
+of Christ in the church of that town. In the same way Higuey in the
+eastern part of the island is specially noted for its shrine of the
+"Altagracia," a picture of the Virgin, of which tradition says that in
+the early days of the colony it was given by an aged mysterious
+stranger to the father of a devout maiden who had pined therefor. The
+church is built on the site of an orange tree under which, it is said,
+the picture was first admired by the girl and her relatives; the trunk
+of this tree is shown behind the altar of the church. Pilgrimages to
+this place take place preferably about the twenty-first of January and
+the miracles ascribed to the Virgin are astounding. Miracles of quite
+a different nature are attributed to an image of Saint Andrew, in the
+capital. The populace confidently believe that as sure as this figure
+is carried to the street an earthquake will follow.
+
+There are always several altars in the churches, surmounted by figures
+of the saints to whom they are dedicated. Some of these statues are
+quite beautiful, others, in some of the poorer churches, are hideous.
+As in other Spanish countries the churches are bare of seats, and
+people who attend either send small chairs before the service, or
+stand. It is not unusual to see well dressed ladies carrying their
+chairs to church. Women are much more in evidence than men, and the
+Dominican woman is not different from her sisters in other countries,
+for a new hat or dress is apt to awaken in her an irresistible
+yearning to go to church. Young men are fond of attending, too, but it
+is to be feared that in many cases their object is to see the young
+ladies rather than to hear the sermon.
+
+The custom of celebrating the saint's day instead of the birthday is
+followed, so that birthdays pass unperceived while the day dedicated
+in the calendar of the Catholic Church to the saint whose name a
+person bears, is the day which he celebrates and on which he receives
+the felicitations of his friends.
+
+Christmas tide is not a time when presents are exchanged, and
+Christmas trees are not found, save rarely and where the foreign
+influence is strong. There is no lack of celebration, however. On
+Christmas Eve the churches are crowded and there are banquets and
+dances going on everywhere. In the cities the small boys amuse
+themselves by setting off fireworks. During the Christmas week dances
+are frequent, and in the country they continue sometimes for days to
+the lugubrious accompaniment of accordions and large drums. December
+the twenty-eighth, Holy Innocents' day, is All Fools' day, instead of
+April the first, it being argued that just as the innocents of Herod's
+day were made to suffer, so the innocents of this age should be
+persecuted. Many are the pranks perpetrated and the small boy is in
+his glory. On New Year's Eve many families receive their friends;
+there is generally some large ball, and the new year is ushered in
+with fireworks and other noises.
+
+The great day of the year for the children is the sixth of January,
+the feast of Epiphany, or Three Kings' Day, as it is called in Santo
+Domingo. Just as the three wise men from the East brought presents to
+the infant Christ in ages past, so they now make the rounds and leave
+presents for deserving children, thus taking the place of our Santa
+Claus. The receptacles they choose for the good things they deliver
+are either the children's slippers or shoes, or boxes made ready by
+the little ones. For weeks before the anxiously awaited day, letters
+are written to the Kings, explaining what gifts would be acceptable,
+and are given to the parents who undertake to deliver them. The
+children are careful to facilitate the display of the Kings'
+generosity by placing their shoes or boxes in conspicuous places and
+filling the boxes with grass, so that the horses of the Kings can eat.
+Their thoughtfulness is rewarded, for on the following morning the
+visit of the Kings is attested by indubitable evidence, as there is an
+abundance of toys and sweets and the grass is often quite strewn
+about. Excited little ones are sure they heard the pawing of the
+horses on the balcony. The Kings usually show a magnanimous disregard
+of past offenses, but occasionally they leave a letter of advice or
+warning, and they have even been known to place a switch in the box of
+a particularly bad boy.
+
+Easter is celebrated with great solemnity. In order to provide
+opportunity for observing all the ceremonies prescribed by the church,
+they are so arranged that the ceremonies corresponding to the
+commemoration of the death of Christ are begun on Thursday at noon and
+the celebration of the resurrection on Saturday at noon, and this is
+the order of dates accepted by the people in general. On Thursday and
+Friday soldiers form a guard of honor before the churches, and up to
+Easter of 1906 there was a strict prohibition of any vehicle going
+through the streets between Thursday noon and Saturday noon. Not a
+wheel was permitted to turn in this period, giving rise to much
+inconvenience and discomfort. Since 1906 a more liberal view has
+prevailed. At this time as on certain other church festivals, solemn
+religious processions wind through the streets.
+
+The church has charge of several small hospitals and orphan asylums. A
+few schools in the Republic are also under its auspices, but in
+general religious education is much neglected.
+
+Although the Catholic religion is the state religion and is professed
+by so large a majority of the population, the influence of the church
+in the government is no more than in many countries where no such
+circumstances prevail. Discipline in the priesthood is limited almost
+entirely to ecclesiastical matters and priests otherwise speak and act
+for themselves. They frequently participate in politics and are often
+to be met in municipal councils and in Congress, and in such cases
+their acts indicate that they sit, not as priests representing the
+church, but entirely as individuals representing the constituency from
+which they were elected. Father Meriño, who later became archbishop,
+was elected president and served out his term. President Morales had
+been a priest, but had abandoned the priesthood when he was elected to
+Congress. The present head of the church, Archbishop Nouel, has also
+been president, under a temporary compromise.
+
+Another peculiarity of Dominican Catholicism is its tolerant attitude
+towards freemasonry. It is not unusual for persons who are recognized
+as fervent Catholics to be at the same time enthusiastic masons.
+There are instances even of devout families, where one of the sons
+belongs to the priesthood and the other sons and the father are
+zealous masons, but where all live under the same roof in absolute
+concord. The first lodges were founded in 1858 and there are lodges to
+be found to-day in all the principal cities. Several of them have
+their own buildings, that at Santiago being especially worthy of
+remark. They have done excellent work in behalf of charity and
+education. The lodges of Santo Domingo City, Santiago, La Vega and
+Moca maintain free public schools, and the lodge of Puerto Plata a
+hospital. The lodges of oddfellows in the Republic have done similar
+good work.
+
+The absence of religious fanaticism is further exemplified by the
+tolerance accorded other religious sects. These, it is true, are but
+slimly represented. Of the Jewish faith there are probably not two
+dozen persons in the Republic. The Protestants are almost entirely
+negroes from the British and former Danish islands and other
+foreigners, and descendants of the American negroes settled in Santo
+Domingo. For these the Wesleyan Methodist Church of England maintains
+a flourishing mission with chapels in Puerto Plata, Samana, and
+Sanchez and a small branch in Santo Domingo City. The principal chapel
+is in Puerto Plata, which is also the residence of the minister in
+charge of the mission. The African Methodist Church also has small
+stations at Samana and San Pedro de Macoris, though the word "African"
+does not tend to make the church popular in Santo Domingo. There is
+further an almost abandoned Baptist mission in Puerto Plata and Monte
+Cristi. In all these churches, services are generally carried on in
+the English language alone. In San Francisco de Macoris, Protestant
+services are conducted in Spanish by devotees who do not seem to be
+ordained by any particular sect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+EDUCATION AND LITERATURE
+
+Education in Spanish times.--Work of Hostos.--School
+organization.--Professional institute.--Primary and secondary
+education.--Literacy.--Libraries.--Newspapers.--Literature.--Fine Arts.
+
+
+As in other Spanish colonies, it was not the policy of the Spanish
+government in Santo Domingo to foster popular education. Learning was
+confined to the clergy and the aristocracy and was imparted only by
+servants of the church. As early as 1538, the Dominican friars
+obtained a papal bull for the establishment of a university, and in
+1558 the institution known as the University of St. Thomas of Aquino
+was inaugurated by them in Santo Domingo City, with faculties of
+medicine, philosophy, theology and law, the principal branch being
+theology. This university acquired considerable celebrity, but
+practically disappeared during the colony's decline, being revived by
+royal decree of May 26, 1747, which gave it the title of Royal and
+Pontifical University of Santo Domingo. The cession of the island to
+France and the wars which followed weakened the famous institution,
+which was definitely closed by the Haitians when they assumed control
+of the government. The Haitian occupation and the civil disorders of
+the first forty years of the Republic were not propitious for the
+spreading of education. Beyond a theological seminary founded in 1848,
+there were only a few humble public and private schools, leading a
+precarious existence.  An eminent Porto Rican educator, Eugenio M. de
+Hostos, was responsible for the intellectual renaissance of Santo
+Domingo. This remarkable man was one of those talented dreamers
+produced by Latin-America, a lover of the abstract ideal in
+government, philosophy and pedagogy, erudite, eloquent, with an
+enthusiasm which fired his pupils and hearers. Early in life he
+conceived the idea which he preached unceasingly: that of a
+Confederated West Indian Republic, in which the principal states were
+to be Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. Inspired by the Cuban war of
+independence of 1868 to 1878, he wrote and spoke throughout Spanish
+America in behalf of the union of the Spanish speaking peoples of the
+West Indies, the first step to that end to be the independence of
+Cuba. In 1880 he arrived for the third time in Santo Domingo, where he
+was then less known than in South America. Having obtained from the
+government a commission to found normal schools in the Republic, he
+was appointed director of the normal school of Santo Domingo City. He
+came as the right man at the right time. His teachings touched a
+responsive chord in the hearts of the Dominicans; his unsparing
+condemnation of old pedagogical methods and eager advocacy of new ones
+gave rise to discussions which awakened a general interest in
+education and letters; and his aggressive enthusiasm smote the rock
+which held Dominican literature bound. A prominent Dominican
+historian, Americo Lugo, says: "I believe that what may be called
+national literature does not begin until after the arrival in the
+Republic of the eminent educator Eugenio M. de Hostos."
+
+Hostos labored in Santo Domingo for eight years, during which time he
+had as pupils many who have since become prominent in the councils of
+the Republic. The baneful policies of Heureaux forced his departure,
+and he settled in Chile with his family, being appointed professor of
+constitutional law at the National University. Upon the conclusion of
+the Spanish-American war, when it became apparent that Porto Rico
+would be American and his ideal of an Antillan Confederation
+definitely shattered, he journeyed to Washington to labor in behalf of
+Porto Rico, returning later to his native island in the hope of
+uniting the Porto Ricans in a demand for autonomy. There political
+passion ran high, and Hostos, disappointed, went back to Santo
+Domingo, where his entry was almost triumphal. He again assumed charge
+of public education though the civil disorders filled him with
+sadness. In 1903 he died in Santo Domingo, but the seed he sowed lives
+and flourishes and his memory is revered by Dominicans.
+
+In 1884 a general school law was passed, repeatedly modified since,
+according to which primary instruction is a charge upon the
+municipality, while the cost of secondary instruction is to be
+defrayed by the state. Supreme inspection over educational matters was
+given to the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, who was
+assisted by a superior board of education with school inspectors in
+the various provinces. There were further special boards of education
+in each province, presided over by the governor, and school boards in
+the communes which are not capitals of provinces and in the cantons.
+Owing to the difficulty of finding competent personnel, the inspection
+of the educational institutions has generally been perfunctory and the
+teachers have done pretty much as they pleased. Unfortunately the
+financial limitations of the country have not permitted the
+development of the schools in the measure desired. Since the middle of
+1917 numerous changes in the school system and curriculum have been
+decreed by the Department of Public Instruction and the system is
+undergoing a general reorganization.
+
+In 1882 a "Professional Institute" was founded, the name of which was
+in 1914 changed to "University of Santo Domingo," and it is now called
+the Central University of Santo Domingo. It occupies the same building
+in the capital, adjoining the church of St. Dominic, where the old
+university was located. It confers degrees in five branches: law,
+medicine, pharmacy, dental surgery and mathematics and surveying.
+Practically all the lawyers of the Republic have graduated from this
+school. Most of the native pharmacists, also, have studied here. With
+reference to instruction in medicine and surgery, and in dentistry,
+the institution is handicapped by the lack of a suitable hospital and
+clinic. As a result those who wish to adopt any of these professions
+pursue their studies abroad, if possible, and all the best known
+physicians are graduates of foreign universities. The entire annual
+appropriation for the University is only about $24,000. A similar
+institution, on a smaller scale, is the Professional Institute of
+Santiago, founded in 1916. In several cities there are high schools
+called normal schools, and other institutions called superior schools,
+and the capital has an academy of drawing, painting and sculpture.
+
+With the exception of a few private schools, primary education is in
+the hands of the municipalities, which are assisted by small
+subventions from the national government. In the municipalities there
+is more enthusiasm for education than in Congress, if we judge from
+the figures presented by the budgets. Every little town takes pride in
+making its budget for education as large as possible, year after year.
+The total amount spent for educational purposes, however, including
+salaries, rent, supplies, subventions and teachers' pensions, is only
+in the neighborhood of $500,000, contributed about in equal shares by
+the state and the municipalities.
+
+The total number of scholars enrolled is only about 20,000. The
+schools are generally located in rented houses, there being no
+buildings erected expressly for school purposes. Their equipment is as
+a rule deficient. The teaching force is handicapped by lack of
+facilities and training. The salaries of the elementary teachers are
+very small, and while some municipalities are prompt in their
+payments, others lag far behind, and the Spanish saying "as hungry as
+a schoolmaster" has not lost all its meaning.
+
+If the amounts expended for education are not large, it is due to lack
+of money and not to lack of realization of the advantages of learning.
+The interest manifested in education and the eagerness of parents to
+furnish their children as much schooling as possible, are among the
+most hopeful signs for the future. In the towns and villages where the
+schools are located, most children learn at least to read and write,
+but out in the country illiteracy and ignorance reign supreme. In the
+absence of statistics it is not possible to determine the proportion
+of illiterates; there is no doubt, however, that it is very large, and
+I have heard it estimated at all the way from seventy to ninety per
+cent of the population over ten years of age.
+
+Some of the best schools are private institutions, one of the best
+known being the institute for girls and young ladies, founded by Santo
+Domingo's foremost woman poet, Salomé Ureña de Henriquez. It is the
+custom also for well-to-do families to send their children abroad for
+study and to travel themselves, and the Dominicans are not few who,
+besides their native Spanish, speak other languages, acquired abroad.
+Within the country, too, there is a predilection among the upper class
+for the study of foreign tongues, and many learn English and French in
+the family circle or by association with persons speaking these
+languages.
+
+As a result of the educational limitations, the population of the
+country may be divided into three groups: first, a number of persons,
+small in comparison with the whole number of inhabitants, who compare
+in culture, education and accomplishments with members of the best
+society in any country; second, a much larger group of persons who
+possess knowledge more or less rudimentary; and third, the great
+majority of the inhabitants, who are unlettered and unlearned.
+
+One obstacle to the spread of information is the lack of public
+libraries. There is a public library in Puerto Plata, and various
+clubs in the larger towns have libraries, for their members or the
+public, but they are all very small and limited. The newspapers,
+therefore, furnish the only source of reading for the majority.
+Practically all the papers are published in the cities of Santo
+Domingo, Santiago and Puerto Plata, and all are of modest dimensions.
+Many newspapers have been founded in the Republic and after leading an
+ephemeral existence have succumbed, some because their editors were
+persuaded by threats or rewards on the part of the government to cease
+publication, and the greater portion because of financial
+embarrassment. Notwithstanding the constitutional precept guaranteeing
+free speech, editors of the opposition have generally found it more
+healthy to withdraw to the neighboring countries and conduct their
+campaigns at long range. On the other hand, it must be said that
+several governments have honestly endeavored to allow the press full
+liberty, but that the privilege has always been abused. The principal
+daily newspaper of the Republic, and the one having the largest
+circulation is the "Listin Diario" of Santo Domingo. It is a four-page
+sheet and its daily edition is about 10,000 copies. It is the only
+paper having a cable service, and it receives its cablegrams from the
+French cable company, whose line crosses the island. It is also one of
+the oldest of the existing newspapers, having been founded in 1889,
+and maintained itself by constantly observing a prudent attitude. In
+the capital there also appear the "Gaceta Oficial," in which the laws
+and governmental decisions and announcements are published; the
+"Boletín Municipal," containing municipal announcements; several
+reviews whose character is indicated by their title: "Revista Médica,"
+"Revista de Agricultura," "Revista Judicial," "Boletín Masónico"; two
+small humorous papers; two commercial sheets; an illustrated paper,
+"Blanco y Negro," and a well-known literary monthly, "Cuna de América"
+(Cradle of America). Santiago also boasts a daily paper, "El Diario,"
+as also several smaller papers and literary periodicals. In Puerto
+Plata "El Porvenir," the oldest of existing Dominican newspapers, is
+published, as well as three less important sheets.
+
+Especially interesting among these publications are the "Cuna de
+América" and others devoted to belles-lettres. They constitute a
+reflection of current Dominican literature, being given over to poems,
+lyric compositions, biographic, historical, philosophic and other
+articles, and extracts from new plays and books. In these periodicals
+most of the poems which have brought fame to Santo Domingo
+have appeared.
+
+Before the intellectual awakening incident to the labors of Hostos the
+number of Dominican writers was small. Little was done in colonial
+times. In the turbulent period following the cessation of Spanish
+sovereignty at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the situation
+of the country was not favorable for the cultivation of the muses, but
+scions of the families who then emigrated have made their names
+immortal in the literature of Cuba and other neighboring countries.
+Juan Pablo Duarte, the liberator, Antonio Delmonte y Tejada, the
+historian, and a small group of others who flourished shortly before
+or at the time of the establishment of the Republic, may be said to
+initiate the literature of the country, but their fame is mostly
+local. The first generation of Dominican citizens furnished a somewhat
+larger proportion of literary men, among whom may be mentioned the
+venerable Emiliano Tejera, the late Archbishop Fernando A. de Meriño,
+Francisco X. Amiama, Francisco Gregorio Billini, Mariano A. Cestero,
+the historian Jose G. Garcia and the novelist Manuel de J. Galvan,
+though it is significant that the best productions of some of these
+appeared after 1880. It is since that year that literature has really
+flourished. So fecund have Dominican writers been, and so excellent
+their productions, that Santo Domingo occupies a proud place in the
+beautiful field of Latin-American literature, where only a few years
+ago it was practically unknown. There is an abundance of poets,
+essayists, historians and novelists worthy of mention, and an attempt
+to single out a few might lead to unjust distinctions. A number of the
+best writers are women, and all prominent newspaper men are also
+distinguished in literature.
+
+In poetry, especially lyric poetry, the Dominican writers excel. They
+show great depth of feeling and a full command of the sonorous
+Castilian tongue. A favorite theme is, of course, the old story which
+is ever new. The civil wars have inspired many pathetic compositions,
+and poems like Salomé Ureña's apostrophe to the ruins of colonial
+times, Bienvenido S. Nouel's elegy on the ruins left by the late
+revolutions, and Enrique Henriquez' "Miserere!", gems of verse, are
+veritable cries of anguish at the desolation wrought by fratricidal
+strife. Perhaps it is the poets' sorrow at the misfortunes of their
+country which is the cause of the note of sadness so often to be
+remarked in Dominican writings. Some writers are classed as poets
+though they have versified little or not at all; of these Tulio M.
+Cestero, one of the most popular of the younger writers, is an
+example, it being said of him that "he writes his poetry in prose."
+
+The love of poetry is by no means confined to persons of higher
+education, but is general throughout the country. It has been said
+that if there were one engineer in Santo Domingo for every hundred
+poets, there would be fewer mudholes in the roads. The productions of
+some poetasters are characterized by an abundance of rare adjectives,
+which are introduced as well to give an impression of depth of thought
+as to advertise the author's erudition. However, there are so many
+good poets that forgiveness is readily extended to the others.
+
+The national song of Santo Domingo, an ode to liberty, was written by
+a school teacher, Emilio Prud'homme. The music was composed by José
+Reyes, who died several years ago, and is agreeable and almost
+majestic. Reyes occupies probably the most prominent place among
+Dominican composers. Others have also obtained prominence, and their
+number is constantly increasing; among them special mention may be
+made of José de J. Ravelo, one of the younger men whose work has
+attracted attention and gives promise of even better things.
+
+In painting and sculpture several Dominicans have attained prominence
+of late fears. The principal artists are Arturo Grullon, a prominent
+oculist; Luis Desangles; and Miss Adriana Billini, whose paintings
+have received prizes in Paris, Porto Rico and Havana respectively.
+Desangles painted the picture "Caonabo," which hangs in the session
+hall of the City Council of Puerto Plata and shows the Indian chief in
+chains. The sculptors are few, and their fame so far is only local,
+The foremost is Abelardo Rodriguez U., a photographer of the capital,
+who is something of an artistic genius. His photographs can compete in
+artistic merit with the best produced anywhere, and he is also a
+painter of no small merit. His best known sculpture is the figure of a
+dying guerilla soldier, significantly entitled, "Uno de tantos"--"One
+of so many."
+
+Powerful assistance has been given to education and artistic
+development by various clubs and literary associations, especially
+women's clubs, throughout the country. Though at times eclipsed by
+revolutionary turmoil, their work has continued undaunted and has had
+gratifying results. The educational plane attained by Santo Domingo in
+spite of all obstacles, and the general recognition of the supreme
+importance of public instruction, justify confident predictions of
+advance in the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
+
+
+Railroads.--Samana-Santiago Railroad.--Central Dominican
+Railway.--Roads.--Mode of Traveling.--Inns.--Principal highways.
+--Steamer lines.--Postal facilities.--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+
+A potent cause of the undeveloped state of Santo Domingo's agriculture
+has been the absence of transportation facilities, which has likewise
+been a cause and an effect of the internal disturbances. There are but
+two public railroads in the Republic, both in the Cibao region, with
+an aggregate length of 144 miles. The highways are generally little
+more than trails, difficult and dangerous even in dry weather, and
+almost impassable in the rainy season. It is therefore not surprising
+that the northern and southern sections of the Republic should have
+developed almost as different countries and that large areas in the
+interior should be practically uninhabited.
+
+The importance and possibilities of railroad lines have been
+recognized and numerous concessions for railroad construction have
+been sought and granted; but the concessionnaires have, as a rule,
+either been impecunious, entering the field only with speculative
+intentions, or have been frightened off by the internal disturbances,
+and in either case the concession has been permitted to lapse.
+
+The oldest of the two railroads now in operation is the road known as
+the Samana-Santiago Railroad--something of a misnomer, as the road
+neither reaches Samana, on the one side, nor Santiago on the other,
+but extends from Sanchez, at the head of Samana Bay, to La Vega, a
+distance of 62 miles in the interior, with a branch to San Francisco
+de Macoris, 7 miles, and another branch to Salcedo, 11 miles, and
+Moca, 7 miles, or a total length of 87 miles. Prior to its
+construction, the products of the eastern portion of the Royal Plain
+had been floated on lighters or light draft boats down the Yuna River
+and across Samana Bay to Samana, where they were transshipped to
+ocean-going vessels. The value of a railroad in this region early
+became apparent, and a concession granted in 1881 was acquired by
+Alexander Baird, a wealthy Scotchman, who constructed the road. Under
+the concession the Dominican government granted the right to build and
+operate a railroad from Samana to Santiago, to construct wharves on
+Samana Bay and collect wharf dues, and to enjoy certain tax exemptions
+and other privileges.
+
+The Gran Estero, the large swamp just west of Sanchez, proved much
+more difficult to cross than the engineers had calculated. It
+swallowed up tons of rock and thousands of pounds sterling. Further
+disappointment arose when public lands promised by the government
+failed to materialize. The enthusiasm of the promoters cooled and the
+construction work on the railroad ceased when La Vega was reached. To
+the east of Sanchez the road was continued along the Samana peninsula
+to Point Santa Capuza, but this position was abandoned and the
+terminus was established at Sanchez. The road from Sanchez to La Vega
+was opened to traffic in 1886.
+
+The important city of San Francisco de Macoris lay seven miles to the
+north of the line of the Samana-Santiago railroad and in 1892 a
+concession was granted to a prominent Dominican for the building of a
+connecting road. It was constructed with Dominican capital from La
+Gina to San Francisco de Macoris, and is leased to the Samana-Santiago
+Road and operated as a branch of this road.
+
+In 1907 the Samana-Santiago Railroad waived its right to the
+percentage of import duties collected at Sanchez, in consideration of
+a payment made by the government, and agreed to construct a branch
+line to Salcedo and later continue it to Moca. A line from Las
+Cabullas, on the main road, to Salcedo was promptly built and opened
+to traffic, but the Moca extension was delayed by civil disturbances
+and not completed until 1917.
+
+The gauge of the Samana-Santiago road is 1.10 meters, about three feet
+six inches. It rises very gradually from sea-level at Sanchez to the
+altitude of La Vega and Moca, about 400 feet. The engineering problems
+attending its construction and preservation have been those connected
+with the crossing of the Gran Estero swamp, and the bridging of
+numerous small tributaries of the Yuna River, which from modest
+brooklets in the dry season swell to turbulent torrents in rainy
+weather. The bridge across the Camu River near La Vega has been washed
+away repeatedly and further trouble has been caused by the river
+changing its course.
+
+The journey from Sanchez to La Vega, including the side trip to San
+Francisco de Macoris, consumes five and a half hours. After leaving
+Sanchez the end of the Samana range is soon reached and for miles the
+train travels across a mangrove swamp, where the bushy vegetation is
+exceedingly dense and the roadbed is covered with grass. Forests
+follow, the trees of which are encumbered with great hanging vines. As
+soon as a higher level is reached, clearings become frequent. At the
+stations along the route the entire population of the small towns
+seems to turn out to await the train's arrival. At two larger places,
+Villa Rivas and Pimentel, the train makes lengthier stops. The houses
+all along are similar, one story wooden buildings, generally
+whitewashed and roofed with tiles, corrugated zinc or palm thatch. La
+Gina is the beginning of the branch line which extends through
+monotonous woodland to San Francisco de Macoris. On the main line,
+after passing La Gina, there are numerous cacao plantations, and near
+La Vega the muddy Cotui road emerges from the woods and follows the
+railroad. About eight miles from La Vega is the station of Las
+Cabullas, the starting point of the branch to Salcedo and Moca.
+
+Affording, as it does, the outlet for the products of the eastern
+portion of the Cibao, the Samana-Santiago railroad transports the
+greater part of the cacao exported from the country. It has been the
+most important factor in the development of the Royal Plain, but owing
+to the country's internal troubles was run at a loss for years. It is
+well managed and of late years has made handsome profits.
+
+The name of the other Dominican railroad is also misleading, it being
+called the Central Dominican Railway, though only extending from
+Puerto Plata, on the north coast, to Santiago de los Caballeros, a
+distance of 41 miles, with an extension to Moca, 16 miles, a total of
+57 miles. Its name is due to the fact, that it was considered the
+first section of a road which was ultimately to connect Puerto Plata
+and Santo Domingo City. The need for such a road had been and is still
+urgently felt, and the construction of no portion was more imperative
+than that between Santiago and the coast. The mountain roads in this
+section were indescribably bad; a trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata
+meant at least two days of dangerous riding; and all merchandise to
+and from Santiago had to be transported on mule-back. President
+Heureaux therefore considered himself fortunate when the Dominican
+government was able, in 1890, in connection with a bond issue, to make
+contracts with the banking firm of Westendorp & Co., of Amsterdam, for
+the construction of the section of the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago. Belgian money was furnished and Belgian engineers made the
+plans. The road was given a gauge of only two feet six inches, and the
+short-sightedness is inconceivable which permitted the adoption on
+this road of a gauge different from that of the Samana-Santiago
+Railroad, when the two were expected to join in Santiago. Ultimately
+the gauge of the Central Dominican Railway will have to be widened,
+but the change will cost a considerable sum and require a complete
+renovation of the rolling stock. In view of the steepness of the
+slopes to be surmounted, the plans contemplated the construction, on
+several portions of the road, of a rack-line or cremaillère, a third
+track provided with cogs, between the other two, and the use of
+special mountain-climbing locomotives having a cogwheel by means of
+which the ascent was to be accomplished and the descent regulated. The
+Belgian engineers built the road from Puerto Plata as far as
+Bajabonico, a distance of about eleven miles.
+
+At this stage the financial difficulties of the Dominican government
+induced the Belgians to sell their rights to American interests, which
+formed the San Domingo Improvement Company to take them over. American
+engineers accordingly finished the road to Santiago. The rack-rail
+feature being undesirable, plans were made for the construction of the
+road as an adhesion road. No further rack-rail was built and one of
+the portions constructed was converted, but two short stretches of
+rack-rail remained near Puerto Plata, one of one mile and another of
+three miles. The Central Dominican Railway Company was incorporated
+for the operation of the road.
+
+During the controversy later carried on between the Dominican
+government and the San Domingo Improvement Company the Company
+contended that the road had cost in the neighborhood of $3,000,000, or
+about $600,000 in excess of the sums realized by the sale of the bonds
+assigned by the government to defray the cost of construction. The
+dispute found its settlement in the protocol of January 31, 1903, by
+which the Dominican government agreed to purchase all the holdings of
+the Improvement Company. In the negotiations of which this convention
+was an incident, the value of the railroad was generally estimated at
+$1,500,000. Upon the delivery by the Dominican government of the cash
+and bonds agreed upon by the settlement of 1907 as the price of the
+Improvement Company's interests, the Company, in February, 1908,
+turned over the railroad to the government. It has since been operated
+by the Dominican government with satisfactory results, though it has
+suffered serious injury from revolutions. The insurgents destroyed
+bridges and the rack-rail; the latter has not been replaced, and the
+four and ten per cent grades are now laboriously overcome by means of
+Shay geared engines. Surveys show that the troublesome grades can be
+avoided by the construction of curves which will increase the length
+of the road by not more than three or four miles.
+
+Owing to the mountainous character of the country traversed, the
+scenery on this road is splendid. The speed attained by the trains
+would not alarm a nervous wreck, for though the length of the road is
+about 41 miles, the ascent from Puerto Plata to Santiago takes almost
+six hours and the return trip from Santiago five, in which the slow
+engines, the steep grades, the former rack-road section and the
+numerous long stops have equal shares of responsibility. The roadbed
+is very rough and the passengers are considerably shaken up, but the
+memory of what used to be helps to mitigate the discomfort. On one of
+my trips over the road, when a fellow-passenger made a remark about
+the severe jolting that almost shook us off our seats, an elderly
+Dominican gentleman observed: "My friend, you evidently never took a
+trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata before the railroad was built.
+Compared with travel then, this mode of conveyance is like being
+carried in angels' arms." As on the Samana-Santiago Road, the regular
+trains are mixed trains, that is, a freight and passenger together,
+usually looking like a freight train with a small passenger car
+attached. Except in unusually dull periods there is one daily train
+each way. The city of Santiago is about 600 feet above the level of
+the sea; from here the course is over a rich plain among tobacco farms
+and meadows full of cattle, for a distance of about twelve miles,
+until the foothills are reached and the ascent of the coast range is
+begun. Higher and higher along the mountainside, through country
+wilder and wilder, the train winds its way to the highest point of the
+road, 1580 feet above sea-level and 20 miles from Santiago, where a
+short tunnel pierces the mountain. The mountain pass at this point is
+1720 feet above sea-level and is the lowest one in twenty miles. At
+the station on the other side of the mountain a fifteen minute stop is
+made for lunch. Then begins a rapid descent along a deep valley, on
+the wooded slopes of which little houses peer out between the trees.
+The town of Altamira, on a knob in the middle of the valley, is
+passed, and further down, near Bajabonico, a small sugar plantation.
+Another ascent, on which is the old rack-road section, is now
+reached; a powerful mountain engine is placed before the train and
+slowly works its way up. From the top of the ridge the scene is
+magnificent. Below, in the far distance, Puerto Plata is seen, a
+miniature city with tiny bright-colored houses, nestling at the foot
+of the great verdure-covered cone, Mt. Isabel de Torres; before it
+lies its almost circular harbor with what look like toy ships riding
+at anchor; the foam of the breakers on the reefs at the harbor
+entrance gleams in the sunlight; and beyond, in vast immensity extends
+the blue expanse of the ocean. On the final descent quicker time is
+made than anywhere else on the road.
+
+The extension of the Central Dominican Railroad from Santiago to Moca
+was built and is operated by the Dominican government. In 1894 a
+franchise was granted the San Domingo Improvement Company for the Moca
+road, and grading was done for several miles outside of Santiago, but
+the financial troubles of the Dominican government suspended the work.
+When better times came, the government in 1906 began to build the road
+from Santiago to Moca with current revenues, and it was opened to
+traffic in 1910. At Moca this road is met by the extension of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad from Salcedo, so that it is possible to
+travel by rail through the fertile Cibao from Sanchez to Puerto Plata,
+though the difference in gauge requires a change of cars at Moca.
+
+A railroad between the Cibao and Santo Domingo City has long been
+contemplated. Government engineers a few years ago surveyed a route
+from Santo Domingo City to La Gina, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad,
+passing through Cotui. The route is 80 miles long, and the estimated
+cost is about $2,325,000. Such a through railroad would open up great
+tracts now isolated, afford an easy means of communication between
+the north and south, and be of inestimable advantage to the Republic.
+It is the most urgent and important public work under consideration in
+the country.
+
+Another road which has long been projected and which the Dominican
+government in 1906 determined to have constructed with current
+revenues, is one in the east, from Seibo, on the plains in the
+interior, to the port of La Romana in the southern coast. This region,
+excellently adapted for cacao raising and sugar planting, has been
+kept secluded by bad roads. After several thousand dollars had been
+spent in surveys and a little grading, the work was stopped by lack of
+funds and the government decided that the expense of construction and
+the undeveloped character of the country counselled an abandonment of
+the project for the moment. If the railroad is finally built, it will
+probably be from Seibo to San Pedro de Macoris and not to La Romana.
+
+Even in the immediate vicinity of Santo Domingo City most roads are in
+such bad condition that during the rainy season villages only a few
+miles away cannot be reached except by floundering through the mud for
+many hours, and even during the dry season, with all conditions
+favorable, it requires two days hard riding to reach the city of Azua,
+80 miles to the west. A railroad from the capital to Azua has
+therefore been proposed repeatedly, and in 1901 a concession was
+granted for the first section thereof, from Santo Domingo to San
+Cristobal, a distance of 16 miles, with the right of extension. The
+revolution of the spring of 1903 interrupted the construction of this
+road, but a little work was done in 1906 under a new contract, which
+has since been declared lapsed.
+
+Private plantation railroads are to be found on several sugar
+plantations near La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo City
+and Azua, and on the United Fruit Company's plantation near Puerto
+Plata. They aggregate about 225 miles in length and are used
+exclusively for the purposes of the respective estates, except one
+which carries passengers between the town of Azua and its port on
+steamer days.
+
+In several of the larger cities carriages and light automobiles can be
+hired at a reasonable figure, and furnish the principal means of
+communication within the city and to other places as far as the roads
+will permit. Between Monte Cristi and La Vega there is a regular
+automobile service, as also between Santo Domingo City and nearby
+towns. In only one place is there a car line--in Monte Cristi, where a
+small car runs--if that term can be applied to its motion--between the
+town and the harbor, a little more than a mile away. The cars, each
+drawn by a meek little mule, remind one of matchboxes on wheels; they
+are open on all sides and contain simply two benches, back to back,
+which will hold a maximum of three passengers each. In Santo Domingo
+City there was a horse car line for almost twenty years, running out
+as far as Fort San Geronimo, about three miles; but in March, 1903,
+while the city was under siege during a revolution, the car barns were
+destroyed by fire and with them the entire rolling stock, the car
+axles being taken for barricades. In 1915 the government granted
+several franchises for electric car lines, one for Santo Domingo City,
+with the right to extend as far as Bani; another for Santiago, with
+the right of extension to Janico; and a third for Macoris, with the
+right of extension to Seibo, but no work has been done on
+these projects.
+
+On certain parts of the country roads there is communication by oxcart
+during the dry season, and in the arid region such communication is
+possible almost all the year round. On the Samana peninsula and in
+other mountain districts, merchandise is occasionally transported in
+Indian fashion, on two poles tied to a horse and trailing on the
+ground behind. In general, however, recourse must be had for
+transportation purposes to the faithful horse and the patient donkey.
+In the northern part of the Republic the ox is often used as a beast
+of burden and sometimes for riding, furnishing an odd spectacle. The
+ox is guided by a string tied to a ring in his nose, but neither the
+configuration of his back nor his gait are to be recommended for
+comfortable rides.
+
+Most of the roads of Santo Domingo can be called roads only by
+courtesy. They are generally little more than trails of greater or
+less width. The larger receipts enjoyed by the government since the
+customs collections were taken over by Americans in 1905, have caused
+a little improvement. Thus, a first-class macadam road has been
+constructed from Santo Domingo City to San Cristobal, a distance of
+sixteen miles; the old trail from Santo Domingo to San Pedro de
+Macoris has become available for automobiles; and the royal road in
+the Cibao from La Vega through Moca and Santiago to Monte Cristi, a
+distance of about 100 miles, formerly a horror, has been converted
+into a fair dirt road. The amount of work to be done appears all the
+more appalling when it is considered that in the small island of
+Jamaica, less than one-fourth the size of the Dominican Republic,
+there are 1000 miles of fine roads. The American authorities in the
+island are giving considerable attention to the improvement of the
+principal highways around and between the more important cities, and
+valuable work is being done. By an executive order of November 23,
+1917, the military governor appropriated $650,000, to be expended on
+portions of a trunk road which is ultimately to connect Santo Domingo,
+La Vega, Moca, Santiago and Monte Cristi.
+
+The majority of the roads and trails have scarcely been touched since
+their course was fixed, centuries ago. Occasionally the abutting
+property owners or an energetic communal chief cut away encroaching
+vegetation or drained an unusually bad bog or threw dirt from the
+sides of the road to the middle in order to raise it above water level
+in the wet season, but such instances of civic thoughtfulness have
+been only too infrequent.
+
+During the rainy season travel becomes troublesome on all roads and
+impossible on many. On the unimproved highways deep, dangerous bogs
+form in every depression, containing either liquid mud where the horse
+is almost forced to swim, or soft tough clay, where the horse's feet
+are imprisoned and the animal in its desperate efforts to jerk itself
+free indulges in contortions anything but pleasant for the rider. The
+horses and cargo animals ever treading in each other's footsteps,
+cause the earth to wear away in furrows across the road, which fill
+with water and with mud of all colors and conditions of toughness.
+With few interruptions the monotonous splash, splash, splash of
+horses' feet constantly accompanies the traveler. The first ten
+minutes of such a journey on slippery ground make the trip appear an
+adventure, the next ten an experience, but after that the expedition
+becomes exceedingly wearisome. In the dry season all moisture
+disappears and the ridges between the mud trenches become hard as
+brick. The efforts of travelers to avoid bad places by going around
+them has caused the roads to become very wide in places--the width
+varying from one to over a hundred feet. At times, in grassy or stony
+stretches, the road disappears entirely, and the traveler's best guide
+is the telegraph wire, where there is one. Again it passes through
+thorny woods with overhanging branches which continually threaten to
+unhorse the rider. Thus it winds along, through forests and plains,
+over fallen logs and trees, beside precipices, down steep banks,
+across rapid streams. A trip into the interior in Santo Domingo
+requires a good horse, a strong constitution and a large supply
+of patience.
+
+In rainy weather the traveled roads are even worse than the
+unfrequented ones, for the ground is rendered more miry, and the bogs
+are more frequent. On a highroad near La Vega I arrived at a mudhole
+where an old man was being rescued by a passer-by from drowning in the
+liquid mud; I snapped a photograph of the scene when he was still
+knee-deep. Near the city of Moca there is a slope where many a horse
+has fallen and thrown its rider on the slippery loam. A friend of mine
+who for safety's sake alighted from his horse to walk to the other
+side of the gully, had his foot so tightly lodged in the pasty mud
+that, in his straining to withdraw it, the foot slipped out of the
+shoe, which remained as firmly imbedded as before. His posture and
+predicament were naturally a good deal more amusing for his companions
+than for himself. Yet some of these roads in dry weather are excellent
+dirt roads. On a road in the Cibao I made a trip of fifteen miles in
+the rainy season in five hours of hard riding and arrived with an
+exhausted horse; six months later when the road was dry I made the
+same journey comfortably in an hour and a half. On the first of these
+occasions--it was in the course of a vacation trip for the purpose of
+studying the country--I happened upon two other travelers and together
+we floundered for many weary miles through black mud varying from the
+consistency of soup to that of pudding. The road was indescribably
+bad, and riders and horses were covered with mire and thoroughly
+fatigued. That evening at the inn, through the open door between our
+rooms, I heard my traveling companions discussing me. One of them
+asked: "What is his object in coming here?" The other answered: "He
+says he is traveling for pleasure." "Then," responded the first
+solemnly, "he is either lying or he is insane."
+
+The streams must usually be crossed either by fording or by ferry, and
+not infrequently the horse must swim part of the distance across.
+Outside the railroad bridges, there are scarcely half a dozen bridges
+which deserve the name in the Dominican Republic. A good bridge has
+recently been constructed over the Jaina River on the San Cristobal
+road, and another was completed in May, 1917, across the Ozama River
+at Santo Domingo City, in place of one destroyed by a freshet some
+years ago. Bridges, where there are any, are generally rude logs laid
+across brooks.
+
+When journeying overland it is advisable to take advantage as much as
+possible of moonlight nights. It is best to rise at two or three
+o'clock in the morning, ride until about eleven o'clock, then rest for
+about three hours while the sun is highest, and then continue till
+evening. Riding at night, however, exposes one to the danger of making
+too intimate an acquaintance with some mudhole or some low hanging
+bough or telegraph wire, but these risks can be avoided by vigilance.
+The hours of dawn are the coolest of the twenty-four, and more
+distance can be covered with less fatigue than later in the day.
+
+If the traveler takes the precaution to furnish himself with canned
+food before starting on a journey inland, he will not regret his
+foresight. Inns do not exist out in the country. In the larger cities,
+indeed, there are hotels, but all are modest establishments. Perhaps
+the most pretentious is the French Hotel in Santo Domingo City. In
+hotels which are located in important seaports or railroad termini and
+are frequented by travelers, the meals and accommodations are fair. In
+other localities the food is almost inedible to an unaccustomed
+palate, and the sleeping accommodations are primitive cots. Even in
+important towns like Moca and Azua I found the inns kept by poor
+mulatto women, widows with families, having one room for travelers,
+divided from the family apartment by a thin partition, through which
+all the proceedings on the other side could be followed throughout
+the night.
+
+The difficulty of land transportation explains why, with the exception
+of three cities in the Cibao, all important towns are located on the
+seacoast. It also makes plain why water transportation is preferred to
+travel by land, and the inhabitants of the north and south await the
+bi-weekly steamer rather than make the trip overland, which in the
+most favorable cases will take about three days. The roads and trails
+are used for travel locally or when boat connections are not
+convenient or feasible, and for mail transportation. The following are
+the principal highways:
+
+1. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao, by way of Bonao. There are
+three roads from Santo Domingo City to the Cibao, the most westerly
+one being the Bonao trail, the most easterly one the Sillon de la
+Viuda and the middle one the Gallinas trail. The Bonao road leaves
+Santo Domingo by way of Duar Avenue and San Carlos and ascends gently
+in a northwesterly direction through slightly rolling land to the
+Santa Rosa plain, which it traverses. As far as Los Alcarrizos it has
+been improved, but further on it is merely a dirt road without
+drainage and becomes one long slough in rainy weather. On the Jobo
+savanna the road divides; the eastern branch runs along a range of
+hills and the western branch over to the Jaina River, where it passes
+the site of the old mining town of Buenaventura, of which only a few
+vestiges of walls remain. Whichever of the two branches the traveler
+takes, he will be sorry he did not choose the other, for they are
+equally bad. The branches meet on the plain of Las Nasas, from where
+the highway continues through wooded lands and natural meadows,
+crossing the Jaina River three times and the Guananitos River nine
+times. The soil is a rich, soft loam, pure vegetable detritus, and the
+frequent rains and the absence of drainage make this part of the road
+very difficult at all seasons. After crossing a stretch of beautiful
+savanna, known as Sabana del Puerto, the ascent of a range of the
+central mountain system begins. The road makes many windings along the
+mountain side until the heights of Laguneta are attained. The high
+hill of Piedra Blanca must be crossed and a number of small streams
+forded before Bonao is reached. From Bonao to La Vega the road is of
+the same general character. There are many miry places, many ascents
+and descents and many difficult river passes, the Yuna River, near
+Bonao, being crossed by ferry. On some of the steep descents the
+horses and mules accustomed to the road put their four feet together
+and slide, while the unaccustomed traveler feels his hair standing on
+end. The distance from Santo Domingo City to Bonao is about 65 miles;
+from Bonao to La Vega some 30 miles.
+
+This seems to have been an ancient Indian trail between Santo Domingo
+and the Cibao. Bartholomew Columbus, under orders from his brother,
+founded both Buenaventura and Bonao in 1496 as military posts, as
+part of the chain of forts stretching across the island. The decay of
+these towns when the mines were abandoned, the miry soil and the many
+crossings of streams all caused travel to be diverted to the road of
+the Sillon de la Viuda. The Bonao road, being the most direct route to
+La Vega, has been designated by the military government for
+improvement as a trunk road.
+
+2. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the pass of the
+Sillon de la Viuda, or Widow's Chair. While the Widow's Chair road is
+about twenty miles longer than the Bonao road, it is preferable since
+on the whole it lies over firmer ground. It leads due north from Santo
+Domingo City and after four miles the Isabela River is crossed by
+ferry near its confluence with the Ozama. A steep ascent follows and
+the road runs through wooded land until the town of Mella is reached.
+Small forests and wide savannas follow each other in rapid succession;
+the Ozama River is forded and a stretch of swampy soil with bad bogs
+is encountered. A fine piece of prairie land known as the Luisa
+savanna is crossed, more natural meadows follow and the ascent of the
+central mountain range begins. The road becomes so steep that the
+rider can scarcely keep his seat on his horse. From the summit, the
+Widow's Pass, which is almost 2000 feet above the level of the sea, a
+sublime view of mountains, valleys and plains is obtained. The pass
+itself is a narrow rocky defile where a score of men might hold an
+army at bay. It is said that there are lower passes in the vicinity by
+utilizing which the steep grade might be avoided, but the fact could
+be ascertained only by a more thorough exploration than has yet been
+made. On the north the road descends through heavy timber, with many
+miry places. Savannas separated by small forests are then crossed and
+the little town of Cevicos is reached, the halfway place between Santo
+Domingo and La Vega. Eighteen miles further on, separated from Cevicos
+by a hard road crossed by numerous deep gullies, sleeps the ancient
+town of Cotui. The Yuna River near Cotui must be crossed in canoes.
+Then follows a road thirty-five miles long to La Vega, which in the
+rainy season is little more than mud and water, but leads through a
+beautiful wooded country. It is better to take the road from Cotui to
+La Gina, or that to Pimentel, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and
+complete the journey by rail, for though the character of these trails
+is similar to the La Vega trail, they are only about fifteen
+miles long.
+
+3. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the Gallinas Pass.
+This is also an ancient trail which formerly passed through the town
+of Yamasá, but was diverted to shorten the distance to the Cibao.
+Leaving Santo Domingo the same route is followed as in going to the
+Widow's Pass, as far as Mella, where the road branches off to the
+left. Small grassy plains and rolling wooded lands are traversed, as
+is also the wide prairie known as the Maricao savanna. Several streams
+are forded, among them the upper Ozama, and the country continues of
+the same general character until the huts on the old cattle ranch of
+la Guazuma, formerly Las Gallinas, are sighted. Here the road slopes
+upward as far as the foot of the Demajagua mountain, when a long
+tedious ascent to the pass begins, followed by a rough ride through
+the mountains. The long descent toward Cotui is broken by numerous
+water-courses. No less than eleven smaller streams are forded, and
+there are three crossings of the Chacuey River, before the road
+leading to Cotui from Cevicos and the Widow's Pass is attained near
+the former town. By this road it is about 65 miles from Santo Domingo
+to Cotui.
+
+The three passes described are the only ones suitable, so far as
+known, for communication between the capital and the Cibao. There are,
+indeed, lower and more convenient passes farther to the east, but the
+roads emerge near Samana Bay, too far from the Royal Plain to be
+available. The middle route of the three, that by way of the Gallinas
+Pass, is followed by the telegraph line and used by the post. It has
+been preferred by travelers for it is considered the shortest road to
+the Cibao and its highest point is reported to be only about 1200 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+4. Road from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar. Since the southeastern
+part of the Dominican Republic consists of great plains, the roads in
+this region are all perfectly level and less difficult than those of
+the mountains, but they are little more than trails and the wide
+savannas make traveling monotonous. The road which turns northeast
+from Santo Domingo on the left side of the Ozama passes the sugar
+estates there situated, continues by a wide path through a lightly
+wooded country to the town of Guerra and shortly thereafter enters
+upon the Guabatico prairie, which it crosses in its entire width of
+over twenty miles. The ascent to the first pass, that of the
+Castellanos mountain, then begins. The descent is as easy as the
+ascent, a valley is crossed in which the headwaters of the Macoris
+River are forded, and then follows a long ascent to the second pass.
+From the foot of the mountain to El Valle and Sabana la Mar the
+country is wooded and the road level and wide, but so miry as to be
+practically impassable during the entire rainy season. The distance
+from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar is something over sixty miles.
+
+5. Road from Santo Domingo to Higuey. This road is the same as the
+Sabana la Mar road as far as Guerra, then traverses small forests and
+grassy plains to Seibo, passing through the important towns of Los
+Llanos and Hato Mayor. The greater part of the last 36 miles of the
+road, from Seibo to Higuey, runs over the foothills of the central
+mountain range. The entire length of the road is about 110 miles.
+
+6. Road from Santo Domingo to Azua. On this ancient road more military
+expeditions have marched and fought than on any other in the island of
+Santo Domingo. Spanish, British, French, Haitian, Dominican and
+American forces have tramped on its dusty course. The road runs west
+from Santo Domingo City parallel with the seashore. Near the city it
+is a perfectly level boulevard bordered by pretty cottages. About
+three miles from the town the small fortress of San Geronimo is
+passed, a romantic structure, built by the early Spaniards as an
+outpost against piratical invasions. Seven miles further on is the
+collection of huts constituting the town of Jaina on the river of the
+same name. A fine new bridge spans the river and the road continues
+through luxuriant tropical vegetation. The little town of Nigua, with
+an old chapel perched high on a hill, is reached, and here the road
+divides, the left branch continuing near the seashore, while the right
+branch turns inland to San Cristobal. The former pursues its way over
+land generally level though with occasional steep hills and cut by
+frequent brooks, skirts the ocean beach for a short distance, crosses
+the turbulent Nizao River by a long and dangerous ford and enters the
+arid country. The other branch extends to the grass-grown town of San
+Cristobal, where the macadam road from Santo Domingo ends. Continuing,
+the road traverses a fertile country by way of the town of Yaguate,
+crosses the broad bed of the Nizao River, which changes its channels
+with dangerous frequency, threads a way through monotonous woods and
+joins the other road near Paya. But a few miles further on is the
+clean little town of Bani. From here two roads lead to Azua. The
+inland road leads through the pass of Las Carreras,--where Santana on
+April 21, 1849, assured the independence of Santo Domingo by his
+victory over the Haitian forces--and finally joins the coast road. The
+road of the seacoast, which, though longer, is preferable by reason of
+being more level, leaves Bani through a weird country, where giant
+cactus is the only vegetation produced by the rocky soil. After
+crossing a stretch of grass-grown tableland it descends to the waters
+of Ocoa Bay and continues literally through the surf. Several hours of
+travel through a dreary forest of cactus and thorny brush then follow
+before Azua is reached.
+
+7. Cibao Valley Road. The road, or combination of roads, from Samana
+Bay to Monte Cristi, lies in level country. The urgency for the
+improvement of the eastern portion has been less since the
+establishment of the railroad from Sanchez to La Vega, and the trail
+from near the mouth of the Yuna River to San Francisco de Macoris,
+with the branches from there to Moca and La Vega, is now important
+only locally. The two roads between La Vega and Santiago, however, in
+the heart of the Royal Plain, are the most important and most heavily
+traveled highways in the Republic. They run through the most fertile
+section of the island, are quite level, and available for carts and
+automobiles, but in the rainy season they become very muddy. The
+direct road from La Vega to Santiago is about twenty-seven miles long
+and lies to the south of the famous Santo Cerro. The other road is
+about six miles longer and passes through the important city of Moca.
+After leaving La Vega and crossing the yellow Camu, the latter road
+skirts the northern slope of the Santo Cerro and the traveler who
+can, deserts it temporarily to climb the rocky height and regale
+himself with a view of the most magnificent valley of the West Indies.
+Upon passing the second brook after leaving the foot of the Santo
+Cerro the road traverses historic ground, for here stood the important
+city of La Concepción, or old La Vega. The distance from La Vega to
+Moca is about fifteen miles and from here two roads lead on to
+Santiago, both about eighteen miles long and both lined with fine
+cacao plantations, but one turning a little to the south while the
+other approaches the foothills and leads through the smiling town of
+Tamboril. From Santiago on there are two roads, one to the north and
+the other to the south of the Yaque River. They lie through a dry
+country where cactus is the favorite product of the soil. The road
+along the northern bank of the Yaque is the better of the two, since
+the roadbed is good and there are few rivers to cross. It is the
+highway between Santiago and Monte Cristi, a distance of sixty-seven
+miles, and passes through the inland town of Guayubin. The southern
+road crosses numerous streams which flow down from the Cordillera to
+join the Yaque, turns southwesterly at Guayubin and continues to
+Dajabon and on into the borders of Haiti.
+
+The above are the highways of most traffic. There is further a main
+road or rather trail westward from Azua along Lake Enriquillo and
+leading on to Port-au-Prince; another from Azua northwesterly through
+the fertile valley of San Juan, also leading into Haiti; and two
+perilous trails branching off from the latter road and running through
+remote mountain regions to Santiago and La Vega. There is no direct
+communication in Dominican territory between the northwestern and
+southwestern portions of the Republic, and it is necessary either to
+make a long detour or to pass through Haitian territory. Less
+important local trails, more or less difficult of travel, are to be
+found in all inhabited portions of the country.
+
+In order to avoid the troubles of land travel, recourse is had,
+whenever possible, to water transportation. The foreign steamship
+lines afford considerable relief in this respect, for they generally
+stop at more than one port of the Republic. In normal times there are
+four foreign steamer lines with passenger service to Dominican
+ports, namely:
+
+The Clyde line, with bi-weekly sailings between New York and Santo
+Domingo, stopping at Monte Cristi, Puerto Plata, Samana, Sanchez,
+Macoris and Santo Domingo City, and Azua.
+
+The Cuban "Herrera Line," with a tri-weekly steamer service between
+ports of Cuba and Porto Rico, calling at Santo Domingo City
+and Macoris.
+
+The "Compagnie Générale Transatlantique," two routes of which touch in
+the Republic. A monthly steamer between French and Haitian ports calls
+at Puerto Plata, and returning also at Sanchez, in the Dominican
+Republic, and then makes calls in Porto Rico and St. Thomas. A smaller
+steamer plying once a month between Haitian ports and Guadeloupe and
+Martinique calls at Santiago de Cuba, Santo Domingo City, Porto Rican
+ports and St. Thomas. The steamers on these routes, though not
+uncomfortable, are venerable hulks which have seen long service in
+different parts of the world.
+
+The Hamburg-American Line, a monthly steamer of which called regularly
+at Santo Domingo City and also at other points in the Republic when
+cargo conditions were favorable, and connected with other ports in the
+Antilles and with vessels from Europe. Other steamers of this line
+called at the northern ports to take cargo to Europe.
+
+There is further a fruit line between Boston and Puerto Plata and
+sugar steamers between New York and Macoris during the cane grinding
+season, but they carry no passengers. How far the interests of Spain
+and Santo Domingo have diverged is indicated by the fact that not one
+of the Spanish transatlantic liners which run to Porto Rico, Cuba,
+Central and South America, touches in Santo Domingo.
+
+A steamer of the Bull line runs between ports in Santo Domingo and
+Porto Rico and there is also a coast line under Dominican registry,
+which extends to Porto Rico, but the steamers of which do not
+distinguish themselves for comfort. Thus there is at present frequent
+steamer service between Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, but little
+communication with Haiti and Cuba.
+
+Most of the steamer lines touching in the Republic carry mails. Santo
+Domingo is a member of the International Postal Union and its post
+offices offer the usual facilities, except that there is no money
+order system. More than three-quarters of the incoming foreign mail
+comes from the United States, including Porto Rico, and over one-half
+the outgoing foreign mail is directed to this country. The American
+authorities are engaged in a thorough re-organization of the Dominican
+postal service.
+
+In connection with the post offices the government operates a
+telegraph and telephone system. The government lines connect all the
+more important points in the country. Constructed without plan or
+method and insufficiently cared for, these lines are all in poor
+condition and badly in need of repair or reconstruction. The charges
+are high and the service poor. The government also has a wireless
+telegraph station at Santo Domingo City and another at Macoris.
+
+The French Submarine Telegraph Co. affords Santo Domingo cable
+connection with the rest of the world. Its cable touches at Puerto
+Plata and Santo Domingo City, crossing the Republic by means of a land
+line which is also open to local messages. The interruptions of
+communication over this land line in the various revolutions have
+given rise to numerous damage claims on the part of the Company.
+
+There are also telephone lines on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and on
+the Central Dominican Railroad operated in connection with the
+respective roads. Local public telephone systems are in operation in
+Santo Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris, and there are private
+telephone lines between the principal cities and plantations in
+their vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+COMMERCE
+
+
+Exports and imports.--Foreign trade.--Trade with the United States.--
+Ports of entry.--Wharf concessions.--Domestic trade.--Business
+houses.--Banks.--Manufactures.
+
+
+The fact that Dominican commerce has more than trebled in twelve years
+demonstrates the epoch-making character of the fiscal convention with
+the United States. The trade figures since 1905 are as follows:
+
+
+              GROWTH OF DOMINICAN TRADE
+       (All figures are in American currency)
+
+           Imports         Exports         Total
+
+1905     $ 2,736,828     $ 6,896,098     $ 9,632,926
+1906       4,065,437       6,536,378      10,601,915
+1907       4,948,961       7,628,356      12,577,317
+1908       4,767,775       9,396,487      14,164,262
+1909       4,425,913       8,113,690      12,539,603
+1910       6,257,691      10,849,623      17,107,314
+1911       6,949,662      10,995,546      17,945,208
+1913       8,217,898      12,385,248      20,603,146
+1913       9,272,278      10,469,947      19,742,225
+1914       6,729,007      10,588,787      17,317,794
+1915       9,118,514      15,209,061      24,327,575
+1916      11,664,430      21,527,873      33,192,303
+
+
+The increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the entire trade
+of the country in 1905. The temporary setback of 1909 was caused by
+the partial failure of the cacao crop and the paralyzation of
+commerce in anticipation of lower tariff rates. That of 1914 was due
+to the European war and a domestic revolution. Santo Domingo has,
+however, repeatedly presented the anomalous spectacle of showing
+enormous trade figures in the midst of warfare, as for example, in
+1912. The advance in commerce has been especially marked since the
+presence of the American troops assured peaceful conditions.
+
+Not a year has passed since 1904 without a large balance of trade in
+favor of Santo Domingo. While the greater part of this is represented
+by huge sugar profits which have gone to foreign investors, a
+considerable portion remained in the country. The great increase in
+wealth since 1904 is apparent to anyone who knew the country at
+that time.
+
+The imports cover the wide range to be expected in a nonmanufacturing,
+agricultural country in the tropics. The principal imports in
+1916 were:
+
+
+Cotton goods                                          $1,721,534
+Iron and steel manufactures, including sugar machinery 1,562,367
+Rice                                                   1,080,068
+Wheat flour                                              621,900
+Provisions, meat and dairy products                      530,195
+Oils                                                     545,284
+Bagging and other manufactures of vegetable fiber        508,644
+Vehicles and boats                                       408,832
+Manufactures of leather                                  385,518
+Wood and manufactures of wood                            317,421
+Codfish and other preserved fish and fish products       309,204
+Chemicals, drugs and dyes                                293,072
+Soap, and ingredients for the manufacture of soap        233,991
+Paper and manufactures of paper                          171,706
+Beer                                                     168,901
+Agricultural implements                                  121,830
+
+
+The United States furnished practically all the flour and other
+breadstuffs, oils, lumber, agricultural implements and leather
+articles and most of the cotton goods, hardware, machinery, fish, meat
+and dairy products. Before the European war all the rice was bought in
+Germany, as well as a considerable portion of the fish, beer, meat and
+dairy products. At present the rice is brought from the United States
+and England. The other imports from England are almost entirely cotton
+goods and bagging, with some iron and steel manufactures.
+
+In the chapter on the flora of the country, statistics are given with
+reference to the exports of the country, which are, as there pointed
+out, principally: sugar, cacao, tobacco, coffee, bananas, beeswax and
+honey, hides, cotton, hardwoods and dyewoods.
+
+Owing to its geographical position the United States naturally has the
+greater part of Dominican trade, but since the European war set the
+commerce of the world awry that proportion has grown until in 1916 the
+imports from the United States, including Porto Rico, were 90.4 per
+cent of the total and the exports to the United States and Porto Rico
+were 82.8 per cent of the total, though the latter figure varies
+somewhat from final destination, as much of the sugar and cacao is
+shipped subject to order. Before the European war something more than
+one-half of the trade of Santo Domingo was with the United States,
+one-fifth with Germany, and the remainder with France, England and
+other countries. The countries of origin of imports and destination of
+exports of the Dominican Republic in the year 1916, as compared with
+the list for 1913, the last preceding normal year, are here shown:
+
+DOMINICAN TRADE BY COUNTRIES
+
+
+IMPORTS
+                          1913                       1916
+
+                    Value     Percentage       Value       Percentage
+                              of whole                     of whole
+
+Cuba             $     7,352       .08        $   136,587      1.17
+France               274,318       2.96           152,358      1.30
+Germany            1,677,833      18.10              ----      ----
+Italy                173,105       1.87            63,450      .54
+Porto Rico            62,900       .67            378,219      3.24
+Spain                210,781       2.27           151,451      1.30
+United Kingdom       730,191       7.88           481,305      4.13
+United States      5,769,061      62.22        10,162,698     87.13
+Other Countries      366,737       3.95           138,362      1.19
+
+Total            $ 9,272,278     100.00       $11,664,430    100.00
+
+EXPORTS
+
+Cuba             $    27,536        .26       $    19,447      .09
+France               887,907       8.48           287,799      1.34
+Germany            2,068,384      19.76              ----      ----
+Italy                 20,430        .19             2,496      .01
+Porto Rico            28,994        .28           425,483      1.98
+United Kingdom       241,810       2.31           105,107      .49
+United States      5,600,768      53.49        17,412,088     80.88
+Other Countries    1,594,118      15.23         3,275,543     15.21
+
+Total            $10,469,947     100.00       $21,527,873    100.00
+
+
+Very interesting statistics with reference to all these matters are
+published annually in the report of the general receiver of Dominican
+customs. Since the establishment of the receivership full and accurate
+trade statistics have become available for the first time in the
+history of the Republic. Before 1891 no statistics at all were kept.
+During the nineties there was an attempt at compilation, but the
+corruption in the custom-houses was so notorious that the figures
+cannot be regarded as reliable. For the disturbed years immediately
+following the death of Heureaux the data are incomplete and uncertain.
+
+The question of shipping has been a serious problem confronting
+Dominican commerce since the beginning of the European war. Freight
+rates are rising to almost prohibitive figures, which have their
+effect in an enormous increase in the cost of living, Santo Domingo
+has as much reason as the rest of the world to desire an early
+cessation of the world calamity.
+
+After the war the old trade rivalry will be revived, but American
+commerce with the Republic should easily retain its lead, if properly
+cultivated. The observations so frequently made with reference to the
+extension of American trade with South America also hold good in the
+case of Santo Domingo. American merchants should send as
+representatives cultured men who speak Spanish; they should provide
+catalogs in good Spanish with accurate descriptions of the articles
+offered; they should fill orders as received, without substituting
+other articles; they should pack their shipments very carefully and
+with a view to local transportation conditions. The success of the
+Germans in building up their Dominican trade was due in large measure
+to the polish and fluent Spanish of their representatives, to their
+thorough study of local conditions, and to their favorable terms
+of payment.
+
+American commerce with Santo Domingo would be further stimulated and
+strengthened by a tariff reciprocity agreement similar to the customs
+convention between the United States and Cuba. The mutual advantages
+of such an agreement would be enormous and the development of Santo
+Domingo would be effectively promoted. Closer relations would also be
+fostered by a postal convention applying the domestic rates of postage
+to all mail between the two countries, a good beginning having been
+made by a recent arrangement applying the domestic postage rate to
+letters between the United States and the Dominican Republic.
+
+The Dominican Republic has twelve ports of entry, but nine-tenths of
+the foreign commerce goes through the ports of Macoris, Santo Domingo,
+Sanchez and Puerto Plata. The first two supply the import and export
+requirements of the southern portion of the Republic, the other two
+those of the Cibao. The other eight custom-houses exist for local
+convenience and for the prevention of smuggling. This is especially
+true of the three along the Haitian frontier. In former years there
+was considerable smuggling across the border, as the import duties on
+certain articles in Haiti are much lower than in the Dominican
+Republic. Although the profitable smuggling business demoralized trade
+in those regions, the government did not interfere with it owing to
+the difficulty of policing the wild and sparsely populated border
+district. The American general receiver determined that the back door
+should be guarded as well as the front entrance, and formed a frontier
+guard which stopped contraband traffic, though at a heavy cost, for
+two brave American officials have been killed and three wounded by
+smugglers and outlaws, while fourteen Dominican guardsmen and
+inspectors have been killed and twenty-three wounded. The expense of
+the three frontier custom-houses is greater than the revenue they
+produce, but entries in Azua, Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata increased
+significantly after the frontier guard began its patrolling.
+Incidentally the guard has helped to keep the boundary line in place.
+
+In the seaports most of the loading and unloading is done by lighters,
+the wharves generally being small affairs. Only in Puerto Plata (where
+extensive harbor improvements are now under way), Macoris and Santo
+Domingo can larger vessels approach the wharves. All the wharves were
+built under concessions from the government, which, in the
+impossibility to provide them itself on account of its perpetual lack
+of funds, was obliged to procure their construction by granting the
+right to collect a specified wharf tax, more or less onerous, for a
+period of years. The Santo Domingo City wharf concession provided that
+everything exported from and imported into this city or any other
+coast point in the province must pay the tax, whether the wharf was
+used or not. The Samana wharf concession; as amended, gave the right
+to collect certain high wharf taxes for fifty years, from 1875 to
+1925, in return for the building of a diminutive dock. One of the
+important objects accomplished through the 1907 bond issue was the
+redemption by the government of the monopolistic wharf concessions.
+
+A peculiar feature of the country's domestic trade is that almost
+fifty per cent of it is in the hands of Syrians. These people are
+found in a number of the West India Islands, but nowhere have they
+gained such a foothold as in Santo Domingo. They appeared in the
+nineties, and for a number of years confined their activities to
+peddling goods about the country, both men and women traveling around
+with great bundles of merchandise which they spread out wherever they
+met prospective purchasers. Their next step was to establish retail
+stores and crowd the native Dominican storekeeper out, and of late
+years they have opened large business houses. They are not regarded
+as a desirable element, as they do not amalgamate or mingle with the
+Dominican population, but seem possessed of the single idea to make a
+fortune and return with it to their country.
+
+Such part of the retail trade as is not controlled by Syrians, is
+mostly in the hands of Dominicans. The stores are generally small,
+with a limited stock of goods; they have no show-windows, but are
+arranged on the style of bazars. Fixed prices are rare and most sales
+become negotiations with the polite shopkeeper. In the country it is
+customary for the storekeeper to make advances of merchandise to the
+smaller farmers until crop time; they then pay him in cacao, coffee,
+tobacco or other farm products, which he remits to the seaport to the
+wholesale merchant with whom he deals.
+
+The larger business houses are in a majority of cases owned by
+foreigners, principally of Italian, German, Spanish, American and
+Cuban citizenship, and now also including numerous Syrian firms. A
+majority of those classed as Americans are natives of Porto Rico. A
+number of these merchants arrived in Santo Domingo as poor men and by
+hard work and shrewd investment built up respectable firms. They
+carefully preserved their foreign nationality as a valuable asset
+which protected them from undue interference on the part of the
+government. One of the most prominent and successful merchants of
+Santo Domingo was the late J.B. Vicini, an Italian who came to the
+country penniless, but with his energy and sagacity amassed the
+largest fortune of the island. His business is now managed by
+his sons.
+
+The larger merchants combine a banking business with their export and
+import business. The foremost of these private bankers of late years
+was Santiago  Michelena, a Porto Rican. Less than ten years ago there
+was not a single bank in the Republic, but there are now three well
+equipped banking institutions, all of them with their local
+headquarters in the capital. One of these is the International Banking
+Corporation, which is connected with the National City Bank of New
+York; it entered the Dominican Republic in April, 1917, by taking over
+Michelena's banking business. It has a branch in Macoris and Puerto
+Plata and agencies and correspondents throughout the country. Another
+bank is the Royal Bank of Canada, which does a flourishing business in
+a number of the West India Islands; it has branches in five cities of
+the Dominican Republic. The third bank is the Banco Nacional de Santo
+Domingo, incorporated by Americans under the Dominican banking law of
+1909, with a capital of $500,000. Although it has several branches,
+its business is not so active as that of the other banks, since it has
+lent most of its capital to the government. Under the banking law this
+institution has the right to issue bank notes, but it has not
+attempted to use the privilege.
+
+Slowly the establishment of small factories has proceeded, for the
+partial provision of local needs. The principal cities have ice
+plants, of which some are subject to annoying interruptions. In the
+Cibao there are several sawmills. Further there are, in the larger
+cities, small establishments for the manufacture of cigars,
+cigarettes, matches, rum, straw hats, shoes, chocolate, soap and a few
+other articles. These are financed by Dominican capital and are not
+able to supply the local demand. In Santo Domingo City are the remains
+of a costly brewery erected by Americans with a view to supplying the
+West Indies; it was ruined, so local reports say, by bad management
+and has been idle for fifteen years. If the amount of soap used by a
+people is really an index of its degree of civilization, then the
+Dominicans can claim to be far advanced, for the consumption of soap
+manufactured in the country and imported, is very considerable. The
+government has encouraged manufacturing enterprises and repeatedly
+granted concessions exempting their machinery and raw material from
+import duties for specified periods. The number of manufacturing
+plants will doubtless increase, but agriculture is bound to remain the
+mainstay of the country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+General condition of municipalities.--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+churches, streets, popular legends.--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+Province.--San Pedro de Macoris.--Seibo.--Samana and Sanchez.
+--Pacificador Province.--Concepción de La Vega.--Moca.--Santiago
+de los Caballeros.--Puerto Plata.--Monte Cristi.--Azua.--Barahona.
+
+
+Compared with cities in the United States a majority of Dominican
+towns are hoary with age. The capital city and a number of others were
+founded more than a century before Virginia was settled, and had begun
+to decline almost a hundred years before the Pilgrims landed on
+Plymouth Rock. Yet such have been the vicissitudes of the country that
+only one city, the capital, shows signs of its antiquity; the others
+from their appearance might be taken to be but a few decades old, and
+with the exception of two or three ancient churches in the interior
+none of the older buildings of these towns have survived the ravages
+of time, wars and earthquakes. The modern appearance of most cities is
+heightened by the fact that frame structures predominate, and outside
+of Santo Domingo, Santiago, La Vega and Puerto Plata stone houses are
+infrequent.
+
+The impoverishment of the country by periodic revolutions has had its
+effect on the municipalities and prevented their proper development.
+In no city are all municipal needs and services properly attended to,
+and in most towns they are all badly neglected. Sanitary inspection is
+nowhere given due attention; sewers are practically unknown; but two
+cities, Puerto Plata and  Santiago, have a general system of
+waterworks, the others being dependent on water drawn from cisterns or
+wells, or carried from rivers or springs; in all but five or six
+little attention is paid to the condition of the streets. Only
+Santiago, Puerto Plata and Santo Domingo have electric light, but that
+of Santo Domingo is very deficient. Little by little conditions are
+improving and especially the larger municipalities are endeavoring to
+improve their streets and provide a water supply.
+
+To the smallness of the urban centers their lack of municipal
+conveniences is partly to be attributed. The Dominican towns are all
+built on the same general plan as other Spanish cities, being
+constructed around a central plaza on which the church and government
+building are located.
+
+The principal cities are the capitals of the twelve provinces, and the
+city of Sanchez. A brief description of these cities follows, with a
+reference to the other more important towns and villages of
+each province.
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+_Santo Domingo de Guzmán_, the capital of the Republic and of the
+province of the same name, is the oldest city founded by Europeans in
+the new world, the first city, Isabela, having disappeared a few years
+after settlement. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus in 1496 on
+the east bank of the Ozama River as the capital of the colony, but the
+small houses constituting the town having been destroyed by a
+hurricane in 1502 it was transferred to the west bank of the river by
+order of Governor Ovando. It grew rapidly in population and wealth
+until it merited the eulogies of Oviedo who wrote to Charles V in 1525
+that he did not hesitate to assure that there was not in Spain a city
+he would prefer whether on account of advantageous and agreeable
+location, beauty and arrangement of squares and streets or charms of
+the surrounding country, adding that "their Highnesses oftentimes
+lodged in palaces which have neither the conveniences, the ample size
+nor the wealth of some of those in Santo Domingo." By the middle of
+the sixteenth century the city had passed the zenith of its glory, and
+its capture by Drake in 1586 and the destruction of the houses about
+the main plaza was a severe blow. The decline continued rapidly,
+although in 1655 the city was still strong enough to repel an invasion
+by Admiral William Penn. In 1684 and 1691 it was visited by
+destructive earthquakes and in 1700 it was full of ruins among which
+grew great trees. The lowest ebb was reached about 1737 when the
+population had fallen to 500 "and," writes Father Valverde, "more than
+half the buildings of the capital were entirely ruined, and of those
+still standing two-thirds were uninhabitable or closed and the other
+third was more than enough for the population. There were houses and
+lands whose owners were unknown, and of which people took advantage as
+belonging to the first one who might occupy them, either because there
+was entire lack of heirs of the owners or because they had emigrated
+elsewhere." In a few years, however, the tide of fortune turned and
+the city's rise was as rapid as its decline had been long, until by
+about the year 1790 it had quite recovered its ancient glory. Another
+reverse was quick in coming, for the cession to France in 1795 and the
+revolt of the negroes in French Saint-Domingue drove away the best
+inhabitants. In 1801 Toussaint l'Ouverture took possession of the city
+and in 1805 it was successfully held by the French against the siege
+of the negro emperor Dessalines. This siege was the beginning of a
+series lasting for a century. In 1809 after a desperate struggle the
+city was recaptured for Spain by the Dominicans, but from 1822 to 1844
+it was in the hands of the Haitians, and abandoned by all the whites
+who could flee. Since the declaration of Dominican independence in
+1844 almost every revolution has involved a siege of the capital.
+Within the last twenty-five years the city has made rapid strides
+forward and spread far beyond the old city walls.
+
+To the stranger Santo Domingo is by far the most interesting city of
+the Republic, on account of its stirring history and its venerable
+monuments of the past. Unfortunately the relics of the early days have
+met with scant respect from later generations, and ruins which would
+be the pride of other cities have been wantonly demolished. The
+Haitian governors gloried in this kind of vandalism, using the old
+churches as quarries and destroying the coats of arms of famous
+families which were cut in stone on the facades of their former houses
+and in their chapels in the cathedral. One which they left, on a house
+on Mercedes street, adjoining the government building, was obliterated
+in 1907 by the erection of a balcony. Since the declaration of
+independence ignorance and negligence have been responsible for much
+damage and the few administrations which took an interest in the old
+monuments needed all their money for military purposes. Ancient
+bastions have been needlessly razed, inscriptions effaced and no steps
+taken for the preservation of such memorials as remained. In 1883 a
+concession for the improvement of Santo Domingo harbor even provided
+that the concessionnaire might tear down the ruins belonging to the
+state and use the material for filling purposes; happily he was able
+to carry out but little of this part of the contract. The great
+majority of the brick and stone structures of Santo Domingo are
+ancient houses and convents preserved or rebuilt with more or less
+alteration. In some cases behind walls and doorways of great age are
+little huts of the poor. Though many signs of the past have thus
+disappeared, many still remain. It is to be hoped that the American
+authorities in Santo Domingo will be less indifferent to the
+preservation of ancient monuments than has been the case in other West
+Indian countries.
+
+The most interesting ancient building is the massive ruin known as the
+"House of the Admiral" or "House of Columbus," which even now, after
+centuries of neglect and decay, gives eloquent testimony of former
+greatness. It was built soon after 1509 by Diego Columbus, the son of
+the great navigator, on a height overlooking the Ozama River. Here
+Diego Columbus governed with regal splendor and here most of his
+children were born. It was the home of his widow, Maria de Toledo,
+until her death in 1549. Here also their son Louis Columbus lived for
+many years and embarked on two of his mad marriages. Another son,
+Cristobal, who was in the government employ in Santo Domingo, also
+seems to have lived in this house, after Louis went to Spain in 1551.
+On Cristobal's death in 1571 and that of Louis in 1572, it passed to
+Cristobal's son Diego. From the date of this Diego's death in 1578,
+when the direct male line of the Discoverer's descendants became
+extinct, the history of the house becomes obscure: it was sequestered
+by court decree in the course of the long inheritance litigation
+between the members of the Columbus family and appears to have been
+awarded in 1583 to the Admiral of Aragon, son of a sister of Louis and
+Cristobal, and in 1605 to Nuño de Portugal, grandson of another
+sister; the former may have sojourned there temporarily, but it is
+doubtful whether the latter or any of his descendants ever visited
+Santo Domingo. There is reason to believe that it was occupied for a
+time by the family of Luis de Avila, judge of Santo Domingo City, who
+was married to a daughter of Cristobal and whose children were still
+living in the colony at the end of the sixteenth century. When in 1790
+a descendant of this Avila was at length awarded the last vestiges of
+the Columbus honors, no attention seems to have been given to this
+house, which was then as complete a ruin as at present, though it was
+in better condition and the arcade supporting the front porch was
+still extant.
+
+The edifice is built of stone blocks; porches supported by graceful
+arches were once an attractive feature; the windows and principal
+doorways were embellished with handsome arabesques; and Oviedo and
+other chroniclers dwell at length on the magnificence of the interior.
+They especially refer to the beauty and value of a sculpture showing
+the arms of Castile, located in the great reception hall behind the
+viceroy's throne. At the present time the building is reduced to a
+mere shell, roofless and windowless; in a part of its interior there
+is a little palm thatch shelter for stabling horses; while the court
+yard and terrace reek with offal from dirty cabins round about.
+
+At the foot of the house of Columbus is part of the old city wall
+erected in 1537 and of which numerous portions remain intact, though
+all traces of the moat have disappeared. The old city was in the form
+of a trapezium occupying an area of a caballeria or about 200 acres,
+and the wall on the north side, provided with numerous redoubts and
+watch towers, was much the longest, the western wall being the
+shortest. Santo Domingo is one of the cities of the Spanish main which
+lay claim to the story that when the accounts for the city's walls
+were laid before the king of Spain, he went, to the window and gazed
+at the horizon, saying he was "looking for the reflection of those
+walls, for they must be built of gold, they cost so much." Judging by
+the relative size of the walls, the story should rather be awarded to
+Cartagena, in Colombia, or possibly to another city, but Santo
+Domingo's walls are massive enough to have justified the Spanish king
+in squinting at the horizon, at least. The ancient gates which were
+formerly closed from sunset to sunrise, still remain, but no longer
+afford the only means of ingress and egress as breaches have been made
+in the walls at most street terminations. The most famous of the old
+gates is the "Puerta del Conde," "Gate of the Count," so called
+because it was constructed by the Count of Peñalva, Governor of Santo
+Domingo, about 1655, though the bastion through which it leads is as
+old as the city wall. It was here that the cry of independence was
+raised on February 27, 1844, and it is therefore regarded as the
+cradle of Dominican independence and its official name is "Bulwark of
+the twenty-seventh of February." Another important gate is the "Gate
+of San Diego," also called "Gate of the Admiral," near the ruins of
+Diego Columbus' house and affording communication with the wharves on
+the Ozama River. It is one of the original three gates of the city. Up
+the river, near the lumber market, is a very old ceiba tree to which
+it is claimed Columbus once tied up his vessel. Still further up the
+river is a spring the enclosure about which is said to have been built
+by Diego Columbus.
+
+"La Fuerza," the fort and barracks, is situated at the southeast
+corner of the city. According to an inscription over the gate it was
+built in the year 1783. Within its enclosure on a bluff at the place
+where the Ozama empties into the sea, rises the ancient citadel, the
+"Torre del Homenaje," "Tower of Homage" the enormously thick walls of
+which were erected not later than 1504. There are many who affirm that
+it was built before 1500, although the town was then situated on the
+other side of the river, and a cell with a small barred window is
+pointed out as the cell in which Bobadilla imprisoned Columbus before
+sending him to Spain in chains. Others claim that recently-discovered
+old foundation-walls on the east side of the river were the
+foundations of the building in which Columbus was confined. "In that
+case," Dominican wags observe, "the Tower of Homage is the place where
+he would have been confined if it had then been erected." In any event
+the tower and the terraces below it are the oldest fortifications
+constructed by white men in America. Cortez and Pizarro, Velazquez,
+Ponce de Leon, Narvaez and many others passed out of the Ozama River
+under the shadow of this building, full of hope for the future. Within
+its somber walls have been immured many an Indian chief in the time of
+the conquest and many a revolutionist in later days. The tower proper
+has been for years a political prison, while around the courtyard at
+its base on the riverside, is the common jail.
+
+The churches form an important connecting link between old and new
+Santo Domingo. Of these the most beautiful and imposing is the
+cathedral, built in what may be called Ibero-Romanesque style. As
+early as 1506 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered its erection, in 1512 a
+grant of revenue was made and two years later the work of construction
+was begun. In one of the chapels is a large rough-hewn mahogany cross
+on which is painted the legend: "This is the first sign planted in the
+center of this field to mark the beginning of this magnificent temple
+in the year MDXIV." The work progressed slowly; an inscription in the
+doorway leading to the plaza states that the church was completed to
+that point in 1527 and another inscription in the old choir, torn down
+in 1877, stated that the building was finished in 1540. It is probable
+that the original plans called for an even loftier building. One of
+the towers first projected was begun, but it was never concluded and
+the belfry is still a temporary one. Of late years there have been
+attempts to provide for the completion of this tower by popular
+subscription. The building has been damaged repeatedly by earthquakes
+and the repairs made have changed its original outer appearance on the
+plaza side. In its roof there is still lodged a cannon-ball fired into
+the city by a Spanish battery during the siege of 1809.
+
+In the interior, great pillars of a soft dark-red tint support the
+high groined arches and the effect is severe and impressive. The altar
+at the head of the nave is beautifully inlaid with wrought silver and
+is surmounted by the coat of arms of Spain placed there by order of
+Charles V, a relic of Spanish days which was hidden away while the
+Haitians were in possession of the city. On the altar platform a
+marble slab indicates the place where the bones of Columbus were found
+in 1877, another slab the former location of the remains taken to Cuba
+in 1795 as the remains of Columbus, and still another the resting
+place of Louis Columbus, the grandson of the Discoverer. At the end of
+the nave, near the entrance door, is the airy marble monument beneath
+which is guarded the casket that contains the remains of the
+Discoverer of America.
+
+The cathedral like the other churches is made more interesting by the
+ancient epitaphs on slabs in the pavement and walls, marking the
+burial places of persons famous in the history of the island. In one
+of the lateral chapels, which belonged to the Bastidas family, the
+resting place of Bishop Bastidas, who in the early days was bishop in
+Venezuela, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo, is marked by a large marble
+recumbant figure of a bishop and the chapel is therefore known as "the
+chapel of the stone bishop." Nearby is the tomb of his father, that
+Rodrigo de Bastidas who was imprisoned by Bobadilla, and an epitaph
+full of abbreviations which reads:
+
+"Here lies the very magnificent Sir Don Rodrigo de Bastidas, first
+Adelantado and Governor and Captain-General of Santa Marta, who in the
+year 1502 discovered Terra-firma by order of the Catholic Sovereigns
+from Cape Vela to Darien: he died March 28, 1527."
+
+Close by is another epitaph:
+
+"Here lies the virtuous, Christian and religious lady Doña Isabel
+Rodrigo de Romera, native of the noble town of Carmona, who was wife
+of the Adelantado Don Rodrigo de Bastidas and mother of the most
+reverend Bishop of San Juan, Don Rodrigo de Bastidas. She died
+September 15, 1533. May she rest in peace."
+
+And in Latin:
+
+"I believe that my Redeemer lived and that on the judgment day I shall
+be resurrected."
+
+In another chapel is a slab ten feet long with an elaborate coat of
+arms, surmounted by a helmet with flowing plumes, and having an
+inscription reading:
+
+"Here lies the magnificent knight Diego Caballero, councilor of this
+Island of Española, first secretary of the first Royal Audiencia which
+the Catholic Sovereigns established in these Indies. He died January
+22, 1553."  Surrounding this inscription is another:
+
+"Likewise lies here the generous lady Isabel Bacan, his good wife: she
+died in the year 1551."
+
+Above is a verse stating that he flourished with the strength given
+him by God, and on an adjoining stone are the words;
+
+"I have ended my cares. Hope and fortune, remain and seek others to
+mock."
+
+On another tombstone is the inscription:
+
+"This tomb belongs to Don Francisco de Almansa, canon of this holy
+principal church and commissioner of the Holy Inquisition, and to
+his heirs."
+
+There are many other interesting inscriptions. In one of the chapels
+is an artistic gem, a well preserved picture of Our Lady of Antigua,
+presented by Ferdinand and Isabella who are represented in an attitude
+of devotion at the foot of the Virgin. It is probably by Antonio del
+Rincon, their court painter. Other very old and obscure paintings in
+the church are ascribed to Velazquez or Murillo. Another chapel,
+adorned with the Dominican coat of arms in marble relief, is the
+resting place of Dominican celebrities.
+
+The oldest Christian church in the new world was that of San Nicolas,
+founded by Governor Nicolas de Ovando in 1502. It was suffered to go
+to ruin, then restored and used as a military hospital and then again
+abandoned to decay until, overgrown with weeds and almost roofless, it
+was latterly used by a blacksmith as his workshop. The suggestion was
+frequently made that it be converted into a museum of Dominican
+antiquities, but the matter was neglected too long and in 1909 the
+historic building was condemned and the front portion demolished, but
+the groined arch over the presbytery remains.
+
+The most picturesque ruin of the city is that of the church of San
+Francisco, erected by the Franciscan monks about 1504 at the most
+conspicuous point in the city, and which is now, after the destruction
+of San Nicolas church, the oldest church ruin in America. It was the
+largest church in old Santo Domingo. Here were deposited and probably
+still rest, the remains of Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the
+Discoverer. The church and convent, like several other churches of the
+city, were badly damaged by the earthquake of 1751 but were rebuilt
+better than before. When the Haitians came the church was abandoned;
+in 1824 it was assigned to the negro immigrants from the United States
+as a Methodist church, but it was allowed to go to complete ruin and
+much of its masonry was utilized by the Haitian rulers. A small part
+of the monastery has been rebuilt for use as an asylum for the insane.
+The Franciscan community was one of the wealthiest of the city, and
+fronting on the city's principal market still stands a large house
+formerly belonging to it and known as the "Casa del Cordón," "House of
+the Cord," because of a Franciscan's girdle hewn in stone over the
+doorway. Tradition says that Diego Columbus resided here while his
+palace was under construction.
+
+The other larger churches have all been restored and among them may be
+mentioned the church of St. Dominic or Santo Domingo founded in 1507,
+with massive walls and arches. It contains numerous tombs belonging to
+families that flourished in the island in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, but most of the inscriptions are rudely carved.
+A slab in one of the chapels shows a coat of arms with thirteen stars;
+there is no inscription further than a short Latin quotation from the
+26th psalm, but the stone is supposed to date from the latter part of
+the sixteenth century and to mark the grave of Lope de Bardeci, the
+founder of the chapel. Other churches are the lofty Mercedes church by
+the side of the ruined monastery of the friars of Mercy; the church of
+Regina Angelorum, the spacious building adjoining which, now used by
+the courts of justice, was formerly a nunnery; that of St. Clara,
+formerly a nunnery and rebuilt from ruin in 1885 by the sisters of
+charity; the church of San Lazaro, at the leper asylum; the quaint old
+church of Santa Barbara; and the chapel of San Miguel, founded about
+1520 by Miguel de Pasamonte, the royal treasurer, an inveterate enemy
+of the Columbus family. The old Jesuit church is used as a theater and
+the former Jesuit convent is occupied by business houses and private
+residences.
+
+The main plaza of Santo Domingo is a pretty square planted with
+flowers and shade trees. In the center stands a bronze statue of
+Columbus who is represented with the flag of Spain taking possession
+of Quisqueya for his sovereigns. At the foot of the pedestal is an
+Indian writing thereon the words found engraved on the box that
+contained what are believed to be Columbus' remains: "Ill'tre. y
+Es'do. Varon D'n Cristoval Colon," "Illustrious and noble man Don
+Cristopher Columbus." On the south side of the plaza is the cathedral,
+on the west side the old city hall, recently renovated and provided
+with an ugly tower, and on the east side the government building,
+erected during the Haitian occupation with bricks from the San
+Francisco and Santa Clara churches. Popular superstition therefore
+regards this building as unlucky and points out that one of the Baez
+brothers was killed in a revolution when the family resided here. The
+edifice was for years occupied by all the government offices until
+the renovation of the ancient palace of government. Adjoining is the
+small building in which the Dominican Congress meets. It occupies a
+site on which in the olden days stood a prison, the walls of which
+still remain behind the Congress Hall. The spacious building known as
+the old palace of government is one of the most ancient edifices in
+the city. Its cornerstone was laid about 1504 by Ovando and it
+contained the offices of the Spanish governors-general in colonial
+times. Through neglect it was permitted to fall to ruin but since 1900
+it has gradually been renovated. Nearby is a large sundial, erected
+in 1753.
+
+The old palace of government is on Colon street, which was in the
+early days called "Calle de las Damas," "Street of the Ladies,"
+because on it resided the ladies who came from Spain with the wife of
+Diego Columbus. It is to be regretted that the old street names which
+were pregnant with memories of the past have been so lightly changed.
+At present most of the streets are named after events, battles or
+persons prominent in the more recent history of the country.
+
+The streets of the capital are not quite so narrow as those of Havana,
+San Juan and other old Spanish cities. After years of neglect the
+principal streets have at length been placed in excellent condition
+and the steam roller has even invaded the side streets. The sidewalks
+are generally narrow, being only about three feet in width, and as
+municipal supervision over them has not been carefully exercised,
+there are differences in grade along the sidewalks of certain streets
+and in passing along it is necessary to go up and down steps. Along
+the improved streets, however, new sidewalks and gutters have been
+constructed. The style of architecture of the houses with their thick
+walls and iron-barred windows makes the streets resemble those of
+other Spanish-American cities. Among the finest buildings of the city
+may be counted the palatial quarters of the young men's club "Casino
+de la Juventud" and of the Union Club, of which the most prominent men
+of the city, especially merchants, are members. Leading out of the
+city are two boulevards along which are fine residences of wealthier
+Dominicans.
+
+A city of such history naturally abounds with popular legends. Stories
+are current of a network of ancient subterranean passages which are
+said to connect the principal churches and the fort, and knowledge of
+the location of which has been lost because their entrances have
+either been walled up or become obstructed by debris. Local historians
+deride such tales, though admitting that underground passages may have
+existed at isolated points. It is related that not many years ago a
+woman was digging in her garden on a street which passes the ruins of
+Mercedes convent, when the earth gave way and an aperture became
+visible. Her husband investigated and found a subterranean passage
+which led across the street: and directly under the convent ruins,
+where it was choked up with stones and earth. Other stories refer to
+deep, forgotten vaults said to exist under many buildings. Popular
+rumor, morbid when dealing with President Heureaux, affirms that in
+vaults under the ancient mansion which was converted into a palace for
+him, the remains of some of his victims were found. In vaults and
+dungeons under the barracks of La Fuerza the Spaniards in retiring
+from the island at the close of the eighteenth century, secreted part
+of their military supplies. Many years later an old man who had
+assisted in walling up the stores revealed their existence to
+President Baez and he, when besieged in Santo Domingo in 1857 brought
+them out and utilized them against the revolutionists. The old
+mortars and grenades were found in excellent condition and at first
+caused a panic among the besiegers who thought the shells had fallen
+from the sky.
+
+The favorite stories are those relating to buried treasure. During the
+vicissitudes through which the island has passed and especially during
+the troublous period at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of
+the nineteenth century many persons who left the country first
+secreted their valuables in the belief that their absence would be
+only temporary. They did not return, their property passed into other
+hands and the treasure was forgotten. Occasionally, too, people buried
+their money for safe-keeping and died without imparting the secret.
+There have been authenticated cases of treasure-trove, especially in
+the first half of the nineteenth century. The finds have almost always
+been accidental, as when in hanging a hammock a nail gave way and
+revealed a cavity, or in rebuilding a hidden orifice was disclosed. In
+many popular stories a foreigner with a map plays a part. According to
+one of these tales a stranger appeared some years ago near Mercedes
+church taking measurements, so that the neighbors thought him insane.
+He finally approached the owner of one of the houses and offered to
+rent it. When his increased offers were refused he drew from his
+pocket a paper which he said showed the location of a hidden treasure
+and offered the houseowner a share if he were permitted to make the
+search. The cupidity of the other was aroused and he would agree to
+take nothing less than three-fourths of the whole, whereupon the
+stranger in a rage lit a match and burnt the paper before the
+horrified houseowner's eyes, exclaiming: "Now you will never find it."
+For months afterwards the proprietor delved through the ground below
+the house and perforated the walls in scores of places, but the
+prediction of the stranger would probably have been verified had it
+not been for an accident. Some four years later, after a heavy rain, a
+woman of the neighborhood came to draw water from the cistern of this
+particular house. As the rope stuck in the pulley she gave a tug,
+slipped and fell into the cistern to her waist in water. Her screams
+brought assistance and as she was drawn out it was noticed that in her
+descent, she had loosened several bricks in the wall of the cistern.
+An examination revealed an aperture large enough to hold a man, and
+filled with plate, jewelry and coins.
+
+In another story the stranger was more fortunate. He rented a small
+house, also on Mercedes street, paying several months' rent in
+advance. When after a few days the house was found closed it was
+thought the stranger had taken a trip to the country, but when two and
+three months passed and the tenant did not reappear, the proprietress
+applied to the authorities. The door was forced open and in the middle
+of the room a deep hole was found, at the bottom of which was an empty
+strongbox, while smaller boxes and the pick and shovel used in the
+excavation lay scattered around. On a table in the corner lay a
+parchment with a map that showed the location of the strongbox.
+Further investigation revealed that the stranger a week after his
+disappearance took passage on a schooner for a foreign port.
+
+The fortunate finders of such treasures have generally kept silence in
+order to avoid the possibility of adverse claimants, and when
+discovered would minimize the find. Popular rumor still designates
+several houses as containing hidden treasures. One of them, situated
+on Billini Plaza, near the cathedral, has all but been torn to pieces
+by tenants in vain efforts to penetrate the secret. In other cases the
+rumors are more vague. General Ferrand, the energetic French governor
+of Santo Domingo, is reported to have buried the state treasure before
+departing in 1808 on the disastrous expedition in which he lost his
+life in Palo Hincado, and in more than one place excavations have been
+made to seek it.
+
+Outside the walls of the city is the cemetery, which is pretty and
+clean and has many vaults and varicolored plants. The most conspicuous
+objects are the crosses which surmount the graves and the iron fences
+surrounding many lots, with a little lantern at each corner. The
+lanterns are lighted up on All Soul's Day, when people flock to the
+cemetery and decorate the graves of their departed friends with
+wreaths and flowers.
+
+An interesting monument of old Santo Domingo is the small fortress of
+San Geronimo, which stands deserted on the ocean shore about three
+miles from the city. It was built in the early days of Spanish
+colonization as a protection against foes who might land up the coast
+and is a good specimen of medieval military architecture, with its
+walls of immense thickness, its watch towers, its deep moat and its
+dark dungeons. In revolutions it was usually garrisoned and has been
+taken and retaken unnumbered times, and in 1903 it was bombarded by a
+Dominican cruiser.
+
+In the midst of its monuments of the past Santo Domingo throbs with
+the life of the present. Being one of the principal ports and the seat
+of the government it is the busiest city of the Republic. Its docks,
+markets and business streets are always congested with workers
+and traders.
+
+_San Carlos_ is a suburb of Santo Domingo City, adjoining the same on
+the northwest, and since 1910 forming an integral part thereof. It
+was founded towards the end of the seventeenth century by Canary
+Islanders. Owing to its proximity to Santo Domingo and as part of the
+town overlooks the capital, it has in all the sieges of Santo Domingo
+been held by the besiegers and lost heavily. The fifteen days' siege
+by the negro emperor Dessalines in 1805 caused serious damage; in the
+siege of eight months in 1808 by Juan Sanchez Ramirez it was almost
+entirely ruined; in the fifteen days' siege of 1849 by Santana it was
+burned; in the nine months' siege of 1857 by Santana it was again
+partially destroyed and since that time in every siege it has
+sustained damage. In the two months' siege in the beginning of 1904
+the church and other buildings were damaged by shells, and several
+blocks of dwellings were burned to the ground. Yet the town has always
+risen, phoenix-like, from its ashes. One of the points of interest is
+an old public cistern of great size and depth. Near San Carlos is the
+picturesque grotto of Santa Ana, said to have been an Indian
+sanctuary.
+
+On the Ozama River opposite the capital is _Villa Duarte_, formerly
+called _Pajarito_. On an adjoining estate is the ruined chapel of
+Rosario, believed to date from the first city of Santo Domingo and
+which may have been the church where Bobadilla proclaimed his
+authority over Columbus. Not far from the town is an interesting cave
+with three crystal pools called Tres Ojos.
+
+_San Cristobal_, about 16 miles to the west of the capital, had only a
+chapel and two or three huts in 1820, but attained more importance
+when slaves freed by the Haitians on the surrounding sugar estates
+settled there.
+
+_Bani_ is a pretty little town founded in 1764 and situated about 39
+miles west of Santo Domingo, between the foothills and the sea. Its
+chief pride is that it was the birthplace of Maximo Gomez, the famous
+warrior for Cuban independence. Gomez became a major in the Spanish
+army, fought against his countrymen during the War of the Restoration
+and abandoned Santo Domingo with the Spaniards, but this record has
+been forgiven by the Dominicans in view of his later services in
+behalf of Cuba libre.
+
+_Bayaguana_ and _Monte Plata_, about 30 and 28 miles northeast of
+Santo Domingo, respectively, were both founded in 1606 for the
+settlement of residents of coast towns destroyed in order to stop
+smuggling, the former receiving the inhabitants of Bayajá and Yaguana,
+the latter those of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata. The church of
+Bayaguana is visited by many pilgrims who come to adore an image of
+Christ to which miracles are attributed.
+
+Other villages of the province are: _San Lorenzo de los Minas_, 3
+miles northeast of Santo Domingo, first settled in 1719 by negroes of
+the Minas tribe, refugees from French Santo Domingo; _San Antonio de
+Guerra_, situated in the plains 19 miles northeast of the capital;
+_Boyá_, 32 miles northeast of the capital, founded in 1533 by
+Enriquillo, the last Indian chief and by the last survivors of the
+Indians of the island: it contains an old church of composite
+aboriginal Gothic architecture, in which the remains of Enriquillo and
+of his wife Doña Mencia are believed to rest; _Mella_, 7 miles, and
+_La Victoria_, 12 miles north of the capital; _Yamasá_, 30 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo; and _Sábana Grande_, or _Palenque_, 22
+miles west of the city.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAN PEDRO DE MACORÍS
+
+_San Pedro de Macorís_, about 45 miles east of Santo Domingo City, is
+one of the most modern and flourishing cities of the Republic. In
+1885 it was merely a small fishing village, about that time sugar
+plantations began to be established in the surrounding plains and the
+town commenced to grow. To-day there are pretty houses, the streets
+are clean and in good repair, the plaza has a handsome park and the
+whole city wears a prosperous look. There are busy scenes on the
+modern docks and in the harbor. Around Macoris, as in other parts of
+the Republic, there are large numbers of beautiful graceful cocoanut
+palms and royal palms.
+
+The Province of Macoris is small and contains but one other town
+worthy of mention, namely, _San José de los Llanos_, about 15 miles
+northeast of Macoris, founded in the plains in the eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SEIBO
+
+_Santa Cruz del Seibo_, 74 miles northeast of Santo Domingo, was
+originally founded by Juan de Esquivel in 1502, but being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1751, was moved to its present location, to the north
+of its old site. It lies in the center of a region devoted to cacao
+planting and stockraising. The town has a pretty church, and is
+celebrated in Dominican history as having instigated the reconquest
+for Spain in 1808 and as having been the home and bulwark of General
+Pedro Santana, who was idolized by the Seibanos.
+
+_Salvaleón de Higüey_, the easternmost city of the Republic, situated
+31 miles southeast of Seibo, was also founded by Juan de Esquivel in
+the days of Ovando. Its church contains a picture of Our Lady of
+Altagracia, to which miracles are ascribed and which attracts pilgrims
+from all parts of Santo Domingo and Haiti.
+
+Other towns are _Hato Mayor_, 18 miles west of Seibo; _Ramón Santana_,
+formerly called _Guaza_, 19 miles south-west of Seibo; _La Romana_,
+on the coast 25 miles south of Seibo, with rapidly expanding sugar
+estates; and _El Jovero_, a hamlet on the coast near the eastern end
+of Samana Bay.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAMANÁ
+
+_Santa Bárbara de Samaná_, 78 miles northeast of the capital of the
+Republic, is built on a cove on the north side of Samana Bay. The
+protected character of the inlet made it a favorite resort for pirates
+in the seventeenth century, and beginning with 1673, French buccaneers
+made several attempts to settle here but were driven out by the
+Spanish authorities. The town was definitely settled in 1756 by
+families from the Canary Islands. In the town and neighborhood live
+many English-speaking negroes, descendants of those who were brought
+from the United States by the Haitian President Boyer about 1825.
+
+A larger town is _Sánchez_ at the western end of Samana Bay,
+twenty-five miles from the town of Samana. In 1886 there was here a
+tiny hamlet, known as _Las Canitas_, but on becoming the terminus of
+the railroad from La Vega, the name of Sanchez, a hero of Dominican
+independence, was given it, and the town rapidly grew in size. Its
+dwellings are scattered over two ridges of land divided by a deep
+valley. On one of the ridges the houses are pretty one-story buildings
+with gardens in front. The beautiful grounds surrounding the house of
+the general manager of the Samana-Santiago Railroad are situated on a
+height overlooking the sparkling expanse of Samana Bay and give a
+suggestion of the possibilities of landscape gardening in Santo
+Domingo. Colored families from St. Thomas and the British West Indies
+and descendants of American negroes make up a considerable proportion
+of the population, so that more English is heard here than Spanish.
+
+On the south side of Samana Bay is the small village of _Sábana de la
+Mar_, commonly known as _Sábana la Mar_, founded by Canary Islanders
+in 1756. There are many stories of pirates' buried gold in
+this region.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PACIFICADOR
+
+_San Francisco de Macoris_, the capital of the province, is about 85
+miles northwest of Santo Domingo City and occupies the site of a fort
+established by Ovando in 1504 and known as the fort of La Magdalena.
+It was founded in 1774 around a chapel dedicated to St. Ann which
+stood on a ranch called San Francisco. Lying in a fertile district
+formerly devoted to tobacco and now one of the chief cacao regions of
+the island, it is a town of considerable business. It is also called
+_Macoris del Norte_, to distinguish it from San Pedro de Macoris,
+which is called Macoris del Este.
+
+_Villa Rivas_, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad, 19 miles from Samana
+bay, was formerly called Almacén, or Storehouse, because here was
+situated, before the railroad was built, a warehouse for the storage
+of merchandise imported and exported by way of Samana and the
+Yuna river.
+
+The other towns, all of recent foundation, are _Matanzas_, a fishing
+village on the edge of a cacao district on the northeast coast, and
+three villages named after heroes of the War of Restoration: _Cabrera_
+on the coast at Tres Amarras point; _Castillo_, 8 miles west of Rivas;
+and _Pimentel_, formerly called _Barbero_, a station on the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad and the center of an important cacao zone.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF LA VEGA
+
+_Concepción de la Vega_, capital of the province and one of the most
+important cities of the Royal Plain, is 90 miles from Santo Domingo
+City. The old town of Concepción de la Vega was founded by Columbus in
+1495 at the foot of the eminence known as Santo Cerro and at the place
+of residence of the Indian chief Guarionex. It quickly attained such
+importance that in 1508 it was declared a city and endowed with a coat
+of arms, and in the same year a bishopric was erected there, which
+was, however, in 1527 merged with the bishopric of Santo Domingo. An
+earthquake overthrew its fine buildings in 1564 and the city was
+thereupon relocated at a distance of three miles on the bank of the
+Camu. The site of the old city is now private property and is
+overgrown with tropical vegetation. Moss-grown foundation walls
+protrude from the ground; a mass of brickwork some twenty feet high
+and having the form of a blockhouse chimney remains of the old church;
+and part of the circular tower erected at the corner of the fort of
+Columbus, well provided with loop-holes for muskets, still remains
+standing. In desultory excavations made at different times small
+objects such as ancient spurs, stirrups and coins have been found.
+
+The new city led a languishing existence until it became the interior
+terminus of the Samana-Santiago Railroad which gave it a great
+impetus. It is regularly laid out, the streets are fairly wide and a
+majority of the houses are built of brick. The city has a pretty plaza
+laid out as a garden, a new market building, a theater, and like every
+other town of importance in Santo Domingo, a club. At the entrance to
+the town is a bronze statue of Gregorio Rivas, a progressive merchant
+and philanthropist of this region, who died twenty years ago.
+
+The feature of the city which attracts the traveler's attention
+unfavorably is the neglect of the city streets. During the dry season
+the lack of pavements does not matter but when the rains come the rich
+loam turns to a deep black mud. Along most streets there are narrow
+sidewalks, but where there are none, or where it is necessary to cross
+to the other side, the mode of progress is by hop, skip and jump from
+one dry place to another--the religion of the virtuous pedestrian
+being put to a severe test when after a strenuous jump he lands in a
+muddy place up to his shoe tops. At some crossings thoughtful
+storekeepers lay a plank of salvation for the passer-by. The city is a
+great center for cacao, tobacco and coffee, and several sawmills are
+kept busy cutting up pine logs from the surrounding hills.
+
+_Cotuí_, about 31 miles southeast of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Ovando in 1505, being called _Las Minas_ in the early days because of
+the mines of gold, copper and other metals in the neighborhood.
+_Bonao_, about 26 miles south of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Columbus in 1496 to protect the mines in the nearby mountains and was
+the scene of Roldan's revolt against Columbus. Both of these towns
+almost disappeared when the colony declined and are now
+humble villages.
+
+Other villages are _Jarabacoa_, 18 miles southwest of La Vega;
+_Constanza_, 30 miles southwest of La Vega and rarely visited by
+strangers because of its isolation among the mountains, near the
+beautiful valley of Constanza; _Cevicos_, also hidden in the
+mountains, 12 miles southeast of Cotui; and _Santo Cerro_, 3 miles
+north of La Vega, on a hill which commands a magnificent view of the
+Royal Plain.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF ESPAILLAT
+
+_Moca_, also called _Espaillat_, 100 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, is a thriving city. It was the scene of the "Moca massacre" in
+1805, when the Haitian general Christophe, having guaranteed the
+safety of the inhabitants, induced them to return from their hiding
+places in the mountains and assemble in the church to the number of
+five hundred in order to hold a mass of thanksgiving, whereupon they
+were massacred by the Haitian soldiers. In more recent history it has
+been taken and retaken many times during revolutions and in 1899 was
+the scene of the killing of President Heureaux. Its houses are mostly
+one story in height and many are built of brick, while picturesque
+huts of the poor surround the town. Gutters have been constructed in
+the principal streets, but the possibilities of paving have by no
+means been exhausted. The town sustains two churches, one on the
+outskirts, and another with a peculiar square tower, on the plaza. The
+inhabitants take pride in their pretty flower-grown plaza and in the
+elaborate portal of their cemetery.
+
+The other town of the province is _Salcedo_, formerly called _Juana
+Núñez_, 7 miles east of Moca in a rich cacao district.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTIAGO
+
+_Santiago de los Caballeros_, Santiago of the Gentlemen, 115 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo, was founded as a military station on a
+bluff of the Yaque River about 1497 by order of Bartholomew Columbus,
+and settled in 1504 by thirty knights, from which circumstance it
+derives its name. It received many settlers from the old town of
+Isabela, was given a coat of arms in 1508, reached a flourishing
+state, and was destroyed in 1564 by the same earthquake which
+overthrew La Vega. Its inhabitants then removed to the present site,
+about six miles east of the location of the old city, the ruins of
+which are still to be seen. The city was burned three times by the
+French buccaneers during their struggles with the Spanish colonial
+authorities and later by the Haitian general Christophe on the
+occasion of the retreat of the emperor Dessalines in 1805. It had
+again attained importance when it was destroyed by an earthquake in
+1842. Once more it was reduced to ashes in 1863 at the outbreak of the
+War of the Restoration. To-day Santiago is one of the richest and most
+flourishing cities of the island and has aspirations to become the
+capital of the Republic, so that an intense rivalry exists with Santo
+Domingo. The streets are regular and clean and a general repair has
+been commenced. There are important business houses and well-stocked
+bazaars and the market place is one of the busiest in the country.
+
+The plaza in the center of the city has a handsome garden established
+by popular subscription, and gay with flowers and palms. Two churches
+are on the plaza, the larger of which has a beautiful altar. The
+remains of President Heureaux are buried here, his resting place being
+marked by a marble slab with the Dominican coat of arms. The
+government palace fronting on the plaza is a substantial affair with
+walls dating from Haitian times, and the city hall, also fronting on
+the plaza, is a fine structure. In the cemetery there is a street of
+beautiful mausoleums, the architecture of several being Egyptian in
+style and others bearing medallions or recumbent figures of the
+deceased. The volunteer fire corps of Santiago has a special lot and a
+pretty monument.  _San José de las Matas_, 24 miles southwest of
+Santiago, is situated on a high plain in the midst of the mountains
+and is surrounded by great pine forests. Its salubrious climate and
+picturesque environments make it a favorite summer resort for wealthy
+families of Santiago, Puerto Plata and Moca, and a health resort for
+persons afflicted with stomach or lung trouble. Nearby are hot and
+cold sulphur springs, the beautiful Inoa waterfall, the picturesque
+confluence of the Amina and Inoa rivers and the high Rubio Peak, which
+commands one of the finest panoramas in the island.
+
+Other towns are _Valverde_, formerly _Mao_, 30 miles northwest of
+Santiago; _Jânico_, 14 miles southwest of Santiago, _Esperanza_, 27
+miles northwest of Santiago; and _Canton Peña_, also called
+_Tamboril_, 7 miles east of Santiago and having such close social
+relations with that city as to be regarded as a suburb of the same.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PUERTO PLATA
+
+_Puerto Plata_, 150 miles northwest of Santo Domingo, is the most
+important port of the north of the Republic. Columbus is said to have
+made the plans for the streets of the town; as early as 1499 there
+were settlers here; and in 1502 the city was formally founded by order
+of Ovando. It enjoyed prosperity during the first years of the colony,
+but in 1543 was attacked by pirates and thereafter rapidly went to
+decay. The stringent laws which restricted the commerce of the island
+to certain ports of the mother country encouraged contraband trade and
+the place became the headquarters for smugglers. The government
+endeavored to stop smuggling in 1606 by the brilliant expedient of
+destroying the town and moving all the inhabitants to Monte Plata, far
+in the interior of Santo Domingo province. In 1750 Puerto Plata was
+populated anew and shared with Monte Cristi the advantage of the law
+permitting free trade for ten years. It rapidly grew in population
+until it became the most important commercial point of the Republic,
+and the port of the entire Cibao region, part of which now finds an
+outlet at Sanchez. It was in a flourishing state and had fine houses
+when it was totally destroyed by fire in 1863, during the War of
+Restoration, whether by the Spaniards or the Dominicans remains in
+doubt. Prosperity again followed, many foreigners were attracted by
+its commercial possibilities and to-day it is again one of the most
+thriving towns of Santo Domingo.
+
+The first thing to attract the traveler's notice is the excellent
+condition of the city streets. Though the macadamized streets and the
+sidewalks are narrow, they are clean, well kept and well lighted at
+night. In streets, schools and public squares the city is in advance
+of most of the other cities of the Republic. This is attributed to a
+great extent to the presence of many cultured foreigners as well as to
+the progressive natives. The inhabitants of Puerto Plata boast that
+what Puerto Plata does the rest of the Republic does. They point as an
+example to their plaza. Formerly the plaza of Dominican cities was a
+bare, shadeless tract of ground in the center of the city. Puerto
+Plata was the first to plant trees, lay out a garden and provide its
+plaza with a music stand. This plaza in the center of the town is the
+oldest and prettiest of the city's three public squares and is now
+shaded by large, leafy trees and embellished with beautiful flowers
+and varicolored bushes. On Sunday nights on this plaza and on Thursday
+nights on one of the others, band concerts attract crowds of people,
+young and old, who promenade to the strains of the music. The belles
+of the city are very handsome and owing to the intermarriage of
+natives with foreigners from all parts of the world widely different
+types of beauty are to be observed at such concerts.
+
+On one side of the principal plaza is the church, on another stand
+side by side the theater, the government building, where the
+provincial offices are located, and the city hall, on the first floor
+of which is a well-attended school. The three principal clubs of the
+city are also located in commodious quarters fronting on this plaza.
+One of these clubs counts among its members most of the merchants and
+staid and elderly people, another is the club of the young men and a
+third is the ladies' club. The ladies' club is open only in the
+afternoon and evening, but in the clubs frequented by gentlemen games
+of billiards may be seen going on at almost any hour of the day.
+
+The buildings of the city are all of modern date. Only a few
+foundation walls near the ocean shore, and the old fort, remain from
+former days. The old fort is situated on the point of land partly
+enclosing Puerto Plata harbor and is surrounded on three sides by
+buildings of the present fort. It is a large round whitewashed
+structure having the appearance of a huge cheesebox; its walls are of
+enormous thickness and it is now used as a jail. In former days the
+inhabitants had much difficulty in obtaining drinking water, but
+Puerto Plata was the first city to be provided with a general system
+of water works, having been followed only recently by Santiago. The
+water is brought from a stream a little over a mile away. The ride
+there is a beautiful one but it goes to prove that the movement for
+good thoroughfares has not yet extended to the roads. From all parts
+of Puerto Plata Mt. Isabel de Torres is seen towering behind the city.
+The view obtained from the slopes of the mountain, over miles of
+shoreline and a broad expanse of ocean, is of indescribable grandeur.
+
+The traveler who visits Puerto Plata carries away with him pleasant
+memories of the clean city, its comfortable clubs, its hospitable
+citizens and its beautiful surroundings.
+
+Other towns of the province are _Altamira_, 18 miles southwest of
+Puerto Plata, astride a hill rising in the middle of a valley of the
+coast range of mountains; _Blanco_, on the coast 20 miles northwest of
+Puerto Plata and 10 miles east of the site of Isabela, the first city
+in the new world; and _Bajabonico_, 10 miles southwest of Puerto
+Plata, a village called into being by the building of the Central
+Dominican Railroad.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF MONTE CRISTI
+
+_San Fernando de Monte Cristi_, 196 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital of Monte Cristi province, was founded during the
+government of Ovando by sixty Spanish families, and after giving
+promise of prosperity decayed with the rest of the colony. It was
+supported for a time by a brisk contraband trade which sprang up with
+the Dutch and other nations and to put a stop to which the town was
+destroyed in 1606 like Puerto Plata and the inhabitants transferred to
+Monte Plata, to the south of the central mountain range. In 1750 a
+royal dispensation granted it the right to free trade with all nations
+for a period of ten years and it began to attain prominence as a port,
+but the wars with the Haitians, the War of Restoration with the
+Spaniards and the many civil wars have retarded its progress. Only in
+the last few years has it received a new impetus. The town is built
+about a mile from the shore, with which it is connected by a tiny
+horse car. About thirty houses are connected with a private system of
+waterworks which supplies water from the Yaque river. Situated as it
+is in the arid region of Santo Domingo the city bears much resemblance
+to some of the western towns of the United States.
+
+Other towns are _Guayubín_, 24 miles, _Sabaneta_, 36 miles, and
+_Monción_, 46 miles southeast of Monte Cristi; and _Dajabón_, 22
+miles, _Restauración_, 40 miles, and _Copey_, 12 miles southwest of
+Monte Cristi. They are all small villages. Dajabon, founded towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is situated on the east bank of
+the Massacre river, which constitutes the Haitian boundary, and is one
+of the inland ports of entry. Restauración is peopled largely by
+French speaking negroes from Haiti.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF AZUA
+
+_Azua de Compostela_, about 83 miles west of Santo Domingo City, was
+founded by Diego de Velazquez in 1504 at a point four miles southwest
+of its present location. It was first called Compostela after a
+Galician official who held some property here, but the Indian name of
+the region prevailed. Hernando Cortez, later the conqueror of Mexico,
+settled here and for some five years was the notary of the town. At
+first prosperous, the city soon suffered a serious decline, but was
+beginning to revive when on August 18, 1751, it was entirely destroyed
+by an earthquake. The inhabitants then transferred the town to its
+present location on the western bank of the Via River. The ruins of
+the old city are still visible near the hamlet called Pueblo Viejo,
+Old Town. Azua was destroyed by fire three times in the Haitian wars:
+in 1805, by order of the Haitian emperor Dessalines, in 1844 by
+President Herard, and in 1849 by President Soulouque. To-day it is
+the most important town in the southwestern part of the Republic.
+Situated in an arid region, like Monte Cristi, it is similar to many a
+town in New Mexico and Arizona, with hot, sunny, shadeless streets
+beginning and ending in space, one story houses, a great plain of dark
+green beyond the town and purple mountains in the distance. The houses
+here are of wood or stone and with thatched or zinc roofs. There is a
+large new church, the images in which seem to be very old and do not
+distinguish themselves for beauty. The town is about three miles
+inland from the port, but a branch of a narrow gauge plantation
+railroad connects the city with the wharf and on steamer days a
+passenger car makes several trips. Azua is famous throughout Santo
+Domingo for its excellent "dulce de leche," a kind of milk taffy,
+which is well made elsewhere in the Republic, but is better in Azua as
+it is here prepared from goat's milk.
+
+_San Juan de la Maguana_, 48 miles northwest of Azua, was founded in
+1504 by Diego Velazquez in the beautiful Maguana valley where the
+Indian chief Caonabo had his residence, became almost extinct in 1606,
+but revived in 1764 with the establishment of new cattle ranches in
+the vicinity. During the Haitian wars it was burned repeatedly. Near
+the town is a curious relic of Indian times called Anacaona's circus
+or "el corral de los Indios," consisting of large stones laid in a
+huge circle, and in the center a strange cylindrical stone, carved
+with Indian figures, which is supposed to have served as the throne of
+the Indian queen Anacaona.
+
+_Las Matas de Farfán_, 64 miles northwest of Azua, was established in
+1780 and suffered greatly during the wars with the Haitians. Like the
+other villages of the Maguana valley its chief industry is
+stockraising. _Bánica_, 75 miles northwest of Azua, on the Haitian
+frontier, was one of the towns established by Diego Velazquez in 1504.
+Though an important town in the early days it decayed, and in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century was abandoned entirely. During
+Haitian rule it was reestablished, but upon the declaration of
+Dominican independence was again abandoned for fear of Haitian
+vengeance, remaining so until the War of Restoration during which it
+was settled anew.
+
+Other villages are _San José de Ocoa_, also known as _Maniel_, 18
+miles northeast of Azua, founded in 1844 in a picturesque region;
+_Túbano_, 34 miles northwest of Azua; _El Cercado_, 12 miles southwest
+of Las Matas de Farfan; and _Comendador_, near the Haitian frontier,
+13 miles west of Las Matas de Farfan, the seat of one of the inland
+custom-houses.
+
+Dominican writers include among the towns pertaining to the Province
+of Azua those situated in that part of the territory of the former
+Spanish colony which is now held by Haiti. The principal towns in this
+territory are _Lares de Guajaba_ or _Hincha_, to-day called _Hinche_,
+which was founded in 1504 and was the birthplace of General Pedro
+Santana; _Las Caobas_, founded about the middle of the eighteenth
+century; _San Miguel de la Atalaya_, to-day called _St. Michel_,
+founded about the same time; and _San Rafael de la Angostura_, called
+_St. Raphael_ by the Haitians.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF BARAHONA
+
+_Barahona_, 126 miles west of Santo Domingo City, became capital of
+the Barahona district when a provincial government was established
+there in 1881. It is a small town, which began to be settled in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century, and suffered greatly during the
+Haitian wars and the revolutions following them. At present its fame
+is its fine coffee.
+
+Other towns are _Enriquillo_, formerly called _Petitrú_ (Petit Trou)
+on the coast 22 miles south of Barahona; _Neiba_, 32 miles northwest
+of Barahona, founded a century ago and prevented from developing by
+the damages it sustained first in the Haitian, then in the civil wars;
+and _Duvergé_, formerly called _Las Damas_, which commands a fine view
+of Lake Enriquillo with Cabras Island in the distance. In the
+northwest corner of the province is the small collection of huts
+called _Tierra Nueva_, and a few miles beyond, isolated in a wild
+region on the frontier, the inland customhouse of _Las Lajas_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE REMAINS OF COLUMBUS
+
+
+Burial of Columbus.--Disappearance of epitaph.--Removal of remains in
+1795.--Discovery of remains in 1877.--Resting place of Discoverer
+of America.
+
+
+The greatest pride of the Dominican people is that they are the
+custodians of the mortal remains of Christopher Columbus. The same
+honor is claimed by Spain, but a Dominican would consider it almost
+treasonable to doubt the justice of the Dominican claim. It is a
+strange freak of fate that not only should the great navigator have
+been denied in life the rewards promised him, not only should the new
+world he discovered have been given the name of another, but that his
+very tomb is a matter of controversy. It is admitted that after his
+death in Spain his remains were transferred to Santo Domingo City and
+there deposited in the cathedral. In 1795, when the Spanish colony of
+Santo Domingo was ceded to France, the Spaniards carried with them to
+Cuba what they supposed were the remains of Columbus, and these were
+in 1898 taken to Spain, but in the year 1877 another casket was
+brought to light in the Santo Domingo cathedral, with inscriptions
+which indicated that it contained the bones of the great Discoverer.
+
+It was the desire of Columbus to be buried in Santo Domingo, his
+favorite island. In his will, executed shortly before his death, he
+called on his son Diego to found, if possible, a chapel dedicated to
+the Holy Trinity, "and if this can be in the Island of Española, I
+should like to have it there where I invoked the Trinity, which is in
+La Vega, named Concepción." Columbus died on May 20, 1506, in
+Valladolid and his body was deposited in the church of Santa Maria de
+la Antigua in that city. In 1513, or perhaps before, it was
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas
+in Seville, where was also deposited the body of his son Diego, who
+died in 1526. Diego Columbus, in his will of the year 1523, stated
+that he had been unable to carry out his father's wishes, but
+requested his heirs to found in the city of Santo Domingo, inasmuch as
+La Vega was losing population, a nunnery dedicated to St. Clara, the
+sanctuary of which was to be the burial place of the Columbus family.
+His plans were modified in favor of a nobler mausoleum and his widow,
+Maria de Toledo, in the name of her son Louis Columbus, applied to the
+king of Spain for the sanctuary of the cathedral of Santo Domingo as a
+burial place for her husband, his father and his heirs, which grant
+the king made in 1537 and reiterated in 1539. A difference having
+arisen with the bishop of Santo Domingo, who wished to reserve the
+higher platform of the sanctuary for the interment of prelates and
+cede only the lower portion to the Columbus family, the king in 1540
+again reiterated his concession of the whole sanctuary. According to
+the annals of the Carthusian monastery of Seville, the bodies of
+Christopher Columbus and his son were taken away in 1536, and it is
+probable that they were deposited in the cathedral of Santo Domingo in
+1540 or 1541, after the issue of the king's third order and the
+conclusion of the work on the cathedral. Where they were during the
+intervening four or five years and in what year they were brought to
+Santo Domingo, is not known. Las Casas, writing in 1544, states that
+the remains of the Admiral were at that time buried in the sanctuary
+of the cathedral of Santo Domingo. In the year 1572 Louis Columbus,
+the grandson of the Discoverer, died in Oran, in Africa, and his
+remains were taken to the Carthusian monastery in Seville. It is not
+known when they were brought to Santo Domingo, but the transfer
+probably took place in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+The early records of the Santo Domingo cathedral were burnt at the
+time of Drake's invasion in 1586, and those since that year have been
+so damaged by the ravages of tropical insects that little is left of
+them. They make little and only passing reference to the tomb of
+Columbus, and mention no monument or inscription whatever. Juan de
+Castellanos, in his book "Varones Ilustres de Indias," printed in
+1589, recites a Latin epitaph which he says appeared near the place
+where lay the body of Columbus in Seville, but pretty Latin epitaphs
+were Castellanos' weakness, and it is to be feared that this one, like
+others which he dedicated to American explorers, was nothing more than
+a figment of his poetic imagination. Two writers, Coleti and Alcedo,
+who almost two centuries later mentioned the same epitaph as marking
+the grave in Santo Domingo, must have copied from Castellanos.
+
+Undoubtedly there was at first some inscription to mark the tomb, but
+in the course of the years any slabs with inscriptions were permitted
+to disappear entirely from the graves of Columbus, his son and
+grandson, and the very existence of their remains in the cathedral
+became a matter of tradition. It is possible that the epitaphs
+disappeared at some time when the pavement of the church was renewed,
+or when damages inflicted by earthquake shocks were repaired, or when
+changes were made in the windows and doors about the main altar, or
+when the higher altar platform was extended to reach the desks on
+which lie the Gospels and Epistles. At any such times the slabs over
+the burial vaults may have been broken or laid aside and never
+replaced. It is also possible that they were intentionally removed in
+order to guard against profanation of the tombs by enemies in time of
+war or by West Indian pirates, who captured and sacked stronger cities
+than Santo Domingo. In 1655 when an English fleet under Admiral
+William Penn appeared before the city and landed an army under General
+Venables, there was great excitement and fear in Santo Domingo, and
+the archbishop ordered that the sacred ornaments and vessels be hidden
+and that "the sepulchres be covered in order that no irreverence or
+profanation be committed against them by the heretics, and especially
+do I so request with reference to the sepulchre of the old Admiral
+which is on the gospel side of my holy church and sanctuary," That
+other tombs were hidden, whether at this time or another, was shown in
+1879, when, on repairing the flooring in the chapel of the "stone
+bishop" in the cathedral, the slab indicating the grave of the
+Adelantado Rodrigo de Bastidas, the explorer, was found concealed
+under a stone, and it was discovered that the epitaph of Bastidas on a
+board which from time immemorial had hung on the wall of the chapel
+was an incorrect copy of the original graven on the burial slab. From
+the words of the archbishop it appears possible that the sepulchre of
+Columbus was marked in some way in 1655, although even then there may
+have been nothing, since the prelate saw fit to specify the point in
+the church where the tomb was situated.
+
+The first document in which tradition appears invoked for designating
+the burial place is the record of a synod held in 1683, which contains
+the following clause: "this Island having been discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, illustrious and very celebrated throughout the
+world, whose bones repose in a leaden box in the sanctuary next to the
+pedestal of the main altar of this our cathedral, with those of his
+brother Louis Columbus which are on the other side, according to the
+tradition of the old people of this Island." The synod and tradition
+were not strong in Columbus genealogy when they referred to Louis
+Columbus as the brother instead of the grandson of the Discoverer, and
+it is noticeable that no mention is made of the son Diego Columbus. It
+may be remarked, in passing, that the body of Bartholomew Columbus,
+brother of the Admiral, was deposited in the convent of San Francisco
+in Santo Domingo, upon his death in 1514, and while some writers
+suggest it may have been taken to Spain, there is nothing to indicate
+that it was ever given sepulture in the cathedral of Santo Domingo.
+
+After the lapse of another century tradition referred to two
+sepulchres, one of Christopher Columbus, on the right side of the
+altar, the other of his brother or son, on the left side of the altar.
+Moreau de Saint-Méry, a French diplomat and statesman, who lived in
+the French colony of St. Domingue for some years during the decade of
+1780 to 1790, in his book "Description de la partie espagnole de
+l'isle Saint-Domingue" states that, being desirous of obtaining
+accurate information with reference to the tomb of Columbus, he
+addressed himself to José Solano, an ex-governor of the colony, then
+in command of a fleet in the insular waters; that this official wrote
+a letter to his successor in the governorship, Isidoro Peralta, and
+that he received the following answer:
+
+"SANTO DOMINGO, March 29, 1783.
+
+"_My very dear friend and patron:_
+
+"I have received the kind letter of Your Excellency of the 13th of this
+month, and did not answer immediately in order to have time to
+ascertain the details it requests relative to Christopher Columbus,
+and also in order to enjoy the satisfaction of serving Your Excellency
+as far as is in my power and to permit Your Excellency to have the
+satisfaction of obliging the friend who has asked for those details.
+
+"With respect to Christopher Columbus, although the insects destroy
+the papers in this country and have converted whole archives into
+lace-work, I hope nevertheless to remit to Your Excellency the proof
+that the bones of Columbus are in a leaden box, enclosed in a stone
+box which is buried in the sanctuary on the side of the gospels and
+that those of Bartholomew Columbus, his brother, repose on the side of
+the epistles in the same manner and under the same precautions. Those
+of Christopher Columbus were transported from Seville, where they had
+been deposited in the pantheon of the dukes of Alcala after having
+been taken there from Valladolid, and where they remained until their
+transport here.
+
+"About two months ago, in working in the church, a piece of thick wall
+was thrown down and immediately reconstructed. This fortuitous event
+was the occasion of finding the box of which I have spoken, and which,
+although without inscriptions, was known, according to a constant and
+invariable tradition, to contain the remains of Columbus. In addition
+I am having a search made to see whether in the church archives or
+those of the government some document can be found which will furnish
+details on this point; and the canons have seen and stated that the
+greater part of the bones were reduced to dust and that bones of the
+forearm had been distinguished.
+
+"I send Your Excellency also a list of all the archbishops which this
+island has had and which is more interesting than that of its
+presidents, for I am assured that the first is complete, while in the
+second there are voids produced by the insects of which I have spoken
+and which attack some papers in preference to others.
+
+"I also refer to the buildings, the temples, the beauty of the ruins
+and the motive which determined the transfer of this city to the west
+bank of the river which constitutes its port. But with reference to
+the plan requested by the note there is a real difficulty, as this is
+forbidden me as governor; the superior understanding of Your
+Excellency will comprehend the reasons, etc."
+
+The documents sent by Governor Peralta were as follows:
+
+"I, José Nuñez de Caceres, doctor in sacred theology of the pontifical
+and royal University of the Angelical St. Thomas d'Acquino, dignitary
+dean of this holy metropolitan church, primate of the Indies, do
+certify that the sanctuary of this holy cathedral having been torn
+down on January 30 last, for reconstruction, there was found, on the
+side of the platform where the gospels are chanted, and near the door
+where the stairs go up to the capitular room, a stone coffer, hollow,
+of cubical form and about a yard high, enclosing a leaden urn, a
+little damaged, which contained several human bones. Several years
+ago, under the same circumstances and I so certify, there was found on
+the side of the epistles, another similar stone box, and according to
+the tradition handed down by the old men of the country and a chapter
+of the synod of this holy cathedral, that on the side of the gospels
+is reputed to enclose the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus
+and that on the side of the epistles, those of his brother, nor has it
+been possible to verify whether they are those of his brother
+Bartholomew or of Diego Columbus, son of the admiral. In testimony
+whereof I have delivered the present in Santo Domingo, April 20, 1783.
+
+JOSÉ NUÑEZ DE CACERES."
+
+An identical certificate, signed by Manuel Sanchez, was also sent, as
+well as a third which reads as follows:
+
+"I, Pedro de Galvez, schoolmaster, dignitary canon of this cathedral,
+primate of the Indies, do certify that the sanctuary having been
+overthrown in order to be reconstructed there was found on the side of
+the platform where the gospels are chanted, a stone coffer with a
+leaden urn, a little damaged, which contained human bones; and it is
+remembered that there is another of the same kind on the side of the
+epistles; and according to the report of the old men of the country
+and a chapter of the synod of this holy cathedral that on the side of
+the gospels encloses the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+and that on the side of the epistles those of his brother Bartholomew.
+In witness whereof I have delivered the present on April 26, 1783.
+
+PEDRO DE GALVEZ."
+
+The certificates were not carefully drafted, for in speaking of the
+rebuilding of the sanctuary only the interior thereof, probably only
+the platform, was referred to, and from a notarial document of
+December 21, 1795, quoted below, it is evident that by coffer was
+meant a vault and that the word urn was used synonymously with box.
+The papers give eloquent testimony of the uncertainty in which the
+eminent men's remains were involved. Governor Peralta died in 1786 and
+was interred under the altar platform near the supposed remains of
+Columbus. In 1787, when Moreau de St. Méry endeavored to find the
+official record of the find of 1783, it had already disappeared.
+
+In 1795 Spain ceded to France the entire Spanish part of Santo
+Domingo, and in evacuating the island the Spanish authorities
+determined to carry with them the remains of the great Discoverer. It
+is to be assumed that there were still persons connected with the
+cathedral who could point out the location of the vault accidentally
+discovered twelve years before and that as tradition referred to only
+one vault on that side of the altar, the remains contained therein
+were extracted without further investigation. The description of the
+vault opened tallies with that of the vault found in 1783. The
+document attesting the embarking of these remains reads as
+follows: "I, the undersigned clerk of the King, our Lord, in charge of
+the office of the chamber of this Royal Audiencia, do certify that on
+the twentieth day of December of the current year, there being in this
+holy cathedral the Commissioner Gregorio Saviñon, perpetual member and
+dean of the very illustrious municipal council of this city, and in
+the presence of the most illustrious and reverend friar Fernando
+Portillo y Torres, most worthy Archbishop of this metropolitan see; of
+His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, Lieutenant-General of the royal
+navy of His Majesty; of Antonio Cansi, Brigadier in charge of the fort
+of this city; of Antonio Barba, Field-marshal and Commander of
+Engineers; of Ignacio de la Rocha, Lieutenant-colonel and
+Sergeant-major of this city, and of other persons of rank and
+distinction, a vault was opened which is in the sanctuary on the side
+of the gospel (between) the main wall and the pedestal of the main
+altar, which is one cubic yard in size, and in the same there were
+found several plates of lead, about one tercio in length, indicating
+that there had been a box of the said metal, and pieces of bone as of
+the tibia or other parts of some deceased person, and they were
+collected in a salver that was filled with the earth, which by the
+fragments of small bone it contained and its color could be seen to
+belong to that dead body; and everything was placed in an ark of
+gilded lead with iron lock, which being closed its key was delivered
+to the said illustrious Archbishop, and which box is about half a yard
+long and wide and in height something more than a quarter of a yard,
+whereupon it was transferred to a small coffin lined with black
+velvet, and adorned with gold trimmings, and was placed on a decent
+catafalque.
+
+"On the following day with the presence of the same illustrious
+Archbishop, His Excellency Aristizabal, the communities of Dominicans,
+Franciscans and Mercenarians, military and naval officers, and a
+concourse of distinguished persons, and people of the lower classes,
+mass was solemnly said and fasting enjoined, whereupon the same
+illustrious Archbishop preached.
+
+"On this day, about half past four o'clock in the afternoon there
+came to the holy cathedral the gentlemen of the Royal Order, to wit,
+Joaquin Garcia, Fieldmarshal, President-Governor and Captain-General
+of this Island of Española; José Antonio de Vrisar, knight of the
+royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, Minister of the
+royal and supreme council of the Indies and at present Regent of the
+Royal Audiencia; Justices Pedro Catani, dean; Manuel Bravo, likewise
+knight of the royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, and
+with honors and seniority in the Royal Audiencia of Mexico; Melchor
+Joseph de Foncerrada and Andres Alvarez Calderon, state's attorney;
+there being in the cathedral the most illustrious and reverend
+Archbishop, His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, the municipal
+council and religious communities, and a complete picket with draped
+banner, and taking the wooden box covered with plush and gold
+trimmings, in the interior of which was the box of gilded lead, which
+contained the remains exhumed on the preceding day, the President
+Joaquin Garcia, the Regent Joseph Antonio de Vrisar and the Justices,
+Dean Pedro Catani and Manuel Bravo conducted it to a little before the
+exit through the door of the said holy church, where the President and
+Regent separated, passed to their respective places and were
+substituted by Justice Foncerrada and Calderon, state's attorney, and
+upon leaving the church it was saluted by the said picket with a
+discharge of musketry, and there followed the Fieldmarshal and
+Commander of Engineers Antonio Barba, the Brigadier and Commander of
+militia Joaquin Cabrera, the Brigadier and Commander of the fort
+Antonio Cansi, and the colonel of the regiment 'Cantabria,' Gaspar de
+Casasola, and thereafter the military officers alternated according to
+their grade and seniority until reaching the city gate which leads to
+the harbor, where their places were taken by the members of the very
+illustrious municipal council of this city, dean Gregorio Saviñon,
+Miguel Martinez Santalices, Francisco de Tapia and Francisco de
+Arredondo, judge of the rural court, and upon emerging from the gate
+it was placed upon a table prepared therefor; a response was chanted
+and during the same the forts saluted it with fifteen minute guns, as
+for an admiral, and one after another took the key of the ark and
+through the said illustrious Archbishop placed it in the hands of His
+Excellency Aristizabal, stating that they delivered the ark into his
+possession subject to the orders of the Governor of Havana as a
+deposit until His Majesty should determine what may be his royal
+pleasure, to which His Excellency acceded, accepting the ark in the
+manner stated and transferring it aboard the brigantine 'Descubridor,'
+which, with the other war-vessels waiting with insignia of mourning,
+also saluted it with fifteen guns, whereupon this certificate was
+concluded and signed by the parties.
+
+"Santo Domingo, December 21, 1795. Joaquin Garcia. Friar Fernando,
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo. Gabriel de Aristizabal. Gregorio Saviñon.
+José Francisco Hidalgo."
+
+The brief account of the remains when everything else was related with
+such detail leads to the logical conclusion that there was no epitaph
+on the vault and no inscription on the leaden plates found within. The
+Spanish judicial chronicler's habit of minute description would not
+have permitted the omission of such important particulars, if they
+had existed.
+
+The remains were transferred to Havana where their reception was even
+more solemn than their embarkation in Santo Domingo. On January 19,
+1796, they were landed amid the booming of guns, conducted in state by
+the civil and military authorities and a large concourse to the plaza,
+and deposited on a magnificent bier in the shadow of the column
+erected where, according to tradition, the first mass was said in
+Havana and the first municipal council met. Here the ark was formally
+delivered to the Governor of Havana, who had it opened and its
+contents inspected, whereupon it was again closed and transferred with
+great pomp to the cathedral. The key was there delivered to the bishop
+and the remains deposited in a sepulchre with suitable bas-reliefs
+and inscriptions. The notarial narrative of the event goes into the
+most minute particulars, but the contents of the ark are merely
+described as "several leaden plates nearly a tercio in length, several
+small pieces of bone as of some deceased person, and some earth which
+seemed to be of that body."
+
+For over eighty years it was generally accepted in Santo Domingo, as
+throughout the world, that the bones of Columbus rested in the
+cathedral of Havana. There were, indeed, persons who handed down a
+tradition that the remains taken away by the Spaniards were not those
+of the great navigator and that these still remained under the altar
+platform in the Santo Domingo cathedral, but such persons were very
+few and no attention was paid to their allegations. Some Dominicans
+even called on the Spanish government to return the remains and let
+them be laid to rest in Dominican soil in accordance with the
+Discoverer's dying wish. In the meantime no one thought of the tombs
+of Diego Columbus or Louis Columbus, nor was it remembered that they
+were buried in the cathedral.
+
+In the year 1877 extensive repairs were undertaken in the cathedral of
+Santo Domingo. The worn brick flooring was to be replaced with marble
+squares, the old choir was to be torn down and a choir established
+elsewhere in the church, and the altar platform was to be extended
+into the church proper and reduced in height. Shortly after the work
+had begun, a heavy bronze image kept in the vestry--which adjoined the
+sanctuary on the side opposite that where the remains were exhumed in
+1795--was, on May 14, 1877, placed in a doorway long closed leading to
+the sanctuary. In doing so it was noticed that a hollow sound came
+from the wall adjoining and in order to ascertain the cause a small
+opening was made in the wall about a yard above the floor. It was then
+seen that there was a small vault under the altar platform of the
+church, and that the vault contained a metal box with human remains.
+Canon Billini, in charge of the cathedral, immediately ordered that
+the opening be closed until the return of the bishop from a pastoral
+visit to the Cibao. The hole was hidden behind a curtain and no
+immediate attention given to it. Towards the end of June Mr. Carlos
+Nouel, a friend of Canon Billini, obtained permission to look in at
+the box and deciphered a rude inscription reading, "El Almirante D.
+Luis Colon, Duque de Veragua, Marques de--" "The Admiral Don Louis
+Columbus, Duke of Veragua, Marquis of--." The last word was missing
+because of a hole in the corroded leaden plate, but was supposed to be
+"Jamaica." At this time the box was broken, because several days
+before in placing a scaffold in the church one of the posts had been
+located over the box and had broken through. The persons who
+afterwards sought to draw out the box pulled to overcome the obstacle
+and tore the weak plates apart entirely.
+
+The bishop returned on August 18, 1877, and being informed of what had
+happened, on September 1 invited the Cabinet officers, the consular
+corps and a number of civil and military authorities and private
+persons to witness the removal of the remains of Louis Columbus. To
+the chagrin of the bishop and canon, it was found that the plate with
+the inscription had been stolen. Probably shamed by ever increasing
+popular indignation, the grave-robber anonymously returned it on
+December 14, 1879, by leaving it in the cathedral door in a package
+addressed to the archbishop. The other plates with the earth and
+pieces of bone were carefully collected.
+
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY OF CATHEDRAL IN SEPTEMBER, 1877
+(Scale; 1 centimeter = 1 meter)
+
+1.  Vault containing remains of Christopher Colombus.
+2.  Vault opened by Spaniards in 1795.
+3.  Vault containing remains of Louis Columbus.
+4.  Pedestal of main altar.
+5.  Door leading to vestry.
+6.  Door leading to capitular room.
+7.  Location of containing wall of old altar platform, as it existed
+    in 1540.
+8.  Location of stairs which in 1540 led up to altar platform.
+9.  Tribune of the Gospels.
+10. Tribune of the Epistles.
+11. Steps of altar platform.
+12. Grave of Juan Sanchez Ramirez. Isidore Peralta had also been
+    buried at this spot.]
+
+
+The unexpected finding of the long forgotten remains of the grandson
+of the Admiral recalled the tradition that the Discoverer's body still
+remained in Santo Domingo, and several gentlemen, among them the
+Italian consul, requested the bishop to take advantage of the
+repairing of the church for a thorough investigation of the altar
+platform in order to ascertain whether it contained any other notable
+graves. The bishop gave his consent, and the investigation commenced
+on September 8, under the direction of Canon Billini. Digging was
+begun near the door of the capitular room and in a short time an
+unmarked grave was found containing human remains and military
+insignia. It was proven by witnesses that they were the remains of
+Juan Sanchez Ramirez, Captain-General of Santo Domingo, who died on
+February 12, 1811, and was buried in the same place where had been the
+grave of General Isidore Peralta. A narrow wall was then encountered
+which was afterwards found to be the containing wall of the ancient
+altar platform. On the ninth, a Sunday, the work went on during the
+morning with the permission of the bishop. An excavation was made at
+the place where, according to tradition, the remains taken to Havana
+had lain and soon a small vault was discovered quite empty. It was
+evidently the vault opened by the Spaniards in 1795. The examination
+was continued between this vault and the main altar, but nothing new
+was encountered, whereupon the work was left to be resumed on the
+following day, rather with the hope of finding something of Diego
+Columbus, for the empty vault seemed to show that the remains of
+Christopher Columbus were really removed in 1795.
+
+The excavations continued on September 10, 1877, between the empty
+vault and the wall. A large stone was found, and a piece broken off,
+disclosing another vault containing what appeared to be a square box.
+The bishop and the Italian consul were sent for immediately and upon
+their arrival the orifice was slightly enlarged and a metal box became
+clearly visible. It was covered with the dust of centuries, but an
+inscription was seen, in which abbreviations of the words "First
+Admiral" could faintly be distinguished. The work was stopped at once,
+the doors of the cathedral were locked and all the principal persons
+of the city invited to attend the further investigation of the vault's
+contents. The report of the find rapidly spread through the city,
+though distorted in some quarters, for one of the workmen hearing the
+bishop's joyful exclamation, "Oh, what a treasure!" conceived the idea
+that the box was full of gold pieces and so informed the people that
+gathered outside.
+
+The formal opening of the vault on the afternoon of that day and the
+examination of its contents are minutely described in the notarial
+document drawn up on the occasion:
+
+"In the City of Santo Domingo on the tenth of September of the year
+eighteen hundred and seventy-seven. At four o'clock in the afternoon
+upon invitation of the most illustrious and reverend Doctor Friar
+Roque Cocchia, Bishop of Orope, Vicar and Apostolic Delegate of the
+Holy See in the Republics of Santo Domingo, Venezuela and Haiti,
+assisted by presbyter Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, secretary of the
+bishopric, by the honorary penitentiary canon, presbyter Francisco
+Javier Billini, rector and founder of the College of San Luis Gonzaga
+and of the charity asylum, apostolic missionary and acting curate of
+the holy cathedral, and by presbyter Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate
+of the same, there met in the holy cathedral General Marcos A. Cabral,
+Minister of the Interior and Police; Licentiate Felipe Davila
+Fernandez de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations; Joaquin Montolio,
+Minister of Justice and Public Instruction; General Manuel A. Caceres,
+Minister of Finance and Commerce; and General Valentin Ramirez Baez,
+Minister of War and the Navy; and the citizens General Braulio
+Alvarez, Civil and Military Governor of the Province of the Capital,
+assisted by his secretary Pedro Maria Gautier; the honorable members
+of the illustrious municipal council of this capital, citizen Juan de
+la C. Alfonseca, president, and citizens Felix Baez, Juan Bautista
+Paradas, Pedro Mota, Manuel Maria Cabral and José Maria Bonetti,
+members; General Francisco Ungria Chala, military commandant of this
+city; citizens Felix Mariano Lluveres, president of the legislative
+chamber and Francisco Javier Machado, deputy to the same chamber; the
+members of the consular corps accredited to the Republic, Messrs.
+Miguel Pou, Consul of H.M. the Emperor of Germany, Luis Cambiaso,
+Consul of H.M. the King of Italy, Jose Manuel Echeverri, Consul of H.
+Catholic M. the King of Spain, Aubin Defougerais, Consul of the French
+Republic, Paul Jones, Consul of the United States of North America,
+José Martin Leyba, Consul of H.M. the King of the Netherlands, and
+David Coen, Consul of H.M. the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain; the citizens licentiates in medicine and surgery Marcos
+Antonio Gomez and Jose de Jesus Brenes; the civil engineer Jesus Maria
+Castillo, director of the work in this cathedral; the chief sexton of
+the same, Jesus Maria Troncoso, and the undersigned notaries public,
+Pedro Nolasco Polanco, Mariano Montolio and Leonardo Delmonte i
+Aponte, the first also being the acting notary of the curacy and the
+second the titular notary of the municipal council of this capital.
+
+"The most illustrious Bishop, in the presence of the gentlemen above
+designated and of a numerous concourse, declares: that the holy
+cathedral being undergoing repairs under the direction of the reverend
+Canon Francisco Javier Billini, and it having come to his notice that
+according to tradition and notwithstanding what appears from public
+documents with reference to the transfer of the remains of the Admiral
+Christopher Columbus to the city of Havana in the year seventeen
+hundred and ninety-five the said remains might still be in the place
+where they had been deposited and as such place the right side of the
+sanctuary was designated, under the spot occupied by the archbishop's
+chair; with the desire of clearing up the matters which tradition had
+carried to him, he authorized the reverend Canon Billini, upon his
+request, to make the necessary explorations; and as the latter was
+doing so with two workmen on the morning of this day, he discovered at
+a depth of two palms, more or less, the beginning of a vault which
+permitted part of a metal box to be seen; that immediately the said
+Canon Billini ordered the chief sexton, Jesus Maria Troncoso, to go to
+the archiepiscopal palace and inform His Grace of the result of the
+investigations, also informing the Minister of the Interior,
+requesting their presence without loss of time; that immediately His
+Grace proceeded to the holy cathedral where he found Jesus Maria
+Castillo, civil engineer, in charge of the repairs to this temple and
+two workmen who, in company with Canon Billini, guarded the small
+excavation which had been made, and at the same time Luis Cambiaso
+arrived, called by the said Canon Billini; that having personally made
+certain of the existence of the vault as well as that it contained the
+box to which Canon Billini made reference and an inscription being
+discovered on the upper part of what appeared to be the lid, he
+ordered that things be left as they were and that the doors of the
+temple be closed, the keys being confided to the reverend Canon
+Billini; proposing to invite, as he did invite, His Excellency the
+great citizen, President of the Republic, General Buenaventura Baez,
+his Cabinet, the consular corps and the other civil and military
+authorities named in the beginning of this certificate, in order to
+proceed with all due solemnity to the extraction of the box and give
+all required authenticity to the result of the investigation; and
+having advised the authorities, by their order municipal policemen
+were stationed at each one of the closed doors of the temple.
+
+"His Grace, stationed in the sanctuary, near the started excavation
+and surrounded by the authorities above mentioned and a very numerous
+concourse, all the doors of the temple having been opened, had the
+excavation continued, and a slab was removed, permitting the raising
+of the box, which was taken and shown by His Grace and found to be of
+lead. The said box was exhibited to all the authorities convoked, and
+thereupon was carried in procession through the interior of the temple
+and shown to the people.
+
+"The pulpit of the left nave of the temple being occupied by His
+Grace, by the reverend Canon Billini, who carried the box, the
+Minister of the Interior, the president of the municipal council and
+two of the notaries public who sign this document: His Grace opened
+the box and exhibited to the people a part of the remains it encloses;
+he also read the several inscriptions on the box, which prove beyond
+controversy that the remains are really and in fact those of the
+illustrious Genovese, the great Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+Discoverer of America. The truth of the matter being irrefutably
+ascertained, a salute of twenty-one guns, fired by the artillery of
+the fort, a general ringing of bells and strains of music from the
+military band, announced the happy and memorable event to the city.
+
+"Immediately the authorities convoked met in the vestry of the temple
+and proceeded in the presence of the undersigned notaries public, who
+certify thereto, to an examination and expert investigation of the box
+and its contents; the result of the examination being that the said
+box is of lead, has hinges and measures forty-two centimeters in
+length, twenty-one centimeters in depth and twenty and a half in
+width; containing the following inscriptions: on the upper side of the
+lid 'D. de la A, Per. Ate.'--On the left headboard 'C.' On the front
+side 'C'--On the right headboard 'A.' On raising the lid the following
+inscription was found on the inner side of the same carved in German
+Gothic characters: 'Illtre. y Esdo. Varon Dn. Cristobal Colon,' and in
+the said box human remains which on examination by the licentiate of
+equal class Jose de Jesus Brenes are found to be: A femur deteriorated
+in the upper part of the neck, between the great trochanter and its
+head. A fibula in its natural state. A radius also complete. The os
+sacrum in bad condition. The coccyx. Two lumbar vertabrae. One
+cervical and two dorsal vertabrae. Two calcanea. One bone of the
+metacarpus. Another of the metatarsus. A fragment of the frontal or
+coronal bone, containing half of an orbital cavity. A middle third of
+the tibia. Two more fragments of tibia. Two astragoli. One upper
+portion of shoulder-blade. One fragment of the lower jawbone. One half
+of an os humeri, the whole constituting thirteen small and
+twenty-eight large fragments, there being others reduced to dust.
+
+"In addition a leaden ball weighing about an ounce, more or less, was
+found and two small screws belonging to the box.
+
+"The examination mentioned having been terminated, the ecclesiastical
+and civil authorities and the illustrious municipal council resolved
+to close and seal the box with their respective seals and deposit it
+in the sanctuary of the church of Regina Angelorum, under the
+responsibility of the aforesaid penitentiary canon Francisco Javier
+Billini, until otherwise determined; His Grace, the Ministers, the
+consuls and the undersigned notaries immediately proceeding to affix
+their seals; and finally they determined to transfer the box in
+triumph to the said church of Regina Angelorum, accompanied by the
+veteran troops of the capital, batteries of artillery, music, and
+whatever else might give impressiveness and splendor to so solemn an
+act, for which the town was prepared as was noted from the great
+multitude which filled the temple and the cathedral plaza, to which we
+certify, as we do also that the present was signed by the gentlemen
+above named and other distinguished persons.
+
+"Friar Roque Cocchia, of the Order of Capuchins, Bishop of Orope,
+Apostolic Delegate to Santo Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela, Apostolic
+Vicar in Santo Domingo--Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, Capuchin, Secretary
+of His Excellency the Apostolic Delegate and Vicar--Francisco X.
+Billini--Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate of the cathedral--Marcos A.
+Cabral, Minister of the Interior and Police--Felipe Davila Fernandez
+de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations--Joaquin Montolio, Minister
+of Justice and Public Instruction--M. A. Caceres, Minister of Finance
+and Commerce--Valentin Ramirez Baez, Minister of War and the
+Navy--Braulio Alvarez, Governor of the Province--Pedro Ma. Gautier,
+Secretary--Juan de la C. Alfonseca, President of the Municipal
+council--Members, Felix Baez--Juan Bautista Paradas--Manuel Ma. Cabral
+B.--P. Mota--Jose M. Bonetti--Francisco Ungria Chala, Commandant of
+Arms--Felix Mariano Lluveres, President of the Legislative
+Chamber--Francisco Javier Machado, Deputy of the Legislative
+Chamber--The Consul of Spain, Jose Manuel Echeverri--Luigi Cambiaso,
+R. Consul of H. M. the King of Italy--Miguel Pou, Consul of the German
+Empire--Paul Jones, United States Consul--D. Coen, British
+Vice-Consul--J. M. Leyba, Consul of the Netherlands--A. Aubin
+Defougerais, Vice-Consul of France--Jesus Ma. Castillo, Civil
+Engineer--M. A. Gomez, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--J. J.
+Brenes, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--The chief sexton, Jesus
+Ma. Troncoso--A. Licairac--M. M. Santamaria--Domingo Rodriguez--Manuel
+de Jesus Garcia--Enrique Peinado--Federico Polanco--Lugardis Olivo--P.
+Mr. Consuegra--Eujenio de Marchena--Valentin Ramirez, Jr.--F.
+Perdomo--Joaquin Ramirez Morales--Amable Damiron--Jaime Ratto--Pedro
+N. Polanco, Notary Public--Leonardo Delmonte I Aponte, Notary
+Public--Mariano Montolio, Notary Public."
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on lid of lead box. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on inner side of lid. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+The vault so opened was a little larger than that opened in 1795, and
+separated therefrom by a six-inch wall. The leaden box was of rude
+construction, dented and much oxydized, the plates being a little
+thicker than those of the casket of Louis Columbus. The inscription on
+the outside of the lid "D. de la A. Per, Ate." was taken to mean
+"Descubridor de la América, Primer Almirante"--"Discoverer of America,
+First Admiral." The inscription on the inner side of the lid, without
+contractions, was: "Ilustre y Esclarecido Varon Don Cristobal
+Colon"--"Illustrious and noble man, Christopher Columbus." The letters
+"C C A" were interpreted as signifying "Cristobal Colón,
+Almirante"--"Christopher Columbus, Admiral." On January 3, 1878, a
+more minute examination of the remains was made at the request of the
+Spanish Academy of History and in the dust at the bottom of the box
+was found a small silver plate with two holes by which it had
+evidently been screwed with the two screws found at the first
+examination to some wooden board or receptacle. All vestige of wood
+had disappeared, either through decay or perhaps through destruction
+by insects, for on the walls of the vault are faint traces of ancient
+tracks made by the comejen or wood-eating ant. On one side of the
+plate was engraved in rude letters: "Ua. pte. de los rtos. del pmer.
+Alte. D. Cristoval Colon Des.," which is read as meaning "Ultima parte
+de los restos del primer Almirante, Don Cristoval Colon,
+Descubridor"--"Last part of the remains of the first Admiral, Don
+Christopher Columbus, Discoverer." On the reverse side are the words
+"Cristoval Colon" and several letters which indicate that the
+inscription "Ua. pte." etc., was begun here but was stopped, perhaps
+because there was not sufficient room.
+
+[Illustration: Obverse side of silver plate (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse side of silver plate. (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+The small lead ball, similar to a musket-ball, found in the box, has
+been the subject of much comment. It is not known that Columbus was
+ever wounded, though it is true that of many years of his life we
+have little information. Some writers make deductions from an
+equivocal sentence contained in a letter written by him to the rulers
+of Spain on his fourth voyage, in which he refers to his difficulties
+off the coast of Central America and says: "There the wound of my
+trouble opened." Others refer to an obscure sentence of Las Casas, but
+others believe that the ball was dropped in the box by accident,
+either when the box was prepared for the vault or at some time when in
+the course of the centuries the vault may have been casually opened as
+was the adjoining vault in 1783. At what time the remains were
+enclosed in this box and the inscriptions placed on the same it is
+impossible to determine; it may have been in Seville, or in the early
+days in Santo Domingo, or at a later date, perhaps when the epitaphs
+were removed from the vault.
+
+The remainder of the old altar platform was carefully examined but no
+other vaults or remains were discovered. With reference to the bones
+"of a deceased person" transferred in 1795 a logical conclusion can be
+reached: Christopher Columbus, his son Diego, and his grandson Louis
+were all buried in the Santo Domingo cathedral; the caskets, with
+inscriptions, of the first and third were found in 1877 and there are
+no other vaults under the old altar platform; therefore the remains
+taken away in 1795 with pieces of a casket without inscription, or the
+inscription of which had become illegible, were most probably those of
+Diego Columbus.
+
+Santo Domingo went wild with joy over the discovery. It was determined
+to erect a suitable monument for the remains with funds raised by
+private subscription and by a half per cent, surtax on imports. A
+beautiful marble memorial costing $40,000, guarded by bronze lions and
+adorned with bronze relief work depicting scenes from the life of
+Columbus, was designed by two Spanish sculptors. The first intention
+was to place the same in a mausoleum specially built for the purpose,
+but it was finally erected in the nave of the cathedral near the main
+door. A richly ornamented bronze box placed in the monument contains
+the leaden casket and the remains. Once a year on the anniversary of
+the find, the box is opened and the public permitted to gaze on
+its contents.
+
+The Spanish authorities would never admit the authenticity of the
+remains found in 1877, and the Spanish consul in Santo Domingo was
+bitterly criticized for affixing his signature to the notarial
+document relating the discovery. The Spaniards continue to claim that
+the true remains of the Discoverer are those which were transferred to
+Havana. Upon the evacuation of Cuba by Spain in 1898 these remains
+were solemnly removed and taken to Spain, where they now rest in the
+cathedral of Seville. Many investigations have been made from
+different sources and the majority of investigators report in favor of
+the Dominican contention, especially when they have personally visited
+Santo Domingo. The Spanish writers present no proof that the remains
+taken to Havana in 1795 were those of Christopher Columbus, but limit
+themselves to attacking the find of 1877. The insinuations and
+accusations, without corroborating facts, prove nothing but the temper
+of their authors. All criticisms have been refuted by showing that
+even supposing the box to date from the year 1540, other and
+indubitable inscriptions of that year have the same style of letters,
+abbreviations, spelling and words as those criticized. Further the
+appearance of the box and vault of 1877, the circumstances attending
+their discovery, and the irreproachable character of the Apostolic
+Delegate, of Canon Billini and of others connected with that event
+preclude all suspicion of fraud.
+
+On the whole, the weight of evidence is strongly in favor of the
+Dominican contention. It seems that, in spite of the acts of men, fate
+has permitted the remains of the Discoverer of America to repose in
+the principal cathedral of the island he loved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+GOVERNMENT
+
+
+Form of government.--Constitutions.--Presidents.--Election.--Powers.
+--Executive secretaries.--Land and sea forces.--Congress.--Local
+subdivisions.--Provincial governors.--Communal governments.
+
+
+From the date of the declaration of independence, February 27, 1844,
+down to the present time, with the exception only of a portion of the
+period of Spanish occupation of 1861 to 1865, Santo Domingo has
+remained in form at least, a republic. Herein it contrasts with its
+neighbor Haiti, which has experienced several monarchies. Thus
+Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor in 1804, Christophe assumed the
+title of king in 1810 and Soulouque had himself declared emperor in
+1849; and the latter two instituted pompous black nobilities. And
+though the Cibao of Santo Domingo and the region south of the Central
+Cordillera have ever been rivals and often in arms against each other
+under competing generals, there has never been any tendency to
+separate and form two states--as occurred in Haiti in 1806 when the
+northern portion fell under the sway of Christophe for a period of
+fourteen years, first as a nominal republic and later as a kingdom,
+while the southern portion became a republic under Petion and finally
+under Boyer.
+
+But although the country has in form remained a republic and the title
+of the chief of state has never been more pretentious than president
+or protector, in fact there have been few years when the government
+was not autocratic and the president an absolute monarch whose powers
+were limited only by his own generous impulses or the fear of
+alienating his more influential supporters. Dominican writers have
+even referred to the constitution as a conventional lie.
+
+The various Dominican presidents, as soon as securely in power, have
+generally been careful to follow constitutional forms, in an effort to
+deceive their followers and themselves into the belief that they were
+acting in regular course as servants of the people. The successful
+revolutionist was almost, always in haste to "legalize" his position
+by an election. Most of the presidents, among them Heureaux, have been
+great sticklers for form. Instead of moulding their wishes to conform
+to the constitution, however, they would mould the constitution to
+conform to their wishes, and repeatedly the first act of the
+successful revolutionist has been to promulgate a new constitution in
+accordance with his ideas. It has thus come to pass that the
+constitution, far from being revered as the immutable foundation of
+government, has rather been regarded as the convenient means for the
+president in office to exercise power. From 1844 to the present time
+nineteen constitutions have been promulgated in Santo Domingo, one in
+the year 1844, one each in 1858, 1859 and 1865, two in 1866 and one
+each in 1868, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1896, 1907
+and 1908.
+
+This extraordinary number is due in part to the practice of not
+enacting amendments to an existing constitution, but of promulgating
+the amended instrument as a new constitution. On three of the
+occasions here indicated a constitution was abrogated in order to
+revive a prior one. No account is taken in the above computation of
+the instances where a successful revolutionist in order to announce
+his adherence to the then existing constitution promulgated the same
+anew. Thus the constitution of 1896 was reestablished in 1903.
+
+The Dominican constitutions have all been modeled on the general lines
+of that of the United States, and have differed from each other only
+in detail. The term of office of the president has varied from one to
+six years and the powers conferred upon him have been more or less
+ample. The constitution of 1854, revived in 1859, 1866 and 1868,
+practically invested him with dictatorial powers, and the only
+legislative assembly it provided for was an "Advisory Senate" of
+nine members.
+
+The present constitution was drafted by a constitutional assembly
+which sat in Santiago de los Caballeros in the early part of 1908. It
+is disappointing both as a literary and political document. The style
+bears witness to the haste with which the instrument was compiled.
+Provisions quite unsuitable to Dominican conditions are included, such
+as that granting the right to vote to all male citizens over eighteen
+years of age. Such an extension of the suffrage would be looked upon
+askance even in countries where education is general, and in Santo
+Domingo would constitute a serious danger if really put into effect.
+While the presidential succession is left to be regulated by a law of
+Congress, the constitution goes into minute details regarding
+citizenship, naturalization and several other matters. Repeated
+attempts have been made to secure a new constitution and in 1914
+partial elections were held for a constitutional convention, but for
+one reason or another the plan has not matured. A new constitution
+will probably be provided in connection with the cessation of American
+occupation.
+
+According to the present constitution the president must be a native
+born Dominican, at least thirty-five years of age and with a
+residence of at least twenty years in the Republic. His term of office
+is fixed at six years, to be counted from the day of inauguration. The
+fact that no specific date is mentioned has repeatedly proved a matter
+of convenience to successful revolutionists. The designation of a
+presidential term of office in the various constitutions has thus far
+been something of an irony, for of the 43 executives who have come to
+the fore in the 70 years of national life, but three presidents have
+completed terms of office for which they were elected: Baez one term,
+Merino one and Heureaux four, nor was the distinction of these three
+due to ought but their success in suppressing revolutionary movements.
+Five vice-presidents completed presidential terms. Two presidents were
+killed and twenty deposed. The other chief magistrates resigned more
+or less voluntarily.
+
+Of the 43 presidents 15 were chosen by popular election according to
+constitutional forms, 5 were vice-presidents who succeeded to the
+presidency, 4 were provisional presidents elected by Congress, 10
+began as military presidents and then had themselves elected under
+constitutional forms, and 9 were purely and simply military
+provisional presidents.
+
+A comparison of the list of presidents with the roster of executives
+of Haiti reveals a disproportion, for though the black Republic has
+been in existence since 1804, it has had but twenty-nine chiefs of
+state, the average duration of whose rule was therefore much longer
+than has been the case in Santo Domingo. It is to be observed,
+however, that of the Haitian executives only one completed his term of
+office and voluntarily retired; of the others, four remained in power
+until their death from natural causes, eighteen were deposed by
+revolutions, one of them, committing suicide, another being executed
+on the steps of his burning palace, and still another being cut to
+pieces by the mob; five were assassinated; and one is chief magistrate
+at the present time.
+
+The president and members of the Senate and House of Deputies are
+elected by indirect vote. Electors whose number and apportionment
+among the several provinces and their subdivisions are prescribed by
+law, are chosen by general suffrage in what are called primary
+assemblies in the several municipalities and constitute electoral
+colleges which meet at the chief town of the respective province. The
+electors having cast their votes for president the minutes of the
+session are sent to the capital. The votes are counted in joint
+session of Congress and the successful candidate is proclaimed by
+that body.
+
+Though the election procedure designated in the constitution was
+gravely followed, yet not once in the history of the country has the
+result of an election been in doubt, nor is there an instance when the
+candidate of the government was not elected, excepting only the
+election of October, 1914, when the American government brought
+watchers from Porto Rico to avoid gross frauds and coercion. Usually
+everything was prepared beforehand and the primaries and the meetings
+of the electoral colleges were little more than ratification meetings.
+The votes of the electoral colleges were generally unanimous in favor
+of the government's candidate, yet the odd spectacle has repeatedly
+presented itself, of a unanimously elected president being driven out
+of the country within a few months by a general revolution.
+
+The constitution authorizes the president to conclude treaties with
+the consent of Congress, to appoint certain government officials, to
+receive foreign diplomatic representatives, and to grant pardons in
+certain cases, and makes him commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
+Most of the chief magistrates have not felt themselves hampered,
+however, whether in peace or war, by any enumeration of powers in the
+constitution, for their ascendancy has generally been such that their
+wishes would be complied with and their illegal acts ratified or
+ignored by a subservient Congress. President Heureaux so controlled
+Congress, the courts, and all public functionaries, that the
+government was practically identical with his personality.
+
+The constitution provides that in case of the death, resignation or
+disability of the president the Congress shall by law designate the
+person who is to act as president until the disability ceases or a new
+president is elected, and that if Congress is not sitting the Cabinet
+officers are immediately to call a session. This is an innovation, as
+from 1853 to 1907 the Dominican constitutions provided for a
+vice-president. The vice-president was generally a decorative feature.
+He was required to possess the same qualifications as the president
+and was chosen with the same formalities, but no duties were assigned
+to him, not even that of presiding in Congress, so that his only
+attribute was the glory of being a president in escrow. The newly
+elected vice-president therefore often quietly retired to his farm,
+emerging occasionally to act in the president's stead when the latter
+left the capital on a trip through the country. Frequently the
+vice-president was made delegate of the government in some part of the
+country and at times he was invested with a portfolio as one of the
+cabinet secretaries. During the administration of a strong president,
+as in the time of Heureaux, the vice-president was generally one of
+his satellites, whereas, when the president's power was not so firmly
+established, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales, one of
+his rivals would be mollified by the vice-presidency. In such cases
+friction frequently developed, and in the two cases specified the
+vice-presidents and presidential rivals, Vasquez and Caceres,
+overthrew the president and established themselves in power. Evidently
+in order to avoid such disturbances and temptations the constitution
+of 1908 abolished the office of vice-president. The lack of a definite
+successor to the president, however, enabled Victoria to seize the
+presidency after the death of Caceres in 1911 and has given rise to
+uncertainty and trouble in the cases of presidential succession since
+that time.
+
+It has been a custom, sometimes expressly authorized by the
+constitution, for the president to delegate executive powers and
+prerogatives to persons selected by him in various parts of the
+country, especially where revolutionary uprisings threatened. There
+has usually been such a delegate of the government in the Cibao and
+often one in Azua. They are powerful officials, inasmuch as they are
+regarded as the direct representatives of the president and his
+administration, command the local military forces, and constitute the
+fountain-head of all local executive appointments. Nominations as
+delegates of the government have been preferably conferred upon
+provincial governors or upon the vice-president. The president is
+naturally anxious to repose such powers in one of his confidants, but
+political exigencies have sometimes obliged him to soothe one of his
+rivals with the distinction and remain on the qui vive thereafter.
+More than one governmental delegate has overthrown the president and
+established himself in power.
+
+Provisional presidents have been numerous in Dominican history. After
+a successful revolution the victorious general usually proclaimed
+himself president of a provisional government and until the
+constitution was again declared in force he and his ministers united
+executive and legislative power. How far the acts of such de facto
+governments were legally binding upon the Republic has been questioned
+in cases where obligations were imposed upon the country, but foreign
+governments in asserting their rights have paid little attention to
+such quibbles.
+
+The constitution provides that there shall be such executive
+secretaries as may be determined by law. They are currently referred
+to as ministers and their number has been fixed at seven, namely, (1)
+secretary of the interior and police (interior y policia); (2)
+secretary of foreign relations (relaciones exteriores); (3) secretary
+of finance and commerce (hacienda y comercio); (4) secretary of war
+and the navy (guerra y marina); (5) secretary of justice and public
+instruction (justicia e instrucción pública); (6) secretary of
+agriculture and immigration (agricultura e inmigración); (7) secretary
+of public development and communications (fomento y comunicaciones).
+Communication between Congress and the executive departments is
+rendered easier than in the United States by the constitutional
+provision that the secretaries of state are obliged to attend the
+Congressional sessions when called by Congress. This right of
+interpellation has frequently been exercised.
+
+The secretary of the interior and police is at the head of an
+important department. He is the administrative superior of the
+provincial governors and the communal and cantonal chiefs. His
+position renders him the sentinel of the government for the detection
+of revolutionary movements.
+
+The foreign office of the Republic is directed by the secretary of
+foreign affairs. The diplomatic service of Santo Domingo is limited
+to the modest needs of the country, the more important posts being
+those of minister plenipotentiary in the United States, Haiti and
+France and chargé d'affaires in Cuba and Venezuela. The majority of
+consuls depend altogether upon consular fees for their remuneration,
+only a few of the more important being provided for in the budget. The
+consulates of most consequence have been considered to be those in the
+surrounding West India Islands and in New York City, for apart from
+their commercial relations with the Republic these places have been
+the favorite haunts of conspiring political exiles. Almost all the
+European countries are represented in the Dominican Republic either by
+ministers, chargés d'affaires or consuls. Of the diplomatic
+representatives residing in Santo Domingo City the highest in rank is
+the American minister. Before 1904 the American minister to Haiti was
+accredited to the Dominican Republic as chargé d'affaires. The United
+States has consular representatives at all the principal ports, there
+being an American consul at Puerto Plata and consular agents
+elsewhere. In the past, great respect has been shown to consulates
+even to the extent of allowing them privileges of extra-territoriality,
+and frequently political refugees have sought asylum under the flag of
+a mere consular agent.
+
+The secretary of finance and commerce has charge of the sources of
+national income, and the customs and internal revenue services, and
+under his authority the disbursements of the Republic are audited. The
+office for the compilation of statistics, organized a few years ago,
+is also in this department.
+
+The army, rural police, navy and the captaincies of the port are under
+the supervision of the secretary of war and the navy. This official is
+always a military man and generally takes the field in person in
+cases of revolutionary uprisings. During the insurrection of Jimenez
+against Morales in 1903-4, two of Morales' ministers of war were
+killed in battle.
+
+Upon the American occupation in 1916 the military force of the
+Republic was disbanded. There were at that time twelve military posts,
+one in the capital of each province. The commanders and their aides
+and the chiefs of forts and their assistants were treated as distinct
+from the regular army. The army's strength and organization have
+varied greatly; at the time of its dissolution the authorized strength
+was one infantry regiment of about 470 officers and men, and a band of
+33 men. Only a few months before, the preceding budget had authorized
+an infantry force of about 800 officers and men and a battery of
+mountain artillery of 100 officers and men, in addition to the
+all-important band. In reality, however, only the membership of the
+band was certain; in time of war the rest of the military
+establishment was much larger, and in time of peace it comprised
+numerous phantom soldiers, whose salaries were nevertheless regularly
+collected from the national treasury. Service was supposed to be
+voluntary, but the "volunteers" were generally picked out by communal
+chiefs and brought in under guard, sometimes tied with ropes to keep
+them from deserting.
+
+There was also an inefficient and overbearing rural police called the
+"Guardia Republicana," supposed to consist of seven companies of about
+800 officers and men, but here too things were not what they seemed.
+The higher officers of the Republican Guard were a brigadier-general,
+a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel and 2 majors; those of the army only a
+colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors, which was very modest for
+a country teeming with generals and where the budget of 1909 even
+appropriated $20,000 for a "corps of generals at the orders of the
+president."
+
+The American garrison in the Republic, comprising about 1000 men, took
+over the military posts in the Republic and lent strength to the
+Guardia Republicana. By an order of the military governor, of April 7,
+1917, the sum of $500,000 was set aside for the organization of a
+constabulary force to be called the "Guardia Nacional Dominicana," to
+take the place of the Dominican army, navy and police. This Dominican
+National Guard is to be commanded by a citizen of the United States
+and such other officers as the American government may consider
+necessary. Its organization is far advanced and it has already
+absorbed the Guardia Republicana. In it will be merged the frontier
+guard of about 70 men depending on the general receiver's office, and
+probably also the small municipal police squads that compel the
+observance of municipal ordinances.
+
+The Dominican navy is now composed of a single gunboat, the
+"Independencia." At the end of Heureaux's rule the country boasted
+three. The best of these was the "Restauración," which went on the
+rocks at the entrance to Macoris harbor in one of the first conflicts
+between the Jimenistas and Horacistas. The story goes that the steamer
+was about to attack Macoris, that the pilot, in sympathy with the
+opposition, grounded her with a view to having her captured, but that
+a sudden storm drove her to complete destruction. Another gunboat was
+the "Presidente," which had figured in history, for it was nothing
+less than the yacht "Deerhound," on which the Confederate Admiral
+Semmes took refuge after the sinking of the "Alabama" by the
+"Kearsarge." In 1906 it was sent to Newport News for overhauling as
+old age had made it unseaworthy, but since the repairs would have cost
+more than the vessel was worth, it was sold for old iron. The
+survivor, the "Independencia" is a trim vessel with a crew of fifty
+officers and men. Attached to the general receiver's office are
+several gasoline revenue cutters, recently provided.
+
+The secretary of justice and public instruction has administrative
+supervision over the courts, jails and schools of the Republic, and
+the government subventions to primary and private schools are
+disbursed under his direction.
+
+The secretary of agriculture and immigration is the cabinet officer of
+most recent creation. Prior to the 1908 constitution agriculture had
+been in charge of the department of public development and there had
+been no special provision for immigration. The importance of these
+subjects for the Republic was felt to be such as to merit the
+establishment of a special department. In practice the department has
+done nothing, its efforts being hampered by revolutions and
+circumscribed by the limited sums at its disposal. Its activities have
+been confined to a general supervision of agriculture, the preparatory
+work of the establishment of an agricultural experiment station and
+the operation of a small meteorological service.
+
+The department of public development and communications has charge of
+the postal service of the Republic, of the national telegraph and
+telephone, of the lighthouses, and of the public works carried on by
+the government.
+
+The size of the national legislature of Santo Domingo has fluctuated
+considerably. Under the 1896 constitution the Congress consisted of a
+single house of twenty-four members, two from each of the then
+existing six provinces and six districts. The increase of the
+national income permitting greater expenditures, the constitution of
+1908 provided for two houses, one called the Senate, the other the
+Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of twelve members, one
+from each province, elected by the same electoral colleges that elect
+the president and holding office for six years. One-third of the
+Senate is renewed every two years. The number of members of the
+Chamber of Deputies is supposed to be in proportion to the number of
+inhabitants of the various provinces, but as there has been no census
+the number is provisionally fixed at twenty-four, two from each
+province. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a
+term of four years, also by the electoral colleges, which at the same
+time designate alternates for the several members.
+
+Congress meets each year in regular session on the anniversary of
+Dominican independence, February 27, and its session is limited to
+ninety days, which may, however, be extended sixty days more. Since
+there are no provincial legislatures the powers of the Congress, set
+forth in the Constitution, are sweeping. They include the right to
+legislate in general for every part of the Republic, to approve or
+reject treaties and to try the president, cabinet members and supreme
+court judges on impeachment charges.
+
+In practice the elections for deputies have been as perfunctory as
+those for president, though there were occasional contests. The
+character and attitude of Congress has varied with the character and
+condition of the presidents. During the incumbency of strong leaders,
+such as Santana, Baez and Heureaux, the Congress was little more than
+the tool of the executive, but when the personality of the president
+was not so overwhelming or when many of the deputies were followers of
+a rival chieftain, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales,
+an independent and sometimes a nagging spirit has been manifested.
+
+Under the American occupation the Congress was by decree of January 2,
+1917, declared in abeyance and all executive and legislative powers
+are temporarily exercised by the commander of the American forces. The
+heads of executive departments are officers of the American navy or
+marine corps. Otherwise the general structure of the government
+remains as before. The theory that Santo Domingo is an independent,
+sovereign country is carefully followed, though at times it leads to
+anomalous situations, as when the American military governor issues
+exequaturs to American consuls in Santo Domingo "by virtue of the
+powers vested in me by the Constitution of the Dominican Republic," or
+when the American minister, Hon. W. W. Russell, representing the
+United States and receiving his instructions from the United States
+State Department, calls on Admiral H. S. Knapp, chief executive of
+Santo Domingo, who takes his orders from the United States Navy
+Department.
+
+For administrative purposes the Republic is divided into twelve
+provinces; Azua, Barahona, Espaillat, La Vega, Macoris, Monte Cristi,
+Pacificador, Puerto Plata, Samana, Santiago, Santo Domingo and Seibo.
+Formerly six were known as provinces and six as maritime districts,
+though there was in practice no distinction between them. The
+provinces are subdivided into communes and cantons--a canton being a
+commune in embryo--and these in turn are subdivided into sections.
+Congress is empowered to create new provinces, communes and cantons.
+
+In the twelve provinces there are now sixty-five communes, several
+comprising cantons. The provinces bear the names of their capital
+towns, except Espaillat and Pacificador, the former of which is
+called after Ulises F. Espaillat who took a prominent part in the War
+of Restoration and was president in 1876, and the latter in honor of
+President Heureaux, on whom a fawning Congress conferred the title of
+Pacificador de la Patria, but these also are sometimes known by the
+names of their capitals, Moca and San Francisco de Macoris. The
+communes bear the names of their urban centers. Towns with long names
+are usually referred to by part of the name only, thus Santa Cruz del
+Seibo is known simply as El Seibo, Santa Barbara de Samaná either as
+Santa Barbara or as Samana, etc.
+
+At the head of each province is an official who bears the title of
+governor. He acts as the direct agent of the president and is chief of
+the government police and commander of the military forces of the
+district. In civil matter he is dependent upon the department of the
+interior and police, in military affairs he is under the department of
+war and the navy. The governors are appointed by the president of the
+Republic and their salaries are paid from the national treasury. Under
+the present American occupation the various provinces still have their
+governors, but the real governors are the American officers locally in
+command of the occupation forces.
+
+In each commune and canton there is a communal or cantonal chief who
+represents the governor of the province. He is paid by the national
+government and is charged with the preservation of the peace in his
+jurisdiction. Again in each section there is a sectional chief, a
+local police officer who depends on the communal chief.
+
+The system of local chieftains of gradually diminishing category has
+brought Santo Domingo to resemble in some administrations a feudal
+monarchy rather than a constitutional republic. As governor the
+president usually chose prominent men of the locality, either friends
+whom he wished to reward or opponents or rivals whom he was obliged to
+placate. The communal chiefs were also appointed by the president,
+though the governor's wishes were respected to a large extent, and
+here too men of influence were selected, such influence usually being
+reckoned by the possession of a devoted following. The section chiefs
+were chosen under similar considerations.
+
+Though the law prescribes the duties of the governors, their local
+prestige, their authority as commanders of the military, and their
+activities in revolutionary times, have so exalted their position as
+to convert them into something like satraps and make them powerful
+supporters or dangerous rivals of the president. Many insurrections
+have been inaugurated by disaffected governors. At times provinces
+have remained practically independent for many months, ruled merely by
+the governor and a coterie of his friends, while the president, in the
+impossibility of imposing his authority, was obliged to acquiesce. A
+conspicuous example of such a peculiar state of affairs was furnished
+by the district of Monte Cristi, during the presidency of Morales. In
+December, 1903, the formidable insurrection of Jimenez against
+Provisional President Morales originated in Monte Cristi and though
+the government gradually regained the remainder of the country it was
+unable to subjugate this district, where the entire population was
+Jimenista and the character of the country rendered campaigning very
+difficult. Finally in the spring of 1904 a formal treaty was signed by
+which the insurgents agreed to lay down their arms upon the
+government's promise not to interfere in their district, where all
+executive appointments were thereafter to be made as recommended by
+the local authorities. Though constitutional forms were still
+observed a few military chiefs thus assumed the direction of affairs.
+Whenever any executive appointment was to be made, the name of the
+nominee was certified to the capital to be ratified as a matter of
+course; when orders came from Santo Domingo City, whether in civil or
+military affairs, they were obeyed or ignored as convenience dictated;
+the entire amount of the revenues collected in the Monte Cristi
+custom-house was retained in the district. In order to stimulate
+imports and increase the customs collections the local authorities
+even conceded a secret discount from the general tariff. With the
+enforcement of the San Domingo Improvement Company's arbitral award
+and the inauguration of the receivership for Santo Domingo the control
+of the custom-house passed out of the hands of the local chieftains,
+who sullenly protested as against an invasion of their treaty rights.
+In other matters the autonomy of the district remained unimpaired
+until the beginning of 1906 when upon the fall of Morales the
+government troops, in suppressing the revolution in the north, overran
+Monte Cristi province and restored its dependency upon the central
+government.
+
+The healthiest and most important political subdivisions in Santo
+Domingo are the communal governments, and whatever progress has been
+made in the Republic has been due largely to their initiative. They
+correspond to the Spanish "municipios" and the French "communes." In
+Santo Domingo the French name was introduced during Haitian
+occupation. The various towns constitute the centers of government,
+their jurisdiction extends over the surrounding rural districts, and
+the affairs of the whole are administered by a municipal council. The
+powers of such councils are manifold and far-reaching and their
+importance has been accentuated by the chronic impotency of the
+central government to foster public improvements. The councils
+exercise all the faculties commonly pertaining to city councils
+elsewhere and have control of education, sanitation, streets and roads
+in their respective districts. They also act as election boards.
+
+When an outlying hamlet of the rural belt has grown to sufficient size
+it is erected into a municipal district or canton and accorded a
+justice of the peace and a cantonal chief and governing board. It
+remains subject, however, to the municipal council of the commune of
+which it formed a part until further development warrants its
+segregation as an independent commune with its own council. The
+cantons, as well as some of the sections, are also provided with a
+cemetery and a small church or chapel.
+
+From among their number the municipal councilmen select a president
+who is regarded as mayor of the commune, though many of the duties
+elsewhere pertaining to mayors are discharged by an official called
+the syndic. The councilmen are supposed to be elected for a term of
+two years, but the oft repeated revolutions have interfered as
+seriously with their terms of office as with everything else. The
+average Dominican seems to manifest little interest in his municipal
+elections; my question as to when the last local election was held
+would generally be answered with uncertainty: "Last January, no, last
+April, no, I believe it was in November." After all, the elections
+have usually been mere ratifications of slates prepared beforehand. In
+the time of Heureaux the lists of new councilmen were often arranged
+in the capital and a few days before election remitted to the various
+towns, even with a designation of the person whom the council was
+later to choose as its president.
+
+The results of such a method of selection of councilmen has not been
+as unfavorable as might be expected. The position of councilman pays
+no salary and is not of sufficient importance to appeal to the
+politician, so that under the present system the principal merchants
+and other prominent men are frequently designated. The law does not
+prohibit foreigners from forming part of the municipal councils and
+they have frequently been chosen, especially in Puerto Plata.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+POLITICS AND REVOLUTIONS
+
+
+Political parties.--Elections.--Relation between politics and
+revolutions.--Conduct of revolutions.--Casualties.--Number of
+revolutions.--Effect of revolutions.
+
+
+The characteristic features of Dominican politics are the violence of
+political antagonism and the absence of differences of principle
+between the political parties. None of the three parties existing
+to-day has a platform, and the distinction between them is entirely a
+matter of the personality of the leaders. Each party alleges that it
+has the best people and the purest motives and views with alarm the
+government of the country by any other party. In practice therefore,
+politics follows the rule only too common in the Spanish-American
+countries, of resolving itself into a personal struggle between the
+"ins" and the "outs."
+
+In the early days of the Republic different policies were occasionally
+seriously considered. It was then held by some that independence
+should be preserved at any cost while others contended that in view of
+the constant, civil wars the country should seek peace and progress
+under the protection of some foreign power. Although the
+annexationists were at first called conservatives and their opponents
+liberals, these divergent views were not the exclusive property of any
+designated group of men, but the annexation idea was generally
+espoused by the party that happened to be in power, which thus hoped
+both to save the country and perpetuate its own rule, while
+independence was invariably supported by the opposition, which
+bristled with patriotic indignation and the fear that it might be
+permanently excluded from the banquet-table. Thus Santana obtained a
+return to Spanish rule in 1861 and Cabral a few years later agitated
+the question of American annexation and their action was denounced by
+Baez; yet shortly after Baez almost succeeded in securing annexation
+to the United States and was stigmatized as a traitor by Cabral.
+
+Another issue which existed for a few years after the separation from
+Haiti in 1844 was the division between clericals on the one hand and
+liberals on the other, a party division that has created havoc in
+other parts of Spanish America. The very indefinite claims on each
+side and the practical unanimity of the country in its attitude
+towards the church caused this issue to disappear.
+
+The real parties that kept see-sawing in and out of power from the
+early days of the Republic down to the time of Heureaux were those
+founded by General Pedro Santana and General Buenaventura Baez.
+Intimate friends in the struggles with Haiti which followed Santo
+Domingo's declaration of independence, their ambitious and domineering
+natures soon clashed, and each collected a group of friends and
+incessantly conspired against the other. The partisans of Baez, or
+Baecistas, adopted red for the color of the cockades and ribbons which
+distinguished them in the civil wars, and came to be known as the
+"Reds," while the followers of Santana, or Santanistas, adopted blue
+and were known as the "Blues."
+
+On the death of Santana in 1863, Luperon and Cabral became the leaders
+of the Blue party, and for several years after the expulsion of the
+Spaniards in 1865 the Reds and Blues took turns in setting up
+governments and having them overthrown. In 1873 General Ignacio Maria
+Gonzalez, a former adherent of Baez, assembled a following from both
+factions and formed a Green party with which he ousted the Reds who
+were then in power. In the next six years the Reds and Greens
+alternated in control, but in 1879 the Greens were driven out and
+definitely scattered by the Blues, who thereby gained a foothold which
+they did not lose for years. The death of Baez in 1884 threw the Reds
+into confusion and their constant persecution by the "blue" President
+Ulises Heureaux effectually crushed them. Ulises Heureaux with Blues,
+Reds and Greens built up his own party of "Lilicistas" which remained
+in power until his death in 1899. In the later years of Heureaux's
+rule the distinguishing color used by his troops was white.
+
+On the death of Heureaux, Juan Isidro Jimenez, as president, and
+Horacio Vasquez, as vice-president, came into power. The rivalry
+between Jimenez and Vasquez caused a division between their respective
+followers, who called themselves Jimenistas and Horacistas, thus
+forming the principal parties which continue to the present time. The
+old Reds and Blues had disappeared and their survivors aligned
+themselves with Jimenez and Vasquez indiscriminately; members of the
+Baez family joined old Blues to follow Jimenez, while other old Reds
+and Blues as well as the Lilicistas seemed to prefer Vasquez. In 1901
+an attempt was made to form a party known as the Republican Party,
+which it was intended to endow with a platform, but being composed
+largely of Jimenez' friends, it was viewed with suspicion and
+fell with him.
+
+In 1902 the Horacistas revolted and obtained the government, only to
+be overthrown in 1903 by followers of Jimenez. The new administration
+proving odious to both parties they combined to drive it out in the
+fall of 1903. The Horacistas gained the upper hand in the succeeding
+government and remained in power until 1912, though a serious division
+developed in the party, to the extent that the nominal leader, Horacio
+Vasquez, himself joined in conspiracies and uprisings against the
+administration. His efforts, combined with those of the Jimenistas,
+led to the choice of Archbishop Nouel as compromise candidate for
+president in 1912. Monsignor Nouel unsuccessfully attempted to govern
+with both parties and on his resignation in 1913 another Horacista
+became president. Again there was opposition from Horacistas as well
+as Jimenistas and in 1914 a Jimenista became provisional president.
+
+At about this time a small third party appeared, led by Federico
+Velazquez, a former Horacista. His followers are known as
+Velazquistas, though the party has adopted the official name of
+Progresista. In the elections of 1914 he joined forces with Jimenez,
+who thus secured the presidency. The government, or what remains of it
+under the present military occupation, is still constituted largely by
+followers of Jimenez and Velazquez.
+
+Though both Jimenistas and Horacistas claim to have the larger
+following in the country in general, it is probable that they are
+about equally matched, the Velazquistas holding the balance of power.
+
+The Jimenistas are often vulgarly called "bolos" or bob-tailed cocks,
+and the Horacistas "rabudos" or "coludos," meaning bushy-tailed or
+long-tailed cocks. In the fighting on the Monte Cristi plains the
+Jimenistas would often attack, but retire as soon as their opponents
+showed fight, and as such tactics reminded the Dominicans of the
+habits of bob-tailed fighting cocks, the nicknames were imposed.
+
+The men who attain prominence in politics range all the way from rude
+ignorant military chiefs to polished members of the aristocracy. In
+looking over the annals of Dominican history the same family names
+constantly recur and it may be affirmed that the government of the
+country has during the time of independence been in the hands of some
+twenty families, the members of which have swayed its councils and led
+its revolutions. They have tasted the sweets of power but also the
+bitterness of defeat, alternately occupying high positions in the
+government and pining in prison or exile. Almost all the chiefs of
+state since 1899 would have done honor to any country, but all have
+been obliged by the exigencies of politics to give places in their
+entourage to men of low standing, whose deeds or misdeeds when in
+power and whose unbridled ambition, have been a factor in the civil
+wars. At the present moment perhaps the most prominent political
+figure is Federico Velazquez, a man of unusual force of character, who
+as minister of finance under Caceres, enforced the settlement of the
+Dominican debt and gave what was probably the most honest
+administration of public revenues in the Republic's history. He is one
+of the few men having the moral courage openly to advocate American
+cooperation in the government of the country. He is about forty-seven
+years old, was born in Tamboril, near Santiago, and advanced through
+the stages of schoolmaster, shopkeeper, secretary to Vasquez and
+Caceres, and cabinet minister, to the position of a political leader.
+
+The ill-feeling akin to hatred between many members of the political
+parties is incredible to one not accustomed to Latin-American
+politics. They will have nothing in common, neither will acknowledge
+the existence of any good in the other, they endeavor to keep apart in
+the clubs, they do not care to buy in each other's stores. Even the
+women enter into this bitterness and engagements have been broken
+because the bridegroom was discovered to favor one party while the
+bride or her family sympathized with the other.
+
+The parties are not unalterably composed of the same individuals. On
+the contrary a great number of the leaders and of the rank and file
+are continually drifting from one party to another, evincing
+particular anxiety to "get on the band-wagon." These changelings,
+while they belong to any one party, affect to be its most ardent
+supporters in order to avert any suspicion of insincerity. Much of the
+disorder which has sapped the life-blood of the Republic has been due
+to disappointed office-seekers who suddenly veered about and joined
+the opposing party.
+
+Not only to personal ambitions and corruption of the persons in power,
+but also to the perfunctory mode in which elections have been
+conducted the many revolutions are to be ascribed. The municipal
+councils in the communes and the justices of the peace and two
+residents in the cantons form the election board before which the
+voters of the respective commune or canton are supposed to appear to
+deposit their votes. It is evident that if anything more than a small
+proportion of the qualified voters appeared, such election boards
+would be swamped, yet no difficulty has ever been registered. The
+election of the presidential candidate supported by the government was
+generally so certain that all other aspirants realized the futility of
+launching their candidacy, and their followers either voted for the
+official candidate or refrained from voting. In this connection I am
+reminded of the convincing political speeches attributed to one of
+the foremost men of La Vega during the farcical campaigns preceding
+the elections of Heureaux. He is quoted as saying: "My friends, this
+Republic is founded on the free and unrestricted suffrage of its
+citizens. It is the proud boast of the Dominican that under the
+constitution he may vote as he pleases. You are therefore free to cast
+your vote for whomsoever you prefer. I would not be your friend,
+however, if I did not advise you that whoever does not vote for
+Heureaux might as well leave the country." In elections for municipal
+councilmen and members of Congress there was occasionally an exception
+to the rule of having a cut and dried program and contests sometimes
+arose for a seat.
+
+The real campaigns and expressions of the people's will have therefore
+been the revolutions, and politics and revolutions have thus come to
+be regarded as going hand in hand. In a town of the Cibao an
+expression of the garrulous landlady of the inn attracted my
+attention. The old lady, after regaling me with the local gossip,
+started with her own troubles. "Two revolutions ago," she said--and
+her mode of measuring time struck me as peculiar--"my eldest son took
+a gun and went into politics." "Cojió un fusil y se metió en la
+politica"--"took a gun and went into politics," the phrase is sadly
+expressive.
+
+Such campaigns were only too easily begun. When a new president
+entered upon office on the crest of a successful revolution,
+apparently with the whole country behind him and his adversaries
+silenced or scattered, his popularity generally lasted until the
+spoils were distributed. ("To the victors belong the spoils" was the
+policy of the past; the American military authorities are making an
+important innovation by the introduction of civil service principles
+for selecting public employees.) The disappointed spirits immediately
+entered into the plots which the vanquished opponents were not slow in
+fomenting. The leader of the adverse party or one of his trusted
+lieutenants raised the standard of revolt and issued manifestoes which
+echoed with patriotic sentiments and decried the faults of the
+administration. He was joined by a number of disgruntled "generals"
+and their followers. The telegraph wires were cut and the revolution
+had begun.
+
+Before 1905 the seizure of a custom-house was invariably the next
+step, which would at the same time provide the insurgents with the
+sinews of war and make it impossible for the government to pay its
+employees in that province. The custom-houses were eliminated as pawns
+in the revolutionary game by the fiscal treaty with the United States,
+according to which the customs receipts were paid over to an American
+receiver-general. Revolutions for a short time became more difficult,
+but where there's a will there's a way, and under a new routine the
+necessary funds were derived from the government's internal revenues
+and from levies on private citizens.
+
+The first two or three weeks of a revolt constituted its critical
+period, for the government at once poured troops into the district in
+order to suppress the insurrection, while the rebels sought to obtain
+as many strategical points as possible. Both sides lived on the
+country while roaming about in pursuit of each other. If the
+government was victorious the leaders of the revolt would usually
+scramble across the border into Haitian territory, or leave the
+country by boat, or otherwise make themselves inconspicuous until the
+time was ripe for another rebellion. When the government was unready
+or unsuccessful, the insurrection spread with great rapidity from town
+to town until it arrived before the walls of Santo Domingo City.
+There was more or less of a siege and when the president capitulated
+he was permitted to board a vessel and go into exile. The head of the
+new revolution then assumed charge of the government and had himself
+elected president and the game began all over again.
+
+The personal property of the fallen adversaries was respected and
+there was no confiscation, such as has occasionally been witnessed in
+certain other Latin republics. When Baez was overthrown in 1858 there
+was an exception to the rule, his properties being seized by the
+Santana government on the ground that he was a traitor ready to
+deliver the country over to the Haitians and was guilty of other high
+crimes and misdemeanors. But when the wheel of fortune again brought
+Baez to the top he promptly reentered upon his lands.
+
+During the uprisings there has rarely been wanton destruction of
+property, the property of foreigners being especially respected. The
+owner of a plantation near Macoris told me that on one occasion the
+general of an insurgent force even halted at his gates and sent him a
+polite request for permission to cross the property. Such
+consideration was not universal, however, and large sums have been
+paid to foreigners for damages inflicted during revolutions. A serious
+inconvenience was caused farmers by revolutions as many laborers were
+enrolled in one army or the other, either voluntarily or by
+impressment.
+
+In the course of the insurrection there were numerous encounters
+between the rebels and the government troops, most of them being mere
+skirmishes. There is hardly a town where there are not houses which
+show the marks of bullets. The walls and gates of Santo Domingo City
+and the houses in the vicinity are full of such marks, though
+generally painted over now. In 1904 and 1905 one of the sights of the
+city was a beautiful villa opposite the Puerta del Conde, which had
+served as target for the government forces while occupied by the
+insurgents and was so peppered by shot and shell as to look like a
+sieve. The sieges of Santo Domingo City sometimes lasted for many
+months. At such times almost every citizen took part in the
+excitement, barricades were erected at every street opening and the
+rattle of musketry was heard at all hours.
+
+The proportion of shots fired to casualties inflicted is known to be
+enormous in all wars and in Santo Domingo it is almost incredible.
+Battles have been fought lasting for hours with thousands of shots
+fired, yet with not one man lost. There have been revolutionary
+uprisings lasting for months with not a man wounded. In Puerto Plata
+it is said that when the government troops attacked the city in 1904 a
+fierce battle ensued which continued from morning till the town was
+taken by storm in the evening; yet only one man was killed and his
+death was due to his own carelessness, for he appeared not far from
+where soldiers of the other side were training a cannon and refused to
+obey their warning to get out of the way, whereupon the cannon was
+discharged and his arm shot off, causing a mortal wound.
+
+At other times, however, the results have been far more serious, as
+many a maimed soldier and bereaved family can testify. The graves of
+victims of the revolutions are scattered all over the Republic. How
+many have fallen in the disturbances of the past fifteen years it is
+impossible to determine; I have heard estimates ranging from 1000 up
+to 15,000. Nor is revolutionizing a pleasant business when continued
+for any length of time. When the men entered a town contributions
+could be levied on the merchants, but when they were harassed and
+forced to retreat to the mountains they roamed for weeks half nude,
+bare-headed, barefooted, exposed to the weather, living on what
+bananas and wild fruits they could find or occasional wild hogs they
+were able to kill, undermining their constitutions and brutalizing
+their natures. The landlady whose son sought political distinction
+with a gun told me amid sobs that her boys were dutiful, industrious
+lads before being caught in the revolutionary torrent, but that in the
+woods they lost all inclination for work and returned home completely
+demoralized. From grieving relatives of victims I have heard many
+another story of ruined lives and early deaths. It is saddening to
+reflect on the tears which have been shed and the misery which has
+been caused by this long continued civil strife.
+
+While women have been heavy sufferers from the revolutions they have
+not hesitated to take sides and contribute their mite. Many are the
+stories current in Santo Domingo of women who smilingly passed through
+the enemy's ranks and carried ammunition and supplies concealed
+beneath their garments to their friends in the woods.
+
+Excluding the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was thrown off in
+1844 and that of 1863-65, which expelled the Spaniards, there have
+occurred in the seventy years of Dominican independence no less than
+twenty-three successful revolutions. One occurred in each of the years
+1848, 1844, 1849, 1857 and 1864, three in 1865, one each in 1866, 1867
+and 1873, three in 1876, one each in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1899 and 1902,
+two in 1903 and one each in 1912 and 1914. At times hardly had a
+revolution proved successful when a counter-revolution broke out and
+secured the victory.  The longest intermissions were from 1879 to
+1899 when the party of the dictator Heureaux was in power, and from
+1903 to 1912, when the indirect protection of the United States was
+sufficient to sustain the government.
+
+These were the successful revolutions; the unsuccessful insurrections
+are innumerable. It has been unfortunate for the credit of Santo
+Domingo that almost every little shooting affray is classed as an
+insurrection or revolution. Most of these unsuccessful uprisings have
+been unimportant excursions into the country by some disaffected local
+chief and a handful of followers, the band being promptly rounded up
+or scattered by government forces or induced to come in by promise of
+a job or some other consideration.
+
+The circumstance that the provincial governors found it to their
+advantage to have disturbances in their district explains many of the
+smaller commotions. Upon the outbreak of an insurrection or before the
+threat of an outbreak the authorities in the capital would authorize
+the provincial governor to recruit troops and draw funds for their
+payment. The governor would do so, but if two or three thousand men
+had been authorized he would raise only two or three hundred and
+forget to account for the balance of the money. The suppression of the
+"revolution" would thus benefit both his military reputation and his
+pocketbook. Governors were therefore prone to exaggerate rumors of
+insurrection and sometimes themselves sent out men to fire a few shots
+in the woods and create alarm.
+
+Other insurrections have been fierce and formidable and some
+administrations were obliged to engage in constant warfare in order to
+maintain themselves. A serious unsuccessful insurrection was that led
+by Gen. Casimiro de Moya against Heureaux in 1886, which lasted six
+months. The most widespread was that of Jimenez against the Morales
+government, lasting from December, 1903, to May, 1904, and during
+which the insurgents gained possession of practically the entire
+Republic. Other serious outbreaks occurred in 1904, 1905, 1906, 1909,
+1911, 1913 and 1916. The fires smouldered constantly, especially in
+the Cibao, which raises the largest crops of everything, including
+revolutions.
+
+The effect of such continuous commotion has been most disastrous to
+the country and the people at large. This is all the more saddening
+when it is considered that, less than ten per cent of the people took
+part in the disturbances. Revolutions, successful and unsuccessful,
+have been fought to a finish with less than a thousand men on either
+side. Ninety per cent of the population are law-abiding citizens who
+would like nothing better than to be let alone and permitted to pursue
+their vocations in peace. The other ten per cent were not entirely to
+blame: they have been the victims of their environment.
+
+Not only have the revolutionary disturbances caused enormous indirect
+loss to the country through paralyzation of agriculture, arrest of
+development and loss of credit, but they have also been a large direct
+expense. A considerable portion of every budget was devoted to
+appropriations for the purchase of war material and the maintenance of
+the military and naval establishment. When uprisings occurred the
+additional amounts necessary for their suppression have been taken
+from other appropriations, those for public works usually being the
+first to be cancelled. If the uprisings became serious the other
+appropriations of the budget were reduced by fifty or even
+seventy-five per cent until all the available cash was devoted to war
+purposes. In 1903 military and naval expenditures absorbed 71.7 per
+cent of the Republic's disbursements, and in 1904 72.6 per cent. At
+such times the government was reduced to a desperate struggle for
+existence; the loss of the custom-houses in power of the insurgents
+made its position still more precarious; it contracted loans on
+ruinous terms; it neglected its foreign obligations and paid its
+employees in promissory notes and even in postage stamps, which they
+would then peddle about the streets. Under such conditions it is
+natural that nothing was left for public improvements. Even under the
+peaceful administration of Heureaux a disproportionate part of the
+national funds was expended for military purposes and three gunboats
+were acquired and maintained, but not a single mile of improved road
+was laid out.
+
+With the American military occupation political conditions in the
+Dominican Republic have radically changed. The system of waging
+political campaigns by force of arms has stopped abruptly and
+absolutely. Revolutions have become a matter of history. Ballots will
+hereafter take the place of bullets, and politics will be conducted in
+the same manner as in other orderly countries. Evolution, not
+revolution, will be the characteristic of the future.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+LAW AND JUSTICE
+
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo.--Legal system.--Judicial
+organization.--Observance of laws.--Prisons.--Character of offenses.
+
+
+In the year 1510 the Spanish government established in Santo Domingo
+the first of the famous colonial audiencias, or royal high courts, the
+list of which appears like a roll call of Spain's former glories.
+Others were added later in Mexico, Guatemala, Guadalajara, Panama,
+Lima, Santa Fé de Bogotá, Quito, Manila, Santiago de Chile, Charcas
+(now Sucré), and Buenos Aires. The audiencia of Santo Domingo at first
+had jurisdiction over all the territory under Spanish dominion in the
+new world, but upon the establishment, of the audiencia of Mexico and
+others its jurisdiction was confined to the West India Islands, and
+the north coast of South America. Its functions were both judicial and
+administrative, including the power to hear appeals from the judges of
+the district and from certain administrative authorities, and to
+intervene in certain matters of government, in the finances of the
+territory and in behalf of the public peace. The governor and
+captain-general of Santo Domingo was president of the royal audiencia,
+though not acting when it sat as a law court, and at times the
+audiencia alone temporarily carried on the government of one or more
+of the territories under its jurisdiction. It applied the law as
+expressed in the codification of the "Laws of the Indies," and the
+Spanish "Partidas." It sat in the building still called the old palace
+of government. During the dark days which fell upon the island in the
+seventeenth century, the presence of the audiencia helped to save the
+colony from being completely forgotten. It continued in its functions
+until the country was ceded to France, whereupon in 1799, it was
+removed to the city of Puerto Principe, in Cuba. Could its records but
+have been preserved a great many gaps in the history of Santo Domingo,
+Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela would be filled. It seems that the
+first records were destroyed by Drake in 1583, and almost all the
+later ones succumbed to the negligence of man and the voracity of the
+tropical insects. When the government of Cuba in 1906 honored the
+request of the government of the Dominican Republic for the return of
+such of the records of the audiencia of Santo Domingo as were still
+extant, it could find in its national archives and turn over but a
+score of bundles of documents, mostly records of suits regarding land
+boundaries in the eighteenth century, of little historic value. These
+and several small mahogany bookcases still preserved in the present
+audiencia of Havana, are the only tangible remains of this
+noted court.
+
+When Santo Domingo again came under Spanish rule in 1809, the colony
+was included in the territorial jurisdiction of the audiencia of
+Caracas. Upon the beginning of Haitian rule in 1822, when most of the
+distinguished citizens, including judges and lawyers, left the
+country, they took with them the ancient legal system. The Haitians
+imposed their laws, namely, the Code Napoleon and other French codes.
+These took such deep root that on the expulsion of the Haitians no
+attempt was made to return to the Spanish laws, which also at that
+time were still under the disadvantage of not having been revised and
+codified in accordance with modern needs.  In 1845 the laws of France
+were expressly adopted by the Dominican Republic. During the troublous
+times following little attention was given to the legal system, and
+there was not even a Spanish translation of the codes. After
+annexation to Spain in 1861 the Spanish authorities attempted to
+clarify the situation by introducing the Spanish penal code and law of
+criminal procedure and by appointing a commission to translate the
+civil code, in which they made several changes, but upon the
+reestablishment of the Republic in 1865 everything done in this
+respect by the Spaniards was annulled. Several efforts were later made
+to secure a translation of the codes, though laws were not often
+invoked amid so much civil unrest. As late as 1871 the American
+commission which visited the island reported that the administration
+of justice had practically fallen into disuse. The local military
+chiefs and the parish priests decided the questions that arose.
+
+As the country progressed in spite of itself, and there were periods
+of peace, the need of an official Spanish text of the laws became more
+pressing, and at length in 1882 a commission was appointed to
+translate and adapt the French codes. On the report of the commission
+a civil code, a code of civil procedure, a code of commerce, a penal
+code, a code of criminal procedure and a military code were approved
+in the year 1884. They are literal translations of the French codes
+with a few modifications to adapt them to local conditions. The penal
+codes are such close translations that several paragraphs relating to
+juries were retained, although the institution does not exist in Santo
+Domingo. It was tried in 1857, but discontinued in the following year.
+The Dominican Congress made but few changes in these important laws,
+which have therefore been more permanent than the constitution. The
+need for a further revision of the Dominican codes became urgent,
+however, and such revision has very recently been concluded by a
+commission which sat for that purpose; it is now being considered with
+a view to an early promulgation of the codes in amended form.
+
+Santo Domingo, the first Spanish colony, thus has no Spanish laws. It
+is the only Spanish country which has adopted French legislation so
+completely, and which looks so largely to France for its
+jurisprudence.
+
+The laws of Congress, and the decrees of the Executive relating to
+concessions, naturalization, pardons, and other matters, and, at
+present, the "executive orders" and decrees of the military
+government, are published in the Official Gazette, a government
+newspaper appearing almost daily. In addition to the calendar date,
+official papers are dated from the declaration of independence in 1844
+and the restoration of the Republic in 1863, somewhat as follows:
+"Given in the National Palace of Santo Domingo, Capital of the
+Republic, on the 3rd day of March, 1916, the 73rd year of Independence
+and the 53rd of the Restoration." In Haiti it was formerly the custom,
+after a successful revolution, to count dates not only from the
+declaration of independence but also from the proclamation of the
+latest revolution, the latter period being denominated the
+"regeneration," thus: In the 40th year of independence and the 3rd of
+the regeneration. In the Dominican Republic Baez introduced this rule
+in his presidency of 1868-1873, during which period decrees were dated
+in the following manner: "On the 3rd day of March, 1871, the 28th year
+of Independence, the 8th of the Restoration, and the 3rd of the
+Regeneration." The revolution of December, 1873, ended this
+regeneration, and the official references thereto.
+
+At the present time the judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
+sitting in the capital of the Republic, three courts of appeals, one
+in Santo Domingo, one in Santiago and one in La Vega; twelve courts of
+first instance, one in each province; and 70 alcaldias or justice of
+the peace courts, in the several communes and cantons. The supreme
+court is constituted by a presiding justice and six associate
+justices, who are elected by the Senate for terms of four years. It
+exercises original jurisdiction in cases against diplomatic
+functionaries and judges of courts of appeals, sits as a court of
+cassation in appeals from, the courts of appeals, finally decides
+admiralty cases and has certain other functions assigned to it by law.
+
+The three courts of appeals each have a presiding justice and four
+associate justices, all elected by the Senate for four year terms.
+They exercise appellate jurisdiction over cases adjudged by courts of
+first instance and courts-martial, and original jurisdiction in
+admiralty cases and in the prosecution of certain judicial and
+administrative officials. Prior to 1908 there was one supreme court,
+with five members, and no court of appeals. When the income of the
+country grew, the new constitution provided that the supreme court
+have at least seven members, and that at least two courts of appeals
+be established, with their necessary judges and clerks. The system is
+now costly and topheavy.
+
+The twelve district courts each have a judge of first instance and a
+judge of instruction, elected by the Senate for terms of four years.
+The judge of instruction is not, strictly speaking, a part of the
+court, his duty being to investigate the more serious criminal
+offenses, commit the offenders for the action of the court and report
+the result of his investigation to the prosecuting attorney. The
+courts of first instance have original jurisdiction in all criminal
+matters except the minor police offenses and in all civil matters
+except those expressly assigned to the justices of the peace. They
+hear appeals from the justices of the peace in civil and
+criminal cases.
+
+The local justices of the peace are called "alcaldes." The alcalde, in
+Spanish times, was an officer exercising both administrative and
+judicial functions, the name being derived from the Arabic "al cadi,"
+the judge, and whereas in Spain and most of the former Spanish
+colonies the alcalde has now only administrative duties and his office
+is equivalent to that of mayor, in Santo Domingo he now exercises
+solely judicial authority. (The office of "alcalde pedaneo," which may
+be roughly translated as deputy mayor, exists in Santo Domingo,
+however, this title being given to the municipal executive's agent in
+each section.) The alcalde's jurisdiction comprises the smaller police
+offenses and, in civil cases, matters involving less than $100, as
+well as certain cases, such as suits between innkeepers and guests,
+where the limit of his authority is raised to $300, and other cases,
+such as ejectment suits, where his jurisdiction attaches on account of
+the subject-matter. The alcaldes are appointed by the president of
+the Republic.
+
+In general the system works smoothly. The alcaldes are often ignorant
+men, but even in the United States the country magistrates are not
+always founts of wisdom. The judges of first instance and district
+attorneys are almost without exception respected in the community, and
+the present judges of the supreme court and of the courts of appeals
+enjoy a good reputation. Not infrequently political considerations
+have given rise to poor appointments, such as occurred in Barahona
+some years ago when the judge-elect telegraphed an indignant protest
+to the capital to the effect that he was unacquainted even with the
+rudiments of the law. The administration had not taken the trouble to
+ascertain whether he was a lawyer, but knowing he sought a position,
+had given him the first one at hand. This was rather an oversight, as
+the law requires such appointees to be members of the bar. On another
+occasion the legal requisite was filled by first declaring the
+aspirant a lawyer and then designating him for the post. These cases
+are exceptions, however. The integrity of the judges is not often
+questioned, but the alcaldes do not enjoy so good a reputation.
+
+At the present time there are also American provost courts which take
+cognizance of "offenses against the military government." This
+designation is broad enough to include anything the military
+authorities choose to include. Apart from a few cases of regrettable
+harshness these courts have done fairly well.
+
+While the various constitutions have expressly declared the
+independence of the judicial power, the authority of the courts has
+heretofore been rather relative, and they have studiously avoided
+conflicts with the other branches of the government. There is no case
+on record where they have declared a law unconstitutional. The supreme
+court when driven into a corner in 1904 even declared that it had not
+the authority to make such a declaration. The constitution of 1908
+modified the decision by expressly providing that the supreme court
+may decide as to the constitutionality of laws.
+
+This decision of the supreme court made little impression in the
+country, due probably in part to the ease with which the various
+administrations have disregarded the constitution when it suited their
+convenience. The little value of the constitution between friends has
+constantly been demonstrated. Certain provisions have been
+systematically violated, even by the best of administrations.
+Principal among them is the provision that no one be arrested without
+a warrant setting forth the offense, unless caught _in flagranti_, and
+the provision that every person imprisoned be informed of the cause of
+his imprisonment and submitted to examination within forty-eight hours
+after arrest, and not be detained for a longer time than permitted by
+law. These provisions have been dead letters as far as political
+prisoners are concerned. When a person was suspected of being involved
+in a conspiracy against the government he was liable at any moment to
+be seized and conducted to prison, where he might be detained
+indefinitely, until the danger was over, or he was considered
+innocuous. The ancient fortress at the river mouth in Santo Domingo,
+known as La Torre del Homenaje, bears over its entrance the sign,
+"Political Prison," and rarely has it been without tenants, even when
+the country was at peace and the constitutional guarantees were
+supposed to be in force. On one occasion when I heard a Dominican
+lawyer lament that a friend of his had thus been incarcerated for
+several months without a hearing, I inquired why he did not apply to a
+court and invoke the constitutional provision. The reply was, "The
+judge who signed an order to set the prisoner free would probably join
+him in jail before many hours had passed."
+
+Such ignoring of the written law was a relic of the days when the will
+of the military was the only law respected. Reminders of the old state
+of affairs continued to crop out, though the people and government
+were rapidly adopting other customs. An instance occurred in Sanchez
+during the presidency of Morales. A younger brother of the president
+was customs collector at that port and was accused by public rumor of
+irregularities in office. A customs employee having been discharged
+for spreading the rumor, called on the collector and invited him to a
+meeting outside; and the two adjourned to the bush, where shots were
+exchanged and young Morales was wounded in the leg. The aggressor was
+immediately seized by the general commanding the military forces in
+Sanchez and carried to the town cemetery, a grave was dug, and the
+general prepared to have him summarily shot. The town authorities
+interceded, but in vain, and the execution was about to take place
+when the ladies of the town succeeded in moving the commandant by
+their pleadings. The prisoner was remanded to the jail in Samana and
+was later tried by the court of first instance and acquitted. Much
+more recently the leader of the band that assassinated President
+Caceres was killed without trial.
+
+Some of the surviving military leaders of the old school find
+difficulty in adjusting themselves to the new conditions. Among them
+was General Cirilo de los Santos, better known by his nickname
+"Guayubin" (the name of the town where he was born) who took an active
+part in the political disturbances of the Republic for many years.
+When I traveled through the country with Prof. Hollander on his
+financial investigation we were guests of this hero of a hundred
+revolutions, who was then Governor of La Vega. In the course of
+conversation Prof. Hollander expressed gratification at the cessation
+of the custom of shooting political prisoners. The governor was at
+that time engaged in the persecution of one Perico Lasala, a perpetual
+revolutionist who was infesting the nearby hills and who has since
+done his country a favor by being killed in an incursion on the coast.
+The idea of not shooting this notorious character as soon as he was
+apprehended seemed grotesque to Guayubin--and perhaps not without
+reason. He cried, "If you were in my place and caught Perico Lasala,
+wouldn't you shoot even him?" "Why, no," was the answer. Guayubin's
+face fell and he became thoughtful. For the rest of the day he was
+strangely silent and he continued so on the morrow, when he
+accompanied us for several miles out of town. When bidding goodbye, he
+broke out: "I wish to ask your advice. If I should catch Perico
+Lasala, what would you advise me to do with him?" Dr. Hollander asked:
+"What do you do with persons who steal or commit similar violations of
+the law?" "We put them in jail." "Why, then, put Perico Lasala in
+jail." A look of inexpressible relief came over the face of the old
+warrior. "Of course!" he said, "I never thought of that."
+
+Not long after this incident General Guayubin met a political opponent
+against whom he harbored resentment. He immediately drew his revolver
+and began to shoot, and the object of his wrath escaped only by
+dexterous sprinting. At a session of Congress there was some criticism
+of his action and Guayubin resigned his office in disgust. The death
+of this fighter was as stern as his life. He attended a christening
+party at a house where there was a forgotten powder-cask; a spark fell
+into the powder and in the ensuing explosion Guayubin's eyesight was
+destroyed. Grimly refusing to take food or drink, he pined away.
+
+Prior to the American occupation, the Dominican penal establishments
+were as a rule in very bad condition. There is no penitentiary and
+portions of the forts or government houses are used as jails. The
+prisoners were herded together with little thought of cleanliness. The
+stench in some of the jail yards was at times almost unbearable. In
+justice it should be stated that the Dominican authorities frequently
+called the attention of their Congress to this condition of affairs.
+The prisons at Santo Domingo City and Santiago were exceptions to the
+rule; they were improved even to the extent of being endowed with a
+prison school.
+
+The political prisoners were generally given better accommodations, if
+there were any at hand, and had the privilege of securing their meals
+from the outside instead of being limited to the scant and repugnant
+prison food. During revolutions, however, when the prisons were
+overcrowded, the political prisoners were kept in irons and
+supervision was rigid. According to law the functionaries of each
+court of first instance were supposed to visit and examine the jails
+once a month, but as the date of their visit was known beforehand the
+inspection was little more than perfunctory. Not very long ago it was
+whispered in the Cibao that a judge in inspecting a jail accidentally
+passed through a door to a room he was evidently not expected to
+enter, and there to his own embarrassment and that of the warden found
+a score of prisoners whose names were not on the prison rolls.
+
+The more serious offenders were kept in irons. The Dominican
+authorities, realizing that they had no reason to be proud of their
+prisons, were loath to permit foreigners to visit the jails. When I
+called at the government building at Sanchez on one occasion, however,
+the commandant was absent and an indiscreet sergeant offered to show
+me the two rooms used for prison purposes. The building was a wooden
+one and one of the rooms, though heavily barred, did not seem unfitted
+except in case of overcrowding, which I was told sometimes occurred.
+The other room was extremely repulsive. It was dark and a foul odor
+rising from a hole in the wooden floor demonstrated the truth of the
+guide's remark that there was no outhouse for the use of the
+prisoners. Along one side of this room lay two long square-cut beams,
+one on the other, scalloped out so as to form a number of round holes
+along their juncture. It was evident they were used as stocks and my
+guide stated that he had seen a whole row of men sitting along the log
+with their feet thus confined. One or two of the holes were a little
+larger and it was explained that they were for the purpose of
+confining not the feet but the neck of the delinquent, and that this
+punishment was much worse, producing especial pain in the case of
+short-necked persons. The severest pain was produced, so the guide
+stated, when the delinquent was seated on the beam and his feet placed
+crosswise through the holes: he could bear the agony of this position
+for only a short time.
+
+The American authorities have made great improvements in the prisons
+and prison discipline. The jails are now so clean that they are almost
+show places.
+
+The revolutionary disturbances have seriously interfered with the
+proper execution of the sentences of the courts. It was a usual
+procedure for revolutionary forces, upon entering a town, to free the
+prisoners--either as a slap at the government or in order thereby to
+augment their own strength. In Puerto Plata, a few years ago, a
+merchant was convicted of fraudulent bankruptcy and sentenced to three
+years in jail; soon afterwards a revolutionary force took possession
+of the town and freed the prisoners; and a few hours later the
+townspeople were amused to see the lawyer who had been instrumental in
+securing the conviction himself led to prison at the instigation of
+the culprit.
+
+In March, 1903, when the political prisoners in the Santo Domingo
+prison broke out, they released the convicts, some of whom retained
+their gyves during the fighting which followed, until the revolution
+was successful several days later.
+
+The undeveloped state of the country has offered difficulties to the
+apprehension of criminals, and the proper enforcement of the law.
+Could a criminal but reach the mountains of the interior, which are
+almost entirely uninhabited, he would be safe from pursuit and might
+either wait to join the next uprising or proceed to a different part
+of the country, where he was unknown and where, owing to the
+difficulty of intercourse, detection would be unlikely. Instances have
+occurred more than once where an escaped malefactor has become a
+"general" of other outlaws and by threatening to raise an insurrection
+has induced the government to pardon him and his associates.
+
+In several regions there were up to the time of the American
+occupation local caciques who were almost absolute monarchs in their
+district. They and their followers considered themselves above the law
+and their power and influence were such that the government in the
+capital preferred to let them alone so long as they kept within
+bounds. Such gentlemen can hardly be expected to favor the American
+administration for they have been made to understand that their rights
+and remedies are no more than those of other citizens.
+
+In view of such conditions so favorable to wrongdoers, the low
+criminal record of Santo Domingo is all the more remarkable and speaks
+highly for the character of the population. Crimes evincing malice and
+a depraved disposition are exceedingly rare. The Dominican boasts that
+it is possible to travel without fear from one end of the Republic to
+the other, though unarmed and carrying large sums of money. The few
+attacks on travelers which are on record have generally been due to
+revenge or some other personal motive. There is petty thievery, but no
+more than anywhere else. A friend of mine used to remark that he had
+never seen so many chickens in a community where there were so many
+negroes. No criminal is so greatly despised as a thief, and to accuse
+a person of being "mean enough to steal a pig" is a mortal insult. A
+distinction is made, however, between public honesty and private
+honesty, and the impression has been only too general that stealing
+from the state is not stealing.
+
+The most common serious offenses are homicide and assaults committed
+in sudden quarrel or due to jealousy. Not a little mischief was caused
+by the unfortunate habit of going armed.
+
+The attractions of the fair sex give rise not only to crimes of
+jealous passion, but also to other missteps, such as seduction and
+similar offenses. The average of these is not greater, however, than
+in other southern countries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE DOMINICAN DEBT AND THE FISCAL TREATY WITH THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+Financial situation in 1905.--Causes of debt.--Amount of debt.--Bonded
+debt.--Liquidated debt.--Floating debt.--Declared claims.--Undeclared
+claims.--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house.--Fiscal convention of
+1905.--Modus vivendi.--Negotiations for adjustment of debt.--New bond
+issue.--Fiscal treaty of 1907.--Adjustment with creditors.--1912
+loan.--Present financial situation.
+
+
+Rarely have the fiscal affairs of a country experienced so rapid and
+radical a change for the better as those of Santo Domingo since 1904,
+and rarely has a financial measure so quickly proved its efficacy as
+the fiscal convention between the United States and Santo Domingo. In
+the beginning of the year 1905 Santo Domingo had fallen to the lowest
+depths of bankruptcy and financial discredit. After decades of civil
+disturbance, misrule and reckless debt contraction, the deluge had
+come. The substance of the country had been wasted in military
+expenditures; agriculture and commerce were stagnant; a debt of over
+$30,000,000 had been contracted with nothing to show for it but
+forty-two miles of narrow-gauge railroad and two small gunboats; the
+government obligations were chronically in default and interest
+charges were piling up at ruinous rates; every port of the Republic
+was pledged to foreign creditors who were clamoring for payment; one
+port had already been seized and the occupation of the others by
+foreign powers was imminent. At this juncture the Dominican government
+applied to the  United States for assistance and the custom-houses of
+the Republic were placed in charge of an American general receiver,
+with the obligation of reserving a specified portion of the customs
+income for the creditors and turning the remainder over to the
+Dominican government. The situation immediately changed as if by
+magic. The imports and exports, and with them the income of the
+government, quickly reached higher figures than the country had ever
+seen, the national debt was scaled down by almost one-half and the new
+Dominican bonds issued in 1907 to convert the old debt went nearly to
+par in the markets of the world.
+
+
+(a) Periodic accumulation of floating debt, owing to:
+     1. Political instability, requiring large outlays for soldiery,
+         for bribery of potential revolutionists, and for suppression
+         of actual revolutions.
+     2. Corruption of officials.
+     3. "Asignaciones" or pensions to mollify enemies and to reward
+         friends of the existing régime.
+(b) Usurious interest computations, on account of:
+     1. "Bonus" in principal,
+     2. Extravagant interest rates.
+(c) Interest default and compounding accumulations.
+(d) Recognition and liquidation of excessive or illegal claims as a
+      condition of further advances.
+
+
+In order to obtain more positive information with reference to
+outstanding Dominican indebtedness, for use in connection with the
+pending fiscal treaty, the American government in the early part of
+1905 commissioned a financial expert, Prof. Jacob H. Hollander, of
+Johns Hopkins University, to proceed to Santo Domingo and make an
+investigation of financial conditions. Prof. Hollander, in an
+elaborate report, found the amount of the claims pending against the
+Dominican Republic on June I, 1905, to be $40,269,404.38, distributed
+as follows:
+
+
+Bonded debt........................ $17,670,312.75
+Liquidated debt...................... 9,595,530.40
+Floating debt........................ 1,553,507.79
+Declared claims...................... 7,450,053.89
+Undeclared claims.................... 4,000,000.00
+                                   --------------
+Total indebtedness................. $40,269,404.38
+
+
+The bonded debt, as above designated, comprised the public
+indebtedness represented by outstanding bonds; the liquidated debt
+consisted of items secured by international protocols or by formal
+contracts; the floating debt consisted of admitted indebtedness,
+neither funded nor secured, but evidenced by public obligations; the
+declared claims were claims presented for reimbursement or indemnity
+but not expressly recognized by the government; and the undeclared
+claims were claims of the same nature not yet formally presented. A
+brief description of each of these items will afford an idea of the
+general character, of Dominican financiering and a better
+understanding of Dominican history.
+
+_Bonded Debt_. The bonded debt held by Belgians and
+French and amounting to $17,670,312.75, was the final
+outcome of eight consecutive bond issues floated by the
+Republic, as follows:
+
+
+               Interest
+                 per   Term
+Date   Amount    cent  years   Name_
+
+1869  £  757,700  6       25   Hartmont loan
+1888  £  770,000  6       30   Westendorp loan
+1890  £  900,000  6       56   Railway loan
+1893  £2,035,000  4       66   4 per cent consolidated gold bonds
+1893  $1,250,000  4       66   4 per cent gold debentures
+1894  $1,250,000  4       66   French-American reclamation
+                                consols
+1895  $1,750,000  4       66
+1897  £1,736,750  2-3/4  102   Obligations or de Saint Domingue
+      £1,500,000  4       83   Dominican unified debt 4 per cent
+                                bonds
+
+
+In making its very first loan, in 1869, the Dominican government fell
+into the hands of sharpers and was mercilessly fleeced. The bargain,
+even if it had been honestly carried out, was improvident enough.
+Reduced to American money the nominal amount of the loan was
+$3,788,500; of this amount the Republic was to receive but $1,600,000;
+yet it contracted to pay as interest and sinking fund in twenty-five
+years a sum amounting to $7,362,500. The contractors for the loan,
+Hartmont & Co., of London, were authorized to retain $500,000 as their
+commission. In fact, however, no more than $190,455 was ever paid to
+the Dominican government. The brokers claimed that they tendered a
+further sum of $1,055,500, though after the expiration of the time
+limited in their contract, and that the tender was refused because of
+negotiations then under way for the annexation of the Republic to the
+United States, but such tender is denied on the Dominican side. At all
+events, the loan contract was cancelled by the Dominican senate in
+1870 on the ground of non-compliance of the brokers with its
+conditions and the government made no payments for interest or sinking
+fund. The brokers nevertheless continued to sell bonds in London and
+pay the current interest with the proceeds. Incidentally in addition
+to collecting their commission, they turned a penny for themselves by
+taking the bonds with their friends at 50 and selling them to the
+public at 70. When the Dominican repudiation of the bond issue was
+published in England in 1872 a cash balance of $466,500 still remained
+to the credit of the Dominican government, but it was coolly pocketed
+by the principal agent, who claimed it as a set-off against alleged
+damages in connection with a concession he had near Samana. In the ten
+years of anarchy that followed in Santo Domingo no attempt was made to
+straighten out the matter. The bonds having gone into default in 1872
+dropped lower and lower until they reached 3 per cent in 1878.
+
+The setback received by the credit of the Republic by reason of the
+defaulted Hartmont bonds made further bond issues impossible for a
+number of years. Finally an Amsterdam banking house, Westendorp & Co.,
+was interested and in 1888 and 1890 floated the second and third bond
+issues for £770,000 and £900,000 respectively. The object of the
+second issue was to retire the Hartmont bonds at 20 per cent, to pay a
+number of floating interior debts the owners of which were harassing
+the government, and to provide cash for the treasury, principally for
+military and naval expenditures, while the third issue was designed to
+secure funds for the construction of a railroad between Puerto Plata
+and Santiago. For the purpose of providing for the service of the loan
+a collection office known as the "caisse de la regie," or simply
+"regie," under the management of Westendorp, took charge of the
+customhouses with the obligation of paying a certain amount to the
+government monthly and devoting the remainder to payment of interest
+and sinking fund of the loans. The arrangement was thus similar to the
+later receivership plan, but its vulnerable point was that it was
+operated by a private concern.
+
+The first instalments of interest and sinking fund on these two bond
+issues were paid from the proceeds of the bonds, then for several
+months the "regie" supplied funds, and then came the first crash. The
+government was ever in need of money and to secure the same violated
+its agreements by seizing certain revenues to pledge them to local
+merchants for advances, and by conniving at customs irregularities. As
+a result, after paying the sums for the budget, the "regie" had
+nothing left for the service of the bonds and they went into
+default in 1892.
+
+Westendorp was almost ruined by this occurrence and became anxious to
+draw out of his Dominican entanglements. He applied to Smith M. Weed
+and Brown and Wells, New York attorneys, to negotiate a sale of his
+bonds to the United States government, transferring also his right to
+collect the Dominican customs. The United States government declined,
+whereupon Weed, Wells and Brown organized the famous San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the laws of New Jersey, the claim of which
+was later the prime factor in bringing about American intervention in
+Santo Domingo. Subsequently two other companies, the San Domingo
+Finance Company and the Company of the Central Dominican Railway, were
+incorporated, also under the laws of New Jersey, as auxiliaries of the
+Improvement Company, but they were all managed by the same persons.
+The San Domingo Improvement Company took over Westendorp's holdings
+and was placed in control of the "regie." A fourth bond issue, of
+£2,035,000 was floated through the agency of the Improvement Company
+in 1893 for the conversion of the outstanding government bonds. The
+Improvement Company also completed the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, which was the only improvement it ever effected in the
+Republic and this it did with Dominican money. It further took from
+the Republic at rates very favorable to the Company a fifth, sixth and
+seventh bond issue, in 1893, 1894 and 1895 respectively, aggregating
+$4,250,000, for the payment of government indebtedness. The
+obligations paid by the first two of these issues were in considerable
+part inflated claims against the government, capitalized at excessive
+interest rates, those satisfied by the 1895 issue arose principally
+out of indemnity claims made by France for mistreatment of French
+citizens and for debts due them.
+
+The Dominican government took no warning from previous disasters but
+continued in its course of reckless debt contraction. In order to
+equip warships and arsenals it borrowed money right and left at rates
+of interest which ranged anywhere from 18 to 30 per cent per annum.
+The loans were guaranteed by customs revenues which the creditors were
+authorized to collect direct from the importer. Thus the amount
+collected by the "regie" was not sufficient to provide for the service
+of the ever increasing bonded debt and in 1897 there was
+another default.
+
+The old remedy of a new bond issue was to be tried again. The San
+Domingo Improvement Company undertook to float the eighth bond issue
+of £2,736,750 in bonds at 2-3/4 per cent and £1,500,000 in bonds at
+four per cent. With these bonds it contracted to convert all previous
+bonds then outstanding, to pay overdue interest and to secure for the
+government over $1,000,000 in cash. President Heureaux issued drafts
+on this presumption, but it soon became evident that it would be
+impossible for the Improvement Company to carry out the contract. The
+company blamed the government and the government the company. The
+situation quickly became chaotic. Eventually the conversion of the
+older bond issues was completed, though at enormous cost. Bonds to the
+value of £600,000 were absorbed during the transaction with at most a
+cash payment of $250,000 to the Dominican fiscal agent in Europe. In
+the meantime the government tried the experiment of a large emission
+of paper money in which the customs dues were partly payable. The
+paper depreciated as fast as it was issued, the revenues were again
+insufficient and the new bond issue suffered default in April, 1899.
+
+While plans for further action were under consideration, President
+Heureaux was shot in July, 1899, and the revolution which followed his
+death made Jimenez president. The new administration in 1900 entered
+into a contract with the San Domingo Improvement Company for a
+different distribution of the customs revenues, but a condition was
+introduced that the consent of the majority of bondholders be obtained
+for the funding of interest up to 1903. A large number of Belgian and
+French bondholders had become dissatisfied with the Improvement
+Company, however, and repudiated the contract and all connection with
+the Company. In Santo Domingo, too, there was general hostility
+towards the Improvement Company which was regarded as an associate of
+President Heureaux and an incubus on the development of the country.
+The Company claimed it had secured the consent of a majority of
+bondholders but the government decided it had not and in January,
+1901, President Jimenez issued a decree excluding the Improvement
+Company from the custom-houses.
+
+The government now made a new contract with the Franco-Belgian
+bondholders, and for the payment of its obligations pledged its
+customs revenues, and specifically the income of the ports of Santo
+Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris. But if there had been default
+before, in time of peace, with the "regie" in charge of the
+custom-houses, there was still less money available for the creditors
+now, with no control by creditors over collections and the government
+harassed by constant revolutionary uprisings. Small partial payments
+were made for two years and then ceased. As the Improvement Company's
+bond holdings became the subject of a special arrangement, the bonded
+debt of the Republic was considered to be that held by the French and
+Belgian creditors. However unsavory the debts which gave origin to the
+bond issues, and however imprudent most of the bond issues themselves,
+the great majority of bonds had passed into the hands of small
+holders, innocent third parties who sustained great loss by the
+continued suspension of payments.
+
+_Liquidated Debt_. The liquidated debt, secured by international
+protocol or formal contract, Prof. Hollander found to be as follows on
+June 1, 1905:
+
+
+San Domingo Improvement Company
+  (American and British)................. $4,403,532.71
+Consolidated internal debt
+  (chiefly Spanish, German and American).. 1,737.151.35
+Internal debt held by Vicini heirs
+  (Italian)............................... 1,598,876.04
+Old foreign debt
+  (chiefly Italian and Dutch)............... 365,183.20
+Sala claim (American)....................... 356,314.20
+Vicini heirs (Italian)...................... 242,716.32
+Italian protocol............................ 186,750.36
+Spanish-German protocol..................... 100,034.00
+B. Bancalari (Italian)...................... 175,000.00
+J. B. Vicini Burgos (Italian)................ 55,500.00
+Ros claim (American)......................... 39,967.78
+Two cacao contracts
+(chiefly Dominican and German)............... 68,296.16
+Bancalari, Lample & Co. (Italian)............ 16,733.19
+Twenty-eight minor contracts
+  (chiefly Spanish, American)............... 249,475.19
+                                          ------------
+Total.................................... $9,595,530.40
+
+
+The claim of the San Domingo Improvement Company was secured by a
+protocol between the American and Dominican governments. When the San
+Domingo Improvement Company was ousted from the custom-houses in 1901,
+it immediately appealed to the State Department in Washington. The
+State Department counselled a private settlement and negotiations with
+the Dominican government dragged on for almost two years. The
+Improvement Company claimed no less than $11,000,000 for the bonds it
+held or controlled, for its interest in the railroad from Puerto Plata
+to Santiago, for its shares of the extinct National Bank of Santo
+Domingo which it had purchased at the government's request, and for
+the settlement of a long list of minor claims. Arbitration was
+suggested by the Company, but the Dominican government finally offered
+a round sum of $4,500,000 and the offer was accepted. It is probable
+that the Republic fared better under this compromise than if the case
+had been submitted to arbitration, for though the Improvement
+Company's demands were greatly exaggerated, its position toward the
+government was that of a careful creditor who has kept minute account
+of all transactions as against a spendthrift debtor who has squandered
+his property with little or no record of his expenditures.
+
+By a protocol signed January 31, 1903, the Dominican government
+formally agreed to pay the sum of $4,500,000, leaving details to be
+settled by a board of arbitrators to be designated by the American and
+Dominican governments. The board met in Washington and rendered its
+award under date of July 14, 1904. It fixed the interest on the debt
+at four per cent per annum and designated the custom-houses of Puerto
+Plata, Sanchez, Samana and Monte Cristi as security for the debt. In
+the event of failure by the Dominican government to pay any of the
+monthly instalments specified, a financial agent, appointed by the
+United States, was authorized to enter into possession of the Puerto
+Plata custom-house, and if its revenues proved insufficient to take
+possession also of the other custom-houses designated. The Dominican
+government never made any payments and the financial agent took
+possession of the Puerto Plata custom-house in October, 1904.  Most
+of the other claims comprised in the liquidated debt had their origin
+in advances made to the government--often bearing interest at two or
+three per cent a month, or even more--and in indemnity claims for
+revolutionary damages. In making the liquidations, musty credits and a
+generous amount of compound interest were generally included and it
+was usually provided that the sums so agreed upon were themselves to
+bear interest. The greater portion of these claims was held by
+foreigners, Italian, German, Spanish and American holdings
+predominating. Payments, more or less feeble, were made in many cases
+on account of principal or interest up to 1903, but in that year, when
+the government was reduced to desperate straits in combatting
+insurrections, practically every item of the debt went into
+permanent default.
+
+The principal Italian claimants were the heirs of an Italian merchant,
+J.B. Vicini, and an Italian in business at Samana, Bartolo Bancalari
+by name, who with other Italian subjects became loud in their
+complaints at the non-payment of their claims. The Italian government
+began to do a little sword-clanking, the Italian minister came from
+Havana in a warship, and the upshot was the signing in 1904 of three
+protocols admitting most of these claims and solemnly promising to pay
+them. Payment of the internal debt held by the Vicini heirs and of the
+Italian revolutionary claims was guaranteed by five per cent of all
+the customs receipts of the Republic, the revenues of Santo Domingo
+City, Macoris, Sanchez and Puerto Plata being specifically pledged.
+The Bancalari debt was guaranteed by part of the customs revenues of
+Samana. Notwithstanding the protocols, no payments were made by the
+Dominican government.
+
+_Floating Debt_. The floating debt, consisting of admitted
+indebtedness, neither funded nor liquidated, but evidenced by some
+kind of public obligation, was found to be as follows:
+
+
+Registered deferred debt................... $587,710.24
+Registered floating debt.................... 140,850.27
+Privileged revolutionary debt................ 79,812.12
+Certificates of comptroller's office........ 633,124.60
+Certificates of treasury offices............. 31,771.07
+Open unsecured accounts...................... 80,239.49
+                                            ----------
+Total.................................... $1,553.507.79
+
+
+By the year 1902, a large number of small claims--many of them for
+supplies furnished and services rendered--had accumulated, the justice
+of which the government admitted but of which owing to the
+deficiencies in its books it had no record. Notices were accordingly
+published calling on holders of such lawful credits to present the
+same for registration. This was the origin of the so-called registered
+debts. The largest item was constituted by what was very aptly
+denominated the "deferred" debt, created in 1888. Prior to that time
+the government had covered its military deficits with money obtained
+from loan associations known as "credit companies," which flourished
+in the larger towns and which did business at an interest rate that
+fluctuated between five and ten per cent a month. When a settlement
+was finally made, part of the amount due these companies was paid in
+certificates of indebtedness, the law directing with subtle humor that
+they be paid from the annual surplus in the budget. There never was a
+surplus, nothing was ever paid, and the market value of these
+certificates fell to three per cent of their nominal value.
+
+The revolutionary debt above referred to, consisting of claims arising
+in the revolutions which brought Jimenez into power, was called
+"privileged" because it was assigned interest. To some extent it was,
+indeed, privileged, for partial payments were made until the middle of
+1903. The government certificates forming part of the floating debt,
+were acknowledgments of indebtedness issued by the government when it
+was pressed for ready money. Many bore no interest, others bore
+interest as high as two per cent a month. In view of the great
+uncertainty of payment the amount of indebtedness was generally either
+frankly or disguisedly inflated before being expressed in the
+certificate. Such certificates were sometimes admitted in part payment
+of customs dues.
+
+_Declared Claims_ Besides the admitted indebtedness, there were many
+claims for indemnity and reimbursement which had not been acknowledged
+by the government in contract form. Some had been formally filed with
+the government for the payment of specific amounts, while others were
+still general demands. The declared claims were as follows:
+
+
+Internal revolutionary claims................... $ 885,258.10
+American revolutionary claims...................    71,000.00
+Spanish revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+French revolutionary claims.....................   190,000.00
+Italian revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+German revolutionary claims.....................    10,000.00
+British revolutionary claims....................     5,000.00
+Cuban revolutionary claims......................    35,000.00
+Font claim (Spanish)............................   186,643.00
+Heureaux estate claim (Dominican)............... 3,100,000.00
+National bank notes............................. 1,574,647.00
+Lluberes contract (Dominican)...................   250,000.00
+West India Public Works Company claim (British).   250,000.00
+Vicini heirs claim (Italian)....................   812,505.00
+                                                ______________
+Total...........................................$7,450,053.89
+
+
+Most of the older claims of indemnity for damages suffered during
+revolutions crystallized into bonded indebtedness, were recognized in
+government contracts or protocols, drifted into the old foreign debt,
+or were represented by certificates of indebtedness. Some remained,
+however, and their number was greatly increased by the disturbances
+between 1899 and 1905. How exaggerated many such claims were, is
+illustrated by a story told by the Danish consul in Santo Domingo. A
+Danish subject came to him and complained that government soldiers had
+invaded his store and carried off merchandise. He begged the consul to
+present a damage claim of $10,000 gold, which was equivalent to
+$50,000 silver. The consul listened to his story and said: "You are
+asking for a large sum, I cannot get you that. I doubt whether I can
+get you more than $40, silver." "Make it gold, consul," was the
+immediate reply. Many other claims would not have suffered by a
+similar scaling down. Most claims were for houses burned, cattle
+killed, horses commandeered and fences and other property destroyed by
+government forces or revolutionists.
+
+The other declared claims arose principally out of alleged violations
+of concessions or other contractual obligations. The Heureaux estate
+claim, advanced by creditors of the Heureaux estate and based on the
+practical identity of the accounts of Heureaux and those of the
+government was later rejected by the Dominican courts. The outstanding
+national bank notes were those issued by the defunct Banque Nationale
+de Saint Domingue.
+
+_Undeclared Claims_. The undeclared claims, such as
+had not been formally presented, were estimated as
+follows:--
+
+
+American claims......................... £1,000,000
+British claims..........................     50,000
+Italian claims..........................    200,000
+Spanish and German claims...............    200,000
+Other foreign claims....................     50,000
+Dominican claims........................  2,500,000
+                                        ----------
+       Total............................ £4,000,000
+
+
+The foreign claims were principally for damages during revolutions,
+violations of contract, failure of justice, false imprisonment, etc.
+The principal one was an American claim, that of Wm. P. Clyde & Co.,
+of New York, of over $600,000 and was based on the failure of the
+Dominican government regularly to enforce certain high port dues
+against all vessels, save those of the Clyde line, as agreed in the
+Clyde concession. The Dominican claims were mostly old claims for
+unpaid salaries, revolutionary losses, merchandise furnished the
+government, etc.
+
+The situation towards the latter part of 1904 appeared hopeless. Every
+item of the enormous debt had been in default for many months and
+interest was accruing at such rate that the whole income of the
+country would hardly have been sufficient for the payment of interest
+alone. Commerce was handicapped by high wharf and harbor charges
+collected by private individuals under their concessions from the
+government, and by prohibitive port dues imposed on foreign vessels in
+accordance with the concession of the Clyde line. More than
+three-fourths of the debt was held by foreigners who were clamoring
+for payment. The general revenues of the country and every important
+custom-house had been mortgaged to these foreign creditors. In general
+terms it may be said that the ports of the northern coast were pledged
+primarily to Americans and secondarily to Italians, those of Samana
+Bay primarily to Italians and secondarily to Americans, and those of
+the southern coast primarily to French and Belgians and secondarily
+to Italians.
+
+Only one of the international protocols, however, specified when the
+custom-houses to which it referred were to be turned over and the
+manner in which the surrender was to be made. The others merely made
+the pledge in general terms, further negotiations being necessary to
+render it effective. The exception was the arbitral award of the San
+Domingo Improvement Company, which determined that in case of the
+nonpayment of any of the monthly instalments a financial agent, to be
+named by the United States government, was to enter into possession of
+the Puerto Plata custom-house. No payments of instalments were made by
+the Dominican government and in September, 1904, compliance with the
+terms of the award was demanded. On October 20, 1904, the
+vice-president of the San Domingo Improvement Company, designated as
+American financial agent, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+A cry of dismay ran through the land and the leading newspaper of
+Santo Domingo, the "Listin Diario," published an editorial under the
+expressive heading "Consummatum est," It was, indeed, the beginning of
+the end. The other foreign creditors now pressed their claims with
+more vigor than ever, and the preparations for turning over the Monte
+Cristi custom-house to the American financial agent, accomplished in
+February, 1905, stimulated them to greater exertions. In December,
+1904, the French representative in Santo Domingo, acting in behalf of
+the French and Belgian interests, threatened to seize the custom-house
+of Santo Domingo City, the mainstay of the government. The Italian
+creditors also demanded compliance with their agreements. It was
+obvious that the foreclosure of these foreign mortgages would mean
+indefinite foreign occupation and the absolute destruction of the
+Dominican government, as there would be no revenue left to sustain it.
+
+In this difficulty, the Dominican government proposed that all the
+ports of the Republic be taken over by the United States. The
+negotiations were carried on through the capable American minister in
+Santo Domingo, Thomas C. Dawson, and on February 7,1905, culminated in
+the signing of a treaty convention which provided that all Dominican
+customs duties be collected under the direction of the United States,
+that 45 per cent of the collections be turned over to the Dominican
+government for its expenses and the remaining 55 per cent be reserved
+as a creditors' fund, and that a commission be appointed to ascertain
+the true amount of Dominican indebtedness and the sums payable to
+each claimant.
+
+The treaty was laid before the United States Senate and met with a
+cold reception. In the United States there was even less desire than
+in Santo Domingo for American intervention in Dominican matters.
+Further the treaty was strongly advocated by President Roosevelt and
+the tension then existing between the Senate and the President
+endangered many of his measures. The Senate accordingly adjourned in
+March, 1905, without action on the Dominican treaty.
+
+It was the darkest hour for Santo Domingo. The creditors, tired of
+waiting, were in no mood to admit of further delay and the government,
+totally without resources, was in no position to appease them.
+Diplomacy was equal to the emergency and a modus vivendi was arranged,
+under which the President of the United  States was to designate a
+person to receive the revenues of all the custom-houses of the
+Republic and distribute the sums collected in a manner similar to that
+determined by the pending treaty, namely, to turn over 45 per cent of
+the receipts to the Dominican government and to deposit 55 per cent as
+a creditors' fund in a New York bank. This temporary arrangement went
+into effect on April 1, 1905. The new controller and general receiver
+of Dominican customs arrived with several American assistants and soon
+had the receivership service admirably organized. The effect was
+immediate. The creditors ceased their pressure, confidence returned,
+interior trade revived, smuggling was eliminated, the exports and
+imports increased and the customs receipts took a leap upwards.
+
+It was believed that the opposition in the United States Senate would
+be diminished, if, instead of the United States both adjusting the
+debt and collecting the money for its payment, the Dominican Republic
+should make a direct settlement with the creditors, and the United
+States merely undertake to administer the customs for the service of
+the debt as adjusted. Accordingly the Dominican government appointed
+the minister of finance, Federico Velazquez, as special commissioner
+to adjust the Republic's financial difficulties. After long and
+tedious negotiations, Minister Velazquez and his able adviser Dr.
+Hollander evolved three conditional agreements:
+
+(1) An agreement with the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. of New
+York, for the issue of fifty year 5 per cent bonds of the Dominican
+Republic to the amount of $20,000,000.
+
+(2) An agreement with the Morion Trust Company of New York to act as
+fiscal agent of the Dominican Republic and as depository in the debt
+adjustment.
+
+(3) An offer of settlement to the holders of recognized debts and
+claims, to adjust these in cash at rates varying from 10 to 90 per
+cent of the nominal values specified in the offer. The nominal
+aggregate, as recognized by the Republic, exclusive of accrued
+interest, was $31,833,510, for which it was proposed to pay
+$15,526,240, together with certain interest allowances.
+
+The proposed scaling down of the debts provoked opposition and
+remonstrance, but the creditors wisely reflected on the difference
+between a bird in the hand and more in the bush, and by the beginning
+of 1907 holders of credits had signified their assent in sufficient
+amount to assure the success of the readjustment.
+
+A new convention between the United States and the Dominican Republic
+was accordingly prepared, being signed in Santo Domingo on February 8,
+1907. It was ratified by the United States Senate on February 25, and
+by the Dominican Congress on May 3, 1907. The Dominican Congress added
+what it called explanatory articles to the law by which it approved
+the convention but made no change therein.
+
+This convention, a copy of which will be found in the appendix,
+recited that disturbed political conditions in the Dominican Republic
+had created debts and claims amounting to over $30,000,000; and that
+such debts and claims were a burden to the country and a barrier to
+progress; that the Dominican Republic had effected a conditional
+adjustment under which the total sum payable would amount to not more
+than $17,000,000; that part of the plan of settlement was the issue
+and sale of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000; that the plan was
+conditional upon the assistance of the United States in the collection
+of custom revenues of the Dominican Republic; and that "the Dominican
+Republic has requested the United States to give and the United
+States is willing to give such assistance."
+
+The two governments therefore agreed that the President of the United
+States shall appoint a general receiver of Dominican customs, who
+shall collect all the customs duties in the custom-houses of Santo
+Domingo until the payment or redemption of the entire bond issue. From
+the sums collected, after paying the expenses of the receivership the
+general receiver is on the first of each month to pay $100,000 to the
+Fiscal Agent of the loan and the remainder to the Dominican
+government. Whenever the customs collections exceed $3,000,000 in any
+year, one-half the excess shall be applied to the sinking fund for the
+further redemption of bonds.
+
+The Dominican government agrees to give the general receiver and his
+assistants all needful aid and full protection to the extent of its
+powers. The United States also undertakes to give the general receiver
+and his assistants such protection as it, may find to be required for
+the performance of their duties.
+
+The convention further stipulates that until the payment of the full
+amount of the bonds the Dominican Republic is not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States, and
+that a like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import duties.
+
+Even with the approval of the convention difficulties lay in the way
+of the debt adjustment. In Santo Domingo there was opposition to the
+plan by interested parties and by persons not sufficiently mindful of
+past errors and present dangers. The Dominican Congress mutilated the
+contracts with the bankers, who not only refused to accept the
+modifications, but declined to treat further with Minister Velazquez
+unless he were first invested with plenary powers. The Dominican
+Congress then extended the necessary authority, but it came late, for
+the fall of 1907 witnessed a money panic in the United States and the
+floating of a bond issue was impossible.
+
+After months of negotiations and struggle with recalcitrant creditors
+Minister Velazquez and Prof. Hollander finally perfected an
+arrangement under which the creditors were paid the amounts specified
+in the plan of adjustment, twenty per cent in cash and eighty per cent
+in bonds guaranteed by the fiscal convention. For the purpose of the
+cash payments the creditors' fund accumulated under the modus vivendi
+was utilized. The bonds were delivered to the creditors at the rate of
+98-1/2 per cent of their face value.
+
+Under the plan of settlement the outstanding Franco-Belgian bonds and
+most of the other debt items were redeemed at fifty per cent of their
+face value, the Improvement Company's claim at ninety per cent, the
+deferred debts and comptroller's certificates at ten per cent, and the
+remaining claims at rates varying from ten to forty per cent.
+Accumulated interest was remitted entirely by the creditors, except in
+three cases, in which it was greatly reduced. These terms were much
+better than the Republic could have expected from any commission of
+investigation. The arbitral award of the San Domingo Improvement
+Company was scaled down by only ten per cent, because the bonds
+comprised in the award had been included therein at only one-half
+their face value and the other credits had also been largely reduced;
+even this small discount brought howls of protest from British
+interests that had remained discreetly silent while the State
+Department was pressing the claim thinking it completely American.
+Payment under the plan of settlement was soon practically completed.
+Only one important group of creditors, the Vicini heirs, still refuses
+to assent to the plan and accept the amount set aside for them.
+
+Upon payment to the San Domingo Improvement Company, the Company
+turned over the Central Dominican Railway, from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, to the Dominican government. The right of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad to receive a percentage of the import duties
+collected at the port of Sanchez was redeemed by the delivery of
+$195,000 in bonds at par, an excellent bargain, made all the better by
+the circumstance that the railroad invested the proceeds of these
+bonds in the extension of its line in the interior. The restrictive
+concession and heavy damage claim of the Clyde Steamship Line were
+also cancelled, and the onerous wharf and harbor concessions at the
+various ports of the Republic were among the other important
+concessions acquired by the government by means of the bond issue.
+
+Thus debts and claims aggregating nearly $40,000,000 have been and
+will be discharged for about $17,000,000. The surplus remaining from
+the bond issue and the modus vivendi collections must, under the
+agreements made, be devoted to public improvements approved by the
+United States government: a portion has been so expended, and a fund
+of over $3,000,000 still remains available. In addition the Republic's
+credit was established on a high plane; burdensome concessions were
+redeemed and adequate revenues for the maintenance of the government
+and the progress of the country were assured. As time goes on proper
+appreciation will be given to the men who were the principal agents in
+securing this financial and economic regeneration, especially to the
+Minister of Finance, Federico Velazquez, and to Prof. Jacob H.
+Hollander.  While the fiscal convention largely increased the customs
+revenues, the Dominican government made no attempt to accumulate a
+reserve fund, but spent more even than authorized by its ever
+increasing budgets. During the period of civil strife following the
+assassination of President Caceres in 1911 the government, in order to
+carry on its military campaigns, neglected to pay the salaries of its
+civil employees, pledged its internal revenues, diverted and
+misapplied amounts of the trust fund set aside for public works, and
+incurred indebtedness for supplies and materials purchased and money
+borrowed. It thus violated the spirit and letter of the convention in
+which the Dominican Republic expressly agreed not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States.
+
+The American government, in its unwillingness to interfere in the
+internal affairs of the Dominican Republic, had suffered the Victoria
+administration to seize the government in Santo Domingo after the
+death of Caceres, and it now also condoned the violation of the fiscal
+convention. The American commission which went to Santo Domingo in
+1912 to reconcile the warring factions, found that an essential
+condition of the restoration of peace and the rehabilitation of the
+government was the payment of pending salaries and certain other
+debts. Accordingly the United States consented to an increase of the
+Dominican public debt by $1,500,000, and the Dominican government
+contracted a loan to that amount with the National City Bank of New
+York, which took the bonds at 97-1/2 Per cent. The bonds bore 6 per
+cent interest, and for the service of interest and sinking fund, it
+was agreed that the general receiver of customs pay over to the Bank,
+beginning in January, 1913, a monthly sum of $30,000. This bond issue
+was finally liquidated in 1917. The amount so borrowed was not
+sufficient to pay all the indebtedness of the Dominican government.
+The manner of circumventing the debt increase prohibition of the
+convention having been discovered, the interior debt was further
+augmented after that time by failure to pay salaries, by hypothecating
+stamps and stamped paper, and by contracting other obligations, either
+to combat insurrections or because of less worthy motives. In
+addition, claims for revolutionary damages were filed against the
+government.
+
+The foreign debt thus consists merely of the $20,000,000 customs
+administration loan of 1907. The sums paid into the sinking fund of
+this loan have been used to purchase bonds of this issue at their
+market price, somewhat less than par, and the interest falling due on
+such purchased bonds has also gone to swell the sinking fund. The
+value of the assets in the sinking fund on December 31, 1917,
+estimating the purchased customs administration bonds at par, was
+$6,019,161.50, exclusive of interest accruals in 1917.
+
+The interior debt, as a result of revolutionary confusion and
+defective accounting, became as problematic as in days of yore and was
+estimated at widely different figures. With a view to ascertaining the
+exact amount and making provision therefor, the military government,
+in July, 1917, constituted a commission consisting of three American
+and two Dominican citizens, who were charged with the duty of
+investigating and liquidating all claims against the government
+arising since the settlement of 1907. The American members appointed
+were J. H. Edwards, acting comptroller-general of Santo Domingo,
+chairman, Lt.-Col. J. T. Bootes, of the United States Marine Corps,
+and Martin Travieso, Jr., of the Porto Rican bar; the Dominicans were
+two attorneys, M. de J. Troncoso de la Concha and Emilio Joubert.
+Claimants were called upon to file their claims before January 1,
+1918, or be deemed to have relinquished their rights. The nominal
+amount of the claims so filed--comprising all outstanding internal
+debts--is a little more than $14,000,000, some of the claims being for
+indefinite sums. This figure is probably greatly exaggerated and will
+doubtless be subjected to drastic revision by the claims commission.
+
+The customs receivership has continued to render invaluable service.
+In peace and war its officials have distinguished themselves by a
+highly efficient, tactful and fearless discharge of their duties. Up
+to 1913 appointments to the service were determined by the fitness and
+experience of the appointee rather than by his political antecedents,
+and the officials appointed possessed unusual qualifications: the
+first general receiver, Col. George R. Colton, who held until 1907,
+his successor W. E. Pulliam, who continued until 1913, their deputy J.
+H. Edwards, and others, were experts trained in the Philippine
+customs service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FINANCES
+
+
+Financial system.--National revenues.--Customs tariff.--National
+budget.--Legal tender.--Municipal income.--Municipal budgets.
+
+The financial system of Santo Domingo is characterized by an
+inequitable mode of obtaining public revenue, whereby the burden of
+supporting the state is thrown upon the poorest classes in the form of
+indirect taxes upon articles of necessary consumption, and wherein
+taxation of property or contribution according to economic capacity
+plays little part. This is especially true with regard to
+municipal taxation.
+
+
+
+NATIONAL FINANCIAL SYSTEM
+
+The revenues of the general government are derived chiefly from
+customs duties and secondarily from miscellaneous minor sources. There
+is no direct tax on land. Prior to 1904 the revenues fluctuated
+according to the state of tranquillity of the country, being usually
+something less than $2,000,000 per annum, but immediately upon the
+establishment of the American receivership in April, 1905, they went
+up rapidly. The increase has continued steadily and the government's
+annual income now amounts to over $4,500,000.
+
+The proportion of revenue calculated from the various sources has
+fluctuated but little in the different budgets. The proportions
+appearing from the budget of 1916 are here shown, as well as those of
+the budget of 1910, at which period the interior revenues were
+administered with less leakage.
+
+
+                                   Per cent of total
+                                       1910  1916
+Customs duties........................ 77.2  81.7
+Impost on alcohol.....................  6.8   4.4
+State railroad........................  6.4   ...
+Revenue stamps........................  3.    3.6
+State wharves.........................  2.1   4.4
+Port dues.............................  1.5   1.8
+Stamped paper.........................  1.4   2.
+Post offices..........................   .7    .8
+Consular fees.........................   .4    .9
+National telegraph and telephones.....   .3    .2
+Miscellaneous.........................   .2    .2
+                                      -----------
+     Total........................... 100.  100.
+
+
+Almost 95 per cent of the customs receipts are obtained from import
+duties. The present customs tariff, which took effect on January 1,
+1910, made a radical change in the Dominican tariff system and was a
+step in the country's financial regeneration. Theretofore the
+Dominican tariff system was about as unscientific as could be
+imagined. It had been a tariff for revenue only, in the sense that
+the object was to obtain all the revenue possible and more;
+accordingly the common necessities of life were most heavily taxed.
+Originally, it appears, the tariff provided for the payment of an ad
+valorem duty on goods imported; later the discretionary power involved
+in the appraisement was taken away and a fixed, arbitrary value was
+assigned by law to each article, and on this value, known as the
+"aforo," a specified percentage was payable as customs duty.
+Successive governments, in their efforts to raise money, gradually
+increased this percentage until it reached 73.8 per cent. As the
+"aforo" valuation was as a general rule higher than the real value the
+imposition of so elevated a tax made all imported articles
+inordinately expensive. With respect to many items the lawmakers
+overreached themselves, for the duties were raised far beyond the
+point of maximum return.
+
+For years a desire prevailed to adjust the tariff on a rational and
+equitable basis, but as there were no statistics and the government
+feared its income might be reduced, nothing was accomplished. After
+the establishment of the receivership, full statistics of imports and
+exports became available. The general receiver's office and the
+Dominican government accordingly drafted a new tariff, to which the
+American government agreed under the terms of the fiscal convention.
+
+The new tariff is based almost entirely on specific schedules; only in
+exceptional instances, such as in the case of drugs, are ad valorem
+duties imposed. There were many reductions from the former tariff,
+especially on articles of prime necessity, but in some cases the rate
+remained substantially the same, while in a few it was slightly
+increased, a tendency being observed to protect home industries. On
+the whole the revision made an average reduction of about 15 per cent
+as compared with the former tariff, but the new duties are
+scientifically distributed and after a year of commercial readjustment
+the revenue reached higher figures than ever before.
+
+Less than 6 per cent of the customs receipts are derived from export
+duties. Such duties are imposed on cacao and a number of other
+articles, but not on sugar or tobacco. The tax is not a large one, but
+the imposition of any export tax is deplored.
+
+Wars and crop conditions have had their influence on the customs
+receipts, but the figures continue satisfactory, as appears from the
+following table of collections since the establishment of the
+receivership:
+
+
+GROSS CUSTOMS COLLECTIONS
+
+First Modus Vivendi year, April 1, 1905, to March 31, 1906
+....................................................     $2,502,154.31
+Second Modus Vivendi year, April 1,1906, to March 31, 1907
+....................................................     $3,181,763.48
+Four months' period, April 1, 1907, to July 31, 1907
+(termination of Modus Vivendi)......................     $1,161,426.61
+First convention year, Aug. 1, 1907 to July 31, 1908
+....................................................     $3,469,110.69
+Second convention year, Aug. 1, 1908 to July 1909
+....................................................     $3,359,389.71
+Third convention year, Aug. 1, 1909 to July 1910
+....................................................     $2,876,976.17
+Fourth convention year, Aug. 1, 1910 to July 1911
+....................................................     $3,433,738.92
+Fifth convention year, Aug. 1, 1911 to July 1912
+....................................................     $3,645,974.79
+Sixth convention year, Aug. 1, 1912 to July 1913
+....................................................     $4,109,294.12
+Seventh convention year, Aug. 1, 1913 to July 1914
+....................................................     $3,462,163.66
+Five months' period, Aug. 1, 1914 to Dec. 31, 1914
+....................................................     $1,209,555.54
+Ninth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1915 to Dec. 31, 1915
+....................................................     $3,882,048.40
+Tenth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1916 to Dec. 31, 1916
+...................................................      $4,035,355.43
+Eleventh fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1917 to Dec. 31, 1917
+...................................................      $5,329,574.20
+
+
+With regard to port dues, the Dominican government was long bound by a
+concession made to the Clyde line in 1878. Upon the redemption of this
+concession the port dues were in 1908 reduced to their present figure.
+
+An impost on alcohols was established in 1905, and ought to become an
+important source of revenue. The law is crude in that it taxes the
+distillation rather than the sale of alcohol and does not sufficiently
+guard against fraud. The receipts, which in the beginning were quite
+promising, fell off strangely in late years.
+
+The most recent sources of revenue are the Central Dominican Railway,
+from Puerto Plata to Santiago, acquired from the San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the debt settlement in 1908; the Moca
+extension of the railroad, finished by the government in 1910; and the
+wharves acquired by the redemption of the various port concessions.
+These properties at first gave the government a handsome revenue,
+which later diminished in a suspicious manner.
+
+The budget of the Republic kept pace with the growth of income, but
+the appropriations were practically all for personnel, while public
+works continued to be neglected and no provision was made for future
+contingencies or the establishment of a reserve fund. The annual
+budget enacted to become effective July 1, 1916, may be summarized
+as follows;
+
+
+ESTIMATED RECEIPTS
+
+Custom-houses:
+
+Import duties              $3,500,000
+Port dues                      80,000
+Export duties                 220,000
+
+Subtotal:                               $3,800,000
+
+Imposts:
+Alcohol                       200,000
+Stamps                        165,000
+
+Subtotal:                     365,000
+
+Communications:
+
+Postage stamps                 36,000
+Telegraph and telephone         5,000
+Wireless telegraph              5,000
+
+Subtotal:                                   46,000
+
+Consular fees                  40,000
+Stamped paper                  90,000
+
+State properties:
+
+Ozama lighting plant             4,500
+State wharves                  200,000
+Rentals and post-office boxes    1,000
+
+Subtotal:                                  205,500
+
+Miscellaneous                    6,200
+
+Total estimated receipts                $4,552,700
+
+
+ESTIMATED DISBURSEMENTS
+
+Service of public debt                              $1,966,746.86
+
+Legislative power                                      132,400.00
+  Including salaries of 12 senators and
+  24 deputies at $200 per month.
+
+Executive power...................................... $ 25,460.00
+  Expenses of president's office, including salary of
+  president at $800 per month.
+
+Judicial power........................................ 316,160.00
+  Including salaries of supreme court (with a chief
+  justice at $250 per month, six associate justices at
+  $160, and a state's attorney at $200); 3 courts of
+  appeals (each having a chief justice at $180 per
+  month, 4 associate justices at $140 and a state's
+  attorney at $180); 12 courts of first instance (each
+  having a judge at $150 per month, a state's attorney
+  at $130-$150, and one or two judges of instruction
+  at $130); 3 courts-martial costing $2,916 each; 70
+  justices of the peace with salaries ranging from $25
+  to $55 per month; and jails in each province, the
+  jailers receiving from $35 to $69 per month.
+
+Department of Interior and Police...................... 329,638.00
+  Including office of secretary of interior, who
+  receives $320 per month; 12 provincial governors with
+  salaries from $160 to $180 per month; 53 communal
+  chiefs, at $30 to $60; church salaries amounting to
+  $3,600; public celebrations $5,100; expenses of
+  sanitation service $15,000; and a long pension list
+  amounting to $188,240. Most of these pensions are of
+  $10, $12 or $15 per month, but 7 widows of former
+  presidents and other distinguished men receive $100
+  per month.
+
+Department of Foreign Affairs.......................... 122,572.00
+  Including office of secretary, whose salary is $320
+  per month; ministers to the United States, France and
+  Haiti at $500 per month; charge's in Cuba and
+  Venezuela at $250; and 23 consuls in the United
+  States, Porto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, St. Thomas, Panama,
+  Turks Island, Jamaica, England, France, Italy,
+  Holland, Spain and Belgium.
+
+Department of Finance and Commerce...................... 356,678.04
+  Including office of secretary, who receives $320 per
+  month; general comptroller's office; 10 treasury
+  agents with salaries from $80 to $112 monthly;
+  custom-houses (the collectors of the port receiving
+  from $80 to $200 per month); receiver-general's office
+  $43,152 (the salary of the general receiver is given
+  as $9,848.04 per annum and that of his deputy as $5,988);
+  coast guard service $6,000; wharf repairs $20,000.
+
+Department of War and the Navy.........................   593,815.26
+  Including office of secretary; 12 military posts (the
+  commanders receiving from $60 to $150 per month); 10
+  armories $4,980; military instructors $4,380;
+  president's staff $12,380; one infantry regiment of
+  about 470 officers and men (the colonel receiving $95
+  monthly, the men $l5); a band of 33 men; a police
+  force, called "republican guard" of about 800 officers
+  and men (salaries ranging from $200 for the brigadier
+  general and $140 for the colonel, to $18 for the
+  private); 2 military hospitals $31,867; a machine shop
+  $4,440; port captains at $50-$90 per month, and
+  doctors at $25-$50; and the gunboat $26,444.
+
+Department of Justice and Public Instruction...........    318,208.00
+  Including office of secretary; University of Santo
+  Domingo $23,700; Santiago professional institute $8,820;
+  2 jail schools; subventions to many municipal schools,
+  private and special schools, about $180,000;
+  33 scholarships, $23,870; pensions $23,988.
+
+Department of Agriculture and Immigration..............     18,740.00
+  Including office of secretary; experiment fields in
+  Santiago $3,000; weather bureau $3,980.
+
+Department of Development and Public Works.............    332,596.00
+  Including office of secretary; lighthouses $13,282;
+  postal service; telegraph, telephone and wireless
+  service; upkeep of dredge "Ozama."
+
+Chamber of Accounts....................................      7,980.00
+
+Miscellaneous..........................................     61,872.00
+
+Contingent expenses....................................     25,000.00
+
+Constitutional assembly................................     10,000.00
+
+Total estimated disbursements, besides debt service ... $2,651,119.30
+
+
+The figures in the budgets were not, absolute but were subject to
+modification by transfer of appropriation through presidential decree.
+The contingent expense fund and the military appropriations were thus
+frequently swelled at the expense of other services.
+
+The budget above shown was the last one enacted under the old
+conditions. It was never applied, but is given as a sample, because,
+while differing only slightly from the old budget which continued in
+force, it better illustrates conditions at the beginning of American
+occupation. The military government made numerous changes in the
+budget and rendered the appropriations for salaries of the president
+and cabinet secretaries available for other purposes, as the American
+naval and marine officers now performing the duties of these positions
+receive no compensation from the Dominican treasury. A comprehensive
+new budget, the first one of the period of transition and providing
+for some of the innovations recently introduced, was expected to
+become effective early in 1918.
+
+For the purpose of bringing order and efficiency into the collection
+and disbursement of the public revenues of Santo Domingo, the American
+government in 1913 urged that it be permitted to designate an American
+comptroller and financial adviser and the Bordas administration at
+length consented, but as there was no legal authority for such action
+and as the appointee was not characterized by unusual ability, the
+Jimenez administration declined to continue the arrangement. During
+the present military government and under the efficient direction of
+the acting comptroller-general, J. H. Edwards, valuable work is being
+done in revising the accounting system and generally placing the
+country's finances in order.
+
+All the accounts of the Republic are carried on in American money,
+which is legal tender and is current in all parts of the country. For
+about fifty years after the declaration of independence, coins of many
+countries, principally Mexican silver and Spanish gold, were in
+circulation, with the rate of exchange constantly fluctuating. In 1890
+the Republic joined the Latin convention and in the following year
+through the then existing Banque Nationale de Saint Domingue issued
+silver and copper coin to the value of about $200,000. The fall in the
+value of silver caused depreciation and a few of the silver coins of
+this issue which are still in circulation are valued at forty cents
+gold for five francs; the copper coins at a little less. In 1894 the
+gold standard was adopted and though no actual coinage took place all
+official financial transactions were thereafter based upon gold
+values. In 1895 and 1897 President Heureaux issued more silver coins
+or, rather, coins washed over with silver, to the nominal amount of
+$2,250,000, but the seigniorage was so enormous that the issue was a
+case of a government counterfeiting its own money. The rate of
+exchange fell to five pesos for one dollar gold and this is the rate
+legalized by the law of June 19, 1905, which made the American gold
+dollar the standard of the Dominican Republic.
+
+For a while the ordinary smaller business transactions continued to be
+based on silver values. On a trip to Santo Domingo in 1904 a friend
+and myself were driven from the wharf to the hotel and the coachman
+asked for two dollars. It seemed an outrageous charge, but we
+considered ourselves in the hands of the Philistines, and handed over
+an American two-dollar bill. "Excuse me until I can get change," said
+the coachman to our surprise, and ran into the hotel; in a moment he
+reappeared with a double handful of coins: "Here is your change," he
+said, "eight dollars." The charge had been only forty cents in gold.
+At the present time American money is the basis and Dominican silver
+and copper is regarded merely as fractional currency, one peso
+Dominican being equivalent to twenty cents American.
+
+At various times the Dominican Republic has had disastrous experiences
+with paper money issued without sufficient guarantees. One service
+rendered by the Spaniards during their occupation in the sixties was
+the retirement of large amounts of such paper. The troubles
+accompanying unsecured paper money had been forgotten when Heureaux in
+his attempts to raise funds floated an issue of a nominal amount of
+$3,600,000 in notes, of the Banque Nationale, in addition to a small
+amount already emitted by the bank. Such demoralization resulted that
+at one time it took twenty dollars in paper money to purchase one
+dollar in gold. The national bank notes having been demonetized,
+various amounts were purchased at auction by the administrations
+succeeding Heureaux and destroyed, and almost all the remainder has
+been redeemed at five to one under the 1907 debt settlement. The only
+paper now seen is American paper money, which circulates at a par with
+American silver and gold.
+
+
+
+MUNICIPAL FINANCES
+
+Like the national government, the municipalities or communes depend
+almost entirely upon indirect taxation for their revenues. One of the
+principal sources of income is the tax on the slaughter of cattle and
+sale of meat. The communes may further, with the authority of
+Congress, levy a "consumo" tax, a small duty on the imports and
+exports of merchants within their jurisdiction, which tax has given
+rise to much confusion and controversy. Business licenses also form an
+important fount of revenue. By a law of Congress (soon to be
+superseded by a decree of the military government) the municipalities
+are divided into several classes, according to their importance, and
+the licenses payable by the various kinds of business in the several
+classes are designated. The national government turns over to the
+various municipalities a portion of the impost on spirits and grants
+educational subventions to several municipalities for their primary
+schools. Minor sources of revenue are taxes on lotteries and raffles,
+vehicle licenses, amusement permits, cockpits, etc. Two towns, Santo
+Domingo and Santiago, have municipal lotteries. Under all these taxes
+a man might own scores of houses and great expanses of land without
+paying towards the maintenance of the state and municipality more than
+the poorest peon on his property.
+
+The sums collected for municipal purposes in all the communes of the
+Republic may be calculated at about $600,000 per annum, derived from
+the following sources:
+
+MUNICIPAL RECEIPTS
+
+
+                                          Approximate percentage
+                                             of entire income
+
+Municipal charges on imports and exports.............. 17.7
+Business licenses..................................... 15.3
+Markets............................................... 10.8
+Lottery tax........................................... 10.5
+Slaughter houses and meat transportation..............  9.2
+Alcohols..............................................  7.3
+Excises (alcabala)....................................  5.
+Amusement permits.....................................  3.5
+Public register.......................................  3.5
+Lotteries.............................................  2.5
+Lighting in private houses............................  2.3
+Ferryboats and bridges................................  3.1
+Municipal property and rentals........................  1.8
+Miscellaneous.........................................  8.5
+                                                      -----
+                                                      100.
+
+
+The largest budget is that of the capital city, with Santiago second.
+According to the latest figures available, in round numbers the
+income of the thirteen more important cities and towns is annually
+about as follows:
+
+
+Santo Domingo........................ $160,000
+Santiago de los Caballeros............. 90,000
+San Pedro de Macoris................... 50,000
+Puerto Plata........................... 40,000
+La Vega................................ 30,000
+Moca................................... 21,000
+Azua................................... 20,000
+San Francisco de Macoris............... 19,000
+Samana................................. 10,000
+Monte Cristi........................... 10,000
+Sanchez................................ 10,000
+Bani...................................  9,000
+San Cristobal..........................  8,000
+
+
+In almost every town the largest item of expenditure is for education,
+the maintenance of public primary schools. The more important cities,
+especially the capital, make fair appropriations for street repair and
+other municipal public works, but in the lesser communes such
+appropriations are negligible. Very little, practically nothing, is
+appropriated for roads. Some communes pay a small subvention to the
+church and assist in the repair of church buildings. On the whole,
+municipal services are only scantily looked after, but the fault is
+due more to lack of revenue than to improper distribution.
+Occasionally the national government renders assistance in the
+construction of some work pertaining to a municipality.
+
+The average distribution of municipal disbursements may be estimated
+about as follows:
+
+MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURES
+
+
+                                 Approximate percentage
+                                    of whole expenditure
+Education.......................................... 27.1
+Public works, street cleaning, etc................. 27.
+Police.............................................  8.4
+Administrative expenses (salaries of municipal
+officials and cost of tax collection)..............  7.5
+Public lighting....................................  7.
+Sanitation.........................................  4.
+Charity............................................  2.2
+Municipal debts....................................  1.9
+Miscellaneous...................................... 14.2
+                                                  ------
+                                                   100.
+
+
+In view of the lack of resources or interest on the part of
+municipalities and the central government, services of a public nature
+have frequently been assumed by private initiative. Many clubs and
+lodges maintain schools. Firemen's corps, where there are any, are
+volunteer organizations. For charity work, hospitals, educational
+work, etc., local committees are formed which raise funds by private
+subscription or by lottery, and in a number of towns the embellishment
+of the plazas is in charge of a "junta de ornato."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE FUTURE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+Attraction by the United States.--Political future of Santo
+Domingo.--Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+The history of the Dominican Republic affords a striking illustration
+of the rule that large bodies attract nearby smaller or weaker bodies
+whether in the world of physics or in international politics. The
+United States of America had scarcely become a nation when it began to
+absorb contiguous territory and exert a strong attraction on Cuba.
+With respect to Santo Domingo also, there was such attraction, as
+became evident in proposals for annexation or the establishment of a
+naval station. At times it appeared that the process was definitely
+checked, as when Spain annexed Santo Domingo in 1861, and when the
+United States Senate refused to annex the country in 1871, and when
+the Dominican Government cancelled the Samana Bay Concession in 1874,
+but these acts merely set back the clock of time which they could
+not stop.
+
+When Porto Rico and Cuba were occupied by the United States the
+attraction exerted on Santo Domingo was powerfully increased. From
+that time on the Dominican Republic was in fact a protectorate of the
+United States, though neither American nor Dominican statesmen would
+have admitted it. The modus vivendi of 1905 and the fiscal convention
+of 1907 gave expression, in part, to relations actually existing.
+
+A peculiar feature of the matter is that, except for a few very brief
+intervals, neither the United States nor the Dominican Republic has
+desired closer political relations and each country has done
+everything in its power to avoid them. The 1907 convention was
+approved in the United States Senate with only one vote to spare, and
+many of its supporters favored it principally because it was expected
+to obviate the necessity of further American intervention in Dominican
+affairs. It was believed that with the custom-houses removed from the
+political game the receipts and prosperity of the country would grow,
+revolutionists would no longer be able to finance uprisings, and civil
+wars would cease. The convention did indeed augment the country's
+revenues and prosperity, but it could not prevent uprisings entirely
+nor remove their causes. On the other hand it strengthened the bonds
+between the United States and Santo Domingo and led to the military
+occupation of 1916.
+
+What will the future bring? There is every reason to believe that the
+same attraction of Santo Domingo by the United States will continue
+with greater strength than ever, despite all that may be said or done,
+on either side, to oppose it. It is a force which cannot be overcome,
+and had best, be recognized and reckoned with. It is unnecessary to
+consider the sentimental objections to closer political relations
+between the two countries. Conditions in Santo Domingo, in the United
+States, and in the world at large are the causes of this force of
+attraction, for which the government of neither country is
+responsible.
+
+What then will the future relations between Santo Domingo and the
+United States be? It appears that at the present moment a plan similar
+to that tried in Haiti is under advisement, namely, to restore the
+Dominican government, but to leave the custom-houses under American
+administration, place the finances under American control, appoint an
+American supervisor of public works, and secure the peace by a police
+force under American officers. The real relations between the two
+countries would thus find further expression in the creation of a
+disguised protectorate.
+
+As a permanent solution it is not probable that this plan will prove
+satisfactory. It tends to create two independent governments in the
+same country; on the one side the Dominican government which will
+consider itself supreme and sooner or later resent dictation or lack
+of sympathy on the part of the American officials, and on the other
+hand the police heads and other American officers who will brook no
+interference with what they deem their duty. Friction is bound to
+develop; it is impossible for two independent governments to work side
+by side in the same territory; one authority must be paramount. At
+first the plan may appear to operate successfully because the desires
+of the American officials will be respected, but later when the new
+Dominican government has outgrown the novelty of the situation there
+are certain to be reciprocal demands which may lead to opposition.
+Another possible source of difficulty is that even among the proposed
+American officials there is no recognized superior and that here also
+differences may arise. Rather than go so far and no further, it were
+better to attempt less.
+
+The ultimate expression, more or less deferred, of the relations
+between the two countries, will most probably be a clearly defined
+protectorate with an amply authorized resident, or outright
+annexation. Which of these two courses is preferable? From a
+standpoint of the interests of the Dominican people annexation would
+appear better. A protected state has many obligations and few rights.
+It must defer to the wishes of the protector, but the protector is
+under no absolute duty to further its development or the happiness of
+its inhabitants. On the other hand, when annexed to the stronger
+state, it may expect and demand that interest be shown in its progress
+and well-being. While annexation would probably entail a temporary
+government by officials foreign to the country, American traditions
+would not permit such a condition to continue for any length of time
+and autonomy would eventually come.
+
+From an American standpoint a protectorate would seem preferable. It
+would carry the advantages of annexation without its responsibilities,
+without the undesirable feature of bringing into our body politic a
+people foreign in race, language and customs, and with less danger of
+stirring up South American susceptibilities. It would, however, permit
+of less latitude for the improvement of conditions in Santo Domingo.
+
+For some time to come it is probable that some form of protectorate
+will be the choice of both parties. Many American statesmen are
+opposed to annexation, and the Dominicans as a rule would prefer the
+phantom of sovereignty in a mediatized republic to the real advantages
+of annexation.
+
+It is only natural that Dominicans should feel sad at passing under
+the government of a foreign power. But those of clearer vision
+recognize that there is no alternative, that the independence of the
+Republic has long been a fiction, that real freedom is only now
+beginning to dawn, and that American assistance will give the greatest
+impetus to prosperity. For several years the number of persons taking
+such a broader view has been rapidly increasing. It was not long ago
+when friends of mine in Santo Domingo would lead me to the middle of
+the plazza, out of hearing of any eavesdropper, and then with bated
+breath confide their conviction that the only salvation of the
+country lay in the United States. Ruin and sorrow brought by the civil
+wars have caused such ideas to spread and be openly expressed. At
+present it may be said that many Dominicans welcome American
+assistance, that the great majority accept it, and that only a small
+minority are bitterly opposed to it, and these objectors are
+principally former politicians and revolutionists whose opinion counts
+for least. The number of those favoring American intervention is being
+increased by the splendid administrative work of the present American
+authorities and would doubtless be still further augmented by valuable
+constructive legislation and by a more uniform display of tact and
+kindliness on the part of all American officials.
+
+These relations between the two countries impose at least a moral duty
+upon the United States. They make it incumbent upon the United States,
+as far as is in its power, to foster the development of Santo Domingo
+and promote the happiness of the Dominican people. One measure it
+should adopt is the granting of suitable tariff concessions. Another
+measure is the creation, for the administration of the countries
+dependent on the United States, of a corps of trained men, selected
+and retained without regard to political considerations, thoroughly
+qualified for the duties they are to assume, speaking the language of
+the country where they are sent, and capable of a sympathetic
+understanding with the inhabitants. By showing an interest of this
+kind the United States will properly fulfill its proud mission of
+spreading liberty and prosperity in the new world.
+
+The closer relations between the United States and Santo Domingo will
+bring that country one boon of inestimable value, namely, peace. It is
+obvious that all the troubles which have befallen the Dominican
+Republic are due directly or indirectly to the state of civil
+disorder which has so long been the bane of the country. Another
+advantage which these relations will bring is a proper administration
+of the country's finances. Peace and efficient administration will
+mean the multiplication of roads, railroads and other public
+improvements, the extension of education and a rapid advance of the
+people and development of the country. When we think of the vast
+resources of Santo Domingo, the mineral treasures hidden within Its
+forest covered mountains, the unlimited agricultural wealth concealed
+beneath its fertile soil, the enchanting beauty of its scenery, the
+courtesy and hospitality of its people, its glorious early days and
+distressing later history, we must be glad that the clouds which have
+so long shrouded the land in darkness are definitely dissipated at
+last and that the sun of peace and prosperity has begun to shine.
+
+
+With peace assured and with means of communication provided, it is
+easy to make predictions as to the economic future of Santo Domingo.
+There will probably never be much manufacturing but agriculture will
+increase with enormous strides assisted by streams of foreign capital
+which will not be slow to realize the exceptional opportunities
+offered. Sugar growing will probably be preferred and the southern
+plains as well as a great portion of the rich Cibao Valley will soon
+be covered with waving canefields. Tobacco will also receive attention
+and perhaps fruit growing. Cacao and coffee will spread more slowly.
+Prospecting for mineral wealth will be undertaken. The extension of
+agriculture will stimulate commerce and augment, the wealth of the
+people. Within a few years the country will become one of the richest
+gardens of the West Indies.
+
+The curtain has gone down upon the epoch of revolutions, conspiracies,
+civil wars and destruction. That period belongs to the past as
+definitely as the era of freebooters and pirates. A new era has begun
+for beautiful Quisqueya, in which, under the protection of the Stars
+and Stripes, it is destined to enjoy a greater measure of freedom,
+progress and prosperity than its inhabitants have ever dreamed.
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+
+CHIEFS OF STATE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+1492-1918
+
+FIRST SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+Admiral Cristopher Columbus, viceroy                     1492-1500
+Adelantado Bartholomew Columbus                          1496-1498
+Comendador Francisco de Bobadilla                        1500-1502
+Comendador Nicolás de Ovando                             1502-1509
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1509-1515
+Licentiate Cristábal Lebrán, in connection with Royal
+  Audiencia                                              1515-1516
+Luis de Figueroa, Bernardino de Manzanedo, and
+  Ildefonso de Santo Domingo, friars of the order of
+  San Jeránimo                                           1516-1519
+Licentiate Rodrigo de Figueroa                           1519-1520
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1520-1524
+Royal Audiencia, in connection with judges Caspar de
+  Espinosa and Alonso de Zuazo                           1524-1528
+
+
+_Governors and Captains-General _
+
+(Note. Owing to the incompleteness of the records
+the following list probably contains inaccuracies.)
+
+
+Sebastián Ramirez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcián de la Vega                              1528-1531
+Royal Audiencia                                          1531-1533
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcián de la Vega                              1533-1540
+Louis Columbus, Third Admiral                            1540-1543
+Licentiate Alonso Lápez de Cerrato                       1543-1549
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Archbishop of Santo
+  Domingo                                                1549-1556
+Licentiate Alonso de Maldonado                           1556-1560
+Licentiate Cepeda                                        1560
+Licentiate Veras                                         1560-1561
+Licentiate Alonso Arias de Herrera                       1561-1564
+Antonio de Osorio                                        1564-1583
+Licentiate Cristábal de Ovalles                          1583-1590
+Lope de Vega Portocarrero                                1590-1597
+Domingo de Osorio                                        1597-1608
+Diego Gámez de Sandoval                                  1608-1624
+Diego de Acuña                                           1624-1634
+Maestre de Campo Juan Bitrián de Viamonte                1634-1646
+Nicolás Velazco Altamirano                               1646-1649
+Maestre de Campo Gabriel de Chaves Osorio                1649-1652
+Bernardino de Menesets y Bracamonte, Count of Peñalva    1652-1657
+Felix de Zuñiga                                          1657-1658
+Andrés Pérez Franco                                      1658-1660
+Juan Francisco de Montemayor Cárdova y Cuenca            1660-1662
+Juan de Balboa y Mogrovejo                               1662-1670
+Pedro de Carvajal y Lobos                                1670-1671
+Maestre de Campo Ignacio de Zayas Bazán                  1671-1677
+Dr. Juan de Padilla Guardiola y Guzmán                   1677-1679
+Maestre de Campo Francisco de Segura Sandoval y
+  Castilla                                               1679-1684
+Maestre de Campo Andrés de Robles                        1684-1689
+Admiral Ignacio Pérez Caro                               1689-1698
+Maestre de Campo Gil Correoso Catalan                    1698-1699
+Severino de Manzaneda                                    1699-1702
+Admiral Ignacio Pérez Caro                               1702-1706
+Licentiate Sebastián de Cerezada y Girán                 1706-1707
+Guillermo Morfi                                          1707-1713
+Brigadier Pedro de Niela y Torres                        1713-1714
+Colonel Antonio Landeche                                 1714-1715
+Brigadier Fernando Constanzo y Ramárez, Knight of
+  Santiago                                               1715-1723
+Colonel Francisco de la Rocha y Ferrer                   1723-1732
+Brigadier Alfonso de Castro y Mazo                       1732-1739
+Brigadier Pedro Zorrilla y de San Martin, Marquis of la
+  Gándara Real                                           1739-1750
+Brigadier Juan José Colomo                               1750
+Teniente rey José de Zunnier de Basteros                 1750-1751
+Brigadier Francisco Rubio y Peñaranda                    1751-1759
+Field-Marshal Manuel de Azlor y Urries                   1759-1771
+Brigadier José Solano y Bote                             1771-1779
+Brigadier Isidore de Peralta y Rojas                     1779-1785
+Colonel Joaquán García y Moreno                          1785-1786
+Brigadier Manuel González de Torres                      1786-1788
+Brigadier Joaquán García y Moreno                        1788-1801
+
+
+FRENCH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+
+General Toussaint l'Ouverture                            1801-1802
+General Antoine Nicolas Kerverseau                       1802-1803
+General Marie Louis Ferrand                              1803-1808
+General L. Barquier                                      1808-1809
+
+
+SECOND SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+
+Brigadier Juan Sánchez Ramárez                           1809-1811
+Colonel Manuel Caballero y Masot                         1811-1813
+Brigadier Carlos de Urrutia y Matos                      1813-1818
+Brigadier Sebastian Kindelan y Oregán                    1818-1821
+Brigadier Pascual Real                                   1821
+
+
+STATE OF COLOMBIAN REPUBLIC
+
+_Governor and President_
+
+
+Licentiate José Nuñez de Cáceres                         1821-1822
+
+
+HAITIAN RULE
+
+_Presidents_
+
+
+Jean Pierre Boyer                                        1822-1843
+Charles Riviáre Hérardi ainé                             1843-1844
+
+
+FIRST REPUBLIC
+
+_Presidents_
+
+Central Council of Government (Provisional government)   1844
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1844-1848
+Manuel Jiménez, Constitutional President                 1848-1849
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1849-1853
+Pedro Santana, Constitutional President                  1853-1856
+Manuel de Regla Mota, Vice-President                     1856
+Buenaventura Baez, Vice-President                        1856-1858
+José Desiderio Valverde, Constitutional President        1858
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1858-1861
+
+THIRD SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+Lieutenant-General Pedro Santana                         1861-1862
+Lieutenant-General Felipe Ribero y Lemoine               1862-1863
+Brigadier Carlos de Vargas                               1863-1864
+Lieutenant-General José de la Gándara                    1864-1865
+
+SECOND REPUBLIC
+_Presidents_
+
+José Salcedo, Provisional President                      1863-1864
+Gaspar Polanco, Provisional President                    1864-1865
+Benigno Filorneno de Rojas, Provisional President        1865
+Pedro Antonio Pimentel, Constitutional President         1865
+José Maria Cabral, Provisional President                 1865
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1865-1866
+José Maria Cabral, Constitutional President              1866-1868
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1868-1873
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1874-1876
+Uliees F. Espaillat, Constitutional President            1876
+Ignacio María González, Provisional President            1876
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1876-1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878
+Ignacio Marña González, Constitutional President         1878
+Jacinto de Castro, President Supreme Court               1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878-1879
+Gregorio Luperán, Provisional President                  1879-1880
+Fernando A. de Meriño, Constitutional President          1880-1882
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President                1882-1884
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, Constitutional President     1884-1885
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Vice-President and Provisional
+  President                                              1885-1887
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President (4 terms)      1887-1899
+Juan Wenceslao Figuereo, Vice-President                  1899
+Horacio Vásquez, Provisional President                   1899
+Juan Isidro Jimánez, Constitutional President            1899-1902
+Horacio Vásquez, Provisional President                   1902-1903
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903
+Carlos E. Morales, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903-1906
+Ramán Cáceres, Vice-President and Constitutional
+  President                                              1906-1911
+Eladio Victoria, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1911-1912
+Adolfo A. Nouel, Provisional President                   1912-1913
+José Bordas Valdez, Provisional President                1913-1914
+Ramán Baez, Provisional President                        1914
+Juan Isidro Jimánez, Constitutional President            1914-1916
+Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, Provisional President      1916
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INTERVENTION
+
+_Military Governor_
+
+
+Rear-Admiral H. S. Knapp                                 1916-
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+OLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN USE IN SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+The equivalents between old weights and measures still in use in Santo
+Domingo with the legal or metric system, are as follows, the
+equivalents with American measures being also given:
+
+
+
+Dominican              American              Metric
+
+Measures of length:
+1 league                 3.46 miles                5.5727 kilometers
+1 ona                       3 feet, 10.79 inches   1.1884 meters
+1 yard                 35.996 inches               0.9143 meter
+1 vara                  32.91 inches                0.836 meter
+1 foot                 10.945 inches                0.278 meter
+1 inch                 0.9055 inch                  0.023 meter
+1 line [1]             0.0787 inch                  0.002 meter
+
+Surface measures:
+1 tarea [2]            0.1554 acre                 628.86 sq. meters
+1 caballeria           186.50 acres               75.4636 hectares
+
+Liquid measures:
+1 bottle               0.7392 quart                   720 grams
+1 gallon               3.3265 quarts                 3.34 liters
+
+Dry measures:
+1 fanega                1.575 bushels                55.5 liters
+1 almud                0.1596 bushel                5.625 liters
+1 cuartillo            0.0328 bushel                1.156 liter
+
+Weights:
+1 ton               2,028.232 pounds                  920 kilograms
+1 quintal             101.412 pounds                   46 kilograms
+1 arroba               25.353 pounds                 11.5 kilograms
+1 pound                 1.014 pounds                  460 grams
+1 ounce               0.06338 pound, or             28.75 grams
+                        1.014 ounces avoirdupois
+1 adarme                27.78 grains                  1.8 grams
+1 grain[3]             0.7706 grain                     5 centigrams
+
+The following measures are cited for comparison:
+
+                        American                        Metric
+Porto Rican cuerda     0.9701 acre              3930.4037 sq. meters
+Porto Rican caballeria 194.02 acres                78.608 hectares
+Cuban caballeria        33.16 acres               13.4202 hectares
+Haitian carreau         3.194 acres                12,928 sq. meters
+
+
+[Footnote 1: 12 lines = 1 inch; 12 inches = 1 foot; 3 feet = 1 vara; 3
+varas = 1 vara conuquera; 20,000 feet = 1 league]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tarea is a parcel of land measuring 100 square varas
+conuqueras. It is the usual measure of land. 300 tareas = 1 peonia; 4
+peonias = 1 caballeria.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 36 grains = 1 adarme; 16 adarmes = 1 ounce; 16 ounces = 1
+pound; 25 pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 20 quintals =
+1 ton.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+AMERICAN-DOMINICAN FISCAL CONVENTION OF 1907
+
+CONVENTION BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE DOMINICAN
+REPUBLIC PROVIDING FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
+COLLECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CUSTOMS REVENUES OF THE
+DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+
+
+_Concluded February 8, 1907
+
+Ratification advised by Senate February 25, 1907
+
+Ratified by President June 2, 1907
+
+Ratified by President of the Dominican Republic June 18, 1907
+
+Ratifications exchanged at Washington July 8, 1907
+
+Proclaimed July 25, 1907_
+
+BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+A PROCLAMATION
+
+Whereas a convention between the United States of America and the
+Dominican Republic providing for the assistance of the United States
+in the collection and application of the customs revenues of the
+Dominican Republic, was concluded and signed by their respective
+Plenipotentiaries at the City of Santo Domingo, on the eighth day of
+February, one thousand nine hundred and seven, the original of which
+convention, being in the English and Spanish languages, is word for
+word as follows:
+
+Whereas during disturbed political conditions in the Dominican
+Republic debts and claims have been created, some by regular and some
+by revolutionary governments, many of doubtful validity in whole or
+in part, and amounting in all to over $30,000,000, nominal or
+face value;
+
+And whereas the same conditions have prevented the peaceable and
+continuous collection and application of National revenues for payment
+of interest or principal of such debts or for liquidation and
+settlement of such claims; and the said debts and claims continually
+increase by accretion of interest and are a grievous burden upon the
+people of the Dominican Republic and a barrier to their improvement
+and prosperity;
+
+And whereas the Dominican Government has now effected a conditional
+adjustment and settlement of said debts and claims under which all its
+foreign creditors have agreed to accept about $12,407,000 for debts
+and claims amounting to about $21,184,000 of nominal or face value,
+and the holders of internal debts or claims of about $2,028,258
+nominal or face value have agreed to accept about $645,827 therefor,
+and the remaining holders of internal debts or claims on the same
+basis as the assents already given will receive about $2,400,000
+therefor, which sum the Dominican Government has fixed and determined
+as the amount which it will pay to such remaining internal debt
+holders; making the total payments under such adjustment and
+settlement, including interest as adjusted and claims not yet
+liquidated, amount to not more than about $17,000,000.
+
+And whereas a part of such plan of settlement is the issue and sale of
+bonds of the Dominican Republic to the amount of $20,000,000 bearing
+five per cent interest payable in fifty years and redeemable after ten
+years at 102-1/2 and requiring payment of at least one per cent per
+annum for amortization, the proceeds of said bonds, together with such
+funds as are now deposited for the benefit of creditors from customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic heretofore received, after payment
+of the expenses of such adjustment, to be applied first to the payment
+of said debts and claims as adjusted and second out of the balance
+remaining to the retirement and extinction of certain concessions and
+harbor monopolies which are a burden and hindrance to the commerce of
+the country and third the entire balance still remaining to the
+construction of certain railroads and bridges and other public
+improvements necessary to the industrial development of the country;
+And whereas the whole of said plan is conditioned and dependent upon
+the assistance of the United States in the collection of customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic and the application thereof so far
+as necessary to the interest upon and the amortization and redemption
+of said bonds, and the Dominican Republic has requested the United
+States to give and the United States is willing to give such
+assistance:
+
+The Dominican Government, represented by its Minister of State for
+Foreign Relations, Emiliano Tejera, and its Minister of State for
+Finance and Commerce, Federico Velasquez H., and the United States
+Government, represented by Thomas C. Dawson, Minister Resident and
+Consul General of the United States to the Dominican Republic,
+have agreed:
+
+I. That the President of the United States shall appoint, a General
+Receiver of Dominican Customs, who, with such Assistant Receivers and
+other employees of the Receivership as shall be appointed by the
+President of the United States in his discretion, shall collect all
+the customs duties accruing at the several customs houses of the
+Dominican Republic until the payment or retirement of any and all
+bonds issued by the Dominican Government in accordance with the plan
+and under the limitations as to terms and amounts hereinbefore
+recited; and said General Receiver shall apply the sums so collected,
+as follows:
+
+First, to paying the expenses of the receivership; second, to the
+payment of interest upon said bonds; third, to the payment of the
+annual sums provided for amortization of said bonds including interest
+upon all bonds held in sinking fund; fourth, to the purchase and
+cancellation or the retirement and cancellation pursuant to the terms
+thereof of any of said bonds as may be directed by the Dominican
+Government; fifth, the remainder to be paid to the Dominican
+Government. The method of distributing the current collections of
+revenue in order to accomplish the application thereof as hereinbefore
+provided shall be as follows:
+
+The expenses of the receivership shall be paid by the Receiver as they
+arise. The allowances to the General Receiver and his assistants for
+the expenses of collecting the revenues shall not exceed five per cent
+unless by agreement between the two Governments.
+
+On the first day of each calendar month the sum of $100,000 shall be
+paid over by the Receiver to the Fiscal Agent of the loan, and the
+remaining collection of the last preceding month shall be paid over to
+the Dominican Government, or applied to the sinking fund for the
+purchase or redemption of bonds, as the Dominican Government
+shall direct.
+
+_Provided_, that in case the customs revenues collected by the General
+Receiver shall in any year exceed the sum of $3,000,000, one half of
+the surplus above such sum of $3,000,000 shall be applied to the
+sinking fund for the redemption of bonds.
+
+II. The Dominican Government will provide by law for the payment of
+all customs duties to the General Receiver and his assistants, and
+will give to them all needful aid and assistance and full protection
+to the extent of its powers. The Government of the United States will
+give to the General Receiver and his assistants such protection as it
+may find to be requisite for the performance of their duties.
+
+III. Until the Dominican Republic has paid the whole amount of the
+bonds of the debt its public debt shall not be increased except by
+previous agreement between the Dominican Government and the United
+States. A like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import
+duties, it being an indispensable condition for the modification of
+such duties that the Dominican Executive demonstrate and that the
+President of the United States recognize that, on the basis of
+exportations and importations to the like amount and the like
+character during the two years preceding that in which it is desired
+to make such modification, the total net customs receipts would at
+such altered rates of duties have been for each of such two years in
+excess of the sum of $2,000,000 United States gold.
+
+IV. The accounts of the General Receiver shall be rendered monthly to
+the Contaduria General of the Dominican Republic and to the State
+Department of the United States and shall be subject to examination
+and verification by the appropriate officers of the Dominican and the
+United States Governments.
+
+V. This agreement shall take effect after its approval by the Senate
+of the United States and the Congress of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Done in four originals, two being in the English language, and two in
+the Spanish, and the representatives of the high contracting parties
+signing them in the City of Santo Domingo this 8th day of February, in
+the year of our Lord 1907.
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON,
+
+EMILIANO TEJERA,
+
+FEDERICO VELAZQUEZ H.
+
+
+And whereas the said convention has been duly ratified on both parts,
+and the ratifications of the two governments were exchanged in the
+City of Washington, on the eighth day of July, one thousand nine
+hundred seven;
+
+Now, therefore, be it known that I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of
+the United States of America, have caused the said convention to be
+made public, to the end that the same and every article and clause
+thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United
+States and the citizens thereof.
+
+In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal
+of the United States of America to be affixed.
+
+Done at the City of Washington, this 25th day of July in the year of
+our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and of the Independence
+of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty-second.
+
+[SEAL.] THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
+
+By the President:
+
+ROBERT BACON
+
+_Acting Secretary of State._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Santo Domingo
+       A Country with a Future
+
+Author: Otto Schoenrich
+
+Posting Date: December 10, 2011 [EBook #9813]
+Release Date: February, 2006
+First Posted: October 20, 2003
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANTO DOMINGO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Michael Lockey
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+A COUNTRY WITH A FUTURE
+
+BY
+
+OTTO SCHOENRICH
+
+
+1918
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is remarkable how little has been written about the Dominican
+Republic, a country so near to our shores, which has for years had
+intimate commercial and political relations with our country, which is
+at present under the provisional administration of the American
+Government, and which is destined to develop under the protection and
+guidance of the United States. The only comprehensive publications on
+the Dominican Republic, in the English language, are the Report of the
+United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo, published in
+1871, Hazard's "Santo Domingo, Past and Present," written about the
+same time, and Professor Hollander's notable Report on the Debt of
+Santo Domingo, published in 1905. The first and the last of these
+publications are no longer obtainable; hence, Hazard's book, written
+almost half a century ago, is still the chief source of information.
+
+These considerations prompted me to indite the following pages, in
+which I have essayed to give a bird's-eye view of the history and
+present condition of Santo Domingo. The task has been complicated by
+two circumstances. One is the extraordinary difficulty of obtaining
+accurate data. The other is the fact that the country has arrived at a
+turning point in its history. Any description of political, financial
+and economic conditions can refer only, or almost only, to the past;
+the American occupation has already introduced fundamental innovations
+which will shortly be further developed, and a rapid and radical
+transformation is in progress. Santo Domingo at this moment is a
+country which has no present, only a past and a future.
+
+My personal acquaintance with Santo Domingo and Dominican affairs is
+derived from observations on several trips to the Dominican Republic
+and Haiti, from friendships formed with prominent Dominican families
+during a residence of many years in Latin America, and from experience
+as secretary to the special United States commissioner to investigate
+the financial condition of Santo Domingo in 1905, and as secretary to
+the Dominican minister of finance during the 1906 loan negotiations.
+
+In compiling this work I have endeavored to read all books of any
+consequence which have been published with reference to Santo Domingo
+and Haiti and have especially consulted the following:
+
+Jose Ramon Abad,
+  "La Republica Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1886.
+
+Rudolf Cronau,
+  "Amerika, die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+Enrique Deschamps,
+  "La Republica Dominicana, Directorio y Guia General";
+  Barcelona, 1906.
+
+Jose Gabriel Garcia,
+  "Compendio de la Historia de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1896.
+
+H. Harrisse,
+  "Christophe Colomb";
+  Paris, 1884.
+
+Samuel Hazard,
+  "Santo Domingo, Past and Present, with a Glance at Haiti";
+  New York, 1873.
+
+Jacob H. Hollander,
+  "Report on the Debt of Santo Domingo";
+  59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Document;
+  Washington, 1905.
+
+Antonio Lopez Prieto,
+  "Informe sobre los Restos de Colon";
+  Habana, 1878.
+
+Fernando A. de Merino,
+  "Elementos de Geografia Fisica, Politica e Historica
+      de la Republica Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1898.
+
+Mederic Louis Elie Moreau de Saint-Mery,
+  "Description
+  de la partie espagnole de l'isle Saint-Domingue";
+  Philadelphia, 1796.
+
+Casimiro N. de Moya,
+  "Bosquejo Historico del Descubrimiento y Conquista
+      de la Isla de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1913.
+
+F.A. Ober,
+  "A Guide to the West Indies and Panama";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+Publications of the Dominican Government.
+
+Publications of the Bureau of American Republics
+      and the Pan-American Union.
+
+Annual Reports of the General Receiver of Customs of the
+      Dominican Republic to the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+      War Department, Washington, 1907 to 1917.
+
+"Report of the United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo";
+  42d Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document,
+  Washington, 1871.
+
+Emiliano Tejera,
+  "Los Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1878;
+      and
+  "Los dos Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1879.
+
+L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
+  "Die Insel Haiti";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+A. Hyatt Verrill,
+  "Porto Rico, Past and Present, and San Domingo of To-Day";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+William Walton, Jr.,
+  "Present State of the Spanish Colonies, including a particular
+      report of Hispanola";
+  London, 1810.
+
+O. S.
+
+New York, _January_, 1918.
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. Historical Sketch-Days of the Conquest--1492 to 1533
+
+Aborigines--Discovery--Founding of Isabela--Disaffection of the
+  colonists--Indian wars--Oppression of the Indians--Founding of
+  Santo Domingo City--Roldan's insurrection--Humiliation of
+  Columbus--Ovando's administration--Extermination of the
+  natives--Administrations of Diego Columbus--Treaty with Indian
+  survivors.
+
+CHAPTER II. Historical Sketch--Colonial Vicissitudes--1533 to 1801
+
+Decline of the colony--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+  City--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters--French settlements in
+  western Santo Domingo--Border wars--Cession of western coast to
+  France--Return of prosperity--Effect of French Revolution--Negro
+  uprising in French Santo Domingo--Rise of Toussaint
+  l'Ouverture--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France--Evacuation
+  by Spain.
+
+CHAPTER III. Historical Sketch--Changes of Government--1801 TO 1844
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture--Exodus of whites--Capture of Santo
+  Domingo by French--War with negroes--Government of
+  Ferrand--Incursion of Dessalines--Insurrection of Sanchez
+  Ramirez--Reestablishment of Spanish rule--Proclamation of Colombian
+  State of Spanish Haiti--Conquest by Haiti--Haitian rule--Duarte's
+  conspiracy--Declaration of Independence.
+
+CHAPTER IV. Historical Sketch--First Republic and Spanish
+Annexation--1844 TO 1865.
+
+Constitution of the government--Santana's first administration--Wars
+  with the Haitians--Administration of Jimenez--Victory of Las
+  Carreras--Baez' first administration--Santana's second
+  administration--_Repulse of Soulouque_--Baez' second
+  administration--Period of the two governments--Santana's third
+  administration--Annexation negotiations--Annexation to Spain--War of
+  the Restoration.
+
+Chapter V. Historical Sketch--Second Republic-Revolutions and
+Dictatorships--1863 TO 1904.
+
+Restoration of the Republic--Military presidents--Cabral's
+  administration--Baez' fourth administration--Annexation negotiations
+  with the United States--Civil wars--Heureaux's rule--Administrations
+  of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil--Election of Morales.
+
+Chapter VI. Historical Sketch--American Influence-1904 to date (1918)
+
+Financial difficulties--Fiscal convention with the United
+ States--Caceres' administration--Provisional presidents--Civil
+  disturbances--Jimenez' second administration--American intervention.
+
+Chapter VII. Area and Boundaries
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo--Boundary
+  disputes--Harbors on north coast--Character of shore--Samana
+  Bay--Character of east and south coast--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+  Domingo--Ocoa Bay--Islands--Haitian frontier.
+
+Chapter VIII. Topography and Climate
+
+Mountains--Valleys and plains--Rivers--Lakes--Temperature and
+  Rainfall--Hurricanes--Health conditions.
+
+Chapter IX. Geology and Minerals
+
+Rock formation--Mineral
+  deposits--Gold-Copper--Iron--Coal--Silver--Salt--Building
+  stone--Petroleum--Mineral springs--Earthquakes.
+
+Chapter X. Flora and Fauna
+
+Agricultural conditions--Land titles and measures--Wet and arid
+  regions--Exports--Sugar--Cacao--Tobacco--Coffee--Tropical
+  fruits--Forest products--Insects--Reptiles--Fishery--Birds--Cattle
+  raising.
+
+Chapter XI. The People
+
+Population--Distribution--Race--Descendants of American
+  negroes--Language--Physical traits--Mental
+  traits--Amusements--Dances, theatres, clubs,
+  carnivals--Gaming--Morality--Homes.
+
+CHAPTER XII. Religion
+
+Catholic religion--Concordat--Ownership of church
+  buildings--Clergy--Religious sentiment--Shrines--Religious customs
+  and holidays--Religious toleration--Protestant sects.
+
+CHAPTER XIII. Education and Literature
+
+Education in Spanish times--Work of Hostos--School
+  organization--Professional institute--Primary and secondary
+  education--Literacy--Libraries--Newspapers--Literature--Fine arts.
+
+CHAPTER XIV. Means of Transportation and Communication
+
+Railroads-Samana--Santiago Railroad--Central Dominican
+  Railway--Roads--Mode of traveling--Inns--Principal highways--Steamer
+  lines--Postal facilities--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+CHAPTER XV. Commerce
+
+Exports and imports--Foreign trade--Trade with the United
+  States--Ports of entry--Wharf concessions--Domestic
+  trade--Business houses--Banks--Manufactures.
+
+CHAPTER XVI. Cities and Towns
+
+General condition of municipalities--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+  churches, streets, popular legends--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+  Province--San Pedro de Macoris--Seibo--Samana and
+  Sanchez--Pacificador Province--Conception de la Vega--Moca--Santiago
+  de los Caballeros--Puerto Plata--Monte Cristi--Azua--Barahona.
+
+CHAPTER XVII. The Remains of Columbus
+
+Burial of Columbus--Disappearance of epitaph--Removal of remains in
+  1795--Discovery of remains in 1877--Resting-place of Discoverer
+  of America.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. Government
+
+Form of
+  government--Constitutions--Presidents--Election--Powers--Executive
+  Secretaries--Land and sea forces--Congress--Local
+  subdivisions--Provincial governors--Communal governments.
+
+CHAPTER XIX. Politics and Revolutions
+
+Political parties--Elections--Relation between politics and
+  revolutions--Conduct of revolutions--Casualties--Number of
+  revolutions--Effect of revolutions.
+
+CHAPTER XX. Law and Justice
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo--Legal system--Judicial
+  organization-Observance of law--Prisons--Character of offenses.
+
+CHAPTER XXI. The dominican debt and the fiscal treaty with the United
+States.
+
+Financial situation in 1905--Causes of debt--Amount of debt--Bonded
+  debt--Liquidated debt--Floating debt--Declared claims--Undeclared
+  claims--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house--Fiscal convention of
+  1905--Modus vivendi--Negotiations for adjustment of debt--New bond
+  issue--Fiscal treaty of 1907--Adjustment with creditors--19l2
+  loan--Present financial situation.
+
+CHAPTER XXII. Finances
+
+Financial system--National revenues--Customs tariff--National
+  budget--Legal tender--Municipal income--Municipal budgets.
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. The Future of Santo Domingo
+
+Attraction by the United States--Political future of Santo
+  Domingo-Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+APPENDIX A. Chiefs of State of Santo Domingo, 1492-1918
+
+APPENDIX B. Old Weights and Measures in Use in Santo Domingo
+
+APPENDIX C. American-Dominican Fiscal Convention of 1907
+
+INDEX
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Columbus Monument on Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City.
+
+Map of Santo Domingo
+
+Historic Gateway "La Puerta del Conde," where
+    the independence of the Dominican Republic
+    was declared:
+        View from within the city
+        View from without, during a revolution
+
+The Strongest Presidents of Santo Domingo:
+        President Pedro Santana
+        President Buenaventura Baez
+        President Ulises Heureaux
+        President Ramon Caceres
+
+Four Prominent Dominicans:
+        President Juan Isidro Jimenez
+        President Horacio Vasquez
+        Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez
+        Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel
+
+One of the Many Beautiful Spots on the Shores
+    of Samana Bay
+
+Partaking of Cocoanut-water
+
+Street in Bani
+
+Street in Puerto Plata
+
+A Roadside Store
+
+Building a House with the Products of the Palm-tree
+
+Room in "Casino de la Juventud," Santo Domingo City
+
+A Holiday Gathering, Santo Domingo City
+
+Ruins of San Francisco Church, Santo Domingo City
+
+A "Calvario" in the Road
+
+Road Scene: A Mudhole
+
+Wharf and Harbor of San Pedro de Macoris
+
+Entrance to Cathedral of Santo Domingo
+
+"House of Columbus," Ruins of Diego Columbus' Palace
+
+The "Tower of Homage," the oldest fortification erected by white men
+  in America:
+        View from mouth of Ozama River
+        View from within fort
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: Milkmen
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: The Ox as a Riding Animal
+
+Sanctuary of Santo Domingo Cathedral
+
+Diagram of Sanctuary of Cathedral
+
+Lead Box found in 1877 with Remains of Columbus
+
+Inscription on Lid of Lead Box
+
+Obverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+Reverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+The Bane of Santo Domingo: Intrenchment at Puerta del Conde during a
+  revolution
+
+Independence Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--DAYS OF THE CONQUEST.--1492 to 1533
+
+
+Aborigines.--Discovery.--Founding of Isabela.--Disaffection of the
+colonists.--Indian wars.--Oppression of the Indians.--Founding of
+Santo Domingo City.--Roldan's insurrection.--Humiliation of
+Columbus,--Ovando's administration.--Extermination of the
+natives.--Administrations of Diego Columbus.--Treaty with Indian
+survivors.
+
+When Columbus, in December, 1492, sailed along the northern coast of
+the island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, he was more enchanted with what
+he saw than he had been with any of his previous discoveries. Giant
+mountains, covered with verdant forests, seemed to rise precipitately
+from the blue waters and lift their heads to the very clouds.
+Beautiful rivers watered fertile valleys, luscious fruits hung from
+the trees, fragrant flowers carpeted the ground, and the air was
+filled with the songs of birds of gay plumage. There were scenes of
+nature's magnificence such as are found only in the tropics. Columbus,
+as he gazed upon them in admiration, little thought that this
+beautiful island was to witness his greatest sorrows, that it was to
+be his final resting place, and that it was in later generations to
+become the theater of long years of war and carnage.
+
+At the time of its discovery the island of Santo Domingo was thickly
+inhabited. The native Indians were Arawaks belonging to the same race
+as those who occupied the other larger West India Islands. Unlike the
+fierce Caribs who inhabited some of the smaller Antilles, the Arawaks
+were of a gentle and meek disposition. They were inclined to idleness
+and sensuality. Columbus lauded their kindliness and generosity; the
+possession of these traits, however, did not prevent them from
+fighting bravely when exasperated.
+
+Living in the stone age, they knew none of the useful metals, but gold
+ornaments were used for adornment. Older men and married women wore
+short aprons of cotton or feathers; all other persons went entirely
+nude. Their favorite amusements were ball games and savage dances with
+weird, monotonous music; their religion was the worship of a great
+spirit and of subordinate deities represented by idols, called
+"zemis," carved of wood and stone in grotesque form, and of which some
+are still occasionally found in caverns or tombs. They dwelt in rude
+palm-thatched huts, the principal article of furniture being the
+hammock. Simple agriculture, hunting and fishing provided their means
+of livelihood.
+
+The natives called the island Haiti, signifying "high ground," but the
+western portion was also called Babeque or Bohio, meaning "land of
+gold" and the eastern part Quisqueya, meaning "mother of the earth."
+The name Quisqueya is the one by which Dominican poets now refer to
+their country. The inhabitants lived in communities ruled by local
+caciques, and the country was divided into five principal regions,
+each under an absolute chief cacique, as follows:
+
+Magua, signifying "watered plain," the northeastern part of the island
+and comprising most of what is to-day known as the Cibao--that part of
+the Dominican Republic lying north of the central mountain-range. The
+chief was Guarionex.
+
+Marien, or Mariel, comprised the northwestern portion of the island
+and was ruled by Guacanagari.
+
+Jaragua comprised the southwestern part, its chief being Bohechio, the
+oldest of the caciques.
+
+Maguana extended from the center of the island to the south coast near
+Azua and was ruled by the proud Caonabo.
+
+Higuey, or Higuayagua, the most bellicose portion of the country,
+comprised the entire southeast and was ruled by Cayacoa.
+
+Columbus happened upon the island on his first voyage. After
+discovering Guanahani on October 12, 1492, and vainly searching for
+Japan among the Bahama Islands, he discovered Cuba and while skirting
+along the north shore of what he supposed to be the mainland heard of
+an island said to be rich in gold, lying to the east. Taking an
+easterly course, he was abandoned by the Pinta, one of his caravels,
+whose captain, disregarding the admiral's signals, sailed away to seek
+his fortune alone. Continuing with his remaining caravels, the Santa
+Maria and the Nina, Columbus reached Cape Maisi, the easternmost point
+of Cuba, where he sighted a high mountainous land lying in a
+southeasterly direction. On the following day, December 6, 1492, he
+reached this land, which he called la Espanola, because it reminded
+him of Andalusia. In English histories the name is modified to
+Hispaniola. The port Columbus called San Nicolas, as he had entered it
+on St. Nicholas day, and it is now known as Mole St. Nicolas.
+
+Columbus then sailed along the north coast of the island and entered
+the pretty little port known to-day as Port-a-l'Ecu. Here, on December
+12, he solemnly took possession of the country in the name of his
+sovereigns, erecting a wooden cross on a high hill on the western
+side of the bay. He then visited Tortuga Island, to the north, giving
+it this name on account of its shape and the great number of turtles
+in the water near its coast. After stopping in a harbor which he
+called Puerto de Paz, Port of Peace, because of the harmony which
+prevailed at the meetings with the natives, Columbus continued in an
+easterly direction, but adverse winds compelled him to put into the
+bay of Santo Tomas, to-day bay of l'Acul, where the cordial
+intercourse with the natives was renewed. Here he received an embassy
+from the chief of the district, Guacanagari, inviting him to visit the
+cacique's residence, further along the coast, and bringing him as
+presents a wampum belt artistically worked and a wooden mask with
+eyes, tongue and nose of gold.
+
+To accept the invitation Columbus set sail on the morning of December
+24. In the evening when the admiral had retired the helmsman committed
+the indiscretion of confiding the helm to a ship's boy. About midnight
+when off Cape Haitien, near their destination, the vessel was caught
+in a current and swept upon a sandbank where she began to keel over.
+During the confusion which followed, Columbus had the mainmast chopped
+down but all efforts to right the ship were in vain, and Columbus and
+the crew were obliged to take refuge on the little Nina.
+
+As soon as Guacanagari received news of the disaster he sent large
+canoes filled with men to help the strangers transport their stores to
+the shore. The relations between the Spaniards and the Indians became
+most cordial, especially as the Spaniards were gratified to obtain
+much gold in exchange for articles of insignificant value, owing to
+which circumstances and to the natural advantages of the location,
+Columbus determined to build a fort with the wreckage of his vessel.
+The fort was on a hill east of the site of the present town of Cape
+Haitien. Columbus gave it the name of La Navidad because he had
+entered the bay on Christmas day, and leaving thirty-nine men as
+colonists set out on the Nina on January 4, 1493, on his return
+trip to Spain.
+
+Near the great yellow promontory on the north of the island, to which
+Columbus gave the name it still retains of Monte Cristi, the Pinta,
+which had deserted the other vessels off Cuba, was sighted. Columbus
+having heard the excuses of the Pinta's captain, took no action with
+respect to the latter's delinquency, but set about exploring a large
+river in the vicinity to which he gave the name of Rio de Oro and
+which to-day is called the Yaque. Continuing the journey along the
+coast of the island the vessels rounded the giant promontory of Cape
+Cabron and that of Samana and entered the great bay of Samana which
+Columbus at first took to be an arm of the sea. Here it was that the
+first armed encounter between sons of the old world and the new took
+place. The Indians set upon the Spaniards when they landed but were
+quickly driven to flight, one of their number being severely wounded.
+On the following day, however, a more pleasant meeting took place and
+presents were exchanged. On January 16 the two vessels set sail
+for Spain.
+
+The immense excitement produced in Spain by the discoveries of
+Columbus made the preparation of another expedition an easy matter,
+and on September 25, 1493, the admiral again set out from Spain, this
+time with sixteen ships and some 1300 men. After touching at several
+of the Leeward Islands and Porto Rico, the fleet sighted the Samana
+peninsula on November 22, 1493, and three days later arrived at Monte
+Cristi. Here the finding of two corpses of Spaniards filled the
+members of the expedition with grave apprehensions, which proved
+justified when two days later they arrived at La Navidad and found the
+fort completely destroyed, the Indian village burnt to the ground, and
+the whole neighborhood silent and desolate.
+
+Guacanagari was found at a village further inland and according to his
+story and that of other Indians, a number of Spaniards had succumbed
+to disease, others were killed in brawls among themselves and the
+remainder died at the hands of the inland caciques Caonabo and
+Guarionex and their warriors, who attacked and destroyed both the fort
+and the village of Guacanagari. At the same time it was stated that
+the Spaniards had made themselves hateful to the natives by their
+domineering disposition and their lewdness and covetousness. The
+finding in some of the native huts of objects that had belonged to the
+colonists, as well as other suspicious circumstances, caused Father
+Boil and other companions of Columbus to doubt the chief's story and
+insist that sanguinary vengeance be taken. Columbus, however, affected
+to be satisfied with the explanation given and determined to take no
+further action, but to seek a new location for the colony. From this
+time forward discord divided not only the Spaniards and Indians but
+also the Spaniards themselves.
+
+As the fleet was sailing east the weather obliged it to put into an
+indentation of the coast fifty miles east of Monte Cristi. The place
+so charmed the Spaniards that it was decided to found a town here. The
+first city of the new world was therefore laid out and Columbus gave
+it the name of Isabela, in honor of his royal patron. During the
+construction of the city Columbus sent two expeditions to the Cibao
+mountains, both of which succeeded in collecting a large amount
+of gold.
+
+It soon became evident that the neighborhood of Isabela was not a
+healthy one. Fever invaded the colony; Columbus himself was not
+exempt. Discontent came and an uprising among the soldiers was nipped
+in the bud. On recovering from his illness Columbus resolved to make
+an exploration of the interior; and with drums beating and flags
+flying a brilliant expedition left Isabela. The beautiful Royal Plain
+was soon reached and friendly relations established with its peaceful
+inhabitants, whose wonder at the Spaniards and terror at their horses
+knew no bounds. A fortress was founded on the banks of the Janico
+river and called Santo Tomas. Columbus then returned to Isabela to
+find the town in a state of excitement on account of petty quarrels
+and the general sickness. Picking out the principal malcontents he
+sent them to Santo Tomas, and ordered that another fortress be
+founded. On April 24, 1494, he left the island with three vessels for
+a voyage of exploration to the west, entrusting the government of the
+colony to his brother Diego and an executive council.
+
+But a short time elapsed before new dissensions broke out, followed by
+troubles with the Indians. A military expedition dispatched to the
+interior committed numerous depredations and drove the natives into
+the ranks of Caonabo, who was planning the expulsion of the strangers.
+The commander of the expedition, Moisen Pedro de Margarite, was called
+to account by Diego Columbus; but conspiring with Father Boil, the
+religious head of the colony, the two contrived to excite a popular
+insurrection against the governor, which may be regarded as the first
+Dominican revolution. At this time Bartholomew Columbus, another
+brother of the admiral, arrived with provisions, and the
+insurrectionists, taking possession of the ships, returned in them to
+Spain where they lost no opportunity to disparage the achievements of
+Columbus and to slander him and his brothers.
+
+The principal caciques of the island now formed an alliance and
+uniting their forces laid siege to Santo Tomas. Only Guacanagari
+refused to join them and hurried to Isabela to offer his services to
+the Spaniards. At this juncture, on September 29, 1494, Columbus, sick
+and weary, returned from his voyage, during which, after other
+discoveries, he had explored a portion of the south coast of the
+island. As soon as he had recovered sufficient strength he led an
+expedition into the interior, relieved Santo Tomas, won numerous
+victories over the natives and founded another fortress, La
+Concepcion, in the Vega Real, or Royal Plain. Caonabo, however,
+assembled a vast number of warriors and forced Columbus to renewed
+efforts. The Spaniards and Indians met where the ruins of the old city
+of Concepcion de la Vega now are, and the famous battle of the Royal
+Plain was fought on March 25, 1495. The natives are alleged by the
+Spanish historians to have numbered 100,000, while the Spaniards had
+but 200 men and 20 horses, besides the warriors of Guacanagari. In the
+battle, a bloody one, the Indians were completely beaten, their
+discomfiture being due principally to the superior arms of the
+Europeans and the fear inspired by the horses and by twenty
+blood-hounds brought into the fight by the Spaniards. On the occasion
+of this battle the miracle of the Santo Cerro, or Holy Hill, is said
+to have occurred, when, according to the Spanish chroniclers, the
+Indians captured an eminence on which the Spaniards had erected a
+wooden cross, but were unable to destroy the cross with fire or
+hatchet, and were finally frightened away by the apparition of the
+Virgin Mary.
+
+This one crushing defeat definitely broke the Indians' power, for
+though there were subsequent outbreaks they were only sporadic and,
+with one exception, of comparatively little importance. Caonabo still
+remained at large and the Spaniards secured possession of his person
+by one of those feats of individual prowess which mark the history of
+the conquest. The Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda went out in search of the
+cacique, and having found him with his warriors, suggested that they
+repair to Isabela together to arrange terms of peace with Columbus.
+The suggestion being accepted, they set out and on crossing the Yaque
+river Ojeda pressed the Indian to put on a pair of handcuffs,
+asserting that these bracelets were a distinction of the king of
+Castile. Caonabo acceded, whereupon the Spaniard sprang upon his horse
+and swinging the chief upon the croup, fled from the midst of the
+astonished warriors and bore him a prisoner to Isabela. Caonabo was
+later embarked for Spain but died on the voyage.
+
+A beginning was now made of the harsh oppression which was soon to
+cause the entire disappearance of the native race. A quarterly tribute
+was imposed on every Indian above the age of fourteen. Those who lived
+in the auriferous region of the Cibao were obliged to deliver as much
+gold dust as could be held in a small bell, others were to give
+twenty-five pounds of cotton. Many natives fled to the mountains to
+escape the onerous tax and new settlements were established by the
+Spaniards.
+
+The enemies of Columbus had in the meantime been sufficiently
+successful in Spain to cause one de Aguado to be sent out with the
+object of investigating conditions in the colony. His conduct from the
+very first was so arrogant that the admiral determined to return at
+once to justify himself before the court. On March  10, 1496, he
+embarked for Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew as governor of
+the colony.
+
+Before his departure the news arrived of the discovery of several rich
+gold mines in the southern part of the island. They were found by a
+soldier named Miguel Diaz, who having fled to the wilderness to escape
+punishment for wounding a comrade, had established conjugal relations
+with an Indian woman near the present site of Santo Domingo City.
+Noticing that her consort was tiring of her, the lady tried to retain
+him by revealing the existence of gold deposits in the region; and
+Diaz promptly secured his pardon and promotion by reporting the find
+to Isabela. The romance had a sad ending, for the Indian, shocked at
+the cruel treatment accorded her countrymen by the Spaniards who came
+to the place, abandoned her husband and children and disappeared in
+the forest.
+
+On arriving in Spain, Columbus wrote his brother to found a town on
+the south coast at the mouth of the Ozama. Bartholomew Columbus
+immediately set out to select a site and on August 4, 1496, laid the
+first stone of the new city on the left bank of the Ozama, calling it
+Nueva Isabela, in honor of the queen. The name was afterwards changed
+to Santo Domingo in honor, so tradition has it, of the saint to whom
+the day of its foundation was dedicated. As the location of this city
+was much healthier than that of fever-ridden Isabela on the north
+coast, the settlers in an ever increasing stream removed to the new
+town which flourished as the other decayed, until after a few years
+Isabela was entirely abandoned. The only vestiges now remaining of it
+are a few ruined foundation walls and shapeless heaps of stone
+overgrown with rank tropical vegetation.
+
+Bartholomew Columbus busied himself with further explorations of the
+interior, founding a number of strongholds, among them Santiago de los
+Caballeros, which commanded the Royal Plain. While at Concepcion de la
+Vega he was informed that several Indians had burned an altar erected
+by friars in the interior, and had buried the sacred images. The
+bigoted governor had the Indians apprehended and burnt alive in the
+public square. This cruel act induced fourteen caciques to conspire
+for an uprising; but their designs being betrayed, they were captured
+by a bold stroke and two of them executed. Determined to crush the
+spirit of the natives, Bartholomew Columbus invaded and devastated the
+district of Monte Cristi, driving the Indians into the remote forests
+and capturing and imprisoning their chiefs.
+
+His severity was not confined to the Indians, but the Spaniards,
+naturally restive under the government of a Genovese, were also made
+to feel it until their disaffection developed into open rebellion.
+
+At the head of the conspiracy was Francisco Roldan, the judge of the
+colony, a man ambitious and seditious by nature, but who owed Columbus
+many favors. Others, disgusted because their dreams of gold had not
+been realized, followed him and the insurrection was soon well under
+way. The rebels took Isabela and sacked the government storehouse and
+then took steps to besiege Bartholomew Columbus at Concepcion de la
+Vega. The arrival of fresh troops and stores from Spain enabled the
+governor to hold the rebels in check.
+
+Such was the deplorable state of affairs when Columbus returned to the
+island on August 30, 1498. Realizing Roldan's strength, he consented
+to make terms under which the insurgents were to receive stores and
+other property and return to Spain. By the time their vessels were
+ready most of them had changed their mind and declined to go, but
+they wrote letters to Spain bitterly complaining of the admiral and
+his brothers, and accusing them of oppression and despotism. Columbus
+found himself obliged to agree to the most humiliating terms with the
+rebels, conceding a complete pardon, restoring them to their official
+posts, promising to pay their salary in arrears and distributing lands
+and Indians among them. Nevertheless, other quarrels followed,
+Columbus was forced to take severe measures and the complaints
+against him grew.
+
+Little by little the stories of arrogance and oppression circulated
+with reference to the Columbus brothers undermined the esteem in which
+they were held by the sovereigns, who were also disappointed at not
+seeing the fabulous wealth they had expected from the new discoveries.
+They determined to send to the island of Espanola a person authorized
+to investigate conditions and decide all disputes.
+
+Their choice for the mission was unfortunate; it fell on Francisco
+Bobadilla, a spiteful, arrogant and tactless man. On arriving in Santo
+Domingo on August 23, 1500, he immediately began to annul dispositions
+made by Columbus and sent for the admiral who was in the interior. As
+soon as Columbus appeared, Bobadilla, far exceeding his authority,
+caused him to be put in chains and confined in a cell of the fortress
+of Santo Domingo. He also imprisoned the brothers of Columbus and sent
+them to Spain together with the Discoverer, all chained like infamous
+criminals. At the same time he made a report attributing malfeasance,
+injustice and fraud to all.
+
+The administration of Bobadilla was disastrous. In his efforts to
+ingratiate himself with Columbus' enemies he heaped favors on Roldan
+and his followers and gave them franchises and lands. He made the
+slavery of the Indians more galling than ever, obliging them to labor
+in the fields and mines. Columbus' property and papers were
+confiscated and Columbus' friend, the explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas,
+was imprisoned and his property seized.
+
+The captain of the vessel bearing Columbus treated his distinguished
+prisoner with all possible deference and offered to take off the
+chains, but the Discoverer, whose heart was breaking under the
+indignities heaped upon him and the injustice of which he was the
+victim, proudly refused. When the vessel arrived in Spain the
+sovereigns, shocked at Bobadilla's proceedings, commanded the
+immediate release of Columbus, ordered that his property be restored
+and overwhelmed him with distinctions, though providing that his
+dignities as viceroy were to remain temporarily suspended; probably
+because the calculating spirit of King Ferdinand believed that too
+much power had been vested in his subject. Bobadilla was removed from
+office, and Nicolas de Ovando, a member of the religious-military
+order of Alcantara, was appointed governor in his place.
+
+Ovando arrived in Santo Domingo on April 15, 1502, with a fleet of
+thirty vessels, the largest which up to that time had arrived in the
+new world, carrying stores of every kind and over 1500 persons, among
+them many who later attained distinction in conquests on the mainland.
+He was courteous to Bobadilla, but took measures to send Roldan and
+the most turbulent of his companions back to Spain on the return of
+his fleet, the largest vessel of which was placed at the disposition
+of Bobadilla.
+
+Just before the sailing of the fleet, on June 30, 1502, Columbus
+unexpectedly appeared before the city on his fourth voyage, and asked
+permission to enter the port for protection from a hurricane which he
+believed was approaching. Ovando, either because he had secret orders,
+or perhaps because he feared Columbus' presence might cause renewed
+disturbances, denied the request, and the great man, deeply wounded by
+the refusal, sought shelter further up the coast.
+
+The pilots of the great fleet derided Columbus' prediction and the
+ships set sail. They had not reached the easternmost point of the
+island when a terrific hurricane broke loose. All but two of the
+vessels were lost, and by a strange coincidence one of these two bore
+Rodrigo de Bastidas, the friend of Columbus, while the other, the
+smallest and weakest vessel of the fleet, was the one that carried
+Columbus' property. Bobadilla, Roldan and other enemies of the
+admiral, and many other passengers and Indian captives perished and
+large stores of gold were lost. Columbus' squadron rode out the storm
+in safety in a cove of the bay of Azua, whereupon he continued
+his voyage.
+
+On land, too, the hurricane wrought great destruction. The houses of
+the town of Santo Domingo were demolished and as the right bank of the
+Ozama was higher and seemed more suitable, Ovando ordered that the
+town be rebuilt on that side, where it now stands.
+
+Ovando now inaugurated a period of general prosperity. He established
+peace and order, issued rules for the different branches of the public
+service, placed honest men in the posts of responsibility and
+encouraged industry and agriculture. Yet, strange mixture of energy
+and cruelty, of valor and bigotry that he was, his treatment of the
+Indians was most oppressive. To each Spanish landholder was assigned a
+number of Indians under the pretext that they were to be given
+religious instruction and accustomed to work; but so onerous and
+unremitting was the labor imposed that they succumbed to disease by
+thousands, while thousands of others perished by their own hand in an
+epidemic of suicide which swept through the country, and many fled to
+almost inaccessible mountain regions.
+
+But two Indian chieftains still reigned in the island, one the Indian
+queen Anacaona in the district of Jaragua, the other the chief of
+Higuey. Ovando's severe measures against the natives made him ready to
+believe the tales of conspiracies brought to him. He therefore sent a
+troop of 300 infantry under Diego Velazquez, the future conqueror of
+Cuba, and 70 horsemen, to the territory of Anacaona, where they were
+received with every mark of kindness. The Spaniards invited the
+natives to witness a military drill and when the queen, her principal
+caciques and a great crowd of Indians were assembled, the exercises
+commenced. The Indians were awed by the spectacle so new and imposing
+to them, when suddenly the trumpets gave a signal, the infantry opened
+fire and the cavalry charged on the defenseless spectators. All the
+Indians who could not escape by flight were massacred without respect
+to age or sex. Anacaona alone was spared and carried off to Santo
+Domingo where she was shortly afterwards ignominiously executed, on
+the pretext that she was not sufficiently sincere in the Catholic
+religion which she had recently professed! A tenacious persecution of
+the Indians who would not become slaves was instituted and but few
+were able to hide in the mountains of the interior.
+
+In 1503 the subjugation of the last remaining independent chieftain,
+Cotubanama, lord of Higuey, in the extreme eastern part of the island,
+was undertaken. Near this province a Spaniard wantonly set his hound
+upon one of the principal natives, and the Indian was torn to pieces,
+whereupon the chief, indignant at his friend's death, caused a
+boatload of Spaniards to be killed, thus giving Ovando a welcome
+excuse for the invasion. Four hundred Spaniards dealt death and
+desolation throughout the region, pursuing the Indians into the
+mountains and forests and sparing neither women nor children. When at
+last they captured and hung an aged Indian woman revered as a
+prophetess, the terrified aborigines sued for peace and agreed to pay
+a heavy tribute. A fortress was erected at Higuey, but the conduct of
+the Spanish garrison was so outrageous that the Indians in desperation
+again rose, and killed every Spaniard in the district. Ovando then
+began a war of extermination and the Indians were killed off by
+thousands, Cotubanama resisted heroically but in vain, and after being
+beaten in a number of desperate battles he withdrew to the island of
+Saona, southeast of Santo Domingo. Here he was surprised and captured
+by the Spaniards, his remaining warriors mercilessly shot and he
+himself taken to the city of Santo Domingo and hung. With his death
+the island was thoroughly pacified, though at a bloody cost, and the
+conquest proper ended.
+
+On August 13, 1504, Columbus once more arrived in Santo Domingo. On
+his ill-fated fourth voyage he had been shipwrecked in Jamaica and one
+of his men crossed the ocean in an open boat, to solicit aid of
+Ovando. The latter, after dallying for months, finally yielded to the
+murmurings of the colony and sent for the Discoverer. He received
+Columbus well, but subjected him to humiliation by arbitrarily
+liberating a mutineer imprisoned by the admiral. Disappointed and sad,
+the great navigator left the shores of the island he loved and
+returned to Spain where his death occurred two years later. The
+golden age of the colony was now at hand. Ovando built up the city of
+Santo Domingo, constructed forts and other defences, and laid the
+foundations of most of its public buildings. Fine private residences
+and great churches and convents were erected. Sugar-cane was
+introduced in 1506 and gave rich returns, the production of the gold
+mines continued to increase, and cattle raising brought large profits.
+The Indians were dying out under the rigorous treatment, and others
+were imported from the surrounding islands under the pretense of
+converting them to Christianity; and when these also succumbed, the
+importation of negroes from Africa was commenced. About 1508 the
+island began to be called Santo Domingo, but for almost three
+centuries royal decrees continued to refer to it as Espanola. So
+flourishing was its state at this time that thirteen of its towns were
+granted coats of arms and three were declared cities. The colony was
+and for many years continued to be a starting point for voyages of
+discovery and conquest in the islands and along the shores of the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+After the death of Christopher Columbus his son Diego made fruitless
+efforts to recover the honors of which his father had been despoiled,
+but it was not until he married Maria de Toledo, the beautiful niece
+of the Duke of Alba, that he met with partial success, probably more
+because of the influence of his wife's family than because of the
+justice of his claims. In 1509 he was appointed governor of Santo
+Domingo to succeed Ovando and arrived in the colony with his wife, his
+uncles, and a brilliant suite.
+
+Diego Columbus inaugurated his administration with a splendor till
+then unknown in the new world, establishing a kind of vice-regal
+court. He built the castle of which the ruins are still to be seen
+near the San Diego gate in the city of Santo Domingo, and which in its
+glory must have been an imposing structure. Unfortunately many persons
+transferred to the son the hatred they had borne the father and he
+found his plans balked. Intending to carry into effect the royal
+dispositions relative to the release of the Indians from slavery he
+incurred the hostility of the planters and when he desisted owing to
+their opposition, he was attacked by the friars. Complaints poured in
+upon King Ferdinand; the accusation most calculated to arouse the
+suspicious monarch's fears was that the second admiral, as Diego
+Columbus was called, harbored the intention of proclaiming himself
+sovereign of Santo Domingo. Ferdinand accordingly instituted the
+audiencia or high court of justice of Santo Domingo, which was
+invested with a comprehensive jurisdiction, being authorized to hear
+appeals even from decisions of the governor, whose powers were thus
+materially curtailed.
+
+This circumstance, as well as a new distribution of the Indians, made
+over the head of the governor, induced Diego Columbus to return to
+Spain in 1515 in order to defend his interests. During the term of the
+two governors who succeeded him, various dispositions were made for
+the protection of the natives whose numbers were rapidly diminishing
+notwithstanding importations from the other islands and from South
+America. The only result of these orders was a change of masters; for
+when Diego Columbus returned as governor in 1520, he found the Indians
+exploited by the priests and officers of the crown to whom they had
+been intrusted ostensibly for religious instruction, while the
+mine-owners and planters now employed negro slaves.
+
+Almost simultaneously with the return of the second admiral began the
+insurrection of a young Indian cacique known as Enrique. This noble
+Indian, a relative of Anacaona, had been converted to Christianity and
+educated by the Spaniards, but was nevertheless enslaved in one of the
+"repartimientos," or distributions. His wife having been gravely
+offended by the Spaniard to whom they were assigned, he retired to the
+almost inaccessible mountains in the center of the island, and many of
+the remaining natives fled to join him. Efforts to dislodge him were
+in vain and negotiations only elicited from him the promise to act on
+the defensive alone, which was equivalent to an indefinite truce. The
+number of negro slaves had in the meantime increased, and the
+treatment given them was as harsh as that which had been accorded the
+aborigines. As a result an insurrection, the first negro uprising in
+the new world, began near Santo Domingo City on December 27, 1522.
+Several Spaniards were murdered, but the troops overpowered the
+mutineers and a number were hung.
+
+Diego Columbus continued in his efforts to promote the welfare of the
+colony, but became involved in a quarrel with the royal audiencia and
+found himself obliged in March, 1524, to return to Spain where he died
+two years later. The new governor, Bishop Sebastian Ramirez de
+Fuenleal, was appointed president of the royal court, and the offices
+of governor and president of the court were thenceforth consolidated.
+Both he and his successor used their best efforts to promote
+immigration into the colony which was beginning to suffer on account
+of the draughts of men that left for the mainland. An army was
+dispatched against the insurgent chief Enrique who still menaced the
+tranquillity of the colonists from his mountain fastnesses. When it was
+found impossible to reach him, peaceful methods were employed.
+Negotiations were opened, and a treaty of peace signed in 1533, on an
+island in the beautiful lake still known as Lake Enriquillo. By this
+treaty the Indians, now reduced to not more than 4000 in number, were
+freed from slavery and assigned lands in Boya, in the mountains to the
+northeast of Santo Domingo City. From this time forward there is no
+further mention of the Indians in the island's history; they
+disappeared completely by dying out and by assimilation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--COLONIAL VICISSITUDES.--1533 TO 1801
+
+
+Decline of the colony.--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+City.--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters.--French settlements in
+western Santo Domingo.--Border wars.--Cession of western coast to
+France.--Return of prosperity.--Effect of French revolution.--Negro
+uprising in French Santo Domingo.--Rise of Toussaint l'Ouverture.
+--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France.--Evacuation by Spain.
+
+Within forty years after its discovery Santo Domingo had passed the
+zenith of its glory. The vast and wealthy countries discovered and
+conquered on the mainland of America absorbed the attention of
+colonists and of the government, and Santo Domingo quickly sank to a
+position of economic and political insignificance. So little
+importance was given the island by chroniclers during the ensuing two
+hundred and fifty years and so few are the records remaining, that not
+even the names of all the governors and the periods of their rule can
+be accurately determined. The colony barely existed, the monotony of
+its life was interrupted only by occasional attacks or menaces of
+attacks by pirates or other foes.
+
+Every effort was made to prevent decay. Decrees were issued forbidding
+emigration or the recruiting of troops for expeditions of discovery,
+but they were evaded. Thus Louis Columbus, the grandson of the
+Discoverer and one of the most influential men of the colony, fitted
+out an expedition against Veragua. African slaves continued to be
+imported to take the place of the exterminated Indians, but as their
+importation was expensive the mines were abandoned and the number of
+sugar estates declined. For the greater part of the period from 1533
+to 1556 the government was in the hands of an energetic man,
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo and La Vega,
+and later first Archbishop of Santo Domingo. He pushed to a conclusion
+the work on the cathedral and other religious edifices then building,
+repaired the edifices belonging to the state and constructed the walls
+and bastions which still surround the city. He was able to ward off
+the attacks of corsairs, who multiplied in West Indian waters to such
+an extent that in 1561 the Spanish Government forbade vessels to
+travel to and from the new world except under convoy.
+
+In 1564 the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepcion de la
+Vega were completely destroyed by an earthquake and the few remaining
+inhabitants reestablished the towns at short distances from the
+original sites. The entire intercourse of the colony with Spain was
+reduced to two or three caravels a year and the revenues sank so low
+that the salaries of state officials were paid and continued to be
+paid for over two hundred years, from the treasury of Mexico.
+
+The year 1586 was marked by the capture of Santo Domingo City by the
+noted English navigator, Sir Francis Drake, during the celebrated
+cruise on which he took the strongest towns on the Spanish main. On
+the morning of January 11, 1586, the inhabitants of Santo Domingo City
+were thrown into consternation at seeing eighteen foreign vessels in
+the roadstead, in a line which stretched from Torrecilla Point to the
+slaughterhouse. To the joy of the people the fleet set sail for the
+west, but their joy was short lived, for the next morning messengers
+arrived with the news that the enemy had landed at the mouth of the
+Jaina River and was marching on the city. Preparations were made for
+defense, but terror gained the upper hand and soon the civil and
+religious authorities, the monks and nuns and the entire population
+were fleeing in confusion on foot, in carts and in canoes, leaving
+their belongings behind. Some one hundred and fifty men remained to
+dispute the passage of Lieutenant-General Carliell who appeared at the
+head of a thousand men. They were quickly dispersed by the invaders
+who entered the gates with little loss and proceeded to the plaza
+where they encamped. For twenty-five days Drake held the deserted
+city, carrying on negotiations meanwhile for its ransom. When these
+flagged he ordered the gradual destruction of the town and every
+morning for eleven days a number of buildings were burned and
+demolished, a work of some difficulty on account of the solidity of
+the houses. Not quite one-third of the city was so destroyed when the
+residents paid a ransom of 25,000 ducats, about $30,000, for the
+remainder. Drake thereupon embarked, carrying with him the bronze
+cannon of the fort and whatever of value he found in the churches and
+private houses. He also ordered the hanging of several friars, held by
+him as prisoners, in retaliation for the murder of a negro boy whom he
+had sent with a flag of truce.
+
+Seventy years later Santo Domingo was again attacked by English
+forces, this time with the object of making a permanent landing.
+Oliver Cromwell after declaring war against Spain sent a fleet to the
+West Indies under the command of Admiral William Penn, having on board
+an army of 9000 men. The fleet appeared off Santo Domingo City on May
+14, 1655, and a landing was effected in two bodies, the advance guard
+under Col. Buller going ashore at the mouth of the Jaina River while
+the main body under General Venables disembarked at Najayo, much
+further down the coast. Buller met with strong resistance at Fort San
+Geronimo and was forced to retire to Venables' intrenchments. The
+united English forces made several attempts to march on the capital,
+but fell into ambuscades and sustained heavy losses. Despairing of
+success, the fleet and army left the island on June 3 and proceeded to
+Jamaica, which they captured.
+
+The rovers of the sea and the restrictive trade regulations imposed by
+the Spanish government, which limited trade with the new world to the
+single port of Seville in Spain, made development of the island's
+commerce impossible. The trade restrictions had the effect of
+encouraging a brisk contraband traffic with Dutch vessels on the north
+coast, to stop which the Spanish government adopted the incredible
+expedient of shutting up every port except Santo Domingo City and
+ordering the destruction of the north coast towns. Puerto Plata, Monte
+Cristi and two villages on the coast of what is now Haiti were thus
+destroyed in 1606 and the inhabitants transferred to towns almost in
+the center of the island, where they were far removed from temptation
+to smuggle. The measure temporarily stopped contraband trade on the
+north coast, but destroyed all legitimate trade in that region,
+transformed the coast into a desert and furnished an opportunity for
+the settlement of the buccaneers in the northwest.
+
+The English, French and Dutch, in resisting Spain's claim to sole
+trading rights in the new world, authorized the fitting out of
+privateers that often degenerated into pirates. The bays and inlets of
+the coast of Santo Domingo became favorite resorts for such ships. The
+depot of the corsairs on the island of St. Christopher having been
+destroyed by the Spaniards in 1630, a number of refugees sought
+shelter on the island of Tortuga, on the northwest coast of Haiti.
+Some of them began to cultivate the soil, others took to hunting wild
+cattle on the mainland of Haiti, while others indulged in piracy.
+Tortuga soon became the busy headquarters of reckless freebooters of
+all nations, who here fitted out daring expeditions and returned to
+waste their gains in wild carousals. In 1638 the Spanish governor of
+Santo Domingo made a descent on the island and destroyed the
+settlement, but most of the buccaneers were absent at the time and the
+only result of the raid was to cause them to organize under the
+captaincy of an Englishman named Willis. French national pride
+asserted itself, however, and with the assistance of a French force
+from St. Christopher, the English inhabitants of Tortuga, who were in
+a minority, were persuaded to leave for Jamaica, and Tortuga
+thenceforth continued under French governors.
+
+In 1648 the Spaniards of Santo Domingo made another fruitless attempt
+to expel the buccaneers; but in 1653 the Spanish governor, the Count
+of Penalva, collected a force which caught the island unawares and was
+strong enough to overawe the inhabitants, who were permitted to leave,
+though abandoning all their property. The Spaniards left a garrison
+but the persistent Frenchmen returned and drove it out. In 1664 the
+French West India Company took possession, established a garrison, and
+appointed as governor an energetic man, D'Ogeron, under whom the
+country rapidly advanced in prosperity and commerce. With the idea of
+encouraging permanent settlement, D'Ogeron had women brought over from
+the slums of Paris and portioned out as wives to the rude colonists.
+
+The rapidly increasing population caused settlements to be made on
+the Haitian mainland, and the city of Port-de-Paix was founded on a
+beautiful bay opposite Tortuga. The city flourished to such an extent
+and the advantages of settlement on the mainland were so superior that
+the settlers of Tortuga gradually left the smaller island and settled
+along the Haitian coast. Within twenty years Tortuga was practically
+deserted and it so continues to this day.
+
+A better class of people now arrived from France. Families were
+brought in from Anjou and Brittany, and the French settlements
+continued to spread all the way down the western coast of the island,
+the French settlement at Samana being withdrawn. Slaves were imported
+from Africa, and in 1678 a rising took place among them, which was
+easily put down. In 1684 the French government formally sent out
+commissioners to provide for the regular government of the colony, and
+churches and courts of justice were established.
+
+The Spanish inhabitants of Santo Domingo meanwhile made attack after
+attack on the French, but the Spanish colony was in such reduced
+straits that no extended efforts were possible. Where the French were
+repulsed the Spaniards were too few numerically to hold the territory
+and it was soon reoccupied. Angered at the repeated aggressions,
+D'Ogeron sent out an expedition under Delisle in 1673, which landed at
+Puerto Plata and marched inland to Santiago. The inhabitants fled to
+La Vega and only avoided the burning of their city by paying a ransom
+of 25,000 pesos, whereupon Delisle returned to the French colony.
+D'Ogeron at this time proposed to the French government the conquest
+of the entire island for France, and would probably have attempted to
+carry out this plan, had not his death occurred shortly after.
+
+Cordial relations existing between France and Spain in 1685,
+tentative boundary agreements were made between the French and Spanish
+authorities, but each side accused the other of violations and the
+strife continued as before. When in 1689, war broke out between Spain
+and France, the French governor organized an expedition to invade the
+Spanish section. He reached Santiago where some of his men died after
+consuming meat and wine found in the deserted houses. Believing them
+poisoned, he ordered the torch to be applied to the city and retired
+after seeing it reduced to ashes. Admiral Perez Caro, the Spanish
+governor, thereupon made preparations for a telling blow on the
+French. The colony's militia and regular troops sent by the viceroy of
+Mexico invaded the French section and on January 21, 1692,
+administered a crushing defeat on the opposing force in the plain of
+La Limonade, killing the French governor and his principal officers.
+The victorious army marched through the French settlements, desolating
+the fields and putting all prisoners to the sword. At the same time a
+new settlement the French had made at Samana was exterminated.
+
+The new French governor found the affairs of his colony in very bad
+condition; but with the assistance of refugees from other islands he
+sent an expedition to Jamaica, from where over 3,000 slaves together
+with stores of indigo and other property were carried off. In
+retaliation the English and Spanish fleets combined and with 4,000 men
+aboard set sail from Manzanillo Bay in 1695, and sacked and burned
+Cape Francais and Port-de-Paix, the English carrying off all the men
+they took prisoners and the Spaniards the women and children.
+Hostilities were ended in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick by which Spain
+recovered territory conquered from her by the French and ceded the
+western part of the island of Santo Domingo to France. The occupation
+of the western coast by France, so long resented as an intrusion, was
+thus formally recognized.
+
+The French colony immediately entered upon an era of prosperity which
+soon made it the richest country of the West Indies. Great plantations
+of tobacco, indigo, cacao, coffee and sugar were established. The
+country came to be known as the paradise of the West Indies and the
+wealth of the planters became proverbial. The grave defect was that
+this prosperity was built on the false foundation of slavery. In 1754
+the population numbered 14,000 whites, 4000 free mulattoes and
+172,000 negroes.
+
+The Spanish colony on the other hand sank lower than ever. Practically
+abandoned by the mother country, there was no commerce beyond a little
+contraband and only the most indispensable agriculture, the
+inhabitants devoting themselves almost entirely to cattle raising. The
+ports were the haunts of pirates, and a number of Dominicans also
+became corsairs. By the year 1730 the entire country held but 6000
+inhabitants, of whom about 500 lived in the ruined capital and the
+remaining urban population was disseminated among the vestiges of
+Cotui, Santiago, Azua, Banica, Monte Plata, Bayaguana, La Vega, Higuey
+and Seibo. Such was the poverty prevailing that a majority of the
+people went in rags; and the arrival of the ship from Mexico, which
+brought the salaries of the civil officials and the military, was
+hailed with the joyful ringing of church bells.
+
+To how great an extent this depression was due to trade restrictions
+is evident from the circumstance that when in 1740 several ports were
+opened to foreign commerce there was an immediate change for the
+better. Agriculture expanded, exports and imports increased, money
+circulated, the cost of the necessaries of life fell, the population
+rapidly increased and many new towns sprang up. According to an
+ecclesiastical census the population had in 1785 advanced to 152,640
+inhabitants. Of these only 30,000 were slaves, owing to the Spanish
+laws which made it easy for a slave to purchase his freedom. Many of
+the freemen were negroes or mulattoes.
+
+In 1751 the colony was visited by a severe hurricane, which caused the
+Ozama to leave its banks, and by a destructive earthquake which
+overthrew the cities of Azua and Seibo and did much damage to the
+church buildings of Santo Domingo. Azua and Seibo were reestablished
+on their present sites. Another earthquake in 1770 destroyed several
+towns in the French part of the island.
+
+From the beginning of the century the boundary between the French and
+Spanish colonies of Santo Domingo had been a source of constant
+friction and bickerings. A preliminary agreement had been made in
+1730, but in 1776 a permanent treaty was drafted, it was ratified at
+Aranjuez in 1777, and the boundary was marked with stone monuments.
+
+When the French revolution broke out in 1789 both the Spanish and
+French colonies of Santo Domingo were enjoying a high degree of
+prosperity. In the French colony there were about 30,000 whites, and
+the haughty white planters were wont to indulge in every form of
+luxury and sybaritic pleasure; the negro slaves, whose number had
+grown to almost half a million, were subjected to the most barbarous
+ill-treatment; and a class of about 30,000 ambitious free mulattoes
+had arisen, many of whom where cultured and wealthy, but who were all
+rigidly excluded from participation in public affairs. It was evident
+that but a spark was needed to produce what might turn out to be a
+general conflagration.
+
+The spark came in the formation of the National Assembly in France and
+its declaration of the rights of man. The mulattoes at once petitioned
+the National Assembly for civil and political rights, which were in
+1790 equivocally denied and in 1791 finally granted them. The whites
+resisted the government decrees and uprisings began. The first of
+these was a revolt of the mulattoes under Oge, which was quickly
+suppressed. Oge fled to Spanish Santo Domingo, but was surrendered by
+the Spaniards on condition that his life be spared, a promise that was
+not kept for he was publicly broken on the wheel. Jean Francois,
+another mulatto, then raised an insurrection of the negroes in the
+north, marching on Cape Francais, burning and murdering, with the body
+of a white infant carried on a spear-head at the head of his troops.
+His forces were defeated by the whites, who commenced an
+indiscriminate slaughter of their victims. The negroes thereupon rose
+in every direction and the paradise of the West Indies became a hell.
+The great plantation houses were burned, the wide estates desolated,
+white women were ravished and murdered and white men put to death with
+horrible tortures, while the liberated slaves indulged in orgies at
+which the beverage was rum mixed with human blood. It was a fearful
+day of reckoning.
+
+In 1793, France went to war with England and Spain. The Spanish
+authorities of Santo Domingo made overtures to negro leaders of whom a
+number entered the Spanish army as officers of high rank, among them
+Toussaint, an intelligent ex-slave who later assumed the surname of
+l'Ouverture and who showed remarkable military and administrative
+qualities. The French government sent commissioners to the colony,
+whose tactless handling of a difficult situation fanned the flames of
+civil war. The English attacked the colony, captured Port-au-Prince,
+and enlisted the aid of the revolted slaves in overrunning the
+surrounding country. When they besieged Port-de-Paix the French
+commander sent secret emissaries to Spanish Santo Domingo and induced
+Toussaint to desert from the Spanish ranks and with his negro
+followers help to drive out the English. Killing the Spanish soldiers
+he found in his way, Toussaint went to fight the English, with such
+success that in 1797 he was made general-in-chief of all the French
+troops. The English, decimated by disease, were obliged to leave in
+1798 and sign a treaty of peace with Toussaint by which the island was
+recognized as an independent and neutral state during their war with
+France. The operations in Santo Domingo are said to have cost the
+English $100,000,000 in money and 45,000 lives.
+
+In the meanwhile border fights were going on in Spanish Santo Domingo
+between Toussaint's troops and forces collected from the various
+Spanish possessions on the Caribbean Sea. They continued until 1795,
+when by the treaty of Basle peace was declared between France and
+Spain and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was--to the dismay of
+its inhabitants--ceded to France, the whole island thus passing under
+French control. Toward the end of that year part of the Spanish troops
+and members of religious orders embarked and an emigration of the
+better families began, many taking their slaves with them. The
+Spaniards also exhumed what they supposed to be the remains of
+Columbus in the cathedral of Santo Domingo and carried them to Havana.
+One of the terms of the treaty was that the colony should formally be
+delivered when French troops were sent to occupy it, but as the
+French were at this time kept busy in the western portion, the Spanish
+governor and authorities continued to administer the country for
+several years. Little by little troops and civil officials were
+withdrawn and in 1799 the royal audiencia or high court was
+transferred to Puerto Principe, in Cuba, most of the lawyers of the
+colony leaving at the same time with their families.
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture was now in supreme command in the west, though
+nominally holding under the French republic. He displayed considerable
+ability in promoting peace, ordered the blacks to return to work and
+gave protection to the whites. It was evident, however, that he aimed
+to make himself absolute master of the whole island. Pursuant to this
+plan he called on the Spanish governor, General Joaquin Garcia, to
+surrender the Spanish colony in accordance with the stipulations of
+the treaty of Basle, Governor Garcia prepared to resist, but Toussaint
+invaded the colony with an army, was successful in a skirmish on the
+Nizao River and appearing before the capital protested that he came as
+a French general in the name of the French republic. Garcia had no
+alternative but to comply with the negro chief's demands. On the 27th
+of January, 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture entered the capital with his
+troops and formally took possession. Amid the booming of cannon the
+Spanish ensign was lowered and the French tricolor raised; and
+Toussaint invited the authorities to the cathedral where a Te Deum was
+chanted. Governor Garcia immediately embarked for Cuba with the
+remaining Spanish civil and military authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT.-18O1 TO 1844
+
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture.--Exodus of whites.--Capture of Santo
+Domingo by French.--War with negroes.--Government of Ferrand.
+--Incursion of Dessalines.--Insurrection of Sanchez Ramirez.
+--Reestablishment of Spanish rule.--Proclamation of Colombian
+State of Spanish Haiti.--Conquest by Haiti.--Haitian rule.--Duarte's
+conspiracy.--Declaration of Independence.
+
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture's occupation of Santo Domingo occasioned a new
+exodus of white families who were fearful of what might happen under
+negro rule. From the French portion of the island the whites had been
+emigrating since the first uprisings; a number had fled into the
+Spanish colony and these now also left. It is estimated that in the
+decade beginning with 1795 the Spanish portion lost over 40,000
+inhabitants, more than one-third of its population. Most of the
+persons who abandoned the island during these troublous times settled
+in Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela, where they established coffee and
+sugar plantations, to the great advantage of these countries. Some of
+the most prominent families of Cuba to-day are descendants of families
+which left Santo Domingo at this time.
+
+Toussaint tried to stem the tide of emigration by issuing conciliatory
+proclamations; but when he found his efforts in vain, it is claimed
+that he conceived the idea of a general massacre of the whites
+remaining in the capital. He ordered the entire population, without
+distinction of age or sex to gather on the plaza and the men, women
+and children to be separated into different groups, the whole plaza
+being surrounded by strong forces of cavalry. Appearing before the
+terrified people Toussaint declared slavery abolished and began to
+walk up and down and ask the women in broken Spanish whether they were
+French or Spanish, touching them with his cane in an ever more
+insolent manner. It was too much for one high-spirited young woman,
+who commenced to upbraid him for daring to touch her. At this critical
+moment a severe storm, that had been gathering since he appeared on
+the plaza, broke, and Toussaint, apparently regarding it as a sign of
+divine disapproval, ordered the children removed, then permitted the
+women to retire and finally sent the soldiers to their barracks,
+leaving the men to disperse of themselves.
+
+Toussaint divided the Spanish part of the island into two departments,
+making his brother Paul l'Ouverture governor of the south with
+headquarters at Santo Domingo and General Clervaux governor of the
+Cibao, with headquarters at Santiago. He then made a journey through
+the country, being everywhere received by the frightened inhabitants
+with every mark of distinction. Upon his return to the French section
+he promulgated, in July, 1801, a constitution for the island, by which
+he was declared governor for life and commander-in-chief, with the
+right of appointing his successor and with an annual salary of 300,00
+francs. At the same time he confiscated the property of persons who
+had emigrated.
+
+Toussaint's constitution was a challenge to Napoleon Bonaparte, who
+having temporarily made peace with England, determined to reestablish
+French authority in the island. He accordingly dispatched to Santo
+Domingo a fleet with a well-equipped army of 25,000 men under his
+brother-in-law, General Le Clerc. Upon arriving in Samana Bay the
+force was divided into several bodies which were to operate in
+different parts of the island. The reconquest of the Spanish part was
+confided to Generals Kerverseau and Ferrand.
+
+General Ferrand landed in Monte Cristi and without difficulty took
+possession of the Cibao while the colored chief, Clervaux, knowing the
+hostility of the population toward him, retired without giving battle.
+General Kerverseau took Samana by assault and then sailed for Santo
+Domingo City. The negro Governor Paul l'Ouverture prepared to resist,
+but a brave Dominican, Colonel Juan Baron, organized an
+insurrectionary force and placed himself in communication with
+Kerverseau. The first attempt at uprising was a failure, as his plans
+were betrayed, and a rough sea prevented the French from landing. His
+enemies took the opportunity to sack the town of San Carlos, outside
+the city gates, and to murder a number of Dominicans. Baron gathered a
+larger force and in unison with Kerverseau demanded the surrender of
+the city. Paul l'Ouverture reluctantly capitulated and the French thus
+assumed command of the Spanish portion of the island, with Kerverseau
+as governor. When Toussaint heard of what had occurred he ordered the
+murder of a battalion of Dominican soldiers whom he had retained
+as hostages.
+
+The war waged between the French and the blacks in the old French
+Colony of St. Domingue was characterized by nameless atrocities
+committed on both sides. The last vestiges of former prosperity were
+swept away and the country converted into a wilderness. Toussaint was
+captured through treachery and died in a European prison, but yellow
+fever invaded the French ranks and did great havoc. Le Clerc died, and
+Rochambeau, his successor, was unable, even with reinforcements, to
+hold his own. England, again at war with France, impeded further
+reinforcements and actively assisted the insurgent negroes. Death by
+disease and wounds made the great French army melt away, and towards
+the end of 1803 the last remnant was forced off the island. On January
+1, 1804, the negro generals proclaimed the island an independent
+republic under the name of Haiti, one of the island's Indian names.
+Jean Jacques Dessalines, a rough, illiterate negro, but of
+indefatigable energy, was made governor for life, with dictatorial
+powers. One of his first acts was to order the extermination of such
+whites as still remained. Dessalines a year later assumed the title
+of emperor.
+
+Ferrand, the French general in the Cibao, conceived the project of
+disobeying his orders to evacuate and of trying to hold Spanish Santo
+Domingo for France. Finding that Kerverseau was ready to capitulate,
+he determined to assume command himself, feeling sure that the French
+government would approve his action, if his plans were successful. He
+therefore marched to Santo Domingo City and after a few days'
+parleying deposed Kerverseau, placed him aboard a vessel that carried
+him to Mayaguez, in Porto Rico, and assumed the governorship.
+
+Dessalines did not long keep him waiting. Desiring to extend his
+authority over the whole island, and angered by an injudicious decree
+of Ferrand, which permitted the enslaving of Haitians of over fourteen
+years found beyond their frontier, he invaded the country with a horde
+of 25,000 men. The population of the border towns fled before him in
+terror, the very slaves remaining with their masters rather than join
+him. Victorious in an engagement on the Yaque river, he laid siege to
+the capital on March 5, 1805. In the meantime his lieutenant,
+Christophe, overran the Cibao, sacking the towns and committing
+horrors. Santiago was captured before the inhabitants had time to
+flee, and a large number were murdered by the savage invaders. The
+members of the municipal council were hung, naked, on the balcony of
+the city hall; the people who had sought refuge in the main church
+were put to the sword and their bodies mutilated; and the priest was
+burnt alive in the church, the furniture of the edifice constituting
+his funeral pyre.
+
+Santo Domingo City had been placed in a state of defense and artillery
+mounted on the tower of Mercedes church and the roofs of the San
+Francisco and Jesuit churches. The garrison consisted of some 2,000
+men, but to maintain these and the 6,000 inhabitants of the city as
+well as the refugees there were only limited supplies on hand. Food
+quickly ran low when, providentially, a French fleet appeared before
+the city. The admiral, who thought the entire island abandoned by the
+French, was delighted to find the French flag still flying and gladly
+rendered assistance. A desperate sortie was made on March 28, the
+twenty-third day of the siege, with such success that Dessalines
+precipitately retired, abandoning his stores. The main body of the
+Haitians retreated by way of the Cibao, the others through the south,
+all devastating the country as far as they could. Azua, San Jose de
+las Matas, Monte Plata, Cotui, San Francisco de Macoris, La Vega,
+Santiago and Monte Cristi were reduced to ashes. In Moca 500
+inhabitants, deceived by the promises of Christophe, returned from
+their hiding places in the hills and assembled for divine service in
+the parish church, where they were butchered by the negro soldiers. In
+La Vega and Santiago the Haitian troops made prisoners of numerous
+families, aggregating 900 persons among men, women and children in La
+Vega and probably more in Santiago, and forced them to accompany the
+army to northern Haiti, where they were kept in captivity, working
+practically as slaves for their captors, for four years. The march was
+full of horrors for the poor prisoners, who were prohibited from
+wearing hats or shoes and were brutally treated by their guards.
+
+As a civil administrator Ferrand did excellent work. He encouraged the
+resettlement of the abandoned fields, persuaded emigrated families to
+return, established schools and began to build water-works for the
+capital, a work which he nearly completed, but which was abandoned by
+his successors and has never been realized in the century that has
+since transpired. Napoleon on hearing of Ferrand's conduct not only
+approved everything he had done but sent him the cross of the Legion
+of Honor and financial assistance. Ferrand was especially impressed
+with the importance of Samana Bay and made plans for a city to be
+located west of the town of Samana, to which he intended to give the
+name of Napoleon. The peaceful conditions to which the country
+returned were only troubled by British vessels which occasionally
+attempted to establish blockades. On February 6, 1806, a British
+squadron of eight vessels under Sir John Duckworth badly defeated a
+French squadron, also of eight vessels, in a hotly contested fight off
+Point Palenque to the southwest of Santo Domingo City.
+
+Although Ferrand was personally liked, discontent began to brew in the
+country. The inhabitants were loyal to Spain and chafed under foreign
+rule; many believed there was danger of Haitian invasion so long as
+the French remained; certain tax exactions stirred up animosity; and
+the stories of Spain's resistance to Napoleon's aggressions inflamed
+the spirits of the leading men. Conspiracies ensued, fomented
+principally by a Cotui planter named Juan Sanchez Ramirez, who had
+emigrated in 1803, but returned after four years of exile, and the
+Spanish flag was formally raised in Seibo in October, 1808. Ferrand
+immediately set out to quell the uprising and on November 7, 1808, met
+Sanchez Ramirez at Palo Hincado, about two miles west of Seibo. He was
+vigorously attacked by the revolutionists, his native troops deserted,
+and his other troops were cut to pieces. Seeing that all was lost and
+that all his work was ruined, Ferrand blew out his brains with
+a pistol.
+
+The revolutionists received assistance from the governor-general of
+Porto Rico and from their former enemy Christophe, who had made
+himself king of northern Haiti; a British squadron took Samana, the
+only post held by the French outside of Santo Domingo City, and raised
+the Spanish flag; and Sanchez Ramirez laid siege to the capital, where
+the French general Barquier had assumed command, while British vessels
+blockaded it by sea. The siege lasted almost nine months, during which
+the besieged suffered greatly from want of provisions, being reduced
+to eating dogs and cats, and the surrounding country was devastated by
+sorties and foraging parties. The severest fighting took place about
+San Geronimo castle, on the shore three miles west of the city, which
+was taken and retaken. In the sixth and seventh months of the siege
+the city was repeatedly bombarded from land and sea, but without
+result. At length Sanchez applied to the governor of Jamaica and a
+British force under Sir Hugh Lyle Carmichael was sent to his
+assistance. It landed at Palenque and took up a position in San
+Carlos. A general assault had been determined upon, when the brave
+little defender of the city, realizing the hopelessness of further
+resistance, agreed to capitulate to the English. On July 9, 1809, the
+French flag was lowered and the country again became a dependency of
+Spain, and in 1814 Spain's dominion was confirmed by the treaty
+of Paris.
+
+Spain had been busy fighting the French within her own borders, and
+when normal conditions were restored had her hands full in keeping
+order and in trying to bring her revolting colonies of America back to
+obedience. She had little time for affairs in Santo Domingo, and did
+nothing to ameliorate conditions. The colony was left to vegetate in
+absolute poverty. This second Spanish era came to be known as the
+period of "Espana boba," "stupid Spain," as the home government
+remained so indifferent to the colony's affairs. The only redeeming
+feature was the return of a number of exiled families. Sanchez
+Ramirez, who had been proclaimed governor-general, was confirmed in
+the office and held the same until his death in 1811, being succeeded
+by Spanish military officers.
+
+In the first years of the new Spanish colony there was an undefined
+attempt at uprising on the part of a few white hotheads, and an
+attempt to incite the slaves against their masters on the part of a
+few black ones, but in both cases the ringleaders were captured and
+put to death. The great struggle for independence in South America
+gradually influenced the minds of the inhabitants of Santo Domingo;
+Bolivar's brief visit to Haiti also had its effect, and secret
+separatist societies began to be founded. In the beginning of 1821 a
+conspiracy was discovered and numerous arrests made. Plotting
+continued nevertheless, stimulated by a prominent lawyer, Jose Nunez
+de Caceres, who dreamed of making the country a state of Bolivar's
+Colombian Republic. On the night of November 30, 1821, the conspiracy
+culminated in an uprising in the capital; most of the troops had been
+won over to the cause of independence and offered no resistance; the
+rest were taken by surprise; and the revolutionists without difficulty
+made themselves masters of the gateway "Puerta del Conde" and of the
+other gates and forts. The Spanish governor was placed under arrest
+and put aboard a vessel sailing for Europe, and the Colombian flag was
+raised. Public proclamation was made of the independent and sovereign
+State of Spanish Haiti, affiliated with the Republic of Colombia, and
+Jose Nunez de Caceres assumed the office of political governor and
+president of the State, while the provincial assembly became a
+provisional junta of government.
+
+The State of Spanish Haiti lasted barely nine weeks. An emissary sent
+to Colombia for assistance in maintaining independence was
+unsuccessful. Another emissary sent to President Boyer of Haiti, for
+the negotiation of a treaty, brought back the answer that "the whole
+island should constitute a single republic under the flag of Haiti."
+For several years Boyer, a dark mulatto, who had united Haiti under
+his rule, had been endeavoring to influence the colored people on the
+Spanish side of the border, to such an extent that the activities of
+his agents repeatedly provoked protests from the Spanish governors,
+and he now recognized that his opportunity had come. Invading the
+country in the north and south his forces captured the most important
+points. He met with no resistance, due to the fact that the temporary
+government was entirely unprepared, that the population feared a
+repetition of the horrors of 1805, and that many were in sympathy with
+him while others were indifferent. On February 9, 1822, Nunez de
+Caceres was obliged to deliver the keys of Santo Domingo City to the
+invader and the whole island came under the dominion of Haiti.
+
+The twenty-two years of Haitian rule marked a period of social and
+economic retrogression for the old Spanish portion of the island. Most
+of the whites, especially the more prominent families, the principal
+representatives of the community's wealth and culture, definitely
+abandoned the country, some immediately upon the advent of the
+Haitians, others in 1824, when a hopeless conspiracy in favor of a
+restoration of Spanish rule was quenched in blood, and others in 1830,
+when a quixotic demand of the Spanish king for a return of his domain
+was refused by Boyer. The Haitians, anxious to eliminate the whites,
+encouraged such emigration and confiscated the property left by the
+emigrants. The policy of the Haitian government was to build up a
+strong African state in the whole island, and in pursuance of this
+policy it emancipated all slaves, colonized Haitian negroes on the
+Samana peninsula and in other parts of the Spanish-speaking territory
+and brought in colored people from the United States. Some of these
+remained in Puerto Plata, others in Santo Domingo City, but the larger
+number settled on the Samana peninsula, where their descendants still
+form the bulk of the population. Every effort was made to Haitianize
+the country by extending the Haitian laws, and imposing Haitian
+governors. Representation was also accorded in the Haitian congress.
+In 1825 the French government recognized the independence of the
+French part of the island in consideration of the payment of an
+indemnity, toward which the Haitians forced the Spanish part to
+contribute.
+
+The wanton acts of the Haitian authorities, their hostility to whites
+and lighter colored mulattoes, their opposition to the Spanish
+language and customs, and their neglect of the country's development,
+caused much discontent, and the idea of separating from Haiti began to
+be entertained. An enthusiastic young man, Juan Pablo Duarte, who had
+been educated in Europe, in 1838 founded a secret revolutionary
+society, called "La Trinitaria," to work for the country's
+independence. In May, 1842, an earthquake destroyed Santiago and La
+Vega, as well as Cape Haitien and other towns in the western part of
+the island, and with lesser earthquakes which followed caused a panic
+throughout the country, which in turn made conditions more favorable
+for a change of government.
+
+In the meantime opposition to Boyer had spread in Haiti also, and in
+1843 gave rise to a revolution, as a result of which Boyer was driven
+from the country and Charles Herard installed as dictator-president.
+Duarte redoubled his activities for independence, struggling against
+the opinion of many who thought such an aspiration hopeless, but his
+plans were discovered and he and others obliged to flee. His work had
+been well done, however; his ideas continued to spread, and it was
+determined to proclaim the independence of Santo Domingo on February
+27, 1844. Late that night a large group of Dominicans under Francisco
+del Rosario Sanchez appeared at the principal gateway of Santo Domingo
+City, "Puerta del Conde," and received the surrender of the guard, and
+on the following morning the Dominican flag, as designed by Duarte,
+was waving over the gate.
+
+Dessalines, the emperor of Haiti, had adopted red and blue, two of the
+colors of the French Republic's flag, for the flag of Haiti, leaving
+out white, because to this hated color he attributed all the
+misfortunes of his country and his race. Duarte took the Haitian
+colors, arranged them in four alternate squares and placed a white
+cross in the center to signify the union of the races through
+Christianity and civilization.
+
+The other points of vantage were quickly occupied and the Haitian
+general, finding himself shut up in the fort "La Fuerza" without hope
+of successful resistance, surrendered and was permitted to withdraw
+with his officers. On the same day or within a few days afterward the
+flag of the new republic was raised in every town of the old Spanish
+colony of Santo Domingo, except certain towns in the west which are
+still in possession of the Haitians, and the country entered upon the
+period of independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--FIRST REPUBLIC AND SPANISH ANNEXATION.--1844 TO
+1865.
+
+
+Constitution of the government.--Santana's first administration.--Wars
+with the Haitians.--Administration of Jimenez.--Victory of Las
+Carreras.--Baez' first administration.--Santana's second
+administration.--Repulse of Soulouque.--Baez' second administration.
+--Period of the two governments.--Santana's third administration.
+--Annexation negotiations.--Annexation to Spain.--War of the
+Restoration.
+
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of independence a central council of
+government was formed for the provisional administration of the
+country's affairs. The new republic assumed the name of Dominican
+Republic and the people were thenceforth known as Dominicans. The
+first business before the central council of government was to prepare
+for the defense of the territory against the Haitian president,
+Herard, who was advancing with an army to reestablish his authority.
+An encounter took place near Azua, in which the Dominican forces,
+under General Pedro Santana, were victorious, but instead of following
+up his victory, Santana fell back on Bani and permitted the enemy to
+occupy Azua. In the meantime another Haitian army was advancing in the
+north. In the midst of his operations Herard was interrupted by the
+news of a revolutionary movement against him in Haitian territory, and
+hastily recalling his troops, retired to combat it, burning Azua and
+devastating the country through which he passed.
+
+Many prominent Dominicans were in doubt as to whether the republic
+would be able to maintain a stable government and resist the
+incursions of the Haitians, and believed that the best course for the
+safety and prosperity of the country would be to seek the protection
+of a foreign power. These men, who came to be known as conservatives
+and who counted Santana among their number, began to spread their
+doctrines and were bitterly opposed by a different element, calling
+themselves liberals, among whom were Duarte, returned from exile, and
+the members of the central council of government. A number of
+prominent conservatives were obliged to go into hiding in order to
+escape imprisonment, and the central council of government appointed
+Duarte its representative in the north and ordered that General
+Francisco del Rosario Sanchez supersede Santana in command of the
+troops in the south. Duarte was proclaimed president of the republic
+by the people of the north, but Santana's soldiers refusing to
+recognize any other leader, marched on the capital, which they entered
+on July 12, 1844, and deposed the central council of government,
+declaring Santana chief of state with dictatorial powers. Thus the
+unhappy series of revolutions which have done such harm to the
+Dominican Republic was inaugurated within five months after the
+declaration of independence.
+
+Santana organized a new central council of government and sent
+emissaries to the Cibao, or northern part of the republic, where he
+won over the army and the principal leaders. Duarte, Sanchez and
+others who had risked their lives and spent their fortunes in behalf
+of Dominican independence were arrested, imprisoned in irons in the
+ancient "Tower of Homage" of Santo Domingo and exiled as traitors to
+their country!
+
+A constitutional convention was called, which met at San Cristobal
+and drafted the first constitution of the Republic, taking the
+constitution of the United States as a model. It was promulgated on
+November 6, 1844. In accordance with a provision of the constitution
+that the convention elect the president for the first two terms,
+General Santana was chosen, as was to be expected. General Pedro
+Santana, who thus became the first constitutional president, was a
+rough, uncouth and uneducated man, but possessed of keen perception
+and great personal bravery. He had a strong strain of negro and
+probably also of Indian blood. Born in Hincha, he had left his native
+town during the troubles of the early part of the century and settled
+in the province of Seibo, where he acquired an ascendency over the
+population that made him a kind of local demigod.
+
+Conspiracies against Santana's government were immediately set on foot
+by the liberals, but were discovered and three ringleaders were
+executed on the first anniversary of the Republic's independence. In
+the spring of 1845 the first Congress met and proceeded to organize
+the government.
+
+In the meantime a guerilla warfare had been going on with the Haitians
+along the border, and President Pierrot, who had overthrown Herard,
+was preparing to invade the Dominican Republic. His two armies were at
+first successful and captured several border towns, but that which
+entered in the south was repulsed at Estrelleta, while that which
+invaded the north was defeated at Beler. A small Haitian fleet which
+set out to attack Puerto Plata blundered on a shoal where it was left
+high and dry and captured by the Dominicans.
+
+Steps were now taken to secure the recognition of the republic by
+foreign powers. The government soon found itself in financial
+difficulties, as it was expensive to maintain the country in a state
+of defense against the Haitians, and an issue of paper money without
+sufficient guarantees made matters worse. Revolutionary mutterings
+were heard, and though a number of leaders were shot, the public
+discontent grew greater and more apparent. Santana comprehended the
+situation and determined to resign the presidency, which he did on
+August 4, 1848. The cabinet officers temporarily carried on the
+government and called an election, as a result of which General Manuel
+Jimenez, who had fought the Haitians and had been secretary of war
+under Santana, was declared president, entering upon office on
+September 8, 1848.
+
+In his efforts to face the economic troubles of the government Jimenez
+disbanded part of the army and reduced military expenses. The moment
+was inopportune, for the implacable Haitians, who continued to
+consider Santo Domingo as Haitian territory in revolt, were preparing
+for another invasion. Soulouque, who had attained the presidency of
+the black republic, made a sudden incursion and marched victoriously
+as far as Azua. The Dominican government observed a vacillating policy
+which provoked general distrust and protests from the friends of
+Santana, whose partisans in the Congress called on him to take command
+of the army. Jimenez at first demurred but finally consented, and
+Santana, emerging from retirement, collected a few hundred ragged
+troops at Sabana Buey, near Azua. Soulouque attempted to move eastward
+by way of the canon of El Numero, but was prevented by a Dominican
+force under General Duverge; he then tried the pass of Las Carreras
+and was met and utterly defeated on April 21, 1849, by General
+Santana. The Haitians retreated to their own territory, burning Azua
+and other towns on the way.  Quarrels between President Jimenez and
+Congress continued meanwhile, and his opponents induced the army to
+declare itself against the president and request General Santana "not
+to lay down his arms until a government was established which would
+respect the constitution and the laws and forever banish discord from
+Dominican soil." The Congress called the president to appear before
+it, and some of the officers of his staff, hearing him harshly
+criticised, drew swords and pistols to punish the offending
+congressman, and only the energy of the speaker, Buenaventura Baez,
+averted a bloody conflict. Congress adjourned to San Cristobal, the
+most important towns of the country rose against the administration,
+and Santana laid siege to the capital. After the siege had lasted a
+week, and the suburban town of San Carlos had been destroyed by fire,
+President Jimenez yielded to the arguments of the British, French and
+American consuls and agreed to resign the presidency and leave the
+country on a British warship. Santana entered the city at the head of
+his army on May 30, 1849, and assumed the reins of government, one of
+his first measures being a wholesale expulsion of Jimenez followers.
+He was crowned with honors by Congress and given the title of
+"Libertador."
+
+The electoral college having been convened, Santiago Espaillat was
+chosen president, but refused to accept, realizing that Santana would
+expect to manage him as a puppet. Colonel Buenaventura Baez was then
+chosen and on December 24,1849, entered upon his first term as
+president of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Baez, who was to play a leading part in the history of his country
+during the next thirty years, was the antithesis of Santana in manners
+and education. Born in Azua in 1812, the oldest of a family of seven
+children, his father had sent him to Europe to study and he returned
+one of the most polished and best educated Dominicans of his day.
+Under Haitian rule he was a member of the Haitian congress and of one
+of the Haitian constitutional assemblies. Almost white himself, he
+here distinguished himself by his boldness in opposing measures
+restricting the rights of whites in Haiti. After the declaration of
+independence of Santo Domingo he was a member of the first
+constitutional assembly and speaker of the first congress, being
+elected from the province of Azua, where his influence was similar to
+that enjoyed by Santana in Seibo. Until he became president he was a
+close friend of Santana.
+
+Baez determined to take the offensive against Haiti, and a small naval
+campaign was undertaken in which Dominican government schooners
+captured Anse-a-Pitre and one or two other villages on the southern
+coast of Haiti, which were sacked and burned by the Dominicans. At the
+same time Baez requested the mediation of the United States, France
+and England to put an end to the struggle between Haiti and the
+Dominican Republic. Soulouque, who had meanwhile proclaimed himself
+Emperor of Haiti, offered to agree to peace and recognize Baez, but on
+condition that the Haitian flag be raised in Santo Domingo and the
+sovereignty of Haiti be admitted. His conditions were naturally
+rejected by the Dominicans, and the mediating powers informed the
+negro emperor that if he persisted in his plans of invading Santo
+Domingo they would be obliged to impose a suspension of hostilities
+for ten years. Nevertheless his forces continued to mass on the
+frontiers and small bodies actually entered Dominican territory, but
+were driven back. Upon the protests of the three powers Soulouque
+explained the incursions as having been due to disobedience to orders,
+and under pressure agreed to a truce for one year, during which
+negotiations were to continue for a definite treaty of peace or an
+armistice of ten years. In December, 1852, the minister of foreign
+affairs of France notified Haiti that the maritime nations of Europe
+were disposed to maintain the independence of Santo Domingo.
+
+A period of peace now began which afforded a breathing-spell to the
+country. Upon the expiration of Baez' four year term, Santana was
+again elected president and entered upon the office on February 15,
+1853. It was one of the occasions, only too rare in Dominican history,
+on which a president served out his term and personally delivered up
+the office to his successor.
+
+The domineering spirit of Santana gave rise to serious dissensions. He
+quarrelled with the clergy, which had been taking an active part in
+politics since the declaration of independence, forced the archbishop,
+under penalty of expulsion, to take the oath of allegiance to the
+constitution, and banished several priests. One of the reasons for his
+stand was perhaps the circumstance that Baez had sought to attract the
+church. For several years Santana had become jealous of the extension
+of Baez' influence and wrathful at the independent spirit displayed by
+his former protege. It soon became apparent that the retirement of
+Baez was equivalent to a fall from power. In July, 1853, Santana
+issued a proclamation in which he accused Baez of treason and of
+playing into the hands of the Haitians, and ordered his banishment.
+Baez fled from the country and answered with a fiery counter-appeal,
+justifying himself and accusing Santana of despotism, whereupon the
+breach between the two strong men was complete. Santana also quarrelled
+with Congress and banished or shot his principal adversaries.  In
+1854 a constitutional convention assembled to draft a constitution
+more to Santana's taste than the existing one. The presidential term
+was extended to six years and the office of vice-president was
+introduced, General Manuel de Regla Mota being elected to this office
+when General Felipe Alfau declined it. This constitution did not last
+six months, for before the end of the year Santana had it further
+restricted.
+
+Under fear of foreign complications Haiti had remained quiet for
+several years, but in 1855, when England and France were engaged in
+the Crimean war, the emperor Soulouque made a last determined effort
+to subjugate Santo Domingo. One army advanced by way of the south,
+another through the central valley; both captured the border towns and
+drove the Dominican outposts before them; and both were defeated on
+the same day, December 22, 1855, the southern army at Cambronal, near
+Neiba, by a Dominican force under General Sosa, and the other on the
+savanna of Santome, by a force under General Jose Maria Cabral. Not to
+be deterred, Soulouque rallied his men within Haitian territory, shot
+a few of his generals, and, believing all the Dominican forces
+collected in the south, marched north to invade the Cibao. Here he was
+met by another band of Dominicans at Sabana Larga and again defeated,
+retreating precipitately to his dominions. It was the last Haitian
+invasion, but Haiti did not formally recognize the independence of the
+Dominican Republic until 1874.
+
+The harsh measures of Santana had provoked general dissatisfaction and
+the friends of Baez seized the opportunity to conspire in his favor.
+Santana realized that the days of his government were numbered, and
+resigned the presidency as he had done in 1849, retiring to his farm
+near Seibo. Manuel de Regla Mota, the vice-president, thereupon on
+March 26, 1856, became president. Baez soon after arrived in the
+country and was elected vice-president; thereupon Regla Mota resigned
+as president and Baez thus slid into the presidency in a perfectly
+legal manner.
+
+The second administration of Baez opened with a revolution against him
+in the Neiba district, which was promptly put down. Baez then had
+Santana arrested and exiled, feeling uncomfortable while his former
+chief remained in the country. But he was not destined to have peace.
+An ill-considered issue of more paper money, when the rate of exchange
+with gold was already fifty to one, created indignation in the tobacco
+region of the Cibao and on July 7, 1857, Santiago declared itself in
+revolution. The movement rapidly spread, a provisional government was
+set up in the Cibao, the forces of Baez were repulsed, and soon the
+president held only Santo Domingo City and Samana. The revolutionists
+called a constitutional convention which met at Moca and in February,
+1858, promulgated another constitution, designating Santiago as the
+capital. An election was held in the midst of the war and General Jose
+Desiderio Valverde was declared elected president. For months there
+were thus two governments in the country. The revolutionists began the
+siege of Santo Domingo City towards the end of July, 1857, and later
+Santana arrived and took charge of military operations. There were
+frequent artillery duels, the fourteenth anniversary of Dominican
+independence, February 27, 1858, being celebrated by a cannonade along
+the Ozama River lasting all day. Fortunately the most distinctive
+feature of the combats was the noise, but the Baez family suffered,
+two of the president's brothers being killed in the war. Baez held out
+for eleven months, but after the fall of Samana and when Santo
+Domingo was reduced to starvation he at length yielded to the
+entreaties of the foreign consuls and capitulated on June 12, 1858. As
+soon as he had embarked for Curacao, General Santana marched into the
+city with the victorious army.
+
+It was not compatible with Santana's character to be subordinate to
+anyone else, and by the end of July he had with the government
+at Santiago and set up a government of his own "in order
+that the lovers of liberty be not disquieted, in order that peace
+prevail, and in order that the nation be saved," as he said in his
+proclamation. The Santiago government attempted to resist but was
+overcome and its members banished. Santana declared the constitution
+of December, 1854, in force again and called an election at which he
+was, of course, chosen president, taking the oath of office on January
+31, 1859. He thereupon crushed a revolution in Azua, executing the
+leaders. As the large amount of paper in circulation caused
+difficulties, he coolly repudiated the greater part, upon which a
+number of European countries temporarily broke off diplomatic
+relations because of the injury done their citizens and forced him to
+retire the paper by issuing in lieu thereof certificates acceptable
+for customs dues. This trouble removed, he devoted himself to securing
+the annexation of Santo Domingo to Spain.
+
+From the earliest days of the Dominican Republic the most prominent
+men had believed that the happiness of the country depended upon
+securing the protection of a strong power, capable of preserving
+order, and the years of warfare confirmed them in their opinion. The
+hope of remaining in power was also an incentive to the party which
+happened to be in control. Spain and France were preferred, for
+reasons of identity or similarity of language, customs and religion.
+Many also favored the United States, but while the republican form of
+government and the probability of commercial advantages were
+attractions, the existence of slavery and of prejudice against the
+colored race inspired misgivings. As early as 1843, even before the
+declaration of independence, an attempt was made to secure a French
+protectorate, and during the first war with Haiti, Santana continued
+the negotiations. In 1846 an attempt was made to obtain a Spanish
+protectorate. In 1849 President Baez in his message to Congress
+referred to the advisability of "hastening a solution of the matter by
+obtaining the intervention and protection of a strong nation which
+would offer the most advantageous terms, for on this depends public
+prosperity."
+
+On October 18, 1849, the Dominican minister of foreign affairs in a
+note to the French consul, stated that "the present situation of the
+country and the barbarous wars with the Haitians, obliged him to beg,
+in the name of his government, that the government of France give a
+definite solution to the important matter of the protectorate; and if
+the decision of France should unfortunately be in the negative, that
+it at least be not deferred too long to prevent him from addressing
+himself to the special representative of the United States, who had
+just arrived." The United States was mentioned as a bogey, for when
+France declined, the Dominican government stated that it could not
+consider the negative as final and appealed to the French sentiments
+of humanity. In 1854 another strong attempt was made to secure a
+Spanish protectorate. Neither France nor Spain was anxious to annex a
+hornet's nest, and Spain was fearful that any uprising against her
+authority would find an echo in Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1855
+negotiations were opened with General William L. Cazneau, special
+agent of President Pierce, for the lease of the Samana peninsula to
+the United States, and in the following year Captain (later
+Major-General) George B. McClellan, of the United States Army, made an
+examination of Samana Bay. Nothing came of this matter owing to
+opposition by foreign powers and the fall of the Santana government.
+Most annexation negotiations were secret, as the opponents of the
+party that happened to be in power never failed to stigmatize them as
+treasonable.
+
+The fear of American influence was one of the reasons given by the
+Haitian emperor Soulouque for his invasion of 1855, and for an
+invitation issued by him in 1858 to the Dominican people, calling upon
+them to return to the Haitian flag. It had its influence on the
+Spanish government also, which began to look more kindly upon
+annexation propositions and agreed to furnish arms, ammunition and
+military instructors to Santo Domingo. In 1860 Santana addressed
+himself directly to the Queen of Spain, and proposed a closer union.
+Bases for annexation were drawn up, founded "on the free and
+spontaneous wish of the Dominican people." Santana was careful to win
+over the local military chiefs to his ideas. His opponents vainly
+combatted the proposition from Curacao and from Haiti, which was now a
+republic again.
+
+On March 18, 1861, the people of the capital assembled on the main
+plaza pursuant to a call issued on the day before, General Santana and
+the members of his government appeared on the gallery of the palace of
+justice, a document was read to the public proclaiming the
+reincorporation of the country as a part of the Spanish dominions, and
+thereupon the red and gold flag of Spain was raised on the fort and on
+the gate "Puerta del Conde" and saluted with 101 guns. On the same day
+and during the week following, the Spanish flag was raised with
+similar ceremonies in most of the other towns. A few days later
+Spanish troops were disembarked at different points. Santana was
+appointed governor and captain-general of the colony, with the rank of
+lieutenant-general in the Spanish army.
+
+The Dominican conspirators in Haiti, comprising General Sanchez and
+others who had distinguished themselves in securing independence for
+their country, crossed the boundary and endeavored to stir up an
+insurrection, but with such misfortune that they were surrounded and
+the majority captured. Santana ordered the prisoners shot and twenty
+were executed on July 4, 1861, notwithstanding the protests of General
+Pelaez, the Spanish officer second in command. The act provoked
+bitterness against Spain and made the men so killed martyrs in the
+eyes of their countrymen. It also marked the beginning of strained
+relations between Santana and Pelaez, made worse by Santana's
+arrogance. The friction resulted in Santana's resignation on January
+7, 1862. He evidently hoped the queen would ask him to reconsider and
+give him carte blanche in Dominican affairs, but the resignation was
+accepted, though sweetened by the grant to him of the title of Marques
+de las Carreras and a life pension of $12,000 per annum. His
+successors in the governorship were high officers of the Spanish army.
+
+Discontent was not slow in spreading among the people. Injudicious
+measures enacted by the Spanish authorities, the importation of hordes
+of foreign officials, the overbearing manners of several local Spanish
+commanders, increases in the budget, intolerance on the part of the
+Spanish priests, and the natural unrest of the Dominicans, all
+combined to give rise to small revolts which were put down, until, on
+August 16, 1863, a farmer named Cabrera with a small band of
+followers, at Capotillo, near Guayubin in the Cibao, began an
+insurrection which quickly became general and is known in Dominican
+history as the War of the Restoration. The Spanish forces of the Cibao
+valley were obliged to concentrate in Fort San Luis, at Santiago de
+los Caballeros, where they were besieged by the insurgents. The
+Dominicans also captured Puerto Plata, but the city was retaken by
+Spanish troops from Cuba. Reinforcements were sent to the besieged
+garrison of Santiago, and in the fight which the Dominicans made to
+prevent the joining of the Spanish forces, the city of Santiago was
+set on fire and reduced to ashes. The Spaniards determined to evacuate
+the place, and marched down to the coast, being constantly harassed by
+Dominican guerillas, so that they lost over a thousand men before
+reaching Puerto Plata. The Dominicans established a provisional
+government with its capital at Santiago and the country continued to
+be devastated with fire and sword.
+
+General Santana was given command of a Spanish force to put down the
+insurrection in the east, but insisting on carrying out his own plan
+of campaign, he disobeyed orders and so rudely answered the
+governor-general's remonstrances that he was summarily removed from
+his position. In high dudgeon he retired to the capital, and it is
+stated that the governor intended to ship him off to Cuba; but on June
+14, 1864, he suddenly died, after an illness of only a few hours.
+
+If the Spaniards had displayed energy in opposing the revolutionists
+they would probably have carried off the victory, but the whole number
+of their troops on the island available for military service at any
+one time rarely reached eight thousand men. A campaign in the Monte
+Cristi district which might have ended the war was rendered sterile
+by the lack of troops. Finally the Spaniards, unable to garrison the
+towns they won, were reduced to the possession of Santo Domingo City
+and a few other places near the seacoast, all practically in a state
+of siege. Meanwhile the military operations were costing the home
+government large sums of money, and it became evident that, owing to
+the failure to strike at the right time, the subjugation of the
+country would entail enormous expenditures. Political conditions in
+Spain were not favorable to such a war of conquest, and the Spanish
+government determined to withdraw from Santo Domingo, alleging that
+Spain had taken possession only because she believed the Dominicans
+were anxious for annexation but that she did not wish to remain
+against their will. Possible complications with the United States,
+just emerging from the Civil War, were probably also taken into
+account. On May 1, 1865, the Queen of Spain sanctioned a law of the
+Spanish Cortes providing for the relinquishment of the colony. The
+Spanish forces were brought together at Santo Domingo City, and on
+July 11, 1865, after the guns in the forts had been spiked and the
+military stores on hand had been destroyed, the troops and the
+authorities embarked in a fleet assembled for that purpose and the
+Spanish flag was lowered, for the last time, in Santo Domingo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--SECOND REPUBLIC.--REVOLUTIONS AND
+DICTATORSHIPS.--1863 TO 1904.
+
+
+Restoration of the republic.--Military presidents.--Cabral's
+administration.--Baez' fourth administration.--Annexation negotiations
+with the United States.--Civil wars.--Heureaux's rule.--Administrations
+of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil.--Election of Morales.
+
+
+From the very beginning of the War of the Restoration and for several
+years afterwards, the principal Dominican military chiefs were engaged
+in a disgraceful squabble for leadership. As soon as the Spanish
+forces retired from Santiago the revolutionists, on September 14,
+1863, proclaimed the restoration of the republic and set up a
+provisional government under the presidency of General Jose Antonio
+Salcedo. The other generals accused Salcedo of lack of energy in
+pushing the war and on October 10, 1864, deposed him and made General
+Gaspar Polanco president in his stead. Poor Salcedo tried to resist,
+but was captured, hurried by a friend from one camp to another to keep
+him from being shot, and at last foully murdered. Polanco did not
+enjoy his triumph long. A reaction set in, a revolution was initiated
+against him, his troops deserted, he was captured and imprisoned, and
+on January 24, 1865, a superior council of government was formed by
+the insurgents, presided over by General Benigno Filomeno de Rojas.
+The council called a constitutional convention which proclaimed the
+constitution of Moca of 1858 and in March, 1865, elected General Pedro
+Antonio Pimentel president. It was he who entered Santo Domingo City
+after the evacuation by the Spaniards.
+
+Hardly had the evacuation taken place when Generals Cabral and
+Manzueta raised an insurrection which overthrew Pimentel's government
+while he was absent on the Haitian border, and General Jose Maria
+Cabral, an educated mulatto, was proclaimed Protector of the Republic.
+Cabral had formerly been one of the most enthusiastic followers of
+Baez but it soon became evident that he was working for himself. He
+convoked a constitutional assembly which was convening when General
+Pedro Guillermo rose in the east and proclaimed General Buenaventura
+Baez president. The movement was successful and the Congress,
+completely convinced by the sight of a sword unsheathed in its
+presence by one of the victorious generals, elected Baez to the
+presidency.
+
+Since his overthrow in 1858 Baez had been in exile, but he had
+accepted Spanish sovereignty and the rank of fieldmarshal in the
+Spanish army. On the outbreak of the War of the Restoration, he sent
+Cabral to join the Dominican forces as his representative. He was now
+living in Curacao and a commission journeyed there to invite him back
+to Santo Domingo, a council inaugurated on October 25, 1865, meanwhile
+taking charge. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated on
+November 14, 1865, and on the same day Baez entered upon his office.
+Neither he nor the constitution lasted long. The constitution being
+too liberal, he had it abrogated on April 19, 1866, and Santana's
+constitution of December 16, 1854, was adopted in its stead. This
+action was the excuse for an insurrection which broke out in Santiago
+on May 1, 1866, under the leadership of Pimentel in combination with
+Cabral, and quickly assumed such alarming proportions that Baez found
+it prudent to resign before the end of the month and retire
+to Curacao.
+
+As usual a constitutional assembly was called, and a new constitution
+was promulgated on September 26, 1866. An election was held and Cabral
+chosen president by a practically unanimous vote. Nevertheless his
+government had scarcely a day's peace from insurrections. It found
+time, however, to resume amicable relations with Spain, to make a
+commercial treaty with the United States and to found a professional
+institute. Other relations with the United States were also planned;
+for as Spain and France were eliminated from the annexation idea and
+the United States had abolished slavery, this country was looked upon
+with greater favor. The cost of the government's military activities
+was such that a strong attempt was made to lease Samana Bay to the
+United States for two million dollars; but as complete control was not
+offered the plan fell through. Later a special commissioner was sent
+to Washington to negotiate for the absolute lease of the Samana
+peninsula and Samana Bay, which negotiations were the prelude to the
+later annexation negotiations, but they were interrupted by a
+revolution in favor of Baez which broke out in Monte Cristi on October
+7, 1867. and deposed Cabral on January 31, 1868. A council of generals
+administered affairs until Baez took charge for the fourth time, on
+May 4, 1868.
+
+In accordance with established usage, the existing constitution was
+abrogated and Baez' pet constitution, that of December, 1854, placed
+in force, but with amendments. Baez then began to rule with a firm
+hand, and though occasionally bothered by small uprisings on the
+Haitian border, promoted by Cabral, Luperon and other unruly spirits,
+managed to sustain himself in power for almost his full term of six
+years. He was able to realize what had been the golden dream of
+administrations since the birth of the Republic, the contracting of a
+foreign loan. Hartmont & Co., a firm of London bankers, agreed to
+issue bonds of the Republic to the amount of L757,700, though at a
+ruinous rate, and actually paid over L38,095. The dream turned to a
+nightmare, for when the government annulled the contract on the ground
+of failure to comply with conditions, the bankers continued to issue
+bonds and kept the proceeds themselves; and the bonds thus
+fraudulently issued constituted the nucleus of the enormous debt which
+later led to American intervention.
+
+Though Baez had, for political reasons, protested against Cabral's
+negotiations with the United States, he was too sagacious a statesman
+to fail to recognize the value of American protection. It was now
+Cabral's turn to indulge in tirades full of patriotic indignation, for
+Baez actively pursued negotiations for the annexation of the country
+to the United States. On November 29, 1869, two treaties were signed
+in Santo Domingo City by representatives of the American and Dominican
+governments: by one the Samana peninsula and Samana Bay were leased to
+the United States for fifty years at an annual rental of $150,000, and
+by the other the Dominican Republic was annexed to the United States.
+Baez submitted the annexation treaty to a plebiscite in his country in
+February, 1870, and an overwhelming vote was cast in favor thereof.
+While the adversaries of the treaty did not dare to oppose it actively
+within the country, it is probable that the vote represented the true
+sentiment of the Dominican people, for aside from the evident economic
+advantages of annexation, the influence of Baez was such that the
+people were ready to follow blindly whatever he advised.  Both
+treaties lapsed, but the annexation treaty was renewed and President
+Grant in his messages to Congress strongly urged its passage. Powerful
+opposition developed in the United States Senate, led by Senator
+Sumner, and the treaty failed of ratification. By a resolution of
+Congress, approved January 12, 1871, the President of the United
+States was authorized to send a commission of inquiry to Santo
+Domingo. President Grant appointed three eminent men, Benjamin F.
+Wade, Andrew D. White and Samuel G. Howe, who were assisted by
+Frederick Douglas, Major-General Franz Sigel and a number of
+scientists. The commission proceeded to Santo Domingo, travelled
+across the country in several directions and made an extensive report,
+which is still an important source of information as to the
+characteristics of the island. The commission's report was transmitted
+to Congress, and President Grant made another earnest plea for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo. Congress took no further action, however,
+and the United States thus deliberately rejected an opportunity to
+obtain control of a most important strategical position and to secure
+peace and prosperity to the Dominican people.
+
+It is interesting to speculate on what the future of Santo Domingo
+would have been if annexation had been realized. The power of the
+United States would have maintained peace; salutary laws would have
+educated the people in self-government; liberal tariff concessions
+would have stimulated agriculture and industry; the influx of a good
+stock of immigrants would have developed and settled the interior;
+honest administration would have provided roads and schools, and soon
+the country would have attained a high degree of development and
+prosperity. The failure of the United States to extend a helping hand
+condemned Santo Domingo to long years of anarchy and dictatorships.
+
+When it became apparent that nothing would come of the annexation
+plans, the Baez administration, on December 28, 1872, rented the
+Samana peninsula to an American corporation, the "Samana Bay Company,"
+for ninety-nine years, at an annual rental of $150,000. The company,
+which intended to found a large city on Samana Bay, actually paid the
+sum of $147,229.91, the greater part in gold and the remainder in arms
+and ammunition. This payment, with that received on account of the
+Hartmont bonds, and with the higher customs receipts due to quiet
+conditions, afforded relief to the treasury; while peace brought the
+country a prosperity further increased by the immigration of numerous
+Cubans driven from their homes by the ten years' war that had begun
+in 1869.
+
+President Baez did not lose hope in the ultimate realization of
+annexation, and it was also his intention to have himself reelected
+for another term of six years. These circumstances were used against
+him by his ambitious enemies, and on November 25, 1873, a revolution
+broke out in Puerto Plata which spread so rapidly that Baez was
+obliged to capitulate on December 31 of the same year. A new
+generation, grown up since the independence of the country and which
+had come to look upon civil disorder as a normal condition, now came
+into power, and the question of foreign annexation ceased to be
+an issue.
+
+A period of constant revolutionary ferment and frequent changes of the
+constitution followed, with a wearisome succession of military
+presidents. General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez became provisional
+president in 1874, took advantage of the non-payment of an annuity by
+the Samana Bay Company to rescind the contract with the company,
+called a national assembly, which formulated the constitution of March
+24, 1874, and had himself elected president, entering upon office on
+April 6 of that year. As the constitution did not suit him, he called
+a new national convention and had another constitution promulgated on
+March 9, 1875. This was too much even for Santo Domingo, and his
+enemies formed a powerful league in Santiago with a view to having him
+impeached, but the Congress rejected the charges. Another civil war
+was imminent when Gonzalez resigned on February 23, 1876.
+
+The council of ministers took charge of the government and held an
+election at which Ulises F. Espaillat was designated president. He
+entered upon office on April 29, 1876, and as he was an excellent man
+would have given a good account of himself under different conditions;
+but General Gonzalez started a revolution on the Haitian frontier, and
+on October 5, 1876, Espaillat was ousted. A superior council of
+government was formed, which appointed General Gonzalez president in
+the beginning of November, 1876. Gonzalez had been in power for just
+one month when he was overthrown, in December, 1876, by a revolution
+that originated in the Cibao, and General Buenaventura Baez became
+president for the fifth time. The Republic thus had four presidents in
+1876: Gonzalez twice, Espaillat and Baez. Baez called a constitutional
+convention and the constitution of May 14, 1877, was promulgated.
+Under the influence of the younger element he was less autocratic than
+in his previous administrations, but perhaps for that very reason his
+whole term was one prolonged struggle with insurrections, until he was
+obliged to surrender on February 24, 1878. He retired to Porto Rico
+and died near Mayaguez in 1884.  Two governments were now
+established, General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez being proclaimed president
+in the Cibao, and General Cesareo Guillermo in Santo Domingo. An
+agreement was reached by them on April 13, 1878, and Guillermo became
+provisional president of the entire country. The constitution of 1877
+was reproclaimed with amendments, an election was held and General
+Gonzalez was declared constitutional president, entering upon office
+on July 6, 1878. Guillermo immediately started a revolution with
+General Ulises Heureaux and compelled Gonzalez to abdicate on
+September 2, 1878. It was the end of Gonzalez' meteoric presidential
+flights, but after a period of retirement he ventured into public life
+again, and for many years was Dominican minister to Haiti.
+
+Jacinto de Castro, the president of the supreme court, acted as
+president until September 29,1878, when he was succeeded by the
+council of ministers of which Guillermo was chief. The constitution of
+1878 was promulgated, with amendments, on February 11, 1879, and on
+February 28, Guillermo, after going through the form of an election,
+became constitutional president. He did not last long. On October 6,
+1879, a revolution broke out at Puerto Plata and a provisional
+government was formed under the presidency of General Gregorio
+Luperon, an intelligent negro, who had been imprisoned for larceny
+under Spanish rule, but had redeemed himself by signal services in the
+War of the Restoration. Guillermo resisted two months, but was
+compelled to surrender on December 6, 1879.
+
+Luperon did not depart from the usual custom, but called a
+constitutional assembly which, in 1880, adopted with amendments the
+constitution of 1879, and fixed the presidential term at two years.
+Luperon then held an election and gave the presidency, for the two
+years beginning September 1, 1880, to one of his supporters, Father
+Fernando de Merino, an eloquent priest who had taken an active part in
+politics since his youth, and who later became archbishop of Santo
+Domingo. The reverend gentleman suppressed all revolutionary uprisings
+with uncompromising severity and did not hesitate to execute the
+conspirators that fell into his hands.
+
+During Merino's administration General Ulises Heureaux served as
+minister of the interior and began to wield the power which he was to
+retain for twenty years. Heureaux was born in Puerto Plata about 1846.
+Both of his parents were negroes, his father being a Haitian who
+followed the sea and afterwards became a merchant, and his mother a
+St. Thomas woman. He received a mercantile education and took part as
+a subordinate in the War of the Restoration against the Spaniards. On
+the withdrawal of the Spaniards, in 1865, he became a bandit on the
+Haitian border and practised horse stealing on a large scale. Later he
+obtained a position in the Puerto Plata custom-house and took a more
+and more prominent part in the civil disturbances of his country,
+until he became well known as a politician and a revolutionist. He
+distinguished himself by his bravery and was many times wounded.
+Throughout these civil wars he remained a sturdy follower of General
+Luperon, the successor of Santana as leader of the "Blue" party and an
+implacable opponent of General Buenaventura Baez, the chief of the
+"Reds" and of General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, the leader of the
+"Greens." When General Luperon overthrew President Cesareo Guillermo,
+in 1879, Heureaux was closely associated with the revolutionary movement.
+
+Heureaux was able to strengthen himself to such an extent that when,
+in 1882, Luperon determined to become president himself he found that
+his former follower had outgrown him in power. The result was that
+Heureaux became president and served from September 1, 1882, to
+September 1, 1884. When his term expired a bitter struggle ensued with
+Luperon, who still retained considerable influence. Luperon's
+candidate was Segundo Imbert, while Heureaux supported General
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, who was ultimately victorious. Luperon
+went into exile, but later became reconciled with Heureaux and
+returned to die in Santo Domingo.
+
+Billini entered upon the presidency on September 1, 1884, but became
+restive under the demands of Heureaux and his friends and resigned on
+May 15, 1885. The vice-president, Alejandro Woss y Gil, succeeded to
+the chief office. His term was to have expired in September of the
+following year, but a formidable insurrection broke out in July, 1886,
+under General Casimiro N. de Moya, with the object of preventing
+Heureaux from carrying out his design of succeeding Gil. After six
+months of fighting, during which the number of fatalities was happily
+remarkably small, Heureaux was victorious, and having had himself
+re-elected, resumed the presidency on January 6, 1887, until which
+time Woss y Gil remained in office.
+
+The biennial elections were a source of annoyance even to one who was
+sure of victory, and Heureaux therefore called a constitutional
+convention which amended the constitution then in force and lengthened
+the presidential term to four years, beginning in 1889. As General
+Cesareo Guillermo, Heureaux's former companion in arms and later
+opponent, was understood to be nursing aspirations for the presidency,
+Heureaux sought to apprehend him. Guillermo fled, but finding himself
+pressed, committed suicide. No further obstacle opposed Heureaux's
+election, and he was again inaugurated on February 27, 1889.
+
+In the meantime negotiations had been undertaken for the contracting
+of new foreign loans, and one was floated in 1888 and another in 1892.
+The government's fiscal agent who secured these loans in Europe was
+General Eugenio Generoso Marchena, a man of much influence. In 1892
+General Marchena announced himself as a candidate for the presidency.
+Heureaux won without difficulty, but still uneasy, he arrested
+Marchena in Santo Domingo, imprisoned him for a year and sent him to
+Azua to be shot.
+
+During Heureaux's new term, beginning in 1893, the country by
+improvident bond issues and debt contraction, made rapid strides in
+the direction of bankruptcy. In 1893, the San Domingo Improvement
+Company, an American corporation, under contract with the government
+took charge of the customs collections for the purpose of providing
+for the services of the loans. The illegal imprisonment of several
+Frenchmen gave rise to friction with the French government and in 1894
+a French fleet appeared before Santo Domingo City, but the matter was
+adjusted by the payment of an indemnity. As the 1889 constitution
+forbade a president from holding office for more than two terms in
+succession, Heureaux, wishing to continue in the presidency, obviated
+the difficulty by the simple expedient of promulgating a new
+constitution in 1896, in which the limitation was removed. He was
+declared unanimously elected in 1896 and began his final term on
+February 27, 1897.
+
+The long period of comparative peace enjoyed by the country under the
+rule of President Ulises Heureaux, or "Lilis," as the dictator was
+popularly known, brought seeming progress and prosperity, though at a
+heavy price. Many of his opponents Heureaux was able to buy, and in
+this way he retained the loyalty of hundreds of little military chiefs
+scattered through the country. Those whom he could not buy he
+persecuted, imprisoned, exiled, or executed. While possessing pleasant
+and affable manners, he was unrelenting in his persecution of
+conspirators and many stories are told of his harshness in this
+respect. It is related that when he was minister of the interior under
+Merino he discovered that his brother-in-law was implicated in a plot;
+he therefore invited him to dinner and after they had dined, asked how
+his guest had enjoyed the meal. "Very well," was the answer. "I am
+glad of that," said Heureaux, "for I am about to have you shot. Take a
+cigar," he added pleasantly, "it will be your last." And it was, for
+the execution followed at once. On another occasion, so the story
+goes, after he had become president, a prominent general was his guest
+and after dinner they took a stroll. Coming to a place in the suburbs
+where workmen were digging a peculiar trench, the general inquired,
+"What are they digging here?" "They are digging your grave," answered
+Heureaux, and before the general could recover from his consternation
+a squad of soldiers appeared. He was shot and buried then and there.
+The governor of Macoris and the minister of war were both powerful men
+whose influence was feared by Heureaux. He therefore cunningly wrought
+up the latter against the former to such an extent that one fine
+morning the minister suddenly appeared in Macoris and had the governor
+summarily shot. An outcry was made by the governor's friends, and
+Heureaux, affecting indignation at the act, had the minister of war
+executed. Many of his prisoners mysteriously disappeared, and popular
+rumor points out one of the lower platforms of the fort "La Fuerza,"
+where an aguacate tree formerly grew, as the place where prisoners
+were shot at night, their bodies being thrown to the sharks at the
+base of the cliff. Some of the dictator's suspects were assassinated
+in the public streets. Even exiles were not secure from his wrath and
+in one instance a Dominican writer named Eugenio Deschamps, who had
+been publishing articles against him in Porto Rico, was seriously
+wounded in the streets of Ponce by an assassin's bullet.
+
+Ability and unscrupulousness, courage and cruelty, resolution and
+cunning were mingled in the character of Heureaux. Over the country he
+exercised the powers of an absolute monarch. He was the fountain head
+of all government and the real chief of every department. The accounts
+of the government and his private accounts were treated by him as one
+and the same thing. His ambition to remain in power necessitated the
+expenditure of large sums which he obtained through improvident
+foreign loans and usurious contracts with local merchants. Those whom
+he favored grew rich; his enemies he ruined. In other ways also his
+morals swerved from the straight and narrow path, and an isolated town
+gloried in the distinction of being the only place in the Republic
+where the president did not have a mistress. He himself stated that he
+had no concern as to what history would say of him, since he would not
+be there to read it.
+
+During the latter part of Heureaux's administration the leaders of the
+opposition were recognized as Juan Isidro Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez,
+Vasquez was the chief of a large landholding family of the Cibao.
+Jimenez had been a prominent merchant, at one time carrying on
+mercantile houses in Monte Cristi, New York, Paris and Hamburg; his
+family had formerly been prominent in Dominican affairs, his father
+having been president of the Republic in 1848 and his grandfather one
+of the leading spirits of the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was
+thrown off. Jimenez was born in Santo Domingo City in 1846 and as a
+boy went to Haiti with his father, growing up in Port-au-Prince. As a
+youth he removed to Monte Cristi, where he established himself in
+business and took part in the War of the Restoration against the
+Spaniards. Having with Heureaux, he resided for a number of
+years in Cape Haitien, Haiti, and from there directed conspiracies
+against the dictator.
+
+In May, 1898, Jimenez made a bold attempt to overthrow the Heureaux
+government. He fitted out a small steamer, the "Fanita," in the United
+States and left ostensibly to aid the Cuban insurgents; and as the
+United States was then at war with Spain the expedition was not
+opposed by the American government. A landing was made at Monte Cristi
+with only twenty-five men, a general uprising being expected as soon
+as his arrival became known. Jimenez' followers took the town, but the
+governor of the district was able to escape to the country and
+returned with a large force, driving Jimenez back to his vessel with a
+loss of one-half of his companions. The "Fanita" had touched in the
+Bahamas on the way down and on returning to Inagua Island, Jimenez was
+arrested by the British authorities as a filibuster. Heureaux sent a
+man-of-war to Nassau and did all he could to have the case pressed.
+Jimenez was tried twice; at the first trial the jury did not agree,
+and the second time he was acquitted.
+
+Though popular hatred against Heureaux was strong on account of his
+tyrannical conduct and his attempts to compel the circulation of a
+large issue of inconvertible bank notes with which he flooded the
+country, the fear in which he was held prevented any general uprising.
+There were many, however, among them Horacio Vasquez, who never ceased
+conspiring against the dictator. When it became known that Heureaux
+was resolved to bring about Vasquez' death, Ramon Caceres, a cousin of
+Vasquez, and other members of the Vasquez clan, were drawn into the
+conspiracies. The father of Caceres, once vice-president under Baez,
+had been killed, it is said, by order of Heureaux. In July, 1899, when
+Heureaux prepared for a trip through the Cibao, he was informed of a
+plot to kill him on the way. When he arrived in Moca he thought that
+no danger awaited him there, as he expected that if any attack were to
+be made on him it would be at some solitary portion of the road and
+not in a town in broad daylight. When about to leave Moca on July 26,
+1899, he ordered the governor of the province to arrest Caceres and
+his companions. Caceres was informed of the order by the secretary of
+the governor, who was his friend, and knowing that the arrest would
+probably be followed by an execution, with several companions he
+repaired to a store where Heureaux was talking with the proprietor,
+the provincial treasurer. As soon as Heureaux appeared in the doorway
+Caceres began to shoot, and the other conspirators continued firing,
+although the first shot had been fatal. Heureaux before falling drew
+his revolver and returned the fire, but the darkness of death clouded
+his vision and the shots went wild, one of them, however, killing a
+beggar to whom he had a few moments before given alms. Caceres and his
+companions fled to the mountains, and the body of Heureaux was taken
+to Santiago, where it was afterwards interred in the cathedral. Juan
+Wenceslao Figuereo, vice-president of the Republic, an aged negro,
+succeeded to the presidency.
+
+The death of Heureaux precipitated a revolution headed by General
+Horacio Vasquez. President Figuereo made no resistance, but at the end
+of August resigned, together with his cabinet, first designating a
+committee of citizens to administer affairs until the arrival of
+Vasquez, who entered the capital on September 5, 1899, and became the
+head of the provisional government. Jimenez in the meantime hastened
+to the country and was everywhere received with rejoicing. The two
+leaders arranged that Jimenez should become president and Vasquez
+vice-president, and an election was held on October 20, by which this
+result was attained, the inauguration taking place November 20, 1899.
+Ramon Caceres, the slayer of Heureaux, was made governor of Santiago
+and delegate of the government in the Cibao.
+
+The Jimenez administration was the reaction of that of Heureaux. It
+deserved, more than any the Republic had had up to that time, the name
+of civil and constitutional government. The executive was not
+absolute, as in the time of Heureaux, nor were there sanguinary
+executions. Almost too little restraint was exercised, and the press,
+so long muzzled, began to convert its liberty into license. Jimenez,
+too, was so good-hearted that at times he yielded to importunities
+which had better been resisted. The financial problems left by the
+Heureaux administration caused considerable trouble and though the
+waste of the public revenues was curtailed, large sums were still
+absorbed in the payment of revolutionary claims and of pensions for
+local military chiefs.
+
+Jealousies soon ripened between Jimenez and Vasquez, who was known to
+long for the presidency and had only temporarily laid aside his
+aspirations on account of the overwhelming popularity of Jimenez. Each
+of the chiefs collected a group of friends about him and in this way
+originated the still existing political parties, Jimenistas and
+Horacistas, the respective followers of Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez.
+Several minor uprisings occurred but were suppressed by the
+government. In the beginning of 1902 the Dominican Congress, which was
+composed largely of Vasquez' friends, considered the advisability of
+impeaching President Jimenez on account of the financial transactions
+of the administration, and a vote of censure was finally passed.
+Jimenez believed Vasquez at the bottom of the agitation and endeavored
+to have the municipalities protest against the action of Congress.
+Rumors became current that Jimenez intended to imprison his
+vice-president and thus insure his own reelection. Vasquez, urged on
+by his friends, therefore started a revolution in the Cibao, and after
+a fight in San Carlos and a four days' siege of the capital entered
+Santo Domingo City on May 2, 1902, and became president of a
+provisional government. Jimenez sought refuge in the French consulate
+and embarked for Porto Rico a few days later.
+
+General Horacio Vasquez was born in Moca and was a ranchman, merchant
+and planter. He possessed military capacity and took a minor part in
+several revolutions. At first a friend of Heureaux, he afterwards
+became one of his bitterest enemies, and for a number of years lived
+as an exile in Cuba and Porto Rico, returning to Moca shortly before
+the death of Heureaux to remain in retirement on his plantation. The
+Vasquez administration had as much difficulty with financial matters
+as that of his predecessor, but the president had little opportunity
+to show what he could do. Local outbreaks began in Monte Cristi and
+became general in October, 1902. Disturbances continued until March
+24, 1903, when, during the absence of President Vasquez in the Cibao,
+the political prisoners in the fort of Santo Domingo City, through
+connivance with the general in charge, broke out, took the fort,
+liberated the convicts, threw the city into a panic with a continued
+fusillade, and proclaimed a revolution. They were for the most part
+Jimenistas and "Lilicistas," or members of the old Heureaux party, and
+their candidate for the presidency would probably have been Jimenez;
+but in Jimenez' absence the presidency was offered to Figuereo and
+others, who declined, and was finally accepted by Alejandro Woss y
+Gil, who had only the week before been liberated from the same
+political prison.
+
+General Vasquez returned with an army, arriving before Santo Domingo
+City at the end of March. The ensuing siege was one long battle,
+during which a portion of the suburban town of San Carlos was
+destroyed by fire. On April 18, 1903, Generals Alvarez and Cordero,
+the best generals of the besiegers, made a violent attack on the city
+and effected an entrance, but fighting continued in the streets and
+these leaders and most of the storming party were killed. Vasquez
+thereupon fled to Santiago, resigned his post, and left the country
+for Cuba. On the triumph of his party a year later, he returned to
+Santo Domingo and retired to his plantation in Moca.
+
+Woss y Gil, who thus became president of the provisional government,
+called a session of Congress and by appointments favorable to his
+interests so intrenched himself that his continuance as president
+became assured. Jimenez, who arrived shortly after, advanced the claim
+that he was still president de jure, since the constitutional term of
+four years for which he had been elected had not expired, and he
+denominated the Vasquez government a temporary and illegal usurpation
+of power. In his efforts to regain office he sent his friend Eugenio
+Deschamps to treat with Gil, but Deschamps, seeing Gil obdurate, made
+an agreement by which Woss y Gil was to become president and Deschamps
+vice-president, Jimenez was obliged to yield to the inevitable and
+returned to Porto Rico in the hope of eventually succeeding Woss y
+Gil. An election was held in which Woss y Gil and Deschamps were the
+only candidates and on June 20, 1903, they were inaugurated.
+
+In General Alejandro Woss y Gil the Republic had a very talented man
+as president. Born in Seibo, he had entered politics in his youth, and
+became a friend and follower of Heureaux. At times he was governor of
+a province, later for a long period Dominican consul at New York, and
+from 1885 to 1887 president of the Republic. He had received a good
+education and traveled extensively, spoke several modern languages,
+had some knowledge of the classic languages, and was a poet, musician
+and writer.
+
+Unfortunately the talents of Woss y Gil did not extend to the securing
+of an honest and efficient administration. The ministers appointed by
+him were exceedingly injudicious selections, and a carnival of fraud
+and dishonesty was soon in progress. Discontent grew general, and by
+the end of October, 1903, General Carlos F. Morales, governor of
+Puerto Plata, raised the standard of revolt and his troops marched on
+the capital. The revolution was supported by both parties, the
+Jimenistas and Horacistas, and was known as the "war of the union."
+Morales, the leader of the insurrection, had been a follower of
+Jimenez and favored the aspirations of the latter to the extent even
+of sending requests to Jimenez to come to Santo Domingo at once. The
+siege of Santo Domingo City lasted for about three weeks. On November
+24, 1903, Woss y Gil, finding himself vanquished, permitted Morales'
+troops to enter the city and sought refuge in the British consulate.
+Three days later a German man-of-war carried him to Porto Rico, and he
+later continued to Cuba, where he long resided in the city
+of Santiago.
+
+For a short time a tripartite revolution was in progress, the
+supporters of Woss y Gil, Horacio Vasquez and Jimenez fighting in
+different parts of the country. Morales, on entering Santo Domingo,
+became president of the provisional government. The new governors of
+the Cibao were Jimenistas, but most of the appointments Morales made
+in the south were Horacistas, and it began to be suspected among the
+Jimenez followers that he had designs on the presidency. When Jimenez
+arrived in Santiago he realized that his ambitions were again
+endangered and he and his friends grew restless. On December 6, 1903,
+Jimenez fled from Santiago to Monte Cristi, claiming that Morales had
+sent a troop of fifty men to assassinate him.
+
+A counter revolution followed at once and swiftly attained large
+proportions. It became the most serious unsuccessful revolution the
+Republic had seen. At one time the whole country was in the hands of
+Jimenez except Santo Domingo City and the small port of Sosua, near
+Puerto Plata. The government forces were able to retake Puerto Plata,
+but the siege of the capital continued uninterruptedly from December
+to February. Attacks and sallies were frequent, every house along the
+walls and in the suburbs soon showed bullet marks and the town of San
+Carlos was again partially destroyed by fire. Finally Morales defeated
+the besiegers,  and in March, Macoris was taken by the government
+forces and the backbone of the revolution was broken. The insurrection
+had spent itself on account of lack of supplies and efficient leaders.
+Jimenez, financially ruined by his attempts to reestablish himself in
+power, again withdrew to Porto Rico. The government forces were unable
+to retake the Monte Cristi district, but an agreement was reached by
+which the Jimenista authorities remained in full control and the
+district became practically independent.
+
+An election was held, as a result of which Carlos F. Morales became
+president and Ramon Caceres vice-president, and they were inaugurated
+on June 19, 1904. The new president, Morales, was an unusually clever
+man, although his conduct sometimes betrayed that he came from a
+family in which there had been mental derangement. He was born in
+Puerto Plata, studied for the priesthood, took orders, and held the
+office of parish priest in various places in the Cibao. After the
+death of a brother who participated in Jimenez' ill-fated "Fanita"
+expedition and was killed in the attack on Monte Cristi, Morales took
+an interest in public affairs and during the administration of Jimenez
+became a member of Congress. At this time he laid aside his religious
+habit, married, and devoted himself exclusively to politics. During
+the Vasquez administration he was an exile in Cuba, but on the
+ascendancy of Woss y Gil he was made governor of Puerto Plata, and in
+this capacity initiated the revolt against the Gil government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--AMERICAN INFLUENCE.--1904 TO DATE (1918)
+
+
+Financial difficulties.--Fiscal convention with the United
+States.--Caceres' administration.-Provisional presidents.--Civil
+disturbances.--Jimenez' second administration.--American intervention.
+
+
+The enormous foreign and internal debt left by the Heureaux
+administration had been constantly increased by ruinous loans to which
+the succeeding governments were obliged to resort during the years of
+civil warfare, until the country was in a condition of hopeless
+bankruptcy. In the beginning of 1904 every item of the debt had been
+in default for months.
+
+Under pressure from foreign governments, the principal debt items due
+foreign citizens had been recognized in international protocols and
+the income from each of the more important custom-houses was
+specifically pledged for their payment, but in no case was payment
+made. One of these protocols, signed with the American charge
+d'affaires, liquidated the government's accounts with the San Domingo
+Improvement Company, which had been turned out from the administration
+of custom-houses by President Jimenez, and provided for a board of
+arbitration to settle the manner of payment. The arbitrators
+determined the instalments payable and specified the custom-house of
+Puerto Plata and certain others as security, which were to be turned
+over to an American agent in case of failure to pay. No payment being
+made, the American agent demanded compliance with the arbitral award
+and on October 20, 1904, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+The other foreign creditors, principally French, Belgian, and Italian,
+naturally began to clamor for the payment of their credits and for the
+delivery of the custom-houses pledged to them. To have done so would
+have meant absolute ruin, as the government would have been entirely
+deprived of means of subsistence. In face of the imminent likelihood
+of foreign intervention the Dominican government applied to the United
+States for assistance, and in February, 1905, the protocol of an
+agreement between the Dominican Republic and the United States was
+approved, providing for the collection of Dominican customs revenues
+under the direction of the United States, and the segregation of a
+specified portion toward the ultimate payment of the debt. The treaty
+was submitted to the United States Senate, but that body adjourned in
+March, 1905, without final action. The creditors again became
+importunate and an interim modus vivendi was therefore arranged, under
+which the Dominican customs were to be collected by a receiver
+designated by the President of the United States, and the proportion
+mentioned in the pending treaty was reserved as a creditors' fund. The
+temporary arrangement went into effect on April 1, 1905, and the
+effect was immediately apparent. Confidence was restored, the customs
+receipts rose to higher figures than ever before, and the prospects of
+peace became brighter as revolutionists could no longer count on
+captured customhouses to replenish their exchequer.
+
+The position of President Morales was a difficult one. He was an
+ex-Jimenista at the head of an Horacista government, and there was no
+sympathy between him and his council. The Horacistas distrusted him
+and forced him to dismiss his friends from the cabinet and to make
+distasteful appointments. Seeing that he was being reduced to a
+figurehead, Morales secretly tried to form a party for himself or make
+arrangements with the Jimenistas who for months had been conspiring
+and threatening to rise. The friction became more severe until
+Morales, fearing that both his office and his life were in danger, on
+the day before Christmas, 1905, fled from the capital, while the
+Jimenistas rose in Monte Cristi and marched down to attack Santiago
+and Puerto Plata.
+
+It was the anomalous spectacle of a president leading an insurrection
+against his own government. Fortune was against the insurgents from
+the beginning. Morales, while trying to scale a rocky wall near the
+Jaina River, in the neighborhood of the capital, fell and sprained his
+leg, so that he was unable to proceed further but was obliged to
+remain in hiding in the woods, suffering much pain. In the Cibao,
+important dispatches of the revolutionists were captured by the
+government forces, which were thus enabled to make surprise attacks.
+The insurgents attacked Puerto Plata under their best general,
+Demetrio Rodriguez, an intelligent mulatto, and would probably have
+taken the town, had not Rodriguez received a bullet in the temple,
+whereupon his men became panic-stricken and dispersed. Morales saw
+that all was lost and returned to the capital, where he went to the
+American legation for protection. On the following morning, January
+12, 1906, with his foot bandaged and tears rolling down his cheeks, he
+wrote out his resignation. He was immediately conveyed to Porto Rico
+on an American cruiser. The triumph of the government was complete,
+its troops overran Monte Cristi, and an Horacista was made governor of
+the district. Morales fixed his residence in the island of St. Thomas
+and later in France. He continually conspired for a return to the
+presidency, and was once tried for filibustering in Porto Rico, but
+acquitted. A friendly administration made him Dominican minister in
+Paris, where he died in 1914.
+
+Upon the resignation of Morales the vice-president, General Ramon
+Caceres, assumed the presidency. Caceres was born in Moca on December
+15, 1867, and was a prominent cacao-planter. It was he who killed
+Heureaux in 1899, after which he entered public life, being governor
+of Santiago and delegate of the government in the Cibao during the
+administrations of Jimenez and Vasquez, an exile in Cuba during the
+administration of Woss y Gil, and vice-president and governmental
+delegate during the administration of Morales. He had the appearance
+of an honest country squire, large of body and great of heart.
+
+During the years 1906 and 1907 special attention was given to the
+settlement of the debts of the republic. A new bond issue of
+$20,000,000 was made for the purpose of converting the old debts, and
+an arrangement was effected with the principal creditors, by which the
+amounts due were reduced by about one-half. Instead of the still
+pending convention of February, 1905, with the United States, a new
+fiscal treaty was agreed upon, and approved by the United States
+Senate and the Dominican Congress, taking effect on August 1, 1907. In
+similarity with the provisions of the modus vivendi, the customs
+income of the Republic is collected by a General Receiver of Dominican
+Customs, appointed by the President of the United States, and a
+portion of the income is set aside by him for the service of the loan.
+
+For years the various governments had been planning to revise the
+constitution of 1896, Vasquez even calling a constitutional
+convention; but the political kaleidoscope turned before such
+intentions could be realized. Conditions becoming sufficiently stable,
+a new constitution was promulgated on September 9, 1907. It was found
+unsatisfactory and a constitutional convention met in Santiago and on
+February 22, 1908, promulgated the present constitution, by which the
+presidential term was lengthened to six years and the office of
+vice-president abolished. An election was held and General Ramon
+Caceres was chosen president, entering upon his new term on July
+1, 1908.
+
+As a result of the Dominican-American fiscal arrangement the old debt
+was practically all canceled, burdensome concessions were redeemed,
+and a large portion of the surplus from the new bond issue was set
+aside for public works, of which several were undertaken. A few
+uprisings by dissatisfied chiefs remained local and unsuccessful. A
+border clash with Haiti, which in January, 1911, caused the dispatch
+of troops to the frontier, was settled by diplomacy. The hope of
+continued peaceful conditions gave a new impulse to agriculture,
+industry and commerce, and the exports and imports increased year
+by year.
+
+At a time when the future seemed brightest, the Republic was suddenly
+startled by the news of the assassination of President Caceres on
+Sunday afternoon, November 19, 1911. The president, with a single
+companion, was returning from a drive along the new road to San
+Geronimo. At Guibia, a suburb of the capital, a number of conspirators
+rushed for the carriage, seized the reins of the horse and began to
+shoot. The president's companion fled, but Caceres, a fearless man and
+an excellent shot, returned the fire. Almost simultaneously a bullet
+shattered his right wrist. The coachman lashed the horse in an
+attempt to escape, but the horse reared and threw the carriage against
+a hedge. The coachman then dragged Caceres from the carriage and
+assisted him to the stable of a house on the roadside, adjoining the
+American legation, but the conspirators meantime continued to fire
+furiously and several shots struck the president. Seeing their object
+accomplished, the assassins withdrew, and the president, mortally
+wounded, was carried to the American legation, where he expired a few
+minutes later.
+
+The conspirators were a handful of malcontents led by General Luis
+Tejera, a young man of prominent family, at one time governor of the
+capital under Caceres, but lately estranged. Caceres had known of
+Tejera's seditious sentiments but refused to take them seriously.
+Immediately after the shooting, the conspirators hastened away in a
+waiting automobile, carrying with them their leader Tejera, who had
+been wounded in the leg during the affray. At the Jaina ferry the
+automobile was accidentally precipitated into the river, and the
+wounded man was fished out half drowned. The other conspirators left
+him in a hut by the road and escaped. Tejera was found by the
+pursuers, taken to the fort in Santo Domingo City, and summarily
+executed.
+
+The commandant of arms of the capital, General Alfredo M. Victoria,
+who controlled the military forces, permitted his own ambitions to
+influence him more than the welfare of his country. Being only
+twenty-six years old, he was not of the constitutional age to be
+president, but listening to the counsel of scheming politicians, he
+dominated the situation by force of arms and brought about the
+selection of his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as provisional president. The
+latter was a senator from Santiago province, and had at one time been
+a member of Caceres' cabinet, but he was not regarded as of
+presidential calibre and his selection provoked general surprise and
+indignation. General Victoria's army was a potent argument; it
+withered the ambition of other aspirants to the presidency, and
+Senator Victoria was elected provisional president and entered upon
+office December 6, 1911. In the following February the usual form of
+public election was gone through and on February 27, 1912, he took the
+oath of office as constitutional president. His nephew occupied
+important cabinet positions under the new administration.
+
+The general opposition to President Victoria and to the method of
+electing him found expression in revolutionary uprisings throughout
+the country, especially in the Cibao and Azua. Ex-President Vasquez,
+ex-President Morales and several Jimenista generals took the field
+independently. Morales was captured, but the others continued the
+fight. Beginning early in December, 1911, the war dragged on for
+months, both sides sustaining heavy losses and extensive sections of
+the country being devastated.
+
+It became apparent that there was a deadlock, the government being
+powerless to subdue the revolutionists, while the revolutionists were
+unable to carry on an active campaign against the government. The
+American government eventually extended its good offices with a view
+to the reestablishment of peace and order. A special commission
+appointed by the President of the United States and consisting of an
+official of the War Department and another of the State Department
+arrived in Santo Domingo in October, 1912, and initiated a series of
+conferences with government and revolutionary leaders. An agreement
+was concluded and in accordance therewith the Dominican Congress
+assembled on November 26, 1912, accepted the resignation of President
+Victoria, and elected the archbishop of Santo Domingo, Monsignor
+Adolfo A. Nouel, as provisional president for a period of two years.
+He was inducted into office on December 1, 1912.
+
+Archbishop Nouel, a man of great learning, beloved and respected
+throughout the country, entered upon his duties with the announced
+purpose of giving an impartial administration and governing with both
+parties. The difficulties of the plan were soon impressed upon him,
+particularly as he relied entirely upon moral suasion to carry his
+policies into effect. Pressure was applied for favors which he could
+not grant, his appointments were bitterly criticised as savoring of
+nepotism or as unduly favoring one side or the other, and some of the
+fiercer military chiefs assumed a menacing attitude. Sick and
+disgusted, Monsignor Nouel resigned the presidential office on March
+31, 1913, and embarked for Europe.
+
+The Dominican Congress immediately considered the choice of a
+temporary successor and after many ballots elected a compromise
+candidate, General Jose Bordas Valdez, an Horacista senator from Monte
+Cristi, as provisional president for a period of one year. He assumed
+office April 14, 1913. His designation did not please the Jimenistas,
+and the Horacistas also became hostile when it appeared that President
+Bordas contemplated forming a party of his own. His opponents promptly
+rose in the Cibao and took possession of the ports of Puerto Plata,
+Sanchez and Samana, which were thereupon blockaded by the government
+forces. In the latter part of September, 1913, the revolutionists laid
+down their arms on the promise of the American minister that free
+elections for presidential electors and members of a constitutional
+convention would be guaranteed. A municipal election was in fact
+held, but President Bordas, alleging that conditions were too
+unsettled for a general presidential election, held on as president de
+facto beyond the term for which he had been provisionally elected. On
+the day his term ended, April 13, 1914, another revolution broke out
+and rapidly spread to all parts of the Republic. Puerto Plata was
+occupied by the insurgents and blockaded for several months by
+government vessels, the blockade being accompanied by a siege of the
+city under the direction of the president himself. On the other hand,
+the insurgents laid siege to the capital. The government contracted
+heavy debts to carry on the war and the commerce of the country
+suffered greatly.
+
+Again the American government lent its good offices for the
+restoration of order. In August, 1914, a commission of three delegates
+of the United States arrived in Santo Domingo to present a plan for
+the resignation of Bordas, the selection of a provisional president by
+the chiefs of the several political parties, a revision of the
+election law, and the holding of general elections. The plan was
+agreed to, President Bordas resigned, and Dr. Ramon Baez, a son of
+former President Buenaventura Baez, was elected by the Dominican
+Congress as provisional president on August 27, 1914.
+
+Popular elections were held in October, at which there were four
+candidates: ex-President Juan Isidro Jimenez, ex-President Horacio
+Vasquez, ex-Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez, and a fourth of
+little consequence. The Jimenez and Velazquez forces effected a
+combination, as a result of which Juan Isidro Jimenez was elected
+president a second time, and took the oath of office on December
+5, 1914.
+
+For a moment it seemed as though the country was at last entering upon
+an era of peace and prosperity. The government made efforts to solve
+the financial problems left by the recent civil wars and to resume
+public improvements. Investments of foreign capital increased, and
+agriculture and commerce expanded.
+
+The elements of disorganization were present, however, in as strong a
+degree as ever. Corruption was general in the administration of the
+public funds, but attempts at reform had no result further than to
+stimulate violent opposition. The old leaven of sedition was at work,
+and disgruntled military chiefs found a willing leader in the minister
+of war, General Desiderio Arias, a chronic revolutionist from Monte
+Cristi, who had for years used the popularity of Jimenez as a cloak
+for his own aspirations. The president, aged and infirm, was unable to
+meet the situation with energy, and disinclined to adopt
+severe measures.
+
+In the early part of 1916 Arias had his friends in Congress vote to
+impeach President Jimenez for alleged frauds. The matter was still
+under discussion, and the president was ill at his country place on
+the San Cristobal road, near Santo Domingo City, when in April, 1916,
+General Arias suddenly seized the military control of the capital and
+issued a proclamation by which he practically deposed Jimenez and
+assumed the executive power himself.
+
+Another civil war was imminent when deliverance came in an unexpected
+manner. For many years past in previous disturbances, one or both of
+the warring factions had looked to the United States government for
+help in restoring order, and diplomatic assistance had time after time
+put an end to strife. The endless succession of revolts had at length
+exhausted the patience of the American government. In the face of
+another general war with its attendant destruction of life and
+property, harm to American and other foreign interests, and danger of
+international complications (a British and a French man-of-war were
+already solicitously hovering off the capital), the American
+government took decisive action. With the consent of President
+Jimenez, it landed marines at old San Geronimo castle, on the Guibia
+road, near Santo Domingo City.
+
+Though Jimenez approved of this action and recognized that his country
+could not emerge from the slough of revolution without American
+assistance, he was depressed at the condition of affairs, and in view
+of his physical feebleness felt himself unequal to the task of guiding
+the country through impending difficulties. He therefore on May 6,
+1916, resigned the presidency of the Republic, and subsequently
+returned to Porto Rico to live. The council of ministers temporarily
+assumed the administration.
+
+Arias, dismayed at the action of the United States, made protest, but
+the American government refused to admit the legality or sincerity of
+his conduct. Its troops advanced on Santo Domingo City and
+Rear-Admiral Caperton, the American commander, gave Arias twenty-four
+hours to evacuate. He promptly obeyed, and on May 15 the Americans
+occupied the city.
+
+American troops continued to be landed, at Puerto Plata on June 5; at
+Monte Cristi on June 19; and at other seaports as necessity demanded,
+until a total of about 1800 marines had been disembarked. They
+proceeded into the interior, taking over the preservation of public
+order and disarming the inhabitants. They advanced on foot, in
+improvised motor trucks, and as real "horse marines," in accordance
+with a plan to secure thorough pacification by having them appear in
+all parts of the country.  The American marines met with no serious
+opposition except in the Cibao, in the section between Monte Cristi,
+Puerto Plata and Santiago, where the following of Arias was strongest.
+To clear this section two columns were launched from the seacoast with
+Santiago as the objective, the first of 800 men from Monte Cristi, the
+second of about 200 men from Puerto Plata, the entire force being
+under command of Brigadier-General Joseph H. Pendleton. The
+expeditionary force from Monte Cristi, under Colonel Dunlop, advanced
+along the highway, which was little more than a muddy trail through a
+jungle of cactus and thorny brush, and several Americans were shot
+from ambush. Repeatedly small detachments of rebels made a stand upon
+some favorable piece of ground, until routed by the marines. The
+decisive encounter took place on July 1, 1916, at Guayacanes, near
+Esperanza, where a force of 400 marines after a stubborn fight carried
+a strongly entrenched position defended by about 300 rebels. The
+American losses were 1 enlisted man killed and 1 officer and 7
+enlisted men wounded; the rebels are estimated to have lost several
+score between killed and wounded, their leader, Maximito Cabral, being
+killed fighting in the trenches after all his men were dead or
+driven off.
+
+The second column, from Puerto Plata, under Major Bearss, opened up
+the railroad, encountering its principal resistance at the tunnel
+south of Altamira. The two columns joined forces at Navarrete and then
+occupied Santiago. All the insurgents eventually dispersed or
+surrendered, and Arias himself submitted to the American military
+control, which became absolute throughout the country. The total
+American losses in occupying the country were 3 officers killed and 3
+wounded and 4 enlisted men killed and 12 wounded; the losses of the
+insurgents are estimated at between 100 and 300 killed and wounded.
+
+The Dominican Congress proceeded on July 25, 1916, to elect a
+temporary president, and chose Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, a
+distinguished physician and highly cultured man. It was understood
+that he was to hold for six months and was not to seek reelection at
+the general election to be held within that time. The United States
+government, however, was loath to extend recognition unless assured
+that Santo Domingo would enter upon a path of order and progress. The
+fiscal treaty of 1907 had not secured the peace expected of it; the
+prohibition against the contracting of further indebtedness had been
+frequently violated; disorder and corruption had continued; and the
+American government deemed its task uncompleted if it should surrender
+the country to the same chaotic conditions. It accordingly required,
+as a condition of recognizing Henriquez, that a new treaty between the
+two countries be adopted, similar to the recently approved treaty
+between the United States and Haiti, where a series of revolutions
+culminating in a massacre of prisoners had the year before obliged the
+American government to intervene. The principal features of this
+treaty were the collection of customs under American auspices, the
+appointment of an American financial adviser, and the establishment of
+a constabulary force officered by Americans.
+
+Henriquez, jealous of his country's sovereignty and fearful that the
+proposed arrangement would make the Dominican government a puppet
+controlled by all-powerful and not sufficiently responsible American
+officials, refused to accede to the American demands. The American
+authorities thereupon declined to pay over any of the Republic's
+revenues to a government which they did not recognize. Inasmuch as
+they not only collected the customs and port dues, but had assumed
+control of the other revenues as well, the Henriquez government was
+left penniless. Nevertheless, the American demands continued to be
+rejected. As a result, no salaries were paid in any part of the
+Republic; the officials who continued in their duties did so with the
+hope of being compensated at some future date; some services, such as
+the mail service, were discontinued almost entirely; and the whole
+machinery of the government was paralyzed.
+
+This tension and anomalous condition lasted for several months. As the
+term for which Henriquez had been elected drew to a close, it became
+evident that he had no idea of retiring from the presidency, but, on
+the contrary, intended to hold general elections, in which he expected
+to be the successful candidate. The deadlock thus threatened to
+continue indefinitely, and the American government thereupon
+determined to cut the Gordian knot.
+
+On November 29, 1916, Captain (later Rear-Admiral) H. S. Knapp, of the
+United States navy, commander of the American cruiser force in
+Dominican waters, and of the forces of occupation of the Dominican
+Republic, issued a proclamation, declaring the Dominican Republic
+under the military administration of the United States. The
+proclamation recited that the Dominican Republic had failed to live up
+to the terms of the treaty of 1907; that the American government had
+patiently endeavored to aid the Dominican government, but that the
+latter was not inclined or able to adopt the measures suggested,
+wherefore the American government believed the time at hand to take
+steps to assure the execution of said Convention and to maintain
+domestic tranquillity in the Republic. He therefore declared that the
+Dominican Republic was placed in a state of military occupation by the
+forces under his command; that the object of the occupation was not to
+destroy Dominican sovereignty, but to restore order; that Dominican
+laws were to continue in effect so far as they did not conflict with
+the objects of the occupation or the decrees of the military
+government; that the Dominican courts were to continue in their
+functions, except that offenses against the military government were
+to be judged by military courts; and that all the revenues of the
+Dominican government were to be paid over to the military government,
+which would administer the same. He called on all inhabitants to
+cooperate with the forces of the United States.
+
+The military government so established took full possession of the
+country. The chiefs of the executive departments not having appeared
+in their offices, their posts were declared vacant and filled with
+officers of the American navy. In the country at large, there was
+little open opposition, and such as appeared was suppressed without
+difficulty. The inhabitants quickly reconciled themselves to the
+situation, realizing that it was to the best interests of their
+country. Dr. Henriquez, the ex-president, left for Cuba in the early
+part of December.
+
+The military government thereupon proceeded to organize the finances,
+to pay arrears of salaries, to subdue several bandits who refused
+allegiance, and to confiscate all arms. Absolute order and security,
+greater than have prevailed in Santo Domingo since colonial days, were
+soon established. The military government then devoted itself to the
+construction of public works, especially roads, the organization of a
+police force, and in general to the improvement of the country.
+
+ After the Washington government determined to participate in the
+European war, the American military governor on April 12, 1917,
+connected Santo Domingo with the war by canceling the exequaturs of
+the German consular representatives in the Dominican Republic; there
+was no formal rupture, as no diplomatic representative of either
+country was at the time residing in the other. German residents were
+subjected to surveillance by the American authorities.
+
+The Dominican Republic is still (January, 1918) being administered by
+American naval officers and the work of reorganization continues.
+Eventually--in all likelihood after the European war--the government
+is to be turned back to the Dominican people, and it is probable that
+such devolution will be under conditions that will assure a stable
+government, peace and progress.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+AREA AND BOUNDARIES
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo.--Boundary
+disputes.--Harbors on north coast.--Character of shore.--Samana
+Bay.--Character of east and south coast.--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+Domingo.--Ocoa Bay.--Islands.--Haitian frontier.
+
+
+Of the great chain of islands which extends in a vast semi-circle from
+the southern coast of Florida to the northeastern coast of Venezuela,
+the second largest is the Island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, situated
+midway between Cuba and Porto Rico, and lying between latitude
+17 deg.36'40" and 19 deg.58'20" north and longitude 68 deg.18' and 74 deg.51' west of
+Greenwich. The island is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north,
+the Mona Channel on the east, the Caribbean Sea on the south, and the
+Windward Passage on the west. The nearest point of Porto Rico is 54
+miles distant, of Cuba 50 miles, of Jamaica 90 miles and of Venezuela,
+the nearest country on the South American continent, 480 miles. The
+distance from Puerto Plata, on the north coast of the island, to New
+York is 1255 miles, to Havana 710 miles, and to Southampton 3925
+miles. The distance from Santo Domingo City to San Juan, Porto Rico,
+is 230 miles, to La Guayra 500 miles, and to Colon 810 miles.
+
+The island is divided between two political entities, the western one,
+comprising one-third of its surface, being the Republic of Haiti,
+while the eastern one is popularly known as Santo Domingo or San
+Domingo, though it is officially termed the Dominican Republic. These
+two republics present at once interesting resemblances and contrasts.
+They are separated by no natural bounds; their soil, resources, and
+political conditions are similar; but while in Haiti the language and
+historical associations are French and the numerically predominant
+race stock is black, in Santo Domingo, on the other hand, the language
+and historical associations are Spanish, and the mulatto rather than
+the black is most in evidence.
+
+The area of the island is generally stated at 28,249 square miles, of
+which Haiti is credited with 10,204 square miles and the Dominican
+Republic with 18,045 square miles. Since no part of the island has
+ever been carefully surveyed, such figures can be regarded as only
+approximately correct. The Dominican Republic is therefore about as
+large as the States of New Hampshire and Vermont together, less than
+half as large as Cuba and more than five times the size of Porto Rico.
+
+In the above estimate of the area of the two Republics no account is
+taken of their reciprocal claims to further lands. Each claims about
+1500 square miles occupied by the other. The Dominicans affirm they
+have a right to the plain of Hinche and St. Raphael, comprising some
+of the finest agricultural lands on the island. They contend that
+Haiti is entitled only to the territory embraced in the confines of
+the old French colony of Saint-Domingue. Under the treaty of Aranjuez,
+of June 3, 1777, the boundaries of the French and Spanish colonies on
+the Island of Santo Domingo were carefully defined and marked by
+monuments. In 1795 the Spanish colony was ceded to France; but when in
+1804 the Haitians declared the independence of the island, they were
+able to control little more than the old French portion, most of the
+old Spanish portion remaining in the possession of France. The
+boundary line remained unchanged when the old Spanish portion again
+came under the rule of Spain in 1809. In 1822 Haitian rule was
+extended over the entire island, but in 1844, when the inhabitants of
+the eastern portion proclaimed their independence their declaration
+comprised the whole of the old Spanish part of the island. The Haitian
+government made strenuous efforts to reconquer the revolting
+provinces, with the final result that it was able to retain and still
+retains 1500 square miles more than belonged to the former French
+colony. This is the portion still claimed by Santo Domingo.
+
+On the other hand, the Haitians, based on alleged boundary conditions
+and tentative arrangements in 1856 and 1874, claim a strip of land now
+occupied by Santo Domingo lying along the border and also aggregating
+about 1500 square miles. Maps published in Haiti always show the
+boundary line from five to forty miles further east than it is
+in reality.
+
+Arbitration has repeatedly been suggested to determine the boundary,
+and efforts were made in 1895 to submit the question to the Pope and
+in 1911 to resort to The Hague, but without success.
+
+The Haitians have not only peopled and carefully guarded the territory
+controlled by them, but have attempted to push the frontier further
+east toward the line they claim. In 1911 and a year later, alleged
+encroachments by Haiti almost led to war between the two countries.
+The United States interposed its good offices and in 1912 suggested as
+provisional boundary, until otherwise determined by mutual agreement
+between the two countries, the line which was observed as boundary in
+1905 when the American receiver general of customs took charge of the
+frontier custom-houses. Both countries agreeing, the line as suggested
+has since been regarded as the boundary and bids fair to become, with
+perhaps a few unimportant modifications, the permanent boundary
+between Haiti and Santo Domingo. The outlook for arbitration seems to
+be no better now than heretofore, nor is it probable that any court of
+arbitration would divest either Haiti or Santo Domingo of any
+considerable portion of the lands they have so long possessed.
+
+The boundary disputes have not tended to improve the relations between
+the two countries, which formerly regarded each other with a hatred
+that has only in the past fifty years softened down to mutual distrust
+and dislike. It has frequently happened that the authorities of one
+country abetted insurrections in the other; and it was common practice
+for insurgents in either country to retreat across the border to
+recuperate in the other. In the Dominican revolutions of 1912 to 1914
+several bands of revolutionists had permanent headquarters on the
+Haitian side.
+
+The greatest breadth of the Dominican Republic, from the Morro of
+Monte Cristi to Cape Beata, is about 170 miles, the greatest length,
+from Cape Engano to the Haitian frontier, about 260 miles. The
+Republic has a coast line of about 940 miles, on which there are
+several good ports and large bays.
+
+One of these is Manzanillo Bay, which lies at the extreme northwestern
+point of the Republic. Large and well protected, affording excellent
+anchorage for any class of vessels, it is one of the best harbors and
+perhaps the most important point strategically, on the north coast of
+the island. It receives the waters of the Dajabon or Massacre River,
+which constitutes part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican
+Republic, and of the turbulent Yaque del Norte, which here forms a
+delta of considerable extent. Owing to the proximity of Monte Cristi
+the various projects for the establishment of a port and custom-house
+at this point have hitherto failed of realization.
+
+Fifteen miles to the northeast of Manzanillo Bay is the ancient port
+of Monte Cristi, discovered by Columbus, in his vessel the Nina, on
+his first voyage. The great explorer landed here to examine the plain
+near the shore, and departed at dawn on January 6, 1493. The port of
+Monte Cristi is a large open bay with a fine roadstead, but the
+shallow water near the shore obliges vessels to anchor over a mile
+from land. On the eastern side the harbor is sheltered by a high
+promontory now known as El Morro, to which Columbus gave the name of
+Monte Cristi, after a remarkable profile, recalling the pictures of
+Christ, which is visible in the outlines of the mount to vessels
+entering the harbor. The isolated, treeless mountain under the usually
+cloudless sky of beautiful blue strongly recalls the buttes of our
+Western plains.
+
+The range of mountains known as the Monte Cristi Range, forms a
+background for the entire northern coast of the Republic. From Monte
+Cristi for fifty miles east, to the bay of Isabela, the shore is bleak
+and barren, formed of rocks and cliffs with short intervals of sandy
+beach. Isabela Bay is where the first Spanish settlement in America
+was laid out by Columbus in 1493. Little remains to mark the site, but
+the white palm-fringed strand gleams in the sunlight and is caressed
+by the blue waters just as in Columbus' day. The harbor at the mouth
+of a stream flowing down from the mountains is small and shallow, but
+it is occasionally visited by coastwise vessels in search of cargoes
+of mahogany and other woods from the nearby hills.
+
+Thirty miles east of Isabela lies Puerto Plata. The intervening coast
+possesses a few small ports of little importance, but sometimes
+visited by coasting schooners. The most important one is Blanco,
+which during the War of the Restoration with the Spaniards was the
+insurgents' port of entry and the base of considerable illicit trade
+with Turks Island. The harbor of Puerto Plata, the most important city
+on the north coast, is formed by a small bay, enclosed on the sea side
+by a reef of coral rock. There is plenty of depth within, but little
+room, and only three or four large steamers can with safety anchor
+here at the same time. The harbor is well protected except on the
+north. During gales from that direction it becomes exceedingly
+uncomfortable, and the narrow entrance channel quite dangerous.
+Portions of wrecks rising above the foaming water of the reef--the
+broken bow of one vessel and ship's engine of another--bear witness to
+the perils lurking there at such times. Near the shore the harbor is
+shallow, and though there is little tide, the water recedes some
+distance. To avoid the difficulty there is a long pier for the use of
+small boats and it is no longer necessary, as of yore, for passengers
+to be carried ashore from boats in the arms of the boatmen. A fine
+public dock for large vessels is also nearing completion.
+
+A broad and fertile coast plain extends from Puerto Plata some
+twenty-five miles to the small port of La Goleta. On this plain about
+twelve miles from Puerto Plata, lies the port of Sosua. La Goleta is a
+distributing point for the lumber cut in this district. A considerable
+portion thereof proceeds from the headwaters of the nearby river
+Yasica, being floated down the river and then along the ocean shore.
+From the Yasica River, the mouth of which is about 100 feet wide, an
+uneven rocky stretch of coast extends in a southeasterly direction to
+Cape Frances Viejo, where there is a new lighthouse. Numerous brooks
+traverse this region and leap down to the sea from the rocks, in
+beautiful cascades often twenty and thirty feet in height. Near Cape
+Frances lies the small town formerly called Tres Amarras and now
+Cabrera. The Monte Cristi Range terminates here, its foothills forming
+the promontories of Cape Frances and Point Sabaneta. Travel along this
+rugged part of the coast is difficult; in order to avoid the
+troublesome gullies of the shore, the trail often runs far inland
+through dense jungle. The rocks are of a conglomerate formation, and
+are worn by the waves into the most fantastic shapes. From the
+appearance of the cliffs it seems that at remote periods two distinct
+upheavals of the land took place, the first of which formed the peaks
+which rise about twelve miles in the interior, the second and more
+recent one giving origin to the great rocks along the coast. The
+precipices in the interior, which in ages past were washed by the sea,
+rise to a sheer height of from two hundred to four hundred feet and
+are crowned with trees. The rocky masses in the coast forests are full
+of clefts and caverns which furnish habitation to millions of bees.
+
+The shore now curves southward and becomes low and sandy. There are
+low coast plains covered with trees, especially groves of palm trees,
+which extend far into the interior. Four rivers are crossed, which
+carry comparatively little water, and the mouths of which are
+obstructed by sand bars caused by the prevailing north and east winds.
+As a result of these bars the streams flood the country and form large
+stagnant lakes, that have effectively prevented a settlement of the
+region. Some seven miles before reaching the mouth of the Gran Estero
+there is a little town called Matanzas, a kind of headquarters for
+turtle fishermen and which, though the entrance to its bay is almost
+closed by a sand bank, is often visited by coasting schooners that
+call for cacao from nearby plantations.  What is called the Gran
+Estero is a network of bayous and channels, some upon the surface,
+others subterranean, which extends from the Yuna River to the ocean
+and traverses the marshy plain forming the neck of the Samana
+peninsula. It is apparent that the Yuna River centuries ago emptied
+into the ocean and that what is to-day the Samana peninsula was once
+an island separated by a broad channel from the mainland, to which it
+became united by the gradual rise of the land and by the alluvium
+deposited by the river. The great swamp so formed is in one place as
+much as 18 miles wide, and is covered with stunted mangrove trees and
+rank weeds and bushes. The decaying vegetation gives the water of the
+bayous and stagnant ponds a dirty coffee color and taints the air with
+malarial miasma. The opening of channels and draining of the swamp
+would remedy the defects, at the same time providing important means
+of communication and reclaiming large tracts of the richest
+agricultural land.
+
+From Matanzas the coast extends due east, closely following the
+mountain range which beginning near Port Jackson forms the backbone of
+the Samana peninsula. Spurs of the mountains rise precipitously from
+the sea which foams at their rocky base, and from the summits to the
+water's edge the country is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The few
+rocky coves along the shore were a favorite resort for buccaneers in
+days gone by. One of them is Port Jackson; the entrance is rendered
+dangerous by a coral reef, but once within, the deep waters are always
+tranquil and offer good shelter to the little craft of the turtle
+fishermen. Though the waters of this region are said to teem with the
+finest fish but little attention is paid to fishing. Another cove,
+difficult of access because of the jagged rocks near the entrance, is
+Port Escondido, or Hidden Port, near the most conspicuous feature of
+this coast, the lofty promontory of Cape Cabron, or Cabo del
+Enamorado, Lover's Cape. The easternmost point of the peninsula is the
+rugged double-terraced headland of Cape Samana, reckoned as the
+beginning of Samana Bay, though strictly speaking the Bay begins at
+the majestic cliff known as Balandra Point.
+
+This magnificent bay, one of the great harbors of the world and the
+finest by far of the West Indies, has ever excited the admiration of
+travelers. Securely sheltered against storms, of an extent sufficient
+to accommodate the navies of the world, easily fortified and defended,
+occupying a highly important strategical position, its advantages
+cannot be overestimated. Samana Bay, a submerged extension of the
+great valley of the Yuna River, is thirty-five miles in length and
+from ten to fifteen miles in width. Looking up the Bay from the
+entrance no land is descried on the horizon. Columbus, when he first
+entered, believed he was on an ocean channel dividing two islands. The
+north coast is protected by the low mountain-range of the Samana
+peninsula, in places resembling the Palisades on the Hudson, and the
+southern shore is fringed by a chain of hills, so that the emerald
+green waters of the Bay are perfectly sheltered against all winds
+except those from the east. Even here the effect of the wind is
+modified and it is only during eastern gales that choppy waves oblige
+small boats to seek the coves along the shore. About four miles from
+Point Balandra, is a group of five islets, known as the Cayos
+Levantados. The channel between these Keys and the northern shore of
+the Bay, 2000 yards in width with a maximum depth of 140 and a minimum
+depth of 50 feet, constitutes the principal entrance to the Bay, the
+only one which is available for large vessels. The other channel,
+known as the  Half Moon Channel, lies immediately south of the Keys;
+but being narrow and shallow, is navigable only by vessels of light
+draft. The great expanse of water, fifteen miles in width, between
+this channel and the south shore of the Bay is so dotted with shoals
+as to be absolutely impassable. It will thus be seen that the actual
+entrance to the great Bay is quite narrow and could easily be defended
+by mines or by fortifications on the Cayos and the peninsula. The Bay
+is like a great bottle with a very narrow neck. The Spaniards, in
+fact, established a small fort on the headland, its ruins being now
+hidden by dense underbrush.
+
+It seems surprising that no large and flourishing metropolis should
+have arisen on the shores of this splendid body of water. Apparently
+the principal reason why it did not appeal to the Spaniards was that
+owing to the prevailing easterly breezes their clumsy vessels would
+have encountered difficulty in leaving. Since the days of steam, of
+course, this trouble is obviated. The value of the Bay as a naval
+station has been widely advertised, and France, England and the United
+States have at various times entertained projects of acquiring it. The
+American government in 1869 even negotiated a treaty for the lease of
+Samana peninsula and Samana Bay, but the United States Senate failed
+to act and the treaty was lost by expiration of time. The Bay would
+constitute a military and commercial key to this part of the world for
+any power possessing it.
+
+Near Balandra point is the tiny settlement of Las Flechas, located
+upon the scene of the first encounter marked by bloodshed between the
+Spaniards and Indians. A number of Columbus' men having landed here in
+January, 1493. were attacked by Indians and in the ensuing engagement
+an Indian was wounded.  The occurrence induced Columbus to name the
+Bay Golfo de las Flechas, Gulf of the Arrows. At the end of the main
+channel of entrance to the Bay the north shore is indented by the
+large and commodious basin of Clara, and about two miles further to
+the west is the harbor of the old city of Santa Barbara de Samana, a
+tranquil sheet of water, separated from the Bay proper by several
+small islands, but which can be entered only by vessels drawing less
+than twenty feet. Beyond Samana the coast becomes a little less steep
+and the verdure-covered mountains recede sufficiently to give room to
+narrow coast plains, thickly grown with cocoa-nut palms. Along the
+beach are landscapes of idyllic beauty. Deep water extends up to the
+shore and there are half a dozen points which excel for landing
+places. Some twenty miles from Samana the last offshoots from the
+mountains encompass the town of Sanchez. Beyond in a large
+semi-circle, the end of the Bay is skirted by the great swamp which
+comprises the Gran Estero and the delta of the Yuna River.
+
+The town of Sanchez, the terminus of the railroad from La Vega, is an
+important outlet for the products of the Royal Plain, but though one
+of the principal ports of the Republic its situation on Samana Bay is
+unfavorable. Located where the Samana mountains slope into the Gran
+Estero, the site is ill adapted for the expansion of the settlement;
+the vicinity of the great marsh is not inviting, though the prevailing
+eastern breezes serve to drive back its noxious emanations; and the
+harbor, even now so shallow that vessels are obliged to anchor a mile
+from shore, is gradually silting up with sediment from the Yuna River.
+The story goes that the selection of this unpropitious spot for the
+terminus of the railroad was due to the passion of a moment. A tract
+of land at Point Santa Capuza, five miles down the bay, where a level
+coast plain and deep water up to the very shore invited the
+establishment of a port, had previously been chosen. The railroad had
+been extended to this spot and the foundations of the shops were being
+laid when the principal owner of the road, who was directing the
+construction work, learned that several of his engineers had acquired
+a controlling interest in a portion of the site of the projected town.
+The choleric Scotchman immediately removed his headquarters to Las
+Canitas, where Sanchez is now located, and though a vast amount of
+digging and filling was necessary the shops were erected here and the
+road to Santa Capuza was abandoned. The railroad has since purchased,
+for a song, almost all the land which caused the trouble, but as it
+has only recently expended L10,000 in the extension of its wharf at
+Sanchez from six to ten feet on water, and made other improvements,
+there is evidently no intention of moving the terminus.
+
+Beginning at Sanchez the entire western shore of Samana Bay is lined
+by swamp land, interspersed with the sandbanks formed by the various
+mouths of the Yuna. Turning east, the coast becomes almost
+inaccessible owing to the reefs and rocks which line it and constitute
+the beginning of low rocky ridges running into the interior. This
+region, known as "Los Haitis," continues until the Bay of San Lorenzo
+is reached. This capacious inlet, the only good harbor on the southern
+coast of Samana Bay is almost completely landlocked by a peninsula
+extending across its mouth, and affords good anchorage. The project of
+establishing a city and free port here was considered in 1883 and a
+comprehensive concession was granted with this object in view, but
+nothing was done and the concession lapsed. San Lorenzo Bay is also
+called Bahia de las Perlas, from the pearls found in its waters in
+the early-days; it is related that in 1531 five pecks were sent to
+Spain as the royal fifth. On the western side of the bay are extensive
+and beautiful stalactitic caves, in pre-Columbian days the abode of
+Indians, and in the seventeenth century a favorite resort for pirates,
+who were well acquainted with every nook and inlet along the shores of
+Samana Bay. Some five miles to the east of the Bay of San Lorenzo lies
+the village of Sabana la Mar. So shallow is the water here that not
+even small vessels can approach near to the low and sandy shore. The
+same condition prevails along the remainder of the southern shore of
+Samana Bay. Branching from the low hills that skirt the coast is the
+headland of Cape Rafael at the end of the Bay, forming a fitting
+counterpart to Cape Samana on the north.
+
+Turning southeasterly along the coast Point Nisibon is reached, where
+a calcareous rock formation and soil suitable for sugar planting
+begins. Forty miles of rocky shore intervene between this point and
+Cape Engano, the easternmost cape of the island, with a new
+lighthouse, the light of which is visible twenty miles away. The coast
+now leads southwesterly to Point Espada, shaped like a sword, and but
+twenty-five miles distant from the Island of Mona, a dependency of
+Porto Rico. Southwest from Point Espada lies the largest island of the
+Dominican Republic, the Island of Saona, fifteen miles long by four
+miles wide, the low hills of which are covered with abundant
+vegetation. At the time of the conquest it was the home of a numerous
+Indian population; later when owned by the Jesuits it had well-kept
+plantations; to-day it is almost uninhabited. Not far away are the
+smaller islands of Catalina and Catalinita, which possess valuable
+timber but like Saona are uninhabited.  From Point Palmilla opposite
+Saona Island, the shore-line, fringed with coral rocks, turns
+northwest and then due west. It bounds the great flat region of Santo
+Domingo, and to the traveler on passing ships is the most monotonous
+part of the coast, for in the absence of mountains to break the
+sky-line, there is nothing to be seen but a low palm-crowned rocky
+wall with surf beating at its base. The harbors are estuaries of
+rivers; those of La Romana, Soco and San Pedro de Macoris are of this
+description.
+
+San Pedro de Macoris is the principal port for the exportation of
+sugar. Its harbor is commodious, but access thereto is rendered
+difficult by a bar traversed only by a narrow and tortuous channel.
+Extensive harbor improvements were here undertaken under a concession
+which caused considerable litigation and discussion until it was
+redeemed by the government by means of the 1907 bond issue.
+
+In the forty miles intervening between San Pedro de Macoris and Santo
+Domingo City, about the only place of interest is the Bay of Andres,
+midway between the two cities, which is the home of innumerable wild
+ducks. The City of Santo Domingo is situated on the west bank of the
+Ozama River, the mouth of which constitutes the city's harbor. Since
+the town was founded four centuries ago the width of the river here
+seems to have diminished by fully one-fourth owing to accretion along
+the shores. A bar across the entrance renders access impracticable for
+vessels drawing more than fifteen feet of water. This bar has given
+considerable trouble, for at times it has grown in such manner as to
+leave a depth of but five feet. It is now kept open by means of
+jetties and dredging. Within the bar the river is perfectly smooth and
+vessels can without trouble draw up to the dock, but the roadstead
+outside is generally very rough and the embarking and disembarking of
+passengers is attended with experiences more exciting than pleasant.
+At this place more than one passenger has had an involuntary bath and
+many a piece of luggage lies at the bottom of the sea. On two
+occasions on which I disembarked here in stormy weather it seemed an
+even wager that the boat would be swamped before reaching the
+river mouth.
+
+The wall of coral rock girding the coast continues as far as Point
+Palenque, when it is succeeded by sandy beach. This inhospitable shore
+has been the witness of stirring episodes, for it was near Fort San
+Geronimo where the American troops came ashore in 1916; at the mouth
+of the Jaina that Drake disembarked in 1586 to accomplish his bold
+reduction of Santo Domingo City; at the cove of Najayo where Penn and
+Venables landed in 1655 in their unsuccessful descent upon the colony;
+and near Port Palenque where a British force under Carmichael landed
+in 1809 to assist the Dominicans in retaking Santo Domingo City from
+the French. Off Point Palenque, too, in 1806 a British squadron under
+Vice-Admiral Duckworth defeated a French squadron commanded by
+Rear-Admiral Lessiegues, forcing two French ships-of-the-line ashore
+and capturing several other vessels. The ports are all shallow and
+unsheltered, but are occasionally visited by coasting sloops in quest
+of timber and other products of the country.
+
+The lofty mountains which in Santo Domingo City can be discerned on
+the distant horizon have at Palenque become more distinct and
+approached nearer to the shore. On the green plain which slopes from
+their base to the sea, white specks, glittering in the sun, betray the
+presence of the town of Bani. But little further on, the mountains
+rise from the very shore, their spurs in the surf, their peaks capped
+by clouds.  The triangular bay of Ocoa, the second largest of the
+Republic, is now reached. Almost 25 miles in width at its mouth with a
+length of some 13 miles, its extent earned for it, in olden days, the
+name of Puerto Hermoso de los Espanoles, the beautiful port of the
+Spaniards. It has plenty of water and is well protected by high hills
+on both sides, but on account of its wide entrance becomes very rough
+in a south wind. There are several good anchorages along its shore,
+and inlets which are used as harbors by various plantations. At its
+southeastern entrance is the landlocked body of water known as Caldera
+or Kettle Bay, claimed to be the best harbor on the southern coast of
+the Republic. It is separated from the ocean by a long narrow tongue
+of land, and being securely sheltered from all winds, its surface is
+always as placid as a lake. Caldera Bay is presumed to be the harbor
+in which Columbus on his fourth voyage rode out the great hurricane of
+1502 which demolished the infant city of Santo Domingo and sunk the
+gold fleet that had just set sail for Spain. This harbor was a
+rendezvous for the Spanish war vessels and transports in 1861 when
+Spain resumed control of Santo Domingo and again in 1865 when she
+relinquished possession. The extent and depth of Caldera Bay are
+claimed to be sufficient to accommodate the largest ships, but vessels
+seldom venture into it, as the charts of this part of the coast are
+deficient.
+
+At the upper end of Ocoa Bay is Port Tortuguero, the harbor of the
+city of Azua, affording good anchorage, but very rough in south winds.
+It. was the scene of one of the few naval engagements in the history
+of Santo Domingo, for here on April 15, 1844, two Dominican schooners
+sustained a drawn battle with three Haitian vessels. The surrounding
+hills appear almost bare of vegetation owing to the aridity of the
+climate. The only buildings at the port are a small custom-house and
+several sheds, the city of Azua lying about three miles inland. The
+former harbor of Azua, Puerto Viejo or Escondido, Old or Hidden Port,
+is a sheltered inlet on the western side of Ocoa Bay, but is available
+only for vessels of light draft.
+
+Point Martin Garcia where the western side of Ocoa Bay is regarded as
+terminating also marks the beginning of another large bay, Neiba Bay,
+which has the form of a cul-de-sac, with a length of eighteen miles
+and an average breadth of seven miles. It is open to the southeast,
+but in all other directions is well protected by high mountains. The
+water is of ample depth and there are several good anchorages, the
+best being the port of the small city of Barahona.
+
+From Neiba Bay to Cape Beata the coast waters are shallow and are only
+visited by small vessels which come to take away lumber or coffee from
+the neighboring heights. At Cape Beata, the southernmost cape of the
+Republic, the coast turns northwest, to the Pedernales River, which
+forms part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
+Several small bays indent this portion of the shore, the one most
+favorable for shipping being Las Aguilas Bay, also known as Bahia sin
+Fondo, or Bottomless Bay. This part of the country, the Baboruco
+peninsula, is very sparsely inhabited. In the beginning of the
+nineteenth century it was the abode of maroons, half-savage fugitive
+slaves and their descendants.
+
+Four miles to the southwest of Cape Beata lies Beata Island, sloping
+down from an elevation in the south to a long point in the north. Its
+greatest length is about 7 miles, its maximum breadth 3 miles, and
+access is difficult as the only anchorage is on the eastern side
+almost two miles from land. The island is covered with dense forests
+in which wild cattle abound. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the island was a convenient resort for the pirates that
+infested the Spanish main; at one time it is said to have contained
+fine plantations, but at present it is only occasionally visited by
+Dominican or Haitian fishermen.
+
+Rising precipitously from the sea, at a distance of about ten miles
+southwest of Beata Island, is a huge bell-shaped mass of rock, 500
+feet in height, almost two miles in length and a mile in width. It
+reminded Columbus of a giant ship under full sail, wherefore he named
+it Alta Vela, or High Sail, sometimes corrupted to Alto Velo. The
+valuable deposits of guano on the rock induced a party of Americans in
+1860 to take possession of it in the name of the United States as an
+ownerless guano island, but upon protest by the Dominican authorities
+the American government promptly recognized the superior rights of
+Santo Domingo. Visible from far out at sea, with a lighthouse on its
+summit, the great granite peak stands like a sentinel guarding the
+southern shore of the Republic.
+
+On the land side the vague boundary has varied constantly, influenced
+by the conflicting Haitian and Dominican claims, the greater or less
+energy of the border authorities on each side, and the tendency of the
+rapidly increasing Haitian population to establish homes in the
+uninhabited frontier region of Santo Domingo. The absolute lack of
+correct maps and the rugged character of the country make it
+difficult, even on the spot, to determine where the boundary line
+should be considered to run. In riding through the region about Lake
+Azuei, I noticed some bad dents in the frontier and came to the
+conclusion that not all the boundary pushing has been done
+by Haitians.
+
+On the frontier as provisionally fixed by the American government in
+1912, the Dajabon, Capotillo or Massacre River constitutes the
+northern end of the boundary. The lower course of this river is the
+only part of the boundary line where Haitian and Dominican claimants
+are able to agree. In the mountains to the west of Restauracion the
+line jumps over to the headwaters of the Libon River, which it follows
+to the upper Artibonite, continuing along this river as far as Banica.
+From here it runs across high mountains between Comendador and Hondo
+Valle on the Dominican side and Belladere and Savanette on the Haitian
+side, to the north shore of Lake Azuei, thence across the lake to the
+headwaters of the Pedernales River--with an indentation to give Haiti
+the post of Bois Tombe--and along that river to the sea. For the
+greater part of its extent the line traverses a wild mountainous
+country, rarely visited on the Dominican side, except by smugglers or
+an occasional frontier guard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
+
+
+Mountains.--Valleys and plains.--Rivers.--Lakes.--Temperature and
+rainfall.--Hurricanes.--Health conditions.
+
+It is related that an English admiral, in endeavoring to illustrate to
+George III the topography of one of the West India Islands crumpled up
+a piece of paper in his hand and laid it on the table before the
+monarch, saying: "That, sir, is the island." The traveler touring the
+West Indies finds the story following him from place to place. Among
+the islands which claim to have given origin to the anecdote is Haiti,
+and however that may be, such description seems to apply admirably.
+Rugged irregular mountain ranges interspersed with valleys form the
+greater part of the surface, while in the southeast a great plain
+extends from the mountains to the coast.
+
+The mountains of the Dominican Republic may be grouped in five
+principal ranges, two along the northern coast, one in the center of
+the island, and two in the southwest. They all extend from east to
+west and present numerous offshoots, especially the central range
+which is the most important one and comprises the highest peaks.
+
+One of the northern ranges is the short Samana Range, beginning at
+Cape Samana, extending the length of the Samana Peninsula, over thirty
+miles, and ending near the Gran Estero. The greatest altitude is
+attained by Mt. Pilon de Azucar and Mt. Diablo which are 1900 and
+1300 feet in height, respectively. This group at first sight appears
+to be an extension of the second chain, the Monte Cristi Range, but
+its geological formation proves it rather to belong to the great
+central range. It was probably at a remote period an island lying off
+from the mainland.
+
+The other northern range has its beginning near Samana Bay and extends
+all the way to Monte Cristi. It is known as the Monte Cristi Range
+though the eastern portion is also called the Sierra de Macoris. It
+sends several branches to the coast, the most important one being that
+which terminates at Puerto Plata. The highest points of the range are
+Mt. Diego de Ocampo, with an altitude of 4000 feet, Nord Peak 3500
+feet, and Mt. Murazo 3400 feet. A notable landmark is Mt. Isabel de
+Torres, 2300 feet in height, which overlooks Puerto Plata. Its head is
+usually shrouded in a cap of clouds, and small mists frequently hover
+about its surface. To Columbus, passing out at sea on his first
+voyage, the cloudcap appeared shining like burnished silver in the
+morning sun. He took it to be snow until closer investigation
+disclosed its true nature, whereupon he named the mountain Monte
+Plata, or Silver Mount, and the port at the base was afterwards called
+Puerto Plata. The mountain is said to have been given its present
+name, Isabel de Torres, in honor of the wife of a prominent settler,
+Diego de Ocampo, domiciled in Santiago in the early days, after whom
+the great mountain near that city was named. According to a local
+legend, this couple, although blessed with worldly goods, was also
+mutually possessed of such a nagging spirit and ungovernable temper
+that a separation became necessary, the husband remaining in Santiago,
+the wife removing to Puerto Plata. When leagues intervened between
+them their conduct was so charming that the inhabitants of the two
+cities gave their names to the high mountains near the respective
+towns. "If you doubt the story," the legend concludes, "there are the
+mountains to prove it."
+
+The principal mountain range, the Cordillera Central, begins at the
+extreme eastern point of the island, traverses the center of the
+Republic, crosses into Haitian territory and sinks into the sea at
+Mole St. Nicolas to reappear in Cuba, on the other side of the
+Windward Passage. It constitutes a part of the great ridge which forms
+the backbone of all the islands bounding the Caribbean Sea on the
+north. In the eastern part of Santo Domingo the range consists merely
+of a chain of high hills which rarely reach an altitude of more than
+900 feet, but in the center and west of the Republic it assumes much
+greater magnitude, sending out branches which are important mountain
+chains in themselves, and several of its peaks are over 6000 feet in
+height. The highest point in the island and in the West Indies is Mt.
+Tina, with an altitude of 10,300 feet, a magnificent outpost of that
+branch of the central range which traverses the south-central portion
+of the Republic. The next highest point, is Yaque Peak, 9700 feet
+high, nearly at the center of the island. The dense jungle covering
+the rugged slopes of these giants has so far baffled the few attempts
+at exploration of their summits. To the west of Yaque Peak is Mt.
+Cucurucho, 7400 feet high, and to the northwest Mt. Entre los Rios,
+8000 feet and Mt. Gallo, 8200 feet in height. It must be remembered
+that in the absence of any careful measurements, the altitudes given
+are mere approximations.
+
+The Cordillera Central is peculiar in its numerous branches which are
+often more intricate in their ramifications and comprise loftier peaks
+than the parent range. The most important of these branches are those
+which extend from Mt. Banilejo to the southern coast, and fill the
+district between San Cristobal and Azua with a jumble of mountains.
+Besides Mt. Tina, already mentioned, their principal peaks are Mt. Rio
+Grande, 6900 feet, overlooking the beautiful Constanza Valley, and Mt.
+Valdesia, 5900 feet high. One of the best defined ranges on the south
+is the Sierra del Agua, which runs south from the Central Cordillera
+to the San Juan River. The branches on the north are even more
+numerous and cover a greater area. Among them special reference may be
+made to the Sierra Zamba, which runs parallel to the Yaque del Norte
+River, the Sierra de San Jose de las Matas, the Santiago Range, the
+Jarabacoa Range and the Cotui Range.
+
+The fourth principal mountain range of the Republic, the Neiba Range,
+is sometimes classed as a part of the Cordillera Central. It rises on
+the western bank of the Neiba River and runs west parallel with the
+central chain, into Haitian territory. Among its principal peaks is
+Mt. Panso, 6200 feet high. The fifth principal range, situated in the
+extreme southwest of the Republic, is known as the Baboruco Range, and
+sometimes as Maniel de los Negros. It begins at the Caribbean coast
+south of Barahona Bay and runs west into Haiti, forming an integral
+portion of the mountain chain that traverses the great peninsula in
+the south of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+These several ranges and their offshoots divide the country into a
+number of distinct regions, which, owing to the difficulty of
+communication, have developed more or less independently of one
+another. The most important division is that effected by the broad
+central belt of mountains which, twelve miles wide in its narrowest
+part, and extending from the shores of the Mona Channel to and beyond
+the Haitian frontier, constitutes a rugged barrier between the north
+and the south of the Republic.
+
+The district to the north of the Central Cordillera, comprising the
+richest portion of the country, still retains its old Indian name
+"Cibao"--a word which awoke fond hopes in the heart of Columbus who
+identified it with "Cipango," the Japan he was so eagerly seeking. The
+Cibao includes the northern slope of the central range with the
+fertile valleys enclosed by branches of that range, the Samana
+peninsula, the Monte Cristi Range with its valleys and coastal plains,
+and particularly the magnificent valley of the Cibao, which lying
+between the central chain and the Monte Cristi Range, extends all the
+way from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay. The length of this remarkable
+valley is about 150 miles, its average breadth is 10 miles in the
+northwestern and 15 miles in the southeastern part, and it comprises
+the most fertile lands and the most populous interior towns of the
+Republic. The highest part of the valley is about 600 feet above
+sea-level and is situated at its middle point, near the city of
+Santiago, where a line of low hills dividing the valley into two parts
+forms a watershed for its rivers. The northwestern of these two
+sections is known as the Santiago or Yaque valley and forms the
+greater portion of the basin of the Yaque del Norte, while the
+southeastern half, through which the Yuna River flows, is the superb
+Royal Valley or Royal Plain.
+
+One of the most beautiful views in the Cibao Valley, and in the world,
+is obtained from the historic eminence of Santo Cerro, an outpost
+hill of the central range, situated about three miles from the city of
+La Vega. From the foot of this hill the great plain stretches into the
+distance, meeting the azure sky on the eastern horizon, and far in
+the north skirting the brown slopes of the lofty Monte Cristi
+mountains, the more remote peaks of which are but faintly perceptible
+in their envelope of blue haze. A rich carpet of dark green
+overspreads the plain, where lighter spots indicate patches of tilled
+land and silver threads betray the presence of streams. The cities of
+Moca and La Vega are easily distinguished and on clear days even San
+Francisco de Macoris can be discerned. Clouds or rainstorms moving
+over portions of the vast expanse, add animation to the landscape.
+Columbus, gazing out upon the enchanting scene, was so impressed by
+its magnificence that he gave the great vale the name it still
+bears--La Vega Real, The Royal Plain.
+
+To the south of the central range the number of plains is greater. The
+largest expanse of level land on the island is the great plain which
+forms the southeastern part of the Dominican Republic. It includes
+almost the entire region east of the Jaina River and south of the
+central range, being about 115 miles long by 30 miles wide. This
+Eastern Valley or Seibo Plain, as it is sometimes called, is covered
+with forests and broad savannas, the most notable of which are
+comprised in the series of prairies known as Los Llanos, the Plains.
+
+Two smaller and irregular plains are the arid Bani coastal plain,
+lying between the Nizao River and the Ocoa, with a length of 25 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 12 miles, and the Azua Valley, winding
+from Mt. Numero, near the Ocoa, to the Neiba River, a distance of 33
+miles with a breadth of from 3 to 30 miles.
+
+The Neiba Valley, situated in the southwestern portion of the Republic
+between the Neiba and the Baboruco Mountains is more regular. It is
+part of the valley which stretches from Neiba Bay, in Santo Domingo,
+to Port-au-Prince in Haiti. The Dominican portion is 65 miles long by
+12 miles wide, and over one-half of its area is covered by the waters
+of Lake Enriquillo. The peninsula south of the Baboruco Mountains is
+an uneven plateau.
+
+In the very center of the Republic, surrounded on all sides by lofty
+mountains of the central group, is Constanza Valley, rich but to-day
+almost inaccessible. No less rich, but many times larger, is the other
+interior plain, known as the Eastern or Central Valley, a succession
+of fertile valleys, extending from the Neiba River to St. Raphael,
+almost 115 miles, with a width of from nine to twenty miles. The
+entire plain is claimed by the Dominican Republic, but more than half
+is in possession of Haiti.
+
+All these various valleys and plains enjoy the advantage of being
+watered by a comprehensive network of rivers of greater or less size.
+Many of the streams are navigable for miles in the lower part of their
+course by boats and canoes, affording means of communication to which
+the wretched condition of the land highways gives added importance.
+
+The largest river of the Republic is the Yaque del Norte, some 240
+miles in length, which rises on the slope of Yaque Peak, describes a
+circuitous northerly course, receiving numerous mountain affluents,
+until it reaches the vicinity of the city of Santiago de los
+Caballeros, whence, turning northwesterly it flows through the
+Santiago Valley, being reinforced by scores of tributaries. Its waters
+are finally discharged partially into Monte Cristi Bay and partly
+through its many mouthed delta into Manzanillo Bay. Detritus and
+driftwood brought down by the river, for many years entirely filled
+the Monte Cristi channel, and still constitute barriers which cause
+large lagoons to form in the delta and to inundate extensive tracts of
+rich farmland. Though the bars at its entrance render the river
+inaccessible for larger boats, it is navigable for canoes over its
+entire course in the Santiago Valley.
+
+Another large river is the yellow Yuna, which waters the eastern part
+of the Cibao Valley. Rising in the mountains near the center of the
+Republic, it directs its course to the Royal Plain where it receives
+the waters of the rapid Camu, and thence flows eastwardly and enters
+Samana Bay through a marshy delta, its total length being over 200
+miles. Part of its waters find their way through the great swamp, the
+Gran Estero, into the Atlantic Ocean. Up to its junction with the
+Camu, a distance of some 30 miles, the Yuna is navigable by boats and
+barges, and above the junction both the Yuna and the Camu are
+navigable by canoes for nearly 30 miles more though there are shallow
+stretches where the streams run rapidly and great care is necessary.
+In former days, the Yuna was one of the chief outlets of the Cibao;
+freight and passengers were transported over its course to Samana Bay
+and on the waters of the Bay to the town of Samana where transshipment
+to larger vessels took place. With the establishment of the railroad
+from La Vega to Sanchez, the river has lost much of its old-time
+importance.
+
+The third largest river is the Neiba or Yaque del Sur, which rises
+near the sources of the Yaque del Norte and pursues a southerly
+direction for some 180 miles, emptying into Neiba Bay. The repetition
+of geographical means is one of the peculiarities of Santo Domingo.
+Thus there are two rivers and a mountain named Yaque, several
+mountains named Cucurucho, a mountain-range and two cities named
+Macoris while in a host of minor instances rivers, mountains and
+districts in different parts of the country have identical names. The
+repetition of names seems all the more curious as the Dominicans have
+not hesitated to change historic names of towns and streets. The Yaque
+del Sur, or Neiba River, receives several copious affluents, the
+largest one being the San Juan River. Much of the lumber exported at
+Barahona is floated down the Yaque and the river is navigable about 20
+miles for flat-bottomed boats, though rapids and rocky ledges
+interpose obstacles.
+
+The other rivers of the southern part of Santo Domingo are much
+smaller. The principal one is the Ozama, at the mouth of which the
+capital city is located. This river is about 60 miles in length and
+carries a surprising amount of water. Being navigable by barges for 9
+miles from its mouth and by canoes for 15 miles, it forms an important
+avenue of supply for Santo Domingo City. In the three miles from its
+junction with the Isabela to the sea, its depth is about 24 feet, but
+over the sandbar at its mouth but 15 feet. Two rivers in the
+southeastern peninsula, the Macoris and the Soco furnish valuable
+outlets for the products of the sugar estates on their banks. A number
+of Dominican streams offer peculiarities. In the mountains there are
+brooks which gush out of the hillside, merrily ripple on for miles and
+vanish into the ground as mysteriously as they came. A number of coast
+streams sink into the sand of the beach, just before reaching the
+ocean. The Brujuelas River, which rises on the edge of the great
+plains, northwest of Bayaguana, flows south 25 miles through the
+plains and disappears in the ground a mile from the sea. Most streams
+ordinarily insignificant and innocent looking, are in a surprisingly
+short space of time converted by rains into raging torrents. The most
+formidable of these torrential rivers is the Nizao which flows into
+the Caribbean Sea near Point Palenque. In the lower part of this
+river's course its bed is about a mile wide, of which only a small
+portion is covered by the several branches of the river, the remainder
+being taken up with sandbanks, gravel beds, marshy tracts and stagnant
+bayous; and so frequently and erratically does the river change its
+channels, and to such sudden rises is it subject, that the local
+authorities are obliged to keep guides stationed on its banks almost
+continuously, in order to direct travelers across.
+
+The rapids and cascades of Dominican streams are pregnant with
+possibilities, but up to the present time they have remained in their
+pristine condition, nor is their energy utilized to drive a single
+piece of machinery. The largest and most beautiful waterfall of the
+island is doubtless that of the Jimenoa River, in the mountains some
+ten miles south of the city of La Vega, where the Jimenoa rushes over
+a precipice one hundred feet in height, producing clouds of spray and
+a roar that can sometimes be perceived as far as Jarabacoa, six miles
+away. Another beautiful fall is that of the Dajabon River, on the
+Haitian frontier, 30 feet in height, and there are notable cascades
+also on the Comate River, near Bayaguana, on the great plains; on the
+Nigua and Higuero Rivers, not many miles from Santo Domingo City; on
+the Inova River, near the town of San Jose de las Matas; and on the
+Guaranas River, on the Haitian frontier in the commune of Neiba.
+
+The only lakes of any size are two which lie in the Neiba Valley, the
+larger one, Lake Enriquillo, being comprised entirely within Dominican
+territory, while of the smaller one, variously called Etang Saumatre,
+or Lake Azuei, or Laguna del Fondo, through which the frontier line
+passes, less than one-fourth is under Dominican jurisdiction. They are
+both very picturesque, and with the greenish color of their water and
+their arid mountain surroundings recall portions of Lake Titicaca in
+Bolivia. In stormy weather they become as rough as the ocean. Lake
+Enriquillo derives its name from the last Indian cacique of the
+Island, the romantic chieftain Enriquillo, who after fiercely
+resisting the Spaniards finally in 1533 concluded an honorable peace
+with them on the island of Cabras in the center of this lake. The lake
+is over 70 miles in circumference, having a length of about 33 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 9 miles, Cabras Island, 6 miles long by
+one in width, is the home of herds of goats. Lake Azuei is but 15
+miles in length with a width of from 2 to 7 miles.
+
+Though the two lakes are scarcely five miles apart, Lake Enriquillo is
+102 feet below and Lake Azuei 56 feet above sea-level. Both lakes
+receive the waters of several small fresh water creeks, yet they
+apparently have no outlet and their water is salt, that of Lake Azuei
+only slightly, but that of Lake Enriquillo more so than the sea. On
+Cabras Island, however, there is a fresh water spring, and three
+lagoons to the east and south of Lake Enriquillo also contain fresh
+water. Lake Azuei often shows the paradox of going down during the
+rainy season and rising during the dry season; the phenomenon is
+attributed to the presence of springs at the bottom of the lake, which
+are unusually copious at the end of the rainy season. Both lakes have
+at least one variety of ocean fish, though the nearest point of the
+seacoast is some twenty miles distant; turtles abound in both and
+there are many alligators in Lake Enriquillo and a few in Lake Azuei.
+
+The climate of Santo Domingo is that of the torrid zone and is
+characterized by heat and humidity. Yet the heat rarely becomes as
+intense as it sometimes does in the United States in summer and the
+nights are always cool and pleasant. The mean annual temperature of
+Santo Domingo City is between 77 deg. and 78 deg. Fahrenheit, and the
+variation between the mean temperature of the hottest and coolest
+month is hardly more than 6 deg. The highest temperature recorded in
+Santo Domingo City in a period of seven years was 95 deg. The average
+highest temperature in July and August is between 91 deg. and 92 deg. In the
+mountainous regions of the interior there is a noticeable difference
+in temperature; it is necessary to sleep under a blanket every night
+of the year and the temperature sometimes falls below the freezing
+point. The pleasantest months of the year are from December
+to February.
+
+The heat of the climate is tempered and rendered bearable by cooling
+breezes which are seldom absent. During the day the prevailing breeze
+is from the east, but shortly after sunset a breeze sets in from the
+interior, blowing out to the ocean, and continues until after sunrise.
+
+The heavy rains also tend to cool the atmosphere. The island is so cut
+up by mountain ranges running in different directions that there is no
+regular rainy season for the whole country. In the south, the west and
+the interior, the rainy season is generally reckoned as lasting from
+April to November, while in the eastern section the rainy season is
+from May to December. These seasons are not absolute, for at times
+there are heavy rains during what should be the dry season, while
+occasionally there are many days of drouth during the wet months. The
+rains are rarely long-continued drizzles, but instead for several
+hours the floodgates of heaven are opened wide, after which the sky
+clears and remains serene until the following day. The amount of
+rainfall varies in different parts of the country, being lightest in
+the arid districts of Monte Cristi, Azua and Barahona.
+
+The United States Weather Bureau maintained a station at Santo Domingo
+City for a number of years and from the observations made the
+following data are compiled:
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS FOR SANTO DOMINGO CITY
+
+                   Highest     Lowest      Mean              Average
+       Mean        temperature temperature relative Average  number
+       temperature recorded    recorded    humidity rainfall of days
+           deg.F           deg.F           deg.F       per cl.  inches   with rain
+
+January   74          86          61          85      2.01      11
+February  74          88          60          82       .96       8
+March     75          87          59          79      2.15       9
+April     76          91          59          80      6.86      14
+May       78          88          67          83      6.29      13
+June      78          90          67          86      7.42      18
+July      79          92          67          86      8.34      18
+August    80          95          68          84      6.77      17
+September 79          93          69          85      7.63      16
+October   79          92          67          86      9.63      15
+November  78          91          64          85      2.76      11
+December  76          89          61          87      2.09      11
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+Annual    77          95          59          84     62.91     161
+
+
+Santo Domingo has at intervals felt the violence of the destructive
+hurricanes which occasionally ravage the West Indies. They often
+combine the features of a tornado and a cloudburst, and while the
+furious whirlwind wrecks houses, uproots trees and strips forests bare
+of leaves, the accompanying severe rains swell the streams to abnormal
+height and cause extensive inundations. The hurricane season is
+reckoned as beginning in July and ending in October and when during
+this period a sudden fall of the barometer announces the proximity of
+unusual atmospheric disturbances all shipping keeps to the harbors and
+the dwellers on shore take measures to guard against the devastating
+rage of the wind.
+
+The first West Indian hurricane of which we have any record was that
+of 1502 which destroyed the first city of Santo Domingo and sank a
+Spanish fleet. More recent storms felt in Santo Domingo were those of
+1834, 1865, 1876 and 1883. That of September 6, 1883, desolated the
+southwestern provinces of the Republic, and the rise of the Ozama
+River swept away the bridge connecting the capital with the opposite
+shore. The hurricane of 1899 which laid waste the nearby island of
+Porto Rico was scarcely felt in Santo Domingo. The latest unusually
+heavy storm was that which swept over the Republic during the first
+week of November, 1909, and caused much damage, especially in the
+Cibao. A sudden storm in the afternoon of August 29, 1916, accompanied
+by a kind of tidal wave, surprised the American 14,500 ton armored
+cruiser "Memphis" at anchor in the roadstead of Santo Domingo City and
+wrecked it against the rocky shore.
+
+With regard to health conditions, the Dominican Republic has been
+maligned because of the fevers that decimated the English and French
+armies in the Haitian wars of a century ago. It must be remembered,
+however, that the French part of the island being shut out from the
+eastern breezes by high mountain ranges is hotter than the Spanish
+part, and that the European troops, improperly clad and fed, underwent
+great hardships and were ignorant of sanitary precautions. Among
+travelers it is the concensus of opinion that climatic conditions in
+the Dominican Republic are as favorable as in any other tropical
+country. Far from presenting dangers to health there are few districts
+in the Republic which with proper hotel accommodations would not
+offer delightful refuge to invalids seeking to escape the rigors of
+the northern winter. The salubrity of the climate is reflected in the
+sturdy character of the peasantry, and exemplified by numerous cases
+of unusual longevity. In the towns the death-rate is somewhat higher
+than in the country regions; but the very fact that in spite of
+uncleaned streets, reeking garbage heaps, and defiance of sanitary
+precepts by the majority of the inhabitants, there has been so
+comparatively little sickness, bears strong witness to the
+healthfulness of the country. By a law of 1912 boards of health were
+established, and under American impulse more attention is now being
+given to sanitation.
+
+As no census of the Republic has ever been taken and data relative to
+births and deaths have not been collected regularly, it is not
+possible to compile statistics as to the death rate in the various
+provinces. The data so far available seem to indicate that the
+healthiest province is Puerto Plata, followed by Santiago, Azua and
+Monte Cristi, after which come Santo Domingo, La Vega, Espaillat,
+Pacificador, Samana and Barahona. The mortality rate is highest in the
+province of Macoris where the annual number of deaths is reported to
+average about thirty per thousand.
+
+The most frequent endemic diseases are malaria which is to be feared
+near marshes and stagnant waters, pulmonary consumption, which,
+however, is not more common than in the United States, and diseases of
+the digestive organs. Yellow fever is unknown and the sporadic cases
+which have occurred were due to the importation of the disease from
+other countries. The only epidemic in recent years occurred in Puerto
+Plata in 1901 when ten deaths were recorded.
+
+The hookworm disease is very prevalent, but its ravages are not so
+apparent as in certain other tropical countries. Venereal diseases are
+exceedingly common. Evidences of the presence of leprosy and
+elephantiasis are occasionally seen. The measures taken for the
+segregation of lepers are far from thorough; the lepers' asylum of
+Santo Domingo City is situated inside the city walls and is surrounded
+by habitations of the poor. Cases of typhoid fever are sometimes
+registered during the hot spell, from July to October, but the victims
+are usually foreigners who have been careless of climatic
+requirements. The foreigner who will observe temperance and prudence
+in all things, who will be careful of what he eats and drinks, who
+will avoid exposure to rain showers, or to drafts when in
+perspiration, will easily become acclimated. Realizing that many
+tropical disorders originate in a foul stomach, the natives upon the
+slightest provocation have recourse to a purgative, and the custom is
+one which the stranger should not hesitate to adopt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERALS
+
+
+Rock formation.--Mineral
+deposits.--Gold.--Copper.--Iron.-Coal.--Silver.--Salt--Building
+stone.--Petroleum.--Mineral springs.--Earthquakes.
+
+
+The geological formation and the mineral wealth of the Dominican
+Republic have never been thoroughly studied, in part because of the
+physical difficulties and in part as a result of the civil
+dissensions. The government has never had money to spare for such
+objects, and private investigators have suffered much hardship and
+lost many days in opening paths through tangled underbrush, and in
+crossing rugged mountain ranges in uninhabited regions. The physical
+obstacles and the necessarily superficial examination consequent
+thereon may explain the contradictions of detail in different reports.
+About the middle of the nineteenth century several studies were
+published, and three scientists who accompanied the American
+Commission of Inquiry in the year 1871 made a report on geological
+conditions.
+
+From such studies as have been published it appears that the rock
+formations of Santo Domingo correspond to the secondary, the lower and
+middle tertiary and the quaternary epoch. The most ancient part of the
+island is the central mountain range, also a series of protuberances
+in the Samana peninsula, the nucleus of the Baboruco mountains and a
+single point in the northern coast range near Puerto Plata. The
+tertiary lands are those forming the entire northern part of the
+island from the central range to the sea, portions of the Samana
+peninsula between the older rocks, a large area to the southwest of
+the Zamba hills, smaller tracts between the Jaina and Nizao rivers,
+and the region between the salt lakes on the Haitian frontier and
+between Barahona and Neiba. The modern lands are the coast plains and
+the small terraces on the south of the central range and on the south
+of the Baboruco mountains, the Maguana, Azua and Neiba valleys, small
+areas on the north coast at the foot of the mountains, and the marshes
+and Yuna River delta at the head of Samana Bay.
+
+In the central mountain range is found a nucleus of eruptive rocks
+which have raised and twisted sedimentary strata, covering them and
+forcing them aside. This nucleus is not a regular feature of the whole
+length of the chain, but is an irregular mass beginning about at the
+middle, in the region of the Jaina River, and extending in a series of
+parallel lines obliquely across the backbone of the range to the
+border of the Republic and on into Haiti. Among these rocks and bent
+and broken by them are the slates, conglomerates and calcareous rocks
+which are found in the mountains and over the whole surface of the
+island. The character of the central range and the inclination of the
+strata of cretaceous rocks make it probable that the island emerged
+from the sea in the eocene period, its area being then confined to the
+extent of the central mountain chain, with a few small islands to the
+south, one or more islets to the northeast, comprising the older peaks
+of the Samana range, and a small archipelago to the southeast, where
+the hills of Seibo now are. During the miocene period these islands
+became surrounded with coral reefs, the vestiges of which remain in
+strips of calcareous rock found in the same position in which they
+were deposited. Towards the end of the tertiary period, after a time
+of quiet, there was a new rise of the land. While the hills to the
+south of Samana Bay and the bed of the Cibao Valley from Samana Bay to
+Monte Cristi rose slowly, there was an upheaval further to the north,
+and the Monte Cristi Range was formed. Before this period it had been
+a bar at sea-level, covered with a clayey sediment of chalk. At a
+later geological period the great plains to the north and east of
+Santo Domingo City were formed.
+
+Traces of valuable minerals are so general in the Republic that it is
+said there is hardly a commune where a more or less abundant mineral
+deposit is not found. The exceptions are the lands of recent coralline
+formation, such as the municipality of San Pedro de Macoris and the
+southern portion of the commune of Higuey.
+
+The magnet which attracted the Spaniards at the time of the conquest
+was the island's mineral wealth, especially the gold deposits. It is a
+historical fact that large quantities of gold in dust and nuggets were
+collected during the first years of Spanish colonization. According to
+the Spanish writers, from 1502 to 1530 placer gold was produced to the
+value of from $200,000 to $1,000,000 per annum. The fleet which set
+out in 1502 and was wrecked by a hurricane before leaving the coast
+waters of Santo Domingo was laden with gold mined in the island. A
+tribute of a small amount of gold each year was imposed on half the
+Indians of the country. Much of the gold came from the mountains
+behind Santiago and La Vega, from the gold-bearing sands of the Jaina
+River, around Buenaventura, and from the vicinity of Cotui, then
+called "Las Minas." Ancient pits are still to be found in all these
+places. At La Vega a mint was established for coining gold and silver.
+A nugget of extraordinary size was found by an Indian woman in a
+brook near the Jaina River; her Spanish masters in their exultation
+had a roast suckling pig served on it, boasting that never had the
+king of Spain dined from so valuable a table. The Indian received no
+part of the gold: "she was lucky if they gave her a piece of the pig,"
+remarks Father Las Casas. This nugget was purchased by Bobadilla to
+send to Spain, and went down with the 1502 treasure fleet.
+
+The gold deposits found by the Spaniards were the surface
+accumulations of centuries. When these were exhausted and the supply of
+cheap labor fell off owing to the dying out of the Indians, the
+mineral production waned. In 1502 labor difficulties caused a
+temporary cessation in mining. In 1511 many mines were definitely
+closed because of the scarcity of laborers and because the cultivation
+of sugar-cane offered surer profits. Then came the discovery of mines
+of fabulous wealth in Mexico and Peru, and the interest they aroused,
+as well as the lack of labor in Santo Domingo, caused the mines of the
+island to be completely neglected. Finally, in 1543, mining work
+ceased and by a royal decree all mines were ordered closed.
+Prospecting and desultory mining, especially placer mining, have been
+kept up, however, until the present day.
+
+The prospecting has generally been confined to the more accessible
+regions and nothing is known of the mountain valleys in the interior.
+The mineral deposits discovered have been of sufficient richness to
+cause the formation of mining companies for their development or
+further investigation. I do not, however, know of a single case where
+prospectors or mining companies have ever made expenses. The cause of
+failure has most frequently been the lack of transportation facilities
+in the island, on account of which the cost of carrying the ore to a
+place where it might be reduced became prohibitive. Sometimes
+enterprises failed because the deposit turned out to be too small,
+sometimes because the ore did not keep up to the standard, and not
+infrequently mining companies fell by the wayside because of bad
+management. Enough evidence of mineral wealth has been found to
+justify the belief that workable deposits do exist, and to warrant
+careful further investigation, especially as the means of
+communication are extended.
+
+The metals most frequently found are gold, copper and iron. Veins of
+auriferous quartz are found throughout the central chain, the richest
+lodes being encountered in metamorphic rocks near crystalline
+formations. The metal is most abundant in placers formed in the river
+beds. Such placers are common in the Jaina River and its tributaries
+in the province of Santo Domingo; in Bonao creek in Seibo province;
+and in the Verde River, the streams of Sabaneta and a number of other
+streams of the Cibao. On the upper Jaina and on the Verde River there
+are still persons who make their living by washing gold from the river
+sands. Hydraulic mining was attempted in Santiago province, but after
+the construction of an expensive canal the project was abandoned.
+Under the liberal mining law mining privileges have in recent years
+been granted for gold mines reported at numerous places in the
+communes of San Jose de las Matas, San Cristobal, Janico, San Juan de
+la Maguana, Sabaneta and others. Prof. William P. Black, one of the
+scientists accompanying the United States Commission of Inquiry in
+1871, reported:
+
+"There is a very considerable extent of gold-bearing country in the
+interior and gold is washed from the rivers at various points. It is
+found along the Jaina, upon the Verde, and upon the Yaque and its
+tributaries, and doubtless upon the large rivers of the interior.
+Some portions of the gold fields were worked anciently by the
+Spaniards and Indians. There are doubtless many gold deposits, not
+only along the bed of rivers, but on the hills, which have never been
+worked, and there probably is considerable gold remaining among the
+old workings. The appearance of the soil and rocks is such as to
+justify the labor and expense of carefully prospecting the
+gold region."
+
+Copper is next to gold in frequency of occurrence. Some of the best
+deposits have been found in the commune of San Cristobal, province of
+Santo Domingo. A company working lodes at Mount Mateo on the Nigua
+River, encountered ore yielding as high as 33 per cent of copper. On
+the Jaina River near the ruins of Buenaventura, I have seen promising
+ledges of copper ore. Copper carbonates predominated, the green ore
+known as malachite and the beautiful blue ore azurite were quite
+common, and white quartz, which on being broken showed little specks
+of native copper, was also to be found. The asperity of the region,
+the absence of roads and the uncertainty as to the extent of these
+deposits caused the attempts at working them to be but feeble until
+recently, when extensive works of development were undertaken in the
+vicinity. Copper veins have also been reported in the mountains of the
+commune of Bani, province of Santo Domingo; in the communes of Cotui
+and Bonao, province of La Vega; in the canton of Moncion, province of
+Monte Cristi; in the commune of San Juan de la Maguana, province of
+Azua, and at a number of other places.
+
+Iron is reported in large quantities in various parts of the country.
+The largest deposit so far known is on the banks of the Maimon River
+in the municipality of Cotui, being a bed of black magnetic oxide of
+iron, nine miles long. It is said to be excellent in quality and
+inexhaustible in quantity. The difficulties of transportation in this
+case could be obviated by the canalization of the river to its
+confluence with the Yuna River, so as to make it navigable for small
+boats. Iron ore has been discovered on the slope of Mt. Isabel de
+Torres behind the city of Puerto Plata, limonite deposits at various
+places in Santo Domingo province, and a rich black iron oxide on the
+upper Ozama River. A layer of iron pyrites extending from Los Llanos
+all the way to Sabana la Mar was believed by its discoverers to be a
+gold mine. The central ridge of Santo Domingo is part of the same
+mountain chain which extends through Santiago province in Cuba where
+enormous quantities of iron are produced, and it is not improbable
+that some of the Dominican mines will be found to pay.
+
+Coal mines found in the Samana peninsula produced a kind of lignite
+which proved of little commercial value and gave rise to the belief
+that the Republic's coal deposits had not emerged from the formative
+period. Later investigations show that while there is considerable
+undeveloped lignite, coal suitable for fuel is not wanting. Small coal
+deposits have been discovered in the Cibao Valley, between the central
+and the northern mountain chain, in the province of Pacificador and
+that of Santiago. Anthracite coal found at Tamboril, near the city of
+Santiago, was used to run a small motor exhibited at an industrial
+fair in Santiago in 1903. In the commune of Altamira, province of
+Puerto Plata, lignite and anthracite beds have been discovered, and
+traces of anthracite have also been found in San Cristobal commune,
+and in the petroleum region of Azua. In the central mountain chain a
+valuable coal deposit has been found on the Haitian side and similar
+beds may be expected in Santo Domingo.
+
+Silver has been discovered at Tanci, near Yasica, in the commune of
+Puerto Plata. The old chronicles refer to silver mines at Jarabacoa
+and Cotui in La Vega province, also to others near Santiago, near
+Higuey and on the Jaina River. Platinum occurs at Jarabacoa, traces of
+quicksilver have been found near Santiago, Banica and San Cristobal,
+and tin in Seibo and Higuey.
+
+Rock salt is found near Neiba in inexhaustible quantities, there being
+several hills of native salt covered with a thin layer of soil. The
+fact that the waters of Lake Enriquillo are saltier than the sea is
+attributed by some to a deposit of this kind. The salt is so pure that
+it does not attract moisture and deliquesce. The isolation of the
+district has been an obstacle to the development of the salt mines,
+but there is a project for the building of a railroad to the port of
+Barahona. Part of the salt used in the island comes from salt ponds
+near Azua, where salt is obtained from sea water by solar evaporation.
+
+On a hill at the confluence of the Jimenoa and the Yaque del Norte an
+alum deposit reaches the surface and the natives gather alum which
+they sell in Santiago City. A deposit of amber having been reported in
+the Cibao a company was formed several years ago for its development,
+but as the company did nothing, so far as known, except issue stock,
+and no part of the untold millions which were affirmed to be within
+easy reach has materialized, the deposit is not regarded as possessing
+commercial value.
+
+For building purposes there is a large variety of limestone and lime.
+The coral rock is easy to quarry and soft enough to shape with the
+axe, but exposure to the air makes it hard as granite, as is proven by
+the old buildings and city walls of Santo Domingo City, which have
+stood for centuries. In the central range, on the Samana peninsula and
+near Puerto Plata, granite, syenite and other building stones are
+found, but owing to the absence of transportation facilities they are
+not utilized. In the Bani region a sandstone occurs from which
+grindstones are made. Clay of a fine grade, proper for the manufacture
+of bricks and tiles, is abundant. Clays of various colors, found in
+the interior of the island, are suitable for the manufacture of
+paints. Gypsum is found, especially in Azua province, and the presence
+of kaolin and feldspar in the province of Santo Domingo, south of the
+central range, offers a possibility of porcelain manufacture.
+
+Petroleum has been found in large quantities in the vicinity of Azua.
+The presence of the oil is suspected in other parts of the island and
+it is claimed that a petroleum belt which is believed to extend from
+Pennsylvania to Venezuela embraces a considerable portion of the
+Dominican Republic. Near Puerto Plata, during rains, one of the
+streams flowing down from the mountains in the Mameyes section, is
+covered with greasy spots thought to be petroleum that has oozed from
+the subsoil. Traces of petroleum have also been discovered near Neiba,
+and in the provinces of Pacificador and Seibo.
+
+Borings have been made only in the neighborhood of Azua. A pool known
+as "agua hedionda," "stinking water," had long suggested petroleum,
+and an American company known as the West Indies Petroleum Mining and
+Export Company undertook the development of the field. Oil was struck
+on November 14, 1904, the well spouting oil to a height of seventy
+feet and producing about 500 barrels per day. The grade of the oil was
+22 Baume gravity with an asphaltum base. It was better than the
+average of Texas oil and was considered a good fuel and lubricating
+product. The main difficulty in this field was the presence of salt
+water above the oil (as is often the case in oil regions), which here
+came in rapidly at a depth of about 900 to 1000 feet. It was necessary
+to put a gate valve on the first well, keeping it enclosed for a
+period of six months, in order to prevent the damaging of the
+surrounding property from the flow of oil, as there were no storage
+tanks. During this time the continued agitation of the casing by the
+gas pressure and the looseness of the upper soils and shales let in
+the salt water and ruined the well, and, it is to be feared, to some
+extent affected the surrounding territory. The company sunk four wells
+more, all but one of which produced some oil, but as the salt water
+entered in such large quantities they were unable to penetrate below
+the 1200 feet level and were forced to abandon the wells at just about
+the depth where they expected to reach the real oil sand. The fifth
+well showed greater evidence of a genuine oil field than any drilled
+previously but for the same reason it could not be carried to the
+desired depth. At this point dissensions arose in the management of
+the company with regard to the method of drilling, the suggestion
+being made that a combination drilling machinery comprising what is
+known as the rotary process be adopted in combination with the old
+cable rig style. No agreement was reached, and operations were
+discontinued. Since the beginning of 1917 other interests have made
+investigations and it is rumored that development work will shortly
+begin. There are indications that if drilled with the proper
+appliances the field will yield excellent results. How far the Azua
+oil field extends is a matter of conjecture, but it has been estimated
+to cover an area of over 190 square miles.
+
+Thermal springs are also found near Azua. At Resoli, about 21 miles
+southwest of Azua City, there are hot sulphur springs of very copious
+flow. Nearby there is one of tepid water, slightly acid and stinging,
+though pleasant to the taste, and with no trace of sulphur. Within a
+radius of a hundred yards there are about a dozen springs of different
+temperatures and medicinal properties, and the place is admirably
+adapted for the location of a health resort. Mineral springs,
+especially sulphur springs, abound along the western frontier of the
+Republic. On the Viajama River, where a sulphur mine is reported,
+there are cold sulphur springs which are said to have gushed forth for
+the first time during the earthquake of 1751. To the east of Santiago
+are the Anibaje springs which contain sulphur and iron. Hot and cold
+sulphur springs are found in the outskirts of San Jose de las Matas,
+southwest of Santiago, and hot springs at Banica, and to the east and
+west of Lake Enriquillo.
+
+While there are no volcanoes on the island, severe seismic
+disturbances have at times occasioned great havoc and loss of life.
+One of the first and most memorable was that of 1564 which overthrew
+the cities of La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros. La Vega was at
+that time a good sized town with substantial brick houses, and the
+masses of masonry strewn about in the thicket which now covers the
+site of the old city give evidence of the force of the earthquake. In
+1654 and 1673 dwellings and churches in Santo Domingo City were
+damaged by lesser shocks, and in 1751 an earthquake wrecked edifices
+in the capital, and completely destroyed the old city of Azua and the
+town of Seibo. The most recent and perhaps the most disastrous
+earthquake was that of 1842 when a violent commotion in the northern
+part of the island demolished the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros
+on the Dominican side and Cape Haitien on the Haitian side, bringing
+death to hundreds of their inhabitants. Since that date there have
+been no severe shocks, though, as is the case in other West India
+Islands, slight tremblings of the earth are not infrequent. I have
+experienced several of such tremblings in Santo Domingo and have never
+been able to ward off a kind of creepy feeling when the rattling of
+windows and doors indicated their approach and passage. Near the ruins
+of ancient La Vega the natives point out a spot in the woods which
+they call "tembladera" and where they say the earth quakes at the
+approach of man. Investigation discloses that while the earth really
+does tremble when anyone walks at this place the cause is not so
+deep-seated as many imagine, the phenomenon being caused by the fact
+that the rich loamy soil is sustained by the interlaced roots of
+trees, the foundation having been washed away by subterranean waters,
+and the grassy floor is swayed by every motion upon it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+Agricultural conditions.--Land titles and measures.--Wet and arid
+regions.--Exports.--Sugar.--Cacao.--Tobacco.--Coffee.--Tropical
+fruits.--Forest products.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Fishery.--Birds.
+--Cattle raising.
+
+
+Of all the islands visited by Columbus none impressed him so favorably
+as Santo Domingo. His enthusiasm is reflected in the glowing
+description given in his letter to his friend and patron, Luis de
+Santangel, dated February 15, 1493, of which the following forms part:
+
+"In it (la Espanola) there are many havens on the sea, coast,
+incomparable with any others I know in Christendom--and plenty of
+rivers, so good and great that it is a marvel. The lands there are
+high, and in it there are very many ranges of hills and most lofty
+mountains, incomparably beyond the Island of Cetrefrey (Teneriffe);
+all most beautiful in a thousand shapes and all accessible, and full
+of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the
+sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage, as may be
+imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in
+Spain in May, and some of them were in flower, some in fruit, some in
+another stage, according to their kind. And the nightingale was
+singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of
+November, round about the way I was going. There are palm trees of six
+or eight species, wondrous to see for their beautiful variety; but so
+are the other trees and fruits and plants therein. There are wonderful
+pine groves and very large plains of verdure, and there is honey and
+many kinds of birds and great diversity of fruits. There are many
+mines of metals in the earth, and the population is of inestimable
+number. Espanola is a marvel; the mountains and hills, and plains, and
+fields, and the soil so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing,
+for breeding cattle of all sorts, for building towns and villages.
+There could be no believing, without seeing, such harbors as are here,
+as well as the many and great rivers and excellent waters, most of
+which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants there is great
+diversity from those of Juana (Cuba). In this island there are many
+species and great mines of gold and other metals."
+
+Columbus' panegyric on the beauty, fertility and resources of the
+Island has been echoed by every writer and traveler who has since
+visited the country. The United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo
+Domingo reported in 1871: "The resources of the country are vast and
+various, and its products may be increased with scarcely any other
+limit than the labor expended upon them.... Taken as a whole, this
+Republic is one of the most fertile regions on the face of the earth.
+The evidence of men well acquainted with the other West India Islands
+declares this to be naturally the richest of them all." Yet the
+country's wonderful resources are to-day in almost virgin condition;
+in the greater part of the Republic's extent they remain absolutely
+untouched; in the remainder the beginning of development has scarcely
+been made.
+
+In the first days of the colony it appeared that agricultural
+prosperity would quickly be attained. Great plantations were set out
+and the remains of palaces and convents in Santo Domingo City testify
+to the wealth they produced. But the prosperity was founded on the
+basis of slavery. The laughing aborigines soon succumbed under forced
+labor, the importation of negroes was found expensive, and hopes of
+better fortune attracted the colonists to the American continent.
+While the country languished under restrictive trade regulations,
+stock raising became almost the sole pursuit of the Spanish section of
+the island. In the meantime the French settled the western coast, and
+the name of their colony, also founded on slavery, became a synonym
+for wealth and luxury. The development of the Spanish section had
+scarcely begun at the end of the eighteenth century when it was
+blocked by wars, the Haitian occupation, and later by the civil
+disturbances. The native had no incentive to accumulate property,
+which would only attract revolutionists, and the foreigner was chary
+of investing his money in so turbulent a community. What progress has
+been made is due to the short periods of peace, principally the period
+of Heureaux's ascendancy, from 1880 to 1899, and the periods from 1905
+to date. The rapid and gratifying strides made since the
+Dominican-American fiscal treaty increased the probabilities of peace
+are an indication of what the country may and will in time attain. As
+an English-speaking resident put it, paraphrasing a familiar saying in
+the United States, "If the people will only raise more cacao and less
+Hades, the country will soon be a paradise." At the present time the
+most serious obstacle to rural development is the lack of adequate
+means of communication--roads and railroads. It is evident that the
+interior cannot be developed so long as the cost of transportation is
+prohibitive or the roads are impassable during a great part of
+the year.
+
+The condition of land titles leaves much to be desired. All titles are
+supposed to be derived from original grants by the crown or the
+government of the Republic. As there is no record extant of such
+grants and as much land has been acquired by adverse possession, the
+amount of land remaining to the state cannot even be the subject of an
+intelligent guess. The greater part of such land passed to the
+Republic as successor to the Spanish crown, another portion was added
+in 1844 by the confiscation of property belonging to Haitians, but no
+attempt has ever been made to survey or even to list state lands.
+According to some estimates the state owns as much as one or even
+two-fifths the area of the Republic, but it is probable that these
+estimates are exaggerated and almost the only tracts remaining to the
+government are situated in the inaccessible mountain region of the
+interior and along the Haitian border. The income of the Republic is
+still insufficient to leave money for the investigation of public
+lands, and every year's delay will permit more of such lands to be
+absorbed by private persons.
+
+A large portion of the rural land is held in common. Tracts originally
+belonging to one owner descended undivided among his heirs for
+generations, individual heirs sometimes sold their shares, and the
+result is that often the tract belongs in common to many persons, some
+of them holding very small shares. The shares of the co-owners are
+known as "pesos de posesion," "dollars of possession," corresponding
+to the value given them at some remote period. The owner of any
+undivided portion of such "comunero" property, though he hold only one
+or two shares or "pesos de posesion," may enter upon and cultivate any
+part of the land he finds unoccupied by other co-owners, and use
+anything growing or existing thereon, except certain timber or unless
+it be the result of the labor of other co-owners. That this peculiar
+mode of enjoying the comunero property has not resulted in friction
+and conflicts may be ascribed to the smallness of the cultivated
+fields, the small population and the enormous expanse of vacant land.
+For the prospective purchaser the doubts surrounding the title to
+comunero lands are enhanced by the existence of fraudulent "peso"
+titles and by the destruction of public offices where title transfers
+should have been recorded. In recent years much division of comunero
+land among the co-owners has been going on and such action is
+facilitated by a law of 1911, but the importance of the matter merits
+additional laws to cheapen and hasten the division.
+
+All the planting of small crops by the poorer countryman is done in
+what are called "conucos," cleared spaces fenced by sticks laid
+tightly against each other in order to keep out the wild pigs which
+infest the country. The construction of the fences is a laborious
+task, yet after one or two years they require extensive repairs, and
+when the repairs are such as to amount to a practical rebuilding, the
+"conuco" is commonly abandoned, and a new one located elsewhere. This
+method is wasteful of fence-material and land. The planting is done in
+the most primitive way, commonly by making a hole in the ground with a
+machete or by using a forked stick as a plow. There are few hoes, and
+among the natives no modern steel plows.
+
+A "conuco" is usually about one acre in extent, or to be precise
+twenty-five varas conuqueras square. Though the metric system is the
+official system of measurement and is gradually coming into use, many
+of the older standards still prevail. A common measure of length is
+the Castilian vara, about equivalent to an English yard; the vara
+conuquera, about two and a half yards; the tarea, used for measuring
+fences, twenty-five varas conuqueras in length, and the league,
+something over three miles. The common units of surface measurement
+are the tarea, of about one-sixth acre, and the caballeria of 1200
+tareas or about 200 acres.
+
+Generally speaking, a line drawn from Cape Isabela on the north coast,
+through Santiago, to the mouth of the Nizao River in the south,
+divides the country into two regions of which the eastern one has
+abundant rainfall and luxuriant tropical vegetation, while in the
+western one there is little rain, and cactus plants and thorny bushes
+betoken the aridity of the soil. The two ends of the Cibao Valley seem
+like different countries, the eastern end covered with palm-trees,
+ferns and other flora of the torrid zone, and the western portion dry
+and dotted with giant cacti of fantastic shape. In the country near
+Azua and Monte Cristi I have imagined myself on the plains of New
+Mexico, with their scorching heat, their cactus, mesquite bushes and
+distant violet mountains fading into the azure sky. While arid, these
+western regions of Santo Domingo are as fertile as the rest of the
+country and when irrigated give remarkable crops. One of the Dominican
+government's projects is an extensive irrigation scheme for the Monte
+Cristi district. The most productive portion of the Republic is
+undoubtedly the Royal Plain in the Cibao Valley, which is of almost
+incredible fertility. It is covered with a rich black loam from three
+to fifteen feet deep, as can be seen wherever brooks have cut ravines
+into the earth, and is referred to as the Mississippi Valley of the
+Dominican Republic.
+
+The greater or less elevation of the land has likewise produced
+different agricultural zones: the lower plains of the southern coast
+are favored for sugar planting; the slightly higher lands are given
+over to cacao and coffee, and the highest part of the country, the
+mountain region, is covered with timber. Broad savannas are a feature
+of the southern portion of the Republic; on the plains to the east of
+Santo Domingo City, all the way to the ocean, there are great seas of
+grass, like the prairies of the United States, with large islands of
+trees, while to the west they constitute lakes in a continent
+of forest.
+
+All tropical fruits grow in profusion and many vegetables, fruits and
+cereals indigenous to countries of the temperate zone are successfully
+grown. Practically all the vegetables and fruits, as well as the
+grains and staples of the Middle States of the American Union may be
+produced, especially in the higher portion of the island. The fact
+that raspberries and delicious grapes grow wild in the highland
+indicates the possibilities of fruit culture. With a view to
+encouraging agriculture the various provinces for years had "boards of
+development" paid from national funds, but the positions on these
+boards were regarded as political plums, and while the members drew
+their salaries, no other result of their activities was apparent. The
+government has also made spasmodic attempts to establish an
+agricultural experiment station, but with its limited resources
+nothing tangible has been accomplished. The establishment and
+extension of large sugar estates was stimulated by a law of
+agricultural franchises, enacted in 1911, granting excessively broad
+privileges and exemptions to sugar, cacao and coffee plantations which
+registered under that law.
+
+The table on the opposite page shows the quantity and value of the
+principal exports of the Dominican Republic since 1913 and is the best
+illustration of the fact that agriculture is the mainstay of
+the country.
+
+
+          EXPORTS OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+                       1913         1914         1915         1916
+Sugar (raw) kilos[1] 78,849,465  101,428,847  102,800,551 122,642,514
+             value   $3,650,556   $4,943,452   $7,676,383 $12,028,297
+Cacao        kilos   19,470,827   20,744,517   20,223,023  21,053,305
+             value   $4,119,955   $3,896,489   $4,863,754  $5,958,669
+Tobacco leaf kilos    9,790,398    3,705,549    6,235,409   7,925,151
+             value   $1,121,775     $394,224     $972,896  $1,433,323
+Coffee       kilos    1,048,922    1,831,938    2,468,435   1,731,718
+             value     $257,076     $345,579     $458,431    $316,827
+Hides and    kilos      541,154      685,042      638,020     616,446
+   skins     value     $241,072     $253,832     $270,356    $334,665
+Sugar cane   value       --        $62,585     $195,782    $295,622
+Bananas      bunches    592,804      114,142      327,169     348,560
+             value     $296,368      $57,044     $166,432    $172,615
+Beeswax and
+   honey     value     $206,749     $207,290     $144,579    $176,144
+Molasses     kilos   12,064,038   17,962,441   15,484,205  18,752,440
+             value      $60,737      $93,787     $100,023    $120,738
+Forest       value     $167,037      $66,464      $64,368     $57,250
+  products
+Cotton       kilos      242,221      167,123     141,623       91,258
+             value      $85,398      $67,830     $60,600      $31,759
+All other    value     $263,224     $200,211    $240,457     $601,964
+  exports
+                     ------------------------------------------------
+Total       value   $10,469,947  $10,588,787  $15,209,061 $21,527,873
+
+[Footnote 1: 1 kilo = 2.2 pounds]
+
+Sugar, the leading export, is the principal product of the southern
+portion of the Republic. In contrast with the cultivation of cacao,
+coffee and tobacco, sugar planting requires a large outlay of capital.
+The fields must be carefully prepared, extensive ditching must be done
+in order to provide irrigation during the dry season; the fields must
+be cleaned repeatedly while the cane is growing; and when the cane
+eventually matures, after fourteen to eighteen months of growth,
+it must upon cutting be immediately transported to the mill,
+where expensive machinery grinds it and fabricates sugar from
+the cane juice. The large sugar plantations of the country
+are all owned by foreigners, principally Americans and Italians,
+but dependent upon them are many small plots, planted under
+contract with the central factory by small native owners or
+contractors. Before the establishment of the first of these
+plantations near Macoris in the early eighties, the apparatus for
+making sugar was as crude as that employed by the first colonists,
+consisting of small presses turned by oxen, and large caldrons to boil
+the cane. The other West India Islands are dotted with the ruins of
+old sugar mills erected in the beginning and middle of the last
+century, but those days were not favorable to investment in Santo
+Domingo and such buildings and ruins are absolutely wanting in
+this island.
+
+Most of the large plantations are located in the vicinity of San Pedro
+de Macoris, and to them the city owes its rapid development. These
+represent a value of millions of dollars, are equipped with plantation
+railroads and modern mills and extend over thousands of acres of the
+plains behind the city. The great Consuelo estate, the Santa Fe
+plantation, the Porvenir and the Puerto Rico estates are owned by
+American capital, and two others, the Quisqueya and Cristobal Colon
+plantations are owned by Americans and Cubans. The Angelina estate is
+an Italian investment, but its owners hold it in the name of the
+General Industrial Company, a corporation organized by them under the
+laws of New Jersey, apparently with a view to claiming American
+protection in case of disturbances. The principal owners of this
+estate as well as of other Italian sugar estates on the south coast
+are heirs of J.B. Vicini, who was a wealthy Italian merchant of Santo
+Domingo City.
+
+One of the largest sugar estates of the Republic is the Central
+Romana, which controls some 40,000 acres near the port of La Romana,
+and is owned by the South Porto Rico Sugar Company. Since the first
+crop in 1911 the cane has been shipped to the mill at Guanica, Porto
+Rico, for grinding, but a huge fifteen-roller mill, which will be the
+largest on the island, is now in course of erection at La Romana.
+
+Two plantations near Santo Domingo City, San Isidro and La Fe, belong
+to Americans. The Italia sugar estate at Yaguate, near the Nizao
+River, the Ocoa estate and the Central Azuano, on the outskirts of
+Azua all belong to the Vicini heirs. At Azua there is another
+plantation, the Ansonia estate, which is the property of Americans.
+The plantations at Azua and Ocoa are watered by irrigation, those of
+Azua deriving their water from artesian wells. American capital is
+also establishing sugar plantations near Barahona. On the north coast
+there are only two small sugar plantations near Puerto Plata, in which
+German and Spanish capital is interested, but another is being
+established at Sosua.
+
+So rich are the Dominican lands that cane will grow from the same root
+for ten and even twenty years, while in Porto Rico and the lesser
+Antilles long cultivation has exhausted the soil and replanting is
+necessary every three years. Near Macoris the planters have had so
+much land available that instead of replanting they have often
+abandoned their old fields and taken up virgin lands instead. The
+busiest time in Macoris is the crop season from November to May. Many
+laborers are then required, and as native labor is not abundant, large
+numbers of negroes come from the British West Indies to work on the
+plantations, returning to their homes when the cane has been cut.
+
+Most of the Dominican sugar goes to the United States and a large
+portion is eventually sold in Canada and England. When the amount of
+sugar produced in little Porto Rico is compared with that grown in
+Santo Domingo, it is evident that the Dominican production might
+easily be increased to twenty times its present figure.
+
+While sugar attracts the foreigner, the Dominican's favorite staple
+has been cacao. The cacao or chocolate tree grows in a number of the
+West India Islands, but in none of them is it cultivated to such an
+extent as in Santo Domingo. Cacao is peculiarly fitted to be a "poor
+man's crop," as little land and labor are required and, while the
+trees are growing, corn, bananas and other crops can be raised on the
+same field. Most of the cacao is raised on small plantations,
+producing from fifty to one hundred barrels, a barrel being worth
+about eight dollars. For the preparation and planting of the field of
+a poor man the whole family turns out and neighbors often come to
+help, regular planting bees being organized. The larger landowner
+makes contracts for the preparation of his lands, paying at the rate
+of $2 or $2.50 a tarea.
+
+The best months for planting cacao are the wet months, which in the
+Cibao are May and October. Small holes are dug in the earth about
+three yards apart and three beans placed in each. When the sprouts
+grow into young trees, two of the three should be cut off, and the
+best developed allowed to remain; but the countrymen generally permit
+all three to grow, with resulting dwarfed trees and poor crops. To
+protect the small plants from the hot sun a yuca or cassava plant is
+set out next to each one. While the trees are growing, corn is planted
+between the rows and three or even four crops are obtained in each
+year. After two years the cacao trees begin to bloom, after three
+years they begin to give fruit, and their production gradually
+increases until their eighth year when they reach mature growth. Each
+tree furnishes about two pounds of cacao per year. On the larger
+plantations less attention is paid to ancillary crops and the cacao
+plants are raised in seedbeds, the seedlings being transplanted to the
+field after six months or a year. When the pods containing the cacao
+beans are ripe the beans are extracted, soaked in water and then dried
+in the sun. During the crop season cacao beans are spread on mats
+before every native hut and in the streets of every town and village
+in the Cibao, and the sourish smell of the drying bean pervades
+the air.
+
+The principal cacao region is the Cibao and the upper Seibo plain, and
+the largest plantation, belonging to the well-known Swiss chocolate
+manufacturer, Suchard, is situated near Sabana la Mar, on the south
+side of Samana Bay. The cacao here produced is not of the finest
+grade, such as that grown in Ecuador, but goes to make the cheaper
+grades of chocolate.
+
+The ease with which cacao is planted and the profits to be derived
+from it often cause the small farmers to neglect everything else for
+cacao and purchase articles of food which they could themselves raise.
+The consequence is that when the cacao crop fails, there is widespread
+want and discontent.
+
+Cacao has been exported since 1888, before which time it was grown for
+local consumption only. For years it led the country's exports, until
+sugar took first place in 1914. The greater portion of the cacao crop
+is exported through the port of Sanchez, on Samana Bay. Formerly
+almost the whole crop went to Europe, Havre being the chief market,
+but of late years the United States has become one of the
+principal buyers.
+
+The cultivation of tobacco is confined to the Cibao region, where it
+was grown by the Indians when the Spaniards landed. It is a crop
+yielding rapid returns, but cacao has paid so much better that the
+progress of tobacco culture has been slow. The effort of the
+countrymen to produce quantity rather than quality has prevented the
+development of the finer grades and the price paid for Dominican
+tobacco is low. While the tobacco grown is of inferior quality, there
+is no reason why it should not be susceptible of improvement as the
+climatic and soil conditions of the interior valleys are very similar
+to those of the tobacco regions of Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+Tobacco is grown mostly by small planters and sold to the large
+commercial houses of Santiago and Puerto Plata. Practically the entire
+crop is exported through Puerto Plata. Before the European war the
+great market for Dominican tobacco was Hamburg. Up to 1907 tobacco was
+exported only in leaf, but since then a small cigarette industry has
+developed.
+
+Coffee is another native crop the development of which has been
+checked by the popularity of cacao. It is also a crop which can be
+grown with profit on small tracts of land. The coffee bushes flourish
+in the mountains and are grown under the shade of larger trees. A
+clearing having been made in the forest, the small coffee trees are
+planted in rows or irregularly and near each a banana or plantain
+tree. The latter reach full height within six months and afford shade
+until guava and other shade trees planted on the field have attained
+sufficient size. A wait of five years is necessary before the coffee
+bushes begin to bear, but after that they continue indefinitely every
+year, the only labor required being that of keeping the plantation
+clear of brush and picking the berries when they are ripe. The trees
+grow to a height of six or eight feet; they bloom with a fragrant,
+white, star-like flower which on withering leaves the green embryo of
+the berry. When the berry has reached the size of a hazel-nut it turns
+red and is picked, much of the picking being done by women.  The
+berries are poured into a simple machine which extracts the two coffee
+beans encased in each berry. The beans are dried in the sun, on the
+largest plantations in drying machines. They are then transported to
+the merchants in town, where they are polished in another machine,
+assorted and bagged for export. The town of Moca owes its name to the
+fact that the principal coffee plantations lie in its vicinity. Other
+important coffee districts are Santiago and Bani. About two-thirds of
+the coffee of the Republic is exported from Puerto Plata.
+
+The coffee of Santo Domingo is of excellent quality. In normal times
+the greater portion was exported to France and Germany, but most of it
+now goes to the United States.
+
+With one exception the limitless resources of Santo Domingo with
+reference to fruit culture have remained untouched. The single
+exception was the United Fruit Company's banana plantation at Sosua,
+about ten miles east of Puerto Plata, and even this estate is at
+present, in consequence of the greater attractiveness of sugar, being
+converted into a sugar plantation. Otherwise there has been no attempt
+to raise fruit for export, though the sweet and bitter orange, the
+lemon, the lime, the grapefruit and the paradoxical sweet lemon, grow
+wild. Pineapples are raised only for the small home consumption. An
+obstacle to the cultivation of such fruits at the present time would
+be the absence of rapid fruit steamers to the United States. The
+fruits peculiar to the torrid zone all grow in profusion and among
+them the native is fondest of the juicy mango, the guava, the aguacate
+or alligator pear, the anon or custard apple, the guanabana or
+soursop, the mamon or sweetsop, the mamey or marmalade fruit, the
+nispero or sapodilla and the tamarind. From the large palm-groves
+about Samana Bay cocoanuts and a little copra are exported,
+principally to the United States.
+
+Small attempts have been made to cultivate other products to which the
+country is adapted. Growers of cotton and hemp are encouraged by
+results, but a rice plantation established in the swamp-lands near the
+head of Samana Bay proved a failure rather on account of errors of
+management than for other reasons.
+
+In the forests which cover her mountains Santo Domingo has hardwoods,
+dyewoods and building timber of inestimable value. Only a generation
+ago mahogany trees grew all the way to the water's edge, but years of
+wasteful cutting have exhausted the nearer supplies and the more
+valuable woods must now be sought in the interior. In the mountains
+and on the high plateaus of the interior there are hundreds of square
+miles of Spanish cedar and longleaf pine. The principal woods exported
+are mahogany, guayacan, known to commerce as lignum vitae (one of the
+hardest woods and so heavy that when in loading the steamer a log
+drops into the sea it sinks to the bottom like iron), bera or bastard
+lignum vitae, espinillo or yellowwood, campeche or logwood (a famous
+dyeing material), sparwood and cedar. Other forest products exported
+are dividivi, a tanning bark, and resins. Most of these exports go to
+the United States and England. For the preparation of lumber for local
+needs there are sawmills in La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros.
+
+With regard to indigenous fauna Santo Domingo occupies a position
+midway between the diverse and abundant fauna of Cuba and the more
+limited species of the Leeward Islands. Insects abound and in all the
+coast towns it is necessary to sleep under a mosquito bar. Wild bees
+are found in many parts of the country and apiculture has met with
+much success.  Of poisonous insects there are few. Those sometimes
+met with are the species of tarantula known as the hairy spider, the
+spider known as guava, and the blue spider, also the scorpion and the
+centipede. Their sting produces intense pain, inflammation and fever.
+They are found in crevices, under stones, in caves, and in rotten
+wood. The last two are often seen in old houses, but daily use of the
+broom and duster will make them appear but rarely. Some of these
+animals grow to a large size. On a ride on the Haitian border my horse
+shied at a tarantula in the trail, and in calling my Dominican
+companion's attention to it, I remarked that it was as large as a
+saucer. "That is nothing," he replied, "there are many around here as
+large as a soup plate."
+
+There are few classes of reptiles. Santo Domingo is a paradise where
+serpents are at a discount, for they are few in number and although
+occasionally some are found of considerable size, they are all
+harmless. Lizards are plentiful in the forests, the largest class
+being known as iguana, which is eaten by some of the country people,
+as it was in former days by the Indians. The lizards are all
+inoffensive. A species of alligator is found in the lower waters of
+the Yaque del Norte and of the Yaque del Sur, and in the salt lakes on
+the Haitian border. Tortoises occur in such numbers that their shell
+forms an article of commerce.
+
+Crustaceans and testaceans are abundant in number though few in
+species. A tiny oyster is found, not much larger than a thumb-nail,
+but very succulent. The marine fauna is the same as that of the
+neighboring Antilles, the sea and rivers teeming with edible fish, to
+which, however, but little attention is paid. Sharks infest the coasts
+and render bathing unsafe except behind protecting reefs.
+Occasionally, too, a manati, or sea-cow, is seen. This strange mammal
+has breasts which resemble those of a human being and emits cries
+that sound almost human. It was probably a party of manati gamboling
+about in the water which induced Columbus gravely to enter in his
+logbook that he had sighted mermaids near Monte Cristi.
+
+Of birds there are over one hundred and fifty species, about
+ninety-five of which are residents and among these several peculiar to
+this island. The forests resound with the cries of parrots and other
+birds of beautiful plumage; from any point on the coast pelicans and
+other ichthyophagous birds can be observed darting into the waters
+after their prey; the lakes and rivers are the home of thousands of
+wild ducks; myriads of wild pigeons breed in the woods; and the number
+of insectivorous birds, including the sweet-singing nightingale,
+jilguero and turpial, the swallow and the small pitirre and colibri,
+is infinite. The caves are inhabited by swarms of bats, the guano of
+which, mingled with the calcareous detritus of the rocky walls, is
+found in great deposits and constitutes a good fertilizer.
+
+At the time of the discovery the Spaniards found very few kinds of
+quadruped mammals. One was the agouti, looking like a large rat and
+inhabiting the forests; another the coati, similar to the squirrel and
+easily domesticated. Three other classes are mentioned, the quemi,
+mohui and perro mudo (dumb dog), but are not now to be found and as
+the description of two of them almost tallies with that of the others
+above mentioned, it is possible that different names were applied to
+the same animals. It is possible, too, that reference was made to the
+solenodon or almiqui, an animal long thought to be extinct but of
+which several specimens have recently been found in Santo Domingo.
+This animal is about two feet, long and resembles a rat, but having a
+long prehensile snout and the habits of an ant-eater, it is considered
+to be a remnant of the early zoological type from which diverged both
+the rodents and the insectivorous animals of the present.
+
+The Spaniards introduced the European domestic animals, which
+immediately began to flourish. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
+century the principal and for a long time almost the only industry of
+the Spanish portion of the island was cattle-raising. Some of the
+cattle and pigs escaped to the woods and reverted to the wild state,
+and towards the middle and end of the seventeenth century great herds
+of wild cattle roamed over the island. Such herds no longer exist, but
+wild pigs have found their way to the most remote recesses of the
+mountains and are the plague of the fields. The equine species, sprung
+from the Andalusian horses brought by the Spaniards, has degenerated
+considerably and the best horses in the Republic today are of Porto
+Rican stock, but attention is at last being given to breeding. The
+largest herds of cattle roam about in the unfenced arid regions of the
+northwest. Hides are exported in large quantities, but there is little
+dairying. Of late years attention is being directed to improving the
+stock and several stock farms have been established near San Pedro
+de Macoris.
+
+Sheep raising is followed to some extent in the arid regions of the
+southwest and northwest, but the wool is of coarse grade. An important
+industry in these regions, especially in the neighborhood of Azua, is
+goat-raising. My inquiry as to the population of Azua was answered by
+the purser of the Clyde line steamer: "About three thousand people and
+about three million goats." Though his estimate of the number of goats
+may have been somewhat exaggerated, the fact is that they are
+everywhere in evidence and charge through the streets in droves, and
+at the great Azua church I found a goat in the vestibule looking
+reverently in. Over nine-tenths of the goatskins exported from the
+Republic go to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+THE PEOPLE
+
+Population.--Distribution.--Race.--Descendants of American
+negroes.--Language.--Physical traits.--Mental traits.--Amusements.
+--Dances, theaters, clubs, carnivals.--Gaming.--Morality.--Homes.
+
+
+The estimates of the early Spanish writers as to the Indian population
+of Hispaniola at the time of its first settlement in 1493 range all
+the way from one million to three million inhabitants. While it is
+probable that the former number was nearer to the truth, it is evident
+that the island was well inhabited, for Columbus found every valley
+swarming with natives. The severe labor imposed by the Spaniards made
+such frightful inroads on the native population that within a decade
+labor for the plantations and mines began to grow scarce and forty
+thousand inhabitants of the Bahama Islands were imported to increase
+the supply. They were lured on board the Spanish transports by the
+promise that they were to be conveyed to the beautiful home of their
+departed ancestors and though they did indeed quickly join their
+deceased relatives, it was not until after a taste of purgatory in the
+mines of Santo Domingo. In 1507 the entire Indian population was
+estimated at only 70,000, in 1508 it had fallen to 40,000, and in 1514
+to 14,000. Six years later the remnant of the aborigines united in the
+mountains to resist the Spaniards to the end, but in 1533 a treaty was
+concluded by which the Indians were assigned certain lands near Boya,
+thirty miles northeast of Santo Domingo City. According to some
+authorities 4000 and according to others only 600 natives remained to
+take advantage of this provision. Thereafter all mention of the
+Indians disappears from Dominican annals. Types recalling Indian
+characteristics are sometimes seen, however, and it is probable that
+some Indian blood is still represented in the country.
+
+Father Las Casas, the friend of the Indians, is credited with the
+suggestion that in place of the frail natives negroes be imported for
+labor in the mines and on the plantations. The earliest importations
+seem to have taken place in the opening years of the sixteenth
+century, for as early as 1505 King Ferdinand authorized the shipment
+of more negroes in lots of 100. Later, licenses were issued for the
+importation of negro slaves by the thousands and many more were
+probably smuggled in. The Spanish population also grew rapidly until
+about 1530 when the colony reached the zenith of its wealth and
+prosperity. Twelve years later, when the decline had become marked, it
+was estimated that besides a substantial white population there were
+30,000 negro slaves on the island. The superior attractions of other
+newly discovered countries and the fear of piratical invasions had by
+1591 decreased the total population of the colony to 15,000. This
+number remained almost stationary until about 1663 when it began to
+dwindle further until the low water mark was reached, about 1737, and
+the entire population of the Spanish portion of the island was
+estimated at but 6,000. Timely tariff concessions revived trade and
+encouraged immigration and new importations of slaves the number of
+inhabitants increased rapidly and in 1785 was reckoned at 150,000,
+including 30,000 slaves and a considerable proportion of free colored
+persons.  A decade later saw the beginning of the negro insurrection
+in the French section of Santo Domingo; the horrors attending this
+war, the invasion of the Spanish colony by the Haitians, the menace of
+further invasions, the frequent changes of sovereignty, and adverse
+economic conditions, produced an exodus in the course of which the
+great majority of the white population abandoned the island, many with
+all their slaves and dependents. A few returned, but in 1809 it was
+calculated that the inhabitants of Spanish Santo Domingo numbered
+104,000 and in 1819 but 63,000, of whom the greater number were
+colored. During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, white emigration
+again took place and white immigration was discouraged, while
+settlements of negroes from Haiti and the United States were made in
+different parts of the country. The increase of the population since
+that time has been subject to little outside influence; there has been
+practically no emigration, and immigration has been insignificant, the
+few new settlers being chiefly negroes from the British colonies,
+Haitians, Porto Ricans, Syrians and European merchants. In 1863 an
+ecclesiastical census, based on the returns of the various parish
+priests, placed the population at 207,700. This number may be
+described as little more than a compilation of guesses and was
+probably exaggerated. A similar ecclesiastical census taken in 1888
+gave a total of 382,312 inhabitants.
+
+These ecclesiastical computations were founded to some extent on
+parish records of baptisms and burials, but this basis became more and
+more precarious as the population increased. Probably the records most
+nearly accurate are the baptismal records of the Church, for almost
+every Dominican is baptized at some time in his life. The death
+records are the least complete on account of the obstacles presented
+during the civil disorders and the distance at which many country
+people live from the place of registry. A law of civil registry,
+requiring the inscription of all births, marriages and deaths has been
+only indifferently carried out and during times of insurrection
+entirely suspended. A government census was begun in 1908 but not
+concluded. Any accurate computation is thus out of the question.
+
+Unofficial estimates of the population to-day range all the way from
+400,000 to 920,000. In 1908 an official estimate based on birth
+statistics, placed it at 605,000. An unofficial estimate in 1917, made
+on the assumption that there are 1000 inhabitants for every 37 births
+reported, calculated the total population at 795,432, thus distributed
+among the several provinces:
+
+Santo Domingo ... 127,976
+Santiago ........ 123,972
+La Vega.......... 105,000
+Pacificador......  90,569
+Seibo............  68,135
+Espaillat........  64,108
+Azua ............  59,783
+Puerto Plata  ...  55,864
+Monte Cristi  ...  41,459
+Macoris..........  28,000
+Barahona ........  17,891
+Samana ..........  12,675
+
+The estimate of 37 births per 1000 inhabitants is probably too large
+as the birth-rate in Jamaica is but 34.6, in the Leeward Islands 33,
+and in the birth-registration area of the United States only 24.9. A
+reduction of ten per cent in the above figures would probably make
+them more nearly correct. That would give a total population of about
+715,000. Accepting the number of inhabitants as 715,000 the
+population per square mile is about 39.6. A comparison with the
+surrounding West Indian countries reveals considerable disproportion.
+The Dominican Republic is not quite one-half the size of Cuba but has
+only one-fourth the number of inhabitants; it is almost double the
+size of the Republic of Haiti but has less than one-half the
+inhabitants; it is five times the size of Porto Rico and has but
+one-half the population; it is one hundred and seven times as large as
+Barbados but has only four times the population. If the Dominican
+Republic were as densely populated as the neighboring Republic of
+Haiti, it would have 3,000,000 inhabitants; if the population were as
+dense as that of Porto Rico, it would be 7,000,000; if the Republic
+were as densely inhabited as Barbados it would have over 21,000,000
+people. Though the climatic and topographical conditions of the
+country would not permit it to become as thickly populated as
+Barbados, there is no reason why it should not support a population
+proportional to that of Porto Rico.
+
+As in the other West India Islands the population is principally
+rural. There are probably not more than a dozen towns in the Republic
+with more than 1500 inhabitants. A government census of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital and largest urban center, taken in November, 1908,
+showed a population of 18,626, and the number is now estimated
+as 21,000.
+
+A census of Santiago de los Caballeros, taken by the municipal
+authorities in 1903, showed an urban population of 10,921, the present
+estimate being 14,000. The estimated population of Puerto Plata is
+about 7000; La Vega and San Pedro de Macoris are believed to have
+about 5000 inhabitants each, but in every other case the urban
+population falls below 3000.  The population of the Dominican
+Republic is not scattered uniformly over the country, but is to be
+found chiefly in a fringe along the shore all the way from Monte
+Cristi to Barahona, and in the Cibao Valley. The most densely
+populated region is that part of the Cibao Valley known as the Royal
+Plain. In the mountainous interior there are vast stretches almost or
+entirely uninhabited; and remote valleys which have not been visited
+since the days of the conquest.
+
+The vicissitudes through which Santo Domingo has passed, the departure
+of so large a proportion of whites in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century and the intermingling of blood before and since that time have
+determined the character of the population. At the present time the
+pure negroes are in a minority, constituting probably less than
+one-fourth the entire population. The great majority of the
+inhabitants are of mixed Spanish and African blood, their color
+ranging from black to white. The lighter shades predominate,
+especially in the Cibao. There is also a sprinkling of pure whites,
+the majority of whom are to be found in the Cibao region or are
+foreigners residing in the larger cities. Many families would pass for
+white anywhere, showing absolutely no trace of colored blood, and it
+is difficult to believe confidential assurances of their intimate
+friends, indicating a different condition. A few families trace their
+ancestry back to the first Spanish colonists. As most of the blacks
+live south of the central mountain range the population of this region
+is a good deal darker than that of the northern part of the island.
+The census of Santo Domingo City in 1908 reported 7016 whites, 6934
+colored persons and 4676 blacks, but apart from the circumstance that
+numerous white foreigners reside in the capital, it is probable that
+many persons were classified as white who would have been considered
+colored in the United States under the stricter rules there
+prevailing.
+
+A comparison with Haiti discloses marked racial differences. In the
+French-speaking republic about ninety per cent of the inhabitants are
+pure blacks, the remainder being mulattoes. The distinction between
+the two countries is due to several circumstances: in Santo Domingo
+the pure blacks have never been in a majority; the whites have never
+all left the country; massacres of mulattoes and whites have never
+taken place; there have never been political parties based on color;
+and the relations between the races have always been cordial. In
+company, side by side, mulattoes, blacks and whites have lived,
+worked, enjoyed themselves and fought their revolutions. There is
+absolutely no color line. A friend of mine from Virginia received
+quite a shock the first time he attended a state ball in Santo Domingo
+and saw an immense negro, as black as coal, a member of Congress,
+dancing with a girl as white as any of the foreign ladies present. He
+rushed to the refreshment room and beckoned to a tall mulatto in a
+dress suit: "I'll have something to cool off, here waiter--" He was
+stopped just in time for he was mistaking the secretary of foreign
+affairs for a waiter; but after this experience he was afraid of
+giving his order to anyone else for fear he might be offending some
+other high official. The blacks are commonly the lower laborers, but
+negroes are to be found in all grades of society and are not
+infrequently represented in the cabinet itself. Of the presidents the
+majority have been of mixed blood, but several, like Luperon and
+Heureaux, were full-blood negroes. It appears that the strong strain
+of white blood in the country has elevated all, mulattoes and negroes.
+The negroes have produced men of high ability: Heureaux, for
+instance, though unscrupulous and cruel, was a man of remarkable
+sagacity and energy.
+
+It must not be supposed for a moment that the Dominicans are inimical
+to whites or, like their neighbors, the Haitians, prefer to see their
+country peopled by negroes only. On the contrary they are anxious to
+be considered as belonging to the white race and are not pleased by
+reference to their mixed blood. For this reason the former policy of
+the United States of sending colored men as ministers and consuls to
+Santo Domingo was resented by the Dominicans who saw therein an
+evidence of contempt. I have often heard Dominican statesmen express
+an eager desire for immigration, but only white immigration. This
+sentiment is reflected in immigration laws and in several concessions
+granted in late years in which the concessionnaire was prohibited from
+importing laborers of African or Asiatic descent. The Congress has
+even made appropriations for the introduction of white families and
+their settlement along the Haitian frontier, but the isolation of this
+region and other circumstances made such laws impracticable of
+execution.
+
+During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, a different policy prevailed.
+President Boyer was desirous of seeing every part of the island
+populated by blacks and accordingly settled Haitian negroes in various
+parts of Santo Domingo and encouraged negro immigration from the
+United States by premiums to ship captains bringing such immigrants.
+The American negroes were distributed in Haiti and in Santo Domingo,
+particularly near Puerto Plata and in the Samana peninsula. The Puerto
+Plata settlers have mingled with the rest of the population, but
+around the town of Samana, where the largest settlement, consisting of
+some sixty families, was made, the descendants of the American
+immigrants still form a distinct class. Large portions of the
+peninsula are taken up by their well kept farms, and one of the
+sections or districts into which the commune of Samana is divided, is
+officially named "Seccion de los Americanos." The people still
+preserve the English language and proudly proclaim that they are "of
+American abstraction."
+
+They have kept considerably aloof and only in recent years have there
+been marriages between them and their Spanish-speaking neighbors.
+Their exclusiveness has more than once been criticised by Dominicans.
+Of the original settlers all have passed away, their surviving
+children are advanced in age and the third generation is in its prime.
+The Methodist preacher of the district, a kindly black man, presented
+me to the oldest person of the American colony, a woman of about
+eighty years of age who was born only a few years after her parents
+arrived from Virginia. As the old woman stood smiling in the door of
+her little cabin, the walls of which were covered with leafy creepers,
+she looked the picture of an old Southern mammy. Her dialect was
+typical; when I said: "I am glad to meet you, Mrs. Sheppard," she
+answered, beaming, "Me likewise, I'se always glad to meet Americans, I
+is." Several of the American negroes have distinguished themselves in
+military matters, one of the most noted being General Anderson who
+grew gray in many revolutions.
+
+Between the coast towns and the ports of the surrounding countries,
+particularly Porto Rico, there is considerable coming and going. This
+was called to my attention the first time I set foot on Dominican
+soil, when a large negro darted out from a group of loungers on the
+wharf and seized my suit-case, crying: "Let me carry your baggage,
+Judge." Surprised, I inquired how he knew me, whereupon he asked
+reproachfully: "Don't you remember you sent me to jail in Mayaguez
+for shampooing a saucy stevedore's head with a brick?"
+
+Whether as a settler or transient visitor the foreigner may be sure of
+courteous and respectful treatment so long as he himself observes the
+proprieties. The laws grant the foreigner rights as ample as in the
+most advanced countries of the world.
+
+The language of Santo Domingo is Spanish, and the comparative purity
+with which it is spoken is remarkable when the long period of
+isolation of the country and the extended duration of Haitian rule are
+considered. In this particular Haiti offers a contrast, for though
+French is the official language the mass of the people speak Creole
+French, a patois unintelligible to anyone who has not lived in Haiti.
+The Dominicans do not lisp the "c" as do the Spaniards, and other
+peculiarities of Spanish as spoken in America are manifest, but on the
+whole the difference between the Dominican's Spanish and the
+Spaniard's Spanish may be compared to the difference between English
+as spoken in the United States and as spoken in England. Like several
+other Spanish-American nations the Dominicans are to be distinguished
+by their preference for certain words and endings, and by their accent
+and inflection. As everywhere else the unlettered classes are given to
+grammatical faults and provincialisms, but on the whole the vocabulary
+of the Dominican peasant contains fewer archaic expressions and Indian
+roots than that of the Porto Rican "jibaro" and is more easily
+understood by the outsider. Slight differences of pronunciation are
+noticeable in different parts of the country: the people of Seibo are
+inclined to use the vowel "i" instead of the consonant "r" and say
+"poique" instead of "porque," somewhat as the New York street urchin
+says "boid" for "bird"; the people of Santiago sometimes drop the "r"
+entirely and say "poque," as the Southern negro in the United States
+says "fo" for "four"; the peasants of Puerto Plata show a tendency to
+use the "u" instead of "o" and say "tudu" instead of "todo," like some
+of the inhabitants of Catalonia in Spain. The Azuans claim to speak
+the best Spanish of the Republic, but their claim is disputed by other
+provinces.
+
+Besides Spanish, the English and French languages are heard to a
+limited extent. On the Samana peninsula, where the descendants of
+American negroes are in a majority, as much English is spoken as
+Spanish, and in the coast towns, San Pedro de Macoris, Puerto Plata,
+Monte Cristi and Santo Domingo, it is also often heard. In these
+cities it is usually the singsong English of negroes from the British
+colonies. Along the Haitian border and at the extremity of the Samana
+peninsula, where a Haitian colony was planted by President Boyer, the
+French language is spoken. On the wharf at Monte Cristi I have
+encountered fruit-vendors from the interior who spoke no language
+except Creole French. Some persons who have been born and bred on the
+Samana peninsula know not a word of Spanish but only English. Many
+members of the wealthier class of the Republic have studied or
+traveled in Europe or the United States and speak one or more foreign
+languages. In Puerto Plata I was surprised to hear a jet-black negro
+speak German fluently; he had been educated in a commercial school in
+Hamburg. The larger cities have their foreign colonies, consisting
+principally of merchants, and most of the languages of Europe are
+represented.
+
+As a race the Dominicans are robust and sturdy. All the Dominican
+presidents of late years have been men of commanding physique, fitting
+representatives of their people. As far as industry is concerned the
+average Dominican is little more laborious than absolutely necessary
+to support himself and his family. Why should he do more when nature
+has been so bountiful and when in the past any accumulated fruits of
+his toil might have been swept away by the next revolution? The spirit
+of the tropics pervades the country and the tendency not to do to-day
+what can be conveniently left for "manana" is constantly observed.
+
+The Dominican women are as a rule graceful of body and fair of face,
+with large and beautiful eyes. They make devoted wives and loving
+mothers. The ladies of the better class are quite as susceptible to
+the allurements of Parisian fashions as their American and European
+cousins, and the scenes at balls and at evening promenades on the
+plaza are very attractive. The heat of the climate makes a liberal use
+of powder necessary, and it almost seems as if the darker the color of
+the woman the greater is her fondness for powder, so that some of the
+negresses assume an almost grayish hue. The Dominican woman is very
+domestic, she rarely goes out except to church, to an occasional dance
+or to the band concerts on the plaza. Before her marriage she is
+carefully chaperoned and guarded; all courting takes place in the
+presence of her mother or some other near relative.
+
+Notwithstanding the large mixture of African blood and long isolation
+of the Dominican race, the strong personality of the Spaniard has
+survived unmodified and the population is to-day as thoroughly Spanish
+in character, customs and mode of thinking as the people of Cuba and
+Porto Rico. How completely the Spanish consciousness pervades the
+country was illustrated by a remark made to an American naval officer
+by the mayor of an inland town of Santo Domingo; he was a very black
+negro, but in the course of a discussion observed: "Your arguments
+will fit Anglo-Saxons, but _we Latins_ are a different people." The
+first trait noticeable is the politeness of Dominicans of every
+degree. Only once have I met a rude official and that by a curious
+coincidence was the very first one with whom I had dealings, but after
+this beginning there were no further exceptions to the rule. A
+charming characteristic is the open-hearted hospitality everywhere
+encountered. The stranger who is introduced in any home is immediately
+assured in the customary Spanish way: "This is your house." The words,
+though figuratively spoken, are sincere, and the hosts are glad to
+have their new friend visit their house as though it were his own. As
+companions the Dominicans are delightful, being generally jovial and
+amiable. Some there are, especially among the country people, whose
+natural reticence makes them seem sullen, but once the ice is broken
+they are quite as light-hearted as the others.
+
+In the idealistic tendency of their mind the Dominicans strongly show
+their brotherhood with the other Spanish peoples. In this connection
+the spirit of their renowned kinsman, Don Quixote de la Mancha, is
+often in evidence. When one of them mounts his Rocinante in defense of
+some particularly attractive abstract proposition, nothing less than a
+blow from a windmill will bring him back to reality. And so when any
+person or group of persons become enamored of an idea they are
+unwilling to brook contradiction or compromise. The inclination of the
+majority to do their will irrespective of the wishes of the minority
+and the unwillingness of the minority to bow to the resolutions of the
+majority have been and will continue to be grave problems in the
+government of the country. Even in personal relations a spirit of
+intolerance can frequently be noticed and while almost anything is
+forgiven a friend, not a single redeeming feature is recognized in an
+enemy. To their idealistic tendency may be ascribed the worship of the
+words "patriotism" and "liberty." Unnumbered sins have been committed
+under the cloak of patriotism, and true personal liberty, such as it
+is understood in the United States, has never prevailed in Santo
+Domingo; but the adoration of these conceptions continues and it is to
+be hoped that now, with American assistance, it will bring real and
+lasting liberty to the country. Perhaps it is their idealism, as much
+as their isolation, which causes the Dominicans to take themselves so
+very seriously and renders them so extremely sensitive to criticism or
+jokes on the subject of their country, customs or revolutions.
+
+Foreigners sometimes complain that the affirmations of Dominicans
+cannot be trusted. In many cases investigation has shown that these
+foreigners were misled with regard to some mine, woodland or other
+property they had come to buy. Persons anxious to sell mines and other
+undeveloped properties have not distinguished themselves for veracity
+in any country, and with regard to sincerity in general the Dominicans
+may be regarded as no better but certainly no worse than the general
+run of humanity. With their personal friends they are generally loyal
+and true, but in their political relations the picture is not so
+attractive; for while there have been many cases where subordinates
+have followed their fallen chief into exile rather than submit to the
+victor, it is saddening to note the frequency with which governors of
+provinces and other local authorities have betrayed the confidence
+reposed in them by the chief executive, and have initiated or joined
+revolutionary uprisings. I have heard both ex-President Jimenez and
+ex-President Morales sorrowfully complain that their fall was due to
+the treachery of trusted subordinates. A particularly repulsive case
+of perfidiousness was that of General Luis Felipe Vidal, a prominent
+politician, who participated in the murder of President Caceres,
+though he had only a few hours before visited the President, played
+billiards with him and fondled his infant daughter.
+
+Of all amusements there is none which appeals so strongly to every
+class of the population as dancing. Every public holiday is an excuse
+for the giving of a "baile" or dance, and when holidays are scarce the
+"baile" is arranged anyhow. So, while elsewhere special occasions are
+celebrated by banquets, here the rule is to give a dance. Historical
+anniversaries, political triumphs, religious holidays, weddings,
+birthdays, christenings: all are celebrated by dances. Waltz music is
+popular but the favorite dance music is the pretty Porto Rican
+"danza," which is kin to Mexican airs and to the Cuban "guaracha" and
+may be compared to a flowing brook, now gliding along serenely, now
+rushing in cascades. The dances are often interrupted by the serving
+of sweets and ices.
+
+In the country the dance music is quite different. A rhythmic beating
+is kept up on a drum made of a barrel or hollow log and rude fiddles
+or guitars or an accordion play an accompaniment. To the traveler,
+riding along his road at night, the deep regular rumbling of the drums
+of distant "bailes" comes with indescribable weirdness. In some dances
+the participants engage in a monotonous chant, in others there are
+pauses in which the young men must quickly improvise verses on some
+subject suggested by one of the lassies. In the cities the dances
+begin at ten o'clock at night and last until the wee hours of morning,
+but in the country they begin at almost any time and occasionally last
+two or three days--especially during the Christmas holidays.
+
+These country dances with drum accompaniment are similar to those
+popular among the negroes in Porto Rico and are probably an African
+legacy. But, like Porto Rico, the Dominican Republic is absolutely
+free from the practise of those barbarous negro rites, of which dances
+like these often form part, and which are known in Haiti under the
+name of "voudou," in Cuba under that of "witchcraft" and in the
+British West Indies under that of "obeah," and which sometimes lead
+even to human sacrifices. This is all the more remarkable in Santo
+Domingo as the adjoining Republic of Haiti has been the worst sufferer
+from such practices.
+
+The country dances are occasionally the scenes of violent personal
+altercations. While drunkenness is very rare and a drunkard is
+regarded almost as a social outcast, the countrymen are fond of
+regaling themselves with rum made of cane juice, and at dances where
+such rum is served it is not infrequent for some one to become unduly
+excited. If he happened to meet another in the same condition and a
+controversy arose with reference to some dusky damsel, a frequent
+unfortunate outcome was, until lately, for both to draw revolvers and
+blaze away at each other and if ejected from the house to stand nearby
+and fire through the wooden walls. In Porto Rico such affairs are
+decided with the machete and only the immediate combatants are hurt,
+but revolver bullets are more dangerous to the innocent bystander than
+to those doing the shooting. In Macoris I was told of a dance where
+the casualties were fifteen killed--more than in the average
+revolution. Yet so deep-seated is the fondness for dancing that after
+the smoke has cleared away and the dead or wounded victim been
+removed, it has often happened that the ladies dried their tears and
+men and women continued with the "baile."
+
+Up to the time of American intervention in 1916, the practise of
+carrying weapons was general. In the country a man strapped on his
+pistol or carried his gun as he would in other countries put on his
+necktie or take up his cane. At the railroad stations in the Cibao I
+have sometimes observed everyone congregated about the station wearing
+a revolver more or less visible, except two or three, evidently the
+poorest farm-laborers, who could not afford anything more than a dirk
+and who gazed at the others with envious eyes. Beautiful pearl-handled
+revolvers were proudly exhibited to the public eye, and on one
+occasion I saw a little boy not over ten years old with a revolver
+that reached to his knee. The habit was all the more indefensible as
+it was absolutely unnecessary, Santo Domingo being as safe a country
+to travel in as any other. Governors of provinces sometimes forbade
+the carrying of arms, but the prohibition was rarely enforced with
+reference to their friends and adherents. The American authorities
+have put a stop to the habit, however, and confiscated all the arms
+they could find; some 15,000 rifles and revolvers have thus been
+taken up.
+
+After all, the average Dominican will resent a shot less than a blow.
+A story is told of a prominent youth in the capital who received a
+slap during a quarrel; the aggressor fled, but the young man kept
+holding his handkerchief to his cheek for days until he met his
+assailant and was able to wipe out the insult in blood.
+
+Only in the larger towns are there facilities for the gratification of
+the popular fondness for theatrical performances. Puerto Plata has a
+pretty theatre. In Santo Domingo City the ancient Jesuit church, long
+abandoned, was converted into a theater, the stage being located
+where the altar formerly stood, the boxes occupying the aisles, and
+the chairs of the audience being arranged in the nave; but a new
+open-air theatre, the "Teatro Independencia," is more commodious. The
+Spanish drama is popular, as well as the delightful Spanish "zarzuela"
+or musical comedy. Owing to the isolation of the country it is not
+often visited by good professional troupes, and the interior is
+entirely dependent upon amateur talent.
+
+In social life the clubs are prominent features. A town must be
+unimportant indeed if it has not at least one club where the men can
+meet, read the papers and play cards or billiards. The first attention
+shown the stranger within the gates is to take him to the club and
+enroll him as a visitor, this action being equivalent to a general
+local introduction. The clubs give pleasant musical and literary
+entertainments and dances attended by the best local society. In Santo
+Domingo, Puerto Plata and Santiago the ladies have a club of their own
+where they can meet and chat to their hearts' content. Needless to say
+the most popular entertainments and dances are those given by the
+"Club de Damas." All these clubs have been of great value in the
+social development of the country and many of them have given
+important impulses to education.
+
+Another valuable contribution to civic development is rendered by the
+municipal bands existing in many towns. They are voluntary
+associations and tend to awaken in the inhabitants an interest and
+pride in their city. On Sunday night and sometimes on other nights
+during the week they play on the plaza, while the people, following
+the usual custom in the Spanish cities, promenade up and down. Such
+scenes are very attractive, the ladies, dressed in their best, with
+their light gowns brilliant in the moonlight; the men walking with
+them or watching the promenaders. It is on the plaza and in the
+ball-room where Cupid's arrows do most execution.
+
+Of late years some interest has been shown in athletics, and baseball
+has invaded the island. Bicycle races occasionally form part of public
+celebrations, and horse-races and tournaments have long been popular.
+
+Santo Domingo may be said to have two carnivals, one on St. Andrew's
+day, November 30, the other during the three days preceding Lent. The
+former is the more exciting. Until recent years there was not a person
+in the capital and Santiago, where the populace was most given to the
+typical diversion of the day, who did not voluntarily or involuntarily
+participate therein. The diversion consisted in throwing water or
+flour or both on everyone within reach. The poorer people would arm
+themselves with great syringes and discharge them at every passerby or
+through the keyholes of house-doors. Others would station themselves
+at points of vantage with barrels and tubs of water and duck the
+unwary they were able to entrap. People of the better class would
+place great tubs of water on their balconies or roofs, which the
+servants would assiduously keep filled while their masters emptied
+buckets-full on friends in the street. The young men rode through the
+streets in open carriages, bombarding the ladies on balconies and
+housetops with eggs filled with perfumed water, and receiving
+drenchings in return. Within the last few years the authorities have
+restricted or prohibited the throwing of water, and the principal
+celebration of the day is now what is called a "white dance" given by
+the better society, at which the participants are supposed to come
+dressed in white in order that the many-colored confetti, serpentines
+and gilt powders which those present throw at each other between
+dances, may appear to better effect. During the carnival proper,
+before Lent, the streets are filled with masked persons in groups or
+alone, who dance, make impudent remarks or otherwise indulge in
+nonsense, to the special delight of the ubiquitous small boy. The
+better class celebrate with masquerade balls, where the merry spirit
+of the Dominican is given free rein.
+
+The principal vice of the country is gaming. Men of the better class
+play cards, dominoes, chess, checkers and billiards, for money, but
+they do so rather for pastime than for gain. Among the poorer classes,
+however, the predominant idea is that of making money quickly. Cards
+and dice are often used, but the typical form of gambling, the one at
+which the poor countryman is fondest of staking his hard-earned wages,
+is the cockfight. Every town has its cockpit where on Sundays and
+holidays the barbarous sport is carried on in the presence of crowds
+of whooping, screaming spectators who often ride miles to attend. The
+authorities claim that efforts have been made to stop this sport, but
+that they have all been unavailing. It constitutes a source of
+municipal income, the right to open cockpits being annually conceded
+to the highest bidder by the various municipalities. Raffles and
+lotteries are also permitted by law, being subject to taxation by the
+municipalities, and in one or two cities there are municipal
+lotteries.
+
+With respect to morality the same conditions may be said to prevail in
+Santo Domingo as in other southern countries, the women being in
+general virtuous and pure and the men inclined to amorous intrigues.
+The official statistics relating to marriages and births show that of
+the children born in the Republic almost sixty per cent are
+illegitimate. These figures, while serious, are rendered less alarming
+than would appear at first sight by the large number of what the
+census-takers term "consensual unions" among the humbler classes, or
+cases where a man and woman, though not united by marriage ceremony,
+live together publicly as man and wife, rear a family and are as
+faithful to each other as if they were legitimately married. "Married
+but not parsoned" is the way in which such unions are referred to in
+some of the British West Indies. The considerable number of these
+unions may be explained by the high cost of the marriage
+ceremony,--for while there are some priests ready to waive their fees
+for a religious wedding and some alcaldes who are satisfied with what
+the law allows for the civil ceremony, others are not so
+complaisant--also by the fact that such unions have become so common
+that the parties see nothing wrong in them, and further by the
+circumstance that the parties often believe it more to their advantage
+to remain single rather than to be married. A friend of mine had a
+respectable colored man working on his plantation, the head of a large
+family, but not married to the woman with whom he had been living for
+over a score of years and to whom he was devotedly attached. My friend
+endeavored to persuade him to marry the woman, but the answer was a
+determined negative. "If I marry her she will know I have to support
+her and she may get careless and lazy. Knowing that I can leave her
+when I like she will continue to behave herself." Persuasion was then
+tried with his wife and her refusal was almost identical: "If I marry
+him he will know that I am bound to him and then he may go and fall in
+love with some other woman. Knowing that I can leave him when I like
+he will continue to behave himself."
+
+The homes of the poorer people are mere huts generally built of
+palmwood and covered with palm-thatch. The houses of the country
+people are exactly like the "bohios" used by the Indians at the time
+of the conquest, as pictured and described by the early writers. In
+the towns outside of the capital wooden houses are the rule and some
+of the wealthier people have pretty chalets. In the large cities there
+is a good deal of "mamposteria" construction: brick or stone work,
+covered with cement. In the capital the walls of a majority of the
+houses have come down from the early days and are of great
+solidity--here a man's house is literally his fortress. The barred
+windows of the olden days are here still to be seen. One-story
+structures are the rule, and there are few if any of more than two
+stories. The heat of the climate makes window-glass impracticable and
+the windows and doors are fitted with shutters which permit the air to
+pass through. Except in the houses of the wealthiest persons the
+furniture is very simple and of small amount. In the parlors a
+caneseat sofa, several rockers and chairs and a small table with a few
+knicknacks are arranged everywhere in the same way. The bedsteads are
+of iron and the bedroom furniture is reduced to the simplest articles.
+The floors are bare except for a few rugs. The climate is responsible
+for the simplicity of the furniture, as carpets would breed insects,
+and more furniture would mean endless cleaning and dusting, since
+everything must be open all day. The kitchens are not furnished with
+iron stoves, but cooking is done on brick hearths, as in Cuba and
+Porto Rico. The most serious drawback about Dominican houses is the
+want of proper bathing facilities and of sanitary closets, due to lack
+of running water in most cities. The most attractive feature of the
+houses is the patio, or yard, which is often gay with flowers, though
+not so assiduously cared for as in some other Spanish countries. In
+similarity to other tropical lands home life is not nearly so intense
+as in colder climates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+RELIGION
+
+Catholic religion.--Concordat.--Ownership of church
+buildings.--Clergy.--Religious sentiment.--Shrines.--Religious customs
+and holidays.--Religious toleration.--Protestant sects.
+
+The Roman Catholic creed has been the dominant religion of Santo
+Domingo from the time of the conquest. When Columbus arrived on his
+second voyage he brought with him twelve friars, some of whom were as
+holy men as their leader, the vindictive Father Boil, was a nuisance.
+Others were not long in arriving and soon the country had as many
+priests in proportion as Spain herself. Large estates came into
+possession of the church, and in the city of Santo Domingo imposing
+churches and spacious cloisters were erected, which still stand,
+either in ruins or used for religious or secular purposes. There were
+three monasteries, two nunneries, and some ten churches and chapels in
+the capital.
+
+As early as 1511 bishops were appointed for Santo Domingo and
+Concepcion de la Vega and in 1547 the first archbishopric in the new
+world was established in Santo Domingo City. From 1516 to 1519 the
+island was governed directly by three friars, and the licentiate
+Alonso de Fuenmayor, who governed thirty years later, was not only
+governor and captain-general of the island, and president of the royal
+audiencia, but archbishop of Santo Domingo as well. The Inquisition
+was established in Santo Domingo in 1564.
+
+With the decline of the colony the number of churchmen declined also,
+and by the middle of the seventeenth century the majority of the
+church buildings were closed and falling to ruin and the church's vast
+country estates were abandoned. The revival of the country during the
+eighteenth century affected the church as well, but the occupation by
+Haitians and French during the beginning of the nineteenth century
+caused its influence to wane, and restrictive legislation under
+Haitian dominion and the expulsion of the archbishop for political
+reasons in 1830, severed all connection with Rome for many years. The
+first archbishop appointed after the independence of the Republic was
+consecrated in 1848.
+
+The Roman Catholic religion is now the recognized state religion. In
+1884 the Dominican government entered into an agreement with the Holy
+See according to the terms of which the archbishop of Santo Domingo is
+to be appointed by the Pope from a list of three names, native
+Dominicans or residents of the Republic, submitted by the Dominican
+Congress, which in turn engaged to pay the salary of the archbishop
+and certain other officials. The agreement as to the payments
+incumbent upon the Dominican government had the same fate as other
+financial contracts: it was observed for a short time and then
+disregarded, so that for years only small appropriations have been
+made for church purposes.
+
+In the year 1908 a controversy arose with reference to the ownership
+of the buildings and lands occupied by the church. The archbishop and
+church officials claimed that such buildings belong to the church
+absolutely; while the government officials alleged that they are the
+property of the state, possessed by the church with the state's
+consent. Previously few persons had ever given a thought to the
+matter, the church having as many buildings as it could properly care
+for, and more, while other former religious edifices were used by the
+state. Contributions for the erection and repair of churches were
+frequently made by Dominican towns without exciting discussion. The
+controversy of 1908 was precipitated by the determination of the
+church authorities to erect a mausoleum in the cathedral of Santo
+Domingo City for the remains of the late Archbishop Merino. The
+Executive of Santo Domingo demanded that the government's permission
+be first obtained, but the church officials refused to ask for such
+permission, holding it unnecessary. Neither side lacked historical
+grounds for its contention. In the old colonial days church and state
+were united and the questions of ownership of the church buildings
+never arose. When the Haitians assumed control in 1822 they considered
+the church edifices as the property of the state alone and religious
+services continued only by sufferance of the government. Upon the
+establishment of the independence of Santo Domingo, the new
+government, although friendly towards the Catholic Church, took a
+similar view of the ownership of church edifices and property. By law
+of June 7, 1845, of the Dominican Congress, all "censos" and other
+perpetual rents established in favor of the church were declared
+extinguished and by law of July 2, 1845, all property, real and
+personal, formerly belonging to convents and orders no longer in being
+in the country was formally proclaimed to pertain to the state. In
+1853 burials in churches were prohibited by law of Congress as being
+dangerous to the public health, but in exceptional cases the Executive
+granted permission therefor on the payment of a fee which of late
+years has been $300. On the other hand, it was argued that the church
+has been in uninterrupted possession of its present buildings for
+centuries; that these buildings are not comprised in the laws of
+1845; that a law of 1867 granting the gardens of the archbishop's
+residence to the municipality of Santo Domingo for the establishment
+of a market and cockpit was repealed in 1871 as being a despoilment of
+the church and unconstitutional; and that when the mausoleum of
+Columbus was erected in the cathedral the committee in charge,
+presided over by the vice-president of the Republic, applied for
+permission to the authorities of the church. The dispute regarding the
+mausoleum of Archbishop Merino came to an end when the government
+receded from its demand, but the main question is not regarded
+as settled.
+
+At the present time the Republic is divided into fifty-seven parishes.
+The episcopal head is the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In 1903, when
+old age had enfeebled Archbishop Merino, one of his assistants,
+Monsignor Adolfo Nouel, was made titular Archbishop of Metymne, and on
+the death of the venerable churchman in 1906 succeeded him as
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo.
+
+In the olden days many religious orders were represented in the
+island, but to-day the clergy is secular, with the exception of a few
+friars brought over in recent years from Spain and France. The
+majority of the priests are native Dominicans, graduated from the
+seminary in the capital. There are in the clerical body a number of
+black sheep, far too fond of the pleasures of the flesh. Of this stamp
+was a noted prelate, of whom I was told when I asked whether he was
+old: "Yes, quite old, his oldest son is over forty." As a general
+rule, however, the priests of Santo Domingo are earnest, hardworking,
+honorable men. The standard is being raised through the efforts of the
+present Archbishop Nouel.
+
+The unfortunate political history of the country has not been
+conducive to the establishment of eleemosynary institutions or to
+other philanthropic activity, and such work has devolved almost
+exclusively upon the priests. The names of many of these are held in
+grateful remembrance for their efforts in behalf of charity. Perhaps
+the most celebrated was Father Billini, who, a member of one of the
+foremost families of Santo Domingo, consecrated his life to helping
+his fellowmen. He was a father to the poor and through his efforts the
+insane asylum of Santo Domingo, an orphan asylum and a college were
+established. His name became notable in other directions also, for he
+was instrumental in the discovery of the remains of Columbus in the
+Santo Domingo cathedral in 1877. At times the methods of the good
+father were a little spectacular: thus on one occasion when
+supplicating Heureaux in behalf of several prisoners sentenced to
+death, he took off his hat and vowed he would not put it on again
+until the prisoners were pardoned, but the order of execution was
+carried out and ever afterwards Father Billini went hatless. In so
+great esteem is his name held that the only statue in Santo Domingo
+City, besides that of Columbus on the plaza, is erected to his memory.
+
+Practically the entire population of the country is at least nominally
+Roman Catholic. Among the educated classes in the cities the women, as
+a rule, are devout; the men either openly acknowledge themselves free
+thinkers or their religion is very superficial indeed. On one occasion
+a Dominican earnestly assured me he was a Catholic and would always
+remain one, "but," he added, "I cannot accept all the doctrines of the
+church: thus I do not believe in the Virgin Mary, nor the saints, nor
+the power of the priests to forgive sins, nor in the divinity of
+Christ, but I feel almost certain of the existence of a God." The
+fondness for display makes the ornate ceremonies of the Catholic
+Church popular with all, however, and they are observed by officers of
+the state whenever possible. The president always goes to mass after
+taking the oath of office, and the army flags are solemnly blessed.
+
+The less educated people of the cities and most of the country people
+not only hold their priests in great respect, but are blindly
+superstitious. It is common to find crosses in the courtyards of
+country houses, placed there to keep evil spirits away. Frequently
+also, three crosses are seen in conspicuous places near the roadside
+or even in the middle of the road. They are supposed to propitiate the
+Almighty, and pious persons mumble prayers as they pass them. When the
+destruction wrought by the Martinique volcano became known here, the
+dismay of the countrymen was responsible for more than one "calvario"
+(calvary), as these collections of crosses are called. It is
+especially desired by the country people to receive the last
+sacraments from the priests before death. On one occasion far out in
+the country I met a crowd of people engaged in transporting a dying
+man many miles to the priest in the nearest town. When asked why the
+priest was not called to the sick man, they explained innocently: "He
+couldn't come. The priest is too fat."
+
+There are in the territory of the Republic several shrines of more
+than usual renown, which at certain seasons of the year attract crowds
+of worshipers, some coming all the way from Porto Rico. Wonderful
+cures of invalids are registered which recall the miracles of Lourdes.
+The most celebrated of these churches is the one on the Santo Cerro,
+the Holy Hill, built on the exact spot where forces of Columbus
+planted their cross when defending the hill against the Indians. After
+the Indians had stormed the place all their efforts to destroy the
+cross were unavailing, so the story goes, and they were finally driven
+to precipitate flight by the apparition of the Virgin, sitting on the
+cross. A church was founded on the spot and a convent near by. During
+the dark years of the colony the convent was abandoned and fell to
+ruin but at no time was a priest lacking to look after the site of the
+miracle. In the time of Heureaux the humble wooden chapel then
+crowning the hill was replaced by a larger but modest brick church,
+the greater part of the bricks being carried up from the ruins of the
+old city of La Vega which lie at the foot of the hill. The church
+occupies an eminence overlooking the great Royal Plain. Its most
+prized treasure, which is reverently kissed by the priest before he
+shows it to the stranger, consists of two splinters about an inch
+long, of black wood, parts of the original cross of Columbus, enclosed
+in another small cross of gold filigree work. A larger piece of the
+original cross is kept in the cathedral at Santo Domingo City, to be
+exhibited on special occasions. The pieces of the original cross
+carried away by the Spaniards were enough to make a score of crosses,
+yet nevertheless there was always some wood left, which circumstance
+was heralded as an additional miracle.
+
+Within the church on the Holy Hill, in one of the chapels, there is a
+hole in the stone floor a little over two feet square and deep, which
+is pointed out as the exact place where the cross of Columbus stood.
+There is nothing so coveted by pilgrims as to be able to kneel in this
+hole and offer up their prayers. The soil from this spot is credited
+with strange powers, such as that of healing wounds on which it is
+laid, and that of causing floods to subside, when sprinkled on the
+troubled waters. The late Archbishop Merino assured me that the
+miraculous nature of the spot is evidenced by the fact that however
+much soil is taken out of the hole, the bottom thereof always retains
+the same level, but my later inspection of the dry yellow earth at the
+bottom disclosed nothing unusual. Near the Santo Cerro church is the
+trunk of the nispero tree, gnarled with age, from which Columbus is
+said to have cut the wood for his cross. All around are miserable
+shacks, inhabited, so the pure-minded priest of the church sorrowfully
+told me, by people the conduct of many of whom is quite at variance
+with the holiness supposed to pervade the place.
+
+The town of Bayaguana, to the northeast of Santo Domingo City, also
+attracts the faithful, especially about the first of the year, by
+reason of the fame of the "Cristo de Bayaguana," a very ancient figure
+of Christ in the church of that town. In the same way Higuey in the
+eastern part of the island is specially noted for its shrine of the
+"Altagracia," a picture of the Virgin, of which tradition says that in
+the early days of the colony it was given by an aged mysterious
+stranger to the father of a devout maiden who had pined therefor. The
+church is built on the site of an orange tree under which, it is said,
+the picture was first admired by the girl and her relatives; the trunk
+of this tree is shown behind the altar of the church. Pilgrimages to
+this place take place preferably about the twenty-first of January and
+the miracles ascribed to the Virgin are astounding. Miracles of quite
+a different nature are attributed to an image of Saint Andrew, in the
+capital. The populace confidently believe that as sure as this figure
+is carried to the street an earthquake will follow.
+
+There are always several altars in the churches, surmounted by figures
+of the saints to whom they are dedicated. Some of these statues are
+quite beautiful, others, in some of the poorer churches, are hideous.
+As in other Spanish countries the churches are bare of seats, and
+people who attend either send small chairs before the service, or
+stand. It is not unusual to see well dressed ladies carrying their
+chairs to church. Women are much more in evidence than men, and the
+Dominican woman is not different from her sisters in other countries,
+for a new hat or dress is apt to awaken in her an irresistible
+yearning to go to church. Young men are fond of attending, too, but it
+is to be feared that in many cases their object is to see the young
+ladies rather than to hear the sermon.
+
+The custom of celebrating the saint's day instead of the birthday is
+followed, so that birthdays pass unperceived while the day dedicated
+in the calendar of the Catholic Church to the saint whose name a
+person bears, is the day which he celebrates and on which he receives
+the felicitations of his friends.
+
+Christmas tide is not a time when presents are exchanged, and
+Christmas trees are not found, save rarely and where the foreign
+influence is strong. There is no lack of celebration, however. On
+Christmas Eve the churches are crowded and there are banquets and
+dances going on everywhere. In the cities the small boys amuse
+themselves by setting off fireworks. During the Christmas week dances
+are frequent, and in the country they continue sometimes for days to
+the lugubrious accompaniment of accordions and large drums. December
+the twenty-eighth, Holy Innocents' day, is All Fools' day, instead of
+April the first, it being argued that just as the innocents of Herod's
+day were made to suffer, so the innocents of this age should be
+persecuted. Many are the pranks perpetrated and the small boy is in
+his glory. On New Year's Eve many families receive their friends;
+there is generally some large ball, and the new year is ushered in
+with fireworks and other noises.
+
+The great day of the year for the children is the sixth of January,
+the feast of Epiphany, or Three Kings' Day, as it is called in Santo
+Domingo. Just as the three wise men from the East brought presents to
+the infant Christ in ages past, so they now make the rounds and leave
+presents for deserving children, thus taking the place of our Santa
+Claus. The receptacles they choose for the good things they deliver
+are either the children's slippers or shoes, or boxes made ready by
+the little ones. For weeks before the anxiously awaited day, letters
+are written to the Kings, explaining what gifts would be acceptable,
+and are given to the parents who undertake to deliver them. The
+children are careful to facilitate the display of the Kings'
+generosity by placing their shoes or boxes in conspicuous places and
+filling the boxes with grass, so that the horses of the Kings can eat.
+Their thoughtfulness is rewarded, for on the following morning the
+visit of the Kings is attested by indubitable evidence, as there is an
+abundance of toys and sweets and the grass is often quite strewn
+about. Excited little ones are sure they heard the pawing of the
+horses on the balcony. The Kings usually show a magnanimous disregard
+of past offenses, but occasionally they leave a letter of advice or
+warning, and they have even been known to place a switch in the box of
+a particularly bad boy.
+
+Easter is celebrated with great solemnity. In order to provide
+opportunity for observing all the ceremonies prescribed by the church,
+they are so arranged that the ceremonies corresponding to the
+commemoration of the death of Christ are begun on Thursday at noon and
+the celebration of the resurrection on Saturday at noon, and this is
+the order of dates accepted by the people in general. On Thursday and
+Friday soldiers form a guard of honor before the churches, and up to
+Easter of 1906 there was a strict prohibition of any vehicle going
+through the streets between Thursday noon and Saturday noon. Not a
+wheel was permitted to turn in this period, giving rise to much
+inconvenience and discomfort. Since 1906 a more liberal view has
+prevailed. At this time as on certain other church festivals, solemn
+religious processions wind through the streets.
+
+The church has charge of several small hospitals and orphan asylums. A
+few schools in the Republic are also under its auspices, but in
+general religious education is much neglected.
+
+Although the Catholic religion is the state religion and is professed
+by so large a majority of the population, the influence of the church
+in the government is no more than in many countries where no such
+circumstances prevail. Discipline in the priesthood is limited almost
+entirely to ecclesiastical matters and priests otherwise speak and act
+for themselves. They frequently participate in politics and are often
+to be met in municipal councils and in Congress, and in such cases
+their acts indicate that they sit, not as priests representing the
+church, but entirely as individuals representing the constituency from
+which they were elected. Father Merino, who later became archbishop,
+was elected president and served out his term. President Morales had
+been a priest, but had abandoned the priesthood when he was elected to
+Congress. The present head of the church, Archbishop Nouel, has also
+been president, under a temporary compromise.
+
+Another peculiarity of Dominican Catholicism is its tolerant attitude
+towards freemasonry. It is not unusual for persons who are recognized
+as fervent Catholics to be at the same time enthusiastic masons.
+There are instances even of devout families, where one of the sons
+belongs to the priesthood and the other sons and the father are
+zealous masons, but where all live under the same roof in absolute
+concord. The first lodges were founded in 1858 and there are lodges to
+be found to-day in all the principal cities. Several of them have
+their own buildings, that at Santiago being especially worthy of
+remark. They have done excellent work in behalf of charity and
+education. The lodges of Santo Domingo City, Santiago, La Vega and
+Moca maintain free public schools, and the lodge of Puerto Plata a
+hospital. The lodges of oddfellows in the Republic have done similar
+good work.
+
+The absence of religious fanaticism is further exemplified by the
+tolerance accorded other religious sects. These, it is true, are but
+slimly represented. Of the Jewish faith there are probably not two
+dozen persons in the Republic. The Protestants are almost entirely
+negroes from the British and former Danish islands and other
+foreigners, and descendants of the American negroes settled in Santo
+Domingo. For these the Wesleyan Methodist Church of England maintains
+a flourishing mission with chapels in Puerto Plata, Samana, and
+Sanchez and a small branch in Santo Domingo City. The principal chapel
+is in Puerto Plata, which is also the residence of the minister in
+charge of the mission. The African Methodist Church also has small
+stations at Samana and San Pedro de Macoris, though the word "African"
+does not tend to make the church popular in Santo Domingo. There is
+further an almost abandoned Baptist mission in Puerto Plata and Monte
+Cristi. In all these churches, services are generally carried on in
+the English language alone. In San Francisco de Macoris, Protestant
+services are conducted in Spanish by devotees who do not seem to be
+ordained by any particular sect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+EDUCATION AND LITERATURE
+
+Education in Spanish times.--Work of Hostos.--School
+organization.--Professional institute.--Primary and secondary
+education.--Literacy.--Libraries.--Newspapers.--Literature.--Fine Arts.
+
+
+As in other Spanish colonies, it was not the policy of the Spanish
+government in Santo Domingo to foster popular education. Learning was
+confined to the clergy and the aristocracy and was imparted only by
+servants of the church. As early as 1538, the Dominican friars
+obtained a papal bull for the establishment of a university, and in
+1558 the institution known as the University of St. Thomas of Aquino
+was inaugurated by them in Santo Domingo City, with faculties of
+medicine, philosophy, theology and law, the principal branch being
+theology. This university acquired considerable celebrity, but
+practically disappeared during the colony's decline, being revived by
+royal decree of May 26, 1747, which gave it the title of Royal and
+Pontifical University of Santo Domingo. The cession of the island to
+France and the wars which followed weakened the famous institution,
+which was definitely closed by the Haitians when they assumed control
+of the government. The Haitian occupation and the civil disorders of
+the first forty years of the Republic were not propitious for the
+spreading of education. Beyond a theological seminary founded in 1848,
+there were only a few humble public and private schools, leading a
+precarious existence.  An eminent Porto Rican educator, Eugenio M. de
+Hostos, was responsible for the intellectual renaissance of Santo
+Domingo. This remarkable man was one of those talented dreamers
+produced by Latin-America, a lover of the abstract ideal in
+government, philosophy and pedagogy, erudite, eloquent, with an
+enthusiasm which fired his pupils and hearers. Early in life he
+conceived the idea which he preached unceasingly: that of a
+Confederated West Indian Republic, in which the principal states were
+to be Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. Inspired by the Cuban war of
+independence of 1868 to 1878, he wrote and spoke throughout Spanish
+America in behalf of the union of the Spanish speaking peoples of the
+West Indies, the first step to that end to be the independence of
+Cuba. In 1880 he arrived for the third time in Santo Domingo, where he
+was then less known than in South America. Having obtained from the
+government a commission to found normal schools in the Republic, he
+was appointed director of the normal school of Santo Domingo City. He
+came as the right man at the right time. His teachings touched a
+responsive chord in the hearts of the Dominicans; his unsparing
+condemnation of old pedagogical methods and eager advocacy of new ones
+gave rise to discussions which awakened a general interest in
+education and letters; and his aggressive enthusiasm smote the rock
+which held Dominican literature bound. A prominent Dominican
+historian, Americo Lugo, says: "I believe that what may be called
+national literature does not begin until after the arrival in the
+Republic of the eminent educator Eugenio M. de Hostos."
+
+Hostos labored in Santo Domingo for eight years, during which time he
+had as pupils many who have since become prominent in the councils of
+the Republic. The baneful policies of Heureaux forced his departure,
+and he settled in Chile with his family, being appointed professor of
+constitutional law at the National University. Upon the conclusion of
+the Spanish-American war, when it became apparent that Porto Rico
+would be American and his ideal of an Antillan Confederation
+definitely shattered, he journeyed to Washington to labor in behalf of
+Porto Rico, returning later to his native island in the hope of
+uniting the Porto Ricans in a demand for autonomy. There political
+passion ran high, and Hostos, disappointed, went back to Santo
+Domingo, where his entry was almost triumphal. He again assumed charge
+of public education though the civil disorders filled him with
+sadness. In 1903 he died in Santo Domingo, but the seed he sowed lives
+and flourishes and his memory is revered by Dominicans.
+
+In 1884 a general school law was passed, repeatedly modified since,
+according to which primary instruction is a charge upon the
+municipality, while the cost of secondary instruction is to be
+defrayed by the state. Supreme inspection over educational matters was
+given to the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, who was
+assisted by a superior board of education with school inspectors in
+the various provinces. There were further special boards of education
+in each province, presided over by the governor, and school boards in
+the communes which are not capitals of provinces and in the cantons.
+Owing to the difficulty of finding competent personnel, the inspection
+of the educational institutions has generally been perfunctory and the
+teachers have done pretty much as they pleased. Unfortunately the
+financial limitations of the country have not permitted the
+development of the schools in the measure desired. Since the middle of
+1917 numerous changes in the school system and curriculum have been
+decreed by the Department of Public Instruction and the system is
+undergoing a general reorganization.
+
+In 1882 a "Professional Institute" was founded, the name of which was
+in 1914 changed to "University of Santo Domingo," and it is now called
+the Central University of Santo Domingo. It occupies the same building
+in the capital, adjoining the church of St. Dominic, where the old
+university was located. It confers degrees in five branches: law,
+medicine, pharmacy, dental surgery and mathematics and surveying.
+Practically all the lawyers of the Republic have graduated from this
+school. Most of the native pharmacists, also, have studied here. With
+reference to instruction in medicine and surgery, and in dentistry,
+the institution is handicapped by the lack of a suitable hospital and
+clinic. As a result those who wish to adopt any of these professions
+pursue their studies abroad, if possible, and all the best known
+physicians are graduates of foreign universities. The entire annual
+appropriation for the University is only about $24,000. A similar
+institution, on a smaller scale, is the Professional Institute of
+Santiago, founded in 1916. In several cities there are high schools
+called normal schools, and other institutions called superior schools,
+and the capital has an academy of drawing, painting and sculpture.
+
+With the exception of a few private schools, primary education is in
+the hands of the municipalities, which are assisted by small
+subventions from the national government. In the municipalities there
+is more enthusiasm for education than in Congress, if we judge from
+the figures presented by the budgets. Every little town takes pride in
+making its budget for education as large as possible, year after year.
+The total amount spent for educational purposes, however, including
+salaries, rent, supplies, subventions and teachers' pensions, is only
+in the neighborhood of $500,000, contributed about in equal shares by
+the state and the municipalities.
+
+The total number of scholars enrolled is only about 20,000. The
+schools are generally located in rented houses, there being no
+buildings erected expressly for school purposes. Their equipment is as
+a rule deficient. The teaching force is handicapped by lack of
+facilities and training. The salaries of the elementary teachers are
+very small, and while some municipalities are prompt in their
+payments, others lag far behind, and the Spanish saying "as hungry as
+a schoolmaster" has not lost all its meaning.
+
+If the amounts expended for education are not large, it is due to lack
+of money and not to lack of realization of the advantages of learning.
+The interest manifested in education and the eagerness of parents to
+furnish their children as much schooling as possible, are among the
+most hopeful signs for the future. In the towns and villages where the
+schools are located, most children learn at least to read and write,
+but out in the country illiteracy and ignorance reign supreme. In the
+absence of statistics it is not possible to determine the proportion
+of illiterates; there is no doubt, however, that it is very large, and
+I have heard it estimated at all the way from seventy to ninety per
+cent of the population over ten years of age.
+
+Some of the best schools are private institutions, one of the best
+known being the institute for girls and young ladies, founded by Santo
+Domingo's foremost woman poet, Salome Urena de Henriquez. It is the
+custom also for well-to-do families to send their children abroad for
+study and to travel themselves, and the Dominicans are not few who,
+besides their native Spanish, speak other languages, acquired abroad.
+Within the country, too, there is a predilection among the upper class
+for the study of foreign tongues, and many learn English and French in
+the family circle or by association with persons speaking these
+languages.
+
+As a result of the educational limitations, the population of the
+country may be divided into three groups: first, a number of persons,
+small in comparison with the whole number of inhabitants, who compare
+in culture, education and accomplishments with members of the best
+society in any country; second, a much larger group of persons who
+possess knowledge more or less rudimentary; and third, the great
+majority of the inhabitants, who are unlettered and unlearned.
+
+One obstacle to the spread of information is the lack of public
+libraries. There is a public library in Puerto Plata, and various
+clubs in the larger towns have libraries, for their members or the
+public, but they are all very small and limited. The newspapers,
+therefore, furnish the only source of reading for the majority.
+Practically all the papers are published in the cities of Santo
+Domingo, Santiago and Puerto Plata, and all are of modest dimensions.
+Many newspapers have been founded in the Republic and after leading an
+ephemeral existence have succumbed, some because their editors were
+persuaded by threats or rewards on the part of the government to cease
+publication, and the greater portion because of financial
+embarrassment. Notwithstanding the constitutional precept guaranteeing
+free speech, editors of the opposition have generally found it more
+healthy to withdraw to the neighboring countries and conduct their
+campaigns at long range. On the other hand, it must be said that
+several governments have honestly endeavored to allow the press full
+liberty, but that the privilege has always been abused. The principal
+daily newspaper of the Republic, and the one having the largest
+circulation is the "Listin Diario" of Santo Domingo. It is a four-page
+sheet and its daily edition is about 10,000 copies. It is the only
+paper having a cable service, and it receives its cablegrams from the
+French cable company, whose line crosses the island. It is also one of
+the oldest of the existing newspapers, having been founded in 1889,
+and maintained itself by constantly observing a prudent attitude. In
+the capital there also appear the "Gaceta Oficial," in which the laws
+and governmental decisions and announcements are published; the
+"Boletin Municipal," containing municipal announcements; several
+reviews whose character is indicated by their title: "Revista Medica,"
+"Revista de Agricultura," "Revista Judicial," "Boletin Masonico"; two
+small humorous papers; two commercial sheets; an illustrated paper,
+"Blanco y Negro," and a well-known literary monthly, "Cuna de America"
+(Cradle of America). Santiago also boasts a daily paper, "El Diario,"
+as also several smaller papers and literary periodicals. In Puerto
+Plata "El Porvenir," the oldest of existing Dominican newspapers, is
+published, as well as three less important sheets.
+
+Especially interesting among these publications are the "Cuna de
+America" and others devoted to belles-lettres. They constitute a
+reflection of current Dominican literature, being given over to poems,
+lyric compositions, biographic, historical, philosophic and other
+articles, and extracts from new plays and books. In these periodicals
+most of the poems which have brought fame to Santo Domingo
+have appeared.
+
+Before the intellectual awakening incident to the labors of Hostos the
+number of Dominican writers was small. Little was done in colonial
+times. In the turbulent period following the cessation of Spanish
+sovereignty at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the situation
+of the country was not favorable for the cultivation of the muses, but
+scions of the families who then emigrated have made their names
+immortal in the literature of Cuba and other neighboring countries.
+Juan Pablo Duarte, the liberator, Antonio Delmonte y Tejada, the
+historian, and a small group of others who flourished shortly before
+or at the time of the establishment of the Republic, may be said to
+initiate the literature of the country, but their fame is mostly
+local. The first generation of Dominican citizens furnished a somewhat
+larger proportion of literary men, among whom may be mentioned the
+venerable Emiliano Tejera, the late Archbishop Fernando A. de Merino,
+Francisco X. Amiama, Francisco Gregorio Billini, Mariano A. Cestero,
+the historian Jose G. Garcia and the novelist Manuel de J. Galvan,
+though it is significant that the best productions of some of these
+appeared after 1880. It is since that year that literature has really
+flourished. So fecund have Dominican writers been, and so excellent
+their productions, that Santo Domingo occupies a proud place in the
+beautiful field of Latin-American literature, where only a few years
+ago it was practically unknown. There is an abundance of poets,
+essayists, historians and novelists worthy of mention, and an attempt
+to single out a few might lead to unjust distinctions. A number of the
+best writers are women, and all prominent newspaper men are also
+distinguished in literature.
+
+In poetry, especially lyric poetry, the Dominican writers excel. They
+show great depth of feeling and a full command of the sonorous
+Castilian tongue. A favorite theme is, of course, the old story which
+is ever new. The civil wars have inspired many pathetic compositions,
+and poems like Salome Urena's apostrophe to the ruins of colonial
+times, Bienvenido S. Nouel's elegy on the ruins left by the late
+revolutions, and Enrique Henriquez' "Miserere!", gems of verse, are
+veritable cries of anguish at the desolation wrought by fratricidal
+strife. Perhaps it is the poets' sorrow at the misfortunes of their
+country which is the cause of the note of sadness so often to be
+remarked in Dominican writings. Some writers are classed as poets
+though they have versified little or not at all; of these Tulio M.
+Cestero, one of the most popular of the younger writers, is an
+example, it being said of him that "he writes his poetry in prose."
+
+The love of poetry is by no means confined to persons of higher
+education, but is general throughout the country. It has been said
+that if there were one engineer in Santo Domingo for every hundred
+poets, there would be fewer mudholes in the roads. The productions of
+some poetasters are characterized by an abundance of rare adjectives,
+which are introduced as well to give an impression of depth of thought
+as to advertise the author's erudition. However, there are so many
+good poets that forgiveness is readily extended to the others.
+
+The national song of Santo Domingo, an ode to liberty, was written by
+a school teacher, Emilio Prud'homme. The music was composed by Jose
+Reyes, who died several years ago, and is agreeable and almost
+majestic. Reyes occupies probably the most prominent place among
+Dominican composers. Others have also obtained prominence, and their
+number is constantly increasing; among them special mention may be
+made of Jose de J. Ravelo, one of the younger men whose work has
+attracted attention and gives promise of even better things.
+
+In painting and sculpture several Dominicans have attained prominence
+of late fears. The principal artists are Arturo Grullon, a prominent
+oculist; Luis Desangles; and Miss Adriana Billini, whose paintings
+have received prizes in Paris, Porto Rico and Havana respectively.
+Desangles painted the picture "Caonabo," which hangs in the session
+hall of the City Council of Puerto Plata and shows the Indian chief in
+chains. The sculptors are few, and their fame so far is only local,
+The foremost is Abelardo Rodriguez U., a photographer of the capital,
+who is something of an artistic genius. His photographs can compete in
+artistic merit with the best produced anywhere, and he is also a
+painter of no small merit. His best known sculpture is the figure of a
+dying guerilla soldier, significantly entitled, "Uno de tantos"--"One
+of so many."
+
+Powerful assistance has been given to education and artistic
+development by various clubs and literary associations, especially
+women's clubs, throughout the country. Though at times eclipsed by
+revolutionary turmoil, their work has continued undaunted and has had
+gratifying results. The educational plane attained by Santo Domingo in
+spite of all obstacles, and the general recognition of the supreme
+importance of public instruction, justify confident predictions of
+advance in the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
+
+
+Railroads.--Samana-Santiago Railroad.--Central Dominican
+Railway.--Roads.--Mode of Traveling.--Inns.--Principal highways.
+--Steamer lines.--Postal facilities.--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+
+A potent cause of the undeveloped state of Santo Domingo's agriculture
+has been the absence of transportation facilities, which has likewise
+been a cause and an effect of the internal disturbances. There are but
+two public railroads in the Republic, both in the Cibao region, with
+an aggregate length of 144 miles. The highways are generally little
+more than trails, difficult and dangerous even in dry weather, and
+almost impassable in the rainy season. It is therefore not surprising
+that the northern and southern sections of the Republic should have
+developed almost as different countries and that large areas in the
+interior should be practically uninhabited.
+
+The importance and possibilities of railroad lines have been
+recognized and numerous concessions for railroad construction have
+been sought and granted; but the concessionnaires have, as a rule,
+either been impecunious, entering the field only with speculative
+intentions, or have been frightened off by the internal disturbances,
+and in either case the concession has been permitted to lapse.
+
+The oldest of the two railroads now in operation is the road known as
+the Samana-Santiago Railroad--something of a misnomer, as the road
+neither reaches Samana, on the one side, nor Santiago on the other,
+but extends from Sanchez, at the head of Samana Bay, to La Vega, a
+distance of 62 miles in the interior, with a branch to San Francisco
+de Macoris, 7 miles, and another branch to Salcedo, 11 miles, and
+Moca, 7 miles, or a total length of 87 miles. Prior to its
+construction, the products of the eastern portion of the Royal Plain
+had been floated on lighters or light draft boats down the Yuna River
+and across Samana Bay to Samana, where they were transshipped to
+ocean-going vessels. The value of a railroad in this region early
+became apparent, and a concession granted in 1881 was acquired by
+Alexander Baird, a wealthy Scotchman, who constructed the road. Under
+the concession the Dominican government granted the right to build and
+operate a railroad from Samana to Santiago, to construct wharves on
+Samana Bay and collect wharf dues, and to enjoy certain tax exemptions
+and other privileges.
+
+The Gran Estero, the large swamp just west of Sanchez, proved much
+more difficult to cross than the engineers had calculated. It
+swallowed up tons of rock and thousands of pounds sterling. Further
+disappointment arose when public lands promised by the government
+failed to materialize. The enthusiasm of the promoters cooled and the
+construction work on the railroad ceased when La Vega was reached. To
+the east of Sanchez the road was continued along the Samana peninsula
+to Point Santa Capuza, but this position was abandoned and the
+terminus was established at Sanchez. The road from Sanchez to La Vega
+was opened to traffic in 1886.
+
+The important city of San Francisco de Macoris lay seven miles to the
+north of the line of the Samana-Santiago railroad and in 1892 a
+concession was granted to a prominent Dominican for the building of a
+connecting road. It was constructed with Dominican capital from La
+Gina to San Francisco de Macoris, and is leased to the Samana-Santiago
+Road and operated as a branch of this road.
+
+In 1907 the Samana-Santiago Railroad waived its right to the
+percentage of import duties collected at Sanchez, in consideration of
+a payment made by the government, and agreed to construct a branch
+line to Salcedo and later continue it to Moca. A line from Las
+Cabullas, on the main road, to Salcedo was promptly built and opened
+to traffic, but the Moca extension was delayed by civil disturbances
+and not completed until 1917.
+
+The gauge of the Samana-Santiago road is 1.10 meters, about three feet
+six inches. It rises very gradually from sea-level at Sanchez to the
+altitude of La Vega and Moca, about 400 feet. The engineering problems
+attending its construction and preservation have been those connected
+with the crossing of the Gran Estero swamp, and the bridging of
+numerous small tributaries of the Yuna River, which from modest
+brooklets in the dry season swell to turbulent torrents in rainy
+weather. The bridge across the Camu River near La Vega has been washed
+away repeatedly and further trouble has been caused by the river
+changing its course.
+
+The journey from Sanchez to La Vega, including the side trip to San
+Francisco de Macoris, consumes five and a half hours. After leaving
+Sanchez the end of the Samana range is soon reached and for miles the
+train travels across a mangrove swamp, where the bushy vegetation is
+exceedingly dense and the roadbed is covered with grass. Forests
+follow, the trees of which are encumbered with great hanging vines. As
+soon as a higher level is reached, clearings become frequent. At the
+stations along the route the entire population of the small towns
+seems to turn out to await the train's arrival. At two larger places,
+Villa Rivas and Pimentel, the train makes lengthier stops. The houses
+all along are similar, one story wooden buildings, generally
+whitewashed and roofed with tiles, corrugated zinc or palm thatch. La
+Gina is the beginning of the branch line which extends through
+monotonous woodland to San Francisco de Macoris. On the main line,
+after passing La Gina, there are numerous cacao plantations, and near
+La Vega the muddy Cotui road emerges from the woods and follows the
+railroad. About eight miles from La Vega is the station of Las
+Cabullas, the starting point of the branch to Salcedo and Moca.
+
+Affording, as it does, the outlet for the products of the eastern
+portion of the Cibao, the Samana-Santiago railroad transports the
+greater part of the cacao exported from the country. It has been the
+most important factor in the development of the Royal Plain, but owing
+to the country's internal troubles was run at a loss for years. It is
+well managed and of late years has made handsome profits.
+
+The name of the other Dominican railroad is also misleading, it being
+called the Central Dominican Railway, though only extending from
+Puerto Plata, on the north coast, to Santiago de los Caballeros, a
+distance of 41 miles, with an extension to Moca, 16 miles, a total of
+57 miles. Its name is due to the fact, that it was considered the
+first section of a road which was ultimately to connect Puerto Plata
+and Santo Domingo City. The need for such a road had been and is still
+urgently felt, and the construction of no portion was more imperative
+than that between Santiago and the coast. The mountain roads in this
+section were indescribably bad; a trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata
+meant at least two days of dangerous riding; and all merchandise to
+and from Santiago had to be transported on mule-back. President
+Heureaux therefore considered himself fortunate when the Dominican
+government was able, in 1890, in connection with a bond issue, to make
+contracts with the banking firm of Westendorp & Co., of Amsterdam, for
+the construction of the section of the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago. Belgian money was furnished and Belgian engineers made the
+plans. The road was given a gauge of only two feet six inches, and the
+short-sightedness is inconceivable which permitted the adoption on
+this road of a gauge different from that of the Samana-Santiago
+Railroad, when the two were expected to join in Santiago. Ultimately
+the gauge of the Central Dominican Railway will have to be widened,
+but the change will cost a considerable sum and require a complete
+renovation of the rolling stock. In view of the steepness of the
+slopes to be surmounted, the plans contemplated the construction, on
+several portions of the road, of a rack-line or cremaillere, a third
+track provided with cogs, between the other two, and the use of
+special mountain-climbing locomotives having a cogwheel by means of
+which the ascent was to be accomplished and the descent regulated. The
+Belgian engineers built the road from Puerto Plata as far as
+Bajabonico, a distance of about eleven miles.
+
+At this stage the financial difficulties of the Dominican government
+induced the Belgians to sell their rights to American interests, which
+formed the San Domingo Improvement Company to take them over. American
+engineers accordingly finished the road to Santiago. The rack-rail
+feature being undesirable, plans were made for the construction of the
+road as an adhesion road. No further rack-rail was built and one of
+the portions constructed was converted, but two short stretches of
+rack-rail remained near Puerto Plata, one of one mile and another of
+three miles. The Central Dominican Railway Company was incorporated
+for the operation of the road.
+
+During the controversy later carried on between the Dominican
+government and the San Domingo Improvement Company the Company
+contended that the road had cost in the neighborhood of $3,000,000, or
+about $600,000 in excess of the sums realized by the sale of the bonds
+assigned by the government to defray the cost of construction. The
+dispute found its settlement in the protocol of January 31, 1903, by
+which the Dominican government agreed to purchase all the holdings of
+the Improvement Company. In the negotiations of which this convention
+was an incident, the value of the railroad was generally estimated at
+$1,500,000. Upon the delivery by the Dominican government of the cash
+and bonds agreed upon by the settlement of 1907 as the price of the
+Improvement Company's interests, the Company, in February, 1908,
+turned over the railroad to the government. It has since been operated
+by the Dominican government with satisfactory results, though it has
+suffered serious injury from revolutions. The insurgents destroyed
+bridges and the rack-rail; the latter has not been replaced, and the
+four and ten per cent grades are now laboriously overcome by means of
+Shay geared engines. Surveys show that the troublesome grades can be
+avoided by the construction of curves which will increase the length
+of the road by not more than three or four miles.
+
+Owing to the mountainous character of the country traversed, the
+scenery on this road is splendid. The speed attained by the trains
+would not alarm a nervous wreck, for though the length of the road is
+about 41 miles, the ascent from Puerto Plata to Santiago takes almost
+six hours and the return trip from Santiago five, in which the slow
+engines, the steep grades, the former rack-road section and the
+numerous long stops have equal shares of responsibility. The roadbed
+is very rough and the passengers are considerably shaken up, but the
+memory of what used to be helps to mitigate the discomfort. On one of
+my trips over the road, when a fellow-passenger made a remark about
+the severe jolting that almost shook us off our seats, an elderly
+Dominican gentleman observed: "My friend, you evidently never took a
+trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata before the railroad was built.
+Compared with travel then, this mode of conveyance is like being
+carried in angels' arms." As on the Samana-Santiago Road, the regular
+trains are mixed trains, that is, a freight and passenger together,
+usually looking like a freight train with a small passenger car
+attached. Except in unusually dull periods there is one daily train
+each way. The city of Santiago is about 600 feet above the level of
+the sea; from here the course is over a rich plain among tobacco farms
+and meadows full of cattle, for a distance of about twelve miles,
+until the foothills are reached and the ascent of the coast range is
+begun. Higher and higher along the mountainside, through country
+wilder and wilder, the train winds its way to the highest point of the
+road, 1580 feet above sea-level and 20 miles from Santiago, where a
+short tunnel pierces the mountain. The mountain pass at this point is
+1720 feet above sea-level and is the lowest one in twenty miles. At
+the station on the other side of the mountain a fifteen minute stop is
+made for lunch. Then begins a rapid descent along a deep valley, on
+the wooded slopes of which little houses peer out between the trees.
+The town of Altamira, on a knob in the middle of the valley, is
+passed, and further down, near Bajabonico, a small sugar plantation.
+Another ascent, on which is the old rack-road section, is now
+reached; a powerful mountain engine is placed before the train and
+slowly works its way up. From the top of the ridge the scene is
+magnificent. Below, in the far distance, Puerto Plata is seen, a
+miniature city with tiny bright-colored houses, nestling at the foot
+of the great verdure-covered cone, Mt. Isabel de Torres; before it
+lies its almost circular harbor with what look like toy ships riding
+at anchor; the foam of the breakers on the reefs at the harbor
+entrance gleams in the sunlight; and beyond, in vast immensity extends
+the blue expanse of the ocean. On the final descent quicker time is
+made than anywhere else on the road.
+
+The extension of the Central Dominican Railroad from Santiago to Moca
+was built and is operated by the Dominican government. In 1894 a
+franchise was granted the San Domingo Improvement Company for the Moca
+road, and grading was done for several miles outside of Santiago, but
+the financial troubles of the Dominican government suspended the work.
+When better times came, the government in 1906 began to build the road
+from Santiago to Moca with current revenues, and it was opened to
+traffic in 1910. At Moca this road is met by the extension of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad from Salcedo, so that it is possible to
+travel by rail through the fertile Cibao from Sanchez to Puerto Plata,
+though the difference in gauge requires a change of cars at Moca.
+
+A railroad between the Cibao and Santo Domingo City has long been
+contemplated. Government engineers a few years ago surveyed a route
+from Santo Domingo City to La Gina, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad,
+passing through Cotui. The route is 80 miles long, and the estimated
+cost is about $2,325,000. Such a through railroad would open up great
+tracts now isolated, afford an easy means of communication between
+the north and south, and be of inestimable advantage to the Republic.
+It is the most urgent and important public work under consideration in
+the country.
+
+Another road which has long been projected and which the Dominican
+government in 1906 determined to have constructed with current
+revenues, is one in the east, from Seibo, on the plains in the
+interior, to the port of La Romana in the southern coast. This region,
+excellently adapted for cacao raising and sugar planting, has been
+kept secluded by bad roads. After several thousand dollars had been
+spent in surveys and a little grading, the work was stopped by lack of
+funds and the government decided that the expense of construction and
+the undeveloped character of the country counselled an abandonment of
+the project for the moment. If the railroad is finally built, it will
+probably be from Seibo to San Pedro de Macoris and not to La Romana.
+
+Even in the immediate vicinity of Santo Domingo City most roads are in
+such bad condition that during the rainy season villages only a few
+miles away cannot be reached except by floundering through the mud for
+many hours, and even during the dry season, with all conditions
+favorable, it requires two days hard riding to reach the city of Azua,
+80 miles to the west. A railroad from the capital to Azua has
+therefore been proposed repeatedly, and in 1901 a concession was
+granted for the first section thereof, from Santo Domingo to San
+Cristobal, a distance of 16 miles, with the right of extension. The
+revolution of the spring of 1903 interrupted the construction of this
+road, but a little work was done in 1906 under a new contract, which
+has since been declared lapsed.
+
+Private plantation railroads are to be found on several sugar
+plantations near La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo City
+and Azua, and on the United Fruit Company's plantation near Puerto
+Plata. They aggregate about 225 miles in length and are used
+exclusively for the purposes of the respective estates, except one
+which carries passengers between the town of Azua and its port on
+steamer days.
+
+In several of the larger cities carriages and light automobiles can be
+hired at a reasonable figure, and furnish the principal means of
+communication within the city and to other places as far as the roads
+will permit. Between Monte Cristi and La Vega there is a regular
+automobile service, as also between Santo Domingo City and nearby
+towns. In only one place is there a car line--in Monte Cristi, where a
+small car runs--if that term can be applied to its motion--between the
+town and the harbor, a little more than a mile away. The cars, each
+drawn by a meek little mule, remind one of matchboxes on wheels; they
+are open on all sides and contain simply two benches, back to back,
+which will hold a maximum of three passengers each. In Santo Domingo
+City there was a horse car line for almost twenty years, running out
+as far as Fort San Geronimo, about three miles; but in March, 1903,
+while the city was under siege during a revolution, the car barns were
+destroyed by fire and with them the entire rolling stock, the car
+axles being taken for barricades. In 1915 the government granted
+several franchises for electric car lines, one for Santo Domingo City,
+with the right to extend as far as Bani; another for Santiago, with
+the right of extension to Janico; and a third for Macoris, with the
+right of extension to Seibo, but no work has been done on
+these projects.
+
+On certain parts of the country roads there is communication by oxcart
+during the dry season, and in the arid region such communication is
+possible almost all the year round. On the Samana peninsula and in
+other mountain districts, merchandise is occasionally transported in
+Indian fashion, on two poles tied to a horse and trailing on the
+ground behind. In general, however, recourse must be had for
+transportation purposes to the faithful horse and the patient donkey.
+In the northern part of the Republic the ox is often used as a beast
+of burden and sometimes for riding, furnishing an odd spectacle. The
+ox is guided by a string tied to a ring in his nose, but neither the
+configuration of his back nor his gait are to be recommended for
+comfortable rides.
+
+Most of the roads of Santo Domingo can be called roads only by
+courtesy. They are generally little more than trails of greater or
+less width. The larger receipts enjoyed by the government since the
+customs collections were taken over by Americans in 1905, have caused
+a little improvement. Thus, a first-class macadam road has been
+constructed from Santo Domingo City to San Cristobal, a distance of
+sixteen miles; the old trail from Santo Domingo to San Pedro de
+Macoris has become available for automobiles; and the royal road in
+the Cibao from La Vega through Moca and Santiago to Monte Cristi, a
+distance of about 100 miles, formerly a horror, has been converted
+into a fair dirt road. The amount of work to be done appears all the
+more appalling when it is considered that in the small island of
+Jamaica, less than one-fourth the size of the Dominican Republic,
+there are 1000 miles of fine roads. The American authorities in the
+island are giving considerable attention to the improvement of the
+principal highways around and between the more important cities, and
+valuable work is being done. By an executive order of November 23,
+1917, the military governor appropriated $650,000, to be expended on
+portions of a trunk road which is ultimately to connect Santo Domingo,
+La Vega, Moca, Santiago and Monte Cristi.
+
+The majority of the roads and trails have scarcely been touched since
+their course was fixed, centuries ago. Occasionally the abutting
+property owners or an energetic communal chief cut away encroaching
+vegetation or drained an unusually bad bog or threw dirt from the
+sides of the road to the middle in order to raise it above water level
+in the wet season, but such instances of civic thoughtfulness have
+been only too infrequent.
+
+During the rainy season travel becomes troublesome on all roads and
+impossible on many. On the unimproved highways deep, dangerous bogs
+form in every depression, containing either liquid mud where the horse
+is almost forced to swim, or soft tough clay, where the horse's feet
+are imprisoned and the animal in its desperate efforts to jerk itself
+free indulges in contortions anything but pleasant for the rider. The
+horses and cargo animals ever treading in each other's footsteps,
+cause the earth to wear away in furrows across the road, which fill
+with water and with mud of all colors and conditions of toughness.
+With few interruptions the monotonous splash, splash, splash of
+horses' feet constantly accompanies the traveler. The first ten
+minutes of such a journey on slippery ground make the trip appear an
+adventure, the next ten an experience, but after that the expedition
+becomes exceedingly wearisome. In the dry season all moisture
+disappears and the ridges between the mud trenches become hard as
+brick. The efforts of travelers to avoid bad places by going around
+them has caused the roads to become very wide in places--the width
+varying from one to over a hundred feet. At times, in grassy or stony
+stretches, the road disappears entirely, and the traveler's best guide
+is the telegraph wire, where there is one. Again it passes through
+thorny woods with overhanging branches which continually threaten to
+unhorse the rider. Thus it winds along, through forests and plains,
+over fallen logs and trees, beside precipices, down steep banks,
+across rapid streams. A trip into the interior in Santo Domingo
+requires a good horse, a strong constitution and a large supply
+of patience.
+
+In rainy weather the traveled roads are even worse than the
+unfrequented ones, for the ground is rendered more miry, and the bogs
+are more frequent. On a highroad near La Vega I arrived at a mudhole
+where an old man was being rescued by a passer-by from drowning in the
+liquid mud; I snapped a photograph of the scene when he was still
+knee-deep. Near the city of Moca there is a slope where many a horse
+has fallen and thrown its rider on the slippery loam. A friend of mine
+who for safety's sake alighted from his horse to walk to the other
+side of the gully, had his foot so tightly lodged in the pasty mud
+that, in his straining to withdraw it, the foot slipped out of the
+shoe, which remained as firmly imbedded as before. His posture and
+predicament were naturally a good deal more amusing for his companions
+than for himself. Yet some of these roads in dry weather are excellent
+dirt roads. On a road in the Cibao I made a trip of fifteen miles in
+the rainy season in five hours of hard riding and arrived with an
+exhausted horse; six months later when the road was dry I made the
+same journey comfortably in an hour and a half. On the first of these
+occasions--it was in the course of a vacation trip for the purpose of
+studying the country--I happened upon two other travelers and together
+we floundered for many weary miles through black mud varying from the
+consistency of soup to that of pudding. The road was indescribably
+bad, and riders and horses were covered with mire and thoroughly
+fatigued. That evening at the inn, through the open door between our
+rooms, I heard my traveling companions discussing me. One of them
+asked: "What is his object in coming here?" The other answered: "He
+says he is traveling for pleasure." "Then," responded the first
+solemnly, "he is either lying or he is insane."
+
+The streams must usually be crossed either by fording or by ferry, and
+not infrequently the horse must swim part of the distance across.
+Outside the railroad bridges, there are scarcely half a dozen bridges
+which deserve the name in the Dominican Republic. A good bridge has
+recently been constructed over the Jaina River on the San Cristobal
+road, and another was completed in May, 1917, across the Ozama River
+at Santo Domingo City, in place of one destroyed by a freshet some
+years ago. Bridges, where there are any, are generally rude logs laid
+across brooks.
+
+When journeying overland it is advisable to take advantage as much as
+possible of moonlight nights. It is best to rise at two or three
+o'clock in the morning, ride until about eleven o'clock, then rest for
+about three hours while the sun is highest, and then continue till
+evening. Riding at night, however, exposes one to the danger of making
+too intimate an acquaintance with some mudhole or some low hanging
+bough or telegraph wire, but these risks can be avoided by vigilance.
+The hours of dawn are the coolest of the twenty-four, and more
+distance can be covered with less fatigue than later in the day.
+
+If the traveler takes the precaution to furnish himself with canned
+food before starting on a journey inland, he will not regret his
+foresight. Inns do not exist out in the country. In the larger cities,
+indeed, there are hotels, but all are modest establishments. Perhaps
+the most pretentious is the French Hotel in Santo Domingo City. In
+hotels which are located in important seaports or railroad termini and
+are frequented by travelers, the meals and accommodations are fair. In
+other localities the food is almost inedible to an unaccustomed
+palate, and the sleeping accommodations are primitive cots. Even in
+important towns like Moca and Azua I found the inns kept by poor
+mulatto women, widows with families, having one room for travelers,
+divided from the family apartment by a thin partition, through which
+all the proceedings on the other side could be followed throughout
+the night.
+
+The difficulty of land transportation explains why, with the exception
+of three cities in the Cibao, all important towns are located on the
+seacoast. It also makes plain why water transportation is preferred to
+travel by land, and the inhabitants of the north and south await the
+bi-weekly steamer rather than make the trip overland, which in the
+most favorable cases will take about three days. The roads and trails
+are used for travel locally or when boat connections are not
+convenient or feasible, and for mail transportation. The following are
+the principal highways:
+
+1. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao, by way of Bonao. There are
+three roads from Santo Domingo City to the Cibao, the most westerly
+one being the Bonao trail, the most easterly one the Sillon de la
+Viuda and the middle one the Gallinas trail. The Bonao road leaves
+Santo Domingo by way of Duar Avenue and San Carlos and ascends gently
+in a northwesterly direction through slightly rolling land to the
+Santa Rosa plain, which it traverses. As far as Los Alcarrizos it has
+been improved, but further on it is merely a dirt road without
+drainage and becomes one long slough in rainy weather. On the Jobo
+savanna the road divides; the eastern branch runs along a range of
+hills and the western branch over to the Jaina River, where it passes
+the site of the old mining town of Buenaventura, of which only a few
+vestiges of walls remain. Whichever of the two branches the traveler
+takes, he will be sorry he did not choose the other, for they are
+equally bad. The branches meet on the plain of Las Nasas, from where
+the highway continues through wooded lands and natural meadows,
+crossing the Jaina River three times and the Guananitos River nine
+times. The soil is a rich, soft loam, pure vegetable detritus, and the
+frequent rains and the absence of drainage make this part of the road
+very difficult at all seasons. After crossing a stretch of beautiful
+savanna, known as Sabana del Puerto, the ascent of a range of the
+central mountain system begins. The road makes many windings along the
+mountain side until the heights of Laguneta are attained. The high
+hill of Piedra Blanca must be crossed and a number of small streams
+forded before Bonao is reached. From Bonao to La Vega the road is of
+the same general character. There are many miry places, many ascents
+and descents and many difficult river passes, the Yuna River, near
+Bonao, being crossed by ferry. On some of the steep descents the
+horses and mules accustomed to the road put their four feet together
+and slide, while the unaccustomed traveler feels his hair standing on
+end. The distance from Santo Domingo City to Bonao is about 65 miles;
+from Bonao to La Vega some 30 miles.
+
+This seems to have been an ancient Indian trail between Santo Domingo
+and the Cibao. Bartholomew Columbus, under orders from his brother,
+founded both Buenaventura and Bonao in 1496 as military posts, as
+part of the chain of forts stretching across the island. The decay of
+these towns when the mines were abandoned, the miry soil and the many
+crossings of streams all caused travel to be diverted to the road of
+the Sillon de la Viuda. The Bonao road, being the most direct route to
+La Vega, has been designated by the military government for
+improvement as a trunk road.
+
+2. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the pass of the
+Sillon de la Viuda, or Widow's Chair. While the Widow's Chair road is
+about twenty miles longer than the Bonao road, it is preferable since
+on the whole it lies over firmer ground. It leads due north from Santo
+Domingo City and after four miles the Isabela River is crossed by
+ferry near its confluence with the Ozama. A steep ascent follows and
+the road runs through wooded land until the town of Mella is reached.
+Small forests and wide savannas follow each other in rapid succession;
+the Ozama River is forded and a stretch of swampy soil with bad bogs
+is encountered. A fine piece of prairie land known as the Luisa
+savanna is crossed, more natural meadows follow and the ascent of the
+central mountain range begins. The road becomes so steep that the
+rider can scarcely keep his seat on his horse. From the summit, the
+Widow's Pass, which is almost 2000 feet above the level of the sea, a
+sublime view of mountains, valleys and plains is obtained. The pass
+itself is a narrow rocky defile where a score of men might hold an
+army at bay. It is said that there are lower passes in the vicinity by
+utilizing which the steep grade might be avoided, but the fact could
+be ascertained only by a more thorough exploration than has yet been
+made. On the north the road descends through heavy timber, with many
+miry places. Savannas separated by small forests are then crossed and
+the little town of Cevicos is reached, the halfway place between Santo
+Domingo and La Vega. Eighteen miles further on, separated from Cevicos
+by a hard road crossed by numerous deep gullies, sleeps the ancient
+town of Cotui. The Yuna River near Cotui must be crossed in canoes.
+Then follows a road thirty-five miles long to La Vega, which in the
+rainy season is little more than mud and water, but leads through a
+beautiful wooded country. It is better to take the road from Cotui to
+La Gina, or that to Pimentel, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and
+complete the journey by rail, for though the character of these trails
+is similar to the La Vega trail, they are only about fifteen
+miles long.
+
+3. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the Gallinas Pass.
+This is also an ancient trail which formerly passed through the town
+of Yamasa, but was diverted to shorten the distance to the Cibao.
+Leaving Santo Domingo the same route is followed as in going to the
+Widow's Pass, as far as Mella, where the road branches off to the
+left. Small grassy plains and rolling wooded lands are traversed, as
+is also the wide prairie known as the Maricao savanna. Several streams
+are forded, among them the upper Ozama, and the country continues of
+the same general character until the huts on the old cattle ranch of
+la Guazuma, formerly Las Gallinas, are sighted. Here the road slopes
+upward as far as the foot of the Demajagua mountain, when a long
+tedious ascent to the pass begins, followed by a rough ride through
+the mountains. The long descent toward Cotui is broken by numerous
+water-courses. No less than eleven smaller streams are forded, and
+there are three crossings of the Chacuey River, before the road
+leading to Cotui from Cevicos and the Widow's Pass is attained near
+the former town. By this road it is about 65 miles from Santo Domingo
+to Cotui.
+
+The three passes described are the only ones suitable, so far as
+known, for communication between the capital and the Cibao. There are,
+indeed, lower and more convenient passes farther to the east, but the
+roads emerge near Samana Bay, too far from the Royal Plain to be
+available. The middle route of the three, that by way of the Gallinas
+Pass, is followed by the telegraph line and used by the post. It has
+been preferred by travelers for it is considered the shortest road to
+the Cibao and its highest point is reported to be only about 1200 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+4. Road from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar. Since the southeastern
+part of the Dominican Republic consists of great plains, the roads in
+this region are all perfectly level and less difficult than those of
+the mountains, but they are little more than trails and the wide
+savannas make traveling monotonous. The road which turns northeast
+from Santo Domingo on the left side of the Ozama passes the sugar
+estates there situated, continues by a wide path through a lightly
+wooded country to the town of Guerra and shortly thereafter enters
+upon the Guabatico prairie, which it crosses in its entire width of
+over twenty miles. The ascent to the first pass, that of the
+Castellanos mountain, then begins. The descent is as easy as the
+ascent, a valley is crossed in which the headwaters of the Macoris
+River are forded, and then follows a long ascent to the second pass.
+From the foot of the mountain to El Valle and Sabana la Mar the
+country is wooded and the road level and wide, but so miry as to be
+practically impassable during the entire rainy season. The distance
+from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar is something over sixty miles.
+
+5. Road from Santo Domingo to Higuey. This road is the same as the
+Sabana la Mar road as far as Guerra, then traverses small forests and
+grassy plains to Seibo, passing through the important towns of Los
+Llanos and Hato Mayor. The greater part of the last 36 miles of the
+road, from Seibo to Higuey, runs over the foothills of the central
+mountain range. The entire length of the road is about 110 miles.
+
+6. Road from Santo Domingo to Azua. On this ancient road more military
+expeditions have marched and fought than on any other in the island of
+Santo Domingo. Spanish, British, French, Haitian, Dominican and
+American forces have tramped on its dusty course. The road runs west
+from Santo Domingo City parallel with the seashore. Near the city it
+is a perfectly level boulevard bordered by pretty cottages. About
+three miles from the town the small fortress of San Geronimo is
+passed, a romantic structure, built by the early Spaniards as an
+outpost against piratical invasions. Seven miles further on is the
+collection of huts constituting the town of Jaina on the river of the
+same name. A fine new bridge spans the river and the road continues
+through luxuriant tropical vegetation. The little town of Nigua, with
+an old chapel perched high on a hill, is reached, and here the road
+divides, the left branch continuing near the seashore, while the right
+branch turns inland to San Cristobal. The former pursues its way over
+land generally level though with occasional steep hills and cut by
+frequent brooks, skirts the ocean beach for a short distance, crosses
+the turbulent Nizao River by a long and dangerous ford and enters the
+arid country. The other branch extends to the grass-grown town of San
+Cristobal, where the macadam road from Santo Domingo ends. Continuing,
+the road traverses a fertile country by way of the town of Yaguate,
+crosses the broad bed of the Nizao River, which changes its channels
+with dangerous frequency, threads a way through monotonous woods and
+joins the other road near Paya. But a few miles further on is the
+clean little town of Bani. From here two roads lead to Azua. The
+inland road leads through the pass of Las Carreras,--where Santana on
+April 21, 1849, assured the independence of Santo Domingo by his
+victory over the Haitian forces--and finally joins the coast road. The
+road of the seacoast, which, though longer, is preferable by reason of
+being more level, leaves Bani through a weird country, where giant
+cactus is the only vegetation produced by the rocky soil. After
+crossing a stretch of grass-grown tableland it descends to the waters
+of Ocoa Bay and continues literally through the surf. Several hours of
+travel through a dreary forest of cactus and thorny brush then follow
+before Azua is reached.
+
+7. Cibao Valley Road. The road, or combination of roads, from Samana
+Bay to Monte Cristi, lies in level country. The urgency for the
+improvement of the eastern portion has been less since the
+establishment of the railroad from Sanchez to La Vega, and the trail
+from near the mouth of the Yuna River to San Francisco de Macoris,
+with the branches from there to Moca and La Vega, is now important
+only locally. The two roads between La Vega and Santiago, however, in
+the heart of the Royal Plain, are the most important and most heavily
+traveled highways in the Republic. They run through the most fertile
+section of the island, are quite level, and available for carts and
+automobiles, but in the rainy season they become very muddy. The
+direct road from La Vega to Santiago is about twenty-seven miles long
+and lies to the south of the famous Santo Cerro. The other road is
+about six miles longer and passes through the important city of Moca.
+After leaving La Vega and crossing the yellow Camu, the latter road
+skirts the northern slope of the Santo Cerro and the traveler who
+can, deserts it temporarily to climb the rocky height and regale
+himself with a view of the most magnificent valley of the West Indies.
+Upon passing the second brook after leaving the foot of the Santo
+Cerro the road traverses historic ground, for here stood the important
+city of La Concepcion, or old La Vega. The distance from La Vega to
+Moca is about fifteen miles and from here two roads lead on to
+Santiago, both about eighteen miles long and both lined with fine
+cacao plantations, but one turning a little to the south while the
+other approaches the foothills and leads through the smiling town of
+Tamboril. From Santiago on there are two roads, one to the north and
+the other to the south of the Yaque River. They lie through a dry
+country where cactus is the favorite product of the soil. The road
+along the northern bank of the Yaque is the better of the two, since
+the roadbed is good and there are few rivers to cross. It is the
+highway between Santiago and Monte Cristi, a distance of sixty-seven
+miles, and passes through the inland town of Guayubin. The southern
+road crosses numerous streams which flow down from the Cordillera to
+join the Yaque, turns southwesterly at Guayubin and continues to
+Dajabon and on into the borders of Haiti.
+
+The above are the highways of most traffic. There is further a main
+road or rather trail westward from Azua along Lake Enriquillo and
+leading on to Port-au-Prince; another from Azua northwesterly through
+the fertile valley of San Juan, also leading into Haiti; and two
+perilous trails branching off from the latter road and running through
+remote mountain regions to Santiago and La Vega. There is no direct
+communication in Dominican territory between the northwestern and
+southwestern portions of the Republic, and it is necessary either to
+make a long detour or to pass through Haitian territory. Less
+important local trails, more or less difficult of travel, are to be
+found in all inhabited portions of the country.
+
+In order to avoid the troubles of land travel, recourse is had,
+whenever possible, to water transportation. The foreign steamship
+lines afford considerable relief in this respect, for they generally
+stop at more than one port of the Republic. In normal times there are
+four foreign steamer lines with passenger service to Dominican
+ports, namely:
+
+The Clyde line, with bi-weekly sailings between New York and Santo
+Domingo, stopping at Monte Cristi, Puerto Plata, Samana, Sanchez,
+Macoris and Santo Domingo City, and Azua.
+
+The Cuban "Herrera Line," with a tri-weekly steamer service between
+ports of Cuba and Porto Rico, calling at Santo Domingo City
+and Macoris.
+
+The "Compagnie Generale Transatlantique," two routes of which touch in
+the Republic. A monthly steamer between French and Haitian ports calls
+at Puerto Plata, and returning also at Sanchez, in the Dominican
+Republic, and then makes calls in Porto Rico and St. Thomas. A smaller
+steamer plying once a month between Haitian ports and Guadeloupe and
+Martinique calls at Santiago de Cuba, Santo Domingo City, Porto Rican
+ports and St. Thomas. The steamers on these routes, though not
+uncomfortable, are venerable hulks which have seen long service in
+different parts of the world.
+
+The Hamburg-American Line, a monthly steamer of which called regularly
+at Santo Domingo City and also at other points in the Republic when
+cargo conditions were favorable, and connected with other ports in the
+Antilles and with vessels from Europe. Other steamers of this line
+called at the northern ports to take cargo to Europe.
+
+There is further a fruit line between Boston and Puerto Plata and
+sugar steamers between New York and Macoris during the cane grinding
+season, but they carry no passengers. How far the interests of Spain
+and Santo Domingo have diverged is indicated by the fact that not one
+of the Spanish transatlantic liners which run to Porto Rico, Cuba,
+Central and South America, touches in Santo Domingo.
+
+A steamer of the Bull line runs between ports in Santo Domingo and
+Porto Rico and there is also a coast line under Dominican registry,
+which extends to Porto Rico, but the steamers of which do not
+distinguish themselves for comfort. Thus there is at present frequent
+steamer service between Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, but little
+communication with Haiti and Cuba.
+
+Most of the steamer lines touching in the Republic carry mails. Santo
+Domingo is a member of the International Postal Union and its post
+offices offer the usual facilities, except that there is no money
+order system. More than three-quarters of the incoming foreign mail
+comes from the United States, including Porto Rico, and over one-half
+the outgoing foreign mail is directed to this country. The American
+authorities are engaged in a thorough re-organization of the Dominican
+postal service.
+
+In connection with the post offices the government operates a
+telegraph and telephone system. The government lines connect all the
+more important points in the country. Constructed without plan or
+method and insufficiently cared for, these lines are all in poor
+condition and badly in need of repair or reconstruction. The charges
+are high and the service poor. The government also has a wireless
+telegraph station at Santo Domingo City and another at Macoris.
+
+The French Submarine Telegraph Co. affords Santo Domingo cable
+connection with the rest of the world. Its cable touches at Puerto
+Plata and Santo Domingo City, crossing the Republic by means of a land
+line which is also open to local messages. The interruptions of
+communication over this land line in the various revolutions have
+given rise to numerous damage claims on the part of the Company.
+
+There are also telephone lines on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and on
+the Central Dominican Railroad operated in connection with the
+respective roads. Local public telephone systems are in operation in
+Santo Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris, and there are private
+telephone lines between the principal cities and plantations in
+their vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+COMMERCE
+
+
+Exports and imports.--Foreign trade.--Trade with the United States.--
+Ports of entry.--Wharf concessions.--Domestic trade.--Business
+houses.--Banks.--Manufactures.
+
+
+The fact that Dominican commerce has more than trebled in twelve years
+demonstrates the epoch-making character of the fiscal convention with
+the United States. The trade figures since 1905 are as follows:
+
+
+              GROWTH OF DOMINICAN TRADE
+       (All figures are in American currency)
+
+           Imports         Exports         Total
+
+1905     $ 2,736,828     $ 6,896,098     $ 9,632,926
+1906       4,065,437       6,536,378      10,601,915
+1907       4,948,961       7,628,356      12,577,317
+1908       4,767,775       9,396,487      14,164,262
+1909       4,425,913       8,113,690      12,539,603
+1910       6,257,691      10,849,623      17,107,314
+1911       6,949,662      10,995,546      17,945,208
+1913       8,217,898      12,385,248      20,603,146
+1913       9,272,278      10,469,947      19,742,225
+1914       6,729,007      10,588,787      17,317,794
+1915       9,118,514      15,209,061      24,327,575
+1916      11,664,430      21,527,873      33,192,303
+
+
+The increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the entire trade
+of the country in 1905. The temporary setback of 1909 was caused by
+the partial failure of the cacao crop and the paralyzation of
+commerce in anticipation of lower tariff rates. That of 1914 was due
+to the European war and a domestic revolution. Santo Domingo has,
+however, repeatedly presented the anomalous spectacle of showing
+enormous trade figures in the midst of warfare, as for example, in
+1912. The advance in commerce has been especially marked since the
+presence of the American troops assured peaceful conditions.
+
+Not a year has passed since 1904 without a large balance of trade in
+favor of Santo Domingo. While the greater part of this is represented
+by huge sugar profits which have gone to foreign investors, a
+considerable portion remained in the country. The great increase in
+wealth since 1904 is apparent to anyone who knew the country at
+that time.
+
+The imports cover the wide range to be expected in a nonmanufacturing,
+agricultural country in the tropics. The principal imports in
+1916 were:
+
+
+Cotton goods                                          $1,721,534
+Iron and steel manufactures, including sugar machinery 1,562,367
+Rice                                                   1,080,068
+Wheat flour                                              621,900
+Provisions, meat and dairy products                      530,195
+Oils                                                     545,284
+Bagging and other manufactures of vegetable fiber        508,644
+Vehicles and boats                                       408,832
+Manufactures of leather                                  385,518
+Wood and manufactures of wood                            317,421
+Codfish and other preserved fish and fish products       309,204
+Chemicals, drugs and dyes                                293,072
+Soap, and ingredients for the manufacture of soap        233,991
+Paper and manufactures of paper                          171,706
+Beer                                                     168,901
+Agricultural implements                                  121,830
+
+
+The United States furnished practically all the flour and other
+breadstuffs, oils, lumber, agricultural implements and leather
+articles and most of the cotton goods, hardware, machinery, fish, meat
+and dairy products. Before the European war all the rice was bought in
+Germany, as well as a considerable portion of the fish, beer, meat and
+dairy products. At present the rice is brought from the United States
+and England. The other imports from England are almost entirely cotton
+goods and bagging, with some iron and steel manufactures.
+
+In the chapter on the flora of the country, statistics are given with
+reference to the exports of the country, which are, as there pointed
+out, principally: sugar, cacao, tobacco, coffee, bananas, beeswax and
+honey, hides, cotton, hardwoods and dyewoods.
+
+Owing to its geographical position the United States naturally has the
+greater part of Dominican trade, but since the European war set the
+commerce of the world awry that proportion has grown until in 1916 the
+imports from the United States, including Porto Rico, were 90.4 per
+cent of the total and the exports to the United States and Porto Rico
+were 82.8 per cent of the total, though the latter figure varies
+somewhat from final destination, as much of the sugar and cacao is
+shipped subject to order. Before the European war something more than
+one-half of the trade of Santo Domingo was with the United States,
+one-fifth with Germany, and the remainder with France, England and
+other countries. The countries of origin of imports and destination of
+exports of the Dominican Republic in the year 1916, as compared with
+the list for 1913, the last preceding normal year, are here shown:
+
+DOMINICAN TRADE BY COUNTRIES
+
+
+IMPORTS
+                          1913                       1916
+
+                    Value     Percentage       Value       Percentage
+                              of whole                     of whole
+
+Cuba             $     7,352       .08        $   136,587      1.17
+France               274,318       2.96           152,358      1.30
+Germany            1,677,833      18.10              ----      ----
+Italy                173,105       1.87            63,450      .54
+Porto Rico            62,900       .67            378,219      3.24
+Spain                210,781       2.27           151,451      1.30
+United Kingdom       730,191       7.88           481,305      4.13
+United States      5,769,061      62.22        10,162,698     87.13
+Other Countries      366,737       3.95           138,362      1.19
+
+Total            $ 9,272,278     100.00       $11,664,430    100.00
+
+EXPORTS
+
+Cuba             $    27,536        .26       $    19,447      .09
+France               887,907       8.48           287,799      1.34
+Germany            2,068,384      19.76              ----      ----
+Italy                 20,430        .19             2,496      .01
+Porto Rico            28,994        .28           425,483      1.98
+United Kingdom       241,810       2.31           105,107      .49
+United States      5,600,768      53.49        17,412,088     80.88
+Other Countries    1,594,118      15.23         3,275,543     15.21
+
+Total            $10,469,947     100.00       $21,527,873    100.00
+
+
+Very interesting statistics with reference to all these matters are
+published annually in the report of the general receiver of Dominican
+customs. Since the establishment of the receivership full and accurate
+trade statistics have become available for the first time in the
+history of the Republic. Before 1891 no statistics at all were kept.
+During the nineties there was an attempt at compilation, but the
+corruption in the custom-houses was so notorious that the figures
+cannot be regarded as reliable. For the disturbed years immediately
+following the death of Heureaux the data are incomplete and uncertain.
+
+The question of shipping has been a serious problem confronting
+Dominican commerce since the beginning of the European war. Freight
+rates are rising to almost prohibitive figures, which have their
+effect in an enormous increase in the cost of living, Santo Domingo
+has as much reason as the rest of the world to desire an early
+cessation of the world calamity.
+
+After the war the old trade rivalry will be revived, but American
+commerce with the Republic should easily retain its lead, if properly
+cultivated. The observations so frequently made with reference to the
+extension of American trade with South America also hold good in the
+case of Santo Domingo. American merchants should send as
+representatives cultured men who speak Spanish; they should provide
+catalogs in good Spanish with accurate descriptions of the articles
+offered; they should fill orders as received, without substituting
+other articles; they should pack their shipments very carefully and
+with a view to local transportation conditions. The success of the
+Germans in building up their Dominican trade was due in large measure
+to the polish and fluent Spanish of their representatives, to their
+thorough study of local conditions, and to their favorable terms
+of payment.
+
+American commerce with Santo Domingo would be further stimulated and
+strengthened by a tariff reciprocity agreement similar to the customs
+convention between the United States and Cuba. The mutual advantages
+of such an agreement would be enormous and the development of Santo
+Domingo would be effectively promoted. Closer relations would also be
+fostered by a postal convention applying the domestic rates of postage
+to all mail between the two countries, a good beginning having been
+made by a recent arrangement applying the domestic postage rate to
+letters between the United States and the Dominican Republic.
+
+The Dominican Republic has twelve ports of entry, but nine-tenths of
+the foreign commerce goes through the ports of Macoris, Santo Domingo,
+Sanchez and Puerto Plata. The first two supply the import and export
+requirements of the southern portion of the Republic, the other two
+those of the Cibao. The other eight custom-houses exist for local
+convenience and for the prevention of smuggling. This is especially
+true of the three along the Haitian frontier. In former years there
+was considerable smuggling across the border, as the import duties on
+certain articles in Haiti are much lower than in the Dominican
+Republic. Although the profitable smuggling business demoralized trade
+in those regions, the government did not interfere with it owing to
+the difficulty of policing the wild and sparsely populated border
+district. The American general receiver determined that the back door
+should be guarded as well as the front entrance, and formed a frontier
+guard which stopped contraband traffic, though at a heavy cost, for
+two brave American officials have been killed and three wounded by
+smugglers and outlaws, while fourteen Dominican guardsmen and
+inspectors have been killed and twenty-three wounded. The expense of
+the three frontier custom-houses is greater than the revenue they
+produce, but entries in Azua, Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata increased
+significantly after the frontier guard began its patrolling.
+Incidentally the guard has helped to keep the boundary line in place.
+
+In the seaports most of the loading and unloading is done by lighters,
+the wharves generally being small affairs. Only in Puerto Plata (where
+extensive harbor improvements are now under way), Macoris and Santo
+Domingo can larger vessels approach the wharves. All the wharves were
+built under concessions from the government, which, in the
+impossibility to provide them itself on account of its perpetual lack
+of funds, was obliged to procure their construction by granting the
+right to collect a specified wharf tax, more or less onerous, for a
+period of years. The Santo Domingo City wharf concession provided that
+everything exported from and imported into this city or any other
+coast point in the province must pay the tax, whether the wharf was
+used or not. The Samana wharf concession; as amended, gave the right
+to collect certain high wharf taxes for fifty years, from 1875 to
+1925, in return for the building of a diminutive dock. One of the
+important objects accomplished through the 1907 bond issue was the
+redemption by the government of the monopolistic wharf concessions.
+
+A peculiar feature of the country's domestic trade is that almost
+fifty per cent of it is in the hands of Syrians. These people are
+found in a number of the West India Islands, but nowhere have they
+gained such a foothold as in Santo Domingo. They appeared in the
+nineties, and for a number of years confined their activities to
+peddling goods about the country, both men and women traveling around
+with great bundles of merchandise which they spread out wherever they
+met prospective purchasers. Their next step was to establish retail
+stores and crowd the native Dominican storekeeper out, and of late
+years they have opened large business houses. They are not regarded
+as a desirable element, as they do not amalgamate or mingle with the
+Dominican population, but seem possessed of the single idea to make a
+fortune and return with it to their country.
+
+Such part of the retail trade as is not controlled by Syrians, is
+mostly in the hands of Dominicans. The stores are generally small,
+with a limited stock of goods; they have no show-windows, but are
+arranged on the style of bazars. Fixed prices are rare and most sales
+become negotiations with the polite shopkeeper. In the country it is
+customary for the storekeeper to make advances of merchandise to the
+smaller farmers until crop time; they then pay him in cacao, coffee,
+tobacco or other farm products, which he remits to the seaport to the
+wholesale merchant with whom he deals.
+
+The larger business houses are in a majority of cases owned by
+foreigners, principally of Italian, German, Spanish, American and
+Cuban citizenship, and now also including numerous Syrian firms. A
+majority of those classed as Americans are natives of Porto Rico. A
+number of these merchants arrived in Santo Domingo as poor men and by
+hard work and shrewd investment built up respectable firms. They
+carefully preserved their foreign nationality as a valuable asset
+which protected them from undue interference on the part of the
+government. One of the most prominent and successful merchants of
+Santo Domingo was the late J.B. Vicini, an Italian who came to the
+country penniless, but with his energy and sagacity amassed the
+largest fortune of the island. His business is now managed by
+his sons.
+
+The larger merchants combine a banking business with their export and
+import business. The foremost of these private bankers of late years
+was Santiago  Michelena, a Porto Rican. Less than ten years ago there
+was not a single bank in the Republic, but there are now three well
+equipped banking institutions, all of them with their local
+headquarters in the capital. One of these is the International Banking
+Corporation, which is connected with the National City Bank of New
+York; it entered the Dominican Republic in April, 1917, by taking over
+Michelena's banking business. It has a branch in Macoris and Puerto
+Plata and agencies and correspondents throughout the country. Another
+bank is the Royal Bank of Canada, which does a flourishing business in
+a number of the West India Islands; it has branches in five cities of
+the Dominican Republic. The third bank is the Banco Nacional de Santo
+Domingo, incorporated by Americans under the Dominican banking law of
+1909, with a capital of $500,000. Although it has several branches,
+its business is not so active as that of the other banks, since it has
+lent most of its capital to the government. Under the banking law this
+institution has the right to issue bank notes, but it has not
+attempted to use the privilege.
+
+Slowly the establishment of small factories has proceeded, for the
+partial provision of local needs. The principal cities have ice
+plants, of which some are subject to annoying interruptions. In the
+Cibao there are several sawmills. Further there are, in the larger
+cities, small establishments for the manufacture of cigars,
+cigarettes, matches, rum, straw hats, shoes, chocolate, soap and a few
+other articles. These are financed by Dominican capital and are not
+able to supply the local demand. In Santo Domingo City are the remains
+of a costly brewery erected by Americans with a view to supplying the
+West Indies; it was ruined, so local reports say, by bad management
+and has been idle for fifteen years. If the amount of soap used by a
+people is really an index of its degree of civilization, then the
+Dominicans can claim to be far advanced, for the consumption of soap
+manufactured in the country and imported, is very considerable. The
+government has encouraged manufacturing enterprises and repeatedly
+granted concessions exempting their machinery and raw material from
+import duties for specified periods. The number of manufacturing
+plants will doubtless increase, but agriculture is bound to remain the
+mainstay of the country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+General condition of municipalities.--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+churches, streets, popular legends.--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+Province.--San Pedro de Macoris.--Seibo.--Samana and Sanchez.
+--Pacificador Province.--Concepcion de La Vega.--Moca.--Santiago
+de los Caballeros.--Puerto Plata.--Monte Cristi.--Azua.--Barahona.
+
+
+Compared with cities in the United States a majority of Dominican
+towns are hoary with age. The capital city and a number of others were
+founded more than a century before Virginia was settled, and had begun
+to decline almost a hundred years before the Pilgrims landed on
+Plymouth Rock. Yet such have been the vicissitudes of the country that
+only one city, the capital, shows signs of its antiquity; the others
+from their appearance might be taken to be but a few decades old, and
+with the exception of two or three ancient churches in the interior
+none of the older buildings of these towns have survived the ravages
+of time, wars and earthquakes. The modern appearance of most cities is
+heightened by the fact that frame structures predominate, and outside
+of Santo Domingo, Santiago, La Vega and Puerto Plata stone houses are
+infrequent.
+
+The impoverishment of the country by periodic revolutions has had its
+effect on the municipalities and prevented their proper development.
+In no city are all municipal needs and services properly attended to,
+and in most towns they are all badly neglected. Sanitary inspection is
+nowhere given due attention; sewers are practically unknown; but two
+cities, Puerto Plata and  Santiago, have a general system of
+waterworks, the others being dependent on water drawn from cisterns or
+wells, or carried from rivers or springs; in all but five or six
+little attention is paid to the condition of the streets. Only
+Santiago, Puerto Plata and Santo Domingo have electric light, but that
+of Santo Domingo is very deficient. Little by little conditions are
+improving and especially the larger municipalities are endeavoring to
+improve their streets and provide a water supply.
+
+To the smallness of the urban centers their lack of municipal
+conveniences is partly to be attributed. The Dominican towns are all
+built on the same general plan as other Spanish cities, being
+constructed around a central plaza on which the church and government
+building are located.
+
+The principal cities are the capitals of the twelve provinces, and the
+city of Sanchez. A brief description of these cities follows, with a
+reference to the other more important towns and villages of
+each province.
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+_Santo Domingo de Guzman_, the capital of the Republic and of the
+province of the same name, is the oldest city founded by Europeans in
+the new world, the first city, Isabela, having disappeared a few years
+after settlement. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus in 1496 on
+the east bank of the Ozama River as the capital of the colony, but the
+small houses constituting the town having been destroyed by a
+hurricane in 1502 it was transferred to the west bank of the river by
+order of Governor Ovando. It grew rapidly in population and wealth
+until it merited the eulogies of Oviedo who wrote to Charles V in 1525
+that he did not hesitate to assure that there was not in Spain a city
+he would prefer whether on account of advantageous and agreeable
+location, beauty and arrangement of squares and streets or charms of
+the surrounding country, adding that "their Highnesses oftentimes
+lodged in palaces which have neither the conveniences, the ample size
+nor the wealth of some of those in Santo Domingo." By the middle of
+the sixteenth century the city had passed the zenith of its glory, and
+its capture by Drake in 1586 and the destruction of the houses about
+the main plaza was a severe blow. The decline continued rapidly,
+although in 1655 the city was still strong enough to repel an invasion
+by Admiral William Penn. In 1684 and 1691 it was visited by
+destructive earthquakes and in 1700 it was full of ruins among which
+grew great trees. The lowest ebb was reached about 1737 when the
+population had fallen to 500 "and," writes Father Valverde, "more than
+half the buildings of the capital were entirely ruined, and of those
+still standing two-thirds were uninhabitable or closed and the other
+third was more than enough for the population. There were houses and
+lands whose owners were unknown, and of which people took advantage as
+belonging to the first one who might occupy them, either because there
+was entire lack of heirs of the owners or because they had emigrated
+elsewhere." In a few years, however, the tide of fortune turned and
+the city's rise was as rapid as its decline had been long, until by
+about the year 1790 it had quite recovered its ancient glory. Another
+reverse was quick in coming, for the cession to France in 1795 and the
+revolt of the negroes in French Saint-Domingue drove away the best
+inhabitants. In 1801 Toussaint l'Ouverture took possession of the city
+and in 1805 it was successfully held by the French against the siege
+of the negro emperor Dessalines. This siege was the beginning of a
+series lasting for a century. In 1809 after a desperate struggle the
+city was recaptured for Spain by the Dominicans, but from 1822 to 1844
+it was in the hands of the Haitians, and abandoned by all the whites
+who could flee. Since the declaration of Dominican independence in
+1844 almost every revolution has involved a siege of the capital.
+Within the last twenty-five years the city has made rapid strides
+forward and spread far beyond the old city walls.
+
+To the stranger Santo Domingo is by far the most interesting city of
+the Republic, on account of its stirring history and its venerable
+monuments of the past. Unfortunately the relics of the early days have
+met with scant respect from later generations, and ruins which would
+be the pride of other cities have been wantonly demolished. The
+Haitian governors gloried in this kind of vandalism, using the old
+churches as quarries and destroying the coats of arms of famous
+families which were cut in stone on the facades of their former houses
+and in their chapels in the cathedral. One which they left, on a house
+on Mercedes street, adjoining the government building, was obliterated
+in 1907 by the erection of a balcony. Since the declaration of
+independence ignorance and negligence have been responsible for much
+damage and the few administrations which took an interest in the old
+monuments needed all their money for military purposes. Ancient
+bastions have been needlessly razed, inscriptions effaced and no steps
+taken for the preservation of such memorials as remained. In 1883 a
+concession for the improvement of Santo Domingo harbor even provided
+that the concessionnaire might tear down the ruins belonging to the
+state and use the material for filling purposes; happily he was able
+to carry out but little of this part of the contract. The great
+majority of the brick and stone structures of Santo Domingo are
+ancient houses and convents preserved or rebuilt with more or less
+alteration. In some cases behind walls and doorways of great age are
+little huts of the poor. Though many signs of the past have thus
+disappeared, many still remain. It is to be hoped that the American
+authorities in Santo Domingo will be less indifferent to the
+preservation of ancient monuments than has been the case in other West
+Indian countries.
+
+The most interesting ancient building is the massive ruin known as the
+"House of the Admiral" or "House of Columbus," which even now, after
+centuries of neglect and decay, gives eloquent testimony of former
+greatness. It was built soon after 1509 by Diego Columbus, the son of
+the great navigator, on a height overlooking the Ozama River. Here
+Diego Columbus governed with regal splendor and here most of his
+children were born. It was the home of his widow, Maria de Toledo,
+until her death in 1549. Here also their son Louis Columbus lived for
+many years and embarked on two of his mad marriages. Another son,
+Cristobal, who was in the government employ in Santo Domingo, also
+seems to have lived in this house, after Louis went to Spain in 1551.
+On Cristobal's death in 1571 and that of Louis in 1572, it passed to
+Cristobal's son Diego. From the date of this Diego's death in 1578,
+when the direct male line of the Discoverer's descendants became
+extinct, the history of the house becomes obscure: it was sequestered
+by court decree in the course of the long inheritance litigation
+between the members of the Columbus family and appears to have been
+awarded in 1583 to the Admiral of Aragon, son of a sister of Louis and
+Cristobal, and in 1605 to Nuno de Portugal, grandson of another
+sister; the former may have sojourned there temporarily, but it is
+doubtful whether the latter or any of his descendants ever visited
+Santo Domingo. There is reason to believe that it was occupied for a
+time by the family of Luis de Avila, judge of Santo Domingo City, who
+was married to a daughter of Cristobal and whose children were still
+living in the colony at the end of the sixteenth century. When in 1790
+a descendant of this Avila was at length awarded the last vestiges of
+the Columbus honors, no attention seems to have been given to this
+house, which was then as complete a ruin as at present, though it was
+in better condition and the arcade supporting the front porch was
+still extant.
+
+The edifice is built of stone blocks; porches supported by graceful
+arches were once an attractive feature; the windows and principal
+doorways were embellished with handsome arabesques; and Oviedo and
+other chroniclers dwell at length on the magnificence of the interior.
+They especially refer to the beauty and value of a sculpture showing
+the arms of Castile, located in the great reception hall behind the
+viceroy's throne. At the present time the building is reduced to a
+mere shell, roofless and windowless; in a part of its interior there
+is a little palm thatch shelter for stabling horses; while the court
+yard and terrace reek with offal from dirty cabins round about.
+
+At the foot of the house of Columbus is part of the old city wall
+erected in 1537 and of which numerous portions remain intact, though
+all traces of the moat have disappeared. The old city was in the form
+of a trapezium occupying an area of a caballeria or about 200 acres,
+and the wall on the north side, provided with numerous redoubts and
+watch towers, was much the longest, the western wall being the
+shortest. Santo Domingo is one of the cities of the Spanish main which
+lay claim to the story that when the accounts for the city's walls
+were laid before the king of Spain, he went, to the window and gazed
+at the horizon, saying he was "looking for the reflection of those
+walls, for they must be built of gold, they cost so much." Judging by
+the relative size of the walls, the story should rather be awarded to
+Cartagena, in Colombia, or possibly to another city, but Santo
+Domingo's walls are massive enough to have justified the Spanish king
+in squinting at the horizon, at least. The ancient gates which were
+formerly closed from sunset to sunrise, still remain, but no longer
+afford the only means of ingress and egress as breaches have been made
+in the walls at most street terminations. The most famous of the old
+gates is the "Puerta del Conde," "Gate of the Count," so called
+because it was constructed by the Count of Penalva, Governor of Santo
+Domingo, about 1655, though the bastion through which it leads is as
+old as the city wall. It was here that the cry of independence was
+raised on February 27, 1844, and it is therefore regarded as the
+cradle of Dominican independence and its official name is "Bulwark of
+the twenty-seventh of February." Another important gate is the "Gate
+of San Diego," also called "Gate of the Admiral," near the ruins of
+Diego Columbus' house and affording communication with the wharves on
+the Ozama River. It is one of the original three gates of the city. Up
+the river, near the lumber market, is a very old ceiba tree to which
+it is claimed Columbus once tied up his vessel. Still further up the
+river is a spring the enclosure about which is said to have been built
+by Diego Columbus.
+
+"La Fuerza," the fort and barracks, is situated at the southeast
+corner of the city. According to an inscription over the gate it was
+built in the year 1783. Within its enclosure on a bluff at the place
+where the Ozama empties into the sea, rises the ancient citadel, the
+"Torre del Homenaje," "Tower of Homage" the enormously thick walls of
+which were erected not later than 1504. There are many who affirm that
+it was built before 1500, although the town was then situated on the
+other side of the river, and a cell with a small barred window is
+pointed out as the cell in which Bobadilla imprisoned Columbus before
+sending him to Spain in chains. Others claim that recently-discovered
+old foundation-walls on the east side of the river were the
+foundations of the building in which Columbus was confined. "In that
+case," Dominican wags observe, "the Tower of Homage is the place where
+he would have been confined if it had then been erected." In any event
+the tower and the terraces below it are the oldest fortifications
+constructed by white men in America. Cortez and Pizarro, Velazquez,
+Ponce de Leon, Narvaez and many others passed out of the Ozama River
+under the shadow of this building, full of hope for the future. Within
+its somber walls have been immured many an Indian chief in the time of
+the conquest and many a revolutionist in later days. The tower proper
+has been for years a political prison, while around the courtyard at
+its base on the riverside, is the common jail.
+
+The churches form an important connecting link between old and new
+Santo Domingo. Of these the most beautiful and imposing is the
+cathedral, built in what may be called Ibero-Romanesque style. As
+early as 1506 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered its erection, in 1512 a
+grant of revenue was made and two years later the work of construction
+was begun. In one of the chapels is a large rough-hewn mahogany cross
+on which is painted the legend: "This is the first sign planted in the
+center of this field to mark the beginning of this magnificent temple
+in the year MDXIV." The work progressed slowly; an inscription in the
+doorway leading to the plaza states that the church was completed to
+that point in 1527 and another inscription in the old choir, torn down
+in 1877, stated that the building was finished in 1540. It is probable
+that the original plans called for an even loftier building. One of
+the towers first projected was begun, but it was never concluded and
+the belfry is still a temporary one. Of late years there have been
+attempts to provide for the completion of this tower by popular
+subscription. The building has been damaged repeatedly by earthquakes
+and the repairs made have changed its original outer appearance on the
+plaza side. In its roof there is still lodged a cannon-ball fired into
+the city by a Spanish battery during the siege of 1809.
+
+In the interior, great pillars of a soft dark-red tint support the
+high groined arches and the effect is severe and impressive. The altar
+at the head of the nave is beautifully inlaid with wrought silver and
+is surmounted by the coat of arms of Spain placed there by order of
+Charles V, a relic of Spanish days which was hidden away while the
+Haitians were in possession of the city. On the altar platform a
+marble slab indicates the place where the bones of Columbus were found
+in 1877, another slab the former location of the remains taken to Cuba
+in 1795 as the remains of Columbus, and still another the resting
+place of Louis Columbus, the grandson of the Discoverer. At the end of
+the nave, near the entrance door, is the airy marble monument beneath
+which is guarded the casket that contains the remains of the
+Discoverer of America.
+
+The cathedral like the other churches is made more interesting by the
+ancient epitaphs on slabs in the pavement and walls, marking the
+burial places of persons famous in the history of the island. In one
+of the lateral chapels, which belonged to the Bastidas family, the
+resting place of Bishop Bastidas, who in the early days was bishop in
+Venezuela, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo, is marked by a large marble
+recumbant figure of a bishop and the chapel is therefore known as "the
+chapel of the stone bishop." Nearby is the tomb of his father, that
+Rodrigo de Bastidas who was imprisoned by Bobadilla, and an epitaph
+full of abbreviations which reads:
+
+"Here lies the very magnificent Sir Don Rodrigo de Bastidas, first
+Adelantado and Governor and Captain-General of Santa Marta, who in the
+year 1502 discovered Terra-firma by order of the Catholic Sovereigns
+from Cape Vela to Darien: he died March 28, 1527."
+
+Close by is another epitaph:
+
+"Here lies the virtuous, Christian and religious lady Dona Isabel
+Rodrigo de Romera, native of the noble town of Carmona, who was wife
+of the Adelantado Don Rodrigo de Bastidas and mother of the most
+reverend Bishop of San Juan, Don Rodrigo de Bastidas. She died
+September 15, 1533. May she rest in peace."
+
+And in Latin:
+
+"I believe that my Redeemer lived and that on the judgment day I shall
+be resurrected."
+
+In another chapel is a slab ten feet long with an elaborate coat of
+arms, surmounted by a helmet with flowing plumes, and having an
+inscription reading:
+
+"Here lies the magnificent knight Diego Caballero, councilor of this
+Island of Espanola, first secretary of the first Royal Audiencia which
+the Catholic Sovereigns established in these Indies. He died January
+22, 1553."  Surrounding this inscription is another:
+
+"Likewise lies here the generous lady Isabel Bacan, his good wife: she
+died in the year 1551."
+
+Above is a verse stating that he flourished with the strength given
+him by God, and on an adjoining stone are the words;
+
+"I have ended my cares. Hope and fortune, remain and seek others to
+mock."
+
+On another tombstone is the inscription:
+
+"This tomb belongs to Don Francisco de Almansa, canon of this holy
+principal church and commissioner of the Holy Inquisition, and to
+his heirs."
+
+There are many other interesting inscriptions. In one of the chapels
+is an artistic gem, a well preserved picture of Our Lady of Antigua,
+presented by Ferdinand and Isabella who are represented in an attitude
+of devotion at the foot of the Virgin. It is probably by Antonio del
+Rincon, their court painter. Other very old and obscure paintings in
+the church are ascribed to Velazquez or Murillo. Another chapel,
+adorned with the Dominican coat of arms in marble relief, is the
+resting place of Dominican celebrities.
+
+The oldest Christian church in the new world was that of San Nicolas,
+founded by Governor Nicolas de Ovando in 1502. It was suffered to go
+to ruin, then restored and used as a military hospital and then again
+abandoned to decay until, overgrown with weeds and almost roofless, it
+was latterly used by a blacksmith as his workshop. The suggestion was
+frequently made that it be converted into a museum of Dominican
+antiquities, but the matter was neglected too long and in 1909 the
+historic building was condemned and the front portion demolished, but
+the groined arch over the presbytery remains.
+
+The most picturesque ruin of the city is that of the church of San
+Francisco, erected by the Franciscan monks about 1504 at the most
+conspicuous point in the city, and which is now, after the destruction
+of San Nicolas church, the oldest church ruin in America. It was the
+largest church in old Santo Domingo. Here were deposited and probably
+still rest, the remains of Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the
+Discoverer. The church and convent, like several other churches of the
+city, were badly damaged by the earthquake of 1751 but were rebuilt
+better than before. When the Haitians came the church was abandoned;
+in 1824 it was assigned to the negro immigrants from the United States
+as a Methodist church, but it was allowed to go to complete ruin and
+much of its masonry was utilized by the Haitian rulers. A small part
+of the monastery has been rebuilt for use as an asylum for the insane.
+The Franciscan community was one of the wealthiest of the city, and
+fronting on the city's principal market still stands a large house
+formerly belonging to it and known as the "Casa del Cordon," "House of
+the Cord," because of a Franciscan's girdle hewn in stone over the
+doorway. Tradition says that Diego Columbus resided here while his
+palace was under construction.
+
+The other larger churches have all been restored and among them may be
+mentioned the church of St. Dominic or Santo Domingo founded in 1507,
+with massive walls and arches. It contains numerous tombs belonging to
+families that flourished in the island in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, but most of the inscriptions are rudely carved.
+A slab in one of the chapels shows a coat of arms with thirteen stars;
+there is no inscription further than a short Latin quotation from the
+26th psalm, but the stone is supposed to date from the latter part of
+the sixteenth century and to mark the grave of Lope de Bardeci, the
+founder of the chapel. Other churches are the lofty Mercedes church by
+the side of the ruined monastery of the friars of Mercy; the church of
+Regina Angelorum, the spacious building adjoining which, now used by
+the courts of justice, was formerly a nunnery; that of St. Clara,
+formerly a nunnery and rebuilt from ruin in 1885 by the sisters of
+charity; the church of San Lazaro, at the leper asylum; the quaint old
+church of Santa Barbara; and the chapel of San Miguel, founded about
+1520 by Miguel de Pasamonte, the royal treasurer, an inveterate enemy
+of the Columbus family. The old Jesuit church is used as a theater and
+the former Jesuit convent is occupied by business houses and private
+residences.
+
+The main plaza of Santo Domingo is a pretty square planted with
+flowers and shade trees. In the center stands a bronze statue of
+Columbus who is represented with the flag of Spain taking possession
+of Quisqueya for his sovereigns. At the foot of the pedestal is an
+Indian writing thereon the words found engraved on the box that
+contained what are believed to be Columbus' remains: "Ill'tre. y
+Es'do. Varon D'n Cristoval Colon," "Illustrious and noble man Don
+Cristopher Columbus." On the south side of the plaza is the cathedral,
+on the west side the old city hall, recently renovated and provided
+with an ugly tower, and on the east side the government building,
+erected during the Haitian occupation with bricks from the San
+Francisco and Santa Clara churches. Popular superstition therefore
+regards this building as unlucky and points out that one of the Baez
+brothers was killed in a revolution when the family resided here. The
+edifice was for years occupied by all the government offices until
+the renovation of the ancient palace of government. Adjoining is the
+small building in which the Dominican Congress meets. It occupies a
+site on which in the olden days stood a prison, the walls of which
+still remain behind the Congress Hall. The spacious building known as
+the old palace of government is one of the most ancient edifices in
+the city. Its cornerstone was laid about 1504 by Ovando and it
+contained the offices of the Spanish governors-general in colonial
+times. Through neglect it was permitted to fall to ruin but since 1900
+it has gradually been renovated. Nearby is a large sundial, erected
+in 1753.
+
+The old palace of government is on Colon street, which was in the
+early days called "Calle de las Damas," "Street of the Ladies,"
+because on it resided the ladies who came from Spain with the wife of
+Diego Columbus. It is to be regretted that the old street names which
+were pregnant with memories of the past have been so lightly changed.
+At present most of the streets are named after events, battles or
+persons prominent in the more recent history of the country.
+
+The streets of the capital are not quite so narrow as those of Havana,
+San Juan and other old Spanish cities. After years of neglect the
+principal streets have at length been placed in excellent condition
+and the steam roller has even invaded the side streets. The sidewalks
+are generally narrow, being only about three feet in width, and as
+municipal supervision over them has not been carefully exercised,
+there are differences in grade along the sidewalks of certain streets
+and in passing along it is necessary to go up and down steps. Along
+the improved streets, however, new sidewalks and gutters have been
+constructed. The style of architecture of the houses with their thick
+walls and iron-barred windows makes the streets resemble those of
+other Spanish-American cities. Among the finest buildings of the city
+may be counted the palatial quarters of the young men's club "Casino
+de la Juventud" and of the Union Club, of which the most prominent men
+of the city, especially merchants, are members. Leading out of the
+city are two boulevards along which are fine residences of wealthier
+Dominicans.
+
+A city of such history naturally abounds with popular legends. Stories
+are current of a network of ancient subterranean passages which are
+said to connect the principal churches and the fort, and knowledge of
+the location of which has been lost because their entrances have
+either been walled up or become obstructed by debris. Local historians
+deride such tales, though admitting that underground passages may have
+existed at isolated points. It is related that not many years ago a
+woman was digging in her garden on a street which passes the ruins of
+Mercedes convent, when the earth gave way and an aperture became
+visible. Her husband investigated and found a subterranean passage
+which led across the street: and directly under the convent ruins,
+where it was choked up with stones and earth. Other stories refer to
+deep, forgotten vaults said to exist under many buildings. Popular
+rumor, morbid when dealing with President Heureaux, affirms that in
+vaults under the ancient mansion which was converted into a palace for
+him, the remains of some of his victims were found. In vaults and
+dungeons under the barracks of La Fuerza the Spaniards in retiring
+from the island at the close of the eighteenth century, secreted part
+of their military supplies. Many years later an old man who had
+assisted in walling up the stores revealed their existence to
+President Baez and he, when besieged in Santo Domingo in 1857 brought
+them out and utilized them against the revolutionists. The old
+mortars and grenades were found in excellent condition and at first
+caused a panic among the besiegers who thought the shells had fallen
+from the sky.
+
+The favorite stories are those relating to buried treasure. During the
+vicissitudes through which the island has passed and especially during
+the troublous period at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of
+the nineteenth century many persons who left the country first
+secreted their valuables in the belief that their absence would be
+only temporary. They did not return, their property passed into other
+hands and the treasure was forgotten. Occasionally, too, people buried
+their money for safe-keeping and died without imparting the secret.
+There have been authenticated cases of treasure-trove, especially in
+the first half of the nineteenth century. The finds have almost always
+been accidental, as when in hanging a hammock a nail gave way and
+revealed a cavity, or in rebuilding a hidden orifice was disclosed. In
+many popular stories a foreigner with a map plays a part. According to
+one of these tales a stranger appeared some years ago near Mercedes
+church taking measurements, so that the neighbors thought him insane.
+He finally approached the owner of one of the houses and offered to
+rent it. When his increased offers were refused he drew from his
+pocket a paper which he said showed the location of a hidden treasure
+and offered the houseowner a share if he were permitted to make the
+search. The cupidity of the other was aroused and he would agree to
+take nothing less than three-fourths of the whole, whereupon the
+stranger in a rage lit a match and burnt the paper before the
+horrified houseowner's eyes, exclaiming: "Now you will never find it."
+For months afterwards the proprietor delved through the ground below
+the house and perforated the walls in scores of places, but the
+prediction of the stranger would probably have been verified had it
+not been for an accident. Some four years later, after a heavy rain, a
+woman of the neighborhood came to draw water from the cistern of this
+particular house. As the rope stuck in the pulley she gave a tug,
+slipped and fell into the cistern to her waist in water. Her screams
+brought assistance and as she was drawn out it was noticed that in her
+descent, she had loosened several bricks in the wall of the cistern.
+An examination revealed an aperture large enough to hold a man, and
+filled with plate, jewelry and coins.
+
+In another story the stranger was more fortunate. He rented a small
+house, also on Mercedes street, paying several months' rent in
+advance. When after a few days the house was found closed it was
+thought the stranger had taken a trip to the country, but when two and
+three months passed and the tenant did not reappear, the proprietress
+applied to the authorities. The door was forced open and in the middle
+of the room a deep hole was found, at the bottom of which was an empty
+strongbox, while smaller boxes and the pick and shovel used in the
+excavation lay scattered around. On a table in the corner lay a
+parchment with a map that showed the location of the strongbox.
+Further investigation revealed that the stranger a week after his
+disappearance took passage on a schooner for a foreign port.
+
+The fortunate finders of such treasures have generally kept silence in
+order to avoid the possibility of adverse claimants, and when
+discovered would minimize the find. Popular rumor still designates
+several houses as containing hidden treasures. One of them, situated
+on Billini Plaza, near the cathedral, has all but been torn to pieces
+by tenants in vain efforts to penetrate the secret. In other cases the
+rumors are more vague. General Ferrand, the energetic French governor
+of Santo Domingo, is reported to have buried the state treasure before
+departing in 1808 on the disastrous expedition in which he lost his
+life in Palo Hincado, and in more than one place excavations have been
+made to seek it.
+
+Outside the walls of the city is the cemetery, which is pretty and
+clean and has many vaults and varicolored plants. The most conspicuous
+objects are the crosses which surmount the graves and the iron fences
+surrounding many lots, with a little lantern at each corner. The
+lanterns are lighted up on All Soul's Day, when people flock to the
+cemetery and decorate the graves of their departed friends with
+wreaths and flowers.
+
+An interesting monument of old Santo Domingo is the small fortress of
+San Geronimo, which stands deserted on the ocean shore about three
+miles from the city. It was built in the early days of Spanish
+colonization as a protection against foes who might land up the coast
+and is a good specimen of medieval military architecture, with its
+walls of immense thickness, its watch towers, its deep moat and its
+dark dungeons. In revolutions it was usually garrisoned and has been
+taken and retaken unnumbered times, and in 1903 it was bombarded by a
+Dominican cruiser.
+
+In the midst of its monuments of the past Santo Domingo throbs with
+the life of the present. Being one of the principal ports and the seat
+of the government it is the busiest city of the Republic. Its docks,
+markets and business streets are always congested with workers
+and traders.
+
+_San Carlos_ is a suburb of Santo Domingo City, adjoining the same on
+the northwest, and since 1910 forming an integral part thereof. It
+was founded towards the end of the seventeenth century by Canary
+Islanders. Owing to its proximity to Santo Domingo and as part of the
+town overlooks the capital, it has in all the sieges of Santo Domingo
+been held by the besiegers and lost heavily. The fifteen days' siege
+by the negro emperor Dessalines in 1805 caused serious damage; in the
+siege of eight months in 1808 by Juan Sanchez Ramirez it was almost
+entirely ruined; in the fifteen days' siege of 1849 by Santana it was
+burned; in the nine months' siege of 1857 by Santana it was again
+partially destroyed and since that time in every siege it has
+sustained damage. In the two months' siege in the beginning of 1904
+the church and other buildings were damaged by shells, and several
+blocks of dwellings were burned to the ground. Yet the town has always
+risen, phoenix-like, from its ashes. One of the points of interest is
+an old public cistern of great size and depth. Near San Carlos is the
+picturesque grotto of Santa Ana, said to have been an Indian
+sanctuary.
+
+On the Ozama River opposite the capital is _Villa Duarte_, formerly
+called _Pajarito_. On an adjoining estate is the ruined chapel of
+Rosario, believed to date from the first city of Santo Domingo and
+which may have been the church where Bobadilla proclaimed his
+authority over Columbus. Not far from the town is an interesting cave
+with three crystal pools called Tres Ojos.
+
+_San Cristobal_, about 16 miles to the west of the capital, had only a
+chapel and two or three huts in 1820, but attained more importance
+when slaves freed by the Haitians on the surrounding sugar estates
+settled there.
+
+_Bani_ is a pretty little town founded in 1764 and situated about 39
+miles west of Santo Domingo, between the foothills and the sea. Its
+chief pride is that it was the birthplace of Maximo Gomez, the famous
+warrior for Cuban independence. Gomez became a major in the Spanish
+army, fought against his countrymen during the War of the Restoration
+and abandoned Santo Domingo with the Spaniards, but this record has
+been forgiven by the Dominicans in view of his later services in
+behalf of Cuba libre.
+
+_Bayaguana_ and _Monte Plata_, about 30 and 28 miles northeast of
+Santo Domingo, respectively, were both founded in 1606 for the
+settlement of residents of coast towns destroyed in order to stop
+smuggling, the former receiving the inhabitants of Bayaja and Yaguana,
+the latter those of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata. The church of
+Bayaguana is visited by many pilgrims who come to adore an image of
+Christ to which miracles are attributed.
+
+Other villages of the province are: _San Lorenzo de los Minas_, 3
+miles northeast of Santo Domingo, first settled in 1719 by negroes of
+the Minas tribe, refugees from French Santo Domingo; _San Antonio de
+Guerra_, situated in the plains 19 miles northeast of the capital;
+_Boya_, 32 miles northeast of the capital, founded in 1533 by
+Enriquillo, the last Indian chief and by the last survivors of the
+Indians of the island: it contains an old church of composite
+aboriginal Gothic architecture, in which the remains of Enriquillo and
+of his wife Dona Mencia are believed to rest; _Mella_, 7 miles, and
+_La Victoria_, 12 miles north of the capital; _Yamasa_, 30 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo; and _Sabana Grande_, or _Palenque_, 22
+miles west of the city.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAN PEDRO DE MACORIS
+
+_San Pedro de Macoris_, about 45 miles east of Santo Domingo City, is
+one of the most modern and flourishing cities of the Republic. In
+1885 it was merely a small fishing village, about that time sugar
+plantations began to be established in the surrounding plains and the
+town commenced to grow. To-day there are pretty houses, the streets
+are clean and in good repair, the plaza has a handsome park and the
+whole city wears a prosperous look. There are busy scenes on the
+modern docks and in the harbor. Around Macoris, as in other parts of
+the Republic, there are large numbers of beautiful graceful cocoanut
+palms and royal palms.
+
+The Province of Macoris is small and contains but one other town
+worthy of mention, namely, _San Jose de los Llanos_, about 15 miles
+northeast of Macoris, founded in the plains in the eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SEIBO
+
+_Santa Cruz del Seibo_, 74 miles northeast of Santo Domingo, was
+originally founded by Juan de Esquivel in 1502, but being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1751, was moved to its present location, to the north
+of its old site. It lies in the center of a region devoted to cacao
+planting and stockraising. The town has a pretty church, and is
+celebrated in Dominican history as having instigated the reconquest
+for Spain in 1808 and as having been the home and bulwark of General
+Pedro Santana, who was idolized by the Seibanos.
+
+_Salvaleon de Higueey_, the easternmost city of the Republic, situated
+31 miles southeast of Seibo, was also founded by Juan de Esquivel in
+the days of Ovando. Its church contains a picture of Our Lady of
+Altagracia, to which miracles are ascribed and which attracts pilgrims
+from all parts of Santo Domingo and Haiti.
+
+Other towns are _Hato Mayor_, 18 miles west of Seibo; _Ramon Santana_,
+formerly called _Guaza_, 19 miles south-west of Seibo; _La Romana_,
+on the coast 25 miles south of Seibo, with rapidly expanding sugar
+estates; and _El Jovero_, a hamlet on the coast near the eastern end
+of Samana Bay.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAMANA
+
+_Santa Barbara de Samana_, 78 miles northeast of the capital of the
+Republic, is built on a cove on the north side of Samana Bay. The
+protected character of the inlet made it a favorite resort for pirates
+in the seventeenth century, and beginning with 1673, French buccaneers
+made several attempts to settle here but were driven out by the
+Spanish authorities. The town was definitely settled in 1756 by
+families from the Canary Islands. In the town and neighborhood live
+many English-speaking negroes, descendants of those who were brought
+from the United States by the Haitian President Boyer about 1825.
+
+A larger town is _Sanchez_ at the western end of Samana Bay,
+twenty-five miles from the town of Samana. In 1886 there was here a
+tiny hamlet, known as _Las Canitas_, but on becoming the terminus of
+the railroad from La Vega, the name of Sanchez, a hero of Dominican
+independence, was given it, and the town rapidly grew in size. Its
+dwellings are scattered over two ridges of land divided by a deep
+valley. On one of the ridges the houses are pretty one-story buildings
+with gardens in front. The beautiful grounds surrounding the house of
+the general manager of the Samana-Santiago Railroad are situated on a
+height overlooking the sparkling expanse of Samana Bay and give a
+suggestion of the possibilities of landscape gardening in Santo
+Domingo. Colored families from St. Thomas and the British West Indies
+and descendants of American negroes make up a considerable proportion
+of the population, so that more English is heard here than Spanish.
+
+On the south side of Samana Bay is the small village of _Sabana de la
+Mar_, commonly known as _Sabana la Mar_, founded by Canary Islanders
+in 1756. There are many stories of pirates' buried gold in
+this region.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PACIFICADOR
+
+_San Francisco de Macoris_, the capital of the province, is about 85
+miles northwest of Santo Domingo City and occupies the site of a fort
+established by Ovando in 1504 and known as the fort of La Magdalena.
+It was founded in 1774 around a chapel dedicated to St. Ann which
+stood on a ranch called San Francisco. Lying in a fertile district
+formerly devoted to tobacco and now one of the chief cacao regions of
+the island, it is a town of considerable business. It is also called
+_Macoris del Norte_, to distinguish it from San Pedro de Macoris,
+which is called Macoris del Este.
+
+_Villa Rivas_, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad, 19 miles from Samana
+bay, was formerly called Almacen, or Storehouse, because here was
+situated, before the railroad was built, a warehouse for the storage
+of merchandise imported and exported by way of Samana and the
+Yuna river.
+
+The other towns, all of recent foundation, are _Matanzas_, a fishing
+village on the edge of a cacao district on the northeast coast, and
+three villages named after heroes of the War of Restoration: _Cabrera_
+on the coast at Tres Amarras point; _Castillo_, 8 miles west of Rivas;
+and _Pimentel_, formerly called _Barbero_, a station on the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad and the center of an important cacao zone.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF LA VEGA
+
+_Concepcion de la Vega_, capital of the province and one of the most
+important cities of the Royal Plain, is 90 miles from Santo Domingo
+City. The old town of Concepcion de la Vega was founded by Columbus in
+1495 at the foot of the eminence known as Santo Cerro and at the place
+of residence of the Indian chief Guarionex. It quickly attained such
+importance that in 1508 it was declared a city and endowed with a coat
+of arms, and in the same year a bishopric was erected there, which
+was, however, in 1527 merged with the bishopric of Santo Domingo. An
+earthquake overthrew its fine buildings in 1564 and the city was
+thereupon relocated at a distance of three miles on the bank of the
+Camu. The site of the old city is now private property and is
+overgrown with tropical vegetation. Moss-grown foundation walls
+protrude from the ground; a mass of brickwork some twenty feet high
+and having the form of a blockhouse chimney remains of the old church;
+and part of the circular tower erected at the corner of the fort of
+Columbus, well provided with loop-holes for muskets, still remains
+standing. In desultory excavations made at different times small
+objects such as ancient spurs, stirrups and coins have been found.
+
+The new city led a languishing existence until it became the interior
+terminus of the Samana-Santiago Railroad which gave it a great
+impetus. It is regularly laid out, the streets are fairly wide and a
+majority of the houses are built of brick. The city has a pretty plaza
+laid out as a garden, a new market building, a theater, and like every
+other town of importance in Santo Domingo, a club. At the entrance to
+the town is a bronze statue of Gregorio Rivas, a progressive merchant
+and philanthropist of this region, who died twenty years ago.
+
+The feature of the city which attracts the traveler's attention
+unfavorably is the neglect of the city streets. During the dry season
+the lack of pavements does not matter but when the rains come the rich
+loam turns to a deep black mud. Along most streets there are narrow
+sidewalks, but where there are none, or where it is necessary to cross
+to the other side, the mode of progress is by hop, skip and jump from
+one dry place to another--the religion of the virtuous pedestrian
+being put to a severe test when after a strenuous jump he lands in a
+muddy place up to his shoe tops. At some crossings thoughtful
+storekeepers lay a plank of salvation for the passer-by. The city is a
+great center for cacao, tobacco and coffee, and several sawmills are
+kept busy cutting up pine logs from the surrounding hills.
+
+_Cotui_, about 31 miles southeast of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Ovando in 1505, being called _Las Minas_ in the early days because of
+the mines of gold, copper and other metals in the neighborhood.
+_Bonao_, about 26 miles south of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Columbus in 1496 to protect the mines in the nearby mountains and was
+the scene of Roldan's revolt against Columbus. Both of these towns
+almost disappeared when the colony declined and are now
+humble villages.
+
+Other villages are _Jarabacoa_, 18 miles southwest of La Vega;
+_Constanza_, 30 miles southwest of La Vega and rarely visited by
+strangers because of its isolation among the mountains, near the
+beautiful valley of Constanza; _Cevicos_, also hidden in the
+mountains, 12 miles southeast of Cotui; and _Santo Cerro_, 3 miles
+north of La Vega, on a hill which commands a magnificent view of the
+Royal Plain.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF ESPAILLAT
+
+_Moca_, also called _Espaillat_, 100 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, is a thriving city. It was the scene of the "Moca massacre" in
+1805, when the Haitian general Christophe, having guaranteed the
+safety of the inhabitants, induced them to return from their hiding
+places in the mountains and assemble in the church to the number of
+five hundred in order to hold a mass of thanksgiving, whereupon they
+were massacred by the Haitian soldiers. In more recent history it has
+been taken and retaken many times during revolutions and in 1899 was
+the scene of the killing of President Heureaux. Its houses are mostly
+one story in height and many are built of brick, while picturesque
+huts of the poor surround the town. Gutters have been constructed in
+the principal streets, but the possibilities of paving have by no
+means been exhausted. The town sustains two churches, one on the
+outskirts, and another with a peculiar square tower, on the plaza. The
+inhabitants take pride in their pretty flower-grown plaza and in the
+elaborate portal of their cemetery.
+
+The other town of the province is _Salcedo_, formerly called _Juana
+Nunez_, 7 miles east of Moca in a rich cacao district.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTIAGO
+
+_Santiago de los Caballeros_, Santiago of the Gentlemen, 115 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo, was founded as a military station on a
+bluff of the Yaque River about 1497 by order of Bartholomew Columbus,
+and settled in 1504 by thirty knights, from which circumstance it
+derives its name. It received many settlers from the old town of
+Isabela, was given a coat of arms in 1508, reached a flourishing
+state, and was destroyed in 1564 by the same earthquake which
+overthrew La Vega. Its inhabitants then removed to the present site,
+about six miles east of the location of the old city, the ruins of
+which are still to be seen. The city was burned three times by the
+French buccaneers during their struggles with the Spanish colonial
+authorities and later by the Haitian general Christophe on the
+occasion of the retreat of the emperor Dessalines in 1805. It had
+again attained importance when it was destroyed by an earthquake in
+1842. Once more it was reduced to ashes in 1863 at the outbreak of the
+War of the Restoration. To-day Santiago is one of the richest and most
+flourishing cities of the island and has aspirations to become the
+capital of the Republic, so that an intense rivalry exists with Santo
+Domingo. The streets are regular and clean and a general repair has
+been commenced. There are important business houses and well-stocked
+bazaars and the market place is one of the busiest in the country.
+
+The plaza in the center of the city has a handsome garden established
+by popular subscription, and gay with flowers and palms. Two churches
+are on the plaza, the larger of which has a beautiful altar. The
+remains of President Heureaux are buried here, his resting place being
+marked by a marble slab with the Dominican coat of arms. The
+government palace fronting on the plaza is a substantial affair with
+walls dating from Haitian times, and the city hall, also fronting on
+the plaza, is a fine structure. In the cemetery there is a street of
+beautiful mausoleums, the architecture of several being Egyptian in
+style and others bearing medallions or recumbent figures of the
+deceased. The volunteer fire corps of Santiago has a special lot and a
+pretty monument.  _San Jose de las Matas_, 24 miles southwest of
+Santiago, is situated on a high plain in the midst of the mountains
+and is surrounded by great pine forests. Its salubrious climate and
+picturesque environments make it a favorite summer resort for wealthy
+families of Santiago, Puerto Plata and Moca, and a health resort for
+persons afflicted with stomach or lung trouble. Nearby are hot and
+cold sulphur springs, the beautiful Inoa waterfall, the picturesque
+confluence of the Amina and Inoa rivers and the high Rubio Peak, which
+commands one of the finest panoramas in the island.
+
+Other towns are _Valverde_, formerly _Mao_, 30 miles northwest of
+Santiago; _Janico_, 14 miles southwest of Santiago, _Esperanza_, 27
+miles northwest of Santiago; and _Canton Pena_, also called
+_Tamboril_, 7 miles east of Santiago and having such close social
+relations with that city as to be regarded as a suburb of the same.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PUERTO PLATA
+
+_Puerto Plata_, 150 miles northwest of Santo Domingo, is the most
+important port of the north of the Republic. Columbus is said to have
+made the plans for the streets of the town; as early as 1499 there
+were settlers here; and in 1502 the city was formally founded by order
+of Ovando. It enjoyed prosperity during the first years of the colony,
+but in 1543 was attacked by pirates and thereafter rapidly went to
+decay. The stringent laws which restricted the commerce of the island
+to certain ports of the mother country encouraged contraband trade and
+the place became the headquarters for smugglers. The government
+endeavored to stop smuggling in 1606 by the brilliant expedient of
+destroying the town and moving all the inhabitants to Monte Plata, far
+in the interior of Santo Domingo province. In 1750 Puerto Plata was
+populated anew and shared with Monte Cristi the advantage of the law
+permitting free trade for ten years. It rapidly grew in population
+until it became the most important commercial point of the Republic,
+and the port of the entire Cibao region, part of which now finds an
+outlet at Sanchez. It was in a flourishing state and had fine houses
+when it was totally destroyed by fire in 1863, during the War of
+Restoration, whether by the Spaniards or the Dominicans remains in
+doubt. Prosperity again followed, many foreigners were attracted by
+its commercial possibilities and to-day it is again one of the most
+thriving towns of Santo Domingo.
+
+The first thing to attract the traveler's notice is the excellent
+condition of the city streets. Though the macadamized streets and the
+sidewalks are narrow, they are clean, well kept and well lighted at
+night. In streets, schools and public squares the city is in advance
+of most of the other cities of the Republic. This is attributed to a
+great extent to the presence of many cultured foreigners as well as to
+the progressive natives. The inhabitants of Puerto Plata boast that
+what Puerto Plata does the rest of the Republic does. They point as an
+example to their plaza. Formerly the plaza of Dominican cities was a
+bare, shadeless tract of ground in the center of the city. Puerto
+Plata was the first to plant trees, lay out a garden and provide its
+plaza with a music stand. This plaza in the center of the town is the
+oldest and prettiest of the city's three public squares and is now
+shaded by large, leafy trees and embellished with beautiful flowers
+and varicolored bushes. On Sunday nights on this plaza and on Thursday
+nights on one of the others, band concerts attract crowds of people,
+young and old, who promenade to the strains of the music. The belles
+of the city are very handsome and owing to the intermarriage of
+natives with foreigners from all parts of the world widely different
+types of beauty are to be observed at such concerts.
+
+On one side of the principal plaza is the church, on another stand
+side by side the theater, the government building, where the
+provincial offices are located, and the city hall, on the first floor
+of which is a well-attended school. The three principal clubs of the
+city are also located in commodious quarters fronting on this plaza.
+One of these clubs counts among its members most of the merchants and
+staid and elderly people, another is the club of the young men and a
+third is the ladies' club. The ladies' club is open only in the
+afternoon and evening, but in the clubs frequented by gentlemen games
+of billiards may be seen going on at almost any hour of the day.
+
+The buildings of the city are all of modern date. Only a few
+foundation walls near the ocean shore, and the old fort, remain from
+former days. The old fort is situated on the point of land partly
+enclosing Puerto Plata harbor and is surrounded on three sides by
+buildings of the present fort. It is a large round whitewashed
+structure having the appearance of a huge cheesebox; its walls are of
+enormous thickness and it is now used as a jail. In former days the
+inhabitants had much difficulty in obtaining drinking water, but
+Puerto Plata was the first city to be provided with a general system
+of water works, having been followed only recently by Santiago. The
+water is brought from a stream a little over a mile away. The ride
+there is a beautiful one but it goes to prove that the movement for
+good thoroughfares has not yet extended to the roads. From all parts
+of Puerto Plata Mt. Isabel de Torres is seen towering behind the city.
+The view obtained from the slopes of the mountain, over miles of
+shoreline and a broad expanse of ocean, is of indescribable grandeur.
+
+The traveler who visits Puerto Plata carries away with him pleasant
+memories of the clean city, its comfortable clubs, its hospitable
+citizens and its beautiful surroundings.
+
+Other towns of the province are _Altamira_, 18 miles southwest of
+Puerto Plata, astride a hill rising in the middle of a valley of the
+coast range of mountains; _Blanco_, on the coast 20 miles northwest of
+Puerto Plata and 10 miles east of the site of Isabela, the first city
+in the new world; and _Bajabonico_, 10 miles southwest of Puerto
+Plata, a village called into being by the building of the Central
+Dominican Railroad.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF MONTE CRISTI
+
+_San Fernando de Monte Cristi_, 196 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital of Monte Cristi province, was founded during the
+government of Ovando by sixty Spanish families, and after giving
+promise of prosperity decayed with the rest of the colony. It was
+supported for a time by a brisk contraband trade which sprang up with
+the Dutch and other nations and to put a stop to which the town was
+destroyed in 1606 like Puerto Plata and the inhabitants transferred to
+Monte Plata, to the south of the central mountain range. In 1750 a
+royal dispensation granted it the right to free trade with all nations
+for a period of ten years and it began to attain prominence as a port,
+but the wars with the Haitians, the War of Restoration with the
+Spaniards and the many civil wars have retarded its progress. Only in
+the last few years has it received a new impetus. The town is built
+about a mile from the shore, with which it is connected by a tiny
+horse car. About thirty houses are connected with a private system of
+waterworks which supplies water from the Yaque river. Situated as it
+is in the arid region of Santo Domingo the city bears much resemblance
+to some of the western towns of the United States.
+
+Other towns are _Guayubin_, 24 miles, _Sabaneta_, 36 miles, and
+_Moncion_, 46 miles southeast of Monte Cristi; and _Dajabon_, 22
+miles, _Restauracion_, 40 miles, and _Copey_, 12 miles southwest of
+Monte Cristi. They are all small villages. Dajabon, founded towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is situated on the east bank of
+the Massacre river, which constitutes the Haitian boundary, and is one
+of the inland ports of entry. Restauracion is peopled largely by
+French speaking negroes from Haiti.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF AZUA
+
+_Azua de Compostela_, about 83 miles west of Santo Domingo City, was
+founded by Diego de Velazquez in 1504 at a point four miles southwest
+of its present location. It was first called Compostela after a
+Galician official who held some property here, but the Indian name of
+the region prevailed. Hernando Cortez, later the conqueror of Mexico,
+settled here and for some five years was the notary of the town. At
+first prosperous, the city soon suffered a serious decline, but was
+beginning to revive when on August 18, 1751, it was entirely destroyed
+by an earthquake. The inhabitants then transferred the town to its
+present location on the western bank of the Via River. The ruins of
+the old city are still visible near the hamlet called Pueblo Viejo,
+Old Town. Azua was destroyed by fire three times in the Haitian wars:
+in 1805, by order of the Haitian emperor Dessalines, in 1844 by
+President Herard, and in 1849 by President Soulouque. To-day it is
+the most important town in the southwestern part of the Republic.
+Situated in an arid region, like Monte Cristi, it is similar to many a
+town in New Mexico and Arizona, with hot, sunny, shadeless streets
+beginning and ending in space, one story houses, a great plain of dark
+green beyond the town and purple mountains in the distance. The houses
+here are of wood or stone and with thatched or zinc roofs. There is a
+large new church, the images in which seem to be very old and do not
+distinguish themselves for beauty. The town is about three miles
+inland from the port, but a branch of a narrow gauge plantation
+railroad connects the city with the wharf and on steamer days a
+passenger car makes several trips. Azua is famous throughout Santo
+Domingo for its excellent "dulce de leche," a kind of milk taffy,
+which is well made elsewhere in the Republic, but is better in Azua as
+it is here prepared from goat's milk.
+
+_San Juan de la Maguana_, 48 miles northwest of Azua, was founded in
+1504 by Diego Velazquez in the beautiful Maguana valley where the
+Indian chief Caonabo had his residence, became almost extinct in 1606,
+but revived in 1764 with the establishment of new cattle ranches in
+the vicinity. During the Haitian wars it was burned repeatedly. Near
+the town is a curious relic of Indian times called Anacaona's circus
+or "el corral de los Indios," consisting of large stones laid in a
+huge circle, and in the center a strange cylindrical stone, carved
+with Indian figures, which is supposed to have served as the throne of
+the Indian queen Anacaona.
+
+_Las Matas de Farfan_, 64 miles northwest of Azua, was established in
+1780 and suffered greatly during the wars with the Haitians. Like the
+other villages of the Maguana valley its chief industry is
+stockraising. _Banica_, 75 miles northwest of Azua, on the Haitian
+frontier, was one of the towns established by Diego Velazquez in 1504.
+Though an important town in the early days it decayed, and in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century was abandoned entirely. During
+Haitian rule it was reestablished, but upon the declaration of
+Dominican independence was again abandoned for fear of Haitian
+vengeance, remaining so until the War of Restoration during which it
+was settled anew.
+
+Other villages are _San Jose de Ocoa_, also known as _Maniel_, 18
+miles northeast of Azua, founded in 1844 in a picturesque region;
+_Tubano_, 34 miles northwest of Azua; _El Cercado_, 12 miles southwest
+of Las Matas de Farfan; and _Comendador_, near the Haitian frontier,
+13 miles west of Las Matas de Farfan, the seat of one of the inland
+custom-houses.
+
+Dominican writers include among the towns pertaining to the Province
+of Azua those situated in that part of the territory of the former
+Spanish colony which is now held by Haiti. The principal towns in this
+territory are _Lares de Guajaba_ or _Hincha_, to-day called _Hinche_,
+which was founded in 1504 and was the birthplace of General Pedro
+Santana; _Las Caobas_, founded about the middle of the eighteenth
+century; _San Miguel de la Atalaya_, to-day called _St. Michel_,
+founded about the same time; and _San Rafael de la Angostura_, called
+_St. Raphael_ by the Haitians.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF BARAHONA
+
+_Barahona_, 126 miles west of Santo Domingo City, became capital of
+the Barahona district when a provincial government was established
+there in 1881. It is a small town, which began to be settled in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century, and suffered greatly during the
+Haitian wars and the revolutions following them. At present its fame
+is its fine coffee.
+
+Other towns are _Enriquillo_, formerly called _Petitru_ (Petit Trou)
+on the coast 22 miles south of Barahona; _Neiba_, 32 miles northwest
+of Barahona, founded a century ago and prevented from developing by
+the damages it sustained first in the Haitian, then in the civil wars;
+and _Duverge_, formerly called _Las Damas_, which commands a fine view
+of Lake Enriquillo with Cabras Island in the distance. In the
+northwest corner of the province is the small collection of huts
+called _Tierra Nueva_, and a few miles beyond, isolated in a wild
+region on the frontier, the inland customhouse of _Las Lajas_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE REMAINS OF COLUMBUS
+
+
+Burial of Columbus.--Disappearance of epitaph.--Removal of remains in
+1795.--Discovery of remains in 1877.--Resting place of Discoverer
+of America.
+
+
+The greatest pride of the Dominican people is that they are the
+custodians of the mortal remains of Christopher Columbus. The same
+honor is claimed by Spain, but a Dominican would consider it almost
+treasonable to doubt the justice of the Dominican claim. It is a
+strange freak of fate that not only should the great navigator have
+been denied in life the rewards promised him, not only should the new
+world he discovered have been given the name of another, but that his
+very tomb is a matter of controversy. It is admitted that after his
+death in Spain his remains were transferred to Santo Domingo City and
+there deposited in the cathedral. In 1795, when the Spanish colony of
+Santo Domingo was ceded to France, the Spaniards carried with them to
+Cuba what they supposed were the remains of Columbus, and these were
+in 1898 taken to Spain, but in the year 1877 another casket was
+brought to light in the Santo Domingo cathedral, with inscriptions
+which indicated that it contained the bones of the great Discoverer.
+
+It was the desire of Columbus to be buried in Santo Domingo, his
+favorite island. In his will, executed shortly before his death, he
+called on his son Diego to found, if possible, a chapel dedicated to
+the Holy Trinity, "and if this can be in the Island of Espanola, I
+should like to have it there where I invoked the Trinity, which is in
+La Vega, named Concepcion." Columbus died on May 20, 1506, in
+Valladolid and his body was deposited in the church of Santa Maria de
+la Antigua in that city. In 1513, or perhaps before, it was
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas
+in Seville, where was also deposited the body of his son Diego, who
+died in 1526. Diego Columbus, in his will of the year 1523, stated
+that he had been unable to carry out his father's wishes, but
+requested his heirs to found in the city of Santo Domingo, inasmuch as
+La Vega was losing population, a nunnery dedicated to St. Clara, the
+sanctuary of which was to be the burial place of the Columbus family.
+His plans were modified in favor of a nobler mausoleum and his widow,
+Maria de Toledo, in the name of her son Louis Columbus, applied to the
+king of Spain for the sanctuary of the cathedral of Santo Domingo as a
+burial place for her husband, his father and his heirs, which grant
+the king made in 1537 and reiterated in 1539. A difference having
+arisen with the bishop of Santo Domingo, who wished to reserve the
+higher platform of the sanctuary for the interment of prelates and
+cede only the lower portion to the Columbus family, the king in 1540
+again reiterated his concession of the whole sanctuary. According to
+the annals of the Carthusian monastery of Seville, the bodies of
+Christopher Columbus and his son were taken away in 1536, and it is
+probable that they were deposited in the cathedral of Santo Domingo in
+1540 or 1541, after the issue of the king's third order and the
+conclusion of the work on the cathedral. Where they were during the
+intervening four or five years and in what year they were brought to
+Santo Domingo, is not known. Las Casas, writing in 1544, states that
+the remains of the Admiral were at that time buried in the sanctuary
+of the cathedral of Santo Domingo. In the year 1572 Louis Columbus,
+the grandson of the Discoverer, died in Oran, in Africa, and his
+remains were taken to the Carthusian monastery in Seville. It is not
+known when they were brought to Santo Domingo, but the transfer
+probably took place in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+The early records of the Santo Domingo cathedral were burnt at the
+time of Drake's invasion in 1586, and those since that year have been
+so damaged by the ravages of tropical insects that little is left of
+them. They make little and only passing reference to the tomb of
+Columbus, and mention no monument or inscription whatever. Juan de
+Castellanos, in his book "Varones Ilustres de Indias," printed in
+1589, recites a Latin epitaph which he says appeared near the place
+where lay the body of Columbus in Seville, but pretty Latin epitaphs
+were Castellanos' weakness, and it is to be feared that this one, like
+others which he dedicated to American explorers, was nothing more than
+a figment of his poetic imagination. Two writers, Coleti and Alcedo,
+who almost two centuries later mentioned the same epitaph as marking
+the grave in Santo Domingo, must have copied from Castellanos.
+
+Undoubtedly there was at first some inscription to mark the tomb, but
+in the course of the years any slabs with inscriptions were permitted
+to disappear entirely from the graves of Columbus, his son and
+grandson, and the very existence of their remains in the cathedral
+became a matter of tradition. It is possible that the epitaphs
+disappeared at some time when the pavement of the church was renewed,
+or when damages inflicted by earthquake shocks were repaired, or when
+changes were made in the windows and doors about the main altar, or
+when the higher altar platform was extended to reach the desks on
+which lie the Gospels and Epistles. At any such times the slabs over
+the burial vaults may have been broken or laid aside and never
+replaced. It is also possible that they were intentionally removed in
+order to guard against profanation of the tombs by enemies in time of
+war or by West Indian pirates, who captured and sacked stronger cities
+than Santo Domingo. In 1655 when an English fleet under Admiral
+William Penn appeared before the city and landed an army under General
+Venables, there was great excitement and fear in Santo Domingo, and
+the archbishop ordered that the sacred ornaments and vessels be hidden
+and that "the sepulchres be covered in order that no irreverence or
+profanation be committed against them by the heretics, and especially
+do I so request with reference to the sepulchre of the old Admiral
+which is on the gospel side of my holy church and sanctuary," That
+other tombs were hidden, whether at this time or another, was shown in
+1879, when, on repairing the flooring in the chapel of the "stone
+bishop" in the cathedral, the slab indicating the grave of the
+Adelantado Rodrigo de Bastidas, the explorer, was found concealed
+under a stone, and it was discovered that the epitaph of Bastidas on a
+board which from time immemorial had hung on the wall of the chapel
+was an incorrect copy of the original graven on the burial slab. From
+the words of the archbishop it appears possible that the sepulchre of
+Columbus was marked in some way in 1655, although even then there may
+have been nothing, since the prelate saw fit to specify the point in
+the church where the tomb was situated.
+
+The first document in which tradition appears invoked for designating
+the burial place is the record of a synod held in 1683, which contains
+the following clause: "this Island having been discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, illustrious and very celebrated throughout the
+world, whose bones repose in a leaden box in the sanctuary next to the
+pedestal of the main altar of this our cathedral, with those of his
+brother Louis Columbus which are on the other side, according to the
+tradition of the old people of this Island." The synod and tradition
+were not strong in Columbus genealogy when they referred to Louis
+Columbus as the brother instead of the grandson of the Discoverer, and
+it is noticeable that no mention is made of the son Diego Columbus. It
+may be remarked, in passing, that the body of Bartholomew Columbus,
+brother of the Admiral, was deposited in the convent of San Francisco
+in Santo Domingo, upon his death in 1514, and while some writers
+suggest it may have been taken to Spain, there is nothing to indicate
+that it was ever given sepulture in the cathedral of Santo Domingo.
+
+After the lapse of another century tradition referred to two
+sepulchres, one of Christopher Columbus, on the right side of the
+altar, the other of his brother or son, on the left side of the altar.
+Moreau de Saint-Mery, a French diplomat and statesman, who lived in
+the French colony of St. Domingue for some years during the decade of
+1780 to 1790, in his book "Description de la partie espagnole de
+l'isle Saint-Domingue" states that, being desirous of obtaining
+accurate information with reference to the tomb of Columbus, he
+addressed himself to Jose Solano, an ex-governor of the colony, then
+in command of a fleet in the insular waters; that this official wrote
+a letter to his successor in the governorship, Isidoro Peralta, and
+that he received the following answer:
+
+"SANTO DOMINGO, March 29, 1783.
+
+"_My very dear friend and patron:_
+
+"I have received the kind letter of Your Excellency of the 13th of this
+month, and did not answer immediately in order to have time to
+ascertain the details it requests relative to Christopher Columbus,
+and also in order to enjoy the satisfaction of serving Your Excellency
+as far as is in my power and to permit Your Excellency to have the
+satisfaction of obliging the friend who has asked for those details.
+
+"With respect to Christopher Columbus, although the insects destroy
+the papers in this country and have converted whole archives into
+lace-work, I hope nevertheless to remit to Your Excellency the proof
+that the bones of Columbus are in a leaden box, enclosed in a stone
+box which is buried in the sanctuary on the side of the gospels and
+that those of Bartholomew Columbus, his brother, repose on the side of
+the epistles in the same manner and under the same precautions. Those
+of Christopher Columbus were transported from Seville, where they had
+been deposited in the pantheon of the dukes of Alcala after having
+been taken there from Valladolid, and where they remained until their
+transport here.
+
+"About two months ago, in working in the church, a piece of thick wall
+was thrown down and immediately reconstructed. This fortuitous event
+was the occasion of finding the box of which I have spoken, and which,
+although without inscriptions, was known, according to a constant and
+invariable tradition, to contain the remains of Columbus. In addition
+I am having a search made to see whether in the church archives or
+those of the government some document can be found which will furnish
+details on this point; and the canons have seen and stated that the
+greater part of the bones were reduced to dust and that bones of the
+forearm had been distinguished.
+
+"I send Your Excellency also a list of all the archbishops which this
+island has had and which is more interesting than that of its
+presidents, for I am assured that the first is complete, while in the
+second there are voids produced by the insects of which I have spoken
+and which attack some papers in preference to others.
+
+"I also refer to the buildings, the temples, the beauty of the ruins
+and the motive which determined the transfer of this city to the west
+bank of the river which constitutes its port. But with reference to
+the plan requested by the note there is a real difficulty, as this is
+forbidden me as governor; the superior understanding of Your
+Excellency will comprehend the reasons, etc."
+
+The documents sent by Governor Peralta were as follows:
+
+"I, Jose Nunez de Caceres, doctor in sacred theology of the pontifical
+and royal University of the Angelical St. Thomas d'Acquino, dignitary
+dean of this holy metropolitan church, primate of the Indies, do
+certify that the sanctuary of this holy cathedral having been torn
+down on January 30 last, for reconstruction, there was found, on the
+side of the platform where the gospels are chanted, and near the door
+where the stairs go up to the capitular room, a stone coffer, hollow,
+of cubical form and about a yard high, enclosing a leaden urn, a
+little damaged, which contained several human bones. Several years
+ago, under the same circumstances and I so certify, there was found on
+the side of the epistles, another similar stone box, and according to
+the tradition handed down by the old men of the country and a chapter
+of the synod of this holy cathedral, that on the side of the gospels
+is reputed to enclose the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus
+and that on the side of the epistles, those of his brother, nor has it
+been possible to verify whether they are those of his brother
+Bartholomew or of Diego Columbus, son of the admiral. In testimony
+whereof I have delivered the present in Santo Domingo, April 20, 1783.
+
+JOSE NUNEZ DE CACERES."
+
+An identical certificate, signed by Manuel Sanchez, was also sent, as
+well as a third which reads as follows:
+
+"I, Pedro de Galvez, schoolmaster, dignitary canon of this cathedral,
+primate of the Indies, do certify that the sanctuary having been
+overthrown in order to be reconstructed there was found on the side of
+the platform where the gospels are chanted, a stone coffer with a
+leaden urn, a little damaged, which contained human bones; and it is
+remembered that there is another of the same kind on the side of the
+epistles; and according to the report of the old men of the country
+and a chapter of the synod of this holy cathedral that on the side of
+the gospels encloses the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+and that on the side of the epistles those of his brother Bartholomew.
+In witness whereof I have delivered the present on April 26, 1783.
+
+PEDRO DE GALVEZ."
+
+The certificates were not carefully drafted, for in speaking of the
+rebuilding of the sanctuary only the interior thereof, probably only
+the platform, was referred to, and from a notarial document of
+December 21, 1795, quoted below, it is evident that by coffer was
+meant a vault and that the word urn was used synonymously with box.
+The papers give eloquent testimony of the uncertainty in which the
+eminent men's remains were involved. Governor Peralta died in 1786 and
+was interred under the altar platform near the supposed remains of
+Columbus. In 1787, when Moreau de St. Mery endeavored to find the
+official record of the find of 1783, it had already disappeared.
+
+In 1795 Spain ceded to France the entire Spanish part of Santo
+Domingo, and in evacuating the island the Spanish authorities
+determined to carry with them the remains of the great Discoverer. It
+is to be assumed that there were still persons connected with the
+cathedral who could point out the location of the vault accidentally
+discovered twelve years before and that as tradition referred to only
+one vault on that side of the altar, the remains contained therein
+were extracted without further investigation. The description of the
+vault opened tallies with that of the vault found in 1783. The
+document attesting the embarking of these remains reads as
+follows: "I, the undersigned clerk of the King, our Lord, in charge of
+the office of the chamber of this Royal Audiencia, do certify that on
+the twentieth day of December of the current year, there being in this
+holy cathedral the Commissioner Gregorio Savinon, perpetual member and
+dean of the very illustrious municipal council of this city, and in
+the presence of the most illustrious and reverend friar Fernando
+Portillo y Torres, most worthy Archbishop of this metropolitan see; of
+His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, Lieutenant-General of the royal
+navy of His Majesty; of Antonio Cansi, Brigadier in charge of the fort
+of this city; of Antonio Barba, Field-marshal and Commander of
+Engineers; of Ignacio de la Rocha, Lieutenant-colonel and
+Sergeant-major of this city, and of other persons of rank and
+distinction, a vault was opened which is in the sanctuary on the side
+of the gospel (between) the main wall and the pedestal of the main
+altar, which is one cubic yard in size, and in the same there were
+found several plates of lead, about one tercio in length, indicating
+that there had been a box of the said metal, and pieces of bone as of
+the tibia or other parts of some deceased person, and they were
+collected in a salver that was filled with the earth, which by the
+fragments of small bone it contained and its color could be seen to
+belong to that dead body; and everything was placed in an ark of
+gilded lead with iron lock, which being closed its key was delivered
+to the said illustrious Archbishop, and which box is about half a yard
+long and wide and in height something more than a quarter of a yard,
+whereupon it was transferred to a small coffin lined with black
+velvet, and adorned with gold trimmings, and was placed on a decent
+catafalque.
+
+"On the following day with the presence of the same illustrious
+Archbishop, His Excellency Aristizabal, the communities of Dominicans,
+Franciscans and Mercenarians, military and naval officers, and a
+concourse of distinguished persons, and people of the lower classes,
+mass was solemnly said and fasting enjoined, whereupon the same
+illustrious Archbishop preached.
+
+"On this day, about half past four o'clock in the afternoon there
+came to the holy cathedral the gentlemen of the Royal Order, to wit,
+Joaquin Garcia, Fieldmarshal, President-Governor and Captain-General
+of this Island of Espanola; Jose Antonio de Vrisar, knight of the
+royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, Minister of the
+royal and supreme council of the Indies and at present Regent of the
+Royal Audiencia; Justices Pedro Catani, dean; Manuel Bravo, likewise
+knight of the royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, and
+with honors and seniority in the Royal Audiencia of Mexico; Melchor
+Joseph de Foncerrada and Andres Alvarez Calderon, state's attorney;
+there being in the cathedral the most illustrious and reverend
+Archbishop, His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, the municipal
+council and religious communities, and a complete picket with draped
+banner, and taking the wooden box covered with plush and gold
+trimmings, in the interior of which was the box of gilded lead, which
+contained the remains exhumed on the preceding day, the President
+Joaquin Garcia, the Regent Joseph Antonio de Vrisar and the Justices,
+Dean Pedro Catani and Manuel Bravo conducted it to a little before the
+exit through the door of the said holy church, where the President and
+Regent separated, passed to their respective places and were
+substituted by Justice Foncerrada and Calderon, state's attorney, and
+upon leaving the church it was saluted by the said picket with a
+discharge of musketry, and there followed the Fieldmarshal and
+Commander of Engineers Antonio Barba, the Brigadier and Commander of
+militia Joaquin Cabrera, the Brigadier and Commander of the fort
+Antonio Cansi, and the colonel of the regiment 'Cantabria,' Gaspar de
+Casasola, and thereafter the military officers alternated according to
+their grade and seniority until reaching the city gate which leads to
+the harbor, where their places were taken by the members of the very
+illustrious municipal council of this city, dean Gregorio Savinon,
+Miguel Martinez Santalices, Francisco de Tapia and Francisco de
+Arredondo, judge of the rural court, and upon emerging from the gate
+it was placed upon a table prepared therefor; a response was chanted
+and during the same the forts saluted it with fifteen minute guns, as
+for an admiral, and one after another took the key of the ark and
+through the said illustrious Archbishop placed it in the hands of His
+Excellency Aristizabal, stating that they delivered the ark into his
+possession subject to the orders of the Governor of Havana as a
+deposit until His Majesty should determine what may be his royal
+pleasure, to which His Excellency acceded, accepting the ark in the
+manner stated and transferring it aboard the brigantine 'Descubridor,'
+which, with the other war-vessels waiting with insignia of mourning,
+also saluted it with fifteen guns, whereupon this certificate was
+concluded and signed by the parties.
+
+"Santo Domingo, December 21, 1795. Joaquin Garcia. Friar Fernando,
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo. Gabriel de Aristizabal. Gregorio Savinon.
+Jose Francisco Hidalgo."
+
+The brief account of the remains when everything else was related with
+such detail leads to the logical conclusion that there was no epitaph
+on the vault and no inscription on the leaden plates found within. The
+Spanish judicial chronicler's habit of minute description would not
+have permitted the omission of such important particulars, if they
+had existed.
+
+The remains were transferred to Havana where their reception was even
+more solemn than their embarkation in Santo Domingo. On January 19,
+1796, they were landed amid the booming of guns, conducted in state by
+the civil and military authorities and a large concourse to the plaza,
+and deposited on a magnificent bier in the shadow of the column
+erected where, according to tradition, the first mass was said in
+Havana and the first municipal council met. Here the ark was formally
+delivered to the Governor of Havana, who had it opened and its
+contents inspected, whereupon it was again closed and transferred with
+great pomp to the cathedral. The key was there delivered to the bishop
+and the remains deposited in a sepulchre with suitable bas-reliefs
+and inscriptions. The notarial narrative of the event goes into the
+most minute particulars, but the contents of the ark are merely
+described as "several leaden plates nearly a tercio in length, several
+small pieces of bone as of some deceased person, and some earth which
+seemed to be of that body."
+
+For over eighty years it was generally accepted in Santo Domingo, as
+throughout the world, that the bones of Columbus rested in the
+cathedral of Havana. There were, indeed, persons who handed down a
+tradition that the remains taken away by the Spaniards were not those
+of the great navigator and that these still remained under the altar
+platform in the Santo Domingo cathedral, but such persons were very
+few and no attention was paid to their allegations. Some Dominicans
+even called on the Spanish government to return the remains and let
+them be laid to rest in Dominican soil in accordance with the
+Discoverer's dying wish. In the meantime no one thought of the tombs
+of Diego Columbus or Louis Columbus, nor was it remembered that they
+were buried in the cathedral.
+
+In the year 1877 extensive repairs were undertaken in the cathedral of
+Santo Domingo. The worn brick flooring was to be replaced with marble
+squares, the old choir was to be torn down and a choir established
+elsewhere in the church, and the altar platform was to be extended
+into the church proper and reduced in height. Shortly after the work
+had begun, a heavy bronze image kept in the vestry--which adjoined the
+sanctuary on the side opposite that where the remains were exhumed in
+1795--was, on May 14, 1877, placed in a doorway long closed leading to
+the sanctuary. In doing so it was noticed that a hollow sound came
+from the wall adjoining and in order to ascertain the cause a small
+opening was made in the wall about a yard above the floor. It was then
+seen that there was a small vault under the altar platform of the
+church, and that the vault contained a metal box with human remains.
+Canon Billini, in charge of the cathedral, immediately ordered that
+the opening be closed until the return of the bishop from a pastoral
+visit to the Cibao. The hole was hidden behind a curtain and no
+immediate attention given to it. Towards the end of June Mr. Carlos
+Nouel, a friend of Canon Billini, obtained permission to look in at
+the box and deciphered a rude inscription reading, "El Almirante D.
+Luis Colon, Duque de Veragua, Marques de--" "The Admiral Don Louis
+Columbus, Duke of Veragua, Marquis of--." The last word was missing
+because of a hole in the corroded leaden plate, but was supposed to be
+"Jamaica." At this time the box was broken, because several days
+before in placing a scaffold in the church one of the posts had been
+located over the box and had broken through. The persons who
+afterwards sought to draw out the box pulled to overcome the obstacle
+and tore the weak plates apart entirely.
+
+The bishop returned on August 18, 1877, and being informed of what had
+happened, on September 1 invited the Cabinet officers, the consular
+corps and a number of civil and military authorities and private
+persons to witness the removal of the remains of Louis Columbus. To
+the chagrin of the bishop and canon, it was found that the plate with
+the inscription had been stolen. Probably shamed by ever increasing
+popular indignation, the grave-robber anonymously returned it on
+December 14, 1879, by leaving it in the cathedral door in a package
+addressed to the archbishop. The other plates with the earth and
+pieces of bone were carefully collected.
+
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY OF CATHEDRAL IN SEPTEMBER, 1877
+(Scale; 1 centimeter = 1 meter)
+
+1.  Vault containing remains of Christopher Colombus.
+2.  Vault opened by Spaniards in 1795.
+3.  Vault containing remains of Louis Columbus.
+4.  Pedestal of main altar.
+5.  Door leading to vestry.
+6.  Door leading to capitular room.
+7.  Location of containing wall of old altar platform, as it existed
+    in 1540.
+8.  Location of stairs which in 1540 led up to altar platform.
+9.  Tribune of the Gospels.
+10. Tribune of the Epistles.
+11. Steps of altar platform.
+12. Grave of Juan Sanchez Ramirez. Isidore Peralta had also been
+    buried at this spot.]
+
+
+The unexpected finding of the long forgotten remains of the grandson
+of the Admiral recalled the tradition that the Discoverer's body still
+remained in Santo Domingo, and several gentlemen, among them the
+Italian consul, requested the bishop to take advantage of the
+repairing of the church for a thorough investigation of the altar
+platform in order to ascertain whether it contained any other notable
+graves. The bishop gave his consent, and the investigation commenced
+on September 8, under the direction of Canon Billini. Digging was
+begun near the door of the capitular room and in a short time an
+unmarked grave was found containing human remains and military
+insignia. It was proven by witnesses that they were the remains of
+Juan Sanchez Ramirez, Captain-General of Santo Domingo, who died on
+February 12, 1811, and was buried in the same place where had been the
+grave of General Isidore Peralta. A narrow wall was then encountered
+which was afterwards found to be the containing wall of the ancient
+altar platform. On the ninth, a Sunday, the work went on during the
+morning with the permission of the bishop. An excavation was made at
+the place where, according to tradition, the remains taken to Havana
+had lain and soon a small vault was discovered quite empty. It was
+evidently the vault opened by the Spaniards in 1795. The examination
+was continued between this vault and the main altar, but nothing new
+was encountered, whereupon the work was left to be resumed on the
+following day, rather with the hope of finding something of Diego
+Columbus, for the empty vault seemed to show that the remains of
+Christopher Columbus were really removed in 1795.
+
+The excavations continued on September 10, 1877, between the empty
+vault and the wall. A large stone was found, and a piece broken off,
+disclosing another vault containing what appeared to be a square box.
+The bishop and the Italian consul were sent for immediately and upon
+their arrival the orifice was slightly enlarged and a metal box became
+clearly visible. It was covered with the dust of centuries, but an
+inscription was seen, in which abbreviations of the words "First
+Admiral" could faintly be distinguished. The work was stopped at once,
+the doors of the cathedral were locked and all the principal persons
+of the city invited to attend the further investigation of the vault's
+contents. The report of the find rapidly spread through the city,
+though distorted in some quarters, for one of the workmen hearing the
+bishop's joyful exclamation, "Oh, what a treasure!" conceived the idea
+that the box was full of gold pieces and so informed the people that
+gathered outside.
+
+The formal opening of the vault on the afternoon of that day and the
+examination of its contents are minutely described in the notarial
+document drawn up on the occasion:
+
+"In the City of Santo Domingo on the tenth of September of the year
+eighteen hundred and seventy-seven. At four o'clock in the afternoon
+upon invitation of the most illustrious and reverend Doctor Friar
+Roque Cocchia, Bishop of Orope, Vicar and Apostolic Delegate of the
+Holy See in the Republics of Santo Domingo, Venezuela and Haiti,
+assisted by presbyter Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, secretary of the
+bishopric, by the honorary penitentiary canon, presbyter Francisco
+Javier Billini, rector and founder of the College of San Luis Gonzaga
+and of the charity asylum, apostolic missionary and acting curate of
+the holy cathedral, and by presbyter Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate
+of the same, there met in the holy cathedral General Marcos A. Cabral,
+Minister of the Interior and Police; Licentiate Felipe Davila
+Fernandez de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations; Joaquin Montolio,
+Minister of Justice and Public Instruction; General Manuel A. Caceres,
+Minister of Finance and Commerce; and General Valentin Ramirez Baez,
+Minister of War and the Navy; and the citizens General Braulio
+Alvarez, Civil and Military Governor of the Province of the Capital,
+assisted by his secretary Pedro Maria Gautier; the honorable members
+of the illustrious municipal council of this capital, citizen Juan de
+la C. Alfonseca, president, and citizens Felix Baez, Juan Bautista
+Paradas, Pedro Mota, Manuel Maria Cabral and Jose Maria Bonetti,
+members; General Francisco Ungria Chala, military commandant of this
+city; citizens Felix Mariano Lluveres, president of the legislative
+chamber and Francisco Javier Machado, deputy to the same chamber; the
+members of the consular corps accredited to the Republic, Messrs.
+Miguel Pou, Consul of H.M. the Emperor of Germany, Luis Cambiaso,
+Consul of H.M. the King of Italy, Jose Manuel Echeverri, Consul of H.
+Catholic M. the King of Spain, Aubin Defougerais, Consul of the French
+Republic, Paul Jones, Consul of the United States of North America,
+Jose Martin Leyba, Consul of H.M. the King of the Netherlands, and
+David Coen, Consul of H.M. the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain; the citizens licentiates in medicine and surgery Marcos
+Antonio Gomez and Jose de Jesus Brenes; the civil engineer Jesus Maria
+Castillo, director of the work in this cathedral; the chief sexton of
+the same, Jesus Maria Troncoso, and the undersigned notaries public,
+Pedro Nolasco Polanco, Mariano Montolio and Leonardo Delmonte i
+Aponte, the first also being the acting notary of the curacy and the
+second the titular notary of the municipal council of this capital.
+
+"The most illustrious Bishop, in the presence of the gentlemen above
+designated and of a numerous concourse, declares: that the holy
+cathedral being undergoing repairs under the direction of the reverend
+Canon Francisco Javier Billini, and it having come to his notice that
+according to tradition and notwithstanding what appears from public
+documents with reference to the transfer of the remains of the Admiral
+Christopher Columbus to the city of Havana in the year seventeen
+hundred and ninety-five the said remains might still be in the place
+where they had been deposited and as such place the right side of the
+sanctuary was designated, under the spot occupied by the archbishop's
+chair; with the desire of clearing up the matters which tradition had
+carried to him, he authorized the reverend Canon Billini, upon his
+request, to make the necessary explorations; and as the latter was
+doing so with two workmen on the morning of this day, he discovered at
+a depth of two palms, more or less, the beginning of a vault which
+permitted part of a metal box to be seen; that immediately the said
+Canon Billini ordered the chief sexton, Jesus Maria Troncoso, to go to
+the archiepiscopal palace and inform His Grace of the result of the
+investigations, also informing the Minister of the Interior,
+requesting their presence without loss of time; that immediately His
+Grace proceeded to the holy cathedral where he found Jesus Maria
+Castillo, civil engineer, in charge of the repairs to this temple and
+two workmen who, in company with Canon Billini, guarded the small
+excavation which had been made, and at the same time Luis Cambiaso
+arrived, called by the said Canon Billini; that having personally made
+certain of the existence of the vault as well as that it contained the
+box to which Canon Billini made reference and an inscription being
+discovered on the upper part of what appeared to be the lid, he
+ordered that things be left as they were and that the doors of the
+temple be closed, the keys being confided to the reverend Canon
+Billini; proposing to invite, as he did invite, His Excellency the
+great citizen, President of the Republic, General Buenaventura Baez,
+his Cabinet, the consular corps and the other civil and military
+authorities named in the beginning of this certificate, in order to
+proceed with all due solemnity to the extraction of the box and give
+all required authenticity to the result of the investigation; and
+having advised the authorities, by their order municipal policemen
+were stationed at each one of the closed doors of the temple.
+
+"His Grace, stationed in the sanctuary, near the started excavation
+and surrounded by the authorities above mentioned and a very numerous
+concourse, all the doors of the temple having been opened, had the
+excavation continued, and a slab was removed, permitting the raising
+of the box, which was taken and shown by His Grace and found to be of
+lead. The said box was exhibited to all the authorities convoked, and
+thereupon was carried in procession through the interior of the temple
+and shown to the people.
+
+"The pulpit of the left nave of the temple being occupied by His
+Grace, by the reverend Canon Billini, who carried the box, the
+Minister of the Interior, the president of the municipal council and
+two of the notaries public who sign this document: His Grace opened
+the box and exhibited to the people a part of the remains it encloses;
+he also read the several inscriptions on the box, which prove beyond
+controversy that the remains are really and in fact those of the
+illustrious Genovese, the great Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+Discoverer of America. The truth of the matter being irrefutably
+ascertained, a salute of twenty-one guns, fired by the artillery of
+the fort, a general ringing of bells and strains of music from the
+military band, announced the happy and memorable event to the city.
+
+"Immediately the authorities convoked met in the vestry of the temple
+and proceeded in the presence of the undersigned notaries public, who
+certify thereto, to an examination and expert investigation of the box
+and its contents; the result of the examination being that the said
+box is of lead, has hinges and measures forty-two centimeters in
+length, twenty-one centimeters in depth and twenty and a half in
+width; containing the following inscriptions: on the upper side of the
+lid 'D. de la A, Per. Ate.'--On the left headboard 'C.' On the front
+side 'C'--On the right headboard 'A.' On raising the lid the following
+inscription was found on the inner side of the same carved in German
+Gothic characters: 'Illtre. y Esdo. Varon Dn. Cristobal Colon,' and in
+the said box human remains which on examination by the licentiate of
+equal class Jose de Jesus Brenes are found to be: A femur deteriorated
+in the upper part of the neck, between the great trochanter and its
+head. A fibula in its natural state. A radius also complete. The os
+sacrum in bad condition. The coccyx. Two lumbar vertabrae. One
+cervical and two dorsal vertabrae. Two calcanea. One bone of the
+metacarpus. Another of the metatarsus. A fragment of the frontal or
+coronal bone, containing half of an orbital cavity. A middle third of
+the tibia. Two more fragments of tibia. Two astragoli. One upper
+portion of shoulder-blade. One fragment of the lower jawbone. One half
+of an os humeri, the whole constituting thirteen small and
+twenty-eight large fragments, there being others reduced to dust.
+
+"In addition a leaden ball weighing about an ounce, more or less, was
+found and two small screws belonging to the box.
+
+"The examination mentioned having been terminated, the ecclesiastical
+and civil authorities and the illustrious municipal council resolved
+to close and seal the box with their respective seals and deposit it
+in the sanctuary of the church of Regina Angelorum, under the
+responsibility of the aforesaid penitentiary canon Francisco Javier
+Billini, until otherwise determined; His Grace, the Ministers, the
+consuls and the undersigned notaries immediately proceeding to affix
+their seals; and finally they determined to transfer the box in
+triumph to the said church of Regina Angelorum, accompanied by the
+veteran troops of the capital, batteries of artillery, music, and
+whatever else might give impressiveness and splendor to so solemn an
+act, for which the town was prepared as was noted from the great
+multitude which filled the temple and the cathedral plaza, to which we
+certify, as we do also that the present was signed by the gentlemen
+above named and other distinguished persons.
+
+"Friar Roque Cocchia, of the Order of Capuchins, Bishop of Orope,
+Apostolic Delegate to Santo Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela, Apostolic
+Vicar in Santo Domingo--Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, Capuchin, Secretary
+of His Excellency the Apostolic Delegate and Vicar--Francisco X.
+Billini--Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate of the cathedral--Marcos A.
+Cabral, Minister of the Interior and Police--Felipe Davila Fernandez
+de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations--Joaquin Montolio, Minister
+of Justice and Public Instruction--M. A. Caceres, Minister of Finance
+and Commerce--Valentin Ramirez Baez, Minister of War and the
+Navy--Braulio Alvarez, Governor of the Province--Pedro Ma. Gautier,
+Secretary--Juan de la C. Alfonseca, President of the Municipal
+council--Members, Felix Baez--Juan Bautista Paradas--Manuel Ma. Cabral
+B.--P. Mota--Jose M. Bonetti--Francisco Ungria Chala, Commandant of
+Arms--Felix Mariano Lluveres, President of the Legislative
+Chamber--Francisco Javier Machado, Deputy of the Legislative
+Chamber--The Consul of Spain, Jose Manuel Echeverri--Luigi Cambiaso,
+R. Consul of H. M. the King of Italy--Miguel Pou, Consul of the German
+Empire--Paul Jones, United States Consul--D. Coen, British
+Vice-Consul--J. M. Leyba, Consul of the Netherlands--A. Aubin
+Defougerais, Vice-Consul of France--Jesus Ma. Castillo, Civil
+Engineer--M. A. Gomez, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--J. J.
+Brenes, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--The chief sexton, Jesus
+Ma. Troncoso--A. Licairac--M. M. Santamaria--Domingo Rodriguez--Manuel
+de Jesus Garcia--Enrique Peinado--Federico Polanco--Lugardis Olivo--P.
+Mr. Consuegra--Eujenio de Marchena--Valentin Ramirez, Jr.--F.
+Perdomo--Joaquin Ramirez Morales--Amable Damiron--Jaime Ratto--Pedro
+N. Polanco, Notary Public--Leonardo Delmonte I Aponte, Notary
+Public--Mariano Montolio, Notary Public."
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on lid of lead box. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on inner side of lid. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+The vault so opened was a little larger than that opened in 1795, and
+separated therefrom by a six-inch wall. The leaden box was of rude
+construction, dented and much oxydized, the plates being a little
+thicker than those of the casket of Louis Columbus. The inscription on
+the outside of the lid "D. de la A. Per, Ate." was taken to mean
+"Descubridor de la America, Primer Almirante"--"Discoverer of America,
+First Admiral." The inscription on the inner side of the lid, without
+contractions, was: "Ilustre y Esclarecido Varon Don Cristobal
+Colon"--"Illustrious and noble man, Christopher Columbus." The letters
+"C C A" were interpreted as signifying "Cristobal Colon,
+Almirante"--"Christopher Columbus, Admiral." On January 3, 1878, a
+more minute examination of the remains was made at the request of the
+Spanish Academy of History and in the dust at the bottom of the box
+was found a small silver plate with two holes by which it had
+evidently been screwed with the two screws found at the first
+examination to some wooden board or receptacle. All vestige of wood
+had disappeared, either through decay or perhaps through destruction
+by insects, for on the walls of the vault are faint traces of ancient
+tracks made by the comejen or wood-eating ant. On one side of the
+plate was engraved in rude letters: "Ua. pte. de los rtos. del pmer.
+Alte. D. Cristoval Colon Des.," which is read as meaning "Ultima parte
+de los restos del primer Almirante, Don Cristoval Colon,
+Descubridor"--"Last part of the remains of the first Admiral, Don
+Christopher Columbus, Discoverer." On the reverse side are the words
+"Cristoval Colon" and several letters which indicate that the
+inscription "Ua. pte." etc., was begun here but was stopped, perhaps
+because there was not sufficient room.
+
+[Illustration: Obverse side of silver plate (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse side of silver plate. (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+The small lead ball, similar to a musket-ball, found in the box, has
+been the subject of much comment. It is not known that Columbus was
+ever wounded, though it is true that of many years of his life we
+have little information. Some writers make deductions from an
+equivocal sentence contained in a letter written by him to the rulers
+of Spain on his fourth voyage, in which he refers to his difficulties
+off the coast of Central America and says: "There the wound of my
+trouble opened." Others refer to an obscure sentence of Las Casas, but
+others believe that the ball was dropped in the box by accident,
+either when the box was prepared for the vault or at some time when in
+the course of the centuries the vault may have been casually opened as
+was the adjoining vault in 1783. At what time the remains were
+enclosed in this box and the inscriptions placed on the same it is
+impossible to determine; it may have been in Seville, or in the early
+days in Santo Domingo, or at a later date, perhaps when the epitaphs
+were removed from the vault.
+
+The remainder of the old altar platform was carefully examined but no
+other vaults or remains were discovered. With reference to the bones
+"of a deceased person" transferred in 1795 a logical conclusion can be
+reached: Christopher Columbus, his son Diego, and his grandson Louis
+were all buried in the Santo Domingo cathedral; the caskets, with
+inscriptions, of the first and third were found in 1877 and there are
+no other vaults under the old altar platform; therefore the remains
+taken away in 1795 with pieces of a casket without inscription, or the
+inscription of which had become illegible, were most probably those of
+Diego Columbus.
+
+Santo Domingo went wild with joy over the discovery. It was determined
+to erect a suitable monument for the remains with funds raised by
+private subscription and by a half per cent, surtax on imports. A
+beautiful marble memorial costing $40,000, guarded by bronze lions and
+adorned with bronze relief work depicting scenes from the life of
+Columbus, was designed by two Spanish sculptors. The first intention
+was to place the same in a mausoleum specially built for the purpose,
+but it was finally erected in the nave of the cathedral near the main
+door. A richly ornamented bronze box placed in the monument contains
+the leaden casket and the remains. Once a year on the anniversary of
+the find, the box is opened and the public permitted to gaze on
+its contents.
+
+The Spanish authorities would never admit the authenticity of the
+remains found in 1877, and the Spanish consul in Santo Domingo was
+bitterly criticized for affixing his signature to the notarial
+document relating the discovery. The Spaniards continue to claim that
+the true remains of the Discoverer are those which were transferred to
+Havana. Upon the evacuation of Cuba by Spain in 1898 these remains
+were solemnly removed and taken to Spain, where they now rest in the
+cathedral of Seville. Many investigations have been made from
+different sources and the majority of investigators report in favor of
+the Dominican contention, especially when they have personally visited
+Santo Domingo. The Spanish writers present no proof that the remains
+taken to Havana in 1795 were those of Christopher Columbus, but limit
+themselves to attacking the find of 1877. The insinuations and
+accusations, without corroborating facts, prove nothing but the temper
+of their authors. All criticisms have been refuted by showing that
+even supposing the box to date from the year 1540, other and
+indubitable inscriptions of that year have the same style of letters,
+abbreviations, spelling and words as those criticized. Further the
+appearance of the box and vault of 1877, the circumstances attending
+their discovery, and the irreproachable character of the Apostolic
+Delegate, of Canon Billini and of others connected with that event
+preclude all suspicion of fraud.
+
+On the whole, the weight of evidence is strongly in favor of the
+Dominican contention. It seems that, in spite of the acts of men, fate
+has permitted the remains of the Discoverer of America to repose in
+the principal cathedral of the island he loved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+GOVERNMENT
+
+
+Form of government.--Constitutions.--Presidents.--Election.--Powers.
+--Executive secretaries.--Land and sea forces.--Congress.--Local
+subdivisions.--Provincial governors.--Communal governments.
+
+
+From the date of the declaration of independence, February 27, 1844,
+down to the present time, with the exception only of a portion of the
+period of Spanish occupation of 1861 to 1865, Santo Domingo has
+remained in form at least, a republic. Herein it contrasts with its
+neighbor Haiti, which has experienced several monarchies. Thus
+Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor in 1804, Christophe assumed the
+title of king in 1810 and Soulouque had himself declared emperor in
+1849; and the latter two instituted pompous black nobilities. And
+though the Cibao of Santo Domingo and the region south of the Central
+Cordillera have ever been rivals and often in arms against each other
+under competing generals, there has never been any tendency to
+separate and form two states--as occurred in Haiti in 1806 when the
+northern portion fell under the sway of Christophe for a period of
+fourteen years, first as a nominal republic and later as a kingdom,
+while the southern portion became a republic under Petion and finally
+under Boyer.
+
+But although the country has in form remained a republic and the title
+of the chief of state has never been more pretentious than president
+or protector, in fact there have been few years when the government
+was not autocratic and the president an absolute monarch whose powers
+were limited only by his own generous impulses or the fear of
+alienating his more influential supporters. Dominican writers have
+even referred to the constitution as a conventional lie.
+
+The various Dominican presidents, as soon as securely in power, have
+generally been careful to follow constitutional forms, in an effort to
+deceive their followers and themselves into the belief that they were
+acting in regular course as servants of the people. The successful
+revolutionist was almost, always in haste to "legalize" his position
+by an election. Most of the presidents, among them Heureaux, have been
+great sticklers for form. Instead of moulding their wishes to conform
+to the constitution, however, they would mould the constitution to
+conform to their wishes, and repeatedly the first act of the
+successful revolutionist has been to promulgate a new constitution in
+accordance with his ideas. It has thus come to pass that the
+constitution, far from being revered as the immutable foundation of
+government, has rather been regarded as the convenient means for the
+president in office to exercise power. From 1844 to the present time
+nineteen constitutions have been promulgated in Santo Domingo, one in
+the year 1844, one each in 1858, 1859 and 1865, two in 1866 and one
+each in 1868, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1896, 1907
+and 1908.
+
+This extraordinary number is due in part to the practice of not
+enacting amendments to an existing constitution, but of promulgating
+the amended instrument as a new constitution. On three of the
+occasions here indicated a constitution was abrogated in order to
+revive a prior one. No account is taken in the above computation of
+the instances where a successful revolutionist in order to announce
+his adherence to the then existing constitution promulgated the same
+anew. Thus the constitution of 1896 was reestablished in 1903.
+
+The Dominican constitutions have all been modeled on the general lines
+of that of the United States, and have differed from each other only
+in detail. The term of office of the president has varied from one to
+six years and the powers conferred upon him have been more or less
+ample. The constitution of 1854, revived in 1859, 1866 and 1868,
+practically invested him with dictatorial powers, and the only
+legislative assembly it provided for was an "Advisory Senate" of
+nine members.
+
+The present constitution was drafted by a constitutional assembly
+which sat in Santiago de los Caballeros in the early part of 1908. It
+is disappointing both as a literary and political document. The style
+bears witness to the haste with which the instrument was compiled.
+Provisions quite unsuitable to Dominican conditions are included, such
+as that granting the right to vote to all male citizens over eighteen
+years of age. Such an extension of the suffrage would be looked upon
+askance even in countries where education is general, and in Santo
+Domingo would constitute a serious danger if really put into effect.
+While the presidential succession is left to be regulated by a law of
+Congress, the constitution goes into minute details regarding
+citizenship, naturalization and several other matters. Repeated
+attempts have been made to secure a new constitution and in 1914
+partial elections were held for a constitutional convention, but for
+one reason or another the plan has not matured. A new constitution
+will probably be provided in connection with the cessation of American
+occupation.
+
+According to the present constitution the president must be a native
+born Dominican, at least thirty-five years of age and with a
+residence of at least twenty years in the Republic. His term of office
+is fixed at six years, to be counted from the day of inauguration. The
+fact that no specific date is mentioned has repeatedly proved a matter
+of convenience to successful revolutionists. The designation of a
+presidential term of office in the various constitutions has thus far
+been something of an irony, for of the 43 executives who have come to
+the fore in the 70 years of national life, but three presidents have
+completed terms of office for which they were elected: Baez one term,
+Merino one and Heureaux four, nor was the distinction of these three
+due to ought but their success in suppressing revolutionary movements.
+Five vice-presidents completed presidential terms. Two presidents were
+killed and twenty deposed. The other chief magistrates resigned more
+or less voluntarily.
+
+Of the 43 presidents 15 were chosen by popular election according to
+constitutional forms, 5 were vice-presidents who succeeded to the
+presidency, 4 were provisional presidents elected by Congress, 10
+began as military presidents and then had themselves elected under
+constitutional forms, and 9 were purely and simply military
+provisional presidents.
+
+A comparison of the list of presidents with the roster of executives
+of Haiti reveals a disproportion, for though the black Republic has
+been in existence since 1804, it has had but twenty-nine chiefs of
+state, the average duration of whose rule was therefore much longer
+than has been the case in Santo Domingo. It is to be observed,
+however, that of the Haitian executives only one completed his term of
+office and voluntarily retired; of the others, four remained in power
+until their death from natural causes, eighteen were deposed by
+revolutions, one of them, committing suicide, another being executed
+on the steps of his burning palace, and still another being cut to
+pieces by the mob; five were assassinated; and one is chief magistrate
+at the present time.
+
+The president and members of the Senate and House of Deputies are
+elected by indirect vote. Electors whose number and apportionment
+among the several provinces and their subdivisions are prescribed by
+law, are chosen by general suffrage in what are called primary
+assemblies in the several municipalities and constitute electoral
+colleges which meet at the chief town of the respective province. The
+electors having cast their votes for president the minutes of the
+session are sent to the capital. The votes are counted in joint
+session of Congress and the successful candidate is proclaimed by
+that body.
+
+Though the election procedure designated in the constitution was
+gravely followed, yet not once in the history of the country has the
+result of an election been in doubt, nor is there an instance when the
+candidate of the government was not elected, excepting only the
+election of October, 1914, when the American government brought
+watchers from Porto Rico to avoid gross frauds and coercion. Usually
+everything was prepared beforehand and the primaries and the meetings
+of the electoral colleges were little more than ratification meetings.
+The votes of the electoral colleges were generally unanimous in favor
+of the government's candidate, yet the odd spectacle has repeatedly
+presented itself, of a unanimously elected president being driven out
+of the country within a few months by a general revolution.
+
+The constitution authorizes the president to conclude treaties with
+the consent of Congress, to appoint certain government officials, to
+receive foreign diplomatic representatives, and to grant pardons in
+certain cases, and makes him commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
+Most of the chief magistrates have not felt themselves hampered,
+however, whether in peace or war, by any enumeration of powers in the
+constitution, for their ascendancy has generally been such that their
+wishes would be complied with and their illegal acts ratified or
+ignored by a subservient Congress. President Heureaux so controlled
+Congress, the courts, and all public functionaries, that the
+government was practically identical with his personality.
+
+The constitution provides that in case of the death, resignation or
+disability of the president the Congress shall by law designate the
+person who is to act as president until the disability ceases or a new
+president is elected, and that if Congress is not sitting the Cabinet
+officers are immediately to call a session. This is an innovation, as
+from 1853 to 1907 the Dominican constitutions provided for a
+vice-president. The vice-president was generally a decorative feature.
+He was required to possess the same qualifications as the president
+and was chosen with the same formalities, but no duties were assigned
+to him, not even that of presiding in Congress, so that his only
+attribute was the glory of being a president in escrow. The newly
+elected vice-president therefore often quietly retired to his farm,
+emerging occasionally to act in the president's stead when the latter
+left the capital on a trip through the country. Frequently the
+vice-president was made delegate of the government in some part of the
+country and at times he was invested with a portfolio as one of the
+cabinet secretaries. During the administration of a strong president,
+as in the time of Heureaux, the vice-president was generally one of
+his satellites, whereas, when the president's power was not so firmly
+established, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales, one of
+his rivals would be mollified by the vice-presidency. In such cases
+friction frequently developed, and in the two cases specified the
+vice-presidents and presidential rivals, Vasquez and Caceres,
+overthrew the president and established themselves in power. Evidently
+in order to avoid such disturbances and temptations the constitution
+of 1908 abolished the office of vice-president. The lack of a definite
+successor to the president, however, enabled Victoria to seize the
+presidency after the death of Caceres in 1911 and has given rise to
+uncertainty and trouble in the cases of presidential succession since
+that time.
+
+It has been a custom, sometimes expressly authorized by the
+constitution, for the president to delegate executive powers and
+prerogatives to persons selected by him in various parts of the
+country, especially where revolutionary uprisings threatened. There
+has usually been such a delegate of the government in the Cibao and
+often one in Azua. They are powerful officials, inasmuch as they are
+regarded as the direct representatives of the president and his
+administration, command the local military forces, and constitute the
+fountain-head of all local executive appointments. Nominations as
+delegates of the government have been preferably conferred upon
+provincial governors or upon the vice-president. The president is
+naturally anxious to repose such powers in one of his confidants, but
+political exigencies have sometimes obliged him to soothe one of his
+rivals with the distinction and remain on the qui vive thereafter.
+More than one governmental delegate has overthrown the president and
+established himself in power.
+
+Provisional presidents have been numerous in Dominican history. After
+a successful revolution the victorious general usually proclaimed
+himself president of a provisional government and until the
+constitution was again declared in force he and his ministers united
+executive and legislative power. How far the acts of such de facto
+governments were legally binding upon the Republic has been questioned
+in cases where obligations were imposed upon the country, but foreign
+governments in asserting their rights have paid little attention to
+such quibbles.
+
+The constitution provides that there shall be such executive
+secretaries as may be determined by law. They are currently referred
+to as ministers and their number has been fixed at seven, namely, (1)
+secretary of the interior and police (interior y policia); (2)
+secretary of foreign relations (relaciones exteriores); (3) secretary
+of finance and commerce (hacienda y comercio); (4) secretary of war
+and the navy (guerra y marina); (5) secretary of justice and public
+instruction (justicia e instruccion publica); (6) secretary of
+agriculture and immigration (agricultura e inmigracion); (7) secretary
+of public development and communications (fomento y comunicaciones).
+Communication between Congress and the executive departments is
+rendered easier than in the United States by the constitutional
+provision that the secretaries of state are obliged to attend the
+Congressional sessions when called by Congress. This right of
+interpellation has frequently been exercised.
+
+The secretary of the interior and police is at the head of an
+important department. He is the administrative superior of the
+provincial governors and the communal and cantonal chiefs. His
+position renders him the sentinel of the government for the detection
+of revolutionary movements.
+
+The foreign office of the Republic is directed by the secretary of
+foreign affairs. The diplomatic service of Santo Domingo is limited
+to the modest needs of the country, the more important posts being
+those of minister plenipotentiary in the United States, Haiti and
+France and charge d'affaires in Cuba and Venezuela. The majority of
+consuls depend altogether upon consular fees for their remuneration,
+only a few of the more important being provided for in the budget. The
+consulates of most consequence have been considered to be those in the
+surrounding West India Islands and in New York City, for apart from
+their commercial relations with the Republic these places have been
+the favorite haunts of conspiring political exiles. Almost all the
+European countries are represented in the Dominican Republic either by
+ministers, charges d'affaires or consuls. Of the diplomatic
+representatives residing in Santo Domingo City the highest in rank is
+the American minister. Before 1904 the American minister to Haiti was
+accredited to the Dominican Republic as charge d'affaires. The United
+States has consular representatives at all the principal ports, there
+being an American consul at Puerto Plata and consular agents
+elsewhere. In the past, great respect has been shown to consulates
+even to the extent of allowing them privileges of extra-territoriality,
+and frequently political refugees have sought asylum under the flag of
+a mere consular agent.
+
+The secretary of finance and commerce has charge of the sources of
+national income, and the customs and internal revenue services, and
+under his authority the disbursements of the Republic are audited. The
+office for the compilation of statistics, organized a few years ago,
+is also in this department.
+
+The army, rural police, navy and the captaincies of the port are under
+the supervision of the secretary of war and the navy. This official is
+always a military man and generally takes the field in person in
+cases of revolutionary uprisings. During the insurrection of Jimenez
+against Morales in 1903-4, two of Morales' ministers of war were
+killed in battle.
+
+Upon the American occupation in 1916 the military force of the
+Republic was disbanded. There were at that time twelve military posts,
+one in the capital of each province. The commanders and their aides
+and the chiefs of forts and their assistants were treated as distinct
+from the regular army. The army's strength and organization have
+varied greatly; at the time of its dissolution the authorized strength
+was one infantry regiment of about 470 officers and men, and a band of
+33 men. Only a few months before, the preceding budget had authorized
+an infantry force of about 800 officers and men and a battery of
+mountain artillery of 100 officers and men, in addition to the
+all-important band. In reality, however, only the membership of the
+band was certain; in time of war the rest of the military
+establishment was much larger, and in time of peace it comprised
+numerous phantom soldiers, whose salaries were nevertheless regularly
+collected from the national treasury. Service was supposed to be
+voluntary, but the "volunteers" were generally picked out by communal
+chiefs and brought in under guard, sometimes tied with ropes to keep
+them from deserting.
+
+There was also an inefficient and overbearing rural police called the
+"Guardia Republicana," supposed to consist of seven companies of about
+800 officers and men, but here too things were not what they seemed.
+The higher officers of the Republican Guard were a brigadier-general,
+a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel and 2 majors; those of the army only a
+colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors, which was very modest for
+a country teeming with generals and where the budget of 1909 even
+appropriated $20,000 for a "corps of generals at the orders of the
+president."
+
+The American garrison in the Republic, comprising about 1000 men, took
+over the military posts in the Republic and lent strength to the
+Guardia Republicana. By an order of the military governor, of April 7,
+1917, the sum of $500,000 was set aside for the organization of a
+constabulary force to be called the "Guardia Nacional Dominicana," to
+take the place of the Dominican army, navy and police. This Dominican
+National Guard is to be commanded by a citizen of the United States
+and such other officers as the American government may consider
+necessary. Its organization is far advanced and it has already
+absorbed the Guardia Republicana. In it will be merged the frontier
+guard of about 70 men depending on the general receiver's office, and
+probably also the small municipal police squads that compel the
+observance of municipal ordinances.
+
+The Dominican navy is now composed of a single gunboat, the
+"Independencia." At the end of Heureaux's rule the country boasted
+three. The best of these was the "Restauracion," which went on the
+rocks at the entrance to Macoris harbor in one of the first conflicts
+between the Jimenistas and Horacistas. The story goes that the steamer
+was about to attack Macoris, that the pilot, in sympathy with the
+opposition, grounded her with a view to having her captured, but that
+a sudden storm drove her to complete destruction. Another gunboat was
+the "Presidente," which had figured in history, for it was nothing
+less than the yacht "Deerhound," on which the Confederate Admiral
+Semmes took refuge after the sinking of the "Alabama" by the
+"Kearsarge." In 1906 it was sent to Newport News for overhauling as
+old age had made it unseaworthy, but since the repairs would have cost
+more than the vessel was worth, it was sold for old iron. The
+survivor, the "Independencia" is a trim vessel with a crew of fifty
+officers and men. Attached to the general receiver's office are
+several gasoline revenue cutters, recently provided.
+
+The secretary of justice and public instruction has administrative
+supervision over the courts, jails and schools of the Republic, and
+the government subventions to primary and private schools are
+disbursed under his direction.
+
+The secretary of agriculture and immigration is the cabinet officer of
+most recent creation. Prior to the 1908 constitution agriculture had
+been in charge of the department of public development and there had
+been no special provision for immigration. The importance of these
+subjects for the Republic was felt to be such as to merit the
+establishment of a special department. In practice the department has
+done nothing, its efforts being hampered by revolutions and
+circumscribed by the limited sums at its disposal. Its activities have
+been confined to a general supervision of agriculture, the preparatory
+work of the establishment of an agricultural experiment station and
+the operation of a small meteorological service.
+
+The department of public development and communications has charge of
+the postal service of the Republic, of the national telegraph and
+telephone, of the lighthouses, and of the public works carried on by
+the government.
+
+The size of the national legislature of Santo Domingo has fluctuated
+considerably. Under the 1896 constitution the Congress consisted of a
+single house of twenty-four members, two from each of the then
+existing six provinces and six districts. The increase of the
+national income permitting greater expenditures, the constitution of
+1908 provided for two houses, one called the Senate, the other the
+Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of twelve members, one
+from each province, elected by the same electoral colleges that elect
+the president and holding office for six years. One-third of the
+Senate is renewed every two years. The number of members of the
+Chamber of Deputies is supposed to be in proportion to the number of
+inhabitants of the various provinces, but as there has been no census
+the number is provisionally fixed at twenty-four, two from each
+province. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a
+term of four years, also by the electoral colleges, which at the same
+time designate alternates for the several members.
+
+Congress meets each year in regular session on the anniversary of
+Dominican independence, February 27, and its session is limited to
+ninety days, which may, however, be extended sixty days more. Since
+there are no provincial legislatures the powers of the Congress, set
+forth in the Constitution, are sweeping. They include the right to
+legislate in general for every part of the Republic, to approve or
+reject treaties and to try the president, cabinet members and supreme
+court judges on impeachment charges.
+
+In practice the elections for deputies have been as perfunctory as
+those for president, though there were occasional contests. The
+character and attitude of Congress has varied with the character and
+condition of the presidents. During the incumbency of strong leaders,
+such as Santana, Baez and Heureaux, the Congress was little more than
+the tool of the executive, but when the personality of the president
+was not so overwhelming or when many of the deputies were followers of
+a rival chieftain, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales,
+an independent and sometimes a nagging spirit has been manifested.
+
+Under the American occupation the Congress was by decree of January 2,
+1917, declared in abeyance and all executive and legislative powers
+are temporarily exercised by the commander of the American forces. The
+heads of executive departments are officers of the American navy or
+marine corps. Otherwise the general structure of the government
+remains as before. The theory that Santo Domingo is an independent,
+sovereign country is carefully followed, though at times it leads to
+anomalous situations, as when the American military governor issues
+exequaturs to American consuls in Santo Domingo "by virtue of the
+powers vested in me by the Constitution of the Dominican Republic," or
+when the American minister, Hon. W. W. Russell, representing the
+United States and receiving his instructions from the United States
+State Department, calls on Admiral H. S. Knapp, chief executive of
+Santo Domingo, who takes his orders from the United States Navy
+Department.
+
+For administrative purposes the Republic is divided into twelve
+provinces; Azua, Barahona, Espaillat, La Vega, Macoris, Monte Cristi,
+Pacificador, Puerto Plata, Samana, Santiago, Santo Domingo and Seibo.
+Formerly six were known as provinces and six as maritime districts,
+though there was in practice no distinction between them. The
+provinces are subdivided into communes and cantons--a canton being a
+commune in embryo--and these in turn are subdivided into sections.
+Congress is empowered to create new provinces, communes and cantons.
+
+In the twelve provinces there are now sixty-five communes, several
+comprising cantons. The provinces bear the names of their capital
+towns, except Espaillat and Pacificador, the former of which is
+called after Ulises F. Espaillat who took a prominent part in the War
+of Restoration and was president in 1876, and the latter in honor of
+President Heureaux, on whom a fawning Congress conferred the title of
+Pacificador de la Patria, but these also are sometimes known by the
+names of their capitals, Moca and San Francisco de Macoris. The
+communes bear the names of their urban centers. Towns with long names
+are usually referred to by part of the name only, thus Santa Cruz del
+Seibo is known simply as El Seibo, Santa Barbara de Samana either as
+Santa Barbara or as Samana, etc.
+
+At the head of each province is an official who bears the title of
+governor. He acts as the direct agent of the president and is chief of
+the government police and commander of the military forces of the
+district. In civil matter he is dependent upon the department of the
+interior and police, in military affairs he is under the department of
+war and the navy. The governors are appointed by the president of the
+Republic and their salaries are paid from the national treasury. Under
+the present American occupation the various provinces still have their
+governors, but the real governors are the American officers locally in
+command of the occupation forces.
+
+In each commune and canton there is a communal or cantonal chief who
+represents the governor of the province. He is paid by the national
+government and is charged with the preservation of the peace in his
+jurisdiction. Again in each section there is a sectional chief, a
+local police officer who depends on the communal chief.
+
+The system of local chieftains of gradually diminishing category has
+brought Santo Domingo to resemble in some administrations a feudal
+monarchy rather than a constitutional republic. As governor the
+president usually chose prominent men of the locality, either friends
+whom he wished to reward or opponents or rivals whom he was obliged to
+placate. The communal chiefs were also appointed by the president,
+though the governor's wishes were respected to a large extent, and
+here too men of influence were selected, such influence usually being
+reckoned by the possession of a devoted following. The section chiefs
+were chosen under similar considerations.
+
+Though the law prescribes the duties of the governors, their local
+prestige, their authority as commanders of the military, and their
+activities in revolutionary times, have so exalted their position as
+to convert them into something like satraps and make them powerful
+supporters or dangerous rivals of the president. Many insurrections
+have been inaugurated by disaffected governors. At times provinces
+have remained practically independent for many months, ruled merely by
+the governor and a coterie of his friends, while the president, in the
+impossibility of imposing his authority, was obliged to acquiesce. A
+conspicuous example of such a peculiar state of affairs was furnished
+by the district of Monte Cristi, during the presidency of Morales. In
+December, 1903, the formidable insurrection of Jimenez against
+Provisional President Morales originated in Monte Cristi and though
+the government gradually regained the remainder of the country it was
+unable to subjugate this district, where the entire population was
+Jimenista and the character of the country rendered campaigning very
+difficult. Finally in the spring of 1904 a formal treaty was signed by
+which the insurgents agreed to lay down their arms upon the
+government's promise not to interfere in their district, where all
+executive appointments were thereafter to be made as recommended by
+the local authorities. Though constitutional forms were still
+observed a few military chiefs thus assumed the direction of affairs.
+Whenever any executive appointment was to be made, the name of the
+nominee was certified to the capital to be ratified as a matter of
+course; when orders came from Santo Domingo City, whether in civil or
+military affairs, they were obeyed or ignored as convenience dictated;
+the entire amount of the revenues collected in the Monte Cristi
+custom-house was retained in the district. In order to stimulate
+imports and increase the customs collections the local authorities
+even conceded a secret discount from the general tariff. With the
+enforcement of the San Domingo Improvement Company's arbitral award
+and the inauguration of the receivership for Santo Domingo the control
+of the custom-house passed out of the hands of the local chieftains,
+who sullenly protested as against an invasion of their treaty rights.
+In other matters the autonomy of the district remained unimpaired
+until the beginning of 1906 when upon the fall of Morales the
+government troops, in suppressing the revolution in the north, overran
+Monte Cristi province and restored its dependency upon the central
+government.
+
+The healthiest and most important political subdivisions in Santo
+Domingo are the communal governments, and whatever progress has been
+made in the Republic has been due largely to their initiative. They
+correspond to the Spanish "municipios" and the French "communes." In
+Santo Domingo the French name was introduced during Haitian
+occupation. The various towns constitute the centers of government,
+their jurisdiction extends over the surrounding rural districts, and
+the affairs of the whole are administered by a municipal council. The
+powers of such councils are manifold and far-reaching and their
+importance has been accentuated by the chronic impotency of the
+central government to foster public improvements. The councils
+exercise all the faculties commonly pertaining to city councils
+elsewhere and have control of education, sanitation, streets and roads
+in their respective districts. They also act as election boards.
+
+When an outlying hamlet of the rural belt has grown to sufficient size
+it is erected into a municipal district or canton and accorded a
+justice of the peace and a cantonal chief and governing board. It
+remains subject, however, to the municipal council of the commune of
+which it formed a part until further development warrants its
+segregation as an independent commune with its own council. The
+cantons, as well as some of the sections, are also provided with a
+cemetery and a small church or chapel.
+
+From among their number the municipal councilmen select a president
+who is regarded as mayor of the commune, though many of the duties
+elsewhere pertaining to mayors are discharged by an official called
+the syndic. The councilmen are supposed to be elected for a term of
+two years, but the oft repeated revolutions have interfered as
+seriously with their terms of office as with everything else. The
+average Dominican seems to manifest little interest in his municipal
+elections; my question as to when the last local election was held
+would generally be answered with uncertainty: "Last January, no, last
+April, no, I believe it was in November." After all, the elections
+have usually been mere ratifications of slates prepared beforehand. In
+the time of Heureaux the lists of new councilmen were often arranged
+in the capital and a few days before election remitted to the various
+towns, even with a designation of the person whom the council was
+later to choose as its president.
+
+The results of such a method of selection of councilmen has not been
+as unfavorable as might be expected. The position of councilman pays
+no salary and is not of sufficient importance to appeal to the
+politician, so that under the present system the principal merchants
+and other prominent men are frequently designated. The law does not
+prohibit foreigners from forming part of the municipal councils and
+they have frequently been chosen, especially in Puerto Plata.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+POLITICS AND REVOLUTIONS
+
+
+Political parties.--Elections.--Relation between politics and
+revolutions.--Conduct of revolutions.--Casualties.--Number of
+revolutions.--Effect of revolutions.
+
+
+The characteristic features of Dominican politics are the violence of
+political antagonism and the absence of differences of principle
+between the political parties. None of the three parties existing
+to-day has a platform, and the distinction between them is entirely a
+matter of the personality of the leaders. Each party alleges that it
+has the best people and the purest motives and views with alarm the
+government of the country by any other party. In practice therefore,
+politics follows the rule only too common in the Spanish-American
+countries, of resolving itself into a personal struggle between the
+"ins" and the "outs."
+
+In the early days of the Republic different policies were occasionally
+seriously considered. It was then held by some that independence
+should be preserved at any cost while others contended that in view of
+the constant, civil wars the country should seek peace and progress
+under the protection of some foreign power. Although the
+annexationists were at first called conservatives and their opponents
+liberals, these divergent views were not the exclusive property of any
+designated group of men, but the annexation idea was generally
+espoused by the party that happened to be in power, which thus hoped
+both to save the country and perpetuate its own rule, while
+independence was invariably supported by the opposition, which
+bristled with patriotic indignation and the fear that it might be
+permanently excluded from the banquet-table. Thus Santana obtained a
+return to Spanish rule in 1861 and Cabral a few years later agitated
+the question of American annexation and their action was denounced by
+Baez; yet shortly after Baez almost succeeded in securing annexation
+to the United States and was stigmatized as a traitor by Cabral.
+
+Another issue which existed for a few years after the separation from
+Haiti in 1844 was the division between clericals on the one hand and
+liberals on the other, a party division that has created havoc in
+other parts of Spanish America. The very indefinite claims on each
+side and the practical unanimity of the country in its attitude
+towards the church caused this issue to disappear.
+
+The real parties that kept see-sawing in and out of power from the
+early days of the Republic down to the time of Heureaux were those
+founded by General Pedro Santana and General Buenaventura Baez.
+Intimate friends in the struggles with Haiti which followed Santo
+Domingo's declaration of independence, their ambitious and domineering
+natures soon clashed, and each collected a group of friends and
+incessantly conspired against the other. The partisans of Baez, or
+Baecistas, adopted red for the color of the cockades and ribbons which
+distinguished them in the civil wars, and came to be known as the
+"Reds," while the followers of Santana, or Santanistas, adopted blue
+and were known as the "Blues."
+
+On the death of Santana in 1863, Luperon and Cabral became the leaders
+of the Blue party, and for several years after the expulsion of the
+Spaniards in 1865 the Reds and Blues took turns in setting up
+governments and having them overthrown. In 1873 General Ignacio Maria
+Gonzalez, a former adherent of Baez, assembled a following from both
+factions and formed a Green party with which he ousted the Reds who
+were then in power. In the next six years the Reds and Greens
+alternated in control, but in 1879 the Greens were driven out and
+definitely scattered by the Blues, who thereby gained a foothold which
+they did not lose for years. The death of Baez in 1884 threw the Reds
+into confusion and their constant persecution by the "blue" President
+Ulises Heureaux effectually crushed them. Ulises Heureaux with Blues,
+Reds and Greens built up his own party of "Lilicistas" which remained
+in power until his death in 1899. In the later years of Heureaux's
+rule the distinguishing color used by his troops was white.
+
+On the death of Heureaux, Juan Isidro Jimenez, as president, and
+Horacio Vasquez, as vice-president, came into power. The rivalry
+between Jimenez and Vasquez caused a division between their respective
+followers, who called themselves Jimenistas and Horacistas, thus
+forming the principal parties which continue to the present time. The
+old Reds and Blues had disappeared and their survivors aligned
+themselves with Jimenez and Vasquez indiscriminately; members of the
+Baez family joined old Blues to follow Jimenez, while other old Reds
+and Blues as well as the Lilicistas seemed to prefer Vasquez. In 1901
+an attempt was made to form a party known as the Republican Party,
+which it was intended to endow with a platform, but being composed
+largely of Jimenez' friends, it was viewed with suspicion and
+fell with him.
+
+In 1902 the Horacistas revolted and obtained the government, only to
+be overthrown in 1903 by followers of Jimenez. The new administration
+proving odious to both parties they combined to drive it out in the
+fall of 1903. The Horacistas gained the upper hand in the succeeding
+government and remained in power until 1912, though a serious division
+developed in the party, to the extent that the nominal leader, Horacio
+Vasquez, himself joined in conspiracies and uprisings against the
+administration. His efforts, combined with those of the Jimenistas,
+led to the choice of Archbishop Nouel as compromise candidate for
+president in 1912. Monsignor Nouel unsuccessfully attempted to govern
+with both parties and on his resignation in 1913 another Horacista
+became president. Again there was opposition from Horacistas as well
+as Jimenistas and in 1914 a Jimenista became provisional president.
+
+At about this time a small third party appeared, led by Federico
+Velazquez, a former Horacista. His followers are known as
+Velazquistas, though the party has adopted the official name of
+Progresista. In the elections of 1914 he joined forces with Jimenez,
+who thus secured the presidency. The government, or what remains of it
+under the present military occupation, is still constituted largely by
+followers of Jimenez and Velazquez.
+
+Though both Jimenistas and Horacistas claim to have the larger
+following in the country in general, it is probable that they are
+about equally matched, the Velazquistas holding the balance of power.
+
+The Jimenistas are often vulgarly called "bolos" or bob-tailed cocks,
+and the Horacistas "rabudos" or "coludos," meaning bushy-tailed or
+long-tailed cocks. In the fighting on the Monte Cristi plains the
+Jimenistas would often attack, but retire as soon as their opponents
+showed fight, and as such tactics reminded the Dominicans of the
+habits of bob-tailed fighting cocks, the nicknames were imposed.
+
+The men who attain prominence in politics range all the way from rude
+ignorant military chiefs to polished members of the aristocracy. In
+looking over the annals of Dominican history the same family names
+constantly recur and it may be affirmed that the government of the
+country has during the time of independence been in the hands of some
+twenty families, the members of which have swayed its councils and led
+its revolutions. They have tasted the sweets of power but also the
+bitterness of defeat, alternately occupying high positions in the
+government and pining in prison or exile. Almost all the chiefs of
+state since 1899 would have done honor to any country, but all have
+been obliged by the exigencies of politics to give places in their
+entourage to men of low standing, whose deeds or misdeeds when in
+power and whose unbridled ambition, have been a factor in the civil
+wars. At the present moment perhaps the most prominent political
+figure is Federico Velazquez, a man of unusual force of character, who
+as minister of finance under Caceres, enforced the settlement of the
+Dominican debt and gave what was probably the most honest
+administration of public revenues in the Republic's history. He is one
+of the few men having the moral courage openly to advocate American
+cooperation in the government of the country. He is about forty-seven
+years old, was born in Tamboril, near Santiago, and advanced through
+the stages of schoolmaster, shopkeeper, secretary to Vasquez and
+Caceres, and cabinet minister, to the position of a political leader.
+
+The ill-feeling akin to hatred between many members of the political
+parties is incredible to one not accustomed to Latin-American
+politics. They will have nothing in common, neither will acknowledge
+the existence of any good in the other, they endeavor to keep apart in
+the clubs, they do not care to buy in each other's stores. Even the
+women enter into this bitterness and engagements have been broken
+because the bridegroom was discovered to favor one party while the
+bride or her family sympathized with the other.
+
+The parties are not unalterably composed of the same individuals. On
+the contrary a great number of the leaders and of the rank and file
+are continually drifting from one party to another, evincing
+particular anxiety to "get on the band-wagon." These changelings,
+while they belong to any one party, affect to be its most ardent
+supporters in order to avert any suspicion of insincerity. Much of the
+disorder which has sapped the life-blood of the Republic has been due
+to disappointed office-seekers who suddenly veered about and joined
+the opposing party.
+
+Not only to personal ambitions and corruption of the persons in power,
+but also to the perfunctory mode in which elections have been
+conducted the many revolutions are to be ascribed. The municipal
+councils in the communes and the justices of the peace and two
+residents in the cantons form the election board before which the
+voters of the respective commune or canton are supposed to appear to
+deposit their votes. It is evident that if anything more than a small
+proportion of the qualified voters appeared, such election boards
+would be swamped, yet no difficulty has ever been registered. The
+election of the presidential candidate supported by the government was
+generally so certain that all other aspirants realized the futility of
+launching their candidacy, and their followers either voted for the
+official candidate or refrained from voting. In this connection I am
+reminded of the convincing political speeches attributed to one of
+the foremost men of La Vega during the farcical campaigns preceding
+the elections of Heureaux. He is quoted as saying: "My friends, this
+Republic is founded on the free and unrestricted suffrage of its
+citizens. It is the proud boast of the Dominican that under the
+constitution he may vote as he pleases. You are therefore free to cast
+your vote for whomsoever you prefer. I would not be your friend,
+however, if I did not advise you that whoever does not vote for
+Heureaux might as well leave the country." In elections for municipal
+councilmen and members of Congress there was occasionally an exception
+to the rule of having a cut and dried program and contests sometimes
+arose for a seat.
+
+The real campaigns and expressions of the people's will have therefore
+been the revolutions, and politics and revolutions have thus come to
+be regarded as going hand in hand. In a town of the Cibao an
+expression of the garrulous landlady of the inn attracted my
+attention. The old lady, after regaling me with the local gossip,
+started with her own troubles. "Two revolutions ago," she said--and
+her mode of measuring time struck me as peculiar--"my eldest son took
+a gun and went into politics." "Cojio un fusil y se metio en la
+politica"--"took a gun and went into politics," the phrase is sadly
+expressive.
+
+Such campaigns were only too easily begun. When a new president
+entered upon office on the crest of a successful revolution,
+apparently with the whole country behind him and his adversaries
+silenced or scattered, his popularity generally lasted until the
+spoils were distributed. ("To the victors belong the spoils" was the
+policy of the past; the American military authorities are making an
+important innovation by the introduction of civil service principles
+for selecting public employees.) The disappointed spirits immediately
+entered into the plots which the vanquished opponents were not slow in
+fomenting. The leader of the adverse party or one of his trusted
+lieutenants raised the standard of revolt and issued manifestoes which
+echoed with patriotic sentiments and decried the faults of the
+administration. He was joined by a number of disgruntled "generals"
+and their followers. The telegraph wires were cut and the revolution
+had begun.
+
+Before 1905 the seizure of a custom-house was invariably the next
+step, which would at the same time provide the insurgents with the
+sinews of war and make it impossible for the government to pay its
+employees in that province. The custom-houses were eliminated as pawns
+in the revolutionary game by the fiscal treaty with the United States,
+according to which the customs receipts were paid over to an American
+receiver-general. Revolutions for a short time became more difficult,
+but where there's a will there's a way, and under a new routine the
+necessary funds were derived from the government's internal revenues
+and from levies on private citizens.
+
+The first two or three weeks of a revolt constituted its critical
+period, for the government at once poured troops into the district in
+order to suppress the insurrection, while the rebels sought to obtain
+as many strategical points as possible. Both sides lived on the
+country while roaming about in pursuit of each other. If the
+government was victorious the leaders of the revolt would usually
+scramble across the border into Haitian territory, or leave the
+country by boat, or otherwise make themselves inconspicuous until the
+time was ripe for another rebellion. When the government was unready
+or unsuccessful, the insurrection spread with great rapidity from town
+to town until it arrived before the walls of Santo Domingo City.
+There was more or less of a siege and when the president capitulated
+he was permitted to board a vessel and go into exile. The head of the
+new revolution then assumed charge of the government and had himself
+elected president and the game began all over again.
+
+The personal property of the fallen adversaries was respected and
+there was no confiscation, such as has occasionally been witnessed in
+certain other Latin republics. When Baez was overthrown in 1858 there
+was an exception to the rule, his properties being seized by the
+Santana government on the ground that he was a traitor ready to
+deliver the country over to the Haitians and was guilty of other high
+crimes and misdemeanors. But when the wheel of fortune again brought
+Baez to the top he promptly reentered upon his lands.
+
+During the uprisings there has rarely been wanton destruction of
+property, the property of foreigners being especially respected. The
+owner of a plantation near Macoris told me that on one occasion the
+general of an insurgent force even halted at his gates and sent him a
+polite request for permission to cross the property. Such
+consideration was not universal, however, and large sums have been
+paid to foreigners for damages inflicted during revolutions. A serious
+inconvenience was caused farmers by revolutions as many laborers were
+enrolled in one army or the other, either voluntarily or by
+impressment.
+
+In the course of the insurrection there were numerous encounters
+between the rebels and the government troops, most of them being mere
+skirmishes. There is hardly a town where there are not houses which
+show the marks of bullets. The walls and gates of Santo Domingo City
+and the houses in the vicinity are full of such marks, though
+generally painted over now. In 1904 and 1905 one of the sights of the
+city was a beautiful villa opposite the Puerta del Conde, which had
+served as target for the government forces while occupied by the
+insurgents and was so peppered by shot and shell as to look like a
+sieve. The sieges of Santo Domingo City sometimes lasted for many
+months. At such times almost every citizen took part in the
+excitement, barricades were erected at every street opening and the
+rattle of musketry was heard at all hours.
+
+The proportion of shots fired to casualties inflicted is known to be
+enormous in all wars and in Santo Domingo it is almost incredible.
+Battles have been fought lasting for hours with thousands of shots
+fired, yet with not one man lost. There have been revolutionary
+uprisings lasting for months with not a man wounded. In Puerto Plata
+it is said that when the government troops attacked the city in 1904 a
+fierce battle ensued which continued from morning till the town was
+taken by storm in the evening; yet only one man was killed and his
+death was due to his own carelessness, for he appeared not far from
+where soldiers of the other side were training a cannon and refused to
+obey their warning to get out of the way, whereupon the cannon was
+discharged and his arm shot off, causing a mortal wound.
+
+At other times, however, the results have been far more serious, as
+many a maimed soldier and bereaved family can testify. The graves of
+victims of the revolutions are scattered all over the Republic. How
+many have fallen in the disturbances of the past fifteen years it is
+impossible to determine; I have heard estimates ranging from 1000 up
+to 15,000. Nor is revolutionizing a pleasant business when continued
+for any length of time. When the men entered a town contributions
+could be levied on the merchants, but when they were harassed and
+forced to retreat to the mountains they roamed for weeks half nude,
+bare-headed, barefooted, exposed to the weather, living on what
+bananas and wild fruits they could find or occasional wild hogs they
+were able to kill, undermining their constitutions and brutalizing
+their natures. The landlady whose son sought political distinction
+with a gun told me amid sobs that her boys were dutiful, industrious
+lads before being caught in the revolutionary torrent, but that in the
+woods they lost all inclination for work and returned home completely
+demoralized. From grieving relatives of victims I have heard many
+another story of ruined lives and early deaths. It is saddening to
+reflect on the tears which have been shed and the misery which has
+been caused by this long continued civil strife.
+
+While women have been heavy sufferers from the revolutions they have
+not hesitated to take sides and contribute their mite. Many are the
+stories current in Santo Domingo of women who smilingly passed through
+the enemy's ranks and carried ammunition and supplies concealed
+beneath their garments to their friends in the woods.
+
+Excluding the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was thrown off in
+1844 and that of 1863-65, which expelled the Spaniards, there have
+occurred in the seventy years of Dominican independence no less than
+twenty-three successful revolutions. One occurred in each of the years
+1848, 1844, 1849, 1857 and 1864, three in 1865, one each in 1866, 1867
+and 1873, three in 1876, one each in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1899 and 1902,
+two in 1903 and one each in 1912 and 1914. At times hardly had a
+revolution proved successful when a counter-revolution broke out and
+secured the victory.  The longest intermissions were from 1879 to
+1899 when the party of the dictator Heureaux was in power, and from
+1903 to 1912, when the indirect protection of the United States was
+sufficient to sustain the government.
+
+These were the successful revolutions; the unsuccessful insurrections
+are innumerable. It has been unfortunate for the credit of Santo
+Domingo that almost every little shooting affray is classed as an
+insurrection or revolution. Most of these unsuccessful uprisings have
+been unimportant excursions into the country by some disaffected local
+chief and a handful of followers, the band being promptly rounded up
+or scattered by government forces or induced to come in by promise of
+a job or some other consideration.
+
+The circumstance that the provincial governors found it to their
+advantage to have disturbances in their district explains many of the
+smaller commotions. Upon the outbreak of an insurrection or before the
+threat of an outbreak the authorities in the capital would authorize
+the provincial governor to recruit troops and draw funds for their
+payment. The governor would do so, but if two or three thousand men
+had been authorized he would raise only two or three hundred and
+forget to account for the balance of the money. The suppression of the
+"revolution" would thus benefit both his military reputation and his
+pocketbook. Governors were therefore prone to exaggerate rumors of
+insurrection and sometimes themselves sent out men to fire a few shots
+in the woods and create alarm.
+
+Other insurrections have been fierce and formidable and some
+administrations were obliged to engage in constant warfare in order to
+maintain themselves. A serious unsuccessful insurrection was that led
+by Gen. Casimiro de Moya against Heureaux in 1886, which lasted six
+months. The most widespread was that of Jimenez against the Morales
+government, lasting from December, 1903, to May, 1904, and during
+which the insurgents gained possession of practically the entire
+Republic. Other serious outbreaks occurred in 1904, 1905, 1906, 1909,
+1911, 1913 and 1916. The fires smouldered constantly, especially in
+the Cibao, which raises the largest crops of everything, including
+revolutions.
+
+The effect of such continuous commotion has been most disastrous to
+the country and the people at large. This is all the more saddening
+when it is considered that, less than ten per cent of the people took
+part in the disturbances. Revolutions, successful and unsuccessful,
+have been fought to a finish with less than a thousand men on either
+side. Ninety per cent of the population are law-abiding citizens who
+would like nothing better than to be let alone and permitted to pursue
+their vocations in peace. The other ten per cent were not entirely to
+blame: they have been the victims of their environment.
+
+Not only have the revolutionary disturbances caused enormous indirect
+loss to the country through paralyzation of agriculture, arrest of
+development and loss of credit, but they have also been a large direct
+expense. A considerable portion of every budget was devoted to
+appropriations for the purchase of war material and the maintenance of
+the military and naval establishment. When uprisings occurred the
+additional amounts necessary for their suppression have been taken
+from other appropriations, those for public works usually being the
+first to be cancelled. If the uprisings became serious the other
+appropriations of the budget were reduced by fifty or even
+seventy-five per cent until all the available cash was devoted to war
+purposes. In 1903 military and naval expenditures absorbed 71.7 per
+cent of the Republic's disbursements, and in 1904 72.6 per cent. At
+such times the government was reduced to a desperate struggle for
+existence; the loss of the custom-houses in power of the insurgents
+made its position still more precarious; it contracted loans on
+ruinous terms; it neglected its foreign obligations and paid its
+employees in promissory notes and even in postage stamps, which they
+would then peddle about the streets. Under such conditions it is
+natural that nothing was left for public improvements. Even under the
+peaceful administration of Heureaux a disproportionate part of the
+national funds was expended for military purposes and three gunboats
+were acquired and maintained, but not a single mile of improved road
+was laid out.
+
+With the American military occupation political conditions in the
+Dominican Republic have radically changed. The system of waging
+political campaigns by force of arms has stopped abruptly and
+absolutely. Revolutions have become a matter of history. Ballots will
+hereafter take the place of bullets, and politics will be conducted in
+the same manner as in other orderly countries. Evolution, not
+revolution, will be the characteristic of the future.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+LAW AND JUSTICE
+
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo.--Legal system.--Judicial
+organization.--Observance of laws.--Prisons.--Character of offenses.
+
+
+In the year 1510 the Spanish government established in Santo Domingo
+the first of the famous colonial audiencias, or royal high courts, the
+list of which appears like a roll call of Spain's former glories.
+Others were added later in Mexico, Guatemala, Guadalajara, Panama,
+Lima, Santa Fe de Bogota, Quito, Manila, Santiago de Chile, Charcas
+(now Sucre), and Buenos Aires. The audiencia of Santo Domingo at first
+had jurisdiction over all the territory under Spanish dominion in the
+new world, but upon the establishment, of the audiencia of Mexico and
+others its jurisdiction was confined to the West India Islands, and
+the north coast of South America. Its functions were both judicial and
+administrative, including the power to hear appeals from the judges of
+the district and from certain administrative authorities, and to
+intervene in certain matters of government, in the finances of the
+territory and in behalf of the public peace. The governor and
+captain-general of Santo Domingo was president of the royal audiencia,
+though not acting when it sat as a law court, and at times the
+audiencia alone temporarily carried on the government of one or more
+of the territories under its jurisdiction. It applied the law as
+expressed in the codification of the "Laws of the Indies," and the
+Spanish "Partidas." It sat in the building still called the old palace
+of government. During the dark days which fell upon the island in the
+seventeenth century, the presence of the audiencia helped to save the
+colony from being completely forgotten. It continued in its functions
+until the country was ceded to France, whereupon in 1799, it was
+removed to the city of Puerto Principe, in Cuba. Could its records but
+have been preserved a great many gaps in the history of Santo Domingo,
+Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela would be filled. It seems that the
+first records were destroyed by Drake in 1583, and almost all the
+later ones succumbed to the negligence of man and the voracity of the
+tropical insects. When the government of Cuba in 1906 honored the
+request of the government of the Dominican Republic for the return of
+such of the records of the audiencia of Santo Domingo as were still
+extant, it could find in its national archives and turn over but a
+score of bundles of documents, mostly records of suits regarding land
+boundaries in the eighteenth century, of little historic value. These
+and several small mahogany bookcases still preserved in the present
+audiencia of Havana, are the only tangible remains of this
+noted court.
+
+When Santo Domingo again came under Spanish rule in 1809, the colony
+was included in the territorial jurisdiction of the audiencia of
+Caracas. Upon the beginning of Haitian rule in 1822, when most of the
+distinguished citizens, including judges and lawyers, left the
+country, they took with them the ancient legal system. The Haitians
+imposed their laws, namely, the Code Napoleon and other French codes.
+These took such deep root that on the expulsion of the Haitians no
+attempt was made to return to the Spanish laws, which also at that
+time were still under the disadvantage of not having been revised and
+codified in accordance with modern needs.  In 1845 the laws of France
+were expressly adopted by the Dominican Republic. During the troublous
+times following little attention was given to the legal system, and
+there was not even a Spanish translation of the codes. After
+annexation to Spain in 1861 the Spanish authorities attempted to
+clarify the situation by introducing the Spanish penal code and law of
+criminal procedure and by appointing a commission to translate the
+civil code, in which they made several changes, but upon the
+reestablishment of the Republic in 1865 everything done in this
+respect by the Spaniards was annulled. Several efforts were later made
+to secure a translation of the codes, though laws were not often
+invoked amid so much civil unrest. As late as 1871 the American
+commission which visited the island reported that the administration
+of justice had practically fallen into disuse. The local military
+chiefs and the parish priests decided the questions that arose.
+
+As the country progressed in spite of itself, and there were periods
+of peace, the need of an official Spanish text of the laws became more
+pressing, and at length in 1882 a commission was appointed to
+translate and adapt the French codes. On the report of the commission
+a civil code, a code of civil procedure, a code of commerce, a penal
+code, a code of criminal procedure and a military code were approved
+in the year 1884. They are literal translations of the French codes
+with a few modifications to adapt them to local conditions. The penal
+codes are such close translations that several paragraphs relating to
+juries were retained, although the institution does not exist in Santo
+Domingo. It was tried in 1857, but discontinued in the following year.
+The Dominican Congress made but few changes in these important laws,
+which have therefore been more permanent than the constitution. The
+need for a further revision of the Dominican codes became urgent,
+however, and such revision has very recently been concluded by a
+commission which sat for that purpose; it is now being considered with
+a view to an early promulgation of the codes in amended form.
+
+Santo Domingo, the first Spanish colony, thus has no Spanish laws. It
+is the only Spanish country which has adopted French legislation so
+completely, and which looks so largely to France for its
+jurisprudence.
+
+The laws of Congress, and the decrees of the Executive relating to
+concessions, naturalization, pardons, and other matters, and, at
+present, the "executive orders" and decrees of the military
+government, are published in the Official Gazette, a government
+newspaper appearing almost daily. In addition to the calendar date,
+official papers are dated from the declaration of independence in 1844
+and the restoration of the Republic in 1863, somewhat as follows:
+"Given in the National Palace of Santo Domingo, Capital of the
+Republic, on the 3rd day of March, 1916, the 73rd year of Independence
+and the 53rd of the Restoration." In Haiti it was formerly the custom,
+after a successful revolution, to count dates not only from the
+declaration of independence but also from the proclamation of the
+latest revolution, the latter period being denominated the
+"regeneration," thus: In the 40th year of independence and the 3rd of
+the regeneration. In the Dominican Republic Baez introduced this rule
+in his presidency of 1868-1873, during which period decrees were dated
+in the following manner: "On the 3rd day of March, 1871, the 28th year
+of Independence, the 8th of the Restoration, and the 3rd of the
+Regeneration." The revolution of December, 1873, ended this
+regeneration, and the official references thereto.
+
+At the present time the judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
+sitting in the capital of the Republic, three courts of appeals, one
+in Santo Domingo, one in Santiago and one in La Vega; twelve courts of
+first instance, one in each province; and 70 alcaldias or justice of
+the peace courts, in the several communes and cantons. The supreme
+court is constituted by a presiding justice and six associate
+justices, who are elected by the Senate for terms of four years. It
+exercises original jurisdiction in cases against diplomatic
+functionaries and judges of courts of appeals, sits as a court of
+cassation in appeals from, the courts of appeals, finally decides
+admiralty cases and has certain other functions assigned to it by law.
+
+The three courts of appeals each have a presiding justice and four
+associate justices, all elected by the Senate for four year terms.
+They exercise appellate jurisdiction over cases adjudged by courts of
+first instance and courts-martial, and original jurisdiction in
+admiralty cases and in the prosecution of certain judicial and
+administrative officials. Prior to 1908 there was one supreme court,
+with five members, and no court of appeals. When the income of the
+country grew, the new constitution provided that the supreme court
+have at least seven members, and that at least two courts of appeals
+be established, with their necessary judges and clerks. The system is
+now costly and topheavy.
+
+The twelve district courts each have a judge of first instance and a
+judge of instruction, elected by the Senate for terms of four years.
+The judge of instruction is not, strictly speaking, a part of the
+court, his duty being to investigate the more serious criminal
+offenses, commit the offenders for the action of the court and report
+the result of his investigation to the prosecuting attorney. The
+courts of first instance have original jurisdiction in all criminal
+matters except the minor police offenses and in all civil matters
+except those expressly assigned to the justices of the peace. They
+hear appeals from the justices of the peace in civil and
+criminal cases.
+
+The local justices of the peace are called "alcaldes." The alcalde, in
+Spanish times, was an officer exercising both administrative and
+judicial functions, the name being derived from the Arabic "al cadi,"
+the judge, and whereas in Spain and most of the former Spanish
+colonies the alcalde has now only administrative duties and his office
+is equivalent to that of mayor, in Santo Domingo he now exercises
+solely judicial authority. (The office of "alcalde pedaneo," which may
+be roughly translated as deputy mayor, exists in Santo Domingo,
+however, this title being given to the municipal executive's agent in
+each section.) The alcalde's jurisdiction comprises the smaller police
+offenses and, in civil cases, matters involving less than $100, as
+well as certain cases, such as suits between innkeepers and guests,
+where the limit of his authority is raised to $300, and other cases,
+such as ejectment suits, where his jurisdiction attaches on account of
+the subject-matter. The alcaldes are appointed by the president of
+the Republic.
+
+In general the system works smoothly. The alcaldes are often ignorant
+men, but even in the United States the country magistrates are not
+always founts of wisdom. The judges of first instance and district
+attorneys are almost without exception respected in the community, and
+the present judges of the supreme court and of the courts of appeals
+enjoy a good reputation. Not infrequently political considerations
+have given rise to poor appointments, such as occurred in Barahona
+some years ago when the judge-elect telegraphed an indignant protest
+to the capital to the effect that he was unacquainted even with the
+rudiments of the law. The administration had not taken the trouble to
+ascertain whether he was a lawyer, but knowing he sought a position,
+had given him the first one at hand. This was rather an oversight, as
+the law requires such appointees to be members of the bar. On another
+occasion the legal requisite was filled by first declaring the
+aspirant a lawyer and then designating him for the post. These cases
+are exceptions, however. The integrity of the judges is not often
+questioned, but the alcaldes do not enjoy so good a reputation.
+
+At the present time there are also American provost courts which take
+cognizance of "offenses against the military government." This
+designation is broad enough to include anything the military
+authorities choose to include. Apart from a few cases of regrettable
+harshness these courts have done fairly well.
+
+While the various constitutions have expressly declared the
+independence of the judicial power, the authority of the courts has
+heretofore been rather relative, and they have studiously avoided
+conflicts with the other branches of the government. There is no case
+on record where they have declared a law unconstitutional. The supreme
+court when driven into a corner in 1904 even declared that it had not
+the authority to make such a declaration. The constitution of 1908
+modified the decision by expressly providing that the supreme court
+may decide as to the constitutionality of laws.
+
+This decision of the supreme court made little impression in the
+country, due probably in part to the ease with which the various
+administrations have disregarded the constitution when it suited their
+convenience. The little value of the constitution between friends has
+constantly been demonstrated. Certain provisions have been
+systematically violated, even by the best of administrations.
+Principal among them is the provision that no one be arrested without
+a warrant setting forth the offense, unless caught _in flagranti_, and
+the provision that every person imprisoned be informed of the cause of
+his imprisonment and submitted to examination within forty-eight hours
+after arrest, and not be detained for a longer time than permitted by
+law. These provisions have been dead letters as far as political
+prisoners are concerned. When a person was suspected of being involved
+in a conspiracy against the government he was liable at any moment to
+be seized and conducted to prison, where he might be detained
+indefinitely, until the danger was over, or he was considered
+innocuous. The ancient fortress at the river mouth in Santo Domingo,
+known as La Torre del Homenaje, bears over its entrance the sign,
+"Political Prison," and rarely has it been without tenants, even when
+the country was at peace and the constitutional guarantees were
+supposed to be in force. On one occasion when I heard a Dominican
+lawyer lament that a friend of his had thus been incarcerated for
+several months without a hearing, I inquired why he did not apply to a
+court and invoke the constitutional provision. The reply was, "The
+judge who signed an order to set the prisoner free would probably join
+him in jail before many hours had passed."
+
+Such ignoring of the written law was a relic of the days when the will
+of the military was the only law respected. Reminders of the old state
+of affairs continued to crop out, though the people and government
+were rapidly adopting other customs. An instance occurred in Sanchez
+during the presidency of Morales. A younger brother of the president
+was customs collector at that port and was accused by public rumor of
+irregularities in office. A customs employee having been discharged
+for spreading the rumor, called on the collector and invited him to a
+meeting outside; and the two adjourned to the bush, where shots were
+exchanged and young Morales was wounded in the leg. The aggressor was
+immediately seized by the general commanding the military forces in
+Sanchez and carried to the town cemetery, a grave was dug, and the
+general prepared to have him summarily shot. The town authorities
+interceded, but in vain, and the execution was about to take place
+when the ladies of the town succeeded in moving the commandant by
+their pleadings. The prisoner was remanded to the jail in Samana and
+was later tried by the court of first instance and acquitted. Much
+more recently the leader of the band that assassinated President
+Caceres was killed without trial.
+
+Some of the surviving military leaders of the old school find
+difficulty in adjusting themselves to the new conditions. Among them
+was General Cirilo de los Santos, better known by his nickname
+"Guayubin" (the name of the town where he was born) who took an active
+part in the political disturbances of the Republic for many years.
+When I traveled through the country with Prof. Hollander on his
+financial investigation we were guests of this hero of a hundred
+revolutions, who was then Governor of La Vega. In the course of
+conversation Prof. Hollander expressed gratification at the cessation
+of the custom of shooting political prisoners. The governor was at
+that time engaged in the persecution of one Perico Lasala, a perpetual
+revolutionist who was infesting the nearby hills and who has since
+done his country a favor by being killed in an incursion on the coast.
+The idea of not shooting this notorious character as soon as he was
+apprehended seemed grotesque to Guayubin--and perhaps not without
+reason. He cried, "If you were in my place and caught Perico Lasala,
+wouldn't you shoot even him?" "Why, no," was the answer. Guayubin's
+face fell and he became thoughtful. For the rest of the day he was
+strangely silent and he continued so on the morrow, when he
+accompanied us for several miles out of town. When bidding goodbye, he
+broke out: "I wish to ask your advice. If I should catch Perico
+Lasala, what would you advise me to do with him?" Dr. Hollander asked:
+"What do you do with persons who steal or commit similar violations of
+the law?" "We put them in jail." "Why, then, put Perico Lasala in
+jail." A look of inexpressible relief came over the face of the old
+warrior. "Of course!" he said, "I never thought of that."
+
+Not long after this incident General Guayubin met a political opponent
+against whom he harbored resentment. He immediately drew his revolver
+and began to shoot, and the object of his wrath escaped only by
+dexterous sprinting. At a session of Congress there was some criticism
+of his action and Guayubin resigned his office in disgust. The death
+of this fighter was as stern as his life. He attended a christening
+party at a house where there was a forgotten powder-cask; a spark fell
+into the powder and in the ensuing explosion Guayubin's eyesight was
+destroyed. Grimly refusing to take food or drink, he pined away.
+
+Prior to the American occupation, the Dominican penal establishments
+were as a rule in very bad condition. There is no penitentiary and
+portions of the forts or government houses are used as jails. The
+prisoners were herded together with little thought of cleanliness. The
+stench in some of the jail yards was at times almost unbearable. In
+justice it should be stated that the Dominican authorities frequently
+called the attention of their Congress to this condition of affairs.
+The prisons at Santo Domingo City and Santiago were exceptions to the
+rule; they were improved even to the extent of being endowed with a
+prison school.
+
+The political prisoners were generally given better accommodations, if
+there were any at hand, and had the privilege of securing their meals
+from the outside instead of being limited to the scant and repugnant
+prison food. During revolutions, however, when the prisons were
+overcrowded, the political prisoners were kept in irons and
+supervision was rigid. According to law the functionaries of each
+court of first instance were supposed to visit and examine the jails
+once a month, but as the date of their visit was known beforehand the
+inspection was little more than perfunctory. Not very long ago it was
+whispered in the Cibao that a judge in inspecting a jail accidentally
+passed through a door to a room he was evidently not expected to
+enter, and there to his own embarrassment and that of the warden found
+a score of prisoners whose names were not on the prison rolls.
+
+The more serious offenders were kept in irons. The Dominican
+authorities, realizing that they had no reason to be proud of their
+prisons, were loath to permit foreigners to visit the jails. When I
+called at the government building at Sanchez on one occasion, however,
+the commandant was absent and an indiscreet sergeant offered to show
+me the two rooms used for prison purposes. The building was a wooden
+one and one of the rooms, though heavily barred, did not seem unfitted
+except in case of overcrowding, which I was told sometimes occurred.
+The other room was extremely repulsive. It was dark and a foul odor
+rising from a hole in the wooden floor demonstrated the truth of the
+guide's remark that there was no outhouse for the use of the
+prisoners. Along one side of this room lay two long square-cut beams,
+one on the other, scalloped out so as to form a number of round holes
+along their juncture. It was evident they were used as stocks and my
+guide stated that he had seen a whole row of men sitting along the log
+with their feet thus confined. One or two of the holes were a little
+larger and it was explained that they were for the purpose of
+confining not the feet but the neck of the delinquent, and that this
+punishment was much worse, producing especial pain in the case of
+short-necked persons. The severest pain was produced, so the guide
+stated, when the delinquent was seated on the beam and his feet placed
+crosswise through the holes: he could bear the agony of this position
+for only a short time.
+
+The American authorities have made great improvements in the prisons
+and prison discipline. The jails are now so clean that they are almost
+show places.
+
+The revolutionary disturbances have seriously interfered with the
+proper execution of the sentences of the courts. It was a usual
+procedure for revolutionary forces, upon entering a town, to free the
+prisoners--either as a slap at the government or in order thereby to
+augment their own strength. In Puerto Plata, a few years ago, a
+merchant was convicted of fraudulent bankruptcy and sentenced to three
+years in jail; soon afterwards a revolutionary force took possession
+of the town and freed the prisoners; and a few hours later the
+townspeople were amused to see the lawyer who had been instrumental in
+securing the conviction himself led to prison at the instigation of
+the culprit.
+
+In March, 1903, when the political prisoners in the Santo Domingo
+prison broke out, they released the convicts, some of whom retained
+their gyves during the fighting which followed, until the revolution
+was successful several days later.
+
+The undeveloped state of the country has offered difficulties to the
+apprehension of criminals, and the proper enforcement of the law.
+Could a criminal but reach the mountains of the interior, which are
+almost entirely uninhabited, he would be safe from pursuit and might
+either wait to join the next uprising or proceed to a different part
+of the country, where he was unknown and where, owing to the
+difficulty of intercourse, detection would be unlikely. Instances have
+occurred more than once where an escaped malefactor has become a
+"general" of other outlaws and by threatening to raise an insurrection
+has induced the government to pardon him and his associates.
+
+In several regions there were up to the time of the American
+occupation local caciques who were almost absolute monarchs in their
+district. They and their followers considered themselves above the law
+and their power and influence were such that the government in the
+capital preferred to let them alone so long as they kept within
+bounds. Such gentlemen can hardly be expected to favor the American
+administration for they have been made to understand that their rights
+and remedies are no more than those of other citizens.
+
+In view of such conditions so favorable to wrongdoers, the low
+criminal record of Santo Domingo is all the more remarkable and speaks
+highly for the character of the population. Crimes evincing malice and
+a depraved disposition are exceedingly rare. The Dominican boasts that
+it is possible to travel without fear from one end of the Republic to
+the other, though unarmed and carrying large sums of money. The few
+attacks on travelers which are on record have generally been due to
+revenge or some other personal motive. There is petty thievery, but no
+more than anywhere else. A friend of mine used to remark that he had
+never seen so many chickens in a community where there were so many
+negroes. No criminal is so greatly despised as a thief, and to accuse
+a person of being "mean enough to steal a pig" is a mortal insult. A
+distinction is made, however, between public honesty and private
+honesty, and the impression has been only too general that stealing
+from the state is not stealing.
+
+The most common serious offenses are homicide and assaults committed
+in sudden quarrel or due to jealousy. Not a little mischief was caused
+by the unfortunate habit of going armed.
+
+The attractions of the fair sex give rise not only to crimes of
+jealous passion, but also to other missteps, such as seduction and
+similar offenses. The average of these is not greater, however, than
+in other southern countries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE DOMINICAN DEBT AND THE FISCAL TREATY WITH THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+Financial situation in 1905.--Causes of debt.--Amount of debt.--Bonded
+debt.--Liquidated debt.--Floating debt.--Declared claims.--Undeclared
+claims.--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house.--Fiscal convention of
+1905.--Modus vivendi.--Negotiations for adjustment of debt.--New bond
+issue.--Fiscal treaty of 1907.--Adjustment with creditors.--1912
+loan.--Present financial situation.
+
+
+Rarely have the fiscal affairs of a country experienced so rapid and
+radical a change for the better as those of Santo Domingo since 1904,
+and rarely has a financial measure so quickly proved its efficacy as
+the fiscal convention between the United States and Santo Domingo. In
+the beginning of the year 1905 Santo Domingo had fallen to the lowest
+depths of bankruptcy and financial discredit. After decades of civil
+disturbance, misrule and reckless debt contraction, the deluge had
+come. The substance of the country had been wasted in military
+expenditures; agriculture and commerce were stagnant; a debt of over
+$30,000,000 had been contracted with nothing to show for it but
+forty-two miles of narrow-gauge railroad and two small gunboats; the
+government obligations were chronically in default and interest
+charges were piling up at ruinous rates; every port of the Republic
+was pledged to foreign creditors who were clamoring for payment; one
+port had already been seized and the occupation of the others by
+foreign powers was imminent. At this juncture the Dominican government
+applied to the  United States for assistance and the custom-houses of
+the Republic were placed in charge of an American general receiver,
+with the obligation of reserving a specified portion of the customs
+income for the creditors and turning the remainder over to the
+Dominican government. The situation immediately changed as if by
+magic. The imports and exports, and with them the income of the
+government, quickly reached higher figures than the country had ever
+seen, the national debt was scaled down by almost one-half and the new
+Dominican bonds issued in 1907 to convert the old debt went nearly to
+par in the markets of the world.
+
+
+(a) Periodic accumulation of floating debt, owing to:
+     1. Political instability, requiring large outlays for soldiery,
+         for bribery of potential revolutionists, and for suppression
+         of actual revolutions.
+     2. Corruption of officials.
+     3. "Asignaciones" or pensions to mollify enemies and to reward
+         friends of the existing regime.
+(b) Usurious interest computations, on account of:
+     1. "Bonus" in principal,
+     2. Extravagant interest rates.
+(c) Interest default and compounding accumulations.
+(d) Recognition and liquidation of excessive or illegal claims as a
+      condition of further advances.
+
+
+In order to obtain more positive information with reference to
+outstanding Dominican indebtedness, for use in connection with the
+pending fiscal treaty, the American government in the early part of
+1905 commissioned a financial expert, Prof. Jacob H. Hollander, of
+Johns Hopkins University, to proceed to Santo Domingo and make an
+investigation of financial conditions. Prof. Hollander, in an
+elaborate report, found the amount of the claims pending against the
+Dominican Republic on June I, 1905, to be $40,269,404.38, distributed
+as follows:
+
+
+Bonded debt........................ $17,670,312.75
+Liquidated debt...................... 9,595,530.40
+Floating debt........................ 1,553,507.79
+Declared claims...................... 7,450,053.89
+Undeclared claims.................... 4,000,000.00
+                                   --------------
+Total indebtedness................. $40,269,404.38
+
+
+The bonded debt, as above designated, comprised the public
+indebtedness represented by outstanding bonds; the liquidated debt
+consisted of items secured by international protocols or by formal
+contracts; the floating debt consisted of admitted indebtedness,
+neither funded nor secured, but evidenced by public obligations; the
+declared claims were claims presented for reimbursement or indemnity
+but not expressly recognized by the government; and the undeclared
+claims were claims of the same nature not yet formally presented. A
+brief description of each of these items will afford an idea of the
+general character, of Dominican financiering and a better
+understanding of Dominican history.
+
+_Bonded Debt_. The bonded debt held by Belgians and
+French and amounting to $17,670,312.75, was the final
+outcome of eight consecutive bond issues floated by the
+Republic, as follows:
+
+
+               Interest
+                 per   Term
+Date   Amount    cent  years   Name_
+
+1869  L  757,700  6       25   Hartmont loan
+1888  L  770,000  6       30   Westendorp loan
+1890  L  900,000  6       56   Railway loan
+1893  L2,035,000  4       66   4 per cent consolidated gold bonds
+1893  $1,250,000  4       66   4 per cent gold debentures
+1894  $1,250,000  4       66   French-American reclamation
+                                consols
+1895  $1,750,000  4       66
+1897  L1,736,750  2-3/4  102   Obligations or de Saint Domingue
+      L1,500,000  4       83   Dominican unified debt 4 per cent
+                                bonds
+
+
+In making its very first loan, in 1869, the Dominican government fell
+into the hands of sharpers and was mercilessly fleeced. The bargain,
+even if it had been honestly carried out, was improvident enough.
+Reduced to American money the nominal amount of the loan was
+$3,788,500; of this amount the Republic was to receive but $1,600,000;
+yet it contracted to pay as interest and sinking fund in twenty-five
+years a sum amounting to $7,362,500. The contractors for the loan,
+Hartmont & Co., of London, were authorized to retain $500,000 as their
+commission. In fact, however, no more than $190,455 was ever paid to
+the Dominican government. The brokers claimed that they tendered a
+further sum of $1,055,500, though after the expiration of the time
+limited in their contract, and that the tender was refused because of
+negotiations then under way for the annexation of the Republic to the
+United States, but such tender is denied on the Dominican side. At all
+events, the loan contract was cancelled by the Dominican senate in
+1870 on the ground of non-compliance of the brokers with its
+conditions and the government made no payments for interest or sinking
+fund. The brokers nevertheless continued to sell bonds in London and
+pay the current interest with the proceeds. Incidentally in addition
+to collecting their commission, they turned a penny for themselves by
+taking the bonds with their friends at 50 and selling them to the
+public at 70. When the Dominican repudiation of the bond issue was
+published in England in 1872 a cash balance of $466,500 still remained
+to the credit of the Dominican government, but it was coolly pocketed
+by the principal agent, who claimed it as a set-off against alleged
+damages in connection with a concession he had near Samana. In the ten
+years of anarchy that followed in Santo Domingo no attempt was made to
+straighten out the matter. The bonds having gone into default in 1872
+dropped lower and lower until they reached 3 per cent in 1878.
+
+The setback received by the credit of the Republic by reason of the
+defaulted Hartmont bonds made further bond issues impossible for a
+number of years. Finally an Amsterdam banking house, Westendorp & Co.,
+was interested and in 1888 and 1890 floated the second and third bond
+issues for L770,000 and L900,000 respectively. The object of the
+second issue was to retire the Hartmont bonds at 20 per cent, to pay a
+number of floating interior debts the owners of which were harassing
+the government, and to provide cash for the treasury, principally for
+military and naval expenditures, while the third issue was designed to
+secure funds for the construction of a railroad between Puerto Plata
+and Santiago. For the purpose of providing for the service of the loan
+a collection office known as the "caisse de la regie," or simply
+"regie," under the management of Westendorp, took charge of the
+customhouses with the obligation of paying a certain amount to the
+government monthly and devoting the remainder to payment of interest
+and sinking fund of the loans. The arrangement was thus similar to the
+later receivership plan, but its vulnerable point was that it was
+operated by a private concern.
+
+The first instalments of interest and sinking fund on these two bond
+issues were paid from the proceeds of the bonds, then for several
+months the "regie" supplied funds, and then came the first crash. The
+government was ever in need of money and to secure the same violated
+its agreements by seizing certain revenues to pledge them to local
+merchants for advances, and by conniving at customs irregularities. As
+a result, after paying the sums for the budget, the "regie" had
+nothing left for the service of the bonds and they went into
+default in 1892.
+
+Westendorp was almost ruined by this occurrence and became anxious to
+draw out of his Dominican entanglements. He applied to Smith M. Weed
+and Brown and Wells, New York attorneys, to negotiate a sale of his
+bonds to the United States government, transferring also his right to
+collect the Dominican customs. The United States government declined,
+whereupon Weed, Wells and Brown organized the famous San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the laws of New Jersey, the claim of which
+was later the prime factor in bringing about American intervention in
+Santo Domingo. Subsequently two other companies, the San Domingo
+Finance Company and the Company of the Central Dominican Railway, were
+incorporated, also under the laws of New Jersey, as auxiliaries of the
+Improvement Company, but they were all managed by the same persons.
+The San Domingo Improvement Company took over Westendorp's holdings
+and was placed in control of the "regie." A fourth bond issue, of
+L2,035,000 was floated through the agency of the Improvement Company
+in 1893 for the conversion of the outstanding government bonds. The
+Improvement Company also completed the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, which was the only improvement it ever effected in the
+Republic and this it did with Dominican money. It further took from
+the Republic at rates very favorable to the Company a fifth, sixth and
+seventh bond issue, in 1893, 1894 and 1895 respectively, aggregating
+$4,250,000, for the payment of government indebtedness. The
+obligations paid by the first two of these issues were in considerable
+part inflated claims against the government, capitalized at excessive
+interest rates, those satisfied by the 1895 issue arose principally
+out of indemnity claims made by France for mistreatment of French
+citizens and for debts due them.
+
+The Dominican government took no warning from previous disasters but
+continued in its course of reckless debt contraction. In order to
+equip warships and arsenals it borrowed money right and left at rates
+of interest which ranged anywhere from 18 to 30 per cent per annum.
+The loans were guaranteed by customs revenues which the creditors were
+authorized to collect direct from the importer. Thus the amount
+collected by the "regie" was not sufficient to provide for the service
+of the ever increasing bonded debt and in 1897 there was
+another default.
+
+The old remedy of a new bond issue was to be tried again. The San
+Domingo Improvement Company undertook to float the eighth bond issue
+of L2,736,750 in bonds at 2-3/4 per cent and L1,500,000 in bonds at
+four per cent. With these bonds it contracted to convert all previous
+bonds then outstanding, to pay overdue interest and to secure for the
+government over $1,000,000 in cash. President Heureaux issued drafts
+on this presumption, but it soon became evident that it would be
+impossible for the Improvement Company to carry out the contract. The
+company blamed the government and the government the company. The
+situation quickly became chaotic. Eventually the conversion of the
+older bond issues was completed, though at enormous cost. Bonds to the
+value of L600,000 were absorbed during the transaction with at most a
+cash payment of $250,000 to the Dominican fiscal agent in Europe. In
+the meantime the government tried the experiment of a large emission
+of paper money in which the customs dues were partly payable. The
+paper depreciated as fast as it was issued, the revenues were again
+insufficient and the new bond issue suffered default in April, 1899.
+
+While plans for further action were under consideration, President
+Heureaux was shot in July, 1899, and the revolution which followed his
+death made Jimenez president. The new administration in 1900 entered
+into a contract with the San Domingo Improvement Company for a
+different distribution of the customs revenues, but a condition was
+introduced that the consent of the majority of bondholders be obtained
+for the funding of interest up to 1903. A large number of Belgian and
+French bondholders had become dissatisfied with the Improvement
+Company, however, and repudiated the contract and all connection with
+the Company. In Santo Domingo, too, there was general hostility
+towards the Improvement Company which was regarded as an associate of
+President Heureaux and an incubus on the development of the country.
+The Company claimed it had secured the consent of a majority of
+bondholders but the government decided it had not and in January,
+1901, President Jimenez issued a decree excluding the Improvement
+Company from the custom-houses.
+
+The government now made a new contract with the Franco-Belgian
+bondholders, and for the payment of its obligations pledged its
+customs revenues, and specifically the income of the ports of Santo
+Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris. But if there had been default
+before, in time of peace, with the "regie" in charge of the
+custom-houses, there was still less money available for the creditors
+now, with no control by creditors over collections and the government
+harassed by constant revolutionary uprisings. Small partial payments
+were made for two years and then ceased. As the Improvement Company's
+bond holdings became the subject of a special arrangement, the bonded
+debt of the Republic was considered to be that held by the French and
+Belgian creditors. However unsavory the debts which gave origin to the
+bond issues, and however imprudent most of the bond issues themselves,
+the great majority of bonds had passed into the hands of small
+holders, innocent third parties who sustained great loss by the
+continued suspension of payments.
+
+_Liquidated Debt_. The liquidated debt, secured by international
+protocol or formal contract, Prof. Hollander found to be as follows on
+June 1, 1905:
+
+
+San Domingo Improvement Company
+  (American and British)................. $4,403,532.71
+Consolidated internal debt
+  (chiefly Spanish, German and American).. 1,737.151.35
+Internal debt held by Vicini heirs
+  (Italian)............................... 1,598,876.04
+Old foreign debt
+  (chiefly Italian and Dutch)............... 365,183.20
+Sala claim (American)....................... 356,314.20
+Vicini heirs (Italian)...................... 242,716.32
+Italian protocol............................ 186,750.36
+Spanish-German protocol..................... 100,034.00
+B. Bancalari (Italian)...................... 175,000.00
+J. B. Vicini Burgos (Italian)................ 55,500.00
+Ros claim (American)......................... 39,967.78
+Two cacao contracts
+(chiefly Dominican and German)............... 68,296.16
+Bancalari, Lample & Co. (Italian)............ 16,733.19
+Twenty-eight minor contracts
+  (chiefly Spanish, American)............... 249,475.19
+                                          ------------
+Total.................................... $9,595,530.40
+
+
+The claim of the San Domingo Improvement Company was secured by a
+protocol between the American and Dominican governments. When the San
+Domingo Improvement Company was ousted from the custom-houses in 1901,
+it immediately appealed to the State Department in Washington. The
+State Department counselled a private settlement and negotiations with
+the Dominican government dragged on for almost two years. The
+Improvement Company claimed no less than $11,000,000 for the bonds it
+held or controlled, for its interest in the railroad from Puerto Plata
+to Santiago, for its shares of the extinct National Bank of Santo
+Domingo which it had purchased at the government's request, and for
+the settlement of a long list of minor claims. Arbitration was
+suggested by the Company, but the Dominican government finally offered
+a round sum of $4,500,000 and the offer was accepted. It is probable
+that the Republic fared better under this compromise than if the case
+had been submitted to arbitration, for though the Improvement
+Company's demands were greatly exaggerated, its position toward the
+government was that of a careful creditor who has kept minute account
+of all transactions as against a spendthrift debtor who has squandered
+his property with little or no record of his expenditures.
+
+By a protocol signed January 31, 1903, the Dominican government
+formally agreed to pay the sum of $4,500,000, leaving details to be
+settled by a board of arbitrators to be designated by the American and
+Dominican governments. The board met in Washington and rendered its
+award under date of July 14, 1904. It fixed the interest on the debt
+at four per cent per annum and designated the custom-houses of Puerto
+Plata, Sanchez, Samana and Monte Cristi as security for the debt. In
+the event of failure by the Dominican government to pay any of the
+monthly instalments specified, a financial agent, appointed by the
+United States, was authorized to enter into possession of the Puerto
+Plata custom-house, and if its revenues proved insufficient to take
+possession also of the other custom-houses designated. The Dominican
+government never made any payments and the financial agent took
+possession of the Puerto Plata custom-house in October, 1904.  Most
+of the other claims comprised in the liquidated debt had their origin
+in advances made to the government--often bearing interest at two or
+three per cent a month, or even more--and in indemnity claims for
+revolutionary damages. In making the liquidations, musty credits and a
+generous amount of compound interest were generally included and it
+was usually provided that the sums so agreed upon were themselves to
+bear interest. The greater portion of these claims was held by
+foreigners, Italian, German, Spanish and American holdings
+predominating. Payments, more or less feeble, were made in many cases
+on account of principal or interest up to 1903, but in that year, when
+the government was reduced to desperate straits in combatting
+insurrections, practically every item of the debt went into
+permanent default.
+
+The principal Italian claimants were the heirs of an Italian merchant,
+J.B. Vicini, and an Italian in business at Samana, Bartolo Bancalari
+by name, who with other Italian subjects became loud in their
+complaints at the non-payment of their claims. The Italian government
+began to do a little sword-clanking, the Italian minister came from
+Havana in a warship, and the upshot was the signing in 1904 of three
+protocols admitting most of these claims and solemnly promising to pay
+them. Payment of the internal debt held by the Vicini heirs and of the
+Italian revolutionary claims was guaranteed by five per cent of all
+the customs receipts of the Republic, the revenues of Santo Domingo
+City, Macoris, Sanchez and Puerto Plata being specifically pledged.
+The Bancalari debt was guaranteed by part of the customs revenues of
+Samana. Notwithstanding the protocols, no payments were made by the
+Dominican government.
+
+_Floating Debt_. The floating debt, consisting of admitted
+indebtedness, neither funded nor liquidated, but evidenced by some
+kind of public obligation, was found to be as follows:
+
+
+Registered deferred debt................... $587,710.24
+Registered floating debt.................... 140,850.27
+Privileged revolutionary debt................ 79,812.12
+Certificates of comptroller's office........ 633,124.60
+Certificates of treasury offices............. 31,771.07
+Open unsecured accounts...................... 80,239.49
+                                            ----------
+Total.................................... $1,553.507.79
+
+
+By the year 1902, a large number of small claims--many of them for
+supplies furnished and services rendered--had accumulated, the justice
+of which the government admitted but of which owing to the
+deficiencies in its books it had no record. Notices were accordingly
+published calling on holders of such lawful credits to present the
+same for registration. This was the origin of the so-called registered
+debts. The largest item was constituted by what was very aptly
+denominated the "deferred" debt, created in 1888. Prior to that time
+the government had covered its military deficits with money obtained
+from loan associations known as "credit companies," which flourished
+in the larger towns and which did business at an interest rate that
+fluctuated between five and ten per cent a month. When a settlement
+was finally made, part of the amount due these companies was paid in
+certificates of indebtedness, the law directing with subtle humor that
+they be paid from the annual surplus in the budget. There never was a
+surplus, nothing was ever paid, and the market value of these
+certificates fell to three per cent of their nominal value.
+
+The revolutionary debt above referred to, consisting of claims arising
+in the revolutions which brought Jimenez into power, was called
+"privileged" because it was assigned interest. To some extent it was,
+indeed, privileged, for partial payments were made until the middle of
+1903. The government certificates forming part of the floating debt,
+were acknowledgments of indebtedness issued by the government when it
+was pressed for ready money. Many bore no interest, others bore
+interest as high as two per cent a month. In view of the great
+uncertainty of payment the amount of indebtedness was generally either
+frankly or disguisedly inflated before being expressed in the
+certificate. Such certificates were sometimes admitted in part payment
+of customs dues.
+
+_Declared Claims_ Besides the admitted indebtedness, there were many
+claims for indemnity and reimbursement which had not been acknowledged
+by the government in contract form. Some had been formally filed with
+the government for the payment of specific amounts, while others were
+still general demands. The declared claims were as follows:
+
+
+Internal revolutionary claims................... $ 885,258.10
+American revolutionary claims...................    71,000.00
+Spanish revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+French revolutionary claims.....................   190,000.00
+Italian revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+German revolutionary claims.....................    10,000.00
+British revolutionary claims....................     5,000.00
+Cuban revolutionary claims......................    35,000.00
+Font claim (Spanish)............................   186,643.00
+Heureaux estate claim (Dominican)............... 3,100,000.00
+National bank notes............................. 1,574,647.00
+Lluberes contract (Dominican)...................   250,000.00
+West India Public Works Company claim (British).   250,000.00
+Vicini heirs claim (Italian)....................   812,505.00
+                                                ______________
+Total...........................................$7,450,053.89
+
+
+Most of the older claims of indemnity for damages suffered during
+revolutions crystallized into bonded indebtedness, were recognized in
+government contracts or protocols, drifted into the old foreign debt,
+or were represented by certificates of indebtedness. Some remained,
+however, and their number was greatly increased by the disturbances
+between 1899 and 1905. How exaggerated many such claims were, is
+illustrated by a story told by the Danish consul in Santo Domingo. A
+Danish subject came to him and complained that government soldiers had
+invaded his store and carried off merchandise. He begged the consul to
+present a damage claim of $10,000 gold, which was equivalent to
+$50,000 silver. The consul listened to his story and said: "You are
+asking for a large sum, I cannot get you that. I doubt whether I can
+get you more than $40, silver." "Make it gold, consul," was the
+immediate reply. Many other claims would not have suffered by a
+similar scaling down. Most claims were for houses burned, cattle
+killed, horses commandeered and fences and other property destroyed by
+government forces or revolutionists.
+
+The other declared claims arose principally out of alleged violations
+of concessions or other contractual obligations. The Heureaux estate
+claim, advanced by creditors of the Heureaux estate and based on the
+practical identity of the accounts of Heureaux and those of the
+government was later rejected by the Dominican courts. The outstanding
+national bank notes were those issued by the defunct Banque Nationale
+de Saint Domingue.
+
+_Undeclared Claims_. The undeclared claims, such as
+had not been formally presented, were estimated as
+follows:--
+
+
+American claims......................... L1,000,000
+British claims..........................     50,000
+Italian claims..........................    200,000
+Spanish and German claims...............    200,000
+Other foreign claims....................     50,000
+Dominican claims........................  2,500,000
+                                        ----------
+       Total............................ L4,000,000
+
+
+The foreign claims were principally for damages during revolutions,
+violations of contract, failure of justice, false imprisonment, etc.
+The principal one was an American claim, that of Wm. P. Clyde & Co.,
+of New York, of over $600,000 and was based on the failure of the
+Dominican government regularly to enforce certain high port dues
+against all vessels, save those of the Clyde line, as agreed in the
+Clyde concession. The Dominican claims were mostly old claims for
+unpaid salaries, revolutionary losses, merchandise furnished the
+government, etc.
+
+The situation towards the latter part of 1904 appeared hopeless. Every
+item of the enormous debt had been in default for many months and
+interest was accruing at such rate that the whole income of the
+country would hardly have been sufficient for the payment of interest
+alone. Commerce was handicapped by high wharf and harbor charges
+collected by private individuals under their concessions from the
+government, and by prohibitive port dues imposed on foreign vessels in
+accordance with the concession of the Clyde line. More than
+three-fourths of the debt was held by foreigners who were clamoring
+for payment. The general revenues of the country and every important
+custom-house had been mortgaged to these foreign creditors. In general
+terms it may be said that the ports of the northern coast were pledged
+primarily to Americans and secondarily to Italians, those of Samana
+Bay primarily to Italians and secondarily to Americans, and those of
+the southern coast primarily to French and Belgians and secondarily
+to Italians.
+
+Only one of the international protocols, however, specified when the
+custom-houses to which it referred were to be turned over and the
+manner in which the surrender was to be made. The others merely made
+the pledge in general terms, further negotiations being necessary to
+render it effective. The exception was the arbitral award of the San
+Domingo Improvement Company, which determined that in case of the
+nonpayment of any of the monthly instalments a financial agent, to be
+named by the United States government, was to enter into possession of
+the Puerto Plata custom-house. No payments of instalments were made by
+the Dominican government and in September, 1904, compliance with the
+terms of the award was demanded. On October 20, 1904, the
+vice-president of the San Domingo Improvement Company, designated as
+American financial agent, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+A cry of dismay ran through the land and the leading newspaper of
+Santo Domingo, the "Listin Diario," published an editorial under the
+expressive heading "Consummatum est," It was, indeed, the beginning of
+the end. The other foreign creditors now pressed their claims with
+more vigor than ever, and the preparations for turning over the Monte
+Cristi custom-house to the American financial agent, accomplished in
+February, 1905, stimulated them to greater exertions. In December,
+1904, the French representative in Santo Domingo, acting in behalf of
+the French and Belgian interests, threatened to seize the custom-house
+of Santo Domingo City, the mainstay of the government. The Italian
+creditors also demanded compliance with their agreements. It was
+obvious that the foreclosure of these foreign mortgages would mean
+indefinite foreign occupation and the absolute destruction of the
+Dominican government, as there would be no revenue left to sustain it.
+
+In this difficulty, the Dominican government proposed that all the
+ports of the Republic be taken over by the United States. The
+negotiations were carried on through the capable American minister in
+Santo Domingo, Thomas C. Dawson, and on February 7,1905, culminated in
+the signing of a treaty convention which provided that all Dominican
+customs duties be collected under the direction of the United States,
+that 45 per cent of the collections be turned over to the Dominican
+government for its expenses and the remaining 55 per cent be reserved
+as a creditors' fund, and that a commission be appointed to ascertain
+the true amount of Dominican indebtedness and the sums payable to
+each claimant.
+
+The treaty was laid before the United States Senate and met with a
+cold reception. In the United States there was even less desire than
+in Santo Domingo for American intervention in Dominican matters.
+Further the treaty was strongly advocated by President Roosevelt and
+the tension then existing between the Senate and the President
+endangered many of his measures. The Senate accordingly adjourned in
+March, 1905, without action on the Dominican treaty.
+
+It was the darkest hour for Santo Domingo. The creditors, tired of
+waiting, were in no mood to admit of further delay and the government,
+totally without resources, was in no position to appease them.
+Diplomacy was equal to the emergency and a modus vivendi was arranged,
+under which the President of the United  States was to designate a
+person to receive the revenues of all the custom-houses of the
+Republic and distribute the sums collected in a manner similar to that
+determined by the pending treaty, namely, to turn over 45 per cent of
+the receipts to the Dominican government and to deposit 55 per cent as
+a creditors' fund in a New York bank. This temporary arrangement went
+into effect on April 1, 1905. The new controller and general receiver
+of Dominican customs arrived with several American assistants and soon
+had the receivership service admirably organized. The effect was
+immediate. The creditors ceased their pressure, confidence returned,
+interior trade revived, smuggling was eliminated, the exports and
+imports increased and the customs receipts took a leap upwards.
+
+It was believed that the opposition in the United States Senate would
+be diminished, if, instead of the United States both adjusting the
+debt and collecting the money for its payment, the Dominican Republic
+should make a direct settlement with the creditors, and the United
+States merely undertake to administer the customs for the service of
+the debt as adjusted. Accordingly the Dominican government appointed
+the minister of finance, Federico Velazquez, as special commissioner
+to adjust the Republic's financial difficulties. After long and
+tedious negotiations, Minister Velazquez and his able adviser Dr.
+Hollander evolved three conditional agreements:
+
+(1) An agreement with the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. of New
+York, for the issue of fifty year 5 per cent bonds of the Dominican
+Republic to the amount of $20,000,000.
+
+(2) An agreement with the Morion Trust Company of New York to act as
+fiscal agent of the Dominican Republic and as depository in the debt
+adjustment.
+
+(3) An offer of settlement to the holders of recognized debts and
+claims, to adjust these in cash at rates varying from 10 to 90 per
+cent of the nominal values specified in the offer. The nominal
+aggregate, as recognized by the Republic, exclusive of accrued
+interest, was $31,833,510, for which it was proposed to pay
+$15,526,240, together with certain interest allowances.
+
+The proposed scaling down of the debts provoked opposition and
+remonstrance, but the creditors wisely reflected on the difference
+between a bird in the hand and more in the bush, and by the beginning
+of 1907 holders of credits had signified their assent in sufficient
+amount to assure the success of the readjustment.
+
+A new convention between the United States and the Dominican Republic
+was accordingly prepared, being signed in Santo Domingo on February 8,
+1907. It was ratified by the United States Senate on February 25, and
+by the Dominican Congress on May 3, 1907. The Dominican Congress added
+what it called explanatory articles to the law by which it approved
+the convention but made no change therein.
+
+This convention, a copy of which will be found in the appendix,
+recited that disturbed political conditions in the Dominican Republic
+had created debts and claims amounting to over $30,000,000; and that
+such debts and claims were a burden to the country and a barrier to
+progress; that the Dominican Republic had effected a conditional
+adjustment under which the total sum payable would amount to not more
+than $17,000,000; that part of the plan of settlement was the issue
+and sale of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000; that the plan was
+conditional upon the assistance of the United States in the collection
+of custom revenues of the Dominican Republic; and that "the Dominican
+Republic has requested the United States to give and the United
+States is willing to give such assistance."
+
+The two governments therefore agreed that the President of the United
+States shall appoint a general receiver of Dominican customs, who
+shall collect all the customs duties in the custom-houses of Santo
+Domingo until the payment or redemption of the entire bond issue. From
+the sums collected, after paying the expenses of the receivership the
+general receiver is on the first of each month to pay $100,000 to the
+Fiscal Agent of the loan and the remainder to the Dominican
+government. Whenever the customs collections exceed $3,000,000 in any
+year, one-half the excess shall be applied to the sinking fund for the
+further redemption of bonds.
+
+The Dominican government agrees to give the general receiver and his
+assistants all needful aid and full protection to the extent of its
+powers. The United States also undertakes to give the general receiver
+and his assistants such protection as it, may find to be required for
+the performance of their duties.
+
+The convention further stipulates that until the payment of the full
+amount of the bonds the Dominican Republic is not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States, and
+that a like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import duties.
+
+Even with the approval of the convention difficulties lay in the way
+of the debt adjustment. In Santo Domingo there was opposition to the
+plan by interested parties and by persons not sufficiently mindful of
+past errors and present dangers. The Dominican Congress mutilated the
+contracts with the bankers, who not only refused to accept the
+modifications, but declined to treat further with Minister Velazquez
+unless he were first invested with plenary powers. The Dominican
+Congress then extended the necessary authority, but it came late, for
+the fall of 1907 witnessed a money panic in the United States and the
+floating of a bond issue was impossible.
+
+After months of negotiations and struggle with recalcitrant creditors
+Minister Velazquez and Prof. Hollander finally perfected an
+arrangement under which the creditors were paid the amounts specified
+in the plan of adjustment, twenty per cent in cash and eighty per cent
+in bonds guaranteed by the fiscal convention. For the purpose of the
+cash payments the creditors' fund accumulated under the modus vivendi
+was utilized. The bonds were delivered to the creditors at the rate of
+98-1/2 per cent of their face value.
+
+Under the plan of settlement the outstanding Franco-Belgian bonds and
+most of the other debt items were redeemed at fifty per cent of their
+face value, the Improvement Company's claim at ninety per cent, the
+deferred debts and comptroller's certificates at ten per cent, and the
+remaining claims at rates varying from ten to forty per cent.
+Accumulated interest was remitted entirely by the creditors, except in
+three cases, in which it was greatly reduced. These terms were much
+better than the Republic could have expected from any commission of
+investigation. The arbitral award of the San Domingo Improvement
+Company was scaled down by only ten per cent, because the bonds
+comprised in the award had been included therein at only one-half
+their face value and the other credits had also been largely reduced;
+even this small discount brought howls of protest from British
+interests that had remained discreetly silent while the State
+Department was pressing the claim thinking it completely American.
+Payment under the plan of settlement was soon practically completed.
+Only one important group of creditors, the Vicini heirs, still refuses
+to assent to the plan and accept the amount set aside for them.
+
+Upon payment to the San Domingo Improvement Company, the Company
+turned over the Central Dominican Railway, from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, to the Dominican government. The right of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad to receive a percentage of the import duties
+collected at the port of Sanchez was redeemed by the delivery of
+$195,000 in bonds at par, an excellent bargain, made all the better by
+the circumstance that the railroad invested the proceeds of these
+bonds in the extension of its line in the interior. The restrictive
+concession and heavy damage claim of the Clyde Steamship Line were
+also cancelled, and the onerous wharf and harbor concessions at the
+various ports of the Republic were among the other important
+concessions acquired by the government by means of the bond issue.
+
+Thus debts and claims aggregating nearly $40,000,000 have been and
+will be discharged for about $17,000,000. The surplus remaining from
+the bond issue and the modus vivendi collections must, under the
+agreements made, be devoted to public improvements approved by the
+United States government: a portion has been so expended, and a fund
+of over $3,000,000 still remains available. In addition the Republic's
+credit was established on a high plane; burdensome concessions were
+redeemed and adequate revenues for the maintenance of the government
+and the progress of the country were assured. As time goes on proper
+appreciation will be given to the men who were the principal agents in
+securing this financial and economic regeneration, especially to the
+Minister of Finance, Federico Velazquez, and to Prof. Jacob H.
+Hollander.  While the fiscal convention largely increased the customs
+revenues, the Dominican government made no attempt to accumulate a
+reserve fund, but spent more even than authorized by its ever
+increasing budgets. During the period of civil strife following the
+assassination of President Caceres in 1911 the government, in order to
+carry on its military campaigns, neglected to pay the salaries of its
+civil employees, pledged its internal revenues, diverted and
+misapplied amounts of the trust fund set aside for public works, and
+incurred indebtedness for supplies and materials purchased and money
+borrowed. It thus violated the spirit and letter of the convention in
+which the Dominican Republic expressly agreed not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States.
+
+The American government, in its unwillingness to interfere in the
+internal affairs of the Dominican Republic, had suffered the Victoria
+administration to seize the government in Santo Domingo after the
+death of Caceres, and it now also condoned the violation of the fiscal
+convention. The American commission which went to Santo Domingo in
+1912 to reconcile the warring factions, found that an essential
+condition of the restoration of peace and the rehabilitation of the
+government was the payment of pending salaries and certain other
+debts. Accordingly the United States consented to an increase of the
+Dominican public debt by $1,500,000, and the Dominican government
+contracted a loan to that amount with the National City Bank of New
+York, which took the bonds at 97-1/2 Per cent. The bonds bore 6 per
+cent interest, and for the service of interest and sinking fund, it
+was agreed that the general receiver of customs pay over to the Bank,
+beginning in January, 1913, a monthly sum of $30,000. This bond issue
+was finally liquidated in 1917. The amount so borrowed was not
+sufficient to pay all the indebtedness of the Dominican government.
+The manner of circumventing the debt increase prohibition of the
+convention having been discovered, the interior debt was further
+augmented after that time by failure to pay salaries, by hypothecating
+stamps and stamped paper, and by contracting other obligations, either
+to combat insurrections or because of less worthy motives. In
+addition, claims for revolutionary damages were filed against the
+government.
+
+The foreign debt thus consists merely of the $20,000,000 customs
+administration loan of 1907. The sums paid into the sinking fund of
+this loan have been used to purchase bonds of this issue at their
+market price, somewhat less than par, and the interest falling due on
+such purchased bonds has also gone to swell the sinking fund. The
+value of the assets in the sinking fund on December 31, 1917,
+estimating the purchased customs administration bonds at par, was
+$6,019,161.50, exclusive of interest accruals in 1917.
+
+The interior debt, as a result of revolutionary confusion and
+defective accounting, became as problematic as in days of yore and was
+estimated at widely different figures. With a view to ascertaining the
+exact amount and making provision therefor, the military government,
+in July, 1917, constituted a commission consisting of three American
+and two Dominican citizens, who were charged with the duty of
+investigating and liquidating all claims against the government
+arising since the settlement of 1907. The American members appointed
+were J. H. Edwards, acting comptroller-general of Santo Domingo,
+chairman, Lt.-Col. J. T. Bootes, of the United States Marine Corps,
+and Martin Travieso, Jr., of the Porto Rican bar; the Dominicans were
+two attorneys, M. de J. Troncoso de la Concha and Emilio Joubert.
+Claimants were called upon to file their claims before January 1,
+1918, or be deemed to have relinquished their rights. The nominal
+amount of the claims so filed--comprising all outstanding internal
+debts--is a little more than $14,000,000, some of the claims being for
+indefinite sums. This figure is probably greatly exaggerated and will
+doubtless be subjected to drastic revision by the claims commission.
+
+The customs receivership has continued to render invaluable service.
+In peace and war its officials have distinguished themselves by a
+highly efficient, tactful and fearless discharge of their duties. Up
+to 1913 appointments to the service were determined by the fitness and
+experience of the appointee rather than by his political antecedents,
+and the officials appointed possessed unusual qualifications: the
+first general receiver, Col. George R. Colton, who held until 1907,
+his successor W. E. Pulliam, who continued until 1913, their deputy J.
+H. Edwards, and others, were experts trained in the Philippine
+customs service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FINANCES
+
+
+Financial system.--National revenues.--Customs tariff.--National
+budget.--Legal tender.--Municipal income.--Municipal budgets.
+
+The financial system of Santo Domingo is characterized by an
+inequitable mode of obtaining public revenue, whereby the burden of
+supporting the state is thrown upon the poorest classes in the form of
+indirect taxes upon articles of necessary consumption, and wherein
+taxation of property or contribution according to economic capacity
+plays little part. This is especially true with regard to
+municipal taxation.
+
+
+
+NATIONAL FINANCIAL SYSTEM
+
+The revenues of the general government are derived chiefly from
+customs duties and secondarily from miscellaneous minor sources. There
+is no direct tax on land. Prior to 1904 the revenues fluctuated
+according to the state of tranquillity of the country, being usually
+something less than $2,000,000 per annum, but immediately upon the
+establishment of the American receivership in April, 1905, they went
+up rapidly. The increase has continued steadily and the government's
+annual income now amounts to over $4,500,000.
+
+The proportion of revenue calculated from the various sources has
+fluctuated but little in the different budgets. The proportions
+appearing from the budget of 1916 are here shown, as well as those of
+the budget of 1910, at which period the interior revenues were
+administered with less leakage.
+
+
+                                   Per cent of total
+                                       1910  1916
+Customs duties........................ 77.2  81.7
+Impost on alcohol.....................  6.8   4.4
+State railroad........................  6.4   ...
+Revenue stamps........................  3.    3.6
+State wharves.........................  2.1   4.4
+Port dues.............................  1.5   1.8
+Stamped paper.........................  1.4   2.
+Post offices..........................   .7    .8
+Consular fees.........................   .4    .9
+National telegraph and telephones.....   .3    .2
+Miscellaneous.........................   .2    .2
+                                      -----------
+     Total........................... 100.  100.
+
+
+Almost 95 per cent of the customs receipts are obtained from import
+duties. The present customs tariff, which took effect on January 1,
+1910, made a radical change in the Dominican tariff system and was a
+step in the country's financial regeneration. Theretofore the
+Dominican tariff system was about as unscientific as could be
+imagined. It had been a tariff for revenue only, in the sense that
+the object was to obtain all the revenue possible and more;
+accordingly the common necessities of life were most heavily taxed.
+Originally, it appears, the tariff provided for the payment of an ad
+valorem duty on goods imported; later the discretionary power involved
+in the appraisement was taken away and a fixed, arbitrary value was
+assigned by law to each article, and on this value, known as the
+"aforo," a specified percentage was payable as customs duty.
+Successive governments, in their efforts to raise money, gradually
+increased this percentage until it reached 73.8 per cent. As the
+"aforo" valuation was as a general rule higher than the real value the
+imposition of so elevated a tax made all imported articles
+inordinately expensive. With respect to many items the lawmakers
+overreached themselves, for the duties were raised far beyond the
+point of maximum return.
+
+For years a desire prevailed to adjust the tariff on a rational and
+equitable basis, but as there were no statistics and the government
+feared its income might be reduced, nothing was accomplished. After
+the establishment of the receivership, full statistics of imports and
+exports became available. The general receiver's office and the
+Dominican government accordingly drafted a new tariff, to which the
+American government agreed under the terms of the fiscal convention.
+
+The new tariff is based almost entirely on specific schedules; only in
+exceptional instances, such as in the case of drugs, are ad valorem
+duties imposed. There were many reductions from the former tariff,
+especially on articles of prime necessity, but in some cases the rate
+remained substantially the same, while in a few it was slightly
+increased, a tendency being observed to protect home industries. On
+the whole the revision made an average reduction of about 15 per cent
+as compared with the former tariff, but the new duties are
+scientifically distributed and after a year of commercial readjustment
+the revenue reached higher figures than ever before.
+
+Less than 6 per cent of the customs receipts are derived from export
+duties. Such duties are imposed on cacao and a number of other
+articles, but not on sugar or tobacco. The tax is not a large one, but
+the imposition of any export tax is deplored.
+
+Wars and crop conditions have had their influence on the customs
+receipts, but the figures continue satisfactory, as appears from the
+following table of collections since the establishment of the
+receivership:
+
+
+GROSS CUSTOMS COLLECTIONS
+
+First Modus Vivendi year, April 1, 1905, to March 31, 1906
+....................................................     $2,502,154.31
+Second Modus Vivendi year, April 1,1906, to March 31, 1907
+....................................................     $3,181,763.48
+Four months' period, April 1, 1907, to July 31, 1907
+(termination of Modus Vivendi)......................     $1,161,426.61
+First convention year, Aug. 1, 1907 to July 31, 1908
+....................................................     $3,469,110.69
+Second convention year, Aug. 1, 1908 to July 1909
+....................................................     $3,359,389.71
+Third convention year, Aug. 1, 1909 to July 1910
+....................................................     $2,876,976.17
+Fourth convention year, Aug. 1, 1910 to July 1911
+....................................................     $3,433,738.92
+Fifth convention year, Aug. 1, 1911 to July 1912
+....................................................     $3,645,974.79
+Sixth convention year, Aug. 1, 1912 to July 1913
+....................................................     $4,109,294.12
+Seventh convention year, Aug. 1, 1913 to July 1914
+....................................................     $3,462,163.66
+Five months' period, Aug. 1, 1914 to Dec. 31, 1914
+....................................................     $1,209,555.54
+Ninth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1915 to Dec. 31, 1915
+....................................................     $3,882,048.40
+Tenth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1916 to Dec. 31, 1916
+...................................................      $4,035,355.43
+Eleventh fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1917 to Dec. 31, 1917
+...................................................      $5,329,574.20
+
+
+With regard to port dues, the Dominican government was long bound by a
+concession made to the Clyde line in 1878. Upon the redemption of this
+concession the port dues were in 1908 reduced to their present figure.
+
+An impost on alcohols was established in 1905, and ought to become an
+important source of revenue. The law is crude in that it taxes the
+distillation rather than the sale of alcohol and does not sufficiently
+guard against fraud. The receipts, which in the beginning were quite
+promising, fell off strangely in late years.
+
+The most recent sources of revenue are the Central Dominican Railway,
+from Puerto Plata to Santiago, acquired from the San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the debt settlement in 1908; the Moca
+extension of the railroad, finished by the government in 1910; and the
+wharves acquired by the redemption of the various port concessions.
+These properties at first gave the government a handsome revenue,
+which later diminished in a suspicious manner.
+
+The budget of the Republic kept pace with the growth of income, but
+the appropriations were practically all for personnel, while public
+works continued to be neglected and no provision was made for future
+contingencies or the establishment of a reserve fund. The annual
+budget enacted to become effective July 1, 1916, may be summarized
+as follows;
+
+
+ESTIMATED RECEIPTS
+
+Custom-houses:
+
+Import duties              $3,500,000
+Port dues                      80,000
+Export duties                 220,000
+
+Subtotal:                               $3,800,000
+
+Imposts:
+Alcohol                       200,000
+Stamps                        165,000
+
+Subtotal:                     365,000
+
+Communications:
+
+Postage stamps                 36,000
+Telegraph and telephone         5,000
+Wireless telegraph              5,000
+
+Subtotal:                                   46,000
+
+Consular fees                  40,000
+Stamped paper                  90,000
+
+State properties:
+
+Ozama lighting plant             4,500
+State wharves                  200,000
+Rentals and post-office boxes    1,000
+
+Subtotal:                                  205,500
+
+Miscellaneous                    6,200
+
+Total estimated receipts                $4,552,700
+
+
+ESTIMATED DISBURSEMENTS
+
+Service of public debt                              $1,966,746.86
+
+Legislative power                                      132,400.00
+  Including salaries of 12 senators and
+  24 deputies at $200 per month.
+
+Executive power...................................... $ 25,460.00
+  Expenses of president's office, including salary of
+  president at $800 per month.
+
+Judicial power........................................ 316,160.00
+  Including salaries of supreme court (with a chief
+  justice at $250 per month, six associate justices at
+  $160, and a state's attorney at $200); 3 courts of
+  appeals (each having a chief justice at $180 per
+  month, 4 associate justices at $140 and a state's
+  attorney at $180); 12 courts of first instance (each
+  having a judge at $150 per month, a state's attorney
+  at $130-$150, and one or two judges of instruction
+  at $130); 3 courts-martial costing $2,916 each; 70
+  justices of the peace with salaries ranging from $25
+  to $55 per month; and jails in each province, the
+  jailers receiving from $35 to $69 per month.
+
+Department of Interior and Police...................... 329,638.00
+  Including office of secretary of interior, who
+  receives $320 per month; 12 provincial governors with
+  salaries from $160 to $180 per month; 53 communal
+  chiefs, at $30 to $60; church salaries amounting to
+  $3,600; public celebrations $5,100; expenses of
+  sanitation service $15,000; and a long pension list
+  amounting to $188,240. Most of these pensions are of
+  $10, $12 or $15 per month, but 7 widows of former
+  presidents and other distinguished men receive $100
+  per month.
+
+Department of Foreign Affairs.......................... 122,572.00
+  Including office of secretary, whose salary is $320
+  per month; ministers to the United States, France and
+  Haiti at $500 per month; charge's in Cuba and
+  Venezuela at $250; and 23 consuls in the United
+  States, Porto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, St. Thomas, Panama,
+  Turks Island, Jamaica, England, France, Italy,
+  Holland, Spain and Belgium.
+
+Department of Finance and Commerce...................... 356,678.04
+  Including office of secretary, who receives $320 per
+  month; general comptroller's office; 10 treasury
+  agents with salaries from $80 to $112 monthly;
+  custom-houses (the collectors of the port receiving
+  from $80 to $200 per month); receiver-general's office
+  $43,152 (the salary of the general receiver is given
+  as $9,848.04 per annum and that of his deputy as $5,988);
+  coast guard service $6,000; wharf repairs $20,000.
+
+Department of War and the Navy.........................   593,815.26
+  Including office of secretary; 12 military posts (the
+  commanders receiving from $60 to $150 per month); 10
+  armories $4,980; military instructors $4,380;
+  president's staff $12,380; one infantry regiment of
+  about 470 officers and men (the colonel receiving $95
+  monthly, the men $l5); a band of 33 men; a police
+  force, called "republican guard" of about 800 officers
+  and men (salaries ranging from $200 for the brigadier
+  general and $140 for the colonel, to $18 for the
+  private); 2 military hospitals $31,867; a machine shop
+  $4,440; port captains at $50-$90 per month, and
+  doctors at $25-$50; and the gunboat $26,444.
+
+Department of Justice and Public Instruction...........    318,208.00
+  Including office of secretary; University of Santo
+  Domingo $23,700; Santiago professional institute $8,820;
+  2 jail schools; subventions to many municipal schools,
+  private and special schools, about $180,000;
+  33 scholarships, $23,870; pensions $23,988.
+
+Department of Agriculture and Immigration..............     18,740.00
+  Including office of secretary; experiment fields in
+  Santiago $3,000; weather bureau $3,980.
+
+Department of Development and Public Works.............    332,596.00
+  Including office of secretary; lighthouses $13,282;
+  postal service; telegraph, telephone and wireless
+  service; upkeep of dredge "Ozama."
+
+Chamber of Accounts....................................      7,980.00
+
+Miscellaneous..........................................     61,872.00
+
+Contingent expenses....................................     25,000.00
+
+Constitutional assembly................................     10,000.00
+
+Total estimated disbursements, besides debt service ... $2,651,119.30
+
+
+The figures in the budgets were not, absolute but were subject to
+modification by transfer of appropriation through presidential decree.
+The contingent expense fund and the military appropriations were thus
+frequently swelled at the expense of other services.
+
+The budget above shown was the last one enacted under the old
+conditions. It was never applied, but is given as a sample, because,
+while differing only slightly from the old budget which continued in
+force, it better illustrates conditions at the beginning of American
+occupation. The military government made numerous changes in the
+budget and rendered the appropriations for salaries of the president
+and cabinet secretaries available for other purposes, as the American
+naval and marine officers now performing the duties of these positions
+receive no compensation from the Dominican treasury. A comprehensive
+new budget, the first one of the period of transition and providing
+for some of the innovations recently introduced, was expected to
+become effective early in 1918.
+
+For the purpose of bringing order and efficiency into the collection
+and disbursement of the public revenues of Santo Domingo, the American
+government in 1913 urged that it be permitted to designate an American
+comptroller and financial adviser and the Bordas administration at
+length consented, but as there was no legal authority for such action
+and as the appointee was not characterized by unusual ability, the
+Jimenez administration declined to continue the arrangement. During
+the present military government and under the efficient direction of
+the acting comptroller-general, J. H. Edwards, valuable work is being
+done in revising the accounting system and generally placing the
+country's finances in order.
+
+All the accounts of the Republic are carried on in American money,
+which is legal tender and is current in all parts of the country. For
+about fifty years after the declaration of independence, coins of many
+countries, principally Mexican silver and Spanish gold, were in
+circulation, with the rate of exchange constantly fluctuating. In 1890
+the Republic joined the Latin convention and in the following year
+through the then existing Banque Nationale de Saint Domingue issued
+silver and copper coin to the value of about $200,000. The fall in the
+value of silver caused depreciation and a few of the silver coins of
+this issue which are still in circulation are valued at forty cents
+gold for five francs; the copper coins at a little less. In 1894 the
+gold standard was adopted and though no actual coinage took place all
+official financial transactions were thereafter based upon gold
+values. In 1895 and 1897 President Heureaux issued more silver coins
+or, rather, coins washed over with silver, to the nominal amount of
+$2,250,000, but the seigniorage was so enormous that the issue was a
+case of a government counterfeiting its own money. The rate of
+exchange fell to five pesos for one dollar gold and this is the rate
+legalized by the law of June 19, 1905, which made the American gold
+dollar the standard of the Dominican Republic.
+
+For a while the ordinary smaller business transactions continued to be
+based on silver values. On a trip to Santo Domingo in 1904 a friend
+and myself were driven from the wharf to the hotel and the coachman
+asked for two dollars. It seemed an outrageous charge, but we
+considered ourselves in the hands of the Philistines, and handed over
+an American two-dollar bill. "Excuse me until I can get change," said
+the coachman to our surprise, and ran into the hotel; in a moment he
+reappeared with a double handful of coins: "Here is your change," he
+said, "eight dollars." The charge had been only forty cents in gold.
+At the present time American money is the basis and Dominican silver
+and copper is regarded merely as fractional currency, one peso
+Dominican being equivalent to twenty cents American.
+
+At various times the Dominican Republic has had disastrous experiences
+with paper money issued without sufficient guarantees. One service
+rendered by the Spaniards during their occupation in the sixties was
+the retirement of large amounts of such paper. The troubles
+accompanying unsecured paper money had been forgotten when Heureaux in
+his attempts to raise funds floated an issue of a nominal amount of
+$3,600,000 in notes, of the Banque Nationale, in addition to a small
+amount already emitted by the bank. Such demoralization resulted that
+at one time it took twenty dollars in paper money to purchase one
+dollar in gold. The national bank notes having been demonetized,
+various amounts were purchased at auction by the administrations
+succeeding Heureaux and destroyed, and almost all the remainder has
+been redeemed at five to one under the 1907 debt settlement. The only
+paper now seen is American paper money, which circulates at a par with
+American silver and gold.
+
+
+
+MUNICIPAL FINANCES
+
+Like the national government, the municipalities or communes depend
+almost entirely upon indirect taxation for their revenues. One of the
+principal sources of income is the tax on the slaughter of cattle and
+sale of meat. The communes may further, with the authority of
+Congress, levy a "consumo" tax, a small duty on the imports and
+exports of merchants within their jurisdiction, which tax has given
+rise to much confusion and controversy. Business licenses also form an
+important fount of revenue. By a law of Congress (soon to be
+superseded by a decree of the military government) the municipalities
+are divided into several classes, according to their importance, and
+the licenses payable by the various kinds of business in the several
+classes are designated. The national government turns over to the
+various municipalities a portion of the impost on spirits and grants
+educational subventions to several municipalities for their primary
+schools. Minor sources of revenue are taxes on lotteries and raffles,
+vehicle licenses, amusement permits, cockpits, etc. Two towns, Santo
+Domingo and Santiago, have municipal lotteries. Under all these taxes
+a man might own scores of houses and great expanses of land without
+paying towards the maintenance of the state and municipality more than
+the poorest peon on his property.
+
+The sums collected for municipal purposes in all the communes of the
+Republic may be calculated at about $600,000 per annum, derived from
+the following sources:
+
+MUNICIPAL RECEIPTS
+
+
+                                          Approximate percentage
+                                             of entire income
+
+Municipal charges on imports and exports.............. 17.7
+Business licenses..................................... 15.3
+Markets............................................... 10.8
+Lottery tax........................................... 10.5
+Slaughter houses and meat transportation..............  9.2
+Alcohols..............................................  7.3
+Excises (alcabala)....................................  5.
+Amusement permits.....................................  3.5
+Public register.......................................  3.5
+Lotteries.............................................  2.5
+Lighting in private houses............................  2.3
+Ferryboats and bridges................................  3.1
+Municipal property and rentals........................  1.8
+Miscellaneous.........................................  8.5
+                                                      -----
+                                                      100.
+
+
+The largest budget is that of the capital city, with Santiago second.
+According to the latest figures available, in round numbers the
+income of the thirteen more important cities and towns is annually
+about as follows:
+
+
+Santo Domingo........................ $160,000
+Santiago de los Caballeros............. 90,000
+San Pedro de Macoris................... 50,000
+Puerto Plata........................... 40,000
+La Vega................................ 30,000
+Moca................................... 21,000
+Azua................................... 20,000
+San Francisco de Macoris............... 19,000
+Samana................................. 10,000
+Monte Cristi........................... 10,000
+Sanchez................................ 10,000
+Bani...................................  9,000
+San Cristobal..........................  8,000
+
+
+In almost every town the largest item of expenditure is for education,
+the maintenance of public primary schools. The more important cities,
+especially the capital, make fair appropriations for street repair and
+other municipal public works, but in the lesser communes such
+appropriations are negligible. Very little, practically nothing, is
+appropriated for roads. Some communes pay a small subvention to the
+church and assist in the repair of church buildings. On the whole,
+municipal services are only scantily looked after, but the fault is
+due more to lack of revenue than to improper distribution.
+Occasionally the national government renders assistance in the
+construction of some work pertaining to a municipality.
+
+The average distribution of municipal disbursements may be estimated
+about as follows:
+
+MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURES
+
+
+                                 Approximate percentage
+                                    of whole expenditure
+Education.......................................... 27.1
+Public works, street cleaning, etc................. 27.
+Police.............................................  8.4
+Administrative expenses (salaries of municipal
+officials and cost of tax collection)..............  7.5
+Public lighting....................................  7.
+Sanitation.........................................  4.
+Charity............................................  2.2
+Municipal debts....................................  1.9
+Miscellaneous...................................... 14.2
+                                                  ------
+                                                   100.
+
+
+In view of the lack of resources or interest on the part of
+municipalities and the central government, services of a public nature
+have frequently been assumed by private initiative. Many clubs and
+lodges maintain schools. Firemen's corps, where there are any, are
+volunteer organizations. For charity work, hospitals, educational
+work, etc., local committees are formed which raise funds by private
+subscription or by lottery, and in a number of towns the embellishment
+of the plazas is in charge of a "junta de ornato."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE FUTURE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+Attraction by the United States.--Political future of Santo
+Domingo.--Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+The history of the Dominican Republic affords a striking illustration
+of the rule that large bodies attract nearby smaller or weaker bodies
+whether in the world of physics or in international politics. The
+United States of America had scarcely become a nation when it began to
+absorb contiguous territory and exert a strong attraction on Cuba.
+With respect to Santo Domingo also, there was such attraction, as
+became evident in proposals for annexation or the establishment of a
+naval station. At times it appeared that the process was definitely
+checked, as when Spain annexed Santo Domingo in 1861, and when the
+United States Senate refused to annex the country in 1871, and when
+the Dominican Government cancelled the Samana Bay Concession in 1874,
+but these acts merely set back the clock of time which they could
+not stop.
+
+When Porto Rico and Cuba were occupied by the United States the
+attraction exerted on Santo Domingo was powerfully increased. From
+that time on the Dominican Republic was in fact a protectorate of the
+United States, though neither American nor Dominican statesmen would
+have admitted it. The modus vivendi of 1905 and the fiscal convention
+of 1907 gave expression, in part, to relations actually existing.
+
+A peculiar feature of the matter is that, except for a few very brief
+intervals, neither the United States nor the Dominican Republic has
+desired closer political relations and each country has done
+everything in its power to avoid them. The 1907 convention was
+approved in the United States Senate with only one vote to spare, and
+many of its supporters favored it principally because it was expected
+to obviate the necessity of further American intervention in Dominican
+affairs. It was believed that with the custom-houses removed from the
+political game the receipts and prosperity of the country would grow,
+revolutionists would no longer be able to finance uprisings, and civil
+wars would cease. The convention did indeed augment the country's
+revenues and prosperity, but it could not prevent uprisings entirely
+nor remove their causes. On the other hand it strengthened the bonds
+between the United States and Santo Domingo and led to the military
+occupation of 1916.
+
+What will the future bring? There is every reason to believe that the
+same attraction of Santo Domingo by the United States will continue
+with greater strength than ever, despite all that may be said or done,
+on either side, to oppose it. It is a force which cannot be overcome,
+and had best, be recognized and reckoned with. It is unnecessary to
+consider the sentimental objections to closer political relations
+between the two countries. Conditions in Santo Domingo, in the United
+States, and in the world at large are the causes of this force of
+attraction, for which the government of neither country is
+responsible.
+
+What then will the future relations between Santo Domingo and the
+United States be? It appears that at the present moment a plan similar
+to that tried in Haiti is under advisement, namely, to restore the
+Dominican government, but to leave the custom-houses under American
+administration, place the finances under American control, appoint an
+American supervisor of public works, and secure the peace by a police
+force under American officers. The real relations between the two
+countries would thus find further expression in the creation of a
+disguised protectorate.
+
+As a permanent solution it is not probable that this plan will prove
+satisfactory. It tends to create two independent governments in the
+same country; on the one side the Dominican government which will
+consider itself supreme and sooner or later resent dictation or lack
+of sympathy on the part of the American officials, and on the other
+hand the police heads and other American officers who will brook no
+interference with what they deem their duty. Friction is bound to
+develop; it is impossible for two independent governments to work side
+by side in the same territory; one authority must be paramount. At
+first the plan may appear to operate successfully because the desires
+of the American officials will be respected, but later when the new
+Dominican government has outgrown the novelty of the situation there
+are certain to be reciprocal demands which may lead to opposition.
+Another possible source of difficulty is that even among the proposed
+American officials there is no recognized superior and that here also
+differences may arise. Rather than go so far and no further, it were
+better to attempt less.
+
+The ultimate expression, more or less deferred, of the relations
+between the two countries, will most probably be a clearly defined
+protectorate with an amply authorized resident, or outright
+annexation. Which of these two courses is preferable? From a
+standpoint of the interests of the Dominican people annexation would
+appear better. A protected state has many obligations and few rights.
+It must defer to the wishes of the protector, but the protector is
+under no absolute duty to further its development or the happiness of
+its inhabitants. On the other hand, when annexed to the stronger
+state, it may expect and demand that interest be shown in its progress
+and well-being. While annexation would probably entail a temporary
+government by officials foreign to the country, American traditions
+would not permit such a condition to continue for any length of time
+and autonomy would eventually come.
+
+From an American standpoint a protectorate would seem preferable. It
+would carry the advantages of annexation without its responsibilities,
+without the undesirable feature of bringing into our body politic a
+people foreign in race, language and customs, and with less danger of
+stirring up South American susceptibilities. It would, however, permit
+of less latitude for the improvement of conditions in Santo Domingo.
+
+For some time to come it is probable that some form of protectorate
+will be the choice of both parties. Many American statesmen are
+opposed to annexation, and the Dominicans as a rule would prefer the
+phantom of sovereignty in a mediatized republic to the real advantages
+of annexation.
+
+It is only natural that Dominicans should feel sad at passing under
+the government of a foreign power. But those of clearer vision
+recognize that there is no alternative, that the independence of the
+Republic has long been a fiction, that real freedom is only now
+beginning to dawn, and that American assistance will give the greatest
+impetus to prosperity. For several years the number of persons taking
+such a broader view has been rapidly increasing. It was not long ago
+when friends of mine in Santo Domingo would lead me to the middle of
+the plazza, out of hearing of any eavesdropper, and then with bated
+breath confide their conviction that the only salvation of the
+country lay in the United States. Ruin and sorrow brought by the civil
+wars have caused such ideas to spread and be openly expressed. At
+present it may be said that many Dominicans welcome American
+assistance, that the great majority accept it, and that only a small
+minority are bitterly opposed to it, and these objectors are
+principally former politicians and revolutionists whose opinion counts
+for least. The number of those favoring American intervention is being
+increased by the splendid administrative work of the present American
+authorities and would doubtless be still further augmented by valuable
+constructive legislation and by a more uniform display of tact and
+kindliness on the part of all American officials.
+
+These relations between the two countries impose at least a moral duty
+upon the United States. They make it incumbent upon the United States,
+as far as is in its power, to foster the development of Santo Domingo
+and promote the happiness of the Dominican people. One measure it
+should adopt is the granting of suitable tariff concessions. Another
+measure is the creation, for the administration of the countries
+dependent on the United States, of a corps of trained men, selected
+and retained without regard to political considerations, thoroughly
+qualified for the duties they are to assume, speaking the language of
+the country where they are sent, and capable of a sympathetic
+understanding with the inhabitants. By showing an interest of this
+kind the United States will properly fulfill its proud mission of
+spreading liberty and prosperity in the new world.
+
+The closer relations between the United States and Santo Domingo will
+bring that country one boon of inestimable value, namely, peace. It is
+obvious that all the troubles which have befallen the Dominican
+Republic are due directly or indirectly to the state of civil
+disorder which has so long been the bane of the country. Another
+advantage which these relations will bring is a proper administration
+of the country's finances. Peace and efficient administration will
+mean the multiplication of roads, railroads and other public
+improvements, the extension of education and a rapid advance of the
+people and development of the country. When we think of the vast
+resources of Santo Domingo, the mineral treasures hidden within Its
+forest covered mountains, the unlimited agricultural wealth concealed
+beneath its fertile soil, the enchanting beauty of its scenery, the
+courtesy and hospitality of its people, its glorious early days and
+distressing later history, we must be glad that the clouds which have
+so long shrouded the land in darkness are definitely dissipated at
+last and that the sun of peace and prosperity has begun to shine.
+
+
+With peace assured and with means of communication provided, it is
+easy to make predictions as to the economic future of Santo Domingo.
+There will probably never be much manufacturing but agriculture will
+increase with enormous strides assisted by streams of foreign capital
+which will not be slow to realize the exceptional opportunities
+offered. Sugar growing will probably be preferred and the southern
+plains as well as a great portion of the rich Cibao Valley will soon
+be covered with waving canefields. Tobacco will also receive attention
+and perhaps fruit growing. Cacao and coffee will spread more slowly.
+Prospecting for mineral wealth will be undertaken. The extension of
+agriculture will stimulate commerce and augment, the wealth of the
+people. Within a few years the country will become one of the richest
+gardens of the West Indies.
+
+The curtain has gone down upon the epoch of revolutions, conspiracies,
+civil wars and destruction. That period belongs to the past as
+definitely as the era of freebooters and pirates. A new era has begun
+for beautiful Quisqueya, in which, under the protection of the Stars
+and Stripes, it is destined to enjoy a greater measure of freedom,
+progress and prosperity than its inhabitants have ever dreamed.
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+
+CHIEFS OF STATE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+1492-1918
+
+FIRST SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+Admiral Cristopher Columbus, viceroy                     1492-1500
+Adelantado Bartholomew Columbus                          1496-1498
+Comendador Francisco de Bobadilla                        1500-1502
+Comendador Nicolas de Ovando                             1502-1509
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1509-1515
+Licentiate Cristabal Lebran, in connection with Royal
+  Audiencia                                              1515-1516
+Luis de Figueroa, Bernardino de Manzanedo, and
+  Ildefonso de Santo Domingo, friars of the order of
+  San Jeranimo                                           1516-1519
+Licentiate Rodrigo de Figueroa                           1519-1520
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1520-1524
+Royal Audiencia, in connection with judges Caspar de
+  Espinosa and Alonso de Zuazo                           1524-1528
+
+
+_Governors and Captains-General _
+
+(Note. Owing to the incompleteness of the records
+the following list probably contains inaccuracies.)
+
+
+Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcian de la Vega                              1528-1531
+Royal Audiencia                                          1531-1533
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcian de la Vega                              1533-1540
+Louis Columbus, Third Admiral                            1540-1543
+Licentiate Alonso Lapez de Cerrato                       1543-1549
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Archbishop of Santo
+  Domingo                                                1549-1556
+Licentiate Alonso de Maldonado                           1556-1560
+Licentiate Cepeda                                        1560
+Licentiate Veras                                         1560-1561
+Licentiate Alonso Arias de Herrera                       1561-1564
+Antonio de Osorio                                        1564-1583
+Licentiate Cristabal de Ovalles                          1583-1590
+Lope de Vega Portocarrero                                1590-1597
+Domingo de Osorio                                        1597-1608
+Diego Gamez de Sandoval                                  1608-1624
+Diego de Acuna                                           1624-1634
+Maestre de Campo Juan Bitrian de Viamonte                1634-1646
+Nicolas Velazco Altamirano                               1646-1649
+Maestre de Campo Gabriel de Chaves Osorio                1649-1652
+Bernardino de Menesets y Bracamonte, Count of Penalva    1652-1657
+Felix de Zuniga                                          1657-1658
+Andres Perez Franco                                      1658-1660
+Juan Francisco de Montemayor Cardova y Cuenca            1660-1662
+Juan de Balboa y Mogrovejo                               1662-1670
+Pedro de Carvajal y Lobos                                1670-1671
+Maestre de Campo Ignacio de Zayas Bazan                  1671-1677
+Dr. Juan de Padilla Guardiola y Guzman                   1677-1679
+Maestre de Campo Francisco de Segura Sandoval y
+  Castilla                                               1679-1684
+Maestre de Campo Andres de Robles                        1684-1689
+Admiral Ignacio Perez Caro                               1689-1698
+Maestre de Campo Gil Correoso Catalan                    1698-1699
+Severino de Manzaneda                                    1699-1702
+Admiral Ignacio Perez Caro                               1702-1706
+Licentiate Sebastian de Cerezada y Giran                 1706-1707
+Guillermo Morfi                                          1707-1713
+Brigadier Pedro de Niela y Torres                        1713-1714
+Colonel Antonio Landeche                                 1714-1715
+Brigadier Fernando Constanzo y Ramarez, Knight of
+  Santiago                                               1715-1723
+Colonel Francisco de la Rocha y Ferrer                   1723-1732
+Brigadier Alfonso de Castro y Mazo                       1732-1739
+Brigadier Pedro Zorrilla y de San Martin, Marquis of la
+  Gandara Real                                           1739-1750
+Brigadier Juan Jose Colomo                               1750
+Teniente rey Jose de Zunnier de Basteros                 1750-1751
+Brigadier Francisco Rubio y Penaranda                    1751-1759
+Field-Marshal Manuel de Azlor y Urries                   1759-1771
+Brigadier Jose Solano y Bote                             1771-1779
+Brigadier Isidore de Peralta y Rojas                     1779-1785
+Colonel Joaquan Garcia y Moreno                          1785-1786
+Brigadier Manuel Gonzalez de Torres                      1786-1788
+Brigadier Joaquan Garcia y Moreno                        1788-1801
+
+
+FRENCH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+
+General Toussaint l'Ouverture                            1801-1802
+General Antoine Nicolas Kerverseau                       1802-1803
+General Marie Louis Ferrand                              1803-1808
+General L. Barquier                                      1808-1809
+
+
+SECOND SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+
+Brigadier Juan Sanchez Ramarez                           1809-1811
+Colonel Manuel Caballero y Masot                         1811-1813
+Brigadier Carlos de Urrutia y Matos                      1813-1818
+Brigadier Sebastian Kindelan y Oregan                    1818-1821
+Brigadier Pascual Real                                   1821
+
+
+STATE OF COLOMBIAN REPUBLIC
+
+_Governor and President_
+
+
+Licentiate Jose Nunez de Caceres                         1821-1822
+
+
+HAITIAN RULE
+
+_Presidents_
+
+
+Jean Pierre Boyer                                        1822-1843
+Charles Riviare Herardi aine                             1843-1844
+
+
+FIRST REPUBLIC
+
+_Presidents_
+
+Central Council of Government (Provisional government)   1844
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1844-1848
+Manuel Jimenez, Constitutional President                 1848-1849
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1849-1853
+Pedro Santana, Constitutional President                  1853-1856
+Manuel de Regla Mota, Vice-President                     1856
+Buenaventura Baez, Vice-President                        1856-1858
+Jose Desiderio Valverde, Constitutional President        1858
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1858-1861
+
+THIRD SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+Lieutenant-General Pedro Santana                         1861-1862
+Lieutenant-General Felipe Ribero y Lemoine               1862-1863
+Brigadier Carlos de Vargas                               1863-1864
+Lieutenant-General Jose de la Gandara                    1864-1865
+
+SECOND REPUBLIC
+_Presidents_
+
+Jose Salcedo, Provisional President                      1863-1864
+Gaspar Polanco, Provisional President                    1864-1865
+Benigno Filorneno de Rojas, Provisional President        1865
+Pedro Antonio Pimentel, Constitutional President         1865
+Jose Maria Cabral, Provisional President                 1865
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1865-1866
+Jose Maria Cabral, Constitutional President              1866-1868
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1868-1873
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1874-1876
+Uliees F. Espaillat, Constitutional President            1876
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional President            1876
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1876-1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878
+Ignacio Marna Gonzalez, Constitutional President         1878
+Jacinto de Castro, President Supreme Court               1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878-1879
+Gregorio Luperan, Provisional President                  1879-1880
+Fernando A. de Merino, Constitutional President          1880-1882
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President                1882-1884
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, Constitutional President     1884-1885
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Vice-President and Provisional
+  President                                              1885-1887
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President (4 terms)      1887-1899
+Juan Wenceslao Figuereo, Vice-President                  1899
+Horacio Vasquez, Provisional President                   1899
+Juan Isidro Jimanez, Constitutional President            1899-1902
+Horacio Vasquez, Provisional President                   1902-1903
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903
+Carlos E. Morales, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903-1906
+Raman Caceres, Vice-President and Constitutional
+  President                                              1906-1911
+Eladio Victoria, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1911-1912
+Adolfo A. Nouel, Provisional President                   1912-1913
+Jose Bordas Valdez, Provisional President                1913-1914
+Raman Baez, Provisional President                        1914
+Juan Isidro Jimanez, Constitutional President            1914-1916
+Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, Provisional President      1916
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INTERVENTION
+
+_Military Governor_
+
+
+Rear-Admiral H. S. Knapp                                 1916-
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+OLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN USE IN SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+The equivalents between old weights and measures still in use in Santo
+Domingo with the legal or metric system, are as follows, the
+equivalents with American measures being also given:
+
+
+
+Dominican              American              Metric
+
+Measures of length:
+1 league                 3.46 miles                5.5727 kilometers
+1 ona                       3 feet, 10.79 inches   1.1884 meters
+1 yard                 35.996 inches               0.9143 meter
+1 vara                  32.91 inches                0.836 meter
+1 foot                 10.945 inches                0.278 meter
+1 inch                 0.9055 inch                  0.023 meter
+1 line [1]             0.0787 inch                  0.002 meter
+
+Surface measures:
+1 tarea [2]            0.1554 acre                 628.86 sq. meters
+1 caballeria           186.50 acres               75.4636 hectares
+
+Liquid measures:
+1 bottle               0.7392 quart                   720 grams
+1 gallon               3.3265 quarts                 3.34 liters
+
+Dry measures:
+1 fanega                1.575 bushels                55.5 liters
+1 almud                0.1596 bushel                5.625 liters
+1 cuartillo            0.0328 bushel                1.156 liter
+
+Weights:
+1 ton               2,028.232 pounds                  920 kilograms
+1 quintal             101.412 pounds                   46 kilograms
+1 arroba               25.353 pounds                 11.5 kilograms
+1 pound                 1.014 pounds                  460 grams
+1 ounce               0.06338 pound, or             28.75 grams
+                        1.014 ounces avoirdupois
+1 adarme                27.78 grains                  1.8 grams
+1 grain[3]             0.7706 grain                     5 centigrams
+
+The following measures are cited for comparison:
+
+                        American                        Metric
+Porto Rican cuerda     0.9701 acre              3930.4037 sq. meters
+Porto Rican caballeria 194.02 acres                78.608 hectares
+Cuban caballeria        33.16 acres               13.4202 hectares
+Haitian carreau         3.194 acres                12,928 sq. meters
+
+
+[Footnote 1: 12 lines = 1 inch; 12 inches = 1 foot; 3 feet = 1 vara; 3
+varas = 1 vara conuquera; 20,000 feet = 1 league]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tarea is a parcel of land measuring 100 square varas
+conuqueras. It is the usual measure of land. 300 tareas = 1 peonia; 4
+peonias = 1 caballeria.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 36 grains = 1 adarme; 16 adarmes = 1 ounce; 16 ounces = 1
+pound; 25 pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 20 quintals =
+1 ton.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+AMERICAN-DOMINICAN FISCAL CONVENTION OF 1907
+
+CONVENTION BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE DOMINICAN
+REPUBLIC PROVIDING FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
+COLLECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CUSTOMS REVENUES OF THE
+DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+
+
+_Concluded February 8, 1907
+
+Ratification advised by Senate February 25, 1907
+
+Ratified by President June 2, 1907
+
+Ratified by President of the Dominican Republic June 18, 1907
+
+Ratifications exchanged at Washington July 8, 1907
+
+Proclaimed July 25, 1907_
+
+BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+A PROCLAMATION
+
+Whereas a convention between the United States of America and the
+Dominican Republic providing for the assistance of the United States
+in the collection and application of the customs revenues of the
+Dominican Republic, was concluded and signed by their respective
+Plenipotentiaries at the City of Santo Domingo, on the eighth day of
+February, one thousand nine hundred and seven, the original of which
+convention, being in the English and Spanish languages, is word for
+word as follows:
+
+Whereas during disturbed political conditions in the Dominican
+Republic debts and claims have been created, some by regular and some
+by revolutionary governments, many of doubtful validity in whole or
+in part, and amounting in all to over $30,000,000, nominal or
+face value;
+
+And whereas the same conditions have prevented the peaceable and
+continuous collection and application of National revenues for payment
+of interest or principal of such debts or for liquidation and
+settlement of such claims; and the said debts and claims continually
+increase by accretion of interest and are a grievous burden upon the
+people of the Dominican Republic and a barrier to their improvement
+and prosperity;
+
+And whereas the Dominican Government has now effected a conditional
+adjustment and settlement of said debts and claims under which all its
+foreign creditors have agreed to accept about $12,407,000 for debts
+and claims amounting to about $21,184,000 of nominal or face value,
+and the holders of internal debts or claims of about $2,028,258
+nominal or face value have agreed to accept about $645,827 therefor,
+and the remaining holders of internal debts or claims on the same
+basis as the assents already given will receive about $2,400,000
+therefor, which sum the Dominican Government has fixed and determined
+as the amount which it will pay to such remaining internal debt
+holders; making the total payments under such adjustment and
+settlement, including interest as adjusted and claims not yet
+liquidated, amount to not more than about $17,000,000.
+
+And whereas a part of such plan of settlement is the issue and sale of
+bonds of the Dominican Republic to the amount of $20,000,000 bearing
+five per cent interest payable in fifty years and redeemable after ten
+years at 102-1/2 and requiring payment of at least one per cent per
+annum for amortization, the proceeds of said bonds, together with such
+funds as are now deposited for the benefit of creditors from customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic heretofore received, after payment
+of the expenses of such adjustment, to be applied first to the payment
+of said debts and claims as adjusted and second out of the balance
+remaining to the retirement and extinction of certain concessions and
+harbor monopolies which are a burden and hindrance to the commerce of
+the country and third the entire balance still remaining to the
+construction of certain railroads and bridges and other public
+improvements necessary to the industrial development of the country;
+And whereas the whole of said plan is conditioned and dependent upon
+the assistance of the United States in the collection of customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic and the application thereof so far
+as necessary to the interest upon and the amortization and redemption
+of said bonds, and the Dominican Republic has requested the United
+States to give and the United States is willing to give such
+assistance:
+
+The Dominican Government, represented by its Minister of State for
+Foreign Relations, Emiliano Tejera, and its Minister of State for
+Finance and Commerce, Federico Velasquez H., and the United States
+Government, represented by Thomas C. Dawson, Minister Resident and
+Consul General of the United States to the Dominican Republic,
+have agreed:
+
+I. That the President of the United States shall appoint, a General
+Receiver of Dominican Customs, who, with such Assistant Receivers and
+other employees of the Receivership as shall be appointed by the
+President of the United States in his discretion, shall collect all
+the customs duties accruing at the several customs houses of the
+Dominican Republic until the payment or retirement of any and all
+bonds issued by the Dominican Government in accordance with the plan
+and under the limitations as to terms and amounts hereinbefore
+recited; and said General Receiver shall apply the sums so collected,
+as follows:
+
+First, to paying the expenses of the receivership; second, to the
+payment of interest upon said bonds; third, to the payment of the
+annual sums provided for amortization of said bonds including interest
+upon all bonds held in sinking fund; fourth, to the purchase and
+cancellation or the retirement and cancellation pursuant to the terms
+thereof of any of said bonds as may be directed by the Dominican
+Government; fifth, the remainder to be paid to the Dominican
+Government. The method of distributing the current collections of
+revenue in order to accomplish the application thereof as hereinbefore
+provided shall be as follows:
+
+The expenses of the receivership shall be paid by the Receiver as they
+arise. The allowances to the General Receiver and his assistants for
+the expenses of collecting the revenues shall not exceed five per cent
+unless by agreement between the two Governments.
+
+On the first day of each calendar month the sum of $100,000 shall be
+paid over by the Receiver to the Fiscal Agent of the loan, and the
+remaining collection of the last preceding month shall be paid over to
+the Dominican Government, or applied to the sinking fund for the
+purchase or redemption of bonds, as the Dominican Government
+shall direct.
+
+_Provided_, that in case the customs revenues collected by the General
+Receiver shall in any year exceed the sum of $3,000,000, one half of
+the surplus above such sum of $3,000,000 shall be applied to the
+sinking fund for the redemption of bonds.
+
+II. The Dominican Government will provide by law for the payment of
+all customs duties to the General Receiver and his assistants, and
+will give to them all needful aid and assistance and full protection
+to the extent of its powers. The Government of the United States will
+give to the General Receiver and his assistants such protection as it
+may find to be requisite for the performance of their duties.
+
+III. Until the Dominican Republic has paid the whole amount of the
+bonds of the debt its public debt shall not be increased except by
+previous agreement between the Dominican Government and the United
+States. A like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import
+duties, it being an indispensable condition for the modification of
+such duties that the Dominican Executive demonstrate and that the
+President of the United States recognize that, on the basis of
+exportations and importations to the like amount and the like
+character during the two years preceding that in which it is desired
+to make such modification, the total net customs receipts would at
+such altered rates of duties have been for each of such two years in
+excess of the sum of $2,000,000 United States gold.
+
+IV. The accounts of the General Receiver shall be rendered monthly to
+the Contaduria General of the Dominican Republic and to the State
+Department of the United States and shall be subject to examination
+and verification by the appropriate officers of the Dominican and the
+United States Governments.
+
+V. This agreement shall take effect after its approval by the Senate
+of the United States and the Congress of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Done in four originals, two being in the English language, and two in
+the Spanish, and the representatives of the high contracting parties
+signing them in the City of Santo Domingo this 8th day of February, in
+the year of our Lord 1907.
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON,
+
+EMILIANO TEJERA,
+
+FEDERICO VELAZQUEZ H.
+
+
+And whereas the said convention has been duly ratified on both parts,
+and the ratifications of the two governments were exchanged in the
+City of Washington, on the eighth day of July, one thousand nine
+hundred seven;
+
+Now, therefore, be it known that I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of
+the United States of America, have caused the said convention to be
+made public, to the end that the same and every article and clause
+thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United
+States and the citizens thereof.
+
+In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal
+of the United States of America to be affixed.
+
+Done at the City of Washington, this 25th day of July in the year of
+our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and of the Independence
+of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty-second.
+
+[SEAL.] THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
+
+By the President:
+
+ROBERT BACON
+
+_Acting Secretary of State._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
+
+Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the
+copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing
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+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
+
+
+Title: Santo Domingo
+       A Country With A Future
+
+Author: Otto Schoenrich
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9813]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on October 20, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANTO DOMINGO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Michael Lockey
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+A COUNTRY WITH A FUTURE
+
+BY
+
+OTTO SCHOENRICH
+
+
+1918
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is remarkable how little has been written about the Dominican
+Republic, a country so near to our shores, which has for years had
+intimate commercial and political relations with our country, which is
+at present under the provisional administration of the American
+Government, and which is destined to develop under the protection and
+guidance of the United States. The only comprehensive publications on
+the Dominican Republic, in the English language, are the Report of the
+United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo, published in
+1871, Hazard's "Santo Domingo, Past and Present," written about the
+same time, and Professor Hollander's notable Report on the Debt of
+Santo Domingo, published in 1905. The first and the last of these
+publications are no longer obtainable; hence, Hazard's book, written
+almost half a century ago, is still the chief source of information.
+
+These considerations prompted me to indite the following pages, in
+which I have essayed to give a bird's-eye view of the history and
+present condition of Santo Domingo. The task has been complicated by
+two circumstances. One is the extraordinary difficulty of obtaining
+accurate data. The other is the fact that the country has arrived at a
+turning point in its history. Any description of political, financial
+and economic conditions can refer only, or almost only, to the past;
+the American occupation has already introduced fundamental innovations
+which will shortly be further developed, and a rapid and radical
+transformation is in progress. Santo Domingo at this moment is a
+country which has no present, only a past and a future.
+
+My personal acquaintance with Santo Domingo and Dominican affairs is
+derived from observations on several trips to the Dominican Republic
+and Haiti, from friendships formed with prominent Dominican families
+during a residence of many years in Latin America, and from experience
+as secretary to the special United States commissioner to investigate
+the financial condition of Santo Domingo in 1905, and as secretary to
+the Dominican minister of finance during the 1906 loan negotiations.
+
+In compiling this work I have endeavored to read all books of any
+consequence which have been published with reference to Santo Domingo
+and Haiti and have especially consulted the following:
+
+Jose Ramon Abad,
+  "La Republica Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1886.
+
+Rudolf Cronau,
+  "Amerika, die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+Enrique Deschamps,
+  "La Republica Dominicana, Directorio y Guia General";
+  Barcelona, 1906.
+
+Jose Gabriel Garcia,
+  "Compendio de la Historia de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1896.
+
+H. Harrisse,
+  "Christophe Colomb";
+  Paris, 1884.
+
+Samuel Hazard,
+  "Santo Domingo, Past and Present, with a Glance at Haiti";
+  New York, 1873.
+
+Jacob H. Hollander,
+  "Report on the Debt of Santo Domingo";
+  59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Document;
+  Washington, 1905.
+
+Antonio Lopez Prieto,
+  "Informe sobre los Restos de Colon";
+  Habana, 1878.
+
+Fernando A. de Merino,
+  "Elementos de Geografia Fisica, Politica e Historica
+      de la Republica Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1898.
+
+Mederic Louis Elie Moreau de Saint-Mery,
+  "Description
+  de la partie espagnole de l'isle Saint-Domingue";
+  Philadelphia, 1796.
+
+Casimiro N. de Moya,
+  "Bosquejo Historico del Descubrimiento y Conquista
+      de la Isla de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1913.
+
+F.A. Ober,
+  "A Guide to the West Indies and Panama";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+Publications of the Dominican Government.
+
+Publications of the Bureau of American Republics
+      and the Pan-American Union.
+
+Annual Reports of the General Receiver of Customs of the
+      Dominican Republic to the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+      War Department, Washington, 1907 to 1917.
+
+"Report of the United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo";
+  42d Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document,
+  Washington, 1871.
+
+Emiliano Tejera,
+  "Los Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1878;
+      and
+  "Los dos Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1879.
+
+L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
+  "Die Insel Haiti";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+A. Hyatt Verrill,
+  "Porto Rico, Past and Present, and San Domingo of To-Day";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+William Walton, Jr.,
+  "Present State of the Spanish Colonies, including a particular
+      report of Hispanola";
+  London, 1810.
+
+O. S.
+
+New York, _January_, 1918.
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. Historical Sketch-Days of the Conquest--1492 to 1533
+
+Aborigines--Discovery--Founding of Isabela--Disaffection of the
+  colonists--Indian wars--Oppression of the Indians--Founding of
+  Santo Domingo City--Roldan's insurrection--Humiliation of
+  Columbus--Ovando's administration--Extermination of the
+  natives--Administrations of Diego Columbus--Treaty with Indian
+  survivors.
+
+CHAPTER II. Historical Sketch--Colonial Vicissitudes--1533 to 1801
+
+Decline of the colony--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+  City--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters--French settlements in
+  western Santo Domingo--Border wars--Cession of western coast to
+  France--Return of prosperity--Effect of French Revolution--Negro
+  uprising in French Santo Domingo--Rise of Toussaint
+  l'Ouverture--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France--Evacuation
+  by Spain.
+
+CHAPTER III. Historical Sketch--Changes of Government--1801 TO 1844
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture--Exodus of whites--Capture of Santo
+  Domingo by French--War with negroes--Government of
+  Ferrand--Incursion of Dessalines--Insurrection of Sanchez
+  Ramirez--Reestablishment of Spanish rule--Proclamation of Colombian
+  State of Spanish Haiti--Conquest by Haiti--Haitian rule--Duarte's
+  conspiracy--Declaration of Independence.
+
+CHAPTER IV. Historical Sketch--First Republic and Spanish
+Annexation--1844 TO 1865.
+
+Constitution of the government--Santana's first administration--Wars
+  with the Haitians--Administration of Jimenez--Victory of Las
+  Carreras--Baez' first administration--Santana's second
+  administration--_Repulse of Soulouque_--Baez' second
+  administration--Period of the two governments--Santana's third
+  administration--Annexation negotiations--Annexation to Spain--War of
+  the Restoration.
+
+Chapter V. Historical Sketch--Second Republic-Revolutions and
+Dictatorships--1863 TO 1904.
+
+Restoration of the Republic--Military presidents--Cabral's
+  administration--Baez' fourth administration--Annexation negotiations
+  with the United States--Civil wars--Heureaux's rule--Administrations
+  of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil--Election of Morales.
+
+Chapter VI. Historical Sketch--American Influence-1904 to date (1918)
+
+Financial difficulties--Fiscal convention with the United
+ States--Caceres' administration--Provisional presidents--Civil
+  disturbances--Jimenez' second administration--American intervention.
+
+Chapter VII. Area and Boundaries
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo--Boundary
+  disputes--Harbors on north coast--Character of shore--Samana
+  Bay--Character of east and south coast--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+  Domingo--Ocoa Bay--Islands--Haitian frontier.
+
+Chapter VIII. Topography and Climate
+
+Mountains--Valleys and plains--Rivers--Lakes--Temperature and
+  Rainfall--Hurricanes--Health conditions.
+
+Chapter IX. Geology and Minerals
+
+Rock formation--Mineral
+  deposits--Gold-Copper--Iron--Coal--Silver--Salt--Building
+  stone--Petroleum--Mineral springs--Earthquakes.
+
+Chapter X. Flora and Fauna
+
+Agricultural conditions--Land titles and measures--Wet and arid
+  regions--Exports--Sugar--Cacao--Tobacco--Coffee--Tropical
+  fruits--Forest products--Insects--Reptiles--Fishery--Birds--Cattle
+  raising.
+
+Chapter XI. The People
+
+Population--Distribution--Race--Descendants of American
+  negroes--Language--Physical traits--Mental
+  traits--Amusements--Dances, theatres, clubs,
+  carnivals--Gaming--Morality--Homes.
+
+CHAPTER XII. Religion
+
+Catholic religion--Concordat--Ownership of church
+  buildings--Clergy--Religious sentiment--Shrines--Religious customs
+  and holidays--Religious toleration--Protestant sects.
+
+CHAPTER XIII. Education and Literature
+
+Education in Spanish times--Work of Hostos--School
+  organization--Professional institute--Primary and secondary
+  education--Literacy--Libraries--Newspapers--Literature--Fine arts.
+
+CHAPTER XIV. Means of Transportation and Communication
+
+Railroads-Samana--Santiago Railroad--Central Dominican
+  Railway--Roads--Mode of traveling--Inns--Principal highways--Steamer
+  lines--Postal facilities--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+CHAPTER XV. Commerce
+
+Exports and imports--Foreign trade--Trade with the United
+  States--Ports of entry--Wharf concessions--Domestic
+  trade--Business houses--Banks--Manufactures.
+
+CHAPTER XVI. Cities and Towns
+
+General condition of municipalities--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+  churches, streets, popular legends--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+  Province--San Pedro de Macoris--Seibo--Samana and
+  Sanchez--Pacificador Province--Conception de la Vega--Moca--Santiago
+  de los Caballeros--Puerto Plata--Monte Cristi--Azua--Barahona.
+
+CHAPTER XVII. The Remains of Columbus
+
+Burial of Columbus--Disappearance of epitaph--Removal of remains in
+  1795--Discovery of remains in 1877--Resting-place of Discoverer
+  of America.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. Government
+
+Form of
+  government--Constitutions--Presidents--Election--Powers--Executive
+  Secretaries--Land and sea forces--Congress--Local
+  subdivisions--Provincial governors--Communal governments.
+
+CHAPTER XIX. Politics and Revolutions
+
+Political parties--Elections--Relation between politics and
+  revolutions--Conduct of revolutions--Casualties--Number of
+  revolutions--Effect of revolutions.
+
+CHAPTER XX. Law and Justice
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo--Legal system--Judicial
+  organization-Observance of law--Prisons--Character of offenses.
+
+CHAPTER XXI. The dominican debt and the fiscal treaty with the United
+States.
+
+Financial situation in 1905--Causes of debt--Amount of debt--Bonded
+  debt--Liquidated debt--Floating debt--Declared claims--Undeclared
+  claims--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house--Fiscal convention of
+  1905--Modus vivendi--Negotiations for adjustment of debt--New bond
+  issue--Fiscal treaty of 1907--Adjustment with creditors--19l2
+  loan--Present financial situation.
+
+CHAPTER XXII. Finances
+
+Financial system--National revenues--Customs tariff--National
+  budget--Legal tender--Municipal income--Municipal budgets.
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. The Future of Santo Domingo
+
+Attraction by the United States--Political future of Santo
+  Domingo-Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+APPENDIX A. Chiefs of State of Santo Domingo, 1492-1918
+
+APPENDIX B. Old Weights and Measures in Use in Santo Domingo
+
+APPENDIX C. American-Dominican Fiscal Convention of 1907
+
+INDEX
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Columbus Monument on Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City.
+
+Map of Santo Domingo
+
+Historic Gateway "La Puerta del Conde," where
+    the independence of the Dominican Republic
+    was declared:
+        View from within the city
+        View from without, during a revolution
+
+The Strongest Presidents of Santo Domingo:
+        President Pedro Santana
+        President Buenaventura Baez
+        President Ulises Heureaux
+        President Ramon Caceres
+
+Four Prominent Dominicans:
+        President Juan Isidro Jimenez
+        President Horacio Vasquez
+        Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez
+        Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel
+
+One of the Many Beautiful Spots on the Shores
+    of Samana Bay
+
+Partaking of Cocoanut-water
+
+Street in Bani
+
+Street in Puerto Plata
+
+A Roadside Store
+
+Building a House with the Products of the Palm-tree
+
+Room in "Casino de la Juventud," Santo Domingo City
+
+A Holiday Gathering, Santo Domingo City
+
+Ruins of San Francisco Church, Santo Domingo City
+
+A "Calvario" in the Road
+
+Road Scene: A Mudhole
+
+Wharf and Harbor of San Pedro de Macoris
+
+Entrance to Cathedral of Santo Domingo
+
+"House of Columbus," Ruins of Diego Columbus' Palace
+
+The "Tower of Homage," the oldest fortification erected by white men
+  in America:
+        View from mouth of Ozama River
+        View from within fort
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: Milkmen
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: The Ox as a Riding Animal
+
+Sanctuary of Santo Domingo Cathedral
+
+Diagram of Sanctuary of Cathedral
+
+Lead Box found in 1877 with Remains of Columbus
+
+Inscription on Lid of Lead Box
+
+Obverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+Reverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+The Bane of Santo Domingo: Intrenchment at Puerta del Conde during a
+  revolution
+
+Independence Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--DAYS OF THE CONQUEST.--1492 to 1533
+
+
+Aborigines.--Discovery.--Founding of Isabela.--Disaffection of the
+colonists.--Indian wars.--Oppression of the Indians.--Founding of
+Santo Domingo City.--Roldan's insurrection.--Humiliation of
+Columbus,--Ovando's administration.--Extermination of the
+natives.--Administrations of Diego Columbus.--Treaty with Indian
+survivors.
+
+When Columbus, in December, 1492, sailed along the northern coast of
+the island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, he was more enchanted with what
+he saw than he had been with any of his previous discoveries. Giant
+mountains, covered with verdant forests, seemed to rise precipitately
+from the blue waters and lift their heads to the very clouds.
+Beautiful rivers watered fertile valleys, luscious fruits hung from
+the trees, fragrant flowers carpeted the ground, and the air was
+filled with the songs of birds of gay plumage. There were scenes of
+nature's magnificence such as are found only in the tropics. Columbus,
+as he gazed upon them in admiration, little thought that this
+beautiful island was to witness his greatest sorrows, that it was to
+be his final resting place, and that it was in later generations to
+become the theater of long years of war and carnage.
+
+At the time of its discovery the island of Santo Domingo was thickly
+inhabited. The native Indians were Arawaks belonging to the same race
+as those who occupied the other larger West India Islands. Unlike the
+fierce Caribs who inhabited some of the smaller Antilles, the Arawaks
+were of a gentle and meek disposition. They were inclined to idleness
+and sensuality. Columbus lauded their kindliness and generosity; the
+possession of these traits, however, did not prevent them from
+fighting bravely when exasperated.
+
+Living in the stone age, they knew none of the useful metals, but gold
+ornaments were used for adornment. Older men and married women wore
+short aprons of cotton or feathers; all other persons went entirely
+nude. Their favorite amusements were ball games and savage dances with
+weird, monotonous music; their religion was the worship of a great
+spirit and of subordinate deities represented by idols, called
+"zemis," carved of wood and stone in grotesque form, and of which some
+are still occasionally found in caverns or tombs. They dwelt in rude
+palm-thatched huts, the principal article of furniture being the
+hammock. Simple agriculture, hunting and fishing provided their means
+of livelihood.
+
+The natives called the island Haiti, signifying "high ground," but the
+western portion was also called Babeque or Bohio, meaning "land of
+gold" and the eastern part Quisqueya, meaning "mother of the earth."
+The name Quisqueya is the one by which Dominican poets now refer to
+their country. The inhabitants lived in communities ruled by local
+caciques, and the country was divided into five principal regions,
+each under an absolute chief cacique, as follows:
+
+Magua, signifying "watered plain," the northeastern part of the island
+and comprising most of what is to-day known as the Cibao--that part of
+the Dominican Republic lying north of the central mountain-range. The
+chief was Guarionex.
+
+Marien, or Mariel, comprised the northwestern portion of the island
+and was ruled by Guacanagari.
+
+Jaragua comprised the southwestern part, its chief being Bohechio, the
+oldest of the caciques.
+
+Maguana extended from the center of the island to the south coast near
+Azua and was ruled by the proud Caonabo.
+
+Higuey, or Higuayagua, the most bellicose portion of the country,
+comprised the entire southeast and was ruled by Cayacoa.
+
+Columbus happened upon the island on his first voyage. After
+discovering Guanahani on October 12, 1492, and vainly searching for
+Japan among the Bahama Islands, he discovered Cuba and while skirting
+along the north shore of what he supposed to be the mainland heard of
+an island said to be rich in gold, lying to the east. Taking an
+easterly course, he was abandoned by the Pinta, one of his caravels,
+whose captain, disregarding the admiral's signals, sailed away to seek
+his fortune alone. Continuing with his remaining caravels, the Santa
+Maria and the Nina, Columbus reached Cape Maisi, the easternmost point
+of Cuba, where he sighted a high mountainous land lying in a
+southeasterly direction. On the following day, December 6, 1492, he
+reached this land, which he called la Espanola, because it reminded
+him of Andalusia. In English histories the name is modified to
+Hispaniola. The port Columbus called San Nicolas, as he had entered it
+on St. Nicholas day, and it is now known as Mole St. Nicolas.
+
+Columbus then sailed along the north coast of the island and entered
+the pretty little port known to-day as Port-a-l'Ecu. Here, on December
+12, he solemnly took possession of the country in the name of his
+sovereigns, erecting a wooden cross on a high hill on the western
+side of the bay. He then visited Tortuga Island, to the north, giving
+it this name on account of its shape and the great number of turtles
+in the water near its coast. After stopping in a harbor which he
+called Puerto de Paz, Port of Peace, because of the harmony which
+prevailed at the meetings with the natives, Columbus continued in an
+easterly direction, but adverse winds compelled him to put into the
+bay of Santo Tomas, to-day bay of l'Acul, where the cordial
+intercourse with the natives was renewed. Here he received an embassy
+from the chief of the district, Guacanagari, inviting him to visit the
+cacique's residence, further along the coast, and bringing him as
+presents a wampum belt artistically worked and a wooden mask with
+eyes, tongue and nose of gold.
+
+To accept the invitation Columbus set sail on the morning of December
+24. In the evening when the admiral had retired the helmsman committed
+the indiscretion of confiding the helm to a ship's boy. About midnight
+when off Cape Haitien, near their destination, the vessel was caught
+in a current and swept upon a sandbank where she began to keel over.
+During the confusion which followed, Columbus had the mainmast chopped
+down but all efforts to right the ship were in vain, and Columbus and
+the crew were obliged to take refuge on the little Nina.
+
+As soon as Guacanagari received news of the disaster he sent large
+canoes filled with men to help the strangers transport their stores to
+the shore. The relations between the Spaniards and the Indians became
+most cordial, especially as the Spaniards were gratified to obtain
+much gold in exchange for articles of insignificant value, owing to
+which circumstances and to the natural advantages of the location,
+Columbus determined to build a fort with the wreckage of his vessel.
+The fort was on a hill east of the site of the present town of Cape
+Haitien. Columbus gave it the name of La Navidad because he had
+entered the bay on Christmas day, and leaving thirty-nine men as
+colonists set out on the Nina on January 4, 1493, on his return
+trip to Spain.
+
+Near the great yellow promontory on the north of the island, to which
+Columbus gave the name it still retains of Monte Cristi, the Pinta,
+which had deserted the other vessels off Cuba, was sighted. Columbus
+having heard the excuses of the Pinta's captain, took no action with
+respect to the latter's delinquency, but set about exploring a large
+river in the vicinity to which he gave the name of Rio de Oro and
+which to-day is called the Yaque. Continuing the journey along the
+coast of the island the vessels rounded the giant promontory of Cape
+Cabron and that of Samana and entered the great bay of Samana which
+Columbus at first took to be an arm of the sea. Here it was that the
+first armed encounter between sons of the old world and the new took
+place. The Indians set upon the Spaniards when they landed but were
+quickly driven to flight, one of their number being severely wounded.
+On the following day, however, a more pleasant meeting took place and
+presents were exchanged. On January 16 the two vessels set sail
+for Spain.
+
+The immense excitement produced in Spain by the discoveries of
+Columbus made the preparation of another expedition an easy matter,
+and on September 25, 1493, the admiral again set out from Spain, this
+time with sixteen ships and some 1300 men. After touching at several
+of the Leeward Islands and Porto Rico, the fleet sighted the Samana
+peninsula on November 22, 1493, and three days later arrived at Monte
+Cristi. Here the finding of two corpses of Spaniards filled the
+members of the expedition with grave apprehensions, which proved
+justified when two days later they arrived at La Navidad and found the
+fort completely destroyed, the Indian village burnt to the ground, and
+the whole neighborhood silent and desolate.
+
+Guacanagari was found at a village further inland and according to his
+story and that of other Indians, a number of Spaniards had succumbed
+to disease, others were killed in brawls among themselves and the
+remainder died at the hands of the inland caciques Caonabo and
+Guarionex and their warriors, who attacked and destroyed both the fort
+and the village of Guacanagari. At the same time it was stated that
+the Spaniards had made themselves hateful to the natives by their
+domineering disposition and their lewdness and covetousness. The
+finding in some of the native huts of objects that had belonged to the
+colonists, as well as other suspicious circumstances, caused Father
+Boil and other companions of Columbus to doubt the chief's story and
+insist that sanguinary vengeance be taken. Columbus, however, affected
+to be satisfied with the explanation given and determined to take no
+further action, but to seek a new location for the colony. From this
+time forward discord divided not only the Spaniards and Indians but
+also the Spaniards themselves.
+
+As the fleet was sailing east the weather obliged it to put into an
+indentation of the coast fifty miles east of Monte Cristi. The place
+so charmed the Spaniards that it was decided to found a town here. The
+first city of the new world was therefore laid out and Columbus gave
+it the name of Isabela, in honor of his royal patron. During the
+construction of the city Columbus sent two expeditions to the Cibao
+mountains, both of which succeeded in collecting a large amount
+of gold.
+
+It soon became evident that the neighborhood of Isabela was not a
+healthy one. Fever invaded the colony; Columbus himself was not
+exempt. Discontent came and an uprising among the soldiers was nipped
+in the bud. On recovering from his illness Columbus resolved to make
+an exploration of the interior; and with drums beating and flags
+flying a brilliant expedition left Isabela. The beautiful Royal Plain
+was soon reached and friendly relations established with its peaceful
+inhabitants, whose wonder at the Spaniards and terror at their horses
+knew no bounds. A fortress was founded on the banks of the Janico
+river and called Santo Tomas. Columbus then returned to Isabela to
+find the town in a state of excitement on account of petty quarrels
+and the general sickness. Picking out the principal malcontents he
+sent them to Santo Tomas, and ordered that another fortress be
+founded. On April 24, 1494, he left the island with three vessels for
+a voyage of exploration to the west, entrusting the government of the
+colony to his brother Diego and an executive council.
+
+But a short time elapsed before new dissensions broke out, followed by
+troubles with the Indians. A military expedition dispatched to the
+interior committed numerous depredations and drove the natives into
+the ranks of Caonabo, who was planning the expulsion of the strangers.
+The commander of the expedition, Moisen Pedro de Margarite, was called
+to account by Diego Columbus; but conspiring with Father Boil, the
+religious head of the colony, the two contrived to excite a popular
+insurrection against the governor, which may be regarded as the first
+Dominican revolution. At this time Bartholomew Columbus, another
+brother of the admiral, arrived with provisions, and the
+insurrectionists, taking possession of the ships, returned in them to
+Spain where they lost no opportunity to disparage the achievements of
+Columbus and to slander him and his brothers.
+
+The principal caciques of the island now formed an alliance and
+uniting their forces laid siege to Santo Tomas. Only Guacanagari
+refused to join them and hurried to Isabela to offer his services to
+the Spaniards. At this juncture, on September 29, 1494, Columbus, sick
+and weary, returned from his voyage, during which, after other
+discoveries, he had explored a portion of the south coast of the
+island. As soon as he had recovered sufficient strength he led an
+expedition into the interior, relieved Santo Tomas, won numerous
+victories over the natives and founded another fortress, La
+Concepcion, in the Vega Real, or Royal Plain. Caonabo, however,
+assembled a vast number of warriors and forced Columbus to renewed
+efforts. The Spaniards and Indians met where the ruins of the old city
+of Concepcion de la Vega now are, and the famous battle of the Royal
+Plain was fought on March 25, 1495. The natives are alleged by the
+Spanish historians to have numbered 100,000, while the Spaniards had
+but 200 men and 20 horses, besides the warriors of Guacanagari. In the
+battle, a bloody one, the Indians were completely beaten, their
+discomfiture being due principally to the superior arms of the
+Europeans and the fear inspired by the horses and by twenty
+blood-hounds brought into the fight by the Spaniards. On the occasion
+of this battle the miracle of the Santo Cerro, or Holy Hill, is said
+to have occurred, when, according to the Spanish chroniclers, the
+Indians captured an eminence on which the Spaniards had erected a
+wooden cross, but were unable to destroy the cross with fire or
+hatchet, and were finally frightened away by the apparition of the
+Virgin Mary.
+
+This one crushing defeat definitely broke the Indians' power, for
+though there were subsequent outbreaks they were only sporadic and,
+with one exception, of comparatively little importance. Caonabo still
+remained at large and the Spaniards secured possession of his person
+by one of those feats of individual prowess which mark the history of
+the conquest. The Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda went out in search of the
+cacique, and having found him with his warriors, suggested that they
+repair to Isabela together to arrange terms of peace with Columbus.
+The suggestion being accepted, they set out and on crossing the Yaque
+river Ojeda pressed the Indian to put on a pair of handcuffs,
+asserting that these bracelets were a distinction of the king of
+Castile. Caonabo acceded, whereupon the Spaniard sprang upon his horse
+and swinging the chief upon the croup, fled from the midst of the
+astonished warriors and bore him a prisoner to Isabela. Caonabo was
+later embarked for Spain but died on the voyage.
+
+A beginning was now made of the harsh oppression which was soon to
+cause the entire disappearance of the native race. A quarterly tribute
+was imposed on every Indian above the age of fourteen. Those who lived
+in the auriferous region of the Cibao were obliged to deliver as much
+gold dust as could be held in a small bell, others were to give
+twenty-five pounds of cotton. Many natives fled to the mountains to
+escape the onerous tax and new settlements were established by the
+Spaniards.
+
+The enemies of Columbus had in the meantime been sufficiently
+successful in Spain to cause one de Aguado to be sent out with the
+object of investigating conditions in the colony. His conduct from the
+very first was so arrogant that the admiral determined to return at
+once to justify himself before the court. On March  10, 1496, he
+embarked for Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew as governor of
+the colony.
+
+Before his departure the news arrived of the discovery of several rich
+gold mines in the southern part of the island. They were found by a
+soldier named Miguel Diaz, who having fled to the wilderness to escape
+punishment for wounding a comrade, had established conjugal relations
+with an Indian woman near the present site of Santo Domingo City.
+Noticing that her consort was tiring of her, the lady tried to retain
+him by revealing the existence of gold deposits in the region; and
+Diaz promptly secured his pardon and promotion by reporting the find
+to Isabela. The romance had a sad ending, for the Indian, shocked at
+the cruel treatment accorded her countrymen by the Spaniards who came
+to the place, abandoned her husband and children and disappeared in
+the forest.
+
+On arriving in Spain, Columbus wrote his brother to found a town on
+the south coast at the mouth of the Ozama. Bartholomew Columbus
+immediately set out to select a site and on August 4, 1496, laid the
+first stone of the new city on the left bank of the Ozama, calling it
+Nueva Isabela, in honor of the queen. The name was afterwards changed
+to Santo Domingo in honor, so tradition has it, of the saint to whom
+the day of its foundation was dedicated. As the location of this city
+was much healthier than that of fever-ridden Isabela on the north
+coast, the settlers in an ever increasing stream removed to the new
+town which flourished as the other decayed, until after a few years
+Isabela was entirely abandoned. The only vestiges now remaining of it
+are a few ruined foundation walls and shapeless heaps of stone
+overgrown with rank tropical vegetation.
+
+Bartholomew Columbus busied himself with further explorations of the
+interior, founding a number of strongholds, among them Santiago de los
+Caballeros, which commanded the Royal Plain. While at Concepcion de la
+Vega he was informed that several Indians had burned an altar erected
+by friars in the interior, and had buried the sacred images. The
+bigoted governor had the Indians apprehended and burnt alive in the
+public square. This cruel act induced fourteen caciques to conspire
+for an uprising; but their designs being betrayed, they were captured
+by a bold stroke and two of them executed. Determined to crush the
+spirit of the natives, Bartholomew Columbus invaded and devastated the
+district of Monte Cristi, driving the Indians into the remote forests
+and capturing and imprisoning their chiefs.
+
+His severity was not confined to the Indians, but the Spaniards,
+naturally restive under the government of a Genovese, were also made
+to feel it until their disaffection developed into open rebellion.
+
+At the head of the conspiracy was Francisco Roldan, the judge of the
+colony, a man ambitious and seditious by nature, but who owed Columbus
+many favors. Others, disgusted because their dreams of gold had not
+been realized, followed him and the insurrection was soon well under
+way. The rebels took Isabela and sacked the government storehouse and
+then took steps to besiege Bartholomew Columbus at Concepcion de la
+Vega. The arrival of fresh troops and stores from Spain enabled the
+governor to hold the rebels in check.
+
+Such was the deplorable state of affairs when Columbus returned to the
+island on August 30, 1498. Realizing Roldan's strength, he consented
+to make terms under which the insurgents were to receive stores and
+other property and return to Spain. By the time their vessels were
+ready most of them had changed their mind and declined to go, but
+they wrote letters to Spain bitterly complaining of the admiral and
+his brothers, and accusing them of oppression and despotism. Columbus
+found himself obliged to agree to the most humiliating terms with the
+rebels, conceding a complete pardon, restoring them to their official
+posts, promising to pay their salary in arrears and distributing lands
+and Indians among them. Nevertheless, other quarrels followed,
+Columbus was forced to take severe measures and the complaints
+against him grew.
+
+Little by little the stories of arrogance and oppression circulated
+with reference to the Columbus brothers undermined the esteem in which
+they were held by the sovereigns, who were also disappointed at not
+seeing the fabulous wealth they had expected from the new discoveries.
+They determined to send to the island of Espanola a person authorized
+to investigate conditions and decide all disputes.
+
+Their choice for the mission was unfortunate; it fell on Francisco
+Bobadilla, a spiteful, arrogant and tactless man. On arriving in Santo
+Domingo on August 23, 1500, he immediately began to annul dispositions
+made by Columbus and sent for the admiral who was in the interior. As
+soon as Columbus appeared, Bobadilla, far exceeding his authority,
+caused him to be put in chains and confined in a cell of the fortress
+of Santo Domingo. He also imprisoned the brothers of Columbus and sent
+them to Spain together with the Discoverer, all chained like infamous
+criminals. At the same time he made a report attributing malfeasance,
+injustice and fraud to all.
+
+The administration of Bobadilla was disastrous. In his efforts to
+ingratiate himself with Columbus' enemies he heaped favors on Roldan
+and his followers and gave them franchises and lands. He made the
+slavery of the Indians more galling than ever, obliging them to labor
+in the fields and mines. Columbus' property and papers were
+confiscated and Columbus' friend, the explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas,
+was imprisoned and his property seized.
+
+The captain of the vessel bearing Columbus treated his distinguished
+prisoner with all possible deference and offered to take off the
+chains, but the Discoverer, whose heart was breaking under the
+indignities heaped upon him and the injustice of which he was the
+victim, proudly refused. When the vessel arrived in Spain the
+sovereigns, shocked at Bobadilla's proceedings, commanded the
+immediate release of Columbus, ordered that his property be restored
+and overwhelmed him with distinctions, though providing that his
+dignities as viceroy were to remain temporarily suspended; probably
+because the calculating spirit of King Ferdinand believed that too
+much power had been vested in his subject. Bobadilla was removed from
+office, and Nicolas de Ovando, a member of the religious-military
+order of Alcantara, was appointed governor in his place.
+
+Ovando arrived in Santo Domingo on April 15, 1502, with a fleet of
+thirty vessels, the largest which up to that time had arrived in the
+new world, carrying stores of every kind and over 1500 persons, among
+them many who later attained distinction in conquests on the mainland.
+He was courteous to Bobadilla, but took measures to send Roldan and
+the most turbulent of his companions back to Spain on the return of
+his fleet, the largest vessel of which was placed at the disposition
+of Bobadilla.
+
+Just before the sailing of the fleet, on June 30, 1502, Columbus
+unexpectedly appeared before the city on his fourth voyage, and asked
+permission to enter the port for protection from a hurricane which he
+believed was approaching. Ovando, either because he had secret orders,
+or perhaps because he feared Columbus' presence might cause renewed
+disturbances, denied the request, and the great man, deeply wounded by
+the refusal, sought shelter further up the coast.
+
+The pilots of the great fleet derided Columbus' prediction and the
+ships set sail. They had not reached the easternmost point of the
+island when a terrific hurricane broke loose. All but two of the
+vessels were lost, and by a strange coincidence one of these two bore
+Rodrigo de Bastidas, the friend of Columbus, while the other, the
+smallest and weakest vessel of the fleet, was the one that carried
+Columbus' property. Bobadilla, Roldan and other enemies of the
+admiral, and many other passengers and Indian captives perished and
+large stores of gold were lost. Columbus' squadron rode out the storm
+in safety in a cove of the bay of Azua, whereupon he continued
+his voyage.
+
+On land, too, the hurricane wrought great destruction. The houses of
+the town of Santo Domingo were demolished and as the right bank of the
+Ozama was higher and seemed more suitable, Ovando ordered that the
+town be rebuilt on that side, where it now stands.
+
+Ovando now inaugurated a period of general prosperity. He established
+peace and order, issued rules for the different branches of the public
+service, placed honest men in the posts of responsibility and
+encouraged industry and agriculture. Yet, strange mixture of energy
+and cruelty, of valor and bigotry that he was, his treatment of the
+Indians was most oppressive. To each Spanish landholder was assigned a
+number of Indians under the pretext that they were to be given
+religious instruction and accustomed to work; but so onerous and
+unremitting was the labor imposed that they succumbed to disease by
+thousands, while thousands of others perished by their own hand in an
+epidemic of suicide which swept through the country, and many fled to
+almost inaccessible mountain regions.
+
+But two Indian chieftains still reigned in the island, one the Indian
+queen Anacaona in the district of Jaragua, the other the chief of
+Higuey. Ovando's severe measures against the natives made him ready to
+believe the tales of conspiracies brought to him. He therefore sent a
+troop of 300 infantry under Diego Velazquez, the future conqueror of
+Cuba, and 70 horsemen, to the territory of Anacaona, where they were
+received with every mark of kindness. The Spaniards invited the
+natives to witness a military drill and when the queen, her principal
+caciques and a great crowd of Indians were assembled, the exercises
+commenced. The Indians were awed by the spectacle so new and imposing
+to them, when suddenly the trumpets gave a signal, the infantry opened
+fire and the cavalry charged on the defenseless spectators. All the
+Indians who could not escape by flight were massacred without respect
+to age or sex. Anacaona alone was spared and carried off to Santo
+Domingo where she was shortly afterwards ignominiously executed, on
+the pretext that she was not sufficiently sincere in the Catholic
+religion which she had recently professed! A tenacious persecution of
+the Indians who would not become slaves was instituted and but few
+were able to hide in the mountains of the interior.
+
+In 1503 the subjugation of the last remaining independent chieftain,
+Cotubanama, lord of Higuey, in the extreme eastern part of the island,
+was undertaken. Near this province a Spaniard wantonly set his hound
+upon one of the principal natives, and the Indian was torn to pieces,
+whereupon the chief, indignant at his friend's death, caused a
+boatload of Spaniards to be killed, thus giving Ovando a welcome
+excuse for the invasion. Four hundred Spaniards dealt death and
+desolation throughout the region, pursuing the Indians into the
+mountains and forests and sparing neither women nor children. When at
+last they captured and hung an aged Indian woman revered as a
+prophetess, the terrified aborigines sued for peace and agreed to pay
+a heavy tribute. A fortress was erected at Higuey, but the conduct of
+the Spanish garrison was so outrageous that the Indians in desperation
+again rose, and killed every Spaniard in the district. Ovando then
+began a war of extermination and the Indians were killed off by
+thousands, Cotubanama resisted heroically but in vain, and after being
+beaten in a number of desperate battles he withdrew to the island of
+Saona, southeast of Santo Domingo. Here he was surprised and captured
+by the Spaniards, his remaining warriors mercilessly shot and he
+himself taken to the city of Santo Domingo and hung. With his death
+the island was thoroughly pacified, though at a bloody cost, and the
+conquest proper ended.
+
+On August 13, 1504, Columbus once more arrived in Santo Domingo. On
+his ill-fated fourth voyage he had been shipwrecked in Jamaica and one
+of his men crossed the ocean in an open boat, to solicit aid of
+Ovando. The latter, after dallying for months, finally yielded to the
+murmurings of the colony and sent for the Discoverer. He received
+Columbus well, but subjected him to humiliation by arbitrarily
+liberating a mutineer imprisoned by the admiral. Disappointed and sad,
+the great navigator left the shores of the island he loved and
+returned to Spain where his death occurred two years later. The
+golden age of the colony was now at hand. Ovando built up the city of
+Santo Domingo, constructed forts and other defences, and laid the
+foundations of most of its public buildings. Fine private residences
+and great churches and convents were erected. Sugar-cane was
+introduced in 1506 and gave rich returns, the production of the gold
+mines continued to increase, and cattle raising brought large profits.
+The Indians were dying out under the rigorous treatment, and others
+were imported from the surrounding islands under the pretense of
+converting them to Christianity; and when these also succumbed, the
+importation of negroes from Africa was commenced. About 1508 the
+island began to be called Santo Domingo, but for almost three
+centuries royal decrees continued to refer to it as Espanola. So
+flourishing was its state at this time that thirteen of its towns were
+granted coats of arms and three were declared cities. The colony was
+and for many years continued to be a starting point for voyages of
+discovery and conquest in the islands and along the shores of the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+After the death of Christopher Columbus his son Diego made fruitless
+efforts to recover the honors of which his father had been despoiled,
+but it was not until he married Maria de Toledo, the beautiful niece
+of the Duke of Alba, that he met with partial success, probably more
+because of the influence of his wife's family than because of the
+justice of his claims. In 1509 he was appointed governor of Santo
+Domingo to succeed Ovando and arrived in the colony with his wife, his
+uncles, and a brilliant suite.
+
+Diego Columbus inaugurated his administration with a splendor till
+then unknown in the new world, establishing a kind of vice-regal
+court. He built the castle of which the ruins are still to be seen
+near the San Diego gate in the city of Santo Domingo, and which in its
+glory must have been an imposing structure. Unfortunately many persons
+transferred to the son the hatred they had borne the father and he
+found his plans balked. Intending to carry into effect the royal
+dispositions relative to the release of the Indians from slavery he
+incurred the hostility of the planters and when he desisted owing to
+their opposition, he was attacked by the friars. Complaints poured in
+upon King Ferdinand; the accusation most calculated to arouse the
+suspicious monarch's fears was that the second admiral, as Diego
+Columbus was called, harbored the intention of proclaiming himself
+sovereign of Santo Domingo. Ferdinand accordingly instituted the
+audiencia or high court of justice of Santo Domingo, which was
+invested with a comprehensive jurisdiction, being authorized to hear
+appeals even from decisions of the governor, whose powers were thus
+materially curtailed.
+
+This circumstance, as well as a new distribution of the Indians, made
+over the head of the governor, induced Diego Columbus to return to
+Spain in 1515 in order to defend his interests. During the term of the
+two governors who succeeded him, various dispositions were made for
+the protection of the natives whose numbers were rapidly diminishing
+notwithstanding importations from the other islands and from South
+America. The only result of these orders was a change of masters; for
+when Diego Columbus returned as governor in 1520, he found the Indians
+exploited by the priests and officers of the crown to whom they had
+been intrusted ostensibly for religious instruction, while the
+mine-owners and planters now employed negro slaves.
+
+Almost simultaneously with the return of the second admiral began the
+insurrection of a young Indian cacique known as Enrique. This noble
+Indian, a relative of Anacaona, had been converted to Christianity and
+educated by the Spaniards, but was nevertheless enslaved in one of the
+"repartimientos," or distributions. His wife having been gravely
+offended by the Spaniard to whom they were assigned, he retired to the
+almost inaccessible mountains in the center of the island, and many of
+the remaining natives fled to join him. Efforts to dislodge him were
+in vain and negotiations only elicited from him the promise to act on
+the defensive alone, which was equivalent to an indefinite truce. The
+number of negro slaves had in the meantime increased, and the
+treatment given them was as harsh as that which had been accorded the
+aborigines. As a result an insurrection, the first negro uprising in
+the new world, began near Santo Domingo City on December 27, 1522.
+Several Spaniards were murdered, but the troops overpowered the
+mutineers and a number were hung.
+
+Diego Columbus continued in his efforts to promote the welfare of the
+colony, but became involved in a quarrel with the royal audiencia and
+found himself obliged in March, 1524, to return to Spain where he died
+two years later. The new governor, Bishop Sebastian Ramirez de
+Fuenleal, was appointed president of the royal court, and the offices
+of governor and president of the court were thenceforth consolidated.
+Both he and his successor used their best efforts to promote
+immigration into the colony which was beginning to suffer on account
+of the draughts of men that left for the mainland. An army was
+dispatched against the insurgent chief Enrique who still menaced the
+tranquillity of the colonists from his mountain fastnesses. When it was
+found impossible to reach him, peaceful methods were employed.
+Negotiations were opened, and a treaty of peace signed in 1533, on an
+island in the beautiful lake still known as Lake Enriquillo. By this
+treaty the Indians, now reduced to not more than 4000 in number, were
+freed from slavery and assigned lands in Boya, in the mountains to the
+northeast of Santo Domingo City. From this time forward there is no
+further mention of the Indians in the island's history; they
+disappeared completely by dying out and by assimilation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--COLONIAL VICISSITUDES.--1533 TO 1801
+
+
+Decline of the colony.--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+City.--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters.--French settlements in
+western Santo Domingo.--Border wars.--Cession of western coast to
+France.--Return of prosperity.--Effect of French revolution.--Negro
+uprising in French Santo Domingo.--Rise of Toussaint l'Ouverture.
+--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France.--Evacuation by Spain.
+
+Within forty years after its discovery Santo Domingo had passed the
+zenith of its glory. The vast and wealthy countries discovered and
+conquered on the mainland of America absorbed the attention of
+colonists and of the government, and Santo Domingo quickly sank to a
+position of economic and political insignificance. So little
+importance was given the island by chroniclers during the ensuing two
+hundred and fifty years and so few are the records remaining, that not
+even the names of all the governors and the periods of their rule can
+be accurately determined. The colony barely existed, the monotony of
+its life was interrupted only by occasional attacks or menaces of
+attacks by pirates or other foes.
+
+Every effort was made to prevent decay. Decrees were issued forbidding
+emigration or the recruiting of troops for expeditions of discovery,
+but they were evaded. Thus Louis Columbus, the grandson of the
+Discoverer and one of the most influential men of the colony, fitted
+out an expedition against Veragua. African slaves continued to be
+imported to take the place of the exterminated Indians, but as their
+importation was expensive the mines were abandoned and the number of
+sugar estates declined. For the greater part of the period from 1533
+to 1556 the government was in the hands of an energetic man,
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo and La Vega,
+and later first Archbishop of Santo Domingo. He pushed to a conclusion
+the work on the cathedral and other religious edifices then building,
+repaired the edifices belonging to the state and constructed the walls
+and bastions which still surround the city. He was able to ward off
+the attacks of corsairs, who multiplied in West Indian waters to such
+an extent that in 1561 the Spanish Government forbade vessels to
+travel to and from the new world except under convoy.
+
+In 1564 the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepcion de la
+Vega were completely destroyed by an earthquake and the few remaining
+inhabitants reestablished the towns at short distances from the
+original sites. The entire intercourse of the colony with Spain was
+reduced to two or three caravels a year and the revenues sank so low
+that the salaries of state officials were paid and continued to be
+paid for over two hundred years, from the treasury of Mexico.
+
+The year 1586 was marked by the capture of Santo Domingo City by the
+noted English navigator, Sir Francis Drake, during the celebrated
+cruise on which he took the strongest towns on the Spanish main. On
+the morning of January 11, 1586, the inhabitants of Santo Domingo City
+were thrown into consternation at seeing eighteen foreign vessels in
+the roadstead, in a line which stretched from Torrecilla Point to the
+slaughterhouse. To the joy of the people the fleet set sail for the
+west, but their joy was short lived, for the next morning messengers
+arrived with the news that the enemy had landed at the mouth of the
+Jaina River and was marching on the city. Preparations were made for
+defense, but terror gained the upper hand and soon the civil and
+religious authorities, the monks and nuns and the entire population
+were fleeing in confusion on foot, in carts and in canoes, leaving
+their belongings behind. Some one hundred and fifty men remained to
+dispute the passage of Lieutenant-General Carliell who appeared at the
+head of a thousand men. They were quickly dispersed by the invaders
+who entered the gates with little loss and proceeded to the plaza
+where they encamped. For twenty-five days Drake held the deserted
+city, carrying on negotiations meanwhile for its ransom. When these
+flagged he ordered the gradual destruction of the town and every
+morning for eleven days a number of buildings were burned and
+demolished, a work of some difficulty on account of the solidity of
+the houses. Not quite one-third of the city was so destroyed when the
+residents paid a ransom of 25,000 ducats, about $30,000, for the
+remainder. Drake thereupon embarked, carrying with him the bronze
+cannon of the fort and whatever of value he found in the churches and
+private houses. He also ordered the hanging of several friars, held by
+him as prisoners, in retaliation for the murder of a negro boy whom he
+had sent with a flag of truce.
+
+Seventy years later Santo Domingo was again attacked by English
+forces, this time with the object of making a permanent landing.
+Oliver Cromwell after declaring war against Spain sent a fleet to the
+West Indies under the command of Admiral William Penn, having on board
+an army of 9000 men. The fleet appeared off Santo Domingo City on May
+14, 1655, and a landing was effected in two bodies, the advance guard
+under Col. Buller going ashore at the mouth of the Jaina River while
+the main body under General Venables disembarked at Najayo, much
+further down the coast. Buller met with strong resistance at Fort San
+Geronimo and was forced to retire to Venables' intrenchments. The
+united English forces made several attempts to march on the capital,
+but fell into ambuscades and sustained heavy losses. Despairing of
+success, the fleet and army left the island on June 3 and proceeded to
+Jamaica, which they captured.
+
+The rovers of the sea and the restrictive trade regulations imposed by
+the Spanish government, which limited trade with the new world to the
+single port of Seville in Spain, made development of the island's
+commerce impossible. The trade restrictions had the effect of
+encouraging a brisk contraband traffic with Dutch vessels on the north
+coast, to stop which the Spanish government adopted the incredible
+expedient of shutting up every port except Santo Domingo City and
+ordering the destruction of the north coast towns. Puerto Plata, Monte
+Cristi and two villages on the coast of what is now Haiti were thus
+destroyed in 1606 and the inhabitants transferred to towns almost in
+the center of the island, where they were far removed from temptation
+to smuggle. The measure temporarily stopped contraband trade on the
+north coast, but destroyed all legitimate trade in that region,
+transformed the coast into a desert and furnished an opportunity for
+the settlement of the buccaneers in the northwest.
+
+The English, French and Dutch, in resisting Spain's claim to sole
+trading rights in the new world, authorized the fitting out of
+privateers that often degenerated into pirates. The bays and inlets of
+the coast of Santo Domingo became favorite resorts for such ships. The
+depot of the corsairs on the island of St. Christopher having been
+destroyed by the Spaniards in 1630, a number of refugees sought
+shelter on the island of Tortuga, on the northwest coast of Haiti.
+Some of them began to cultivate the soil, others took to hunting wild
+cattle on the mainland of Haiti, while others indulged in piracy.
+Tortuga soon became the busy headquarters of reckless freebooters of
+all nations, who here fitted out daring expeditions and returned to
+waste their gains in wild carousals. In 1638 the Spanish governor of
+Santo Domingo made a descent on the island and destroyed the
+settlement, but most of the buccaneers were absent at the time and the
+only result of the raid was to cause them to organize under the
+captaincy of an Englishman named Willis. French national pride
+asserted itself, however, and with the assistance of a French force
+from St. Christopher, the English inhabitants of Tortuga, who were in
+a minority, were persuaded to leave for Jamaica, and Tortuga
+thenceforth continued under French governors.
+
+In 1648 the Spaniards of Santo Domingo made another fruitless attempt
+to expel the buccaneers; but in 1653 the Spanish governor, the Count
+of Penalva, collected a force which caught the island unawares and was
+strong enough to overawe the inhabitants, who were permitted to leave,
+though abandoning all their property. The Spaniards left a garrison
+but the persistent Frenchmen returned and drove it out. In 1664 the
+French West India Company took possession, established a garrison, and
+appointed as governor an energetic man, D'Ogeron, under whom the
+country rapidly advanced in prosperity and commerce. With the idea of
+encouraging permanent settlement, D'Ogeron had women brought over from
+the slums of Paris and portioned out as wives to the rude colonists.
+
+The rapidly increasing population caused settlements to be made on
+the Haitian mainland, and the city of Port-de-Paix was founded on a
+beautiful bay opposite Tortuga. The city flourished to such an extent
+and the advantages of settlement on the mainland were so superior that
+the settlers of Tortuga gradually left the smaller island and settled
+along the Haitian coast. Within twenty years Tortuga was practically
+deserted and it so continues to this day.
+
+A better class of people now arrived from France. Families were
+brought in from Anjou and Brittany, and the French settlements
+continued to spread all the way down the western coast of the island,
+the French settlement at Samana being withdrawn. Slaves were imported
+from Africa, and in 1678 a rising took place among them, which was
+easily put down. In 1684 the French government formally sent out
+commissioners to provide for the regular government of the colony, and
+churches and courts of justice were established.
+
+The Spanish inhabitants of Santo Domingo meanwhile made attack after
+attack on the French, but the Spanish colony was in such reduced
+straits that no extended efforts were possible. Where the French were
+repulsed the Spaniards were too few numerically to hold the territory
+and it was soon reoccupied. Angered at the repeated aggressions,
+D'Ogeron sent out an expedition under Delisle in 1673, which landed at
+Puerto Plata and marched inland to Santiago. The inhabitants fled to
+La Vega and only avoided the burning of their city by paying a ransom
+of 25,000 pesos, whereupon Delisle returned to the French colony.
+D'Ogeron at this time proposed to the French government the conquest
+of the entire island for France, and would probably have attempted to
+carry out this plan, had not his death occurred shortly after.
+
+Cordial relations existing between France and Spain in 1685,
+tentative boundary agreements were made between the French and Spanish
+authorities, but each side accused the other of violations and the
+strife continued as before. When in 1689, war broke out between Spain
+and France, the French governor organized an expedition to invade the
+Spanish section. He reached Santiago where some of his men died after
+consuming meat and wine found in the deserted houses. Believing them
+poisoned, he ordered the torch to be applied to the city and retired
+after seeing it reduced to ashes. Admiral Perez Caro, the Spanish
+governor, thereupon made preparations for a telling blow on the
+French. The colony's militia and regular troops sent by the viceroy of
+Mexico invaded the French section and on January 21, 1692,
+administered a crushing defeat on the opposing force in the plain of
+La Limonade, killing the French governor and his principal officers.
+The victorious army marched through the French settlements, desolating
+the fields and putting all prisoners to the sword. At the same time a
+new settlement the French had made at Samana was exterminated.
+
+The new French governor found the affairs of his colony in very bad
+condition; but with the assistance of refugees from other islands he
+sent an expedition to Jamaica, from where over 3,000 slaves together
+with stores of indigo and other property were carried off. In
+retaliation the English and Spanish fleets combined and with 4,000 men
+aboard set sail from Manzanillo Bay in 1695, and sacked and burned
+Cape Francais and Port-de-Paix, the English carrying off all the men
+they took prisoners and the Spaniards the women and children.
+Hostilities were ended in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick by which Spain
+recovered territory conquered from her by the French and ceded the
+western part of the island of Santo Domingo to France. The occupation
+of the western coast by France, so long resented as an intrusion, was
+thus formally recognized.
+
+The French colony immediately entered upon an era of prosperity which
+soon made it the richest country of the West Indies. Great plantations
+of tobacco, indigo, cacao, coffee and sugar were established. The
+country came to be known as the paradise of the West Indies and the
+wealth of the planters became proverbial. The grave defect was that
+this prosperity was built on the false foundation of slavery. In 1754
+the population numbered 14,000 whites, 4000 free mulattoes and
+172,000 negroes.
+
+The Spanish colony on the other hand sank lower than ever. Practically
+abandoned by the mother country, there was no commerce beyond a little
+contraband and only the most indispensable agriculture, the
+inhabitants devoting themselves almost entirely to cattle raising. The
+ports were the haunts of pirates, and a number of Dominicans also
+became corsairs. By the year 1730 the entire country held but 6000
+inhabitants, of whom about 500 lived in the ruined capital and the
+remaining urban population was disseminated among the vestiges of
+Cotui, Santiago, Azua, Banica, Monte Plata, Bayaguana, La Vega, Higuey
+and Seibo. Such was the poverty prevailing that a majority of the
+people went in rags; and the arrival of the ship from Mexico, which
+brought the salaries of the civil officials and the military, was
+hailed with the joyful ringing of church bells.
+
+To how great an extent this depression was due to trade restrictions
+is evident from the circumstance that when in 1740 several ports were
+opened to foreign commerce there was an immediate change for the
+better. Agriculture expanded, exports and imports increased, money
+circulated, the cost of the necessaries of life fell, the population
+rapidly increased and many new towns sprang up. According to an
+ecclesiastical census the population had in 1785 advanced to 152,640
+inhabitants. Of these only 30,000 were slaves, owing to the Spanish
+laws which made it easy for a slave to purchase his freedom. Many of
+the freemen were negroes or mulattoes.
+
+In 1751 the colony was visited by a severe hurricane, which caused the
+Ozama to leave its banks, and by a destructive earthquake which
+overthrew the cities of Azua and Seibo and did much damage to the
+church buildings of Santo Domingo. Azua and Seibo were reestablished
+on their present sites. Another earthquake in 1770 destroyed several
+towns in the French part of the island.
+
+From the beginning of the century the boundary between the French and
+Spanish colonies of Santo Domingo had been a source of constant
+friction and bickerings. A preliminary agreement had been made in
+1730, but in 1776 a permanent treaty was drafted, it was ratified at
+Aranjuez in 1777, and the boundary was marked with stone monuments.
+
+When the French revolution broke out in 1789 both the Spanish and
+French colonies of Santo Domingo were enjoying a high degree of
+prosperity. In the French colony there were about 30,000 whites, and
+the haughty white planters were wont to indulge in every form of
+luxury and sybaritic pleasure; the negro slaves, whose number had
+grown to almost half a million, were subjected to the most barbarous
+ill-treatment; and a class of about 30,000 ambitious free mulattoes
+had arisen, many of whom where cultured and wealthy, but who were all
+rigidly excluded from participation in public affairs. It was evident
+that but a spark was needed to produce what might turn out to be a
+general conflagration.
+
+The spark came in the formation of the National Assembly in France and
+its declaration of the rights of man. The mulattoes at once petitioned
+the National Assembly for civil and political rights, which were in
+1790 equivocally denied and in 1791 finally granted them. The whites
+resisted the government decrees and uprisings began. The first of
+these was a revolt of the mulattoes under Oge, which was quickly
+suppressed. Oge fled to Spanish Santo Domingo, but was surrendered by
+the Spaniards on condition that his life be spared, a promise that was
+not kept for he was publicly broken on the wheel. Jean Francois,
+another mulatto, then raised an insurrection of the negroes in the
+north, marching on Cape Francais, burning and murdering, with the body
+of a white infant carried on a spear-head at the head of his troops.
+His forces were defeated by the whites, who commenced an
+indiscriminate slaughter of their victims. The negroes thereupon rose
+in every direction and the paradise of the West Indies became a hell.
+The great plantation houses were burned, the wide estates desolated,
+white women were ravished and murdered and white men put to death with
+horrible tortures, while the liberated slaves indulged in orgies at
+which the beverage was rum mixed with human blood. It was a fearful
+day of reckoning.
+
+In 1793, France went to war with England and Spain. The Spanish
+authorities of Santo Domingo made overtures to negro leaders of whom a
+number entered the Spanish army as officers of high rank, among them
+Toussaint, an intelligent ex-slave who later assumed the surname of
+l'Ouverture and who showed remarkable military and administrative
+qualities. The French government sent commissioners to the colony,
+whose tactless handling of a difficult situation fanned the flames of
+civil war. The English attacked the colony, captured Port-au-Prince,
+and enlisted the aid of the revolted slaves in overrunning the
+surrounding country. When they besieged Port-de-Paix the French
+commander sent secret emissaries to Spanish Santo Domingo and induced
+Toussaint to desert from the Spanish ranks and with his negro
+followers help to drive out the English. Killing the Spanish soldiers
+he found in his way, Toussaint went to fight the English, with such
+success that in 1797 he was made general-in-chief of all the French
+troops. The English, decimated by disease, were obliged to leave in
+1798 and sign a treaty of peace with Toussaint by which the island was
+recognized as an independent and neutral state during their war with
+France. The operations in Santo Domingo are said to have cost the
+English $100,000,000 in money and 45,000 lives.
+
+In the meanwhile border fights were going on in Spanish Santo Domingo
+between Toussaint's troops and forces collected from the various
+Spanish possessions on the Caribbean Sea. They continued until 1795,
+when by the treaty of Basle peace was declared between France and
+Spain and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was--to the dismay of
+its inhabitants--ceded to France, the whole island thus passing under
+French control. Toward the end of that year part of the Spanish troops
+and members of religious orders embarked and an emigration of the
+better families began, many taking their slaves with them. The
+Spaniards also exhumed what they supposed to be the remains of
+Columbus in the cathedral of Santo Domingo and carried them to Havana.
+One of the terms of the treaty was that the colony should formally be
+delivered when French troops were sent to occupy it, but as the
+French were at this time kept busy in the western portion, the Spanish
+governor and authorities continued to administer the country for
+several years. Little by little troops and civil officials were
+withdrawn and in 1799 the royal audiencia or high court was
+transferred to Puerto Principe, in Cuba, most of the lawyers of the
+colony leaving at the same time with their families.
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture was now in supreme command in the west, though
+nominally holding under the French republic. He displayed considerable
+ability in promoting peace, ordered the blacks to return to work and
+gave protection to the whites. It was evident, however, that he aimed
+to make himself absolute master of the whole island. Pursuant to this
+plan he called on the Spanish governor, General Joaquin Garcia, to
+surrender the Spanish colony in accordance with the stipulations of
+the treaty of Basle, Governor Garcia prepared to resist, but Toussaint
+invaded the colony with an army, was successful in a skirmish on the
+Nizao River and appearing before the capital protested that he came as
+a French general in the name of the French republic. Garcia had no
+alternative but to comply with the negro chief's demands. On the 27th
+of January, 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture entered the capital with his
+troops and formally took possession. Amid the booming of cannon the
+Spanish ensign was lowered and the French tricolor raised; and
+Toussaint invited the authorities to the cathedral where a Te Deum was
+chanted. Governor Garcia immediately embarked for Cuba with the
+remaining Spanish civil and military authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT.-18O1 TO 1844
+
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture.--Exodus of whites.--Capture of Santo
+Domingo by French.--War with negroes.--Government of Ferrand.
+--Incursion of Dessalines.--Insurrection of Sanchez Ramirez.
+--Reestablishment of Spanish rule.--Proclamation of Colombian
+State of Spanish Haiti.--Conquest by Haiti.--Haitian rule.--Duarte's
+conspiracy.--Declaration of Independence.
+
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture's occupation of Santo Domingo occasioned a new
+exodus of white families who were fearful of what might happen under
+negro rule. From the French portion of the island the whites had been
+emigrating since the first uprisings; a number had fled into the
+Spanish colony and these now also left. It is estimated that in the
+decade beginning with 1795 the Spanish portion lost over 40,000
+inhabitants, more than one-third of its population. Most of the
+persons who abandoned the island during these troublous times settled
+in Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela, where they established coffee and
+sugar plantations, to the great advantage of these countries. Some of
+the most prominent families of Cuba to-day are descendants of families
+which left Santo Domingo at this time.
+
+Toussaint tried to stem the tide of emigration by issuing conciliatory
+proclamations; but when he found his efforts in vain, it is claimed
+that he conceived the idea of a general massacre of the whites
+remaining in the capital. He ordered the entire population, without
+distinction of age or sex to gather on the plaza and the men, women
+and children to be separated into different groups, the whole plaza
+being surrounded by strong forces of cavalry. Appearing before the
+terrified people Toussaint declared slavery abolished and began to
+walk up and down and ask the women in broken Spanish whether they were
+French or Spanish, touching them with his cane in an ever more
+insolent manner. It was too much for one high-spirited young woman,
+who commenced to upbraid him for daring to touch her. At this critical
+moment a severe storm, that had been gathering since he appeared on
+the plaza, broke, and Toussaint, apparently regarding it as a sign of
+divine disapproval, ordered the children removed, then permitted the
+women to retire and finally sent the soldiers to their barracks,
+leaving the men to disperse of themselves.
+
+Toussaint divided the Spanish part of the island into two departments,
+making his brother Paul l'Ouverture governor of the south with
+headquarters at Santo Domingo and General Clervaux governor of the
+Cibao, with headquarters at Santiago. He then made a journey through
+the country, being everywhere received by the frightened inhabitants
+with every mark of distinction. Upon his return to the French section
+he promulgated, in July, 1801, a constitution for the island, by which
+he was declared governor for life and commander-in-chief, with the
+right of appointing his successor and with an annual salary of 300,00
+francs. At the same time he confiscated the property of persons who
+had emigrated.
+
+Toussaint's constitution was a challenge to Napoleon Bonaparte, who
+having temporarily made peace with England, determined to reestablish
+French authority in the island. He accordingly dispatched to Santo
+Domingo a fleet with a well-equipped army of 25,000 men under his
+brother-in-law, General Le Clerc. Upon arriving in Samana Bay the
+force was divided into several bodies which were to operate in
+different parts of the island. The reconquest of the Spanish part was
+confided to Generals Kerverseau and Ferrand.
+
+General Ferrand landed in Monte Cristi and without difficulty took
+possession of the Cibao while the colored chief, Clervaux, knowing the
+hostility of the population toward him, retired without giving battle.
+General Kerverseau took Samana by assault and then sailed for Santo
+Domingo City. The negro Governor Paul l'Ouverture prepared to resist,
+but a brave Dominican, Colonel Juan Baron, organized an
+insurrectionary force and placed himself in communication with
+Kerverseau. The first attempt at uprising was a failure, as his plans
+were betrayed, and a rough sea prevented the French from landing. His
+enemies took the opportunity to sack the town of San Carlos, outside
+the city gates, and to murder a number of Dominicans. Baron gathered a
+larger force and in unison with Kerverseau demanded the surrender of
+the city. Paul l'Ouverture reluctantly capitulated and the French thus
+assumed command of the Spanish portion of the island, with Kerverseau
+as governor. When Toussaint heard of what had occurred he ordered the
+murder of a battalion of Dominican soldiers whom he had retained
+as hostages.
+
+The war waged between the French and the blacks in the old French
+Colony of St. Domingue was characterized by nameless atrocities
+committed on both sides. The last vestiges of former prosperity were
+swept away and the country converted into a wilderness. Toussaint was
+captured through treachery and died in a European prison, but yellow
+fever invaded the French ranks and did great havoc. Le Clerc died, and
+Rochambeau, his successor, was unable, even with reinforcements, to
+hold his own. England, again at war with France, impeded further
+reinforcements and actively assisted the insurgent negroes. Death by
+disease and wounds made the great French army melt away, and towards
+the end of 1803 the last remnant was forced off the island. On January
+1, 1804, the negro generals proclaimed the island an independent
+republic under the name of Haiti, one of the island's Indian names.
+Jean Jacques Dessalines, a rough, illiterate negro, but of
+indefatigable energy, was made governor for life, with dictatorial
+powers. One of his first acts was to order the extermination of such
+whites as still remained. Dessalines a year later assumed the title
+of emperor.
+
+Ferrand, the French general in the Cibao, conceived the project of
+disobeying his orders to evacuate and of trying to hold Spanish Santo
+Domingo for France. Finding that Kerverseau was ready to capitulate,
+he determined to assume command himself, feeling sure that the French
+government would approve his action, if his plans were successful. He
+therefore marched to Santo Domingo City and after a few days'
+parleying deposed Kerverseau, placed him aboard a vessel that carried
+him to Mayaguez, in Porto Rico, and assumed the governorship.
+
+Dessalines did not long keep him waiting. Desiring to extend his
+authority over the whole island, and angered by an injudicious decree
+of Ferrand, which permitted the enslaving of Haitians of over fourteen
+years found beyond their frontier, he invaded the country with a horde
+of 25,000 men. The population of the border towns fled before him in
+terror, the very slaves remaining with their masters rather than join
+him. Victorious in an engagement on the Yaque river, he laid siege to
+the capital on March 5, 1805. In the meantime his lieutenant,
+Christophe, overran the Cibao, sacking the towns and committing
+horrors. Santiago was captured before the inhabitants had time to
+flee, and a large number were murdered by the savage invaders. The
+members of the municipal council were hung, naked, on the balcony of
+the city hall; the people who had sought refuge in the main church
+were put to the sword and their bodies mutilated; and the priest was
+burnt alive in the church, the furniture of the edifice constituting
+his funeral pyre.
+
+Santo Domingo City had been placed in a state of defense and artillery
+mounted on the tower of Mercedes church and the roofs of the San
+Francisco and Jesuit churches. The garrison consisted of some 2,000
+men, but to maintain these and the 6,000 inhabitants of the city as
+well as the refugees there were only limited supplies on hand. Food
+quickly ran low when, providentially, a French fleet appeared before
+the city. The admiral, who thought the entire island abandoned by the
+French, was delighted to find the French flag still flying and gladly
+rendered assistance. A desperate sortie was made on March 28, the
+twenty-third day of the siege, with such success that Dessalines
+precipitately retired, abandoning his stores. The main body of the
+Haitians retreated by way of the Cibao, the others through the south,
+all devastating the country as far as they could. Azua, San Jose de
+las Matas, Monte Plata, Cotui, San Francisco de Macoris, La Vega,
+Santiago and Monte Cristi were reduced to ashes. In Moca 500
+inhabitants, deceived by the promises of Christophe, returned from
+their hiding places in the hills and assembled for divine service in
+the parish church, where they were butchered by the negro soldiers. In
+La Vega and Santiago the Haitian troops made prisoners of numerous
+families, aggregating 900 persons among men, women and children in La
+Vega and probably more in Santiago, and forced them to accompany the
+army to northern Haiti, where they were kept in captivity, working
+practically as slaves for their captors, for four years. The march was
+full of horrors for the poor prisoners, who were prohibited from
+wearing hats or shoes and were brutally treated by their guards.
+
+As a civil administrator Ferrand did excellent work. He encouraged the
+resettlement of the abandoned fields, persuaded emigrated families to
+return, established schools and began to build water-works for the
+capital, a work which he nearly completed, but which was abandoned by
+his successors and has never been realized in the century that has
+since transpired. Napoleon on hearing of Ferrand's conduct not only
+approved everything he had done but sent him the cross of the Legion
+of Honor and financial assistance. Ferrand was especially impressed
+with the importance of Samana Bay and made plans for a city to be
+located west of the town of Samana, to which he intended to give the
+name of Napoleon. The peaceful conditions to which the country
+returned were only troubled by British vessels which occasionally
+attempted to establish blockades. On February 6, 1806, a British
+squadron of eight vessels under Sir John Duckworth badly defeated a
+French squadron, also of eight vessels, in a hotly contested fight off
+Point Palenque to the southwest of Santo Domingo City.
+
+Although Ferrand was personally liked, discontent began to brew in the
+country. The inhabitants were loyal to Spain and chafed under foreign
+rule; many believed there was danger of Haitian invasion so long as
+the French remained; certain tax exactions stirred up animosity; and
+the stories of Spain's resistance to Napoleon's aggressions inflamed
+the spirits of the leading men. Conspiracies ensued, fomented
+principally by a Cotui planter named Juan Sanchez Ramirez, who had
+emigrated in 1803, but returned after four years of exile, and the
+Spanish flag was formally raised in Seibo in October, 1808. Ferrand
+immediately set out to quell the uprising and on November 7, 1808, met
+Sanchez Ramirez at Palo Hincado, about two miles west of Seibo. He was
+vigorously attacked by the revolutionists, his native troops deserted,
+and his other troops were cut to pieces. Seeing that all was lost and
+that all his work was ruined, Ferrand blew out his brains with
+a pistol.
+
+The revolutionists received assistance from the governor-general of
+Porto Rico and from their former enemy Christophe, who had made
+himself king of northern Haiti; a British squadron took Samana, the
+only post held by the French outside of Santo Domingo City, and raised
+the Spanish flag; and Sanchez Ramirez laid siege to the capital, where
+the French general Barquier had assumed command, while British vessels
+blockaded it by sea. The siege lasted almost nine months, during which
+the besieged suffered greatly from want of provisions, being reduced
+to eating dogs and cats, and the surrounding country was devastated by
+sorties and foraging parties. The severest fighting took place about
+San Geronimo castle, on the shore three miles west of the city, which
+was taken and retaken. In the sixth and seventh months of the siege
+the city was repeatedly bombarded from land and sea, but without
+result. At length Sanchez applied to the governor of Jamaica and a
+British force under Sir Hugh Lyle Carmichael was sent to his
+assistance. It landed at Palenque and took up a position in San
+Carlos. A general assault had been determined upon, when the brave
+little defender of the city, realizing the hopelessness of further
+resistance, agreed to capitulate to the English. On July 9, 1809, the
+French flag was lowered and the country again became a dependency of
+Spain, and in 1814 Spain's dominion was confirmed by the treaty
+of Paris.
+
+Spain had been busy fighting the French within her own borders, and
+when normal conditions were restored had her hands full in keeping
+order and in trying to bring her revolting colonies of America back to
+obedience. She had little time for affairs in Santo Domingo, and did
+nothing to ameliorate conditions. The colony was left to vegetate in
+absolute poverty. This second Spanish era came to be known as the
+period of "Espana boba," "stupid Spain," as the home government
+remained so indifferent to the colony's affairs. The only redeeming
+feature was the return of a number of exiled families. Sanchez
+Ramirez, who had been proclaimed governor-general, was confirmed in
+the office and held the same until his death in 1811, being succeeded
+by Spanish military officers.
+
+In the first years of the new Spanish colony there was an undefined
+attempt at uprising on the part of a few white hotheads, and an
+attempt to incite the slaves against their masters on the part of a
+few black ones, but in both cases the ringleaders were captured and
+put to death. The great struggle for independence in South America
+gradually influenced the minds of the inhabitants of Santo Domingo;
+Bolivar's brief visit to Haiti also had its effect, and secret
+separatist societies began to be founded. In the beginning of 1821 a
+conspiracy was discovered and numerous arrests made. Plotting
+continued nevertheless, stimulated by a prominent lawyer, Jose Nunez
+de Caceres, who dreamed of making the country a state of Bolivar's
+Colombian Republic. On the night of November 30, 1821, the conspiracy
+culminated in an uprising in the capital; most of the troops had been
+won over to the cause of independence and offered no resistance; the
+rest were taken by surprise; and the revolutionists without difficulty
+made themselves masters of the gateway "Puerta del Conde" and of the
+other gates and forts. The Spanish governor was placed under arrest
+and put aboard a vessel sailing for Europe, and the Colombian flag was
+raised. Public proclamation was made of the independent and sovereign
+State of Spanish Haiti, affiliated with the Republic of Colombia, and
+Jose Nunez de Caceres assumed the office of political governor and
+president of the State, while the provincial assembly became a
+provisional junta of government.
+
+The State of Spanish Haiti lasted barely nine weeks. An emissary sent
+to Colombia for assistance in maintaining independence was
+unsuccessful. Another emissary sent to President Boyer of Haiti, for
+the negotiation of a treaty, brought back the answer that "the whole
+island should constitute a single republic under the flag of Haiti."
+For several years Boyer, a dark mulatto, who had united Haiti under
+his rule, had been endeavoring to influence the colored people on the
+Spanish side of the border, to such an extent that the activities of
+his agents repeatedly provoked protests from the Spanish governors,
+and he now recognized that his opportunity had come. Invading the
+country in the north and south his forces captured the most important
+points. He met with no resistance, due to the fact that the temporary
+government was entirely unprepared, that the population feared a
+repetition of the horrors of 1805, and that many were in sympathy with
+him while others were indifferent. On February 9, 1822, Nunez de
+Caceres was obliged to deliver the keys of Santo Domingo City to the
+invader and the whole island came under the dominion of Haiti.
+
+The twenty-two years of Haitian rule marked a period of social and
+economic retrogression for the old Spanish portion of the island. Most
+of the whites, especially the more prominent families, the principal
+representatives of the community's wealth and culture, definitely
+abandoned the country, some immediately upon the advent of the
+Haitians, others in 1824, when a hopeless conspiracy in favor of a
+restoration of Spanish rule was quenched in blood, and others in 1830,
+when a quixotic demand of the Spanish king for a return of his domain
+was refused by Boyer. The Haitians, anxious to eliminate the whites,
+encouraged such emigration and confiscated the property left by the
+emigrants. The policy of the Haitian government was to build up a
+strong African state in the whole island, and in pursuance of this
+policy it emancipated all slaves, colonized Haitian negroes on the
+Samana peninsula and in other parts of the Spanish-speaking territory
+and brought in colored people from the United States. Some of these
+remained in Puerto Plata, others in Santo Domingo City, but the larger
+number settled on the Samana peninsula, where their descendants still
+form the bulk of the population. Every effort was made to Haitianize
+the country by extending the Haitian laws, and imposing Haitian
+governors. Representation was also accorded in the Haitian congress.
+In 1825 the French government recognized the independence of the
+French part of the island in consideration of the payment of an
+indemnity, toward which the Haitians forced the Spanish part to
+contribute.
+
+The wanton acts of the Haitian authorities, their hostility to whites
+and lighter colored mulattoes, their opposition to the Spanish
+language and customs, and their neglect of the country's development,
+caused much discontent, and the idea of separating from Haiti began to
+be entertained. An enthusiastic young man, Juan Pablo Duarte, who had
+been educated in Europe, in 1838 founded a secret revolutionary
+society, called "La Trinitaria," to work for the country's
+independence. In May, 1842, an earthquake destroyed Santiago and La
+Vega, as well as Cape Haitien and other towns in the western part of
+the island, and with lesser earthquakes which followed caused a panic
+throughout the country, which in turn made conditions more favorable
+for a change of government.
+
+In the meantime opposition to Boyer had spread in Haiti also, and in
+1843 gave rise to a revolution, as a result of which Boyer was driven
+from the country and Charles Herard installed as dictator-president.
+Duarte redoubled his activities for independence, struggling against
+the opinion of many who thought such an aspiration hopeless, but his
+plans were discovered and he and others obliged to flee. His work had
+been well done, however; his ideas continued to spread, and it was
+determined to proclaim the independence of Santo Domingo on February
+27, 1844. Late that night a large group of Dominicans under Francisco
+del Rosario Sanchez appeared at the principal gateway of Santo Domingo
+City, "Puerta del Conde," and received the surrender of the guard, and
+on the following morning the Dominican flag, as designed by Duarte,
+was waving over the gate.
+
+Dessalines, the emperor of Haiti, had adopted red and blue, two of the
+colors of the French Republic's flag, for the flag of Haiti, leaving
+out white, because to this hated color he attributed all the
+misfortunes of his country and his race. Duarte took the Haitian
+colors, arranged them in four alternate squares and placed a white
+cross in the center to signify the union of the races through
+Christianity and civilization.
+
+The other points of vantage were quickly occupied and the Haitian
+general, finding himself shut up in the fort "La Fuerza" without hope
+of successful resistance, surrendered and was permitted to withdraw
+with his officers. On the same day or within a few days afterward the
+flag of the new republic was raised in every town of the old Spanish
+colony of Santo Domingo, except certain towns in the west which are
+still in possession of the Haitians, and the country entered upon the
+period of independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--FIRST REPUBLIC AND SPANISH ANNEXATION.--1844 TO
+1865.
+
+
+Constitution of the government.--Santana's first administration.--Wars
+with the Haitians.--Administration of Jimenez.--Victory of Las
+Carreras.--Baez' first administration.--Santana's second
+administration.--Repulse of Soulouque.--Baez' second administration.
+--Period of the two governments.--Santana's third administration.
+--Annexation negotiations.--Annexation to Spain.--War of the
+Restoration.
+
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of independence a central council of
+government was formed for the provisional administration of the
+country's affairs. The new republic assumed the name of Dominican
+Republic and the people were thenceforth known as Dominicans. The
+first business before the central council of government was to prepare
+for the defense of the territory against the Haitian president,
+Herard, who was advancing with an army to reestablish his authority.
+An encounter took place near Azua, in which the Dominican forces,
+under General Pedro Santana, were victorious, but instead of following
+up his victory, Santana fell back on Bani and permitted the enemy to
+occupy Azua. In the meantime another Haitian army was advancing in the
+north. In the midst of his operations Herard was interrupted by the
+news of a revolutionary movement against him in Haitian territory, and
+hastily recalling his troops, retired to combat it, burning Azua and
+devastating the country through which he passed.
+
+Many prominent Dominicans were in doubt as to whether the republic
+would be able to maintain a stable government and resist the
+incursions of the Haitians, and believed that the best course for the
+safety and prosperity of the country would be to seek the protection
+of a foreign power. These men, who came to be known as conservatives
+and who counted Santana among their number, began to spread their
+doctrines and were bitterly opposed by a different element, calling
+themselves liberals, among whom were Duarte, returned from exile, and
+the members of the central council of government. A number of
+prominent conservatives were obliged to go into hiding in order to
+escape imprisonment, and the central council of government appointed
+Duarte its representative in the north and ordered that General
+Francisco del Rosario Sanchez supersede Santana in command of the
+troops in the south. Duarte was proclaimed president of the republic
+by the people of the north, but Santana's soldiers refusing to
+recognize any other leader, marched on the capital, which they entered
+on July 12, 1844, and deposed the central council of government,
+declaring Santana chief of state with dictatorial powers. Thus the
+unhappy series of revolutions which have done such harm to the
+Dominican Republic was inaugurated within five months after the
+declaration of independence.
+
+Santana organized a new central council of government and sent
+emissaries to the Cibao, or northern part of the republic, where he
+won over the army and the principal leaders. Duarte, Sanchez and
+others who had risked their lives and spent their fortunes in behalf
+of Dominican independence were arrested, imprisoned in irons in the
+ancient "Tower of Homage" of Santo Domingo and exiled as traitors to
+their country!
+
+A constitutional convention was called, which met at San Cristobal
+and drafted the first constitution of the Republic, taking the
+constitution of the United States as a model. It was promulgated on
+November 6, 1844. In accordance with a provision of the constitution
+that the convention elect the president for the first two terms,
+General Santana was chosen, as was to be expected. General Pedro
+Santana, who thus became the first constitutional president, was a
+rough, uncouth and uneducated man, but possessed of keen perception
+and great personal bravery. He had a strong strain of negro and
+probably also of Indian blood. Born in Hincha, he had left his native
+town during the troubles of the early part of the century and settled
+in the province of Seibo, where he acquired an ascendency over the
+population that made him a kind of local demigod.
+
+Conspiracies against Santana's government were immediately set on foot
+by the liberals, but were discovered and three ringleaders were
+executed on the first anniversary of the Republic's independence. In
+the spring of 1845 the first Congress met and proceeded to organize
+the government.
+
+In the meantime a guerilla warfare had been going on with the Haitians
+along the border, and President Pierrot, who had overthrown Herard,
+was preparing to invade the Dominican Republic. His two armies were at
+first successful and captured several border towns, but that which
+entered in the south was repulsed at Estrelleta, while that which
+invaded the north was defeated at Beler. A small Haitian fleet which
+set out to attack Puerto Plata blundered on a shoal where it was left
+high and dry and captured by the Dominicans.
+
+Steps were now taken to secure the recognition of the republic by
+foreign powers. The government soon found itself in financial
+difficulties, as it was expensive to maintain the country in a state
+of defense against the Haitians, and an issue of paper money without
+sufficient guarantees made matters worse. Revolutionary mutterings
+were heard, and though a number of leaders were shot, the public
+discontent grew greater and more apparent. Santana comprehended the
+situation and determined to resign the presidency, which he did on
+August 4, 1848. The cabinet officers temporarily carried on the
+government and called an election, as a result of which General Manuel
+Jimenez, who had fought the Haitians and had been secretary of war
+under Santana, was declared president, entering upon office on
+September 8, 1848.
+
+In his efforts to face the economic troubles of the government Jimenez
+disbanded part of the army and reduced military expenses. The moment
+was inopportune, for the implacable Haitians, who continued to
+consider Santo Domingo as Haitian territory in revolt, were preparing
+for another invasion. Soulouque, who had attained the presidency of
+the black republic, made a sudden incursion and marched victoriously
+as far as Azua. The Dominican government observed a vacillating policy
+which provoked general distrust and protests from the friends of
+Santana, whose partisans in the Congress called on him to take command
+of the army. Jimenez at first demurred but finally consented, and
+Santana, emerging from retirement, collected a few hundred ragged
+troops at Sabana Buey, near Azua. Soulouque attempted to move eastward
+by way of the canon of El Numero, but was prevented by a Dominican
+force under General Duverge; he then tried the pass of Las Carreras
+and was met and utterly defeated on April 21, 1849, by General
+Santana. The Haitians retreated to their own territory, burning Azua
+and other towns on the way.  Quarrels between President Jimenez and
+Congress continued meanwhile, and his opponents induced the army to
+declare itself against the president and request General Santana "not
+to lay down his arms until a government was established which would
+respect the constitution and the laws and forever banish discord from
+Dominican soil." The Congress called the president to appear before
+it, and some of the officers of his staff, hearing him harshly
+criticised, drew swords and pistols to punish the offending
+congressman, and only the energy of the speaker, Buenaventura Baez,
+averted a bloody conflict. Congress adjourned to San Cristobal, the
+most important towns of the country rose against the administration,
+and Santana laid siege to the capital. After the siege had lasted a
+week, and the suburban town of San Carlos had been destroyed by fire,
+President Jimenez yielded to the arguments of the British, French and
+American consuls and agreed to resign the presidency and leave the
+country on a British warship. Santana entered the city at the head of
+his army on May 30, 1849, and assumed the reins of government, one of
+his first measures being a wholesale expulsion of Jimenez followers.
+He was crowned with honors by Congress and given the title of
+"Libertador."
+
+The electoral college having been convened, Santiago Espaillat was
+chosen president, but refused to accept, realizing that Santana would
+expect to manage him as a puppet. Colonel Buenaventura Baez was then
+chosen and on December 24,1849, entered upon his first term as
+president of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Baez, who was to play a leading part in the history of his country
+during the next thirty years, was the antithesis of Santana in manners
+and education. Born in Azua in 1812, the oldest of a family of seven
+children, his father had sent him to Europe to study and he returned
+one of the most polished and best educated Dominicans of his day.
+Under Haitian rule he was a member of the Haitian congress and of one
+of the Haitian constitutional assemblies. Almost white himself, he
+here distinguished himself by his boldness in opposing measures
+restricting the rights of whites in Haiti. After the declaration of
+independence of Santo Domingo he was a member of the first
+constitutional assembly and speaker of the first congress, being
+elected from the province of Azua, where his influence was similar to
+that enjoyed by Santana in Seibo. Until he became president he was a
+close friend of Santana.
+
+Baez determined to take the offensive against Haiti, and a small naval
+campaign was undertaken in which Dominican government schooners
+captured Anse-a-Pitre and one or two other villages on the southern
+coast of Haiti, which were sacked and burned by the Dominicans. At the
+same time Baez requested the mediation of the United States, France
+and England to put an end to the struggle between Haiti and the
+Dominican Republic. Soulouque, who had meanwhile proclaimed himself
+Emperor of Haiti, offered to agree to peace and recognize Baez, but on
+condition that the Haitian flag be raised in Santo Domingo and the
+sovereignty of Haiti be admitted. His conditions were naturally
+rejected by the Dominicans, and the mediating powers informed the
+negro emperor that if he persisted in his plans of invading Santo
+Domingo they would be obliged to impose a suspension of hostilities
+for ten years. Nevertheless his forces continued to mass on the
+frontiers and small bodies actually entered Dominican territory, but
+were driven back. Upon the protests of the three powers Soulouque
+explained the incursions as having been due to disobedience to orders,
+and under pressure agreed to a truce for one year, during which
+negotiations were to continue for a definite treaty of peace or an
+armistice of ten years. In December, 1852, the minister of foreign
+affairs of France notified Haiti that the maritime nations of Europe
+were disposed to maintain the independence of Santo Domingo.
+
+A period of peace now began which afforded a breathing-spell to the
+country. Upon the expiration of Baez' four year term, Santana was
+again elected president and entered upon the office on February 15,
+1853. It was one of the occasions, only too rare in Dominican history,
+on which a president served out his term and personally delivered up
+the office to his successor.
+
+The domineering spirit of Santana gave rise to serious dissensions. He
+quarrelled with the clergy, which had been taking an active part in
+politics since the declaration of independence, forced the archbishop,
+under penalty of expulsion, to take the oath of allegiance to the
+constitution, and banished several priests. One of the reasons for his
+stand was perhaps the circumstance that Baez had sought to attract the
+church. For several years Santana had become jealous of the extension
+of Baez' influence and wrathful at the independent spirit displayed by
+his former protege. It soon became apparent that the retirement of
+Baez was equivalent to a fall from power. In July, 1853, Santana
+issued a proclamation in which he accused Baez of treason and of
+playing into the hands of the Haitians, and ordered his banishment.
+Baez fled from the country and answered with a fiery counter-appeal,
+justifying himself and accusing Santana of despotism, whereupon the
+breach between the two strong men was complete. Santana also quarrelled
+with Congress and banished or shot his principal adversaries.  In
+1854 a constitutional convention assembled to draft a constitution
+more to Santana's taste than the existing one. The presidential term
+was extended to six years and the office of vice-president was
+introduced, General Manuel de Regla Mota being elected to this office
+when General Felipe Alfau declined it. This constitution did not last
+six months, for before the end of the year Santana had it further
+restricted.
+
+Under fear of foreign complications Haiti had remained quiet for
+several years, but in 1855, when England and France were engaged in
+the Crimean war, the emperor Soulouque made a last determined effort
+to subjugate Santo Domingo. One army advanced by way of the south,
+another through the central valley; both captured the border towns and
+drove the Dominican outposts before them; and both were defeated on
+the same day, December 22, 1855, the southern army at Cambronal, near
+Neiba, by a Dominican force under General Sosa, and the other on the
+savanna of Santome, by a force under General Jose Maria Cabral. Not to
+be deterred, Soulouque rallied his men within Haitian territory, shot
+a few of his generals, and, believing all the Dominican forces
+collected in the south, marched north to invade the Cibao. Here he was
+met by another band of Dominicans at Sabana Larga and again defeated,
+retreating precipitately to his dominions. It was the last Haitian
+invasion, but Haiti did not formally recognize the independence of the
+Dominican Republic until 1874.
+
+The harsh measures of Santana had provoked general dissatisfaction and
+the friends of Baez seized the opportunity to conspire in his favor.
+Santana realized that the days of his government were numbered, and
+resigned the presidency as he had done in 1849, retiring to his farm
+near Seibo. Manuel de Regla Mota, the vice-president, thereupon on
+March 26, 1856, became president. Baez soon after arrived in the
+country and was elected vice-president; thereupon Regla Mota resigned
+as president and Baez thus slid into the presidency in a perfectly
+legal manner.
+
+The second administration of Baez opened with a revolution against him
+in the Neiba district, which was promptly put down. Baez then had
+Santana arrested and exiled, feeling uncomfortable while his former
+chief remained in the country. But he was not destined to have peace.
+An ill-considered issue of more paper money, when the rate of exchange
+with gold was already fifty to one, created indignation in the tobacco
+region of the Cibao and on July 7, 1857, Santiago declared itself in
+revolution. The movement rapidly spread, a provisional government was
+set up in the Cibao, the forces of Baez were repulsed, and soon the
+president held only Santo Domingo City and Samana. The revolutionists
+called a constitutional convention which met at Moca and in February,
+1858, promulgated another constitution, designating Santiago as the
+capital. An election was held in the midst of the war and General Jose
+Desiderio Valverde was declared elected president. For months there
+were thus two governments in the country. The revolutionists began the
+siege of Santo Domingo City towards the end of July, 1857, and later
+Santana arrived and took charge of military operations. There were
+frequent artillery duels, the fourteenth anniversary of Dominican
+independence, February 27, 1858, being celebrated by a cannonade along
+the Ozama River lasting all day. Fortunately the most distinctive
+feature of the combats was the noise, but the Baez family suffered,
+two of the president's brothers being killed in the war. Baez held out
+for eleven months, but after the fall of Samana and when Santo
+Domingo was reduced to starvation he at length yielded to the
+entreaties of the foreign consuls and capitulated on June 12, 1858. As
+soon as he had embarked for Curacao, General Santana marched into the
+city with the victorious army.
+
+It was not compatible with Santana's character to be subordinate to
+anyone else, and by the end of July he had with the government
+at Santiago and set up a government of his own "in order
+that the lovers of liberty be not disquieted, in order that peace
+prevail, and in order that the nation be saved," as he said in his
+proclamation. The Santiago government attempted to resist but was
+overcome and its members banished. Santana declared the constitution
+of December, 1854, in force again and called an election at which he
+was, of course, chosen president, taking the oath of office on January
+31, 1859. He thereupon crushed a revolution in Azua, executing the
+leaders. As the large amount of paper in circulation caused
+difficulties, he coolly repudiated the greater part, upon which a
+number of European countries temporarily broke off diplomatic
+relations because of the injury done their citizens and forced him to
+retire the paper by issuing in lieu thereof certificates acceptable
+for customs dues. This trouble removed, he devoted himself to securing
+the annexation of Santo Domingo to Spain.
+
+From the earliest days of the Dominican Republic the most prominent
+men had believed that the happiness of the country depended upon
+securing the protection of a strong power, capable of preserving
+order, and the years of warfare confirmed them in their opinion. The
+hope of remaining in power was also an incentive to the party which
+happened to be in control. Spain and France were preferred, for
+reasons of identity or similarity of language, customs and religion.
+Many also favored the United States, but while the republican form of
+government and the probability of commercial advantages were
+attractions, the existence of slavery and of prejudice against the
+colored race inspired misgivings. As early as 1843, even before the
+declaration of independence, an attempt was made to secure a French
+protectorate, and during the first war with Haiti, Santana continued
+the negotiations. In 1846 an attempt was made to obtain a Spanish
+protectorate. In 1849 President Baez in his message to Congress
+referred to the advisability of "hastening a solution of the matter by
+obtaining the intervention and protection of a strong nation which
+would offer the most advantageous terms, for on this depends public
+prosperity."
+
+On October 18, 1849, the Dominican minister of foreign affairs in a
+note to the French consul, stated that "the present situation of the
+country and the barbarous wars with the Haitians, obliged him to beg,
+in the name of his government, that the government of France give a
+definite solution to the important matter of the protectorate; and if
+the decision of France should unfortunately be in the negative, that
+it at least be not deferred too long to prevent him from addressing
+himself to the special representative of the United States, who had
+just arrived." The United States was mentioned as a bogey, for when
+France declined, the Dominican government stated that it could not
+consider the negative as final and appealed to the French sentiments
+of humanity. In 1854 another strong attempt was made to secure a
+Spanish protectorate. Neither France nor Spain was anxious to annex a
+hornet's nest, and Spain was fearful that any uprising against her
+authority would find an echo in Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1855
+negotiations were opened with General William L. Cazneau, special
+agent of President Pierce, for the lease of the Samana peninsula to
+the United States, and in the following year Captain (later
+Major-General) George B. McClellan, of the United States Army, made an
+examination of Samana Bay. Nothing came of this matter owing to
+opposition by foreign powers and the fall of the Santana government.
+Most annexation negotiations were secret, as the opponents of the
+party that happened to be in power never failed to stigmatize them as
+treasonable.
+
+The fear of American influence was one of the reasons given by the
+Haitian emperor Soulouque for his invasion of 1855, and for an
+invitation issued by him in 1858 to the Dominican people, calling upon
+them to return to the Haitian flag. It had its influence on the
+Spanish government also, which began to look more kindly upon
+annexation propositions and agreed to furnish arms, ammunition and
+military instructors to Santo Domingo. In 1860 Santana addressed
+himself directly to the Queen of Spain, and proposed a closer union.
+Bases for annexation were drawn up, founded "on the free and
+spontaneous wish of the Dominican people." Santana was careful to win
+over the local military chiefs to his ideas. His opponents vainly
+combatted the proposition from Curacao and from Haiti, which was now a
+republic again.
+
+On March 18, 1861, the people of the capital assembled on the main
+plaza pursuant to a call issued on the day before, General Santana and
+the members of his government appeared on the gallery of the palace of
+justice, a document was read to the public proclaiming the
+reincorporation of the country as a part of the Spanish dominions, and
+thereupon the red and gold flag of Spain was raised on the fort and on
+the gate "Puerta del Conde" and saluted with 101 guns. On the same day
+and during the week following, the Spanish flag was raised with
+similar ceremonies in most of the other towns. A few days later
+Spanish troops were disembarked at different points. Santana was
+appointed governor and captain-general of the colony, with the rank of
+lieutenant-general in the Spanish army.
+
+The Dominican conspirators in Haiti, comprising General Sanchez and
+others who had distinguished themselves in securing independence for
+their country, crossed the boundary and endeavored to stir up an
+insurrection, but with such misfortune that they were surrounded and
+the majority captured. Santana ordered the prisoners shot and twenty
+were executed on July 4, 1861, notwithstanding the protests of General
+Pelaez, the Spanish officer second in command. The act provoked
+bitterness against Spain and made the men so killed martyrs in the
+eyes of their countrymen. It also marked the beginning of strained
+relations between Santana and Pelaez, made worse by Santana's
+arrogance. The friction resulted in Santana's resignation on January
+7, 1862. He evidently hoped the queen would ask him to reconsider and
+give him carte blanche in Dominican affairs, but the resignation was
+accepted, though sweetened by the grant to him of the title of Marques
+de las Carreras and a life pension of $12,000 per annum. His
+successors in the governorship were high officers of the Spanish army.
+
+Discontent was not slow in spreading among the people. Injudicious
+measures enacted by the Spanish authorities, the importation of hordes
+of foreign officials, the overbearing manners of several local Spanish
+commanders, increases in the budget, intolerance on the part of the
+Spanish priests, and the natural unrest of the Dominicans, all
+combined to give rise to small revolts which were put down, until, on
+August 16, 1863, a farmer named Cabrera with a small band of
+followers, at Capotillo, near Guayubin in the Cibao, began an
+insurrection which quickly became general and is known in Dominican
+history as the War of the Restoration. The Spanish forces of the Cibao
+valley were obliged to concentrate in Fort San Luis, at Santiago de
+los Caballeros, where they were besieged by the insurgents. The
+Dominicans also captured Puerto Plata, but the city was retaken by
+Spanish troops from Cuba. Reinforcements were sent to the besieged
+garrison of Santiago, and in the fight which the Dominicans made to
+prevent the joining of the Spanish forces, the city of Santiago was
+set on fire and reduced to ashes. The Spaniards determined to evacuate
+the place, and marched down to the coast, being constantly harassed by
+Dominican guerillas, so that they lost over a thousand men before
+reaching Puerto Plata. The Dominicans established a provisional
+government with its capital at Santiago and the country continued to
+be devastated with fire and sword.
+
+General Santana was given command of a Spanish force to put down the
+insurrection in the east, but insisting on carrying out his own plan
+of campaign, he disobeyed orders and so rudely answered the
+governor-general's remonstrances that he was summarily removed from
+his position. In high dudgeon he retired to the capital, and it is
+stated that the governor intended to ship him off to Cuba; but on June
+14, 1864, he suddenly died, after an illness of only a few hours.
+
+If the Spaniards had displayed energy in opposing the revolutionists
+they would probably have carried off the victory, but the whole number
+of their troops on the island available for military service at any
+one time rarely reached eight thousand men. A campaign in the Monte
+Cristi district which might have ended the war was rendered sterile
+by the lack of troops. Finally the Spaniards, unable to garrison the
+towns they won, were reduced to the possession of Santo Domingo City
+and a few other places near the seacoast, all practically in a state
+of siege. Meanwhile the military operations were costing the home
+government large sums of money, and it became evident that, owing to
+the failure to strike at the right time, the subjugation of the
+country would entail enormous expenditures. Political conditions in
+Spain were not favorable to such a war of conquest, and the Spanish
+government determined to withdraw from Santo Domingo, alleging that
+Spain had taken possession only because she believed the Dominicans
+were anxious for annexation but that she did not wish to remain
+against their will. Possible complications with the United States,
+just emerging from the Civil War, were probably also taken into
+account. On May 1, 1865, the Queen of Spain sanctioned a law of the
+Spanish Cortes providing for the relinquishment of the colony. The
+Spanish forces were brought together at Santo Domingo City, and on
+July 11, 1865, after the guns in the forts had been spiked and the
+military stores on hand had been destroyed, the troops and the
+authorities embarked in a fleet assembled for that purpose and the
+Spanish flag was lowered, for the last time, in Santo Domingo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--SECOND REPUBLIC.--REVOLUTIONS AND
+DICTATORSHIPS.--1863 TO 1904.
+
+
+Restoration of the republic.--Military presidents.--Cabral's
+administration.--Baez' fourth administration.--Annexation negotiations
+with the United States.--Civil wars.--Heureaux's rule.--Administrations
+of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil.--Election of Morales.
+
+
+From the very beginning of the War of the Restoration and for several
+years afterwards, the principal Dominican military chiefs were engaged
+in a disgraceful squabble for leadership. As soon as the Spanish
+forces retired from Santiago the revolutionists, on September 14,
+1863, proclaimed the restoration of the republic and set up a
+provisional government under the presidency of General Jose Antonio
+Salcedo. The other generals accused Salcedo of lack of energy in
+pushing the war and on October 10, 1864, deposed him and made General
+Gaspar Polanco president in his stead. Poor Salcedo tried to resist,
+but was captured, hurried by a friend from one camp to another to keep
+him from being shot, and at last foully murdered. Polanco did not
+enjoy his triumph long. A reaction set in, a revolution was initiated
+against him, his troops deserted, he was captured and imprisoned, and
+on January 24, 1865, a superior council of government was formed by
+the insurgents, presided over by General Benigno Filomeno de Rojas.
+The council called a constitutional convention which proclaimed the
+constitution of Moca of 1858 and in March, 1865, elected General Pedro
+Antonio Pimentel president. It was he who entered Santo Domingo City
+after the evacuation by the Spaniards.
+
+Hardly had the evacuation taken place when Generals Cabral and
+Manzueta raised an insurrection which overthrew Pimentel's government
+while he was absent on the Haitian border, and General Jose Maria
+Cabral, an educated mulatto, was proclaimed Protector of the Republic.
+Cabral had formerly been one of the most enthusiastic followers of
+Baez but it soon became evident that he was working for himself. He
+convoked a constitutional assembly which was convening when General
+Pedro Guillermo rose in the east and proclaimed General Buenaventura
+Baez president. The movement was successful and the Congress,
+completely convinced by the sight of a sword unsheathed in its
+presence by one of the victorious generals, elected Baez to the
+presidency.
+
+Since his overthrow in 1858 Baez had been in exile, but he had
+accepted Spanish sovereignty and the rank of fieldmarshal in the
+Spanish army. On the outbreak of the War of the Restoration, he sent
+Cabral to join the Dominican forces as his representative. He was now
+living in Curacao and a commission journeyed there to invite him back
+to Santo Domingo, a council inaugurated on October 25, 1865, meanwhile
+taking charge. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated on
+November 14, 1865, and on the same day Baez entered upon his office.
+Neither he nor the constitution lasted long. The constitution being
+too liberal, he had it abrogated on April 19, 1866, and Santana's
+constitution of December 16, 1854, was adopted in its stead. This
+action was the excuse for an insurrection which broke out in Santiago
+on May 1, 1866, under the leadership of Pimentel in combination with
+Cabral, and quickly assumed such alarming proportions that Baez found
+it prudent to resign before the end of the month and retire
+to Curacao.
+
+As usual a constitutional assembly was called, and a new constitution
+was promulgated on September 26, 1866. An election was held and Cabral
+chosen president by a practically unanimous vote. Nevertheless his
+government had scarcely a day's peace from insurrections. It found
+time, however, to resume amicable relations with Spain, to make a
+commercial treaty with the United States and to found a professional
+institute. Other relations with the United States were also planned;
+for as Spain and France were eliminated from the annexation idea and
+the United States had abolished slavery, this country was looked upon
+with greater favor. The cost of the government's military activities
+was such that a strong attempt was made to lease Samana Bay to the
+United States for two million dollars; but as complete control was not
+offered the plan fell through. Later a special commissioner was sent
+to Washington to negotiate for the absolute lease of the Samana
+peninsula and Samana Bay, which negotiations were the prelude to the
+later annexation negotiations, but they were interrupted by a
+revolution in favor of Baez which broke out in Monte Cristi on October
+7, 1867. and deposed Cabral on January 31, 1868. A council of generals
+administered affairs until Baez took charge for the fourth time, on
+May 4, 1868.
+
+In accordance with established usage, the existing constitution was
+abrogated and Baez' pet constitution, that of December, 1854, placed
+in force, but with amendments. Baez then began to rule with a firm
+hand, and though occasionally bothered by small uprisings on the
+Haitian border, promoted by Cabral, Luperon and other unruly spirits,
+managed to sustain himself in power for almost his full term of six
+years. He was able to realize what had been the golden dream of
+administrations since the birth of the Republic, the contracting of a
+foreign loan. Hartmont & Co., a firm of London bankers, agreed to
+issue bonds of the Republic to the amount of L757,700, though at a
+ruinous rate, and actually paid over L38,095. The dream turned to a
+nightmare, for when the government annulled the contract on the ground
+of failure to comply with conditions, the bankers continued to issue
+bonds and kept the proceeds themselves; and the bonds thus
+fraudulently issued constituted the nucleus of the enormous debt which
+later led to American intervention.
+
+Though Baez had, for political reasons, protested against Cabral's
+negotiations with the United States, he was too sagacious a statesman
+to fail to recognize the value of American protection. It was now
+Cabral's turn to indulge in tirades full of patriotic indignation, for
+Baez actively pursued negotiations for the annexation of the country
+to the United States. On November 29, 1869, two treaties were signed
+in Santo Domingo City by representatives of the American and Dominican
+governments: by one the Samana peninsula and Samana Bay were leased to
+the United States for fifty years at an annual rental of $150,000, and
+by the other the Dominican Republic was annexed to the United States.
+Baez submitted the annexation treaty to a plebiscite in his country in
+February, 1870, and an overwhelming vote was cast in favor thereof.
+While the adversaries of the treaty did not dare to oppose it actively
+within the country, it is probable that the vote represented the true
+sentiment of the Dominican people, for aside from the evident economic
+advantages of annexation, the influence of Baez was such that the
+people were ready to follow blindly whatever he advised.  Both
+treaties lapsed, but the annexation treaty was renewed and President
+Grant in his messages to Congress strongly urged its passage. Powerful
+opposition developed in the United States Senate, led by Senator
+Sumner, and the treaty failed of ratification. By a resolution of
+Congress, approved January 12, 1871, the President of the United
+States was authorized to send a commission of inquiry to Santo
+Domingo. President Grant appointed three eminent men, Benjamin F.
+Wade, Andrew D. White and Samuel G. Howe, who were assisted by
+Frederick Douglas, Major-General Franz Sigel and a number of
+scientists. The commission proceeded to Santo Domingo, travelled
+across the country in several directions and made an extensive report,
+which is still an important source of information as to the
+characteristics of the island. The commission's report was transmitted
+to Congress, and President Grant made another earnest plea for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo. Congress took no further action, however,
+and the United States thus deliberately rejected an opportunity to
+obtain control of a most important strategical position and to secure
+peace and prosperity to the Dominican people.
+
+It is interesting to speculate on what the future of Santo Domingo
+would have been if annexation had been realized. The power of the
+United States would have maintained peace; salutary laws would have
+educated the people in self-government; liberal tariff concessions
+would have stimulated agriculture and industry; the influx of a good
+stock of immigrants would have developed and settled the interior;
+honest administration would have provided roads and schools, and soon
+the country would have attained a high degree of development and
+prosperity. The failure of the United States to extend a helping hand
+condemned Santo Domingo to long years of anarchy and dictatorships.
+
+When it became apparent that nothing would come of the annexation
+plans, the Baez administration, on December 28, 1872, rented the
+Samana peninsula to an American corporation, the "Samana Bay Company,"
+for ninety-nine years, at an annual rental of $150,000. The company,
+which intended to found a large city on Samana Bay, actually paid the
+sum of $147,229.91, the greater part in gold and the remainder in arms
+and ammunition. This payment, with that received on account of the
+Hartmont bonds, and with the higher customs receipts due to quiet
+conditions, afforded relief to the treasury; while peace brought the
+country a prosperity further increased by the immigration of numerous
+Cubans driven from their homes by the ten years' war that had begun
+in 1869.
+
+President Baez did not lose hope in the ultimate realization of
+annexation, and it was also his intention to have himself reelected
+for another term of six years. These circumstances were used against
+him by his ambitious enemies, and on November 25, 1873, a revolution
+broke out in Puerto Plata which spread so rapidly that Baez was
+obliged to capitulate on December 31 of the same year. A new
+generation, grown up since the independence of the country and which
+had come to look upon civil disorder as a normal condition, now came
+into power, and the question of foreign annexation ceased to be
+an issue.
+
+A period of constant revolutionary ferment and frequent changes of the
+constitution followed, with a wearisome succession of military
+presidents. General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez became provisional
+president in 1874, took advantage of the non-payment of an annuity by
+the Samana Bay Company to rescind the contract with the company,
+called a national assembly, which formulated the constitution of March
+24, 1874, and had himself elected president, entering upon office on
+April 6 of that year. As the constitution did not suit him, he called
+a new national convention and had another constitution promulgated on
+March 9, 1875. This was too much even for Santo Domingo, and his
+enemies formed a powerful league in Santiago with a view to having him
+impeached, but the Congress rejected the charges. Another civil war
+was imminent when Gonzalez resigned on February 23, 1876.
+
+The council of ministers took charge of the government and held an
+election at which Ulises F. Espaillat was designated president. He
+entered upon office on April 29, 1876, and as he was an excellent man
+would have given a good account of himself under different conditions;
+but General Gonzalez started a revolution on the Haitian frontier, and
+on October 5, 1876, Espaillat was ousted. A superior council of
+government was formed, which appointed General Gonzalez president in
+the beginning of November, 1876. Gonzalez had been in power for just
+one month when he was overthrown, in December, 1876, by a revolution
+that originated in the Cibao, and General Buenaventura Baez became
+president for the fifth time. The Republic thus had four presidents in
+1876: Gonzalez twice, Espaillat and Baez. Baez called a constitutional
+convention and the constitution of May 14, 1877, was promulgated.
+Under the influence of the younger element he was less autocratic than
+in his previous administrations, but perhaps for that very reason his
+whole term was one prolonged struggle with insurrections, until he was
+obliged to surrender on February 24, 1878. He retired to Porto Rico
+and died near Mayaguez in 1884.  Two governments were now
+established, General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez being proclaimed president
+in the Cibao, and General Cesareo Guillermo in Santo Domingo. An
+agreement was reached by them on April 13, 1878, and Guillermo became
+provisional president of the entire country. The constitution of 1877
+was reproclaimed with amendments, an election was held and General
+Gonzalez was declared constitutional president, entering upon office
+on July 6, 1878. Guillermo immediately started a revolution with
+General Ulises Heureaux and compelled Gonzalez to abdicate on
+September 2, 1878. It was the end of Gonzalez' meteoric presidential
+flights, but after a period of retirement he ventured into public life
+again, and for many years was Dominican minister to Haiti.
+
+Jacinto de Castro, the president of the supreme court, acted as
+president until September 29,1878, when he was succeeded by the
+council of ministers of which Guillermo was chief. The constitution of
+1878 was promulgated, with amendments, on February 11, 1879, and on
+February 28, Guillermo, after going through the form of an election,
+became constitutional president. He did not last long. On October 6,
+1879, a revolution broke out at Puerto Plata and a provisional
+government was formed under the presidency of General Gregorio
+Luperon, an intelligent negro, who had been imprisoned for larceny
+under Spanish rule, but had redeemed himself by signal services in the
+War of the Restoration. Guillermo resisted two months, but was
+compelled to surrender on December 6, 1879.
+
+Luperon did not depart from the usual custom, but called a
+constitutional assembly which, in 1880, adopted with amendments the
+constitution of 1879, and fixed the presidential term at two years.
+Luperon then held an election and gave the presidency, for the two
+years beginning September 1, 1880, to one of his supporters, Father
+Fernando de Merino, an eloquent priest who had taken an active part in
+politics since his youth, and who later became archbishop of Santo
+Domingo. The reverend gentleman suppressed all revolutionary uprisings
+with uncompromising severity and did not hesitate to execute the
+conspirators that fell into his hands.
+
+During Merino's administration General Ulises Heureaux served as
+minister of the interior and began to wield the power which he was to
+retain for twenty years. Heureaux was born in Puerto Plata about 1846.
+Both of his parents were negroes, his father being a Haitian who
+followed the sea and afterwards became a merchant, and his mother a
+St. Thomas woman. He received a mercantile education and took part as
+a subordinate in the War of the Restoration against the Spaniards. On
+the withdrawal of the Spaniards, in 1865, he became a bandit on the
+Haitian border and practised horse stealing on a large scale. Later he
+obtained a position in the Puerto Plata custom-house and took a more
+and more prominent part in the civil disturbances of his country,
+until he became well known as a politician and a revolutionist. He
+distinguished himself by his bravery and was many times wounded.
+Throughout these civil wars he remained a sturdy follower of General
+Luperon, the successor of Santana as leader of the "Blue" party and an
+implacable opponent of General Buenaventura Baez, the chief of the
+"Reds" and of General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, the leader of the
+"Greens." When General Luperon overthrew President Cesareo Guillermo,
+in 1879, Heureaux was closely associated with the revolutionary movement.
+
+Heureaux was able to strengthen himself to such an extent that when,
+in 1882, Luperon determined to become president himself he found that
+his former follower had outgrown him in power. The result was that
+Heureaux became president and served from September 1, 1882, to
+September 1, 1884. When his term expired a bitter struggle ensued with
+Luperon, who still retained considerable influence. Luperon's
+candidate was Segundo Imbert, while Heureaux supported General
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, who was ultimately victorious. Luperon
+went into exile, but later became reconciled with Heureaux and
+returned to die in Santo Domingo.
+
+Billini entered upon the presidency on September 1, 1884, but became
+restive under the demands of Heureaux and his friends and resigned on
+May 15, 1885. The vice-president, Alejandro Woss y Gil, succeeded to
+the chief office. His term was to have expired in September of the
+following year, but a formidable insurrection broke out in July, 1886,
+under General Casimiro N. de Moya, with the object of preventing
+Heureaux from carrying out his design of succeeding Gil. After six
+months of fighting, during which the number of fatalities was happily
+remarkably small, Heureaux was victorious, and having had himself
+re-elected, resumed the presidency on January 6, 1887, until which
+time Woss y Gil remained in office.
+
+The biennial elections were a source of annoyance even to one who was
+sure of victory, and Heureaux therefore called a constitutional
+convention which amended the constitution then in force and lengthened
+the presidential term to four years, beginning in 1889. As General
+Cesareo Guillermo, Heureaux's former companion in arms and later
+opponent, was understood to be nursing aspirations for the presidency,
+Heureaux sought to apprehend him. Guillermo fled, but finding himself
+pressed, committed suicide. No further obstacle opposed Heureaux's
+election, and he was again inaugurated on February 27, 1889.
+
+In the meantime negotiations had been undertaken for the contracting
+of new foreign loans, and one was floated in 1888 and another in 1892.
+The government's fiscal agent who secured these loans in Europe was
+General Eugenio Generoso Marchena, a man of much influence. In 1892
+General Marchena announced himself as a candidate for the presidency.
+Heureaux won without difficulty, but still uneasy, he arrested
+Marchena in Santo Domingo, imprisoned him for a year and sent him to
+Azua to be shot.
+
+During Heureaux's new term, beginning in 1893, the country by
+improvident bond issues and debt contraction, made rapid strides in
+the direction of bankruptcy. In 1893, the San Domingo Improvement
+Company, an American corporation, under contract with the government
+took charge of the customs collections for the purpose of providing
+for the services of the loans. The illegal imprisonment of several
+Frenchmen gave rise to friction with the French government and in 1894
+a French fleet appeared before Santo Domingo City, but the matter was
+adjusted by the payment of an indemnity. As the 1889 constitution
+forbade a president from holding office for more than two terms in
+succession, Heureaux, wishing to continue in the presidency, obviated
+the difficulty by the simple expedient of promulgating a new
+constitution in 1896, in which the limitation was removed. He was
+declared unanimously elected in 1896 and began his final term on
+February 27, 1897.
+
+The long period of comparative peace enjoyed by the country under the
+rule of President Ulises Heureaux, or "Lilis," as the dictator was
+popularly known, brought seeming progress and prosperity, though at a
+heavy price. Many of his opponents Heureaux was able to buy, and in
+this way he retained the loyalty of hundreds of little military chiefs
+scattered through the country. Those whom he could not buy he
+persecuted, imprisoned, exiled, or executed. While possessing pleasant
+and affable manners, he was unrelenting in his persecution of
+conspirators and many stories are told of his harshness in this
+respect. It is related that when he was minister of the interior under
+Merino he discovered that his brother-in-law was implicated in a plot;
+he therefore invited him to dinner and after they had dined, asked how
+his guest had enjoyed the meal. "Very well," was the answer. "I am
+glad of that," said Heureaux, "for I am about to have you shot. Take a
+cigar," he added pleasantly, "it will be your last." And it was, for
+the execution followed at once. On another occasion, so the story
+goes, after he had become president, a prominent general was his guest
+and after dinner they took a stroll. Coming to a place in the suburbs
+where workmen were digging a peculiar trench, the general inquired,
+"What are they digging here?" "They are digging your grave," answered
+Heureaux, and before the general could recover from his consternation
+a squad of soldiers appeared. He was shot and buried then and there.
+The governor of Macoris and the minister of war were both powerful men
+whose influence was feared by Heureaux. He therefore cunningly wrought
+up the latter against the former to such an extent that one fine
+morning the minister suddenly appeared in Macoris and had the governor
+summarily shot. An outcry was made by the governor's friends, and
+Heureaux, affecting indignation at the act, had the minister of war
+executed. Many of his prisoners mysteriously disappeared, and popular
+rumor points out one of the lower platforms of the fort "La Fuerza,"
+where an aguacate tree formerly grew, as the place where prisoners
+were shot at night, their bodies being thrown to the sharks at the
+base of the cliff. Some of the dictator's suspects were assassinated
+in the public streets. Even exiles were not secure from his wrath and
+in one instance a Dominican writer named Eugenio Deschamps, who had
+been publishing articles against him in Porto Rico, was seriously
+wounded in the streets of Ponce by an assassin's bullet.
+
+Ability and unscrupulousness, courage and cruelty, resolution and
+cunning were mingled in the character of Heureaux. Over the country he
+exercised the powers of an absolute monarch. He was the fountain head
+of all government and the real chief of every department. The accounts
+of the government and his private accounts were treated by him as one
+and the same thing. His ambition to remain in power necessitated the
+expenditure of large sums which he obtained through improvident
+foreign loans and usurious contracts with local merchants. Those whom
+he favored grew rich; his enemies he ruined. In other ways also his
+morals swerved from the straight and narrow path, and an isolated town
+gloried in the distinction of being the only place in the Republic
+where the president did not have a mistress. He himself stated that he
+had no concern as to what history would say of him, since he would not
+be there to read it.
+
+During the latter part of Heureaux's administration the leaders of the
+opposition were recognized as Juan Isidro Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez,
+Vasquez was the chief of a large landholding family of the Cibao.
+Jimenez had been a prominent merchant, at one time carrying on
+mercantile houses in Monte Cristi, New York, Paris and Hamburg; his
+family had formerly been prominent in Dominican affairs, his father
+having been president of the Republic in 1848 and his grandfather one
+of the leading spirits of the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was
+thrown off. Jimenez was born in Santo Domingo City in 1846 and as a
+boy went to Haiti with his father, growing up in Port-au-Prince. As a
+youth he removed to Monte Cristi, where he established himself in
+business and took part in the War of the Restoration against the
+Spaniards. Having with Heureaux, he resided for a number of
+years in Cape Haitien, Haiti, and from there directed conspiracies
+against the dictator.
+
+In May, 1898, Jimenez made a bold attempt to overthrow the Heureaux
+government. He fitted out a small steamer, the "Fanita," in the United
+States and left ostensibly to aid the Cuban insurgents; and as the
+United States was then at war with Spain the expedition was not
+opposed by the American government. A landing was made at Monte Cristi
+with only twenty-five men, a general uprising being expected as soon
+as his arrival became known. Jimenez' followers took the town, but the
+governor of the district was able to escape to the country and
+returned with a large force, driving Jimenez back to his vessel with a
+loss of one-half of his companions. The "Fanita" had touched in the
+Bahamas on the way down and on returning to Inagua Island, Jimenez was
+arrested by the British authorities as a filibuster. Heureaux sent a
+man-of-war to Nassau and did all he could to have the case pressed.
+Jimenez was tried twice; at the first trial the jury did not agree,
+and the second time he was acquitted.
+
+Though popular hatred against Heureaux was strong on account of his
+tyrannical conduct and his attempts to compel the circulation of a
+large issue of inconvertible bank notes with which he flooded the
+country, the fear in which he was held prevented any general uprising.
+There were many, however, among them Horacio Vasquez, who never ceased
+conspiring against the dictator. When it became known that Heureaux
+was resolved to bring about Vasquez' death, Ramon Caceres, a cousin of
+Vasquez, and other members of the Vasquez clan, were drawn into the
+conspiracies. The father of Caceres, once vice-president under Baez,
+had been killed, it is said, by order of Heureaux. In July, 1899, when
+Heureaux prepared for a trip through the Cibao, he was informed of a
+plot to kill him on the way. When he arrived in Moca he thought that
+no danger awaited him there, as he expected that if any attack were to
+be made on him it would be at some solitary portion of the road and
+not in a town in broad daylight. When about to leave Moca on July 26,
+1899, he ordered the governor of the province to arrest Caceres and
+his companions. Caceres was informed of the order by the secretary of
+the governor, who was his friend, and knowing that the arrest would
+probably be followed by an execution, with several companions he
+repaired to a store where Heureaux was talking with the proprietor,
+the provincial treasurer. As soon as Heureaux appeared in the doorway
+Caceres began to shoot, and the other conspirators continued firing,
+although the first shot had been fatal. Heureaux before falling drew
+his revolver and returned the fire, but the darkness of death clouded
+his vision and the shots went wild, one of them, however, killing a
+beggar to whom he had a few moments before given alms. Caceres and his
+companions fled to the mountains, and the body of Heureaux was taken
+to Santiago, where it was afterwards interred in the cathedral. Juan
+Wenceslao Figuereo, vice-president of the Republic, an aged negro,
+succeeded to the presidency.
+
+The death of Heureaux precipitated a revolution headed by General
+Horacio Vasquez. President Figuereo made no resistance, but at the end
+of August resigned, together with his cabinet, first designating a
+committee of citizens to administer affairs until the arrival of
+Vasquez, who entered the capital on September 5, 1899, and became the
+head of the provisional government. Jimenez in the meantime hastened
+to the country and was everywhere received with rejoicing. The two
+leaders arranged that Jimenez should become president and Vasquez
+vice-president, and an election was held on October 20, by which this
+result was attained, the inauguration taking place November 20, 1899.
+Ramon Caceres, the slayer of Heureaux, was made governor of Santiago
+and delegate of the government in the Cibao.
+
+The Jimenez administration was the reaction of that of Heureaux. It
+deserved, more than any the Republic had had up to that time, the name
+of civil and constitutional government. The executive was not
+absolute, as in the time of Heureaux, nor were there sanguinary
+executions. Almost too little restraint was exercised, and the press,
+so long muzzled, began to convert its liberty into license. Jimenez,
+too, was so good-hearted that at times he yielded to importunities
+which had better been resisted. The financial problems left by the
+Heureaux administration caused considerable trouble and though the
+waste of the public revenues was curtailed, large sums were still
+absorbed in the payment of revolutionary claims and of pensions for
+local military chiefs.
+
+Jealousies soon ripened between Jimenez and Vasquez, who was known to
+long for the presidency and had only temporarily laid aside his
+aspirations on account of the overwhelming popularity of Jimenez. Each
+of the chiefs collected a group of friends about him and in this way
+originated the still existing political parties, Jimenistas and
+Horacistas, the respective followers of Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez.
+Several minor uprisings occurred but were suppressed by the
+government. In the beginning of 1902 the Dominican Congress, which was
+composed largely of Vasquez' friends, considered the advisability of
+impeaching President Jimenez on account of the financial transactions
+of the administration, and a vote of censure was finally passed.
+Jimenez believed Vasquez at the bottom of the agitation and endeavored
+to have the municipalities protest against the action of Congress.
+Rumors became current that Jimenez intended to imprison his
+vice-president and thus insure his own reelection. Vasquez, urged on
+by his friends, therefore started a revolution in the Cibao, and after
+a fight in San Carlos and a four days' siege of the capital entered
+Santo Domingo City on May 2, 1902, and became president of a
+provisional government. Jimenez sought refuge in the French consulate
+and embarked for Porto Rico a few days later.
+
+General Horacio Vasquez was born in Moca and was a ranchman, merchant
+and planter. He possessed military capacity and took a minor part in
+several revolutions. At first a friend of Heureaux, he afterwards
+became one of his bitterest enemies, and for a number of years lived
+as an exile in Cuba and Porto Rico, returning to Moca shortly before
+the death of Heureaux to remain in retirement on his plantation. The
+Vasquez administration had as much difficulty with financial matters
+as that of his predecessor, but the president had little opportunity
+to show what he could do. Local outbreaks began in Monte Cristi and
+became general in October, 1902. Disturbances continued until March
+24, 1903, when, during the absence of President Vasquez in the Cibao,
+the political prisoners in the fort of Santo Domingo City, through
+connivance with the general in charge, broke out, took the fort,
+liberated the convicts, threw the city into a panic with a continued
+fusillade, and proclaimed a revolution. They were for the most part
+Jimenistas and "Lilicistas," or members of the old Heureaux party, and
+their candidate for the presidency would probably have been Jimenez;
+but in Jimenez' absence the presidency was offered to Figuereo and
+others, who declined, and was finally accepted by Alejandro Woss y
+Gil, who had only the week before been liberated from the same
+political prison.
+
+General Vasquez returned with an army, arriving before Santo Domingo
+City at the end of March. The ensuing siege was one long battle,
+during which a portion of the suburban town of San Carlos was
+destroyed by fire. On April 18, 1903, Generals Alvarez and Cordero,
+the best generals of the besiegers, made a violent attack on the city
+and effected an entrance, but fighting continued in the streets and
+these leaders and most of the storming party were killed. Vasquez
+thereupon fled to Santiago, resigned his post, and left the country
+for Cuba. On the triumph of his party a year later, he returned to
+Santo Domingo and retired to his plantation in Moca.
+
+Woss y Gil, who thus became president of the provisional government,
+called a session of Congress and by appointments favorable to his
+interests so intrenched himself that his continuance as president
+became assured. Jimenez, who arrived shortly after, advanced the claim
+that he was still president de jure, since the constitutional term of
+four years for which he had been elected had not expired, and he
+denominated the Vasquez government a temporary and illegal usurpation
+of power. In his efforts to regain office he sent his friend Eugenio
+Deschamps to treat with Gil, but Deschamps, seeing Gil obdurate, made
+an agreement by which Woss y Gil was to become president and Deschamps
+vice-president, Jimenez was obliged to yield to the inevitable and
+returned to Porto Rico in the hope of eventually succeeding Woss y
+Gil. An election was held in which Woss y Gil and Deschamps were the
+only candidates and on June 20, 1903, they were inaugurated.
+
+In General Alejandro Woss y Gil the Republic had a very talented man
+as president. Born in Seibo, he had entered politics in his youth, and
+became a friend and follower of Heureaux. At times he was governor of
+a province, later for a long period Dominican consul at New York, and
+from 1885 to 1887 president of the Republic. He had received a good
+education and traveled extensively, spoke several modern languages,
+had some knowledge of the classic languages, and was a poet, musician
+and writer.
+
+Unfortunately the talents of Woss y Gil did not extend to the securing
+of an honest and efficient administration. The ministers appointed by
+him were exceedingly injudicious selections, and a carnival of fraud
+and dishonesty was soon in progress. Discontent grew general, and by
+the end of October, 1903, General Carlos F. Morales, governor of
+Puerto Plata, raised the standard of revolt and his troops marched on
+the capital. The revolution was supported by both parties, the
+Jimenistas and Horacistas, and was known as the "war of the union."
+Morales, the leader of the insurrection, had been a follower of
+Jimenez and favored the aspirations of the latter to the extent even
+of sending requests to Jimenez to come to Santo Domingo at once. The
+siege of Santo Domingo City lasted for about three weeks. On November
+24, 1903, Woss y Gil, finding himself vanquished, permitted Morales'
+troops to enter the city and sought refuge in the British consulate.
+Three days later a German man-of-war carried him to Porto Rico, and he
+later continued to Cuba, where he long resided in the city
+of Santiago.
+
+For a short time a tripartite revolution was in progress, the
+supporters of Woss y Gil, Horacio Vasquez and Jimenez fighting in
+different parts of the country. Morales, on entering Santo Domingo,
+became president of the provisional government. The new governors of
+the Cibao were Jimenistas, but most of the appointments Morales made
+in the south were Horacistas, and it began to be suspected among the
+Jimenez followers that he had designs on the presidency. When Jimenez
+arrived in Santiago he realized that his ambitions were again
+endangered and he and his friends grew restless. On December 6, 1903,
+Jimenez fled from Santiago to Monte Cristi, claiming that Morales had
+sent a troop of fifty men to assassinate him.
+
+A counter revolution followed at once and swiftly attained large
+proportions. It became the most serious unsuccessful revolution the
+Republic had seen. At one time the whole country was in the hands of
+Jimenez except Santo Domingo City and the small port of Sosua, near
+Puerto Plata. The government forces were able to retake Puerto Plata,
+but the siege of the capital continued uninterruptedly from December
+to February. Attacks and sallies were frequent, every house along the
+walls and in the suburbs soon showed bullet marks and the town of San
+Carlos was again partially destroyed by fire. Finally Morales defeated
+the besiegers,  and in March, Macoris was taken by the government
+forces and the backbone of the revolution was broken. The insurrection
+had spent itself on account of lack of supplies and efficient leaders.
+Jimenez, financially ruined by his attempts to reestablish himself in
+power, again withdrew to Porto Rico. The government forces were unable
+to retake the Monte Cristi district, but an agreement was reached by
+which the Jimenista authorities remained in full control and the
+district became practically independent.
+
+An election was held, as a result of which Carlos F. Morales became
+president and Ramon Caceres vice-president, and they were inaugurated
+on June 19, 1904. The new president, Morales, was an unusually clever
+man, although his conduct sometimes betrayed that he came from a
+family in which there had been mental derangement. He was born in
+Puerto Plata, studied for the priesthood, took orders, and held the
+office of parish priest in various places in the Cibao. After the
+death of a brother who participated in Jimenez' ill-fated "Fanita"
+expedition and was killed in the attack on Monte Cristi, Morales took
+an interest in public affairs and during the administration of Jimenez
+became a member of Congress. At this time he laid aside his religious
+habit, married, and devoted himself exclusively to politics. During
+the Vasquez administration he was an exile in Cuba, but on the
+ascendancy of Woss y Gil he was made governor of Puerto Plata, and in
+this capacity initiated the revolt against the Gil government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--AMERICAN INFLUENCE.--1904 TO DATE (1918)
+
+
+Financial difficulties.--Fiscal convention with the United
+States.--Caceres' administration.-Provisional presidents.--Civil
+disturbances.--Jimenez' second administration.--American intervention.
+
+
+The enormous foreign and internal debt left by the Heureaux
+administration had been constantly increased by ruinous loans to which
+the succeeding governments were obliged to resort during the years of
+civil warfare, until the country was in a condition of hopeless
+bankruptcy. In the beginning of 1904 every item of the debt had been
+in default for months.
+
+Under pressure from foreign governments, the principal debt items due
+foreign citizens had been recognized in international protocols and
+the income from each of the more important custom-houses was
+specifically pledged for their payment, but in no case was payment
+made. One of these protocols, signed with the American charge
+d'affaires, liquidated the government's accounts with the San Domingo
+Improvement Company, which had been turned out from the administration
+of custom-houses by President Jimenez, and provided for a board of
+arbitration to settle the manner of payment. The arbitrators
+determined the instalments payable and specified the custom-house of
+Puerto Plata and certain others as security, which were to be turned
+over to an American agent in case of failure to pay. No payment being
+made, the American agent demanded compliance with the arbitral award
+and on October 20, 1904, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+The other foreign creditors, principally French, Belgian, and Italian,
+naturally began to clamor for the payment of their credits and for the
+delivery of the custom-houses pledged to them. To have done so would
+have meant absolute ruin, as the government would have been entirely
+deprived of means of subsistence. In face of the imminent likelihood
+of foreign intervention the Dominican government applied to the United
+States for assistance, and in February, 1905, the protocol of an
+agreement between the Dominican Republic and the United States was
+approved, providing for the collection of Dominican customs revenues
+under the direction of the United States, and the segregation of a
+specified portion toward the ultimate payment of the debt. The treaty
+was submitted to the United States Senate, but that body adjourned in
+March, 1905, without final action. The creditors again became
+importunate and an interim modus vivendi was therefore arranged, under
+which the Dominican customs were to be collected by a receiver
+designated by the President of the United States, and the proportion
+mentioned in the pending treaty was reserved as a creditors' fund. The
+temporary arrangement went into effect on April 1, 1905, and the
+effect was immediately apparent. Confidence was restored, the customs
+receipts rose to higher figures than ever before, and the prospects of
+peace became brighter as revolutionists could no longer count on
+captured customhouses to replenish their exchequer.
+
+The position of President Morales was a difficult one. He was an
+ex-Jimenista at the head of an Horacista government, and there was no
+sympathy between him and his council. The Horacistas distrusted him
+and forced him to dismiss his friends from the cabinet and to make
+distasteful appointments. Seeing that he was being reduced to a
+figurehead, Morales secretly tried to form a party for himself or make
+arrangements with the Jimenistas who for months had been conspiring
+and threatening to rise. The friction became more severe until
+Morales, fearing that both his office and his life were in danger, on
+the day before Christmas, 1905, fled from the capital, while the
+Jimenistas rose in Monte Cristi and marched down to attack Santiago
+and Puerto Plata.
+
+It was the anomalous spectacle of a president leading an insurrection
+against his own government. Fortune was against the insurgents from
+the beginning. Morales, while trying to scale a rocky wall near the
+Jaina River, in the neighborhood of the capital, fell and sprained his
+leg, so that he was unable to proceed further but was obliged to
+remain in hiding in the woods, suffering much pain. In the Cibao,
+important dispatches of the revolutionists were captured by the
+government forces, which were thus enabled to make surprise attacks.
+The insurgents attacked Puerto Plata under their best general,
+Demetrio Rodriguez, an intelligent mulatto, and would probably have
+taken the town, had not Rodriguez received a bullet in the temple,
+whereupon his men became panic-stricken and dispersed. Morales saw
+that all was lost and returned to the capital, where he went to the
+American legation for protection. On the following morning, January
+12, 1906, with his foot bandaged and tears rolling down his cheeks, he
+wrote out his resignation. He was immediately conveyed to Porto Rico
+on an American cruiser. The triumph of the government was complete,
+its troops overran Monte Cristi, and an Horacista was made governor of
+the district. Morales fixed his residence in the island of St. Thomas
+and later in France. He continually conspired for a return to the
+presidency, and was once tried for filibustering in Porto Rico, but
+acquitted. A friendly administration made him Dominican minister in
+Paris, where he died in 1914.
+
+Upon the resignation of Morales the vice-president, General Ramon
+Caceres, assumed the presidency. Caceres was born in Moca on December
+15, 1867, and was a prominent cacao-planter. It was he who killed
+Heureaux in 1899, after which he entered public life, being governor
+of Santiago and delegate of the government in the Cibao during the
+administrations of Jimenez and Vasquez, an exile in Cuba during the
+administration of Woss y Gil, and vice-president and governmental
+delegate during the administration of Morales. He had the appearance
+of an honest country squire, large of body and great of heart.
+
+During the years 1906 and 1907 special attention was given to the
+settlement of the debts of the republic. A new bond issue of
+$20,000,000 was made for the purpose of converting the old debts, and
+an arrangement was effected with the principal creditors, by which the
+amounts due were reduced by about one-half. Instead of the still
+pending convention of February, 1905, with the United States, a new
+fiscal treaty was agreed upon, and approved by the United States
+Senate and the Dominican Congress, taking effect on August 1, 1907. In
+similarity with the provisions of the modus vivendi, the customs
+income of the Republic is collected by a General Receiver of Dominican
+Customs, appointed by the President of the United States, and a
+portion of the income is set aside by him for the service of the loan.
+
+For years the various governments had been planning to revise the
+constitution of 1896, Vasquez even calling a constitutional
+convention; but the political kaleidoscope turned before such
+intentions could be realized. Conditions becoming sufficiently stable,
+a new constitution was promulgated on September 9, 1907. It was found
+unsatisfactory and a constitutional convention met in Santiago and on
+February 22, 1908, promulgated the present constitution, by which the
+presidential term was lengthened to six years and the office of
+vice-president abolished. An election was held and General Ramon
+Caceres was chosen president, entering upon his new term on July
+1, 1908.
+
+As a result of the Dominican-American fiscal arrangement the old debt
+was practically all canceled, burdensome concessions were redeemed,
+and a large portion of the surplus from the new bond issue was set
+aside for public works, of which several were undertaken. A few
+uprisings by dissatisfied chiefs remained local and unsuccessful. A
+border clash with Haiti, which in January, 1911, caused the dispatch
+of troops to the frontier, was settled by diplomacy. The hope of
+continued peaceful conditions gave a new impulse to agriculture,
+industry and commerce, and the exports and imports increased year
+by year.
+
+At a time when the future seemed brightest, the Republic was suddenly
+startled by the news of the assassination of President Caceres on
+Sunday afternoon, November 19, 1911. The president, with a single
+companion, was returning from a drive along the new road to San
+Geronimo. At Guibia, a suburb of the capital, a number of conspirators
+rushed for the carriage, seized the reins of the horse and began to
+shoot. The president's companion fled, but Caceres, a fearless man and
+an excellent shot, returned the fire. Almost simultaneously a bullet
+shattered his right wrist. The coachman lashed the horse in an
+attempt to escape, but the horse reared and threw the carriage against
+a hedge. The coachman then dragged Caceres from the carriage and
+assisted him to the stable of a house on the roadside, adjoining the
+American legation, but the conspirators meantime continued to fire
+furiously and several shots struck the president. Seeing their object
+accomplished, the assassins withdrew, and the president, mortally
+wounded, was carried to the American legation, where he expired a few
+minutes later.
+
+The conspirators were a handful of malcontents led by General Luis
+Tejera, a young man of prominent family, at one time governor of the
+capital under Caceres, but lately estranged. Caceres had known of
+Tejera's seditious sentiments but refused to take them seriously.
+Immediately after the shooting, the conspirators hastened away in a
+waiting automobile, carrying with them their leader Tejera, who had
+been wounded in the leg during the affray. At the Jaina ferry the
+automobile was accidentally precipitated into the river, and the
+wounded man was fished out half drowned. The other conspirators left
+him in a hut by the road and escaped. Tejera was found by the
+pursuers, taken to the fort in Santo Domingo City, and summarily
+executed.
+
+The commandant of arms of the capital, General Alfredo M. Victoria,
+who controlled the military forces, permitted his own ambitions to
+influence him more than the welfare of his country. Being only
+twenty-six years old, he was not of the constitutional age to be
+president, but listening to the counsel of scheming politicians, he
+dominated the situation by force of arms and brought about the
+selection of his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as provisional president. The
+latter was a senator from Santiago province, and had at one time been
+a member of Caceres' cabinet, but he was not regarded as of
+presidential calibre and his selection provoked general surprise and
+indignation. General Victoria's army was a potent argument; it
+withered the ambition of other aspirants to the presidency, and
+Senator Victoria was elected provisional president and entered upon
+office December 6, 1911. In the following February the usual form of
+public election was gone through and on February 27, 1912, he took the
+oath of office as constitutional president. His nephew occupied
+important cabinet positions under the new administration.
+
+The general opposition to President Victoria and to the method of
+electing him found expression in revolutionary uprisings throughout
+the country, especially in the Cibao and Azua. Ex-President Vasquez,
+ex-President Morales and several Jimenista generals took the field
+independently. Morales was captured, but the others continued the
+fight. Beginning early in December, 1911, the war dragged on for
+months, both sides sustaining heavy losses and extensive sections of
+the country being devastated.
+
+It became apparent that there was a deadlock, the government being
+powerless to subdue the revolutionists, while the revolutionists were
+unable to carry on an active campaign against the government. The
+American government eventually extended its good offices with a view
+to the reestablishment of peace and order. A special commission
+appointed by the President of the United States and consisting of an
+official of the War Department and another of the State Department
+arrived in Santo Domingo in October, 1912, and initiated a series of
+conferences with government and revolutionary leaders. An agreement
+was concluded and in accordance therewith the Dominican Congress
+assembled on November 26, 1912, accepted the resignation of President
+Victoria, and elected the archbishop of Santo Domingo, Monsignor
+Adolfo A. Nouel, as provisional president for a period of two years.
+He was inducted into office on December 1, 1912.
+
+Archbishop Nouel, a man of great learning, beloved and respected
+throughout the country, entered upon his duties with the announced
+purpose of giving an impartial administration and governing with both
+parties. The difficulties of the plan were soon impressed upon him,
+particularly as he relied entirely upon moral suasion to carry his
+policies into effect. Pressure was applied for favors which he could
+not grant, his appointments were bitterly criticised as savoring of
+nepotism or as unduly favoring one side or the other, and some of the
+fiercer military chiefs assumed a menacing attitude. Sick and
+disgusted, Monsignor Nouel resigned the presidential office on March
+31, 1913, and embarked for Europe.
+
+The Dominican Congress immediately considered the choice of a
+temporary successor and after many ballots elected a compromise
+candidate, General Jose Bordas Valdez, an Horacista senator from Monte
+Cristi, as provisional president for a period of one year. He assumed
+office April 14, 1913. His designation did not please the Jimenistas,
+and the Horacistas also became hostile when it appeared that President
+Bordas contemplated forming a party of his own. His opponents promptly
+rose in the Cibao and took possession of the ports of Puerto Plata,
+Sanchez and Samana, which were thereupon blockaded by the government
+forces. In the latter part of September, 1913, the revolutionists laid
+down their arms on the promise of the American minister that free
+elections for presidential electors and members of a constitutional
+convention would be guaranteed. A municipal election was in fact
+held, but President Bordas, alleging that conditions were too
+unsettled for a general presidential election, held on as president de
+facto beyond the term for which he had been provisionally elected. On
+the day his term ended, April 13, 1914, another revolution broke out
+and rapidly spread to all parts of the Republic. Puerto Plata was
+occupied by the insurgents and blockaded for several months by
+government vessels, the blockade being accompanied by a siege of the
+city under the direction of the president himself. On the other hand,
+the insurgents laid siege to the capital. The government contracted
+heavy debts to carry on the war and the commerce of the country
+suffered greatly.
+
+Again the American government lent its good offices for the
+restoration of order. In August, 1914, a commission of three delegates
+of the United States arrived in Santo Domingo to present a plan for
+the resignation of Bordas, the selection of a provisional president by
+the chiefs of the several political parties, a revision of the
+election law, and the holding of general elections. The plan was
+agreed to, President Bordas resigned, and Dr. Ramon Baez, a son of
+former President Buenaventura Baez, was elected by the Dominican
+Congress as provisional president on August 27, 1914.
+
+Popular elections were held in October, at which there were four
+candidates: ex-President Juan Isidro Jimenez, ex-President Horacio
+Vasquez, ex-Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez, and a fourth of
+little consequence. The Jimenez and Velazquez forces effected a
+combination, as a result of which Juan Isidro Jimenez was elected
+president a second time, and took the oath of office on December
+5, 1914.
+
+For a moment it seemed as though the country was at last entering upon
+an era of peace and prosperity. The government made efforts to solve
+the financial problems left by the recent civil wars and to resume
+public improvements. Investments of foreign capital increased, and
+agriculture and commerce expanded.
+
+The elements of disorganization were present, however, in as strong a
+degree as ever. Corruption was general in the administration of the
+public funds, but attempts at reform had no result further than to
+stimulate violent opposition. The old leaven of sedition was at work,
+and disgruntled military chiefs found a willing leader in the minister
+of war, General Desiderio Arias, a chronic revolutionist from Monte
+Cristi, who had for years used the popularity of Jimenez as a cloak
+for his own aspirations. The president, aged and infirm, was unable to
+meet the situation with energy, and disinclined to adopt
+severe measures.
+
+In the early part of 1916 Arias had his friends in Congress vote to
+impeach President Jimenez for alleged frauds. The matter was still
+under discussion, and the president was ill at his country place on
+the San Cristobal road, near Santo Domingo City, when in April, 1916,
+General Arias suddenly seized the military control of the capital and
+issued a proclamation by which he practically deposed Jimenez and
+assumed the executive power himself.
+
+Another civil war was imminent when deliverance came in an unexpected
+manner. For many years past in previous disturbances, one or both of
+the warring factions had looked to the United States government for
+help in restoring order, and diplomatic assistance had time after time
+put an end to strife. The endless succession of revolts had at length
+exhausted the patience of the American government. In the face of
+another general war with its attendant destruction of life and
+property, harm to American and other foreign interests, and danger of
+international complications (a British and a French man-of-war were
+already solicitously hovering off the capital), the American
+government took decisive action. With the consent of President
+Jimenez, it landed marines at old San Geronimo castle, on the Guibia
+road, near Santo Domingo City.
+
+Though Jimenez approved of this action and recognized that his country
+could not emerge from the slough of revolution without American
+assistance, he was depressed at the condition of affairs, and in view
+of his physical feebleness felt himself unequal to the task of guiding
+the country through impending difficulties. He therefore on May 6,
+1916, resigned the presidency of the Republic, and subsequently
+returned to Porto Rico to live. The council of ministers temporarily
+assumed the administration.
+
+Arias, dismayed at the action of the United States, made protest, but
+the American government refused to admit the legality or sincerity of
+his conduct. Its troops advanced on Santo Domingo City and
+Rear-Admiral Caperton, the American commander, gave Arias twenty-four
+hours to evacuate. He promptly obeyed, and on May 15 the Americans
+occupied the city.
+
+American troops continued to be landed, at Puerto Plata on June 5; at
+Monte Cristi on June 19; and at other seaports as necessity demanded,
+until a total of about 1800 marines had been disembarked. They
+proceeded into the interior, taking over the preservation of public
+order and disarming the inhabitants. They advanced on foot, in
+improvised motor trucks, and as real "horse marines," in accordance
+with a plan to secure thorough pacification by having them appear in
+all parts of the country.  The American marines met with no serious
+opposition except in the Cibao, in the section between Monte Cristi,
+Puerto Plata and Santiago, where the following of Arias was strongest.
+To clear this section two columns were launched from the seacoast with
+Santiago as the objective, the first of 800 men from Monte Cristi, the
+second of about 200 men from Puerto Plata, the entire force being
+under command of Brigadier-General Joseph H. Pendleton. The
+expeditionary force from Monte Cristi, under Colonel Dunlop, advanced
+along the highway, which was little more than a muddy trail through a
+jungle of cactus and thorny brush, and several Americans were shot
+from ambush. Repeatedly small detachments of rebels made a stand upon
+some favorable piece of ground, until routed by the marines. The
+decisive encounter took place on July 1, 1916, at Guayacanes, near
+Esperanza, where a force of 400 marines after a stubborn fight carried
+a strongly entrenched position defended by about 300 rebels. The
+American losses were 1 enlisted man killed and 1 officer and 7
+enlisted men wounded; the rebels are estimated to have lost several
+score between killed and wounded, their leader, Maximito Cabral, being
+killed fighting in the trenches after all his men were dead or
+driven off.
+
+The second column, from Puerto Plata, under Major Bearss, opened up
+the railroad, encountering its principal resistance at the tunnel
+south of Altamira. The two columns joined forces at Navarrete and then
+occupied Santiago. All the insurgents eventually dispersed or
+surrendered, and Arias himself submitted to the American military
+control, which became absolute throughout the country. The total
+American losses in occupying the country were 3 officers killed and 3
+wounded and 4 enlisted men killed and 12 wounded; the losses of the
+insurgents are estimated at between 100 and 300 killed and wounded.
+
+The Dominican Congress proceeded on July 25, 1916, to elect a
+temporary president, and chose Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, a
+distinguished physician and highly cultured man. It was understood
+that he was to hold for six months and was not to seek reelection at
+the general election to be held within that time. The United States
+government, however, was loath to extend recognition unless assured
+that Santo Domingo would enter upon a path of order and progress. The
+fiscal treaty of 1907 had not secured the peace expected of it; the
+prohibition against the contracting of further indebtedness had been
+frequently violated; disorder and corruption had continued; and the
+American government deemed its task uncompleted if it should surrender
+the country to the same chaotic conditions. It accordingly required,
+as a condition of recognizing Henriquez, that a new treaty between the
+two countries be adopted, similar to the recently approved treaty
+between the United States and Haiti, where a series of revolutions
+culminating in a massacre of prisoners had the year before obliged the
+American government to intervene. The principal features of this
+treaty were the collection of customs under American auspices, the
+appointment of an American financial adviser, and the establishment of
+a constabulary force officered by Americans.
+
+Henriquez, jealous of his country's sovereignty and fearful that the
+proposed arrangement would make the Dominican government a puppet
+controlled by all-powerful and not sufficiently responsible American
+officials, refused to accede to the American demands. The American
+authorities thereupon declined to pay over any of the Republic's
+revenues to a government which they did not recognize. Inasmuch as
+they not only collected the customs and port dues, but had assumed
+control of the other revenues as well, the Henriquez government was
+left penniless. Nevertheless, the American demands continued to be
+rejected. As a result, no salaries were paid in any part of the
+Republic; the officials who continued in their duties did so with the
+hope of being compensated at some future date; some services, such as
+the mail service, were discontinued almost entirely; and the whole
+machinery of the government was paralyzed.
+
+This tension and anomalous condition lasted for several months. As the
+term for which Henriquez had been elected drew to a close, it became
+evident that he had no idea of retiring from the presidency, but, on
+the contrary, intended to hold general elections, in which he expected
+to be the successful candidate. The deadlock thus threatened to
+continue indefinitely, and the American government thereupon
+determined to cut the Gordian knot.
+
+On November 29, 1916, Captain (later Rear-Admiral) H. S. Knapp, of the
+United States navy, commander of the American cruiser force in
+Dominican waters, and of the forces of occupation of the Dominican
+Republic, issued a proclamation, declaring the Dominican Republic
+under the military administration of the United States. The
+proclamation recited that the Dominican Republic had failed to live up
+to the terms of the treaty of 1907; that the American government had
+patiently endeavored to aid the Dominican government, but that the
+latter was not inclined or able to adopt the measures suggested,
+wherefore the American government believed the time at hand to take
+steps to assure the execution of said Convention and to maintain
+domestic tranquillity in the Republic. He therefore declared that the
+Dominican Republic was placed in a state of military occupation by the
+forces under his command; that the object of the occupation was not to
+destroy Dominican sovereignty, but to restore order; that Dominican
+laws were to continue in effect so far as they did not conflict with
+the objects of the occupation or the decrees of the military
+government; that the Dominican courts were to continue in their
+functions, except that offenses against the military government were
+to be judged by military courts; and that all the revenues of the
+Dominican government were to be paid over to the military government,
+which would administer the same. He called on all inhabitants to
+cooperate with the forces of the United States.
+
+The military government so established took full possession of the
+country. The chiefs of the executive departments not having appeared
+in their offices, their posts were declared vacant and filled with
+officers of the American navy. In the country at large, there was
+little open opposition, and such as appeared was suppressed without
+difficulty. The inhabitants quickly reconciled themselves to the
+situation, realizing that it was to the best interests of their
+country. Dr. Henriquez, the ex-president, left for Cuba in the early
+part of December.
+
+The military government thereupon proceeded to organize the finances,
+to pay arrears of salaries, to subdue several bandits who refused
+allegiance, and to confiscate all arms. Absolute order and security,
+greater than have prevailed in Santo Domingo since colonial days, were
+soon established. The military government then devoted itself to the
+construction of public works, especially roads, the organization of a
+police force, and in general to the improvement of the country.
+
+ After the Washington government determined to participate in the
+European war, the American military governor on April 12, 1917,
+connected Santo Domingo with the war by canceling the exequaturs of
+the German consular representatives in the Dominican Republic; there
+was no formal rupture, as no diplomatic representative of either
+country was at the time residing in the other. German residents were
+subjected to surveillance by the American authorities.
+
+The Dominican Republic is still (January, 1918) being administered by
+American naval officers and the work of reorganization continues.
+Eventually--in all likelihood after the European war--the government
+is to be turned back to the Dominican people, and it is probable that
+such devolution will be under conditions that will assure a stable
+government, peace and progress.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+AREA AND BOUNDARIES
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo.--Boundary
+disputes.--Harbors on north coast.--Character of shore.--Samana
+Bay.--Character of east and south coast.--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+Domingo.--Ocoa Bay.--Islands.--Haitian frontier.
+
+
+Of the great chain of islands which extends in a vast semi-circle from
+the southern coast of Florida to the northeastern coast of Venezuela,
+the second largest is the Island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, situated
+midway between Cuba and Porto Rico, and lying between latitude
+17 deg.36'40" and 19 deg.58'20" north and longitude 68 deg.18' and 74 deg.51' west of
+Greenwich. The island is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north,
+the Mona Channel on the east, the Caribbean Sea on the south, and the
+Windward Passage on the west. The nearest point of Porto Rico is 54
+miles distant, of Cuba 50 miles, of Jamaica 90 miles and of Venezuela,
+the nearest country on the South American continent, 480 miles. The
+distance from Puerto Plata, on the north coast of the island, to New
+York is 1255 miles, to Havana 710 miles, and to Southampton 3925
+miles. The distance from Santo Domingo City to San Juan, Porto Rico,
+is 230 miles, to La Guayra 500 miles, and to Colon 810 miles.
+
+The island is divided between two political entities, the western one,
+comprising one-third of its surface, being the Republic of Haiti,
+while the eastern one is popularly known as Santo Domingo or San
+Domingo, though it is officially termed the Dominican Republic. These
+two republics present at once interesting resemblances and contrasts.
+They are separated by no natural bounds; their soil, resources, and
+political conditions are similar; but while in Haiti the language and
+historical associations are French and the numerically predominant
+race stock is black, in Santo Domingo, on the other hand, the language
+and historical associations are Spanish, and the mulatto rather than
+the black is most in evidence.
+
+The area of the island is generally stated at 28,249 square miles, of
+which Haiti is credited with 10,204 square miles and the Dominican
+Republic with 18,045 square miles. Since no part of the island has
+ever been carefully surveyed, such figures can be regarded as only
+approximately correct. The Dominican Republic is therefore about as
+large as the States of New Hampshire and Vermont together, less than
+half as large as Cuba and more than five times the size of Porto Rico.
+
+In the above estimate of the area of the two Republics no account is
+taken of their reciprocal claims to further lands. Each claims about
+1500 square miles occupied by the other. The Dominicans affirm they
+have a right to the plain of Hinche and St. Raphael, comprising some
+of the finest agricultural lands on the island. They contend that
+Haiti is entitled only to the territory embraced in the confines of
+the old French colony of Saint-Domingue. Under the treaty of Aranjuez,
+of June 3, 1777, the boundaries of the French and Spanish colonies on
+the Island of Santo Domingo were carefully defined and marked by
+monuments. In 1795 the Spanish colony was ceded to France; but when in
+1804 the Haitians declared the independence of the island, they were
+able to control little more than the old French portion, most of the
+old Spanish portion remaining in the possession of France. The
+boundary line remained unchanged when the old Spanish portion again
+came under the rule of Spain in 1809. In 1822 Haitian rule was
+extended over the entire island, but in 1844, when the inhabitants of
+the eastern portion proclaimed their independence their declaration
+comprised the whole of the old Spanish part of the island. The Haitian
+government made strenuous efforts to reconquer the revolting
+provinces, with the final result that it was able to retain and still
+retains 1500 square miles more than belonged to the former French
+colony. This is the portion still claimed by Santo Domingo.
+
+On the other hand, the Haitians, based on alleged boundary conditions
+and tentative arrangements in 1856 and 1874, claim a strip of land now
+occupied by Santo Domingo lying along the border and also aggregating
+about 1500 square miles. Maps published in Haiti always show the
+boundary line from five to forty miles further east than it is
+in reality.
+
+Arbitration has repeatedly been suggested to determine the boundary,
+and efforts were made in 1895 to submit the question to the Pope and
+in 1911 to resort to The Hague, but without success.
+
+The Haitians have not only peopled and carefully guarded the territory
+controlled by them, but have attempted to push the frontier further
+east toward the line they claim. In 1911 and a year later, alleged
+encroachments by Haiti almost led to war between the two countries.
+The United States interposed its good offices and in 1912 suggested as
+provisional boundary, until otherwise determined by mutual agreement
+between the two countries, the line which was observed as boundary in
+1905 when the American receiver general of customs took charge of the
+frontier custom-houses. Both countries agreeing, the line as suggested
+has since been regarded as the boundary and bids fair to become, with
+perhaps a few unimportant modifications, the permanent boundary
+between Haiti and Santo Domingo. The outlook for arbitration seems to
+be no better now than heretofore, nor is it probable that any court of
+arbitration would divest either Haiti or Santo Domingo of any
+considerable portion of the lands they have so long possessed.
+
+The boundary disputes have not tended to improve the relations between
+the two countries, which formerly regarded each other with a hatred
+that has only in the past fifty years softened down to mutual distrust
+and dislike. It has frequently happened that the authorities of one
+country abetted insurrections in the other; and it was common practice
+for insurgents in either country to retreat across the border to
+recuperate in the other. In the Dominican revolutions of 1912 to 1914
+several bands of revolutionists had permanent headquarters on the
+Haitian side.
+
+The greatest breadth of the Dominican Republic, from the Morro of
+Monte Cristi to Cape Beata, is about 170 miles, the greatest length,
+from Cape Engano to the Haitian frontier, about 260 miles. The
+Republic has a coast line of about 940 miles, on which there are
+several good ports and large bays.
+
+One of these is Manzanillo Bay, which lies at the extreme northwestern
+point of the Republic. Large and well protected, affording excellent
+anchorage for any class of vessels, it is one of the best harbors and
+perhaps the most important point strategically, on the north coast of
+the island. It receives the waters of the Dajabon or Massacre River,
+which constitutes part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican
+Republic, and of the turbulent Yaque del Norte, which here forms a
+delta of considerable extent. Owing to the proximity of Monte Cristi
+the various projects for the establishment of a port and custom-house
+at this point have hitherto failed of realization.
+
+Fifteen miles to the northeast of Manzanillo Bay is the ancient port
+of Monte Cristi, discovered by Columbus, in his vessel the Nina, on
+his first voyage. The great explorer landed here to examine the plain
+near the shore, and departed at dawn on January 6, 1493. The port of
+Monte Cristi is a large open bay with a fine roadstead, but the
+shallow water near the shore obliges vessels to anchor over a mile
+from land. On the eastern side the harbor is sheltered by a high
+promontory now known as El Morro, to which Columbus gave the name of
+Monte Cristi, after a remarkable profile, recalling the pictures of
+Christ, which is visible in the outlines of the mount to vessels
+entering the harbor. The isolated, treeless mountain under the usually
+cloudless sky of beautiful blue strongly recalls the buttes of our
+Western plains.
+
+The range of mountains known as the Monte Cristi Range, forms a
+background for the entire northern coast of the Republic. From Monte
+Cristi for fifty miles east, to the bay of Isabela, the shore is bleak
+and barren, formed of rocks and cliffs with short intervals of sandy
+beach. Isabela Bay is where the first Spanish settlement in America
+was laid out by Columbus in 1493. Little remains to mark the site, but
+the white palm-fringed strand gleams in the sunlight and is caressed
+by the blue waters just as in Columbus' day. The harbor at the mouth
+of a stream flowing down from the mountains is small and shallow, but
+it is occasionally visited by coastwise vessels in search of cargoes
+of mahogany and other woods from the nearby hills.
+
+Thirty miles east of Isabela lies Puerto Plata. The intervening coast
+possesses a few small ports of little importance, but sometimes
+visited by coasting schooners. The most important one is Blanco,
+which during the War of the Restoration with the Spaniards was the
+insurgents' port of entry and the base of considerable illicit trade
+with Turks Island. The harbor of Puerto Plata, the most important city
+on the north coast, is formed by a small bay, enclosed on the sea side
+by a reef of coral rock. There is plenty of depth within, but little
+room, and only three or four large steamers can with safety anchor
+here at the same time. The harbor is well protected except on the
+north. During gales from that direction it becomes exceedingly
+uncomfortable, and the narrow entrance channel quite dangerous.
+Portions of wrecks rising above the foaming water of the reef--the
+broken bow of one vessel and ship's engine of another--bear witness to
+the perils lurking there at such times. Near the shore the harbor is
+shallow, and though there is little tide, the water recedes some
+distance. To avoid the difficulty there is a long pier for the use of
+small boats and it is no longer necessary, as of yore, for passengers
+to be carried ashore from boats in the arms of the boatmen. A fine
+public dock for large vessels is also nearing completion.
+
+A broad and fertile coast plain extends from Puerto Plata some
+twenty-five miles to the small port of La Goleta. On this plain about
+twelve miles from Puerto Plata, lies the port of Sosua. La Goleta is a
+distributing point for the lumber cut in this district. A considerable
+portion thereof proceeds from the headwaters of the nearby river
+Yasica, being floated down the river and then along the ocean shore.
+From the Yasica River, the mouth of which is about 100 feet wide, an
+uneven rocky stretch of coast extends in a southeasterly direction to
+Cape Frances Viejo, where there is a new lighthouse. Numerous brooks
+traverse this region and leap down to the sea from the rocks, in
+beautiful cascades often twenty and thirty feet in height. Near Cape
+Frances lies the small town formerly called Tres Amarras and now
+Cabrera. The Monte Cristi Range terminates here, its foothills forming
+the promontories of Cape Frances and Point Sabaneta. Travel along this
+rugged part of the coast is difficult; in order to avoid the
+troublesome gullies of the shore, the trail often runs far inland
+through dense jungle. The rocks are of a conglomerate formation, and
+are worn by the waves into the most fantastic shapes. From the
+appearance of the cliffs it seems that at remote periods two distinct
+upheavals of the land took place, the first of which formed the peaks
+which rise about twelve miles in the interior, the second and more
+recent one giving origin to the great rocks along the coast. The
+precipices in the interior, which in ages past were washed by the sea,
+rise to a sheer height of from two hundred to four hundred feet and
+are crowned with trees. The rocky masses in the coast forests are full
+of clefts and caverns which furnish habitation to millions of bees.
+
+The shore now curves southward and becomes low and sandy. There are
+low coast plains covered with trees, especially groves of palm trees,
+which extend far into the interior. Four rivers are crossed, which
+carry comparatively little water, and the mouths of which are
+obstructed by sand bars caused by the prevailing north and east winds.
+As a result of these bars the streams flood the country and form large
+stagnant lakes, that have effectively prevented a settlement of the
+region. Some seven miles before reaching the mouth of the Gran Estero
+there is a little town called Matanzas, a kind of headquarters for
+turtle fishermen and which, though the entrance to its bay is almost
+closed by a sand bank, is often visited by coasting schooners that
+call for cacao from nearby plantations.  What is called the Gran
+Estero is a network of bayous and channels, some upon the surface,
+others subterranean, which extends from the Yuna River to the ocean
+and traverses the marshy plain forming the neck of the Samana
+peninsula. It is apparent that the Yuna River centuries ago emptied
+into the ocean and that what is to-day the Samana peninsula was once
+an island separated by a broad channel from the mainland, to which it
+became united by the gradual rise of the land and by the alluvium
+deposited by the river. The great swamp so formed is in one place as
+much as 18 miles wide, and is covered with stunted mangrove trees and
+rank weeds and bushes. The decaying vegetation gives the water of the
+bayous and stagnant ponds a dirty coffee color and taints the air with
+malarial miasma. The opening of channels and draining of the swamp
+would remedy the defects, at the same time providing important means
+of communication and reclaiming large tracts of the richest
+agricultural land.
+
+From Matanzas the coast extends due east, closely following the
+mountain range which beginning near Port Jackson forms the backbone of
+the Samana peninsula. Spurs of the mountains rise precipitously from
+the sea which foams at their rocky base, and from the summits to the
+water's edge the country is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The few
+rocky coves along the shore were a favorite resort for buccaneers in
+days gone by. One of them is Port Jackson; the entrance is rendered
+dangerous by a coral reef, but once within, the deep waters are always
+tranquil and offer good shelter to the little craft of the turtle
+fishermen. Though the waters of this region are said to teem with the
+finest fish but little attention is paid to fishing. Another cove,
+difficult of access because of the jagged rocks near the entrance, is
+Port Escondido, or Hidden Port, near the most conspicuous feature of
+this coast, the lofty promontory of Cape Cabron, or Cabo del
+Enamorado, Lover's Cape. The easternmost point of the peninsula is the
+rugged double-terraced headland of Cape Samana, reckoned as the
+beginning of Samana Bay, though strictly speaking the Bay begins at
+the majestic cliff known as Balandra Point.
+
+This magnificent bay, one of the great harbors of the world and the
+finest by far of the West Indies, has ever excited the admiration of
+travelers. Securely sheltered against storms, of an extent sufficient
+to accommodate the navies of the world, easily fortified and defended,
+occupying a highly important strategical position, its advantages
+cannot be overestimated. Samana Bay, a submerged extension of the
+great valley of the Yuna River, is thirty-five miles in length and
+from ten to fifteen miles in width. Looking up the Bay from the
+entrance no land is descried on the horizon. Columbus, when he first
+entered, believed he was on an ocean channel dividing two islands. The
+north coast is protected by the low mountain-range of the Samana
+peninsula, in places resembling the Palisades on the Hudson, and the
+southern shore is fringed by a chain of hills, so that the emerald
+green waters of the Bay are perfectly sheltered against all winds
+except those from the east. Even here the effect of the wind is
+modified and it is only during eastern gales that choppy waves oblige
+small boats to seek the coves along the shore. About four miles from
+Point Balandra, is a group of five islets, known as the Cayos
+Levantados. The channel between these Keys and the northern shore of
+the Bay, 2000 yards in width with a maximum depth of 140 and a minimum
+depth of 50 feet, constitutes the principal entrance to the Bay, the
+only one which is available for large vessels. The other channel,
+known as the  Half Moon Channel, lies immediately south of the Keys;
+but being narrow and shallow, is navigable only by vessels of light
+draft. The great expanse of water, fifteen miles in width, between
+this channel and the south shore of the Bay is so dotted with shoals
+as to be absolutely impassable. It will thus be seen that the actual
+entrance to the great Bay is quite narrow and could easily be defended
+by mines or by fortifications on the Cayos and the peninsula. The Bay
+is like a great bottle with a very narrow neck. The Spaniards, in
+fact, established a small fort on the headland, its ruins being now
+hidden by dense underbrush.
+
+It seems surprising that no large and flourishing metropolis should
+have arisen on the shores of this splendid body of water. Apparently
+the principal reason why it did not appeal to the Spaniards was that
+owing to the prevailing easterly breezes their clumsy vessels would
+have encountered difficulty in leaving. Since the days of steam, of
+course, this trouble is obviated. The value of the Bay as a naval
+station has been widely advertised, and France, England and the United
+States have at various times entertained projects of acquiring it. The
+American government in 1869 even negotiated a treaty for the lease of
+Samana peninsula and Samana Bay, but the United States Senate failed
+to act and the treaty was lost by expiration of time. The Bay would
+constitute a military and commercial key to this part of the world for
+any power possessing it.
+
+Near Balandra point is the tiny settlement of Las Flechas, located
+upon the scene of the first encounter marked by bloodshed between the
+Spaniards and Indians. A number of Columbus' men having landed here in
+January, 1493. were attacked by Indians and in the ensuing engagement
+an Indian was wounded.  The occurrence induced Columbus to name the
+Bay Golfo de las Flechas, Gulf of the Arrows. At the end of the main
+channel of entrance to the Bay the north shore is indented by the
+large and commodious basin of Clara, and about two miles further to
+the west is the harbor of the old city of Santa Barbara de Samana, a
+tranquil sheet of water, separated from the Bay proper by several
+small islands, but which can be entered only by vessels drawing less
+than twenty feet. Beyond Samana the coast becomes a little less steep
+and the verdure-covered mountains recede sufficiently to give room to
+narrow coast plains, thickly grown with cocoa-nut palms. Along the
+beach are landscapes of idyllic beauty. Deep water extends up to the
+shore and there are half a dozen points which excel for landing
+places. Some twenty miles from Samana the last offshoots from the
+mountains encompass the town of Sanchez. Beyond in a large
+semi-circle, the end of the Bay is skirted by the great swamp which
+comprises the Gran Estero and the delta of the Yuna River.
+
+The town of Sanchez, the terminus of the railroad from La Vega, is an
+important outlet for the products of the Royal Plain, but though one
+of the principal ports of the Republic its situation on Samana Bay is
+unfavorable. Located where the Samana mountains slope into the Gran
+Estero, the site is ill adapted for the expansion of the settlement;
+the vicinity of the great marsh is not inviting, though the prevailing
+eastern breezes serve to drive back its noxious emanations; and the
+harbor, even now so shallow that vessels are obliged to anchor a mile
+from shore, is gradually silting up with sediment from the Yuna River.
+The story goes that the selection of this unpropitious spot for the
+terminus of the railroad was due to the passion of a moment. A tract
+of land at Point Santa Capuza, five miles down the bay, where a level
+coast plain and deep water up to the very shore invited the
+establishment of a port, had previously been chosen. The railroad had
+been extended to this spot and the foundations of the shops were being
+laid when the principal owner of the road, who was directing the
+construction work, learned that several of his engineers had acquired
+a controlling interest in a portion of the site of the projected town.
+The choleric Scotchman immediately removed his headquarters to Las
+Canitas, where Sanchez is now located, and though a vast amount of
+digging and filling was necessary the shops were erected here and the
+road to Santa Capuza was abandoned. The railroad has since purchased,
+for a song, almost all the land which caused the trouble, but as it
+has only recently expended L10,000 in the extension of its wharf at
+Sanchez from six to ten feet on water, and made other improvements,
+there is evidently no intention of moving the terminus.
+
+Beginning at Sanchez the entire western shore of Samana Bay is lined
+by swamp land, interspersed with the sandbanks formed by the various
+mouths of the Yuna. Turning east, the coast becomes almost
+inaccessible owing to the reefs and rocks which line it and constitute
+the beginning of low rocky ridges running into the interior. This
+region, known as "Los Haitis," continues until the Bay of San Lorenzo
+is reached. This capacious inlet, the only good harbor on the southern
+coast of Samana Bay is almost completely landlocked by a peninsula
+extending across its mouth, and affords good anchorage. The project of
+establishing a city and free port here was considered in 1883 and a
+comprehensive concession was granted with this object in view, but
+nothing was done and the concession lapsed. San Lorenzo Bay is also
+called Bahia de las Perlas, from the pearls found in its waters in
+the early-days; it is related that in 1531 five pecks were sent to
+Spain as the royal fifth. On the western side of the bay are extensive
+and beautiful stalactitic caves, in pre-Columbian days the abode of
+Indians, and in the seventeenth century a favorite resort for pirates,
+who were well acquainted with every nook and inlet along the shores of
+Samana Bay. Some five miles to the east of the Bay of San Lorenzo lies
+the village of Sabana la Mar. So shallow is the water here that not
+even small vessels can approach near to the low and sandy shore. The
+same condition prevails along the remainder of the southern shore of
+Samana Bay. Branching from the low hills that skirt the coast is the
+headland of Cape Rafael at the end of the Bay, forming a fitting
+counterpart to Cape Samana on the north.
+
+Turning southeasterly along the coast Point Nisibon is reached, where
+a calcareous rock formation and soil suitable for sugar planting
+begins. Forty miles of rocky shore intervene between this point and
+Cape Engano, the easternmost cape of the island, with a new
+lighthouse, the light of which is visible twenty miles away. The coast
+now leads southwesterly to Point Espada, shaped like a sword, and but
+twenty-five miles distant from the Island of Mona, a dependency of
+Porto Rico. Southwest from Point Espada lies the largest island of the
+Dominican Republic, the Island of Saona, fifteen miles long by four
+miles wide, the low hills of which are covered with abundant
+vegetation. At the time of the conquest it was the home of a numerous
+Indian population; later when owned by the Jesuits it had well-kept
+plantations; to-day it is almost uninhabited. Not far away are the
+smaller islands of Catalina and Catalinita, which possess valuable
+timber but like Saona are uninhabited.  From Point Palmilla opposite
+Saona Island, the shore-line, fringed with coral rocks, turns
+northwest and then due west. It bounds the great flat region of Santo
+Domingo, and to the traveler on passing ships is the most monotonous
+part of the coast, for in the absence of mountains to break the
+sky-line, there is nothing to be seen but a low palm-crowned rocky
+wall with surf beating at its base. The harbors are estuaries of
+rivers; those of La Romana, Soco and San Pedro de Macoris are of this
+description.
+
+San Pedro de Macoris is the principal port for the exportation of
+sugar. Its harbor is commodious, but access thereto is rendered
+difficult by a bar traversed only by a narrow and tortuous channel.
+Extensive harbor improvements were here undertaken under a concession
+which caused considerable litigation and discussion until it was
+redeemed by the government by means of the 1907 bond issue.
+
+In the forty miles intervening between San Pedro de Macoris and Santo
+Domingo City, about the only place of interest is the Bay of Andres,
+midway between the two cities, which is the home of innumerable wild
+ducks. The City of Santo Domingo is situated on the west bank of the
+Ozama River, the mouth of which constitutes the city's harbor. Since
+the town was founded four centuries ago the width of the river here
+seems to have diminished by fully one-fourth owing to accretion along
+the shores. A bar across the entrance renders access impracticable for
+vessels drawing more than fifteen feet of water. This bar has given
+considerable trouble, for at times it has grown in such manner as to
+leave a depth of but five feet. It is now kept open by means of
+jetties and dredging. Within the bar the river is perfectly smooth and
+vessels can without trouble draw up to the dock, but the roadstead
+outside is generally very rough and the embarking and disembarking of
+passengers is attended with experiences more exciting than pleasant.
+At this place more than one passenger has had an involuntary bath and
+many a piece of luggage lies at the bottom of the sea. On two
+occasions on which I disembarked here in stormy weather it seemed an
+even wager that the boat would be swamped before reaching the
+river mouth.
+
+The wall of coral rock girding the coast continues as far as Point
+Palenque, when it is succeeded by sandy beach. This inhospitable shore
+has been the witness of stirring episodes, for it was near Fort San
+Geronimo where the American troops came ashore in 1916; at the mouth
+of the Jaina that Drake disembarked in 1586 to accomplish his bold
+reduction of Santo Domingo City; at the cove of Najayo where Penn and
+Venables landed in 1655 in their unsuccessful descent upon the colony;
+and near Port Palenque where a British force under Carmichael landed
+in 1809 to assist the Dominicans in retaking Santo Domingo City from
+the French. Off Point Palenque, too, in 1806 a British squadron under
+Vice-Admiral Duckworth defeated a French squadron commanded by
+Rear-Admiral Lessiegues, forcing two French ships-of-the-line ashore
+and capturing several other vessels. The ports are all shallow and
+unsheltered, but are occasionally visited by coasting sloops in quest
+of timber and other products of the country.
+
+The lofty mountains which in Santo Domingo City can be discerned on
+the distant horizon have at Palenque become more distinct and
+approached nearer to the shore. On the green plain which slopes from
+their base to the sea, white specks, glittering in the sun, betray the
+presence of the town of Bani. But little further on, the mountains
+rise from the very shore, their spurs in the surf, their peaks capped
+by clouds.  The triangular bay of Ocoa, the second largest of the
+Republic, is now reached. Almost 25 miles in width at its mouth with a
+length of some 13 miles, its extent earned for it, in olden days, the
+name of Puerto Hermoso de los Espanoles, the beautiful port of the
+Spaniards. It has plenty of water and is well protected by high hills
+on both sides, but on account of its wide entrance becomes very rough
+in a south wind. There are several good anchorages along its shore,
+and inlets which are used as harbors by various plantations. At its
+southeastern entrance is the landlocked body of water known as Caldera
+or Kettle Bay, claimed to be the best harbor on the southern coast of
+the Republic. It is separated from the ocean by a long narrow tongue
+of land, and being securely sheltered from all winds, its surface is
+always as placid as a lake. Caldera Bay is presumed to be the harbor
+in which Columbus on his fourth voyage rode out the great hurricane of
+1502 which demolished the infant city of Santo Domingo and sunk the
+gold fleet that had just set sail for Spain. This harbor was a
+rendezvous for the Spanish war vessels and transports in 1861 when
+Spain resumed control of Santo Domingo and again in 1865 when she
+relinquished possession. The extent and depth of Caldera Bay are
+claimed to be sufficient to accommodate the largest ships, but vessels
+seldom venture into it, as the charts of this part of the coast are
+deficient.
+
+At the upper end of Ocoa Bay is Port Tortuguero, the harbor of the
+city of Azua, affording good anchorage, but very rough in south winds.
+It. was the scene of one of the few naval engagements in the history
+of Santo Domingo, for here on April 15, 1844, two Dominican schooners
+sustained a drawn battle with three Haitian vessels. The surrounding
+hills appear almost bare of vegetation owing to the aridity of the
+climate. The only buildings at the port are a small custom-house and
+several sheds, the city of Azua lying about three miles inland. The
+former harbor of Azua, Puerto Viejo or Escondido, Old or Hidden Port,
+is a sheltered inlet on the western side of Ocoa Bay, but is available
+only for vessels of light draft.
+
+Point Martin Garcia where the western side of Ocoa Bay is regarded as
+terminating also marks the beginning of another large bay, Neiba Bay,
+which has the form of a cul-de-sac, with a length of eighteen miles
+and an average breadth of seven miles. It is open to the southeast,
+but in all other directions is well protected by high mountains. The
+water is of ample depth and there are several good anchorages, the
+best being the port of the small city of Barahona.
+
+From Neiba Bay to Cape Beata the coast waters are shallow and are only
+visited by small vessels which come to take away lumber or coffee from
+the neighboring heights. At Cape Beata, the southernmost cape of the
+Republic, the coast turns northwest, to the Pedernales River, which
+forms part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
+Several small bays indent this portion of the shore, the one most
+favorable for shipping being Las Aguilas Bay, also known as Bahia sin
+Fondo, or Bottomless Bay. This part of the country, the Baboruco
+peninsula, is very sparsely inhabited. In the beginning of the
+nineteenth century it was the abode of maroons, half-savage fugitive
+slaves and their descendants.
+
+Four miles to the southwest of Cape Beata lies Beata Island, sloping
+down from an elevation in the south to a long point in the north. Its
+greatest length is about 7 miles, its maximum breadth 3 miles, and
+access is difficult as the only anchorage is on the eastern side
+almost two miles from land. The island is covered with dense forests
+in which wild cattle abound. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the island was a convenient resort for the pirates that
+infested the Spanish main; at one time it is said to have contained
+fine plantations, but at present it is only occasionally visited by
+Dominican or Haitian fishermen.
+
+Rising precipitously from the sea, at a distance of about ten miles
+southwest of Beata Island, is a huge bell-shaped mass of rock, 500
+feet in height, almost two miles in length and a mile in width. It
+reminded Columbus of a giant ship under full sail, wherefore he named
+it Alta Vela, or High Sail, sometimes corrupted to Alto Velo. The
+valuable deposits of guano on the rock induced a party of Americans in
+1860 to take possession of it in the name of the United States as an
+ownerless guano island, but upon protest by the Dominican authorities
+the American government promptly recognized the superior rights of
+Santo Domingo. Visible from far out at sea, with a lighthouse on its
+summit, the great granite peak stands like a sentinel guarding the
+southern shore of the Republic.
+
+On the land side the vague boundary has varied constantly, influenced
+by the conflicting Haitian and Dominican claims, the greater or less
+energy of the border authorities on each side, and the tendency of the
+rapidly increasing Haitian population to establish homes in the
+uninhabited frontier region of Santo Domingo. The absolute lack of
+correct maps and the rugged character of the country make it
+difficult, even on the spot, to determine where the boundary line
+should be considered to run. In riding through the region about Lake
+Azuei, I noticed some bad dents in the frontier and came to the
+conclusion that not all the boundary pushing has been done
+by Haitians.
+
+On the frontier as provisionally fixed by the American government in
+1912, the Dajabon, Capotillo or Massacre River constitutes the
+northern end of the boundary. The lower course of this river is the
+only part of the boundary line where Haitian and Dominican claimants
+are able to agree. In the mountains to the west of Restauracion the
+line jumps over to the headwaters of the Libon River, which it follows
+to the upper Artibonite, continuing along this river as far as Banica.
+From here it runs across high mountains between Comendador and Hondo
+Valle on the Dominican side and Belladere and Savanette on the Haitian
+side, to the north shore of Lake Azuei, thence across the lake to the
+headwaters of the Pedernales River--with an indentation to give Haiti
+the post of Bois Tombe--and along that river to the sea. For the
+greater part of its extent the line traverses a wild mountainous
+country, rarely visited on the Dominican side, except by smugglers or
+an occasional frontier guard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
+
+
+Mountains.--Valleys and plains.--Rivers.--Lakes.--Temperature and
+rainfall.--Hurricanes.--Health conditions.
+
+It is related that an English admiral, in endeavoring to illustrate to
+George III the topography of one of the West India Islands crumpled up
+a piece of paper in his hand and laid it on the table before the
+monarch, saying: "That, sir, is the island." The traveler touring the
+West Indies finds the story following him from place to place. Among
+the islands which claim to have given origin to the anecdote is Haiti,
+and however that may be, such description seems to apply admirably.
+Rugged irregular mountain ranges interspersed with valleys form the
+greater part of the surface, while in the southeast a great plain
+extends from the mountains to the coast.
+
+The mountains of the Dominican Republic may be grouped in five
+principal ranges, two along the northern coast, one in the center of
+the island, and two in the southwest. They all extend from east to
+west and present numerous offshoots, especially the central range
+which is the most important one and comprises the highest peaks.
+
+One of the northern ranges is the short Samana Range, beginning at
+Cape Samana, extending the length of the Samana Peninsula, over thirty
+miles, and ending near the Gran Estero. The greatest altitude is
+attained by Mt. Pilon de Azucar and Mt. Diablo which are 1900 and
+1300 feet in height, respectively. This group at first sight appears
+to be an extension of the second chain, the Monte Cristi Range, but
+its geological formation proves it rather to belong to the great
+central range. It was probably at a remote period an island lying off
+from the mainland.
+
+The other northern range has its beginning near Samana Bay and extends
+all the way to Monte Cristi. It is known as the Monte Cristi Range
+though the eastern portion is also called the Sierra de Macoris. It
+sends several branches to the coast, the most important one being that
+which terminates at Puerto Plata. The highest points of the range are
+Mt. Diego de Ocampo, with an altitude of 4000 feet, Nord Peak 3500
+feet, and Mt. Murazo 3400 feet. A notable landmark is Mt. Isabel de
+Torres, 2300 feet in height, which overlooks Puerto Plata. Its head is
+usually shrouded in a cap of clouds, and small mists frequently hover
+about its surface. To Columbus, passing out at sea on his first
+voyage, the cloudcap appeared shining like burnished silver in the
+morning sun. He took it to be snow until closer investigation
+disclosed its true nature, whereupon he named the mountain Monte
+Plata, or Silver Mount, and the port at the base was afterwards called
+Puerto Plata. The mountain is said to have been given its present
+name, Isabel de Torres, in honor of the wife of a prominent settler,
+Diego de Ocampo, domiciled in Santiago in the early days, after whom
+the great mountain near that city was named. According to a local
+legend, this couple, although blessed with worldly goods, was also
+mutually possessed of such a nagging spirit and ungovernable temper
+that a separation became necessary, the husband remaining in Santiago,
+the wife removing to Puerto Plata. When leagues intervened between
+them their conduct was so charming that the inhabitants of the two
+cities gave their names to the high mountains near the respective
+towns. "If you doubt the story," the legend concludes, "there are the
+mountains to prove it."
+
+The principal mountain range, the Cordillera Central, begins at the
+extreme eastern point of the island, traverses the center of the
+Republic, crosses into Haitian territory and sinks into the sea at
+Mole St. Nicolas to reappear in Cuba, on the other side of the
+Windward Passage. It constitutes a part of the great ridge which forms
+the backbone of all the islands bounding the Caribbean Sea on the
+north. In the eastern part of Santo Domingo the range consists merely
+of a chain of high hills which rarely reach an altitude of more than
+900 feet, but in the center and west of the Republic it assumes much
+greater magnitude, sending out branches which are important mountain
+chains in themselves, and several of its peaks are over 6000 feet in
+height. The highest point in the island and in the West Indies is Mt.
+Tina, with an altitude of 10,300 feet, a magnificent outpost of that
+branch of the central range which traverses the south-central portion
+of the Republic. The next highest point, is Yaque Peak, 9700 feet
+high, nearly at the center of the island. The dense jungle covering
+the rugged slopes of these giants has so far baffled the few attempts
+at exploration of their summits. To the west of Yaque Peak is Mt.
+Cucurucho, 7400 feet high, and to the northwest Mt. Entre los Rios,
+8000 feet and Mt. Gallo, 8200 feet in height. It must be remembered
+that in the absence of any careful measurements, the altitudes given
+are mere approximations.
+
+The Cordillera Central is peculiar in its numerous branches which are
+often more intricate in their ramifications and comprise loftier peaks
+than the parent range. The most important of these branches are those
+which extend from Mt. Banilejo to the southern coast, and fill the
+district between San Cristobal and Azua with a jumble of mountains.
+Besides Mt. Tina, already mentioned, their principal peaks are Mt. Rio
+Grande, 6900 feet, overlooking the beautiful Constanza Valley, and Mt.
+Valdesia, 5900 feet high. One of the best defined ranges on the south
+is the Sierra del Agua, which runs south from the Central Cordillera
+to the San Juan River. The branches on the north are even more
+numerous and cover a greater area. Among them special reference may be
+made to the Sierra Zamba, which runs parallel to the Yaque del Norte
+River, the Sierra de San Jose de las Matas, the Santiago Range, the
+Jarabacoa Range and the Cotui Range.
+
+The fourth principal mountain range of the Republic, the Neiba Range,
+is sometimes classed as a part of the Cordillera Central. It rises on
+the western bank of the Neiba River and runs west parallel with the
+central chain, into Haitian territory. Among its principal peaks is
+Mt. Panso, 6200 feet high. The fifth principal range, situated in the
+extreme southwest of the Republic, is known as the Baboruco Range, and
+sometimes as Maniel de los Negros. It begins at the Caribbean coast
+south of Barahona Bay and runs west into Haiti, forming an integral
+portion of the mountain chain that traverses the great peninsula in
+the south of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+These several ranges and their offshoots divide the country into a
+number of distinct regions, which, owing to the difficulty of
+communication, have developed more or less independently of one
+another. The most important division is that effected by the broad
+central belt of mountains which, twelve miles wide in its narrowest
+part, and extending from the shores of the Mona Channel to and beyond
+the Haitian frontier, constitutes a rugged barrier between the north
+and the south of the Republic.
+
+The district to the north of the Central Cordillera, comprising the
+richest portion of the country, still retains its old Indian name
+"Cibao"--a word which awoke fond hopes in the heart of Columbus who
+identified it with "Cipango," the Japan he was so eagerly seeking. The
+Cibao includes the northern slope of the central range with the
+fertile valleys enclosed by branches of that range, the Samana
+peninsula, the Monte Cristi Range with its valleys and coastal plains,
+and particularly the magnificent valley of the Cibao, which lying
+between the central chain and the Monte Cristi Range, extends all the
+way from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay. The length of this remarkable
+valley is about 150 miles, its average breadth is 10 miles in the
+northwestern and 15 miles in the southeastern part, and it comprises
+the most fertile lands and the most populous interior towns of the
+Republic. The highest part of the valley is about 600 feet above
+sea-level and is situated at its middle point, near the city of
+Santiago, where a line of low hills dividing the valley into two parts
+forms a watershed for its rivers. The northwestern of these two
+sections is known as the Santiago or Yaque valley and forms the
+greater portion of the basin of the Yaque del Norte, while the
+southeastern half, through which the Yuna River flows, is the superb
+Royal Valley or Royal Plain.
+
+One of the most beautiful views in the Cibao Valley, and in the world,
+is obtained from the historic eminence of Santo Cerro, an outpost
+hill of the central range, situated about three miles from the city of
+La Vega. From the foot of this hill the great plain stretches into the
+distance, meeting the azure sky on the eastern horizon, and far in
+the north skirting the brown slopes of the lofty Monte Cristi
+mountains, the more remote peaks of which are but faintly perceptible
+in their envelope of blue haze. A rich carpet of dark green
+overspreads the plain, where lighter spots indicate patches of tilled
+land and silver threads betray the presence of streams. The cities of
+Moca and La Vega are easily distinguished and on clear days even San
+Francisco de Macoris can be discerned. Clouds or rainstorms moving
+over portions of the vast expanse, add animation to the landscape.
+Columbus, gazing out upon the enchanting scene, was so impressed by
+its magnificence that he gave the great vale the name it still
+bears--La Vega Real, The Royal Plain.
+
+To the south of the central range the number of plains is greater. The
+largest expanse of level land on the island is the great plain which
+forms the southeastern part of the Dominican Republic. It includes
+almost the entire region east of the Jaina River and south of the
+central range, being about 115 miles long by 30 miles wide. This
+Eastern Valley or Seibo Plain, as it is sometimes called, is covered
+with forests and broad savannas, the most notable of which are
+comprised in the series of prairies known as Los Llanos, the Plains.
+
+Two smaller and irregular plains are the arid Bani coastal plain,
+lying between the Nizao River and the Ocoa, with a length of 25 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 12 miles, and the Azua Valley, winding
+from Mt. Numero, near the Ocoa, to the Neiba River, a distance of 33
+miles with a breadth of from 3 to 30 miles.
+
+The Neiba Valley, situated in the southwestern portion of the Republic
+between the Neiba and the Baboruco Mountains is more regular. It is
+part of the valley which stretches from Neiba Bay, in Santo Domingo,
+to Port-au-Prince in Haiti. The Dominican portion is 65 miles long by
+12 miles wide, and over one-half of its area is covered by the waters
+of Lake Enriquillo. The peninsula south of the Baboruco Mountains is
+an uneven plateau.
+
+In the very center of the Republic, surrounded on all sides by lofty
+mountains of the central group, is Constanza Valley, rich but to-day
+almost inaccessible. No less rich, but many times larger, is the other
+interior plain, known as the Eastern or Central Valley, a succession
+of fertile valleys, extending from the Neiba River to St. Raphael,
+almost 115 miles, with a width of from nine to twenty miles. The
+entire plain is claimed by the Dominican Republic, but more than half
+is in possession of Haiti.
+
+All these various valleys and plains enjoy the advantage of being
+watered by a comprehensive network of rivers of greater or less size.
+Many of the streams are navigable for miles in the lower part of their
+course by boats and canoes, affording means of communication to which
+the wretched condition of the land highways gives added importance.
+
+The largest river of the Republic is the Yaque del Norte, some 240
+miles in length, which rises on the slope of Yaque Peak, describes a
+circuitous northerly course, receiving numerous mountain affluents,
+until it reaches the vicinity of the city of Santiago de los
+Caballeros, whence, turning northwesterly it flows through the
+Santiago Valley, being reinforced by scores of tributaries. Its waters
+are finally discharged partially into Monte Cristi Bay and partly
+through its many mouthed delta into Manzanillo Bay. Detritus and
+driftwood brought down by the river, for many years entirely filled
+the Monte Cristi channel, and still constitute barriers which cause
+large lagoons to form in the delta and to inundate extensive tracts of
+rich farmland. Though the bars at its entrance render the river
+inaccessible for larger boats, it is navigable for canoes over its
+entire course in the Santiago Valley.
+
+Another large river is the yellow Yuna, which waters the eastern part
+of the Cibao Valley. Rising in the mountains near the center of the
+Republic, it directs its course to the Royal Plain where it receives
+the waters of the rapid Camu, and thence flows eastwardly and enters
+Samana Bay through a marshy delta, its total length being over 200
+miles. Part of its waters find their way through the great swamp, the
+Gran Estero, into the Atlantic Ocean. Up to its junction with the
+Camu, a distance of some 30 miles, the Yuna is navigable by boats and
+barges, and above the junction both the Yuna and the Camu are
+navigable by canoes for nearly 30 miles more though there are shallow
+stretches where the streams run rapidly and great care is necessary.
+In former days, the Yuna was one of the chief outlets of the Cibao;
+freight and passengers were transported over its course to Samana Bay
+and on the waters of the Bay to the town of Samana where transshipment
+to larger vessels took place. With the establishment of the railroad
+from La Vega to Sanchez, the river has lost much of its old-time
+importance.
+
+The third largest river is the Neiba or Yaque del Sur, which rises
+near the sources of the Yaque del Norte and pursues a southerly
+direction for some 180 miles, emptying into Neiba Bay. The repetition
+of geographical means is one of the peculiarities of Santo Domingo.
+Thus there are two rivers and a mountain named Yaque, several
+mountains named Cucurucho, a mountain-range and two cities named
+Macoris while in a host of minor instances rivers, mountains and
+districts in different parts of the country have identical names. The
+repetition of names seems all the more curious as the Dominicans have
+not hesitated to change historic names of towns and streets. The Yaque
+del Sur, or Neiba River, receives several copious affluents, the
+largest one being the San Juan River. Much of the lumber exported at
+Barahona is floated down the Yaque and the river is navigable about 20
+miles for flat-bottomed boats, though rapids and rocky ledges
+interpose obstacles.
+
+The other rivers of the southern part of Santo Domingo are much
+smaller. The principal one is the Ozama, at the mouth of which the
+capital city is located. This river is about 60 miles in length and
+carries a surprising amount of water. Being navigable by barges for 9
+miles from its mouth and by canoes for 15 miles, it forms an important
+avenue of supply for Santo Domingo City. In the three miles from its
+junction with the Isabela to the sea, its depth is about 24 feet, but
+over the sandbar at its mouth but 15 feet. Two rivers in the
+southeastern peninsula, the Macoris and the Soco furnish valuable
+outlets for the products of the sugar estates on their banks. A number
+of Dominican streams offer peculiarities. In the mountains there are
+brooks which gush out of the hillside, merrily ripple on for miles and
+vanish into the ground as mysteriously as they came. A number of coast
+streams sink into the sand of the beach, just before reaching the
+ocean. The Brujuelas River, which rises on the edge of the great
+plains, northwest of Bayaguana, flows south 25 miles through the
+plains and disappears in the ground a mile from the sea. Most streams
+ordinarily insignificant and innocent looking, are in a surprisingly
+short space of time converted by rains into raging torrents. The most
+formidable of these torrential rivers is the Nizao which flows into
+the Caribbean Sea near Point Palenque. In the lower part of this
+river's course its bed is about a mile wide, of which only a small
+portion is covered by the several branches of the river, the remainder
+being taken up with sandbanks, gravel beds, marshy tracts and stagnant
+bayous; and so frequently and erratically does the river change its
+channels, and to such sudden rises is it subject, that the local
+authorities are obliged to keep guides stationed on its banks almost
+continuously, in order to direct travelers across.
+
+The rapids and cascades of Dominican streams are pregnant with
+possibilities, but up to the present time they have remained in their
+pristine condition, nor is their energy utilized to drive a single
+piece of machinery. The largest and most beautiful waterfall of the
+island is doubtless that of the Jimenoa River, in the mountains some
+ten miles south of the city of La Vega, where the Jimenoa rushes over
+a precipice one hundred feet in height, producing clouds of spray and
+a roar that can sometimes be perceived as far as Jarabacoa, six miles
+away. Another beautiful fall is that of the Dajabon River, on the
+Haitian frontier, 30 feet in height, and there are notable cascades
+also on the Comate River, near Bayaguana, on the great plains; on the
+Nigua and Higuero Rivers, not many miles from Santo Domingo City; on
+the Inova River, near the town of San Jose de las Matas; and on the
+Guaranas River, on the Haitian frontier in the commune of Neiba.
+
+The only lakes of any size are two which lie in the Neiba Valley, the
+larger one, Lake Enriquillo, being comprised entirely within Dominican
+territory, while of the smaller one, variously called Etang Saumatre,
+or Lake Azuei, or Laguna del Fondo, through which the frontier line
+passes, less than one-fourth is under Dominican jurisdiction. They are
+both very picturesque, and with the greenish color of their water and
+their arid mountain surroundings recall portions of Lake Titicaca in
+Bolivia. In stormy weather they become as rough as the ocean. Lake
+Enriquillo derives its name from the last Indian cacique of the
+Island, the romantic chieftain Enriquillo, who after fiercely
+resisting the Spaniards finally in 1533 concluded an honorable peace
+with them on the island of Cabras in the center of this lake. The lake
+is over 70 miles in circumference, having a length of about 33 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 9 miles, Cabras Island, 6 miles long by
+one in width, is the home of herds of goats. Lake Azuei is but 15
+miles in length with a width of from 2 to 7 miles.
+
+Though the two lakes are scarcely five miles apart, Lake Enriquillo is
+102 feet below and Lake Azuei 56 feet above sea-level. Both lakes
+receive the waters of several small fresh water creeks, yet they
+apparently have no outlet and their water is salt, that of Lake Azuei
+only slightly, but that of Lake Enriquillo more so than the sea. On
+Cabras Island, however, there is a fresh water spring, and three
+lagoons to the east and south of Lake Enriquillo also contain fresh
+water. Lake Azuei often shows the paradox of going down during the
+rainy season and rising during the dry season; the phenomenon is
+attributed to the presence of springs at the bottom of the lake, which
+are unusually copious at the end of the rainy season. Both lakes have
+at least one variety of ocean fish, though the nearest point of the
+seacoast is some twenty miles distant; turtles abound in both and
+there are many alligators in Lake Enriquillo and a few in Lake Azuei.
+
+The climate of Santo Domingo is that of the torrid zone and is
+characterized by heat and humidity. Yet the heat rarely becomes as
+intense as it sometimes does in the United States in summer and the
+nights are always cool and pleasant. The mean annual temperature of
+Santo Domingo City is between 77 deg. and 78 deg. Fahrenheit, and the
+variation between the mean temperature of the hottest and coolest
+month is hardly more than 6 deg.. The highest temperature recorded in
+Santo Domingo City in a period of seven years was 95 deg.. The average
+highest temperature in July and August is between 91 deg. and 92 deg.. In the
+mountainous regions of the interior there is a noticeable difference
+in temperature; it is necessary to sleep under a blanket every night
+of the year and the temperature sometimes falls below the freezing
+point. The pleasantest months of the year are from December
+to February.
+
+The heat of the climate is tempered and rendered bearable by cooling
+breezes which are seldom absent. During the day the prevailing breeze
+is from the east, but shortly after sunset a breeze sets in from the
+interior, blowing out to the ocean, and continues until after sunrise.
+
+The heavy rains also tend to cool the atmosphere. The island is so cut
+up by mountain ranges running in different directions that there is no
+regular rainy season for the whole country. In the south, the west and
+the interior, the rainy season is generally reckoned as lasting from
+April to November, while in the eastern section the rainy season is
+from May to December. These seasons are not absolute, for at times
+there are heavy rains during what should be the dry season, while
+occasionally there are many days of drouth during the wet months. The
+rains are rarely long-continued drizzles, but instead for several
+hours the floodgates of heaven are opened wide, after which the sky
+clears and remains serene until the following day. The amount of
+rainfall varies in different parts of the country, being lightest in
+the arid districts of Monte Cristi, Azua and Barahona.
+
+The United States Weather Bureau maintained a station at Santo Domingo
+City for a number of years and from the observations made the
+following data are compiled:
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS FOR SANTO DOMINGO CITY
+
+                   Highest     Lowest      Mean              Average
+       Mean        temperature temperature relative Average  number
+       temperature recorded    recorded    humidity rainfall of days
+           deg.F           deg.F           deg.F       per cl.  inches   with rain
+
+January   74          86          61          85      2.01      11
+February  74          88          60          82       .96       8
+March     75          87          59          79      2.15       9
+April     76          91          59          80      6.86      14
+May       78          88          67          83      6.29      13
+June      78          90          67          86      7.42      18
+July      79          92          67          86      8.34      18
+August    80          95          68          84      6.77      17
+September 79          93          69          85      7.63      16
+October   79          92          67          86      9.63      15
+November  78          91          64          85      2.76      11
+December  76          89          61          87      2.09      11
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+Annual    77          95          59          84     62.91     161
+
+
+Santo Domingo has at intervals felt the violence of the destructive
+hurricanes which occasionally ravage the West Indies. They often
+combine the features of a tornado and a cloudburst, and while the
+furious whirlwind wrecks houses, uproots trees and strips forests bare
+of leaves, the accompanying severe rains swell the streams to abnormal
+height and cause extensive inundations. The hurricane season is
+reckoned as beginning in July and ending in October and when during
+this period a sudden fall of the barometer announces the proximity of
+unusual atmospheric disturbances all shipping keeps to the harbors and
+the dwellers on shore take measures to guard against the devastating
+rage of the wind.
+
+The first West Indian hurricane of which we have any record was that
+of 1502 which destroyed the first city of Santo Domingo and sank a
+Spanish fleet. More recent storms felt in Santo Domingo were those of
+1834, 1865, 1876 and 1883. That of September 6, 1883, desolated the
+southwestern provinces of the Republic, and the rise of the Ozama
+River swept away the bridge connecting the capital with the opposite
+shore. The hurricane of 1899 which laid waste the nearby island of
+Porto Rico was scarcely felt in Santo Domingo. The latest unusually
+heavy storm was that which swept over the Republic during the first
+week of November, 1909, and caused much damage, especially in the
+Cibao. A sudden storm in the afternoon of August 29, 1916, accompanied
+by a kind of tidal wave, surprised the American 14,500 ton armored
+cruiser "Memphis" at anchor in the roadstead of Santo Domingo City and
+wrecked it against the rocky shore.
+
+With regard to health conditions, the Dominican Republic has been
+maligned because of the fevers that decimated the English and French
+armies in the Haitian wars of a century ago. It must be remembered,
+however, that the French part of the island being shut out from the
+eastern breezes by high mountain ranges is hotter than the Spanish
+part, and that the European troops, improperly clad and fed, underwent
+great hardships and were ignorant of sanitary precautions. Among
+travelers it is the concensus of opinion that climatic conditions in
+the Dominican Republic are as favorable as in any other tropical
+country. Far from presenting dangers to health there are few districts
+in the Republic which with proper hotel accommodations would not
+offer delightful refuge to invalids seeking to escape the rigors of
+the northern winter. The salubrity of the climate is reflected in the
+sturdy character of the peasantry, and exemplified by numerous cases
+of unusual longevity. In the towns the death-rate is somewhat higher
+than in the country regions; but the very fact that in spite of
+uncleaned streets, reeking garbage heaps, and defiance of sanitary
+precepts by the majority of the inhabitants, there has been so
+comparatively little sickness, bears strong witness to the
+healthfulness of the country. By a law of 1912 boards of health were
+established, and under American impulse more attention is now being
+given to sanitation.
+
+As no census of the Republic has ever been taken and data relative to
+births and deaths have not been collected regularly, it is not
+possible to compile statistics as to the death rate in the various
+provinces. The data so far available seem to indicate that the
+healthiest province is Puerto Plata, followed by Santiago, Azua and
+Monte Cristi, after which come Santo Domingo, La Vega, Espaillat,
+Pacificador, Samana and Barahona. The mortality rate is highest in the
+province of Macoris where the annual number of deaths is reported to
+average about thirty per thousand.
+
+The most frequent endemic diseases are malaria which is to be feared
+near marshes and stagnant waters, pulmonary consumption, which,
+however, is not more common than in the United States, and diseases of
+the digestive organs. Yellow fever is unknown and the sporadic cases
+which have occurred were due to the importation of the disease from
+other countries. The only epidemic in recent years occurred in Puerto
+Plata in 1901 when ten deaths were recorded.
+
+The hookworm disease is very prevalent, but its ravages are not so
+apparent as in certain other tropical countries. Venereal diseases are
+exceedingly common. Evidences of the presence of leprosy and
+elephantiasis are occasionally seen. The measures taken for the
+segregation of lepers are far from thorough; the lepers' asylum of
+Santo Domingo City is situated inside the city walls and is surrounded
+by habitations of the poor. Cases of typhoid fever are sometimes
+registered during the hot spell, from July to October, but the victims
+are usually foreigners who have been careless of climatic
+requirements. The foreigner who will observe temperance and prudence
+in all things, who will be careful of what he eats and drinks, who
+will avoid exposure to rain showers, or to drafts when in
+perspiration, will easily become acclimated. Realizing that many
+tropical disorders originate in a foul stomach, the natives upon the
+slightest provocation have recourse to a purgative, and the custom is
+one which the stranger should not hesitate to adopt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERALS
+
+
+Rock formation.--Mineral
+deposits.--Gold.--Copper.--Iron.-Coal.--Silver.--Salt--Building
+stone.--Petroleum.--Mineral springs.--Earthquakes.
+
+
+The geological formation and the mineral wealth of the Dominican
+Republic have never been thoroughly studied, in part because of the
+physical difficulties and in part as a result of the civil
+dissensions. The government has never had money to spare for such
+objects, and private investigators have suffered much hardship and
+lost many days in opening paths through tangled underbrush, and in
+crossing rugged mountain ranges in uninhabited regions. The physical
+obstacles and the necessarily superficial examination consequent
+thereon may explain the contradictions of detail in different reports.
+About the middle of the nineteenth century several studies were
+published, and three scientists who accompanied the American
+Commission of Inquiry in the year 1871 made a report on geological
+conditions.
+
+From such studies as have been published it appears that the rock
+formations of Santo Domingo correspond to the secondary, the lower and
+middle tertiary and the quaternary epoch. The most ancient part of the
+island is the central mountain range, also a series of protuberances
+in the Samana peninsula, the nucleus of the Baboruco mountains and a
+single point in the northern coast range near Puerto Plata. The
+tertiary lands are those forming the entire northern part of the
+island from the central range to the sea, portions of the Samana
+peninsula between the older rocks, a large area to the southwest of
+the Zamba hills, smaller tracts between the Jaina and Nizao rivers,
+and the region between the salt lakes on the Haitian frontier and
+between Barahona and Neiba. The modern lands are the coast plains and
+the small terraces on the south of the central range and on the south
+of the Baboruco mountains, the Maguana, Azua and Neiba valleys, small
+areas on the north coast at the foot of the mountains, and the marshes
+and Yuna River delta at the head of Samana Bay.
+
+In the central mountain range is found a nucleus of eruptive rocks
+which have raised and twisted sedimentary strata, covering them and
+forcing them aside. This nucleus is not a regular feature of the whole
+length of the chain, but is an irregular mass beginning about at the
+middle, in the region of the Jaina River, and extending in a series of
+parallel lines obliquely across the backbone of the range to the
+border of the Republic and on into Haiti. Among these rocks and bent
+and broken by them are the slates, conglomerates and calcareous rocks
+which are found in the mountains and over the whole surface of the
+island. The character of the central range and the inclination of the
+strata of cretaceous rocks make it probable that the island emerged
+from the sea in the eocene period, its area being then confined to the
+extent of the central mountain chain, with a few small islands to the
+south, one or more islets to the northeast, comprising the older peaks
+of the Samana range, and a small archipelago to the southeast, where
+the hills of Seibo now are. During the miocene period these islands
+became surrounded with coral reefs, the vestiges of which remain in
+strips of calcareous rock found in the same position in which they
+were deposited. Towards the end of the tertiary period, after a time
+of quiet, there was a new rise of the land. While the hills to the
+south of Samana Bay and the bed of the Cibao Valley from Samana Bay to
+Monte Cristi rose slowly, there was an upheaval further to the north,
+and the Monte Cristi Range was formed. Before this period it had been
+a bar at sea-level, covered with a clayey sediment of chalk. At a
+later geological period the great plains to the north and east of
+Santo Domingo City were formed.
+
+Traces of valuable minerals are so general in the Republic that it is
+said there is hardly a commune where a more or less abundant mineral
+deposit is not found. The exceptions are the lands of recent coralline
+formation, such as the municipality of San Pedro de Macoris and the
+southern portion of the commune of Higuey.
+
+The magnet which attracted the Spaniards at the time of the conquest
+was the island's mineral wealth, especially the gold deposits. It is a
+historical fact that large quantities of gold in dust and nuggets were
+collected during the first years of Spanish colonization. According to
+the Spanish writers, from 1502 to 1530 placer gold was produced to the
+value of from $200,000 to $1,000,000 per annum. The fleet which set
+out in 1502 and was wrecked by a hurricane before leaving the coast
+waters of Santo Domingo was laden with gold mined in the island. A
+tribute of a small amount of gold each year was imposed on half the
+Indians of the country. Much of the gold came from the mountains
+behind Santiago and La Vega, from the gold-bearing sands of the Jaina
+River, around Buenaventura, and from the vicinity of Cotui, then
+called "Las Minas." Ancient pits are still to be found in all these
+places. At La Vega a mint was established for coining gold and silver.
+A nugget of extraordinary size was found by an Indian woman in a
+brook near the Jaina River; her Spanish masters in their exultation
+had a roast suckling pig served on it, boasting that never had the
+king of Spain dined from so valuable a table. The Indian received no
+part of the gold: "she was lucky if they gave her a piece of the pig,"
+remarks Father Las Casas. This nugget was purchased by Bobadilla to
+send to Spain, and went down with the 1502 treasure fleet.
+
+The gold deposits found by the Spaniards were the surface
+accumulations of centuries. When these were exhausted and the supply of
+cheap labor fell off owing to the dying out of the Indians, the
+mineral production waned. In 1502 labor difficulties caused a
+temporary cessation in mining. In 1511 many mines were definitely
+closed because of the scarcity of laborers and because the cultivation
+of sugar-cane offered surer profits. Then came the discovery of mines
+of fabulous wealth in Mexico and Peru, and the interest they aroused,
+as well as the lack of labor in Santo Domingo, caused the mines of the
+island to be completely neglected. Finally, in 1543, mining work
+ceased and by a royal decree all mines were ordered closed.
+Prospecting and desultory mining, especially placer mining, have been
+kept up, however, until the present day.
+
+The prospecting has generally been confined to the more accessible
+regions and nothing is known of the mountain valleys in the interior.
+The mineral deposits discovered have been of sufficient richness to
+cause the formation of mining companies for their development or
+further investigation. I do not, however, know of a single case where
+prospectors or mining companies have ever made expenses. The cause of
+failure has most frequently been the lack of transportation facilities
+in the island, on account of which the cost of carrying the ore to a
+place where it might be reduced became prohibitive. Sometimes
+enterprises failed because the deposit turned out to be too small,
+sometimes because the ore did not keep up to the standard, and not
+infrequently mining companies fell by the wayside because of bad
+management. Enough evidence of mineral wealth has been found to
+justify the belief that workable deposits do exist, and to warrant
+careful further investigation, especially as the means of
+communication are extended.
+
+The metals most frequently found are gold, copper and iron. Veins of
+auriferous quartz are found throughout the central chain, the richest
+lodes being encountered in metamorphic rocks near crystalline
+formations. The metal is most abundant in placers formed in the river
+beds. Such placers are common in the Jaina River and its tributaries
+in the province of Santo Domingo; in Bonao creek in Seibo province;
+and in the Verde River, the streams of Sabaneta and a number of other
+streams of the Cibao. On the upper Jaina and on the Verde River there
+are still persons who make their living by washing gold from the river
+sands. Hydraulic mining was attempted in Santiago province, but after
+the construction of an expensive canal the project was abandoned.
+Under the liberal mining law mining privileges have in recent years
+been granted for gold mines reported at numerous places in the
+communes of San Jose de las Matas, San Cristobal, Janico, San Juan de
+la Maguana, Sabaneta and others. Prof. William P. Black, one of the
+scientists accompanying the United States Commission of Inquiry in
+1871, reported:
+
+"There is a very considerable extent of gold-bearing country in the
+interior and gold is washed from the rivers at various points. It is
+found along the Jaina, upon the Verde, and upon the Yaque and its
+tributaries, and doubtless upon the large rivers of the interior.
+Some portions of the gold fields were worked anciently by the
+Spaniards and Indians. There are doubtless many gold deposits, not
+only along the bed of rivers, but on the hills, which have never been
+worked, and there probably is considerable gold remaining among the
+old workings. The appearance of the soil and rocks is such as to
+justify the labor and expense of carefully prospecting the
+gold region."
+
+Copper is next to gold in frequency of occurrence. Some of the best
+deposits have been found in the commune of San Cristobal, province of
+Santo Domingo. A company working lodes at Mount Mateo on the Nigua
+River, encountered ore yielding as high as 33 per cent of copper. On
+the Jaina River near the ruins of Buenaventura, I have seen promising
+ledges of copper ore. Copper carbonates predominated, the green ore
+known as malachite and the beautiful blue ore azurite were quite
+common, and white quartz, which on being broken showed little specks
+of native copper, was also to be found. The asperity of the region,
+the absence of roads and the uncertainty as to the extent of these
+deposits caused the attempts at working them to be but feeble until
+recently, when extensive works of development were undertaken in the
+vicinity. Copper veins have also been reported in the mountains of the
+commune of Bani, province of Santo Domingo; in the communes of Cotui
+and Bonao, province of La Vega; in the canton of Moncion, province of
+Monte Cristi; in the commune of San Juan de la Maguana, province of
+Azua, and at a number of other places.
+
+Iron is reported in large quantities in various parts of the country.
+The largest deposit so far known is on the banks of the Maimon River
+in the municipality of Cotui, being a bed of black magnetic oxide of
+iron, nine miles long. It is said to be excellent in quality and
+inexhaustible in quantity. The difficulties of transportation in this
+case could be obviated by the canalization of the river to its
+confluence with the Yuna River, so as to make it navigable for small
+boats. Iron ore has been discovered on the slope of Mt. Isabel de
+Torres behind the city of Puerto Plata, limonite deposits at various
+places in Santo Domingo province, and a rich black iron oxide on the
+upper Ozama River. A layer of iron pyrites extending from Los Llanos
+all the way to Sabana la Mar was believed by its discoverers to be a
+gold mine. The central ridge of Santo Domingo is part of the same
+mountain chain which extends through Santiago province in Cuba where
+enormous quantities of iron are produced, and it is not improbable
+that some of the Dominican mines will be found to pay.
+
+Coal mines found in the Samana peninsula produced a kind of lignite
+which proved of little commercial value and gave rise to the belief
+that the Republic's coal deposits had not emerged from the formative
+period. Later investigations show that while there is considerable
+undeveloped lignite, coal suitable for fuel is not wanting. Small coal
+deposits have been discovered in the Cibao Valley, between the central
+and the northern mountain chain, in the province of Pacificador and
+that of Santiago. Anthracite coal found at Tamboril, near the city of
+Santiago, was used to run a small motor exhibited at an industrial
+fair in Santiago in 1903. In the commune of Altamira, province of
+Puerto Plata, lignite and anthracite beds have been discovered, and
+traces of anthracite have also been found in San Cristobal commune,
+and in the petroleum region of Azua. In the central mountain chain a
+valuable coal deposit has been found on the Haitian side and similar
+beds may be expected in Santo Domingo.
+
+Silver has been discovered at Tanci, near Yasica, in the commune of
+Puerto Plata. The old chronicles refer to silver mines at Jarabacoa
+and Cotui in La Vega province, also to others near Santiago, near
+Higuey and on the Jaina River. Platinum occurs at Jarabacoa, traces of
+quicksilver have been found near Santiago, Banica and San Cristobal,
+and tin in Seibo and Higuey.
+
+Rock salt is found near Neiba in inexhaustible quantities, there being
+several hills of native salt covered with a thin layer of soil. The
+fact that the waters of Lake Enriquillo are saltier than the sea is
+attributed by some to a deposit of this kind. The salt is so pure that
+it does not attract moisture and deliquesce. The isolation of the
+district has been an obstacle to the development of the salt mines,
+but there is a project for the building of a railroad to the port of
+Barahona. Part of the salt used in the island comes from salt ponds
+near Azua, where salt is obtained from sea water by solar evaporation.
+
+On a hill at the confluence of the Jimenoa and the Yaque del Norte an
+alum deposit reaches the surface and the natives gather alum which
+they sell in Santiago City. A deposit of amber having been reported in
+the Cibao a company was formed several years ago for its development,
+but as the company did nothing, so far as known, except issue stock,
+and no part of the untold millions which were affirmed to be within
+easy reach has materialized, the deposit is not regarded as possessing
+commercial value.
+
+For building purposes there is a large variety of limestone and lime.
+The coral rock is easy to quarry and soft enough to shape with the
+axe, but exposure to the air makes it hard as granite, as is proven by
+the old buildings and city walls of Santo Domingo City, which have
+stood for centuries. In the central range, on the Samana peninsula and
+near Puerto Plata, granite, syenite and other building stones are
+found, but owing to the absence of transportation facilities they are
+not utilized. In the Bani region a sandstone occurs from which
+grindstones are made. Clay of a fine grade, proper for the manufacture
+of bricks and tiles, is abundant. Clays of various colors, found in
+the interior of the island, are suitable for the manufacture of
+paints. Gypsum is found, especially in Azua province, and the presence
+of kaolin and feldspar in the province of Santo Domingo, south of the
+central range, offers a possibility of porcelain manufacture.
+
+Petroleum has been found in large quantities in the vicinity of Azua.
+The presence of the oil is suspected in other parts of the island and
+it is claimed that a petroleum belt which is believed to extend from
+Pennsylvania to Venezuela embraces a considerable portion of the
+Dominican Republic. Near Puerto Plata, during rains, one of the
+streams flowing down from the mountains in the Mameyes section, is
+covered with greasy spots thought to be petroleum that has oozed from
+the subsoil. Traces of petroleum have also been discovered near Neiba,
+and in the provinces of Pacificador and Seibo.
+
+Borings have been made only in the neighborhood of Azua. A pool known
+as "agua hedionda," "stinking water," had long suggested petroleum,
+and an American company known as the West Indies Petroleum Mining and
+Export Company undertook the development of the field. Oil was struck
+on November 14, 1904, the well spouting oil to a height of seventy
+feet and producing about 500 barrels per day. The grade of the oil was
+22 Baume gravity with an asphaltum base. It was better than the
+average of Texas oil and was considered a good fuel and lubricating
+product. The main difficulty in this field was the presence of salt
+water above the oil (as is often the case in oil regions), which here
+came in rapidly at a depth of about 900 to 1000 feet. It was necessary
+to put a gate valve on the first well, keeping it enclosed for a
+period of six months, in order to prevent the damaging of the
+surrounding property from the flow of oil, as there were no storage
+tanks. During this time the continued agitation of the casing by the
+gas pressure and the looseness of the upper soils and shales let in
+the salt water and ruined the well, and, it is to be feared, to some
+extent affected the surrounding territory. The company sunk four wells
+more, all but one of which produced some oil, but as the salt water
+entered in such large quantities they were unable to penetrate below
+the 1200 feet level and were forced to abandon the wells at just about
+the depth where they expected to reach the real oil sand. The fifth
+well showed greater evidence of a genuine oil field than any drilled
+previously but for the same reason it could not be carried to the
+desired depth. At this point dissensions arose in the management of
+the company with regard to the method of drilling, the suggestion
+being made that a combination drilling machinery comprising what is
+known as the rotary process be adopted in combination with the old
+cable rig style. No agreement was reached, and operations were
+discontinued. Since the beginning of 1917 other interests have made
+investigations and it is rumored that development work will shortly
+begin. There are indications that if drilled with the proper
+appliances the field will yield excellent results. How far the Azua
+oil field extends is a matter of conjecture, but it has been estimated
+to cover an area of over 190 square miles.
+
+Thermal springs are also found near Azua. At Resoli, about 21 miles
+southwest of Azua City, there are hot sulphur springs of very copious
+flow. Nearby there is one of tepid water, slightly acid and stinging,
+though pleasant to the taste, and with no trace of sulphur. Within a
+radius of a hundred yards there are about a dozen springs of different
+temperatures and medicinal properties, and the place is admirably
+adapted for the location of a health resort. Mineral springs,
+especially sulphur springs, abound along the western frontier of the
+Republic. On the Viajama River, where a sulphur mine is reported,
+there are cold sulphur springs which are said to have gushed forth for
+the first time during the earthquake of 1751. To the east of Santiago
+are the Anibaje springs which contain sulphur and iron. Hot and cold
+sulphur springs are found in the outskirts of San Jose de las Matas,
+southwest of Santiago, and hot springs at Banica, and to the east and
+west of Lake Enriquillo.
+
+While there are no volcanoes on the island, severe seismic
+disturbances have at times occasioned great havoc and loss of life.
+One of the first and most memorable was that of 1564 which overthrew
+the cities of La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros. La Vega was at
+that time a good sized town with substantial brick houses, and the
+masses of masonry strewn about in the thicket which now covers the
+site of the old city give evidence of the force of the earthquake. In
+1654 and 1673 dwellings and churches in Santo Domingo City were
+damaged by lesser shocks, and in 1751 an earthquake wrecked edifices
+in the capital, and completely destroyed the old city of Azua and the
+town of Seibo. The most recent and perhaps the most disastrous
+earthquake was that of 1842 when a violent commotion in the northern
+part of the island demolished the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros
+on the Dominican side and Cape Haitien on the Haitian side, bringing
+death to hundreds of their inhabitants. Since that date there have
+been no severe shocks, though, as is the case in other West India
+Islands, slight tremblings of the earth are not infrequent. I have
+experienced several of such tremblings in Santo Domingo and have never
+been able to ward off a kind of creepy feeling when the rattling of
+windows and doors indicated their approach and passage. Near the ruins
+of ancient La Vega the natives point out a spot in the woods which
+they call "tembladera" and where they say the earth quakes at the
+approach of man. Investigation discloses that while the earth really
+does tremble when anyone walks at this place the cause is not so
+deep-seated as many imagine, the phenomenon being caused by the fact
+that the rich loamy soil is sustained by the interlaced roots of
+trees, the foundation having been washed away by subterranean waters,
+and the grassy floor is swayed by every motion upon it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+Agricultural conditions.--Land titles and measures.--Wet and arid
+regions.--Exports.--Sugar.--Cacao.--Tobacco.--Coffee.--Tropical
+fruits.--Forest products.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Fishery.--Birds.
+--Cattle raising.
+
+
+Of all the islands visited by Columbus none impressed him so favorably
+as Santo Domingo. His enthusiasm is reflected in the glowing
+description given in his letter to his friend and patron, Luis de
+Santangel, dated February 15, 1493, of which the following forms part:
+
+"In it (la Espanola) there are many havens on the sea, coast,
+incomparable with any others I know in Christendom--and plenty of
+rivers, so good and great that it is a marvel. The lands there are
+high, and in it there are very many ranges of hills and most lofty
+mountains, incomparably beyond the Island of Cetrefrey (Teneriffe);
+all most beautiful in a thousand shapes and all accessible, and full
+of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the
+sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage, as may be
+imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in
+Spain in May, and some of them were in flower, some in fruit, some in
+another stage, according to their kind. And the nightingale was
+singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of
+November, round about the way I was going. There are palm trees of six
+or eight species, wondrous to see for their beautiful variety; but so
+are the other trees and fruits and plants therein. There are wonderful
+pine groves and very large plains of verdure, and there is honey and
+many kinds of birds and great diversity of fruits. There are many
+mines of metals in the earth, and the population is of inestimable
+number. Espanola is a marvel; the mountains and hills, and plains, and
+fields, and the soil so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing,
+for breeding cattle of all sorts, for building towns and villages.
+There could be no believing, without seeing, such harbors as are here,
+as well as the many and great rivers and excellent waters, most of
+which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants there is great
+diversity from those of Juana (Cuba). In this island there are many
+species and great mines of gold and other metals."
+
+Columbus' panegyric on the beauty, fertility and resources of the
+Island has been echoed by every writer and traveler who has since
+visited the country. The United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo
+Domingo reported in 1871: "The resources of the country are vast and
+various, and its products may be increased with scarcely any other
+limit than the labor expended upon them.... Taken as a whole, this
+Republic is one of the most fertile regions on the face of the earth.
+The evidence of men well acquainted with the other West India Islands
+declares this to be naturally the richest of them all." Yet the
+country's wonderful resources are to-day in almost virgin condition;
+in the greater part of the Republic's extent they remain absolutely
+untouched; in the remainder the beginning of development has scarcely
+been made.
+
+In the first days of the colony it appeared that agricultural
+prosperity would quickly be attained. Great plantations were set out
+and the remains of palaces and convents in Santo Domingo City testify
+to the wealth they produced. But the prosperity was founded on the
+basis of slavery. The laughing aborigines soon succumbed under forced
+labor, the importation of negroes was found expensive, and hopes of
+better fortune attracted the colonists to the American continent.
+While the country languished under restrictive trade regulations,
+stock raising became almost the sole pursuit of the Spanish section of
+the island. In the meantime the French settled the western coast, and
+the name of their colony, also founded on slavery, became a synonym
+for wealth and luxury. The development of the Spanish section had
+scarcely begun at the end of the eighteenth century when it was
+blocked by wars, the Haitian occupation, and later by the civil
+disturbances. The native had no incentive to accumulate property,
+which would only attract revolutionists, and the foreigner was chary
+of investing his money in so turbulent a community. What progress has
+been made is due to the short periods of peace, principally the period
+of Heureaux's ascendancy, from 1880 to 1899, and the periods from 1905
+to date. The rapid and gratifying strides made since the
+Dominican-American fiscal treaty increased the probabilities of peace
+are an indication of what the country may and will in time attain. As
+an English-speaking resident put it, paraphrasing a familiar saying in
+the United States, "If the people will only raise more cacao and less
+Hades, the country will soon be a paradise." At the present time the
+most serious obstacle to rural development is the lack of adequate
+means of communication--roads and railroads. It is evident that the
+interior cannot be developed so long as the cost of transportation is
+prohibitive or the roads are impassable during a great part of
+the year.
+
+The condition of land titles leaves much to be desired. All titles are
+supposed to be derived from original grants by the crown or the
+government of the Republic. As there is no record extant of such
+grants and as much land has been acquired by adverse possession, the
+amount of land remaining to the state cannot even be the subject of an
+intelligent guess. The greater part of such land passed to the
+Republic as successor to the Spanish crown, another portion was added
+in 1844 by the confiscation of property belonging to Haitians, but no
+attempt has ever been made to survey or even to list state lands.
+According to some estimates the state owns as much as one or even
+two-fifths the area of the Republic, but it is probable that these
+estimates are exaggerated and almost the only tracts remaining to the
+government are situated in the inaccessible mountain region of the
+interior and along the Haitian border. The income of the Republic is
+still insufficient to leave money for the investigation of public
+lands, and every year's delay will permit more of such lands to be
+absorbed by private persons.
+
+A large portion of the rural land is held in common. Tracts originally
+belonging to one owner descended undivided among his heirs for
+generations, individual heirs sometimes sold their shares, and the
+result is that often the tract belongs in common to many persons, some
+of them holding very small shares. The shares of the co-owners are
+known as "pesos de posesion," "dollars of possession," corresponding
+to the value given them at some remote period. The owner of any
+undivided portion of such "comunero" property, though he hold only one
+or two shares or "pesos de posesion," may enter upon and cultivate any
+part of the land he finds unoccupied by other co-owners, and use
+anything growing or existing thereon, except certain timber or unless
+it be the result of the labor of other co-owners. That this peculiar
+mode of enjoying the comunero property has not resulted in friction
+and conflicts may be ascribed to the smallness of the cultivated
+fields, the small population and the enormous expanse of vacant land.
+For the prospective purchaser the doubts surrounding the title to
+comunero lands are enhanced by the existence of fraudulent "peso"
+titles and by the destruction of public offices where title transfers
+should have been recorded. In recent years much division of comunero
+land among the co-owners has been going on and such action is
+facilitated by a law of 1911, but the importance of the matter merits
+additional laws to cheapen and hasten the division.
+
+All the planting of small crops by the poorer countryman is done in
+what are called "conucos," cleared spaces fenced by sticks laid
+tightly against each other in order to keep out the wild pigs which
+infest the country. The construction of the fences is a laborious
+task, yet after one or two years they require extensive repairs, and
+when the repairs are such as to amount to a practical rebuilding, the
+"conuco" is commonly abandoned, and a new one located elsewhere. This
+method is wasteful of fence-material and land. The planting is done in
+the most primitive way, commonly by making a hole in the ground with a
+machete or by using a forked stick as a plow. There are few hoes, and
+among the natives no modern steel plows.
+
+A "conuco" is usually about one acre in extent, or to be precise
+twenty-five varas conuqueras square. Though the metric system is the
+official system of measurement and is gradually coming into use, many
+of the older standards still prevail. A common measure of length is
+the Castilian vara, about equivalent to an English yard; the vara
+conuquera, about two and a half yards; the tarea, used for measuring
+fences, twenty-five varas conuqueras in length, and the league,
+something over three miles. The common units of surface measurement
+are the tarea, of about one-sixth acre, and the caballeria of 1200
+tareas or about 200 acres.
+
+Generally speaking, a line drawn from Cape Isabela on the north coast,
+through Santiago, to the mouth of the Nizao River in the south,
+divides the country into two regions of which the eastern one has
+abundant rainfall and luxuriant tropical vegetation, while in the
+western one there is little rain, and cactus plants and thorny bushes
+betoken the aridity of the soil. The two ends of the Cibao Valley seem
+like different countries, the eastern end covered with palm-trees,
+ferns and other flora of the torrid zone, and the western portion dry
+and dotted with giant cacti of fantastic shape. In the country near
+Azua and Monte Cristi I have imagined myself on the plains of New
+Mexico, with their scorching heat, their cactus, mesquite bushes and
+distant violet mountains fading into the azure sky. While arid, these
+western regions of Santo Domingo are as fertile as the rest of the
+country and when irrigated give remarkable crops. One of the Dominican
+government's projects is an extensive irrigation scheme for the Monte
+Cristi district. The most productive portion of the Republic is
+undoubtedly the Royal Plain in the Cibao Valley, which is of almost
+incredible fertility. It is covered with a rich black loam from three
+to fifteen feet deep, as can be seen wherever brooks have cut ravines
+into the earth, and is referred to as the Mississippi Valley of the
+Dominican Republic.
+
+The greater or less elevation of the land has likewise produced
+different agricultural zones: the lower plains of the southern coast
+are favored for sugar planting; the slightly higher lands are given
+over to cacao and coffee, and the highest part of the country, the
+mountain region, is covered with timber. Broad savannas are a feature
+of the southern portion of the Republic; on the plains to the east of
+Santo Domingo City, all the way to the ocean, there are great seas of
+grass, like the prairies of the United States, with large islands of
+trees, while to the west they constitute lakes in a continent
+of forest.
+
+All tropical fruits grow in profusion and many vegetables, fruits and
+cereals indigenous to countries of the temperate zone are successfully
+grown. Practically all the vegetables and fruits, as well as the
+grains and staples of the Middle States of the American Union may be
+produced, especially in the higher portion of the island. The fact
+that raspberries and delicious grapes grow wild in the highland
+indicates the possibilities of fruit culture. With a view to
+encouraging agriculture the various provinces for years had "boards of
+development" paid from national funds, but the positions on these
+boards were regarded as political plums, and while the members drew
+their salaries, no other result of their activities was apparent. The
+government has also made spasmodic attempts to establish an
+agricultural experiment station, but with its limited resources
+nothing tangible has been accomplished. The establishment and
+extension of large sugar estates was stimulated by a law of
+agricultural franchises, enacted in 1911, granting excessively broad
+privileges and exemptions to sugar, cacao and coffee plantations which
+registered under that law.
+
+The table on the opposite page shows the quantity and value of the
+principal exports of the Dominican Republic since 1913 and is the best
+illustration of the fact that agriculture is the mainstay of
+the country.
+
+
+          EXPORTS OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+                       1913         1914         1915         1916
+Sugar (raw) kilos[1] 78,849,465  101,428,847  102,800,551 122,642,514
+             value   $3,650,556   $4,943,452   $7,676,383 $12,028,297
+Cacao        kilos   19,470,827   20,744,517   20,223,023  21,053,305
+             value   $4,119,955   $3,896,489   $4,863,754  $5,958,669
+Tobacco leaf kilos    9,790,398    3,705,549    6,235,409   7,925,151
+             value   $1,121,775     $394,224     $972,896  $1,433,323
+Coffee       kilos    1,048,922    1,831,938    2,468,435   1,731,718
+             value     $257,076     $345,579     $458,431    $316,827
+Hides and    kilos      541,154      685,042      638,020     616,446
+   skins     value     $241,072     $253,832     $270,356    $334,665
+Sugar cane   value       --        $62,585     $195,782    $295,622
+Bananas      bunches    592,804      114,142      327,169     348,560
+             value     $296,368      $57,044     $166,432    $172,615
+Beeswax and
+   honey     value     $206,749     $207,290     $144,579    $176,144
+Molasses     kilos   12,064,038   17,962,441   15,484,205  18,752,440
+             value      $60,737      $93,787     $100,023    $120,738
+Forest       value     $167,037      $66,464      $64,368     $57,250
+  products
+Cotton       kilos      242,221      167,123     141,623       91,258
+             value      $85,398      $67,830     $60,600      $31,759
+All other    value     $263,224     $200,211    $240,457     $601,964
+  exports
+                     ------------------------------------------------
+Total       value   $10,469,947  $10,588,787  $15,209,061 $21,527,873
+
+[Footnote 1: 1 kilo = 2.2 pounds]
+
+Sugar, the leading export, is the principal product of the southern
+portion of the Republic. In contrast with the cultivation of cacao,
+coffee and tobacco, sugar planting requires a large outlay of capital.
+The fields must be carefully prepared, extensive ditching must be done
+in order to provide irrigation during the dry season; the fields must
+be cleaned repeatedly while the cane is growing; and when the cane
+eventually matures, after fourteen to eighteen months of growth,
+it must upon cutting be immediately transported to the mill,
+where expensive machinery grinds it and fabricates sugar from
+the cane juice. The large sugar plantations of the country
+are all owned by foreigners, principally Americans and Italians,
+but dependent upon them are many small plots, planted under
+contract with the central factory by small native owners or
+contractors. Before the establishment of the first of these
+plantations near Macoris in the early eighties, the apparatus for
+making sugar was as crude as that employed by the first colonists,
+consisting of small presses turned by oxen, and large caldrons to boil
+the cane. The other West India Islands are dotted with the ruins of
+old sugar mills erected in the beginning and middle of the last
+century, but those days were not favorable to investment in Santo
+Domingo and such buildings and ruins are absolutely wanting in
+this island.
+
+Most of the large plantations are located in the vicinity of San Pedro
+de Macoris, and to them the city owes its rapid development. These
+represent a value of millions of dollars, are equipped with plantation
+railroads and modern mills and extend over thousands of acres of the
+plains behind the city. The great Consuelo estate, the Santa Fe
+plantation, the Porvenir and the Puerto Rico estates are owned by
+American capital, and two others, the Quisqueya and Cristobal Colon
+plantations are owned by Americans and Cubans. The Angelina estate is
+an Italian investment, but its owners hold it in the name of the
+General Industrial Company, a corporation organized by them under the
+laws of New Jersey, apparently with a view to claiming American
+protection in case of disturbances. The principal owners of this
+estate as well as of other Italian sugar estates on the south coast
+are heirs of J.B. Vicini, who was a wealthy Italian merchant of Santo
+Domingo City.
+
+One of the largest sugar estates of the Republic is the Central
+Romana, which controls some 40,000 acres near the port of La Romana,
+and is owned by the South Porto Rico Sugar Company. Since the first
+crop in 1911 the cane has been shipped to the mill at Guanica, Porto
+Rico, for grinding, but a huge fifteen-roller mill, which will be the
+largest on the island, is now in course of erection at La Romana.
+
+Two plantations near Santo Domingo City, San Isidro and La Fe, belong
+to Americans. The Italia sugar estate at Yaguate, near the Nizao
+River, the Ocoa estate and the Central Azuano, on the outskirts of
+Azua all belong to the Vicini heirs. At Azua there is another
+plantation, the Ansonia estate, which is the property of Americans.
+The plantations at Azua and Ocoa are watered by irrigation, those of
+Azua deriving their water from artesian wells. American capital is
+also establishing sugar plantations near Barahona. On the north coast
+there are only two small sugar plantations near Puerto Plata, in which
+German and Spanish capital is interested, but another is being
+established at Sosua.
+
+So rich are the Dominican lands that cane will grow from the same root
+for ten and even twenty years, while in Porto Rico and the lesser
+Antilles long cultivation has exhausted the soil and replanting is
+necessary every three years. Near Macoris the planters have had so
+much land available that instead of replanting they have often
+abandoned their old fields and taken up virgin lands instead. The
+busiest time in Macoris is the crop season from November to May. Many
+laborers are then required, and as native labor is not abundant, large
+numbers of negroes come from the British West Indies to work on the
+plantations, returning to their homes when the cane has been cut.
+
+Most of the Dominican sugar goes to the United States and a large
+portion is eventually sold in Canada and England. When the amount of
+sugar produced in little Porto Rico is compared with that grown in
+Santo Domingo, it is evident that the Dominican production might
+easily be increased to twenty times its present figure.
+
+While sugar attracts the foreigner, the Dominican's favorite staple
+has been cacao. The cacao or chocolate tree grows in a number of the
+West India Islands, but in none of them is it cultivated to such an
+extent as in Santo Domingo. Cacao is peculiarly fitted to be a "poor
+man's crop," as little land and labor are required and, while the
+trees are growing, corn, bananas and other crops can be raised on the
+same field. Most of the cacao is raised on small plantations,
+producing from fifty to one hundred barrels, a barrel being worth
+about eight dollars. For the preparation and planting of the field of
+a poor man the whole family turns out and neighbors often come to
+help, regular planting bees being organized. The larger landowner
+makes contracts for the preparation of his lands, paying at the rate
+of $2 or $2.50 a tarea.
+
+The best months for planting cacao are the wet months, which in the
+Cibao are May and October. Small holes are dug in the earth about
+three yards apart and three beans placed in each. When the sprouts
+grow into young trees, two of the three should be cut off, and the
+best developed allowed to remain; but the countrymen generally permit
+all three to grow, with resulting dwarfed trees and poor crops. To
+protect the small plants from the hot sun a yuca or cassava plant is
+set out next to each one. While the trees are growing, corn is planted
+between the rows and three or even four crops are obtained in each
+year. After two years the cacao trees begin to bloom, after three
+years they begin to give fruit, and their production gradually
+increases until their eighth year when they reach mature growth. Each
+tree furnishes about two pounds of cacao per year. On the larger
+plantations less attention is paid to ancillary crops and the cacao
+plants are raised in seedbeds, the seedlings being transplanted to the
+field after six months or a year. When the pods containing the cacao
+beans are ripe the beans are extracted, soaked in water and then dried
+in the sun. During the crop season cacao beans are spread on mats
+before every native hut and in the streets of every town and village
+in the Cibao, and the sourish smell of the drying bean pervades
+the air.
+
+The principal cacao region is the Cibao and the upper Seibo plain, and
+the largest plantation, belonging to the well-known Swiss chocolate
+manufacturer, Suchard, is situated near Sabana la Mar, on the south
+side of Samana Bay. The cacao here produced is not of the finest
+grade, such as that grown in Ecuador, but goes to make the cheaper
+grades of chocolate.
+
+The ease with which cacao is planted and the profits to be derived
+from it often cause the small farmers to neglect everything else for
+cacao and purchase articles of food which they could themselves raise.
+The consequence is that when the cacao crop fails, there is widespread
+want and discontent.
+
+Cacao has been exported since 1888, before which time it was grown for
+local consumption only. For years it led the country's exports, until
+sugar took first place in 1914. The greater portion of the cacao crop
+is exported through the port of Sanchez, on Samana Bay. Formerly
+almost the whole crop went to Europe, Havre being the chief market,
+but of late years the United States has become one of the
+principal buyers.
+
+The cultivation of tobacco is confined to the Cibao region, where it
+was grown by the Indians when the Spaniards landed. It is a crop
+yielding rapid returns, but cacao has paid so much better that the
+progress of tobacco culture has been slow. The effort of the
+countrymen to produce quantity rather than quality has prevented the
+development of the finer grades and the price paid for Dominican
+tobacco is low. While the tobacco grown is of inferior quality, there
+is no reason why it should not be susceptible of improvement as the
+climatic and soil conditions of the interior valleys are very similar
+to those of the tobacco regions of Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+Tobacco is grown mostly by small planters and sold to the large
+commercial houses of Santiago and Puerto Plata. Practically the entire
+crop is exported through Puerto Plata. Before the European war the
+great market for Dominican tobacco was Hamburg. Up to 1907 tobacco was
+exported only in leaf, but since then a small cigarette industry has
+developed.
+
+Coffee is another native crop the development of which has been
+checked by the popularity of cacao. It is also a crop which can be
+grown with profit on small tracts of land. The coffee bushes flourish
+in the mountains and are grown under the shade of larger trees. A
+clearing having been made in the forest, the small coffee trees are
+planted in rows or irregularly and near each a banana or plantain
+tree. The latter reach full height within six months and afford shade
+until guava and other shade trees planted on the field have attained
+sufficient size. A wait of five years is necessary before the coffee
+bushes begin to bear, but after that they continue indefinitely every
+year, the only labor required being that of keeping the plantation
+clear of brush and picking the berries when they are ripe. The trees
+grow to a height of six or eight feet; they bloom with a fragrant,
+white, star-like flower which on withering leaves the green embryo of
+the berry. When the berry has reached the size of a hazel-nut it turns
+red and is picked, much of the picking being done by women.  The
+berries are poured into a simple machine which extracts the two coffee
+beans encased in each berry. The beans are dried in the sun, on the
+largest plantations in drying machines. They are then transported to
+the merchants in town, where they are polished in another machine,
+assorted and bagged for export. The town of Moca owes its name to the
+fact that the principal coffee plantations lie in its vicinity. Other
+important coffee districts are Santiago and Bani. About two-thirds of
+the coffee of the Republic is exported from Puerto Plata.
+
+The coffee of Santo Domingo is of excellent quality. In normal times
+the greater portion was exported to France and Germany, but most of it
+now goes to the United States.
+
+With one exception the limitless resources of Santo Domingo with
+reference to fruit culture have remained untouched. The single
+exception was the United Fruit Company's banana plantation at Sosua,
+about ten miles east of Puerto Plata, and even this estate is at
+present, in consequence of the greater attractiveness of sugar, being
+converted into a sugar plantation. Otherwise there has been no attempt
+to raise fruit for export, though the sweet and bitter orange, the
+lemon, the lime, the grapefruit and the paradoxical sweet lemon, grow
+wild. Pineapples are raised only for the small home consumption. An
+obstacle to the cultivation of such fruits at the present time would
+be the absence of rapid fruit steamers to the United States. The
+fruits peculiar to the torrid zone all grow in profusion and among
+them the native is fondest of the juicy mango, the guava, the aguacate
+or alligator pear, the anon or custard apple, the guanabana or
+soursop, the mamon or sweetsop, the mamey or marmalade fruit, the
+nispero or sapodilla and the tamarind. From the large palm-groves
+about Samana Bay cocoanuts and a little copra are exported,
+principally to the United States.
+
+Small attempts have been made to cultivate other products to which the
+country is adapted. Growers of cotton and hemp are encouraged by
+results, but a rice plantation established in the swamp-lands near the
+head of Samana Bay proved a failure rather on account of errors of
+management than for other reasons.
+
+In the forests which cover her mountains Santo Domingo has hardwoods,
+dyewoods and building timber of inestimable value. Only a generation
+ago mahogany trees grew all the way to the water's edge, but years of
+wasteful cutting have exhausted the nearer supplies and the more
+valuable woods must now be sought in the interior. In the mountains
+and on the high plateaus of the interior there are hundreds of square
+miles of Spanish cedar and longleaf pine. The principal woods exported
+are mahogany, guayacan, known to commerce as lignum vitae (one of the
+hardest woods and so heavy that when in loading the steamer a log
+drops into the sea it sinks to the bottom like iron), bera or bastard
+lignum vitae, espinillo or yellowwood, campeche or logwood (a famous
+dyeing material), sparwood and cedar. Other forest products exported
+are dividivi, a tanning bark, and resins. Most of these exports go to
+the United States and England. For the preparation of lumber for local
+needs there are sawmills in La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros.
+
+With regard to indigenous fauna Santo Domingo occupies a position
+midway between the diverse and abundant fauna of Cuba and the more
+limited species of the Leeward Islands. Insects abound and in all the
+coast towns it is necessary to sleep under a mosquito bar. Wild bees
+are found in many parts of the country and apiculture has met with
+much success.  Of poisonous insects there are few. Those sometimes
+met with are the species of tarantula known as the hairy spider, the
+spider known as guava, and the blue spider, also the scorpion and the
+centipede. Their sting produces intense pain, inflammation and fever.
+They are found in crevices, under stones, in caves, and in rotten
+wood. The last two are often seen in old houses, but daily use of the
+broom and duster will make them appear but rarely. Some of these
+animals grow to a large size. On a ride on the Haitian border my horse
+shied at a tarantula in the trail, and in calling my Dominican
+companion's attention to it, I remarked that it was as large as a
+saucer. "That is nothing," he replied, "there are many around here as
+large as a soup plate."
+
+There are few classes of reptiles. Santo Domingo is a paradise where
+serpents are at a discount, for they are few in number and although
+occasionally some are found of considerable size, they are all
+harmless. Lizards are plentiful in the forests, the largest class
+being known as iguana, which is eaten by some of the country people,
+as it was in former days by the Indians. The lizards are all
+inoffensive. A species of alligator is found in the lower waters of
+the Yaque del Norte and of the Yaque del Sur, and in the salt lakes on
+the Haitian border. Tortoises occur in such numbers that their shell
+forms an article of commerce.
+
+Crustaceans and testaceans are abundant in number though few in
+species. A tiny oyster is found, not much larger than a thumb-nail,
+but very succulent. The marine fauna is the same as that of the
+neighboring Antilles, the sea and rivers teeming with edible fish, to
+which, however, but little attention is paid. Sharks infest the coasts
+and render bathing unsafe except behind protecting reefs.
+Occasionally, too, a manati, or sea-cow, is seen. This strange mammal
+has breasts which resemble those of a human being and emits cries
+that sound almost human. It was probably a party of manati gamboling
+about in the water which induced Columbus gravely to enter in his
+logbook that he had sighted mermaids near Monte Cristi.
+
+Of birds there are over one hundred and fifty species, about
+ninety-five of which are residents and among these several peculiar to
+this island. The forests resound with the cries of parrots and other
+birds of beautiful plumage; from any point on the coast pelicans and
+other ichthyophagous birds can be observed darting into the waters
+after their prey; the lakes and rivers are the home of thousands of
+wild ducks; myriads of wild pigeons breed in the woods; and the number
+of insectivorous birds, including the sweet-singing nightingale,
+jilguero and turpial, the swallow and the small pitirre and colibri,
+is infinite. The caves are inhabited by swarms of bats, the guano of
+which, mingled with the calcareous detritus of the rocky walls, is
+found in great deposits and constitutes a good fertilizer.
+
+At the time of the discovery the Spaniards found very few kinds of
+quadruped mammals. One was the agouti, looking like a large rat and
+inhabiting the forests; another the coati, similar to the squirrel and
+easily domesticated. Three other classes are mentioned, the quemi,
+mohui and perro mudo (dumb dog), but are not now to be found and as
+the description of two of them almost tallies with that of the others
+above mentioned, it is possible that different names were applied to
+the same animals. It is possible, too, that reference was made to the
+solenodon or almiqui, an animal long thought to be extinct but of
+which several specimens have recently been found in Santo Domingo.
+This animal is about two feet, long and resembles a rat, but having a
+long prehensile snout and the habits of an ant-eater, it is considered
+to be a remnant of the early zooelogical type from which diverged both
+the rodents and the insectivorous animals of the present.
+
+The Spaniards introduced the European domestic animals, which
+immediately began to flourish. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
+century the principal and for a long time almost the only industry of
+the Spanish portion of the island was cattle-raising. Some of the
+cattle and pigs escaped to the woods and reverted to the wild state,
+and towards the middle and end of the seventeenth century great herds
+of wild cattle roamed over the island. Such herds no longer exist, but
+wild pigs have found their way to the most remote recesses of the
+mountains and are the plague of the fields. The equine species, sprung
+from the Andalusian horses brought by the Spaniards, has degenerated
+considerably and the best horses in the Republic today are of Porto
+Rican stock, but attention is at last being given to breeding. The
+largest herds of cattle roam about in the unfenced arid regions of the
+northwest. Hides are exported in large quantities, but there is little
+dairying. Of late years attention is being directed to improving the
+stock and several stock farms have been established near San Pedro
+de Macoris.
+
+Sheep raising is followed to some extent in the arid regions of the
+southwest and northwest, but the wool is of coarse grade. An important
+industry in these regions, especially in the neighborhood of Azua, is
+goat-raising. My inquiry as to the population of Azua was answered by
+the purser of the Clyde line steamer: "About three thousand people and
+about three million goats." Though his estimate of the number of goats
+may have been somewhat exaggerated, the fact is that they are
+everywhere in evidence and charge through the streets in droves, and
+at the great Azua church I found a goat in the vestibule looking
+reverently in. Over nine-tenths of the goatskins exported from the
+Republic go to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+THE PEOPLE
+
+Population.--Distribution.--Race.--Descendants of American
+negroes.--Language.--Physical traits.--Mental traits.--Amusements.
+--Dances, theaters, clubs, carnivals.--Gaming.--Morality.--Homes.
+
+
+The estimates of the early Spanish writers as to the Indian population
+of Hispaniola at the time of its first settlement in 1493 range all
+the way from one million to three million inhabitants. While it is
+probable that the former number was nearer to the truth, it is evident
+that the island was well inhabited, for Columbus found every valley
+swarming with natives. The severe labor imposed by the Spaniards made
+such frightful inroads on the native population that within a decade
+labor for the plantations and mines began to grow scarce and forty
+thousand inhabitants of the Bahama Islands were imported to increase
+the supply. They were lured on board the Spanish transports by the
+promise that they were to be conveyed to the beautiful home of their
+departed ancestors and though they did indeed quickly join their
+deceased relatives, it was not until after a taste of purgatory in the
+mines of Santo Domingo. In 1507 the entire Indian population was
+estimated at only 70,000, in 1508 it had fallen to 40,000, and in 1514
+to 14,000. Six years later the remnant of the aborigines united in the
+mountains to resist the Spaniards to the end, but in 1533 a treaty was
+concluded by which the Indians were assigned certain lands near Boya,
+thirty miles northeast of Santo Domingo City. According to some
+authorities 4000 and according to others only 600 natives remained to
+take advantage of this provision. Thereafter all mention of the
+Indians disappears from Dominican annals. Types recalling Indian
+characteristics are sometimes seen, however, and it is probable that
+some Indian blood is still represented in the country.
+
+Father Las Casas, the friend of the Indians, is credited with the
+suggestion that in place of the frail natives negroes be imported for
+labor in the mines and on the plantations. The earliest importations
+seem to have taken place in the opening years of the sixteenth
+century, for as early as 1505 King Ferdinand authorized the shipment
+of more negroes in lots of 100. Later, licenses were issued for the
+importation of negro slaves by the thousands and many more were
+probably smuggled in. The Spanish population also grew rapidly until
+about 1530 when the colony reached the zenith of its wealth and
+prosperity. Twelve years later, when the decline had become marked, it
+was estimated that besides a substantial white population there were
+30,000 negro slaves on the island. The superior attractions of other
+newly discovered countries and the fear of piratical invasions had by
+1591 decreased the total population of the colony to 15,000. This
+number remained almost stationary until about 1663 when it began to
+dwindle further until the low water mark was reached, about 1737, and
+the entire population of the Spanish portion of the island was
+estimated at but 6,000. Timely tariff concessions revived trade and
+encouraged immigration and new importations of slaves the number of
+inhabitants increased rapidly and in 1785 was reckoned at 150,000,
+including 30,000 slaves and a considerable proportion of free colored
+persons.  A decade later saw the beginning of the negro insurrection
+in the French section of Santo Domingo; the horrors attending this
+war, the invasion of the Spanish colony by the Haitians, the menace of
+further invasions, the frequent changes of sovereignty, and adverse
+economic conditions, produced an exodus in the course of which the
+great majority of the white population abandoned the island, many with
+all their slaves and dependents. A few returned, but in 1809 it was
+calculated that the inhabitants of Spanish Santo Domingo numbered
+104,000 and in 1819 but 63,000, of whom the greater number were
+colored. During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, white emigration
+again took place and white immigration was discouraged, while
+settlements of negroes from Haiti and the United States were made in
+different parts of the country. The increase of the population since
+that time has been subject to little outside influence; there has been
+practically no emigration, and immigration has been insignificant, the
+few new settlers being chiefly negroes from the British colonies,
+Haitians, Porto Ricans, Syrians and European merchants. In 1863 an
+ecclesiastical census, based on the returns of the various parish
+priests, placed the population at 207,700. This number may be
+described as little more than a compilation of guesses and was
+probably exaggerated. A similar ecclesiastical census taken in 1888
+gave a total of 382,312 inhabitants.
+
+These ecclesiastical computations were founded to some extent on
+parish records of baptisms and burials, but this basis became more and
+more precarious as the population increased. Probably the records most
+nearly accurate are the baptismal records of the Church, for almost
+every Dominican is baptized at some time in his life. The death
+records are the least complete on account of the obstacles presented
+during the civil disorders and the distance at which many country
+people live from the place of registry. A law of civil registry,
+requiring the inscription of all births, marriages and deaths has been
+only indifferently carried out and during times of insurrection
+entirely suspended. A government census was begun in 1908 but not
+concluded. Any accurate computation is thus out of the question.
+
+Unofficial estimates of the population to-day range all the way from
+400,000 to 920,000. In 1908 an official estimate based on birth
+statistics, placed it at 605,000. An unofficial estimate in 1917, made
+on the assumption that there are 1000 inhabitants for every 37 births
+reported, calculated the total population at 795,432, thus distributed
+among the several provinces:
+
+Santo Domingo ... 127,976
+Santiago ........ 123,972
+La Vega.......... 105,000
+Pacificador......  90,569
+Seibo............  68,135
+Espaillat........  64,108
+Azua ............  59,783
+Puerto Plata  ...  55,864
+Monte Cristi  ...  41,459
+Macoris..........  28,000
+Barahona ........  17,891
+Samana ..........  12,675
+
+The estimate of 37 births per 1000 inhabitants is probably too large
+as the birth-rate in Jamaica is but 34.6, in the Leeward Islands 33,
+and in the birth-registration area of the United States only 24.9. A
+reduction of ten per cent in the above figures would probably make
+them more nearly correct. That would give a total population of about
+715,000. Accepting the number of inhabitants as 715,000 the
+population per square mile is about 39.6. A comparison with the
+surrounding West Indian countries reveals considerable disproportion.
+The Dominican Republic is not quite one-half the size of Cuba but has
+only one-fourth the number of inhabitants; it is almost double the
+size of the Republic of Haiti but has less than one-half the
+inhabitants; it is five times the size of Porto Rico and has but
+one-half the population; it is one hundred and seven times as large as
+Barbados but has only four times the population. If the Dominican
+Republic were as densely populated as the neighboring Republic of
+Haiti, it would have 3,000,000 inhabitants; if the population were as
+dense as that of Porto Rico, it would be 7,000,000; if the Republic
+were as densely inhabited as Barbados it would have over 21,000,000
+people. Though the climatic and topographical conditions of the
+country would not permit it to become as thickly populated as
+Barbados, there is no reason why it should not support a population
+proportional to that of Porto Rico.
+
+As in the other West India Islands the population is principally
+rural. There are probably not more than a dozen towns in the Republic
+with more than 1500 inhabitants. A government census of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital and largest urban center, taken in November, 1908,
+showed a population of 18,626, and the number is now estimated
+as 21,000.
+
+A census of Santiago de los Caballeros, taken by the municipal
+authorities in 1903, showed an urban population of 10,921, the present
+estimate being 14,000. The estimated population of Puerto Plata is
+about 7000; La Vega and San Pedro de Macoris are believed to have
+about 5000 inhabitants each, but in every other case the urban
+population falls below 3000.  The population of the Dominican
+Republic is not scattered uniformly over the country, but is to be
+found chiefly in a fringe along the shore all the way from Monte
+Cristi to Barahona, and in the Cibao Valley. The most densely
+populated region is that part of the Cibao Valley known as the Royal
+Plain. In the mountainous interior there are vast stretches almost or
+entirely uninhabited; and remote valleys which have not been visited
+since the days of the conquest.
+
+The vicissitudes through which Santo Domingo has passed, the departure
+of so large a proportion of whites in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century and the intermingling of blood before and since that time have
+determined the character of the population. At the present time the
+pure negroes are in a minority, constituting probably less than
+one-fourth the entire population. The great majority of the
+inhabitants are of mixed Spanish and African blood, their color
+ranging from black to white. The lighter shades predominate,
+especially in the Cibao. There is also a sprinkling of pure whites,
+the majority of whom are to be found in the Cibao region or are
+foreigners residing in the larger cities. Many families would pass for
+white anywhere, showing absolutely no trace of colored blood, and it
+is difficult to believe confidential assurances of their intimate
+friends, indicating a different condition. A few families trace their
+ancestry back to the first Spanish colonists. As most of the blacks
+live south of the central mountain range the population of this region
+is a good deal darker than that of the northern part of the island.
+The census of Santo Domingo City in 1908 reported 7016 whites, 6934
+colored persons and 4676 blacks, but apart from the circumstance that
+numerous white foreigners reside in the capital, it is probable that
+many persons were classified as white who would have been considered
+colored in the United States under the stricter rules there
+prevailing.
+
+A comparison with Haiti discloses marked racial differences. In the
+French-speaking republic about ninety per cent of the inhabitants are
+pure blacks, the remainder being mulattoes. The distinction between
+the two countries is due to several circumstances: in Santo Domingo
+the pure blacks have never been in a majority; the whites have never
+all left the country; massacres of mulattoes and whites have never
+taken place; there have never been political parties based on color;
+and the relations between the races have always been cordial. In
+company, side by side, mulattoes, blacks and whites have lived,
+worked, enjoyed themselves and fought their revolutions. There is
+absolutely no color line. A friend of mine from Virginia received
+quite a shock the first time he attended a state ball in Santo Domingo
+and saw an immense negro, as black as coal, a member of Congress,
+dancing with a girl as white as any of the foreign ladies present. He
+rushed to the refreshment room and beckoned to a tall mulatto in a
+dress suit: "I'll have something to cool off, here waiter--" He was
+stopped just in time for he was mistaking the secretary of foreign
+affairs for a waiter; but after this experience he was afraid of
+giving his order to anyone else for fear he might be offending some
+other high official. The blacks are commonly the lower laborers, but
+negroes are to be found in all grades of society and are not
+infrequently represented in the cabinet itself. Of the presidents the
+majority have been of mixed blood, but several, like Luperon and
+Heureaux, were full-blood negroes. It appears that the strong strain
+of white blood in the country has elevated all, mulattoes and negroes.
+The negroes have produced men of high ability: Heureaux, for
+instance, though unscrupulous and cruel, was a man of remarkable
+sagacity and energy.
+
+It must not be supposed for a moment that the Dominicans are inimical
+to whites or, like their neighbors, the Haitians, prefer to see their
+country peopled by negroes only. On the contrary they are anxious to
+be considered as belonging to the white race and are not pleased by
+reference to their mixed blood. For this reason the former policy of
+the United States of sending colored men as ministers and consuls to
+Santo Domingo was resented by the Dominicans who saw therein an
+evidence of contempt. I have often heard Dominican statesmen express
+an eager desire for immigration, but only white immigration. This
+sentiment is reflected in immigration laws and in several concessions
+granted in late years in which the concessionnaire was prohibited from
+importing laborers of African or Asiatic descent. The Congress has
+even made appropriations for the introduction of white families and
+their settlement along the Haitian frontier, but the isolation of this
+region and other circumstances made such laws impracticable of
+execution.
+
+During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, a different policy prevailed.
+President Boyer was desirous of seeing every part of the island
+populated by blacks and accordingly settled Haitian negroes in various
+parts of Santo Domingo and encouraged negro immigration from the
+United States by premiums to ship captains bringing such immigrants.
+The American negroes were distributed in Haiti and in Santo Domingo,
+particularly near Puerto Plata and in the Samana peninsula. The Puerto
+Plata settlers have mingled with the rest of the population, but
+around the town of Samana, where the largest settlement, consisting of
+some sixty families, was made, the descendants of the American
+immigrants still form a distinct class. Large portions of the
+peninsula are taken up by their well kept farms, and one of the
+sections or districts into which the commune of Samana is divided, is
+officially named "Seccion de los Americanos." The people still
+preserve the English language and proudly proclaim that they are "of
+American abstraction."
+
+They have kept considerably aloof and only in recent years have there
+been marriages between them and their Spanish-speaking neighbors.
+Their exclusiveness has more than once been criticised by Dominicans.
+Of the original settlers all have passed away, their surviving
+children are advanced in age and the third generation is in its prime.
+The Methodist preacher of the district, a kindly black man, presented
+me to the oldest person of the American colony, a woman of about
+eighty years of age who was born only a few years after her parents
+arrived from Virginia. As the old woman stood smiling in the door of
+her little cabin, the walls of which were covered with leafy creepers,
+she looked the picture of an old Southern mammy. Her dialect was
+typical; when I said: "I am glad to meet you, Mrs. Sheppard," she
+answered, beaming, "Me likewise, I'se always glad to meet Americans, I
+is." Several of the American negroes have distinguished themselves in
+military matters, one of the most noted being General Anderson who
+grew gray in many revolutions.
+
+Between the coast towns and the ports of the surrounding countries,
+particularly Porto Rico, there is considerable coming and going. This
+was called to my attention the first time I set foot on Dominican
+soil, when a large negro darted out from a group of loungers on the
+wharf and seized my suit-case, crying: "Let me carry your baggage,
+Judge." Surprised, I inquired how he knew me, whereupon he asked
+reproachfully: "Don't you remember you sent me to jail in Mayaguez
+for shampooing a saucy stevedore's head with a brick?"
+
+Whether as a settler or transient visitor the foreigner may be sure of
+courteous and respectful treatment so long as he himself observes the
+proprieties. The laws grant the foreigner rights as ample as in the
+most advanced countries of the world.
+
+The language of Santo Domingo is Spanish, and the comparative purity
+with which it is spoken is remarkable when the long period of
+isolation of the country and the extended duration of Haitian rule are
+considered. In this particular Haiti offers a contrast, for though
+French is the official language the mass of the people speak Creole
+French, a patois unintelligible to anyone who has not lived in Haiti.
+The Dominicans do not lisp the "c" as do the Spaniards, and other
+peculiarities of Spanish as spoken in America are manifest, but on the
+whole the difference between the Dominican's Spanish and the
+Spaniard's Spanish may be compared to the difference between English
+as spoken in the United States and as spoken in England. Like several
+other Spanish-American nations the Dominicans are to be distinguished
+by their preference for certain words and endings, and by their accent
+and inflection. As everywhere else the unlettered classes are given to
+grammatical faults and provincialisms, but on the whole the vocabulary
+of the Dominican peasant contains fewer archaic expressions and Indian
+roots than that of the Porto Rican "jibaro" and is more easily
+understood by the outsider. Slight differences of pronunciation are
+noticeable in different parts of the country: the people of Seibo are
+inclined to use the vowel "i" instead of the consonant "r" and say
+"poique" instead of "porque," somewhat as the New York street urchin
+says "boid" for "bird"; the people of Santiago sometimes drop the "r"
+entirely and say "poque," as the Southern negro in the United States
+says "fo" for "four"; the peasants of Puerto Plata show a tendency to
+use the "u" instead of "o" and say "tudu" instead of "todo," like some
+of the inhabitants of Catalonia in Spain. The Azuans claim to speak
+the best Spanish of the Republic, but their claim is disputed by other
+provinces.
+
+Besides Spanish, the English and French languages are heard to a
+limited extent. On the Samana peninsula, where the descendants of
+American negroes are in a majority, as much English is spoken as
+Spanish, and in the coast towns, San Pedro de Macoris, Puerto Plata,
+Monte Cristi and Santo Domingo, it is also often heard. In these
+cities it is usually the singsong English of negroes from the British
+colonies. Along the Haitian border and at the extremity of the Samana
+peninsula, where a Haitian colony was planted by President Boyer, the
+French language is spoken. On the wharf at Monte Cristi I have
+encountered fruit-vendors from the interior who spoke no language
+except Creole French. Some persons who have been born and bred on the
+Samana peninsula know not a word of Spanish but only English. Many
+members of the wealthier class of the Republic have studied or
+traveled in Europe or the United States and speak one or more foreign
+languages. In Puerto Plata I was surprised to hear a jet-black negro
+speak German fluently; he had been educated in a commercial school in
+Hamburg. The larger cities have their foreign colonies, consisting
+principally of merchants, and most of the languages of Europe are
+represented.
+
+As a race the Dominicans are robust and sturdy. All the Dominican
+presidents of late years have been men of commanding physique, fitting
+representatives of their people. As far as industry is concerned the
+average Dominican is little more laborious than absolutely necessary
+to support himself and his family. Why should he do more when nature
+has been so bountiful and when in the past any accumulated fruits of
+his toil might have been swept away by the next revolution? The spirit
+of the tropics pervades the country and the tendency not to do to-day
+what can be conveniently left for "manana" is constantly observed.
+
+The Dominican women are as a rule graceful of body and fair of face,
+with large and beautiful eyes. They make devoted wives and loving
+mothers. The ladies of the better class are quite as susceptible to
+the allurements of Parisian fashions as their American and European
+cousins, and the scenes at balls and at evening promenades on the
+plaza are very attractive. The heat of the climate makes a liberal use
+of powder necessary, and it almost seems as if the darker the color of
+the woman the greater is her fondness for powder, so that some of the
+negresses assume an almost grayish hue. The Dominican woman is very
+domestic, she rarely goes out except to church, to an occasional dance
+or to the band concerts on the plaza. Before her marriage she is
+carefully chaperoned and guarded; all courting takes place in the
+presence of her mother or some other near relative.
+
+Notwithstanding the large mixture of African blood and long isolation
+of the Dominican race, the strong personality of the Spaniard has
+survived unmodified and the population is to-day as thoroughly Spanish
+in character, customs and mode of thinking as the people of Cuba and
+Porto Rico. How completely the Spanish consciousness pervades the
+country was illustrated by a remark made to an American naval officer
+by the mayor of an inland town of Santo Domingo; he was a very black
+negro, but in the course of a discussion observed: "Your arguments
+will fit Anglo-Saxons, but _we Latins_ are a different people." The
+first trait noticeable is the politeness of Dominicans of every
+degree. Only once have I met a rude official and that by a curious
+coincidence was the very first one with whom I had dealings, but after
+this beginning there were no further exceptions to the rule. A
+charming characteristic is the open-hearted hospitality everywhere
+encountered. The stranger who is introduced in any home is immediately
+assured in the customary Spanish way: "This is your house." The words,
+though figuratively spoken, are sincere, and the hosts are glad to
+have their new friend visit their house as though it were his own. As
+companions the Dominicans are delightful, being generally jovial and
+amiable. Some there are, especially among the country people, whose
+natural reticence makes them seem sullen, but once the ice is broken
+they are quite as light-hearted as the others.
+
+In the idealistic tendency of their mind the Dominicans strongly show
+their brotherhood with the other Spanish peoples. In this connection
+the spirit of their renowned kinsman, Don Quixote de la Mancha, is
+often in evidence. When one of them mounts his Rocinante in defense of
+some particularly attractive abstract proposition, nothing less than a
+blow from a windmill will bring him back to reality. And so when any
+person or group of persons become enamored of an idea they are
+unwilling to brook contradiction or compromise. The inclination of the
+majority to do their will irrespective of the wishes of the minority
+and the unwillingness of the minority to bow to the resolutions of the
+majority have been and will continue to be grave problems in the
+government of the country. Even in personal relations a spirit of
+intolerance can frequently be noticed and while almost anything is
+forgiven a friend, not a single redeeming feature is recognized in an
+enemy. To their idealistic tendency may be ascribed the worship of the
+words "patriotism" and "liberty." Unnumbered sins have been committed
+under the cloak of patriotism, and true personal liberty, such as it
+is understood in the United States, has never prevailed in Santo
+Domingo; but the adoration of these conceptions continues and it is to
+be hoped that now, with American assistance, it will bring real and
+lasting liberty to the country. Perhaps it is their idealism, as much
+as their isolation, which causes the Dominicans to take themselves so
+very seriously and renders them so extremely sensitive to criticism or
+jokes on the subject of their country, customs or revolutions.
+
+Foreigners sometimes complain that the affirmations of Dominicans
+cannot be trusted. In many cases investigation has shown that these
+foreigners were misled with regard to some mine, woodland or other
+property they had come to buy. Persons anxious to sell mines and other
+undeveloped properties have not distinguished themselves for veracity
+in any country, and with regard to sincerity in general the Dominicans
+may be regarded as no better but certainly no worse than the general
+run of humanity. With their personal friends they are generally loyal
+and true, but in their political relations the picture is not so
+attractive; for while there have been many cases where subordinates
+have followed their fallen chief into exile rather than submit to the
+victor, it is saddening to note the frequency with which governors of
+provinces and other local authorities have betrayed the confidence
+reposed in them by the chief executive, and have initiated or joined
+revolutionary uprisings. I have heard both ex-President Jimenez and
+ex-President Morales sorrowfully complain that their fall was due to
+the treachery of trusted subordinates. A particularly repulsive case
+of perfidiousness was that of General Luis Felipe Vidal, a prominent
+politician, who participated in the murder of President Caceres,
+though he had only a few hours before visited the President, played
+billiards with him and fondled his infant daughter.
+
+Of all amusements there is none which appeals so strongly to every
+class of the population as dancing. Every public holiday is an excuse
+for the giving of a "baile" or dance, and when holidays are scarce the
+"baile" is arranged anyhow. So, while elsewhere special occasions are
+celebrated by banquets, here the rule is to give a dance. Historical
+anniversaries, political triumphs, religious holidays, weddings,
+birthdays, christenings: all are celebrated by dances. Waltz music is
+popular but the favorite dance music is the pretty Porto Rican
+"danza," which is kin to Mexican airs and to the Cuban "guaracha" and
+may be compared to a flowing brook, now gliding along serenely, now
+rushing in cascades. The dances are often interrupted by the serving
+of sweets and ices.
+
+In the country the dance music is quite different. A rhythmic beating
+is kept up on a drum made of a barrel or hollow log and rude fiddles
+or guitars or an accordion play an accompaniment. To the traveler,
+riding along his road at night, the deep regular rumbling of the drums
+of distant "bailes" comes with indescribable weirdness. In some dances
+the participants engage in a monotonous chant, in others there are
+pauses in which the young men must quickly improvise verses on some
+subject suggested by one of the lassies. In the cities the dances
+begin at ten o'clock at night and last until the wee hours of morning,
+but in the country they begin at almost any time and occasionally last
+two or three days--especially during the Christmas holidays.
+
+These country dances with drum accompaniment are similar to those
+popular among the negroes in Porto Rico and are probably an African
+legacy. But, like Porto Rico, the Dominican Republic is absolutely
+free from the practise of those barbarous negro rites, of which dances
+like these often form part, and which are known in Haiti under the
+name of "voudou," in Cuba under that of "witchcraft" and in the
+British West Indies under that of "obeah," and which sometimes lead
+even to human sacrifices. This is all the more remarkable in Santo
+Domingo as the adjoining Republic of Haiti has been the worst sufferer
+from such practices.
+
+The country dances are occasionally the scenes of violent personal
+altercations. While drunkenness is very rare and a drunkard is
+regarded almost as a social outcast, the countrymen are fond of
+regaling themselves with rum made of cane juice, and at dances where
+such rum is served it is not infrequent for some one to become unduly
+excited. If he happened to meet another in the same condition and a
+controversy arose with reference to some dusky damsel, a frequent
+unfortunate outcome was, until lately, for both to draw revolvers and
+blaze away at each other and if ejected from the house to stand nearby
+and fire through the wooden walls. In Porto Rico such affairs are
+decided with the machete and only the immediate combatants are hurt,
+but revolver bullets are more dangerous to the innocent bystander than
+to those doing the shooting. In Macoris I was told of a dance where
+the casualties were fifteen killed--more than in the average
+revolution. Yet so deep-seated is the fondness for dancing that after
+the smoke has cleared away and the dead or wounded victim been
+removed, it has often happened that the ladies dried their tears and
+men and women continued with the "baile."
+
+Up to the time of American intervention in 1916, the practise of
+carrying weapons was general. In the country a man strapped on his
+pistol or carried his gun as he would in other countries put on his
+necktie or take up his cane. At the railroad stations in the Cibao I
+have sometimes observed everyone congregated about the station wearing
+a revolver more or less visible, except two or three, evidently the
+poorest farm-laborers, who could not afford anything more than a dirk
+and who gazed at the others with envious eyes. Beautiful pearl-handled
+revolvers were proudly exhibited to the public eye, and on one
+occasion I saw a little boy not over ten years old with a revolver
+that reached to his knee. The habit was all the more indefensible as
+it was absolutely unnecessary, Santo Domingo being as safe a country
+to travel in as any other. Governors of provinces sometimes forbade
+the carrying of arms, but the prohibition was rarely enforced with
+reference to their friends and adherents. The American authorities
+have put a stop to the habit, however, and confiscated all the arms
+they could find; some 15,000 rifles and revolvers have thus been
+taken up.
+
+After all, the average Dominican will resent a shot less than a blow.
+A story is told of a prominent youth in the capital who received a
+slap during a quarrel; the aggressor fled, but the young man kept
+holding his handkerchief to his cheek for days until he met his
+assailant and was able to wipe out the insult in blood.
+
+Only in the larger towns are there facilities for the gratification of
+the popular fondness for theatrical performances. Puerto Plata has a
+pretty theatre. In Santo Domingo City the ancient Jesuit church, long
+abandoned, was converted into a theater, the stage being located
+where the altar formerly stood, the boxes occupying the aisles, and
+the chairs of the audience being arranged in the nave; but a new
+open-air theatre, the "Teatro Independencia," is more commodious. The
+Spanish drama is popular, as well as the delightful Spanish "zarzuela"
+or musical comedy. Owing to the isolation of the country it is not
+often visited by good professional troupes, and the interior is
+entirely dependent upon amateur talent.
+
+In social life the clubs are prominent features. A town must be
+unimportant indeed if it has not at least one club where the men can
+meet, read the papers and play cards or billiards. The first attention
+shown the stranger within the gates is to take him to the club and
+enroll him as a visitor, this action being equivalent to a general
+local introduction. The clubs give pleasant musical and literary
+entertainments and dances attended by the best local society. In Santo
+Domingo, Puerto Plata and Santiago the ladies have a club of their own
+where they can meet and chat to their hearts' content. Needless to say
+the most popular entertainments and dances are those given by the
+"Club de Damas." All these clubs have been of great value in the
+social development of the country and many of them have given
+important impulses to education.
+
+Another valuable contribution to civic development is rendered by the
+municipal bands existing in many towns. They are voluntary
+associations and tend to awaken in the inhabitants an interest and
+pride in their city. On Sunday night and sometimes on other nights
+during the week they play on the plaza, while the people, following
+the usual custom in the Spanish cities, promenade up and down. Such
+scenes are very attractive, the ladies, dressed in their best, with
+their light gowns brilliant in the moonlight; the men walking with
+them or watching the promenaders. It is on the plaza and in the
+ball-room where Cupid's arrows do most execution.
+
+Of late years some interest has been shown in athletics, and baseball
+has invaded the island. Bicycle races occasionally form part of public
+celebrations, and horse-races and tournaments have long been popular.
+
+Santo Domingo may be said to have two carnivals, one on St. Andrew's
+day, November 30, the other during the three days preceding Lent. The
+former is the more exciting. Until recent years there was not a person
+in the capital and Santiago, where the populace was most given to the
+typical diversion of the day, who did not voluntarily or involuntarily
+participate therein. The diversion consisted in throwing water or
+flour or both on everyone within reach. The poorer people would arm
+themselves with great syringes and discharge them at every passerby or
+through the keyholes of house-doors. Others would station themselves
+at points of vantage with barrels and tubs of water and duck the
+unwary they were able to entrap. People of the better class would
+place great tubs of water on their balconies or roofs, which the
+servants would assiduously keep filled while their masters emptied
+buckets-full on friends in the street. The young men rode through the
+streets in open carriages, bombarding the ladies on balconies and
+housetops with eggs filled with perfumed water, and receiving
+drenchings in return. Within the last few years the authorities have
+restricted or prohibited the throwing of water, and the principal
+celebration of the day is now what is called a "white dance" given by
+the better society, at which the participants are supposed to come
+dressed in white in order that the many-colored confetti, serpentines
+and gilt powders which those present throw at each other between
+dances, may appear to better effect. During the carnival proper,
+before Lent, the streets are filled with masked persons in groups or
+alone, who dance, make impudent remarks or otherwise indulge in
+nonsense, to the special delight of the ubiquitous small boy. The
+better class celebrate with masquerade balls, where the merry spirit
+of the Dominican is given free rein.
+
+The principal vice of the country is gaming. Men of the better class
+play cards, dominoes, chess, checkers and billiards, for money, but
+they do so rather for pastime than for gain. Among the poorer classes,
+however, the predominant idea is that of making money quickly. Cards
+and dice are often used, but the typical form of gambling, the one at
+which the poor countryman is fondest of staking his hard-earned wages,
+is the cockfight. Every town has its cockpit where on Sundays and
+holidays the barbarous sport is carried on in the presence of crowds
+of whooping, screaming spectators who often ride miles to attend. The
+authorities claim that efforts have been made to stop this sport, but
+that they have all been unavailing. It constitutes a source of
+municipal income, the right to open cockpits being annually conceded
+to the highest bidder by the various municipalities. Raffles and
+lotteries are also permitted by law, being subject to taxation by the
+municipalities, and in one or two cities there are municipal
+lotteries.
+
+With respect to morality the same conditions may be said to prevail in
+Santo Domingo as in other southern countries, the women being in
+general virtuous and pure and the men inclined to amorous intrigues.
+The official statistics relating to marriages and births show that of
+the children born in the Republic almost sixty per cent are
+illegitimate. These figures, while serious, are rendered less alarming
+than would appear at first sight by the large number of what the
+census-takers term "consensual unions" among the humbler classes, or
+cases where a man and woman, though not united by marriage ceremony,
+live together publicly as man and wife, rear a family and are as
+faithful to each other as if they were legitimately married. "Married
+but not parsoned" is the way in which such unions are referred to in
+some of the British West Indies. The considerable number of these
+unions may be explained by the high cost of the marriage
+ceremony,--for while there are some priests ready to waive their fees
+for a religious wedding and some alcaldes who are satisfied with what
+the law allows for the civil ceremony, others are not so
+complaisant--also by the fact that such unions have become so common
+that the parties see nothing wrong in them, and further by the
+circumstance that the parties often believe it more to their advantage
+to remain single rather than to be married. A friend of mine had a
+respectable colored man working on his plantation, the head of a large
+family, but not married to the woman with whom he had been living for
+over a score of years and to whom he was devotedly attached. My friend
+endeavored to persuade him to marry the woman, but the answer was a
+determined negative. "If I marry her she will know I have to support
+her and she may get careless and lazy. Knowing that I can leave her
+when I like she will continue to behave herself." Persuasion was then
+tried with his wife and her refusal was almost identical: "If I marry
+him he will know that I am bound to him and then he may go and fall in
+love with some other woman. Knowing that I can leave him when I like
+he will continue to behave himself."
+
+The homes of the poorer people are mere huts generally built of
+palmwood and covered with palm-thatch. The houses of the country
+people are exactly like the "bohios" used by the Indians at the time
+of the conquest, as pictured and described by the early writers. In
+the towns outside of the capital wooden houses are the rule and some
+of the wealthier people have pretty chalets. In the large cities there
+is a good deal of "mamposteria" construction: brick or stone work,
+covered with cement. In the capital the walls of a majority of the
+houses have come down from the early days and are of great
+solidity--here a man's house is literally his fortress. The barred
+windows of the olden days are here still to be seen. One-story
+structures are the rule, and there are few if any of more than two
+stories. The heat of the climate makes window-glass impracticable and
+the windows and doors are fitted with shutters which permit the air to
+pass through. Except in the houses of the wealthiest persons the
+furniture is very simple and of small amount. In the parlors a
+caneseat sofa, several rockers and chairs and a small table with a few
+knicknacks are arranged everywhere in the same way. The bedsteads are
+of iron and the bedroom furniture is reduced to the simplest articles.
+The floors are bare except for a few rugs. The climate is responsible
+for the simplicity of the furniture, as carpets would breed insects,
+and more furniture would mean endless cleaning and dusting, since
+everything must be open all day. The kitchens are not furnished with
+iron stoves, but cooking is done on brick hearths, as in Cuba and
+Porto Rico. The most serious drawback about Dominican houses is the
+want of proper bathing facilities and of sanitary closets, due to lack
+of running water in most cities. The most attractive feature of the
+houses is the patio, or yard, which is often gay with flowers, though
+not so assiduously cared for as in some other Spanish countries. In
+similarity to other tropical lands home life is not nearly so intense
+as in colder climates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+RELIGION
+
+Catholic religion.--Concordat.--Ownership of church
+buildings.--Clergy.--Religious sentiment.--Shrines.--Religious customs
+and holidays.--Religious toleration.--Protestant sects.
+
+The Roman Catholic creed has been the dominant religion of Santo
+Domingo from the time of the conquest. When Columbus arrived on his
+second voyage he brought with him twelve friars, some of whom were as
+holy men as their leader, the vindictive Father Boil, was a nuisance.
+Others were not long in arriving and soon the country had as many
+priests in proportion as Spain herself. Large estates came into
+possession of the church, and in the city of Santo Domingo imposing
+churches and spacious cloisters were erected, which still stand,
+either in ruins or used for religious or secular purposes. There were
+three monasteries, two nunneries, and some ten churches and chapels in
+the capital.
+
+As early as 1511 bishops were appointed for Santo Domingo and
+Concepcion de la Vega and in 1547 the first archbishopric in the new
+world was established in Santo Domingo City. From 1516 to 1519 the
+island was governed directly by three friars, and the licentiate
+Alonso de Fuenmayor, who governed thirty years later, was not only
+governor and captain-general of the island, and president of the royal
+audiencia, but archbishop of Santo Domingo as well. The Inquisition
+was established in Santo Domingo in 1564.
+
+With the decline of the colony the number of churchmen declined also,
+and by the middle of the seventeenth century the majority of the
+church buildings were closed and falling to ruin and the church's vast
+country estates were abandoned. The revival of the country during the
+eighteenth century affected the church as well, but the occupation by
+Haitians and French during the beginning of the nineteenth century
+caused its influence to wane, and restrictive legislation under
+Haitian dominion and the expulsion of the archbishop for political
+reasons in 1830, severed all connection with Rome for many years. The
+first archbishop appointed after the independence of the Republic was
+consecrated in 1848.
+
+The Roman Catholic religion is now the recognized state religion. In
+1884 the Dominican government entered into an agreement with the Holy
+See according to the terms of which the archbishop of Santo Domingo is
+to be appointed by the Pope from a list of three names, native
+Dominicans or residents of the Republic, submitted by the Dominican
+Congress, which in turn engaged to pay the salary of the archbishop
+and certain other officials. The agreement as to the payments
+incumbent upon the Dominican government had the same fate as other
+financial contracts: it was observed for a short time and then
+disregarded, so that for years only small appropriations have been
+made for church purposes.
+
+In the year 1908 a controversy arose with reference to the ownership
+of the buildings and lands occupied by the church. The archbishop and
+church officials claimed that such buildings belong to the church
+absolutely; while the government officials alleged that they are the
+property of the state, possessed by the church with the state's
+consent. Previously few persons had ever given a thought to the
+matter, the church having as many buildings as it could properly care
+for, and more, while other former religious edifices were used by the
+state. Contributions for the erection and repair of churches were
+frequently made by Dominican towns without exciting discussion. The
+controversy of 1908 was precipitated by the determination of the
+church authorities to erect a mausoleum in the cathedral of Santo
+Domingo City for the remains of the late Archbishop Merino. The
+Executive of Santo Domingo demanded that the government's permission
+be first obtained, but the church officials refused to ask for such
+permission, holding it unnecessary. Neither side lacked historical
+grounds for its contention. In the old colonial days church and state
+were united and the questions of ownership of the church buildings
+never arose. When the Haitians assumed control in 1822 they considered
+the church edifices as the property of the state alone and religious
+services continued only by sufferance of the government. Upon the
+establishment of the independence of Santo Domingo, the new
+government, although friendly towards the Catholic Church, took a
+similar view of the ownership of church edifices and property. By law
+of June 7, 1845, of the Dominican Congress, all "censos" and other
+perpetual rents established in favor of the church were declared
+extinguished and by law of July 2, 1845, all property, real and
+personal, formerly belonging to convents and orders no longer in being
+in the country was formally proclaimed to pertain to the state. In
+1853 burials in churches were prohibited by law of Congress as being
+dangerous to the public health, but in exceptional cases the Executive
+granted permission therefor on the payment of a fee which of late
+years has been $300. On the other hand, it was argued that the church
+has been in uninterrupted possession of its present buildings for
+centuries; that these buildings are not comprised in the laws of
+1845; that a law of 1867 granting the gardens of the archbishop's
+residence to the municipality of Santo Domingo for the establishment
+of a market and cockpit was repealed in 1871 as being a despoilment of
+the church and unconstitutional; and that when the mausoleum of
+Columbus was erected in the cathedral the committee in charge,
+presided over by the vice-president of the Republic, applied for
+permission to the authorities of the church. The dispute regarding the
+mausoleum of Archbishop Merino came to an end when the government
+receded from its demand, but the main question is not regarded
+as settled.
+
+At the present time the Republic is divided into fifty-seven parishes.
+The episcopal head is the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In 1903, when
+old age had enfeebled Archbishop Merino, one of his assistants,
+Monsignor Adolfo Nouel, was made titular Archbishop of Metymne, and on
+the death of the venerable churchman in 1906 succeeded him as
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo.
+
+In the olden days many religious orders were represented in the
+island, but to-day the clergy is secular, with the exception of a few
+friars brought over in recent years from Spain and France. The
+majority of the priests are native Dominicans, graduated from the
+seminary in the capital. There are in the clerical body a number of
+black sheep, far too fond of the pleasures of the flesh. Of this stamp
+was a noted prelate, of whom I was told when I asked whether he was
+old: "Yes, quite old, his oldest son is over forty." As a general
+rule, however, the priests of Santo Domingo are earnest, hardworking,
+honorable men. The standard is being raised through the efforts of the
+present Archbishop Nouel.
+
+The unfortunate political history of the country has not been
+conducive to the establishment of eleemosynary institutions or to
+other philanthropic activity, and such work has devolved almost
+exclusively upon the priests. The names of many of these are held in
+grateful remembrance for their efforts in behalf of charity. Perhaps
+the most celebrated was Father Billini, who, a member of one of the
+foremost families of Santo Domingo, consecrated his life to helping
+his fellowmen. He was a father to the poor and through his efforts the
+insane asylum of Santo Domingo, an orphan asylum and a college were
+established. His name became notable in other directions also, for he
+was instrumental in the discovery of the remains of Columbus in the
+Santo Domingo cathedral in 1877. At times the methods of the good
+father were a little spectacular: thus on one occasion when
+supplicating Heureaux in behalf of several prisoners sentenced to
+death, he took off his hat and vowed he would not put it on again
+until the prisoners were pardoned, but the order of execution was
+carried out and ever afterwards Father Billini went hatless. In so
+great esteem is his name held that the only statue in Santo Domingo
+City, besides that of Columbus on the plaza, is erected to his memory.
+
+Practically the entire population of the country is at least nominally
+Roman Catholic. Among the educated classes in the cities the women, as
+a rule, are devout; the men either openly acknowledge themselves free
+thinkers or their religion is very superficial indeed. On one occasion
+a Dominican earnestly assured me he was a Catholic and would always
+remain one, "but," he added, "I cannot accept all the doctrines of the
+church: thus I do not believe in the Virgin Mary, nor the saints, nor
+the power of the priests to forgive sins, nor in the divinity of
+Christ, but I feel almost certain of the existence of a God." The
+fondness for display makes the ornate ceremonies of the Catholic
+Church popular with all, however, and they are observed by officers of
+the state whenever possible. The president always goes to mass after
+taking the oath of office, and the army flags are solemnly blessed.
+
+The less educated people of the cities and most of the country people
+not only hold their priests in great respect, but are blindly
+superstitious. It is common to find crosses in the courtyards of
+country houses, placed there to keep evil spirits away. Frequently
+also, three crosses are seen in conspicuous places near the roadside
+or even in the middle of the road. They are supposed to propitiate the
+Almighty, and pious persons mumble prayers as they pass them. When the
+destruction wrought by the Martinique volcano became known here, the
+dismay of the countrymen was responsible for more than one "calvario"
+(calvary), as these collections of crosses are called. It is
+especially desired by the country people to receive the last
+sacraments from the priests before death. On one occasion far out in
+the country I met a crowd of people engaged in transporting a dying
+man many miles to the priest in the nearest town. When asked why the
+priest was not called to the sick man, they explained innocently: "He
+couldn't come. The priest is too fat."
+
+There are in the territory of the Republic several shrines of more
+than usual renown, which at certain seasons of the year attract crowds
+of worshipers, some coming all the way from Porto Rico. Wonderful
+cures of invalids are registered which recall the miracles of Lourdes.
+The most celebrated of these churches is the one on the Santo Cerro,
+the Holy Hill, built on the exact spot where forces of Columbus
+planted their cross when defending the hill against the Indians. After
+the Indians had stormed the place all their efforts to destroy the
+cross were unavailing, so the story goes, and they were finally driven
+to precipitate flight by the apparition of the Virgin, sitting on the
+cross. A church was founded on the spot and a convent near by. During
+the dark years of the colony the convent was abandoned and fell to
+ruin but at no time was a priest lacking to look after the site of the
+miracle. In the time of Heureaux the humble wooden chapel then
+crowning the hill was replaced by a larger but modest brick church,
+the greater part of the bricks being carried up from the ruins of the
+old city of La Vega which lie at the foot of the hill. The church
+occupies an eminence overlooking the great Royal Plain. Its most
+prized treasure, which is reverently kissed by the priest before he
+shows it to the stranger, consists of two splinters about an inch
+long, of black wood, parts of the original cross of Columbus, enclosed
+in another small cross of gold filigree work. A larger piece of the
+original cross is kept in the cathedral at Santo Domingo City, to be
+exhibited on special occasions. The pieces of the original cross
+carried away by the Spaniards were enough to make a score of crosses,
+yet nevertheless there was always some wood left, which circumstance
+was heralded as an additional miracle.
+
+Within the church on the Holy Hill, in one of the chapels, there is a
+hole in the stone floor a little over two feet square and deep, which
+is pointed out as the exact place where the cross of Columbus stood.
+There is nothing so coveted by pilgrims as to be able to kneel in this
+hole and offer up their prayers. The soil from this spot is credited
+with strange powers, such as that of healing wounds on which it is
+laid, and that of causing floods to subside, when sprinkled on the
+troubled waters. The late Archbishop Merino assured me that the
+miraculous nature of the spot is evidenced by the fact that however
+much soil is taken out of the hole, the bottom thereof always retains
+the same level, but my later inspection of the dry yellow earth at the
+bottom disclosed nothing unusual. Near the Santo Cerro church is the
+trunk of the nispero tree, gnarled with age, from which Columbus is
+said to have cut the wood for his cross. All around are miserable
+shacks, inhabited, so the pure-minded priest of the church sorrowfully
+told me, by people the conduct of many of whom is quite at variance
+with the holiness supposed to pervade the place.
+
+The town of Bayaguana, to the northeast of Santo Domingo City, also
+attracts the faithful, especially about the first of the year, by
+reason of the fame of the "Cristo de Bayaguana," a very ancient figure
+of Christ in the church of that town. In the same way Higuey in the
+eastern part of the island is specially noted for its shrine of the
+"Altagracia," a picture of the Virgin, of which tradition says that in
+the early days of the colony it was given by an aged mysterious
+stranger to the father of a devout maiden who had pined therefor. The
+church is built on the site of an orange tree under which, it is said,
+the picture was first admired by the girl and her relatives; the trunk
+of this tree is shown behind the altar of the church. Pilgrimages to
+this place take place preferably about the twenty-first of January and
+the miracles ascribed to the Virgin are astounding. Miracles of quite
+a different nature are attributed to an image of Saint Andrew, in the
+capital. The populace confidently believe that as sure as this figure
+is carried to the street an earthquake will follow.
+
+There are always several altars in the churches, surmounted by figures
+of the saints to whom they are dedicated. Some of these statues are
+quite beautiful, others, in some of the poorer churches, are hideous.
+As in other Spanish countries the churches are bare of seats, and
+people who attend either send small chairs before the service, or
+stand. It is not unusual to see well dressed ladies carrying their
+chairs to church. Women are much more in evidence than men, and the
+Dominican woman is not different from her sisters in other countries,
+for a new hat or dress is apt to awaken in her an irresistible
+yearning to go to church. Young men are fond of attending, too, but it
+is to be feared that in many cases their object is to see the young
+ladies rather than to hear the sermon.
+
+The custom of celebrating the saint's day instead of the birthday is
+followed, so that birthdays pass unperceived while the day dedicated
+in the calendar of the Catholic Church to the saint whose name a
+person bears, is the day which he celebrates and on which he receives
+the felicitations of his friends.
+
+Christmas tide is not a time when presents are exchanged, and
+Christmas trees are not found, save rarely and where the foreign
+influence is strong. There is no lack of celebration, however. On
+Christmas Eve the churches are crowded and there are banquets and
+dances going on everywhere. In the cities the small boys amuse
+themselves by setting off fireworks. During the Christmas week dances
+are frequent, and in the country they continue sometimes for days to
+the lugubrious accompaniment of accordions and large drums. December
+the twenty-eighth, Holy Innocents' day, is All Fools' day, instead of
+April the first, it being argued that just as the innocents of Herod's
+day were made to suffer, so the innocents of this age should be
+persecuted. Many are the pranks perpetrated and the small boy is in
+his glory. On New Year's Eve many families receive their friends;
+there is generally some large ball, and the new year is ushered in
+with fireworks and other noises.
+
+The great day of the year for the children is the sixth of January,
+the feast of Epiphany, or Three Kings' Day, as it is called in Santo
+Domingo. Just as the three wise men from the East brought presents to
+the infant Christ in ages past, so they now make the rounds and leave
+presents for deserving children, thus taking the place of our Santa
+Claus. The receptacles they choose for the good things they deliver
+are either the children's slippers or shoes, or boxes made ready by
+the little ones. For weeks before the anxiously awaited day, letters
+are written to the Kings, explaining what gifts would be acceptable,
+and are given to the parents who undertake to deliver them. The
+children are careful to facilitate the display of the Kings'
+generosity by placing their shoes or boxes in conspicuous places and
+filling the boxes with grass, so that the horses of the Kings can eat.
+Their thoughtfulness is rewarded, for on the following morning the
+visit of the Kings is attested by indubitable evidence, as there is an
+abundance of toys and sweets and the grass is often quite strewn
+about. Excited little ones are sure they heard the pawing of the
+horses on the balcony. The Kings usually show a magnanimous disregard
+of past offenses, but occasionally they leave a letter of advice or
+warning, and they have even been known to place a switch in the box of
+a particularly bad boy.
+
+Easter is celebrated with great solemnity. In order to provide
+opportunity for observing all the ceremonies prescribed by the church,
+they are so arranged that the ceremonies corresponding to the
+commemoration of the death of Christ are begun on Thursday at noon and
+the celebration of the resurrection on Saturday at noon, and this is
+the order of dates accepted by the people in general. On Thursday and
+Friday soldiers form a guard of honor before the churches, and up to
+Easter of 1906 there was a strict prohibition of any vehicle going
+through the streets between Thursday noon and Saturday noon. Not a
+wheel was permitted to turn in this period, giving rise to much
+inconvenience and discomfort. Since 1906 a more liberal view has
+prevailed. At this time as on certain other church festivals, solemn
+religious processions wind through the streets.
+
+The church has charge of several small hospitals and orphan asylums. A
+few schools in the Republic are also under its auspices, but in
+general religious education is much neglected.
+
+Although the Catholic religion is the state religion and is professed
+by so large a majority of the population, the influence of the church
+in the government is no more than in many countries where no such
+circumstances prevail. Discipline in the priesthood is limited almost
+entirely to ecclesiastical matters and priests otherwise speak and act
+for themselves. They frequently participate in politics and are often
+to be met in municipal councils and in Congress, and in such cases
+their acts indicate that they sit, not as priests representing the
+church, but entirely as individuals representing the constituency from
+which they were elected. Father Merino, who later became archbishop,
+was elected president and served out his term. President Morales had
+been a priest, but had abandoned the priesthood when he was elected to
+Congress. The present head of the church, Archbishop Nouel, has also
+been president, under a temporary compromise.
+
+Another peculiarity of Dominican Catholicism is its tolerant attitude
+towards freemasonry. It is not unusual for persons who are recognized
+as fervent Catholics to be at the same time enthusiastic masons.
+There are instances even of devout families, where one of the sons
+belongs to the priesthood and the other sons and the father are
+zealous masons, but where all live under the same roof in absolute
+concord. The first lodges were founded in 1858 and there are lodges to
+be found to-day in all the principal cities. Several of them have
+their own buildings, that at Santiago being especially worthy of
+remark. They have done excellent work in behalf of charity and
+education. The lodges of Santo Domingo City, Santiago, La Vega and
+Moca maintain free public schools, and the lodge of Puerto Plata a
+hospital. The lodges of oddfellows in the Republic have done similar
+good work.
+
+The absence of religious fanaticism is further exemplified by the
+tolerance accorded other religious sects. These, it is true, are but
+slimly represented. Of the Jewish faith there are probably not two
+dozen persons in the Republic. The Protestants are almost entirely
+negroes from the British and former Danish islands and other
+foreigners, and descendants of the American negroes settled in Santo
+Domingo. For these the Wesleyan Methodist Church of England maintains
+a flourishing mission with chapels in Puerto Plata, Samana, and
+Sanchez and a small branch in Santo Domingo City. The principal chapel
+is in Puerto Plata, which is also the residence of the minister in
+charge of the mission. The African Methodist Church also has small
+stations at Samana and San Pedro de Macoris, though the word "African"
+does not tend to make the church popular in Santo Domingo. There is
+further an almost abandoned Baptist mission in Puerto Plata and Monte
+Cristi. In all these churches, services are generally carried on in
+the English language alone. In San Francisco de Macoris, Protestant
+services are conducted in Spanish by devotees who do not seem to be
+ordained by any particular sect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+EDUCATION AND LITERATURE
+
+Education in Spanish times.--Work of Hostos.--School
+organization.--Professional institute.--Primary and secondary
+education.--Literacy.--Libraries.--Newspapers.--Literature.--Fine Arts.
+
+
+As in other Spanish colonies, it was not the policy of the Spanish
+government in Santo Domingo to foster popular education. Learning was
+confined to the clergy and the aristocracy and was imparted only by
+servants of the church. As early as 1538, the Dominican friars
+obtained a papal bull for the establishment of a university, and in
+1558 the institution known as the University of St. Thomas of Aquino
+was inaugurated by them in Santo Domingo City, with faculties of
+medicine, philosophy, theology and law, the principal branch being
+theology. This university acquired considerable celebrity, but
+practically disappeared during the colony's decline, being revived by
+royal decree of May 26, 1747, which gave it the title of Royal and
+Pontifical University of Santo Domingo. The cession of the island to
+France and the wars which followed weakened the famous institution,
+which was definitely closed by the Haitians when they assumed control
+of the government. The Haitian occupation and the civil disorders of
+the first forty years of the Republic were not propitious for the
+spreading of education. Beyond a theological seminary founded in 1848,
+there were only a few humble public and private schools, leading a
+precarious existence.  An eminent Porto Rican educator, Eugenio M. de
+Hostos, was responsible for the intellectual renaissance of Santo
+Domingo. This remarkable man was one of those talented dreamers
+produced by Latin-America, a lover of the abstract ideal in
+government, philosophy and pedagogy, erudite, eloquent, with an
+enthusiasm which fired his pupils and hearers. Early in life he
+conceived the idea which he preached unceasingly: that of a
+Confederated West Indian Republic, in which the principal states were
+to be Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. Inspired by the Cuban war of
+independence of 1868 to 1878, he wrote and spoke throughout Spanish
+America in behalf of the union of the Spanish speaking peoples of the
+West Indies, the first step to that end to be the independence of
+Cuba. In 1880 he arrived for the third time in Santo Domingo, where he
+was then less known than in South America. Having obtained from the
+government a commission to found normal schools in the Republic, he
+was appointed director of the normal school of Santo Domingo City. He
+came as the right man at the right time. His teachings touched a
+responsive chord in the hearts of the Dominicans; his unsparing
+condemnation of old pedagogical methods and eager advocacy of new ones
+gave rise to discussions which awakened a general interest in
+education and letters; and his aggressive enthusiasm smote the rock
+which held Dominican literature bound. A prominent Dominican
+historian, Americo Lugo, says: "I believe that what may be called
+national literature does not begin until after the arrival in the
+Republic of the eminent educator Eugenio M. de Hostos."
+
+Hostos labored in Santo Domingo for eight years, during which time he
+had as pupils many who have since become prominent in the councils of
+the Republic. The baneful policies of Heureaux forced his departure,
+and he settled in Chile with his family, being appointed professor of
+constitutional law at the National University. Upon the conclusion of
+the Spanish-American war, when it became apparent that Porto Rico
+would be American and his ideal of an Antillan Confederation
+definitely shattered, he journeyed to Washington to labor in behalf of
+Porto Rico, returning later to his native island in the hope of
+uniting the Porto Ricans in a demand for autonomy. There political
+passion ran high, and Hostos, disappointed, went back to Santo
+Domingo, where his entry was almost triumphal. He again assumed charge
+of public education though the civil disorders filled him with
+sadness. In 1903 he died in Santo Domingo, but the seed he sowed lives
+and flourishes and his memory is revered by Dominicans.
+
+In 1884 a general school law was passed, repeatedly modified since,
+according to which primary instruction is a charge upon the
+municipality, while the cost of secondary instruction is to be
+defrayed by the state. Supreme inspection over educational matters was
+given to the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, who was
+assisted by a superior board of education with school inspectors in
+the various provinces. There were further special boards of education
+in each province, presided over by the governor, and school boards in
+the communes which are not capitals of provinces and in the cantons.
+Owing to the difficulty of finding competent personnel, the inspection
+of the educational institutions has generally been perfunctory and the
+teachers have done pretty much as they pleased. Unfortunately the
+financial limitations of the country have not permitted the
+development of the schools in the measure desired. Since the middle of
+1917 numerous changes in the school system and curriculum have been
+decreed by the Department of Public Instruction and the system is
+undergoing a general reorganization.
+
+In 1882 a "Professional Institute" was founded, the name of which was
+in 1914 changed to "University of Santo Domingo," and it is now called
+the Central University of Santo Domingo. It occupies the same building
+in the capital, adjoining the church of St. Dominic, where the old
+university was located. It confers degrees in five branches: law,
+medicine, pharmacy, dental surgery and mathematics and surveying.
+Practically all the lawyers of the Republic have graduated from this
+school. Most of the native pharmacists, also, have studied here. With
+reference to instruction in medicine and surgery, and in dentistry,
+the institution is handicapped by the lack of a suitable hospital and
+clinic. As a result those who wish to adopt any of these professions
+pursue their studies abroad, if possible, and all the best known
+physicians are graduates of foreign universities. The entire annual
+appropriation for the University is only about $24,000. A similar
+institution, on a smaller scale, is the Professional Institute of
+Santiago, founded in 1916. In several cities there are high schools
+called normal schools, and other institutions called superior schools,
+and the capital has an academy of drawing, painting and sculpture.
+
+With the exception of a few private schools, primary education is in
+the hands of the municipalities, which are assisted by small
+subventions from the national government. In the municipalities there
+is more enthusiasm for education than in Congress, if we judge from
+the figures presented by the budgets. Every little town takes pride in
+making its budget for education as large as possible, year after year.
+The total amount spent for educational purposes, however, including
+salaries, rent, supplies, subventions and teachers' pensions, is only
+in the neighborhood of $500,000, contributed about in equal shares by
+the state and the municipalities.
+
+The total number of scholars enrolled is only about 20,000. The
+schools are generally located in rented houses, there being no
+buildings erected expressly for school purposes. Their equipment is as
+a rule deficient. The teaching force is handicapped by lack of
+facilities and training. The salaries of the elementary teachers are
+very small, and while some municipalities are prompt in their
+payments, others lag far behind, and the Spanish saying "as hungry as
+a schoolmaster" has not lost all its meaning.
+
+If the amounts expended for education are not large, it is due to lack
+of money and not to lack of realization of the advantages of learning.
+The interest manifested in education and the eagerness of parents to
+furnish their children as much schooling as possible, are among the
+most hopeful signs for the future. In the towns and villages where the
+schools are located, most children learn at least to read and write,
+but out in the country illiteracy and ignorance reign supreme. In the
+absence of statistics it is not possible to determine the proportion
+of illiterates; there is no doubt, however, that it is very large, and
+I have heard it estimated at all the way from seventy to ninety per
+cent of the population over ten years of age.
+
+Some of the best schools are private institutions, one of the best
+known being the institute for girls and young ladies, founded by Santo
+Domingo's foremost woman poet, Salome Urena de Henriquez. It is the
+custom also for well-to-do families to send their children abroad for
+study and to travel themselves, and the Dominicans are not few who,
+besides their native Spanish, speak other languages, acquired abroad.
+Within the country, too, there is a predilection among the upper class
+for the study of foreign tongues, and many learn English and French in
+the family circle or by association with persons speaking these
+languages.
+
+As a result of the educational limitations, the population of the
+country may be divided into three groups: first, a number of persons,
+small in comparison with the whole number of inhabitants, who compare
+in culture, education and accomplishments with members of the best
+society in any country; second, a much larger group of persons who
+possess knowledge more or less rudimentary; and third, the great
+majority of the inhabitants, who are unlettered and unlearned.
+
+One obstacle to the spread of information is the lack of public
+libraries. There is a public library in Puerto Plata, and various
+clubs in the larger towns have libraries, for their members or the
+public, but they are all very small and limited. The newspapers,
+therefore, furnish the only source of reading for the majority.
+Practically all the papers are published in the cities of Santo
+Domingo, Santiago and Puerto Plata, and all are of modest dimensions.
+Many newspapers have been founded in the Republic and after leading an
+ephemeral existence have succumbed, some because their editors were
+persuaded by threats or rewards on the part of the government to cease
+publication, and the greater portion because of financial
+embarrassment. Notwithstanding the constitutional precept guaranteeing
+free speech, editors of the opposition have generally found it more
+healthy to withdraw to the neighboring countries and conduct their
+campaigns at long range. On the other hand, it must be said that
+several governments have honestly endeavored to allow the press full
+liberty, but that the privilege has always been abused. The principal
+daily newspaper of the Republic, and the one having the largest
+circulation is the "Listin Diario" of Santo Domingo. It is a four-page
+sheet and its daily edition is about 10,000 copies. It is the only
+paper having a cable service, and it receives its cablegrams from the
+French cable company, whose line crosses the island. It is also one of
+the oldest of the existing newspapers, having been founded in 1889,
+and maintained itself by constantly observing a prudent attitude. In
+the capital there also appear the "Gaceta Oficial," in which the laws
+and governmental decisions and announcements are published; the
+"Boletin Municipal," containing municipal announcements; several
+reviews whose character is indicated by their title: "Revista Medica,"
+"Revista de Agricultura," "Revista Judicial," "Boletin Masonico"; two
+small humorous papers; two commercial sheets; an illustrated paper,
+"Blanco y Negro," and a well-known literary monthly, "Cuna de America"
+(Cradle of America). Santiago also boasts a daily paper, "El Diario,"
+as also several smaller papers and literary periodicals. In Puerto
+Plata "El Porvenir," the oldest of existing Dominican newspapers, is
+published, as well as three less important sheets.
+
+Especially interesting among these publications are the "Cuna de
+America" and others devoted to belles-lettres. They constitute a
+reflection of current Dominican literature, being given over to poems,
+lyric compositions, biographic, historical, philosophic and other
+articles, and extracts from new plays and books. In these periodicals
+most of the poems which have brought fame to Santo Domingo
+have appeared.
+
+Before the intellectual awakening incident to the labors of Hostos the
+number of Dominican writers was small. Little was done in colonial
+times. In the turbulent period following the cessation of Spanish
+sovereignty at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the situation
+of the country was not favorable for the cultivation of the muses, but
+scions of the families who then emigrated have made their names
+immortal in the literature of Cuba and other neighboring countries.
+Juan Pablo Duarte, the liberator, Antonio Delmonte y Tejada, the
+historian, and a small group of others who flourished shortly before
+or at the time of the establishment of the Republic, may be said to
+initiate the literature of the country, but their fame is mostly
+local. The first generation of Dominican citizens furnished a somewhat
+larger proportion of literary men, among whom may be mentioned the
+venerable Emiliano Tejera, the late Archbishop Fernando A. de Merino,
+Francisco X. Amiama, Francisco Gregorio Billini, Mariano A. Cestero,
+the historian Jose G. Garcia and the novelist Manuel de J. Galvan,
+though it is significant that the best productions of some of these
+appeared after 1880. It is since that year that literature has really
+flourished. So fecund have Dominican writers been, and so excellent
+their productions, that Santo Domingo occupies a proud place in the
+beautiful field of Latin-American literature, where only a few years
+ago it was practically unknown. There is an abundance of poets,
+essayists, historians and novelists worthy of mention, and an attempt
+to single out a few might lead to unjust distinctions. A number of the
+best writers are women, and all prominent newspaper men are also
+distinguished in literature.
+
+In poetry, especially lyric poetry, the Dominican writers excel. They
+show great depth of feeling and a full command of the sonorous
+Castilian tongue. A favorite theme is, of course, the old story which
+is ever new. The civil wars have inspired many pathetic compositions,
+and poems like Salome Urena's apostrophe to the ruins of colonial
+times, Bienvenido S. Nouel's elegy on the ruins left by the late
+revolutions, and Enrique Henriquez' "Miserere!", gems of verse, are
+veritable cries of anguish at the desolation wrought by fratricidal
+strife. Perhaps it is the poets' sorrow at the misfortunes of their
+country which is the cause of the note of sadness so often to be
+remarked in Dominican writings. Some writers are classed as poets
+though they have versified little or not at all; of these Tulio M.
+Cestero, one of the most popular of the younger writers, is an
+example, it being said of him that "he writes his poetry in prose."
+
+The love of poetry is by no means confined to persons of higher
+education, but is general throughout the country. It has been said
+that if there were one engineer in Santo Domingo for every hundred
+poets, there would be fewer mudholes in the roads. The productions of
+some poetasters are characterized by an abundance of rare adjectives,
+which are introduced as well to give an impression of depth of thought
+as to advertise the author's erudition. However, there are so many
+good poets that forgiveness is readily extended to the others.
+
+The national song of Santo Domingo, an ode to liberty, was written by
+a school teacher, Emilio Prud'homme. The music was composed by Jose
+Reyes, who died several years ago, and is agreeable and almost
+majestic. Reyes occupies probably the most prominent place among
+Dominican composers. Others have also obtained prominence, and their
+number is constantly increasing; among them special mention may be
+made of Jose de J. Ravelo, one of the younger men whose work has
+attracted attention and gives promise of even better things.
+
+In painting and sculpture several Dominicans have attained prominence
+of late fears. The principal artists are Arturo Grullon, a prominent
+oculist; Luis Desangles; and Miss Adriana Billini, whose paintings
+have received prizes in Paris, Porto Rico and Havana respectively.
+Desangles painted the picture "Caonabo," which hangs in the session
+hall of the City Council of Puerto Plata and shows the Indian chief in
+chains. The sculptors are few, and their fame so far is only local,
+The foremost is Abelardo Rodriguez U., a photographer of the capital,
+who is something of an artistic genius. His photographs can compete in
+artistic merit with the best produced anywhere, and he is also a
+painter of no small merit. His best known sculpture is the figure of a
+dying guerilla soldier, significantly entitled, "Uno de tantos"--"One
+of so many."
+
+Powerful assistance has been given to education and artistic
+development by various clubs and literary associations, especially
+women's clubs, throughout the country. Though at times eclipsed by
+revolutionary turmoil, their work has continued undaunted and has had
+gratifying results. The educational plane attained by Santo Domingo in
+spite of all obstacles, and the general recognition of the supreme
+importance of public instruction, justify confident predictions of
+advance in the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
+
+
+Railroads.--Samana-Santiago Railroad.--Central Dominican
+Railway.--Roads.--Mode of Traveling.--Inns.--Principal highways.
+--Steamer lines.--Postal facilities.--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+
+A potent cause of the undeveloped state of Santo Domingo's agriculture
+has been the absence of transportation facilities, which has likewise
+been a cause and an effect of the internal disturbances. There are but
+two public railroads in the Republic, both in the Cibao region, with
+an aggregate length of 144 miles. The highways are generally little
+more than trails, difficult and dangerous even in dry weather, and
+almost impassable in the rainy season. It is therefore not surprising
+that the northern and southern sections of the Republic should have
+developed almost as different countries and that large areas in the
+interior should be practically uninhabited.
+
+The importance and possibilities of railroad lines have been
+recognized and numerous concessions for railroad construction have
+been sought and granted; but the concessionnaires have, as a rule,
+either been impecunious, entering the field only with speculative
+intentions, or have been frightened off by the internal disturbances,
+and in either case the concession has been permitted to lapse.
+
+The oldest of the two railroads now in operation is the road known as
+the Samana-Santiago Railroad--something of a misnomer, as the road
+neither reaches Samana, on the one side, nor Santiago on the other,
+but extends from Sanchez, at the head of Samana Bay, to La Vega, a
+distance of 62 miles in the interior, with a branch to San Francisco
+de Macoris, 7 miles, and another branch to Salcedo, 11 miles, and
+Moca, 7 miles, or a total length of 87 miles. Prior to its
+construction, the products of the eastern portion of the Royal Plain
+had been floated on lighters or light draft boats down the Yuna River
+and across Samana Bay to Samana, where they were transshipped to
+ocean-going vessels. The value of a railroad in this region early
+became apparent, and a concession granted in 1881 was acquired by
+Alexander Baird, a wealthy Scotchman, who constructed the road. Under
+the concession the Dominican government granted the right to build and
+operate a railroad from Samana to Santiago, to construct wharves on
+Samana Bay and collect wharf dues, and to enjoy certain tax exemptions
+and other privileges.
+
+The Gran Estero, the large swamp just west of Sanchez, proved much
+more difficult to cross than the engineers had calculated. It
+swallowed up tons of rock and thousands of pounds sterling. Further
+disappointment arose when public lands promised by the government
+failed to materialize. The enthusiasm of the promoters cooled and the
+construction work on the railroad ceased when La Vega was reached. To
+the east of Sanchez the road was continued along the Samana peninsula
+to Point Santa Capuza, but this position was abandoned and the
+terminus was established at Sanchez. The road from Sanchez to La Vega
+was opened to traffic in 1886.
+
+The important city of San Francisco de Macoris lay seven miles to the
+north of the line of the Samana-Santiago railroad and in 1892 a
+concession was granted to a prominent Dominican for the building of a
+connecting road. It was constructed with Dominican capital from La
+Gina to San Francisco de Macoris, and is leased to the Samana-Santiago
+Road and operated as a branch of this road.
+
+In 1907 the Samana-Santiago Railroad waived its right to the
+percentage of import duties collected at Sanchez, in consideration of
+a payment made by the government, and agreed to construct a branch
+line to Salcedo and later continue it to Moca. A line from Las
+Cabullas, on the main road, to Salcedo was promptly built and opened
+to traffic, but the Moca extension was delayed by civil disturbances
+and not completed until 1917.
+
+The gauge of the Samana-Santiago road is 1.10 meters, about three feet
+six inches. It rises very gradually from sea-level at Sanchez to the
+altitude of La Vega and Moca, about 400 feet. The engineering problems
+attending its construction and preservation have been those connected
+with the crossing of the Gran Estero swamp, and the bridging of
+numerous small tributaries of the Yuna River, which from modest
+brooklets in the dry season swell to turbulent torrents in rainy
+weather. The bridge across the Camu River near La Vega has been washed
+away repeatedly and further trouble has been caused by the river
+changing its course.
+
+The journey from Sanchez to La Vega, including the side trip to San
+Francisco de Macoris, consumes five and a half hours. After leaving
+Sanchez the end of the Samana range is soon reached and for miles the
+train travels across a mangrove swamp, where the bushy vegetation is
+exceedingly dense and the roadbed is covered with grass. Forests
+follow, the trees of which are encumbered with great hanging vines. As
+soon as a higher level is reached, clearings become frequent. At the
+stations along the route the entire population of the small towns
+seems to turn out to await the train's arrival. At two larger places,
+Villa Rivas and Pimentel, the train makes lengthier stops. The houses
+all along are similar, one story wooden buildings, generally
+whitewashed and roofed with tiles, corrugated zinc or palm thatch. La
+Gina is the beginning of the branch line which extends through
+monotonous woodland to San Francisco de Macoris. On the main line,
+after passing La Gina, there are numerous cacao plantations, and near
+La Vega the muddy Cotui road emerges from the woods and follows the
+railroad. About eight miles from La Vega is the station of Las
+Cabullas, the starting point of the branch to Salcedo and Moca.
+
+Affording, as it does, the outlet for the products of the eastern
+portion of the Cibao, the Samana-Santiago railroad transports the
+greater part of the cacao exported from the country. It has been the
+most important factor in the development of the Royal Plain, but owing
+to the country's internal troubles was run at a loss for years. It is
+well managed and of late years has made handsome profits.
+
+The name of the other Dominican railroad is also misleading, it being
+called the Central Dominican Railway, though only extending from
+Puerto Plata, on the north coast, to Santiago de los Caballeros, a
+distance of 41 miles, with an extension to Moca, 16 miles, a total of
+57 miles. Its name is due to the fact, that it was considered the
+first section of a road which was ultimately to connect Puerto Plata
+and Santo Domingo City. The need for such a road had been and is still
+urgently felt, and the construction of no portion was more imperative
+than that between Santiago and the coast. The mountain roads in this
+section were indescribably bad; a trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata
+meant at least two days of dangerous riding; and all merchandise to
+and from Santiago had to be transported on mule-back. President
+Heureaux therefore considered himself fortunate when the Dominican
+government was able, in 1890, in connection with a bond issue, to make
+contracts with the banking firm of Westendorp & Co., of Amsterdam, for
+the construction of the section of the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago. Belgian money was furnished and Belgian engineers made the
+plans. The road was given a gauge of only two feet six inches, and the
+short-sightedness is inconceivable which permitted the adoption on
+this road of a gauge different from that of the Samana-Santiago
+Railroad, when the two were expected to join in Santiago. Ultimately
+the gauge of the Central Dominican Railway will have to be widened,
+but the change will cost a considerable sum and require a complete
+renovation of the rolling stock. In view of the steepness of the
+slopes to be surmounted, the plans contemplated the construction, on
+several portions of the road, of a rack-line or cremaillere, a third
+track provided with cogs, between the other two, and the use of
+special mountain-climbing locomotives having a cogwheel by means of
+which the ascent was to be accomplished and the descent regulated. The
+Belgian engineers built the road from Puerto Plata as far as
+Bajabonico, a distance of about eleven miles.
+
+At this stage the financial difficulties of the Dominican government
+induced the Belgians to sell their rights to American interests, which
+formed the San Domingo Improvement Company to take them over. American
+engineers accordingly finished the road to Santiago. The rack-rail
+feature being undesirable, plans were made for the construction of the
+road as an adhesion road. No further rack-rail was built and one of
+the portions constructed was converted, but two short stretches of
+rack-rail remained near Puerto Plata, one of one mile and another of
+three miles. The Central Dominican Railway Company was incorporated
+for the operation of the road.
+
+During the controversy later carried on between the Dominican
+government and the San Domingo Improvement Company the Company
+contended that the road had cost in the neighborhood of $3,000,000, or
+about $600,000 in excess of the sums realized by the sale of the bonds
+assigned by the government to defray the cost of construction. The
+dispute found its settlement in the protocol of January 31, 1903, by
+which the Dominican government agreed to purchase all the holdings of
+the Improvement Company. In the negotiations of which this convention
+was an incident, the value of the railroad was generally estimated at
+$1,500,000. Upon the delivery by the Dominican government of the cash
+and bonds agreed upon by the settlement of 1907 as the price of the
+Improvement Company's interests, the Company, in February, 1908,
+turned over the railroad to the government. It has since been operated
+by the Dominican government with satisfactory results, though it has
+suffered serious injury from revolutions. The insurgents destroyed
+bridges and the rack-rail; the latter has not been replaced, and the
+four and ten per cent grades are now laboriously overcome by means of
+Shay geared engines. Surveys show that the troublesome grades can be
+avoided by the construction of curves which will increase the length
+of the road by not more than three or four miles.
+
+Owing to the mountainous character of the country traversed, the
+scenery on this road is splendid. The speed attained by the trains
+would not alarm a nervous wreck, for though the length of the road is
+about 41 miles, the ascent from Puerto Plata to Santiago takes almost
+six hours and the return trip from Santiago five, in which the slow
+engines, the steep grades, the former rack-road section and the
+numerous long stops have equal shares of responsibility. The roadbed
+is very rough and the passengers are considerably shaken up, but the
+memory of what used to be helps to mitigate the discomfort. On one of
+my trips over the road, when a fellow-passenger made a remark about
+the severe jolting that almost shook us off our seats, an elderly
+Dominican gentleman observed: "My friend, you evidently never took a
+trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata before the railroad was built.
+Compared with travel then, this mode of conveyance is like being
+carried in angels' arms." As on the Samana-Santiago Road, the regular
+trains are mixed trains, that is, a freight and passenger together,
+usually looking like a freight train with a small passenger car
+attached. Except in unusually dull periods there is one daily train
+each way. The city of Santiago is about 600 feet above the level of
+the sea; from here the course is over a rich plain among tobacco farms
+and meadows full of cattle, for a distance of about twelve miles,
+until the foothills are reached and the ascent of the coast range is
+begun. Higher and higher along the mountainside, through country
+wilder and wilder, the train winds its way to the highest point of the
+road, 1580 feet above sea-level and 20 miles from Santiago, where a
+short tunnel pierces the mountain. The mountain pass at this point is
+1720 feet above sea-level and is the lowest one in twenty miles. At
+the station on the other side of the mountain a fifteen minute stop is
+made for lunch. Then begins a rapid descent along a deep valley, on
+the wooded slopes of which little houses peer out between the trees.
+The town of Altamira, on a knob in the middle of the valley, is
+passed, and further down, near Bajabonico, a small sugar plantation.
+Another ascent, on which is the old rack-road section, is now
+reached; a powerful mountain engine is placed before the train and
+slowly works its way up. From the top of the ridge the scene is
+magnificent. Below, in the far distance, Puerto Plata is seen, a
+miniature city with tiny bright-colored houses, nestling at the foot
+of the great verdure-covered cone, Mt. Isabel de Torres; before it
+lies its almost circular harbor with what look like toy ships riding
+at anchor; the foam of the breakers on the reefs at the harbor
+entrance gleams in the sunlight; and beyond, in vast immensity extends
+the blue expanse of the ocean. On the final descent quicker time is
+made than anywhere else on the road.
+
+The extension of the Central Dominican Railroad from Santiago to Moca
+was built and is operated by the Dominican government. In 1894 a
+franchise was granted the San Domingo Improvement Company for the Moca
+road, and grading was done for several miles outside of Santiago, but
+the financial troubles of the Dominican government suspended the work.
+When better times came, the government in 1906 began to build the road
+from Santiago to Moca with current revenues, and it was opened to
+traffic in 1910. At Moca this road is met by the extension of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad from Salcedo, so that it is possible to
+travel by rail through the fertile Cibao from Sanchez to Puerto Plata,
+though the difference in gauge requires a change of cars at Moca.
+
+A railroad between the Cibao and Santo Domingo City has long been
+contemplated. Government engineers a few years ago surveyed a route
+from Santo Domingo City to La Gina, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad,
+passing through Cotui. The route is 80 miles long, and the estimated
+cost is about $2,325,000. Such a through railroad would open up great
+tracts now isolated, afford an easy means of communication between
+the north and south, and be of inestimable advantage to the Republic.
+It is the most urgent and important public work under consideration in
+the country.
+
+Another road which has long been projected and which the Dominican
+government in 1906 determined to have constructed with current
+revenues, is one in the east, from Seibo, on the plains in the
+interior, to the port of La Romana in the southern coast. This region,
+excellently adapted for cacao raising and sugar planting, has been
+kept secluded by bad roads. After several thousand dollars had been
+spent in surveys and a little grading, the work was stopped by lack of
+funds and the government decided that the expense of construction and
+the undeveloped character of the country counselled an abandonment of
+the project for the moment. If the railroad is finally built, it will
+probably be from Seibo to San Pedro de Macoris and not to La Romana.
+
+Even in the immediate vicinity of Santo Domingo City most roads are in
+such bad condition that during the rainy season villages only a few
+miles away cannot be reached except by floundering through the mud for
+many hours, and even during the dry season, with all conditions
+favorable, it requires two days hard riding to reach the city of Azua,
+80 miles to the west. A railroad from the capital to Azua has
+therefore been proposed repeatedly, and in 1901 a concession was
+granted for the first section thereof, from Santo Domingo to San
+Cristobal, a distance of 16 miles, with the right of extension. The
+revolution of the spring of 1903 interrupted the construction of this
+road, but a little work was done in 1906 under a new contract, which
+has since been declared lapsed.
+
+Private plantation railroads are to be found on several sugar
+plantations near La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo City
+and Azua, and on the United Fruit Company's plantation near Puerto
+Plata. They aggregate about 225 miles in length and are used
+exclusively for the purposes of the respective estates, except one
+which carries passengers between the town of Azua and its port on
+steamer days.
+
+In several of the larger cities carriages and light automobiles can be
+hired at a reasonable figure, and furnish the principal means of
+communication within the city and to other places as far as the roads
+will permit. Between Monte Cristi and La Vega there is a regular
+automobile service, as also between Santo Domingo City and nearby
+towns. In only one place is there a car line--in Monte Cristi, where a
+small car runs--if that term can be applied to its motion--between the
+town and the harbor, a little more than a mile away. The cars, each
+drawn by a meek little mule, remind one of matchboxes on wheels; they
+are open on all sides and contain simply two benches, back to back,
+which will hold a maximum of three passengers each. In Santo Domingo
+City there was a horse car line for almost twenty years, running out
+as far as Fort San Geronimo, about three miles; but in March, 1903,
+while the city was under siege during a revolution, the car barns were
+destroyed by fire and with them the entire rolling stock, the car
+axles being taken for barricades. In 1915 the government granted
+several franchises for electric car lines, one for Santo Domingo City,
+with the right to extend as far as Bani; another for Santiago, with
+the right of extension to Janico; and a third for Macoris, with the
+right of extension to Seibo, but no work has been done on
+these projects.
+
+On certain parts of the country roads there is communication by oxcart
+during the dry season, and in the arid region such communication is
+possible almost all the year round. On the Samana peninsula and in
+other mountain districts, merchandise is occasionally transported in
+Indian fashion, on two poles tied to a horse and trailing on the
+ground behind. In general, however, recourse must be had for
+transportation purposes to the faithful horse and the patient donkey.
+In the northern part of the Republic the ox is often used as a beast
+of burden and sometimes for riding, furnishing an odd spectacle. The
+ox is guided by a string tied to a ring in his nose, but neither the
+configuration of his back nor his gait are to be recommended for
+comfortable rides.
+
+Most of the roads of Santo Domingo can be called roads only by
+courtesy. They are generally little more than trails of greater or
+less width. The larger receipts enjoyed by the government since the
+customs collections were taken over by Americans in 1905, have caused
+a little improvement. Thus, a first-class macadam road has been
+constructed from Santo Domingo City to San Cristobal, a distance of
+sixteen miles; the old trail from Santo Domingo to San Pedro de
+Macoris has become available for automobiles; and the royal road in
+the Cibao from La Vega through Moca and Santiago to Monte Cristi, a
+distance of about 100 miles, formerly a horror, has been converted
+into a fair dirt road. The amount of work to be done appears all the
+more appalling when it is considered that in the small island of
+Jamaica, less than one-fourth the size of the Dominican Republic,
+there are 1000 miles of fine roads. The American authorities in the
+island are giving considerable attention to the improvement of the
+principal highways around and between the more important cities, and
+valuable work is being done. By an executive order of November 23,
+1917, the military governor appropriated $650,000, to be expended on
+portions of a trunk road which is ultimately to connect Santo Domingo,
+La Vega, Moca, Santiago and Monte Cristi.
+
+The majority of the roads and trails have scarcely been touched since
+their course was fixed, centuries ago. Occasionally the abutting
+property owners or an energetic communal chief cut away encroaching
+vegetation or drained an unusually bad bog or threw dirt from the
+sides of the road to the middle in order to raise it above water level
+in the wet season, but such instances of civic thoughtfulness have
+been only too infrequent.
+
+During the rainy season travel becomes troublesome on all roads and
+impossible on many. On the unimproved highways deep, dangerous bogs
+form in every depression, containing either liquid mud where the horse
+is almost forced to swim, or soft tough clay, where the horse's feet
+are imprisoned and the animal in its desperate efforts to jerk itself
+free indulges in contortions anything but pleasant for the rider. The
+horses and cargo animals ever treading in each other's footsteps,
+cause the earth to wear away in furrows across the road, which fill
+with water and with mud of all colors and conditions of toughness.
+With few interruptions the monotonous splash, splash, splash of
+horses' feet constantly accompanies the traveler. The first ten
+minutes of such a journey on slippery ground make the trip appear an
+adventure, the next ten an experience, but after that the expedition
+becomes exceedingly wearisome. In the dry season all moisture
+disappears and the ridges between the mud trenches become hard as
+brick. The efforts of travelers to avoid bad places by going around
+them has caused the roads to become very wide in places--the width
+varying from one to over a hundred feet. At times, in grassy or stony
+stretches, the road disappears entirely, and the traveler's best guide
+is the telegraph wire, where there is one. Again it passes through
+thorny woods with overhanging branches which continually threaten to
+unhorse the rider. Thus it winds along, through forests and plains,
+over fallen logs and trees, beside precipices, down steep banks,
+across rapid streams. A trip into the interior in Santo Domingo
+requires a good horse, a strong constitution and a large supply
+of patience.
+
+In rainy weather the traveled roads are even worse than the
+unfrequented ones, for the ground is rendered more miry, and the bogs
+are more frequent. On a highroad near La Vega I arrived at a mudhole
+where an old man was being rescued by a passer-by from drowning in the
+liquid mud; I snapped a photograph of the scene when he was still
+knee-deep. Near the city of Moca there is a slope where many a horse
+has fallen and thrown its rider on the slippery loam. A friend of mine
+who for safety's sake alighted from his horse to walk to the other
+side of the gully, had his foot so tightly lodged in the pasty mud
+that, in his straining to withdraw it, the foot slipped out of the
+shoe, which remained as firmly imbedded as before. His posture and
+predicament were naturally a good deal more amusing for his companions
+than for himself. Yet some of these roads in dry weather are excellent
+dirt roads. On a road in the Cibao I made a trip of fifteen miles in
+the rainy season in five hours of hard riding and arrived with an
+exhausted horse; six months later when the road was dry I made the
+same journey comfortably in an hour and a half. On the first of these
+occasions--it was in the course of a vacation trip for the purpose of
+studying the country--I happened upon two other travelers and together
+we floundered for many weary miles through black mud varying from the
+consistency of soup to that of pudding. The road was indescribably
+bad, and riders and horses were covered with mire and thoroughly
+fatigued. That evening at the inn, through the open door between our
+rooms, I heard my traveling companions discussing me. One of them
+asked: "What is his object in coming here?" The other answered: "He
+says he is traveling for pleasure." "Then," responded the first
+solemnly, "he is either lying or he is insane."
+
+The streams must usually be crossed either by fording or by ferry, and
+not infrequently the horse must swim part of the distance across.
+Outside the railroad bridges, there are scarcely half a dozen bridges
+which deserve the name in the Dominican Republic. A good bridge has
+recently been constructed over the Jaina River on the San Cristobal
+road, and another was completed in May, 1917, across the Ozama River
+at Santo Domingo City, in place of one destroyed by a freshet some
+years ago. Bridges, where there are any, are generally rude logs laid
+across brooks.
+
+When journeying overland it is advisable to take advantage as much as
+possible of moonlight nights. It is best to rise at two or three
+o'clock in the morning, ride until about eleven o'clock, then rest for
+about three hours while the sun is highest, and then continue till
+evening. Riding at night, however, exposes one to the danger of making
+too intimate an acquaintance with some mudhole or some low hanging
+bough or telegraph wire, but these risks can be avoided by vigilance.
+The hours of dawn are the coolest of the twenty-four, and more
+distance can be covered with less fatigue than later in the day.
+
+If the traveler takes the precaution to furnish himself with canned
+food before starting on a journey inland, he will not regret his
+foresight. Inns do not exist out in the country. In the larger cities,
+indeed, there are hotels, but all are modest establishments. Perhaps
+the most pretentious is the French Hotel in Santo Domingo City. In
+hotels which are located in important seaports or railroad termini and
+are frequented by travelers, the meals and accommodations are fair. In
+other localities the food is almost inedible to an unaccustomed
+palate, and the sleeping accommodations are primitive cots. Even in
+important towns like Moca and Azua I found the inns kept by poor
+mulatto women, widows with families, having one room for travelers,
+divided from the family apartment by a thin partition, through which
+all the proceedings on the other side could be followed throughout
+the night.
+
+The difficulty of land transportation explains why, with the exception
+of three cities in the Cibao, all important towns are located on the
+seacoast. It also makes plain why water transportation is preferred to
+travel by land, and the inhabitants of the north and south await the
+bi-weekly steamer rather than make the trip overland, which in the
+most favorable cases will take about three days. The roads and trails
+are used for travel locally or when boat connections are not
+convenient or feasible, and for mail transportation. The following are
+the principal highways:
+
+1. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao, by way of Bonao. There are
+three roads from Santo Domingo City to the Cibao, the most westerly
+one being the Bonao trail, the most easterly one the Sillon de la
+Viuda and the middle one the Gallinas trail. The Bonao road leaves
+Santo Domingo by way of Duar Avenue and San Carlos and ascends gently
+in a northwesterly direction through slightly rolling land to the
+Santa Rosa plain, which it traverses. As far as Los Alcarrizos it has
+been improved, but further on it is merely a dirt road without
+drainage and becomes one long slough in rainy weather. On the Jobo
+savanna the road divides; the eastern branch runs along a range of
+hills and the western branch over to the Jaina River, where it passes
+the site of the old mining town of Buenaventura, of which only a few
+vestiges of walls remain. Whichever of the two branches the traveler
+takes, he will be sorry he did not choose the other, for they are
+equally bad. The branches meet on the plain of Las Nasas, from where
+the highway continues through wooded lands and natural meadows,
+crossing the Jaina River three times and the Guananitos River nine
+times. The soil is a rich, soft loam, pure vegetable detritus, and the
+frequent rains and the absence of drainage make this part of the road
+very difficult at all seasons. After crossing a stretch of beautiful
+savanna, known as Sabana del Puerto, the ascent of a range of the
+central mountain system begins. The road makes many windings along the
+mountain side until the heights of Laguneta are attained. The high
+hill of Piedra Blanca must be crossed and a number of small streams
+forded before Bonao is reached. From Bonao to La Vega the road is of
+the same general character. There are many miry places, many ascents
+and descents and many difficult river passes, the Yuna River, near
+Bonao, being crossed by ferry. On some of the steep descents the
+horses and mules accustomed to the road put their four feet together
+and slide, while the unaccustomed traveler feels his hair standing on
+end. The distance from Santo Domingo City to Bonao is about 65 miles;
+from Bonao to La Vega some 30 miles.
+
+This seems to have been an ancient Indian trail between Santo Domingo
+and the Cibao. Bartholomew Columbus, under orders from his brother,
+founded both Buenaventura and Bonao in 1496 as military posts, as
+part of the chain of forts stretching across the island. The decay of
+these towns when the mines were abandoned, the miry soil and the many
+crossings of streams all caused travel to be diverted to the road of
+the Sillon de la Viuda. The Bonao road, being the most direct route to
+La Vega, has been designated by the military government for
+improvement as a trunk road.
+
+2. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the pass of the
+Sillon de la Viuda, or Widow's Chair. While the Widow's Chair road is
+about twenty miles longer than the Bonao road, it is preferable since
+on the whole it lies over firmer ground. It leads due north from Santo
+Domingo City and after four miles the Isabela River is crossed by
+ferry near its confluence with the Ozama. A steep ascent follows and
+the road runs through wooded land until the town of Mella is reached.
+Small forests and wide savannas follow each other in rapid succession;
+the Ozama River is forded and a stretch of swampy soil with bad bogs
+is encountered. A fine piece of prairie land known as the Luisa
+savanna is crossed, more natural meadows follow and the ascent of the
+central mountain range begins. The road becomes so steep that the
+rider can scarcely keep his seat on his horse. From the summit, the
+Widow's Pass, which is almost 2000 feet above the level of the sea, a
+sublime view of mountains, valleys and plains is obtained. The pass
+itself is a narrow rocky defile where a score of men might hold an
+army at bay. It is said that there are lower passes in the vicinity by
+utilizing which the steep grade might be avoided, but the fact could
+be ascertained only by a more thorough exploration than has yet been
+made. On the north the road descends through heavy timber, with many
+miry places. Savannas separated by small forests are then crossed and
+the little town of Cevicos is reached, the halfway place between Santo
+Domingo and La Vega. Eighteen miles further on, separated from Cevicos
+by a hard road crossed by numerous deep gullies, sleeps the ancient
+town of Cotui. The Yuna River near Cotui must be crossed in canoes.
+Then follows a road thirty-five miles long to La Vega, which in the
+rainy season is little more than mud and water, but leads through a
+beautiful wooded country. It is better to take the road from Cotui to
+La Gina, or that to Pimentel, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and
+complete the journey by rail, for though the character of these trails
+is similar to the La Vega trail, they are only about fifteen
+miles long.
+
+3. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the Gallinas Pass.
+This is also an ancient trail which formerly passed through the town
+of Yamasa, but was diverted to shorten the distance to the Cibao.
+Leaving Santo Domingo the same route is followed as in going to the
+Widow's Pass, as far as Mella, where the road branches off to the
+left. Small grassy plains and rolling wooded lands are traversed, as
+is also the wide prairie known as the Maricao savanna. Several streams
+are forded, among them the upper Ozama, and the country continues of
+the same general character until the huts on the old cattle ranch of
+la Guazuma, formerly Las Gallinas, are sighted. Here the road slopes
+upward as far as the foot of the Demajagua mountain, when a long
+tedious ascent to the pass begins, followed by a rough ride through
+the mountains. The long descent toward Cotui is broken by numerous
+water-courses. No less than eleven smaller streams are forded, and
+there are three crossings of the Chacuey River, before the road
+leading to Cotui from Cevicos and the Widow's Pass is attained near
+the former town. By this road it is about 65 miles from Santo Domingo
+to Cotui.
+
+The three passes described are the only ones suitable, so far as
+known, for communication between the capital and the Cibao. There are,
+indeed, lower and more convenient passes farther to the east, but the
+roads emerge near Samana Bay, too far from the Royal Plain to be
+available. The middle route of the three, that by way of the Gallinas
+Pass, is followed by the telegraph line and used by the post. It has
+been preferred by travelers for it is considered the shortest road to
+the Cibao and its highest point is reported to be only about 1200 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+4. Road from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar. Since the southeastern
+part of the Dominican Republic consists of great plains, the roads in
+this region are all perfectly level and less difficult than those of
+the mountains, but they are little more than trails and the wide
+savannas make traveling monotonous. The road which turns northeast
+from Santo Domingo on the left side of the Ozama passes the sugar
+estates there situated, continues by a wide path through a lightly
+wooded country to the town of Guerra and shortly thereafter enters
+upon the Guabatico prairie, which it crosses in its entire width of
+over twenty miles. The ascent to the first pass, that of the
+Castellanos mountain, then begins. The descent is as easy as the
+ascent, a valley is crossed in which the headwaters of the Macoris
+River are forded, and then follows a long ascent to the second pass.
+From the foot of the mountain to El Valle and Sabana la Mar the
+country is wooded and the road level and wide, but so miry as to be
+practically impassable during the entire rainy season. The distance
+from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar is something over sixty miles.
+
+5. Road from Santo Domingo to Higuey. This road is the same as the
+Sabana la Mar road as far as Guerra, then traverses small forests and
+grassy plains to Seibo, passing through the important towns of Los
+Llanos and Hato Mayor. The greater part of the last 36 miles of the
+road, from Seibo to Higuey, runs over the foothills of the central
+mountain range. The entire length of the road is about 110 miles.
+
+6. Road from Santo Domingo to Azua. On this ancient road more military
+expeditions have marched and fought than on any other in the island of
+Santo Domingo. Spanish, British, French, Haitian, Dominican and
+American forces have tramped on its dusty course. The road runs west
+from Santo Domingo City parallel with the seashore. Near the city it
+is a perfectly level boulevard bordered by pretty cottages. About
+three miles from the town the small fortress of San Geronimo is
+passed, a romantic structure, built by the early Spaniards as an
+outpost against piratical invasions. Seven miles further on is the
+collection of huts constituting the town of Jaina on the river of the
+same name. A fine new bridge spans the river and the road continues
+through luxuriant tropical vegetation. The little town of Nigua, with
+an old chapel perched high on a hill, is reached, and here the road
+divides, the left branch continuing near the seashore, while the right
+branch turns inland to San Cristobal. The former pursues its way over
+land generally level though with occasional steep hills and cut by
+frequent brooks, skirts the ocean beach for a short distance, crosses
+the turbulent Nizao River by a long and dangerous ford and enters the
+arid country. The other branch extends to the grass-grown town of San
+Cristobal, where the macadam road from Santo Domingo ends. Continuing,
+the road traverses a fertile country by way of the town of Yaguate,
+crosses the broad bed of the Nizao River, which changes its channels
+with dangerous frequency, threads a way through monotonous woods and
+joins the other road near Paya. But a few miles further on is the
+clean little town of Bani. From here two roads lead to Azua. The
+inland road leads through the pass of Las Carreras,--where Santana on
+April 21, 1849, assured the independence of Santo Domingo by his
+victory over the Haitian forces--and finally joins the coast road. The
+road of the seacoast, which, though longer, is preferable by reason of
+being more level, leaves Bani through a weird country, where giant
+cactus is the only vegetation produced by the rocky soil. After
+crossing a stretch of grass-grown tableland it descends to the waters
+of Ocoa Bay and continues literally through the surf. Several hours of
+travel through a dreary forest of cactus and thorny brush then follow
+before Azua is reached.
+
+7. Cibao Valley Road. The road, or combination of roads, from Samana
+Bay to Monte Cristi, lies in level country. The urgency for the
+improvement of the eastern portion has been less since the
+establishment of the railroad from Sanchez to La Vega, and the trail
+from near the mouth of the Yuna River to San Francisco de Macoris,
+with the branches from there to Moca and La Vega, is now important
+only locally. The two roads between La Vega and Santiago, however, in
+the heart of the Royal Plain, are the most important and most heavily
+traveled highways in the Republic. They run through the most fertile
+section of the island, are quite level, and available for carts and
+automobiles, but in the rainy season they become very muddy. The
+direct road from La Vega to Santiago is about twenty-seven miles long
+and lies to the south of the famous Santo Cerro. The other road is
+about six miles longer and passes through the important city of Moca.
+After leaving La Vega and crossing the yellow Camu, the latter road
+skirts the northern slope of the Santo Cerro and the traveler who
+can, deserts it temporarily to climb the rocky height and regale
+himself with a view of the most magnificent valley of the West Indies.
+Upon passing the second brook after leaving the foot of the Santo
+Cerro the road traverses historic ground, for here stood the important
+city of La Concepcion, or old La Vega. The distance from La Vega to
+Moca is about fifteen miles and from here two roads lead on to
+Santiago, both about eighteen miles long and both lined with fine
+cacao plantations, but one turning a little to the south while the
+other approaches the foothills and leads through the smiling town of
+Tamboril. From Santiago on there are two roads, one to the north and
+the other to the south of the Yaque River. They lie through a dry
+country where cactus is the favorite product of the soil. The road
+along the northern bank of the Yaque is the better of the two, since
+the roadbed is good and there are few rivers to cross. It is the
+highway between Santiago and Monte Cristi, a distance of sixty-seven
+miles, and passes through the inland town of Guayubin. The southern
+road crosses numerous streams which flow down from the Cordillera to
+join the Yaque, turns southwesterly at Guayubin and continues to
+Dajabon and on into the borders of Haiti.
+
+The above are the highways of most traffic. There is further a main
+road or rather trail westward from Azua along Lake Enriquillo and
+leading on to Port-au-Prince; another from Azua northwesterly through
+the fertile valley of San Juan, also leading into Haiti; and two
+perilous trails branching off from the latter road and running through
+remote mountain regions to Santiago and La Vega. There is no direct
+communication in Dominican territory between the northwestern and
+southwestern portions of the Republic, and it is necessary either to
+make a long detour or to pass through Haitian territory. Less
+important local trails, more or less difficult of travel, are to be
+found in all inhabited portions of the country.
+
+In order to avoid the troubles of land travel, recourse is had,
+whenever possible, to water transportation. The foreign steamship
+lines afford considerable relief in this respect, for they generally
+stop at more than one port of the Republic. In normal times there are
+four foreign steamer lines with passenger service to Dominican
+ports, namely:
+
+The Clyde line, with bi-weekly sailings between New York and Santo
+Domingo, stopping at Monte Cristi, Puerto Plata, Samana, Sanchez,
+Macoris and Santo Domingo City, and Azua.
+
+The Cuban "Herrera Line," with a tri-weekly steamer service between
+ports of Cuba and Porto Rico, calling at Santo Domingo City
+and Macoris.
+
+The "Compagnie Generale Transatlantique," two routes of which touch in
+the Republic. A monthly steamer between French and Haitian ports calls
+at Puerto Plata, and returning also at Sanchez, in the Dominican
+Republic, and then makes calls in Porto Rico and St. Thomas. A smaller
+steamer plying once a month between Haitian ports and Guadeloupe and
+Martinique calls at Santiago de Cuba, Santo Domingo City, Porto Rican
+ports and St. Thomas. The steamers on these routes, though not
+uncomfortable, are venerable hulks which have seen long service in
+different parts of the world.
+
+The Hamburg-American Line, a monthly steamer of which called regularly
+at Santo Domingo City and also at other points in the Republic when
+cargo conditions were favorable, and connected with other ports in the
+Antilles and with vessels from Europe. Other steamers of this line
+called at the northern ports to take cargo to Europe.
+
+There is further a fruit line between Boston and Puerto Plata and
+sugar steamers between New York and Macoris during the cane grinding
+season, but they carry no passengers. How far the interests of Spain
+and Santo Domingo have diverged is indicated by the fact that not one
+of the Spanish transatlantic liners which run to Porto Rico, Cuba,
+Central and South America, touches in Santo Domingo.
+
+A steamer of the Bull line runs between ports in Santo Domingo and
+Porto Rico and there is also a coast line under Dominican registry,
+which extends to Porto Rico, but the steamers of which do not
+distinguish themselves for comfort. Thus there is at present frequent
+steamer service between Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, but little
+communication with Haiti and Cuba.
+
+Most of the steamer lines touching in the Republic carry mails. Santo
+Domingo is a member of the International Postal Union and its post
+offices offer the usual facilities, except that there is no money
+order system. More than three-quarters of the incoming foreign mail
+comes from the United States, including Porto Rico, and over one-half
+the outgoing foreign mail is directed to this country. The American
+authorities are engaged in a thorough re-organization of the Dominican
+postal service.
+
+In connection with the post offices the government operates a
+telegraph and telephone system. The government lines connect all the
+more important points in the country. Constructed without plan or
+method and insufficiently cared for, these lines are all in poor
+condition and badly in need of repair or reconstruction. The charges
+are high and the service poor. The government also has a wireless
+telegraph station at Santo Domingo City and another at Macoris.
+
+The French Submarine Telegraph Co. affords Santo Domingo cable
+connection with the rest of the world. Its cable touches at Puerto
+Plata and Santo Domingo City, crossing the Republic by means of a land
+line which is also open to local messages. The interruptions of
+communication over this land line in the various revolutions have
+given rise to numerous damage claims on the part of the Company.
+
+There are also telephone lines on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and on
+the Central Dominican Railroad operated in connection with the
+respective roads. Local public telephone systems are in operation in
+Santo Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris, and there are private
+telephone lines between the principal cities and plantations in
+their vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+COMMERCE
+
+
+Exports and imports.--Foreign trade.--Trade with the United States.--
+Ports of entry.--Wharf concessions.--Domestic trade.--Business
+houses.--Banks.--Manufactures.
+
+
+The fact that Dominican commerce has more than trebled in twelve years
+demonstrates the epoch-making character of the fiscal convention with
+the United States. The trade figures since 1905 are as follows:
+
+
+              GROWTH OF DOMINICAN TRADE
+       (All figures are in American currency)
+
+           Imports         Exports         Total
+
+1905     $ 2,736,828     $ 6,896,098     $ 9,632,926
+1906       4,065,437       6,536,378      10,601,915
+1907       4,948,961       7,628,356      12,577,317
+1908       4,767,775       9,396,487      14,164,262
+1909       4,425,913       8,113,690      12,539,603
+1910       6,257,691      10,849,623      17,107,314
+1911       6,949,662      10,995,546      17,945,208
+1913       8,217,898      12,385,248      20,603,146
+1913       9,272,278      10,469,947      19,742,225
+1914       6,729,007      10,588,787      17,317,794
+1915       9,118,514      15,209,061      24,327,575
+1916      11,664,430      21,527,873      33,192,303
+
+
+The increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the entire trade
+of the country in 1905. The temporary setback of 1909 was caused by
+the partial failure of the cacao crop and the paralyzation of
+commerce in anticipation of lower tariff rates. That of 1914 was due
+to the European war and a domestic revolution. Santo Domingo has,
+however, repeatedly presented the anomalous spectacle of showing
+enormous trade figures in the midst of warfare, as for example, in
+1912. The advance in commerce has been especially marked since the
+presence of the American troops assured peaceful conditions.
+
+Not a year has passed since 1904 without a large balance of trade in
+favor of Santo Domingo. While the greater part of this is represented
+by huge sugar profits which have gone to foreign investors, a
+considerable portion remained in the country. The great increase in
+wealth since 1904 is apparent to anyone who knew the country at
+that time.
+
+The imports cover the wide range to be expected in a nonmanufacturing,
+agricultural country in the tropics. The principal imports in
+1916 were:
+
+
+Cotton goods                                          $1,721,534
+Iron and steel manufactures, including sugar machinery 1,562,367
+Rice                                                   1,080,068
+Wheat flour                                              621,900
+Provisions, meat and dairy products                      530,195
+Oils                                                     545,284
+Bagging and other manufactures of vegetable fiber        508,644
+Vehicles and boats                                       408,832
+Manufactures of leather                                  385,518
+Wood and manufactures of wood                            317,421
+Codfish and other preserved fish and fish products       309,204
+Chemicals, drugs and dyes                                293,072
+Soap, and ingredients for the manufacture of soap        233,991
+Paper and manufactures of paper                          171,706
+Beer                                                     168,901
+Agricultural implements                                  121,830
+
+
+The United States furnished practically all the flour and other
+breadstuffs, oils, lumber, agricultural implements and leather
+articles and most of the cotton goods, hardware, machinery, fish, meat
+and dairy products. Before the European war all the rice was bought in
+Germany, as well as a considerable portion of the fish, beer, meat and
+dairy products. At present the rice is brought from the United States
+and England. The other imports from England are almost entirely cotton
+goods and bagging, with some iron and steel manufactures.
+
+In the chapter on the flora of the country, statistics are given with
+reference to the exports of the country, which are, as there pointed
+out, principally: sugar, cacao, tobacco, coffee, bananas, beeswax and
+honey, hides, cotton, hardwoods and dyewoods.
+
+Owing to its geographical position the United States naturally has the
+greater part of Dominican trade, but since the European war set the
+commerce of the world awry that proportion has grown until in 1916 the
+imports from the United States, including Porto Rico, were 90.4 per
+cent of the total and the exports to the United States and Porto Rico
+were 82.8 per cent of the total, though the latter figure varies
+somewhat from final destination, as much of the sugar and cacao is
+shipped subject to order. Before the European war something more than
+one-half of the trade of Santo Domingo was with the United States,
+one-fifth with Germany, and the remainder with France, England and
+other countries. The countries of origin of imports and destination of
+exports of the Dominican Republic in the year 1916, as compared with
+the list for 1913, the last preceding normal year, are here shown:
+
+DOMINICAN TRADE BY COUNTRIES
+
+
+IMPORTS
+                          1913                       1916
+
+                    Value     Percentage       Value       Percentage
+                              of whole                     of whole
+
+Cuba             $     7,352       .08        $   136,587      1.17
+France               274,318       2.96           152,358      1.30
+Germany            1,677,833      18.10              ----      ----
+Italy                173,105       1.87            63,450      .54
+Porto Rico            62,900       .67            378,219      3.24
+Spain                210,781       2.27           151,451      1.30
+United Kingdom       730,191       7.88           481,305      4.13
+United States      5,769,061      62.22        10,162,698     87.13
+Other Countries      366,737       3.95           138,362      1.19
+
+Total            $ 9,272,278     100.00       $11,664,430    100.00
+
+EXPORTS
+
+Cuba             $    27,536        .26       $    19,447      .09
+France               887,907       8.48           287,799      1.34
+Germany            2,068,384      19.76              ----      ----
+Italy                 20,430        .19             2,496      .01
+Porto Rico            28,994        .28           425,483      1.98
+United Kingdom       241,810       2.31           105,107      .49
+United States      5,600,768      53.49        17,412,088     80.88
+Other Countries    1,594,118      15.23         3,275,543     15.21
+
+Total            $10,469,947     100.00       $21,527,873    100.00
+
+
+Very interesting statistics with reference to all these matters are
+published annually in the report of the general receiver of Dominican
+customs. Since the establishment of the receivership full and accurate
+trade statistics have become available for the first time in the
+history of the Republic. Before 1891 no statistics at all were kept.
+During the nineties there was an attempt at compilation, but the
+corruption in the custom-houses was so notorious that the figures
+cannot be regarded as reliable. For the disturbed years immediately
+following the death of Heureaux the data are incomplete and uncertain.
+
+The question of shipping has been a serious problem confronting
+Dominican commerce since the beginning of the European war. Freight
+rates are rising to almost prohibitive figures, which have their
+effect in an enormous increase in the cost of living, Santo Domingo
+has as much reason as the rest of the world to desire an early
+cessation of the world calamity.
+
+After the war the old trade rivalry will be revived, but American
+commerce with the Republic should easily retain its lead, if properly
+cultivated. The observations so frequently made with reference to the
+extension of American trade with South America also hold good in the
+case of Santo Domingo. American merchants should send as
+representatives cultured men who speak Spanish; they should provide
+catalogs in good Spanish with accurate descriptions of the articles
+offered; they should fill orders as received, without substituting
+other articles; they should pack their shipments very carefully and
+with a view to local transportation conditions. The success of the
+Germans in building up their Dominican trade was due in large measure
+to the polish and fluent Spanish of their representatives, to their
+thorough study of local conditions, and to their favorable terms
+of payment.
+
+American commerce with Santo Domingo would be further stimulated and
+strengthened by a tariff reciprocity agreement similar to the customs
+convention between the United States and Cuba. The mutual advantages
+of such an agreement would be enormous and the development of Santo
+Domingo would be effectively promoted. Closer relations would also be
+fostered by a postal convention applying the domestic rates of postage
+to all mail between the two countries, a good beginning having been
+made by a recent arrangement applying the domestic postage rate to
+letters between the United States and the Dominican Republic.
+
+The Dominican Republic has twelve ports of entry, but nine-tenths of
+the foreign commerce goes through the ports of Macoris, Santo Domingo,
+Sanchez and Puerto Plata. The first two supply the import and export
+requirements of the southern portion of the Republic, the other two
+those of the Cibao. The other eight custom-houses exist for local
+convenience and for the prevention of smuggling. This is especially
+true of the three along the Haitian frontier. In former years there
+was considerable smuggling across the border, as the import duties on
+certain articles in Haiti are much lower than in the Dominican
+Republic. Although the profitable smuggling business demoralized trade
+in those regions, the government did not interfere with it owing to
+the difficulty of policing the wild and sparsely populated border
+district. The American general receiver determined that the back door
+should be guarded as well as the front entrance, and formed a frontier
+guard which stopped contraband traffic, though at a heavy cost, for
+two brave American officials have been killed and three wounded by
+smugglers and outlaws, while fourteen Dominican guardsmen and
+inspectors have been killed and twenty-three wounded. The expense of
+the three frontier custom-houses is greater than the revenue they
+produce, but entries in Azua, Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata increased
+significantly after the frontier guard began its patrolling.
+Incidentally the guard has helped to keep the boundary line in place.
+
+In the seaports most of the loading and unloading is done by lighters,
+the wharves generally being small affairs. Only in Puerto Plata (where
+extensive harbor improvements are now under way), Macoris and Santo
+Domingo can larger vessels approach the wharves. All the wharves were
+built under concessions from the government, which, in the
+impossibility to provide them itself on account of its perpetual lack
+of funds, was obliged to procure their construction by granting the
+right to collect a specified wharf tax, more or less onerous, for a
+period of years. The Santo Domingo City wharf concession provided that
+everything exported from and imported into this city or any other
+coast point in the province must pay the tax, whether the wharf was
+used or not. The Samana wharf concession; as amended, gave the right
+to collect certain high wharf taxes for fifty years, from 1875 to
+1925, in return for the building of a diminutive dock. One of the
+important objects accomplished through the 1907 bond issue was the
+redemption by the government of the monopolistic wharf concessions.
+
+A peculiar feature of the country's domestic trade is that almost
+fifty per cent of it is in the hands of Syrians. These people are
+found in a number of the West India Islands, but nowhere have they
+gained such a foothold as in Santo Domingo. They appeared in the
+nineties, and for a number of years confined their activities to
+peddling goods about the country, both men and women traveling around
+with great bundles of merchandise which they spread out wherever they
+met prospective purchasers. Their next step was to establish retail
+stores and crowd the native Dominican storekeeper out, and of late
+years they have opened large business houses. They are not regarded
+as a desirable element, as they do not amalgamate or mingle with the
+Dominican population, but seem possessed of the single idea to make a
+fortune and return with it to their country.
+
+Such part of the retail trade as is not controlled by Syrians, is
+mostly in the hands of Dominicans. The stores are generally small,
+with a limited stock of goods; they have no show-windows, but are
+arranged on the style of bazars. Fixed prices are rare and most sales
+become negotiations with the polite shopkeeper. In the country it is
+customary for the storekeeper to make advances of merchandise to the
+smaller farmers until crop time; they then pay him in cacao, coffee,
+tobacco or other farm products, which he remits to the seaport to the
+wholesale merchant with whom he deals.
+
+The larger business houses are in a majority of cases owned by
+foreigners, principally of Italian, German, Spanish, American and
+Cuban citizenship, and now also including numerous Syrian firms. A
+majority of those classed as Americans are natives of Porto Rico. A
+number of these merchants arrived in Santo Domingo as poor men and by
+hard work and shrewd investment built up respectable firms. They
+carefully preserved their foreign nationality as a valuable asset
+which protected them from undue interference on the part of the
+government. One of the most prominent and successful merchants of
+Santo Domingo was the late J.B. Vicini, an Italian who came to the
+country penniless, but with his energy and sagacity amassed the
+largest fortune of the island. His business is now managed by
+his sons.
+
+The larger merchants combine a banking business with their export and
+import business. The foremost of these private bankers of late years
+was Santiago  Michelena, a Porto Rican. Less than ten years ago there
+was not a single bank in the Republic, but there are now three well
+equipped banking institutions, all of them with their local
+headquarters in the capital. One of these is the International Banking
+Corporation, which is connected with the National City Bank of New
+York; it entered the Dominican Republic in April, 1917, by taking over
+Michelena's banking business. It has a branch in Macoris and Puerto
+Plata and agencies and correspondents throughout the country. Another
+bank is the Royal Bank of Canada, which does a flourishing business in
+a number of the West India Islands; it has branches in five cities of
+the Dominican Republic. The third bank is the Banco Nacional de Santo
+Domingo, incorporated by Americans under the Dominican banking law of
+1909, with a capital of $500,000. Although it has several branches,
+its business is not so active as that of the other banks, since it has
+lent most of its capital to the government. Under the banking law this
+institution has the right to issue bank notes, but it has not
+attempted to use the privilege.
+
+Slowly the establishment of small factories has proceeded, for the
+partial provision of local needs. The principal cities have ice
+plants, of which some are subject to annoying interruptions. In the
+Cibao there are several sawmills. Further there are, in the larger
+cities, small establishments for the manufacture of cigars,
+cigarettes, matches, rum, straw hats, shoes, chocolate, soap and a few
+other articles. These are financed by Dominican capital and are not
+able to supply the local demand. In Santo Domingo City are the remains
+of a costly brewery erected by Americans with a view to supplying the
+West Indies; it was ruined, so local reports say, by bad management
+and has been idle for fifteen years. If the amount of soap used by a
+people is really an index of its degree of civilization, then the
+Dominicans can claim to be far advanced, for the consumption of soap
+manufactured in the country and imported, is very considerable. The
+government has encouraged manufacturing enterprises and repeatedly
+granted concessions exempting their machinery and raw material from
+import duties for specified periods. The number of manufacturing
+plants will doubtless increase, but agriculture is bound to remain the
+mainstay of the country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+General condition of municipalities.--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+churches, streets, popular legends.--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+Province.--San Pedro de Macoris.--Seibo.--Samana and Sanchez.
+--Pacificador Province.--Concepcion de La Vega.--Moca.--Santiago
+de los Caballeros.--Puerto Plata.--Monte Cristi.--Azua.--Barahona.
+
+
+Compared with cities in the United States a majority of Dominican
+towns are hoary with age. The capital city and a number of others were
+founded more than a century before Virginia was settled, and had begun
+to decline almost a hundred years before the Pilgrims landed on
+Plymouth Rock. Yet such have been the vicissitudes of the country that
+only one city, the capital, shows signs of its antiquity; the others
+from their appearance might be taken to be but a few decades old, and
+with the exception of two or three ancient churches in the interior
+none of the older buildings of these towns have survived the ravages
+of time, wars and earthquakes. The modern appearance of most cities is
+heightened by the fact that frame structures predominate, and outside
+of Santo Domingo, Santiago, La Vega and Puerto Plata stone houses are
+infrequent.
+
+The impoverishment of the country by periodic revolutions has had its
+effect on the municipalities and prevented their proper development.
+In no city are all municipal needs and services properly attended to,
+and in most towns they are all badly neglected. Sanitary inspection is
+nowhere given due attention; sewers are practically unknown; but two
+cities, Puerto Plata and  Santiago, have a general system of
+waterworks, the others being dependent on water drawn from cisterns or
+wells, or carried from rivers or springs; in all but five or six
+little attention is paid to the condition of the streets. Only
+Santiago, Puerto Plata and Santo Domingo have electric light, but that
+of Santo Domingo is very deficient. Little by little conditions are
+improving and especially the larger municipalities are endeavoring to
+improve their streets and provide a water supply.
+
+To the smallness of the urban centers their lack of municipal
+conveniences is partly to be attributed. The Dominican towns are all
+built on the same general plan as other Spanish cities, being
+constructed around a central plaza on which the church and government
+building are located.
+
+The principal cities are the capitals of the twelve provinces, and the
+city of Sanchez. A brief description of these cities follows, with a
+reference to the other more important towns and villages of
+each province.
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+_Santo Domingo de Guzman_, the capital of the Republic and of the
+province of the same name, is the oldest city founded by Europeans in
+the new world, the first city, Isabela, having disappeared a few years
+after settlement. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus in 1496 on
+the east bank of the Ozama River as the capital of the colony, but the
+small houses constituting the town having been destroyed by a
+hurricane in 1502 it was transferred to the west bank of the river by
+order of Governor Ovando. It grew rapidly in population and wealth
+until it merited the eulogies of Oviedo who wrote to Charles V in 1525
+that he did not hesitate to assure that there was not in Spain a city
+he would prefer whether on account of advantageous and agreeable
+location, beauty and arrangement of squares and streets or charms of
+the surrounding country, adding that "their Highnesses oftentimes
+lodged in palaces which have neither the conveniences, the ample size
+nor the wealth of some of those in Santo Domingo." By the middle of
+the sixteenth century the city had passed the zenith of its glory, and
+its capture by Drake in 1586 and the destruction of the houses about
+the main plaza was a severe blow. The decline continued rapidly,
+although in 1655 the city was still strong enough to repel an invasion
+by Admiral William Penn. In 1684 and 1691 it was visited by
+destructive earthquakes and in 1700 it was full of ruins among which
+grew great trees. The lowest ebb was reached about 1737 when the
+population had fallen to 500 "and," writes Father Valverde, "more than
+half the buildings of the capital were entirely ruined, and of those
+still standing two-thirds were uninhabitable or closed and the other
+third was more than enough for the population. There were houses and
+lands whose owners were unknown, and of which people took advantage as
+belonging to the first one who might occupy them, either because there
+was entire lack of heirs of the owners or because they had emigrated
+elsewhere." In a few years, however, the tide of fortune turned and
+the city's rise was as rapid as its decline had been long, until by
+about the year 1790 it had quite recovered its ancient glory. Another
+reverse was quick in coming, for the cession to France in 1795 and the
+revolt of the negroes in French Saint-Domingue drove away the best
+inhabitants. In 1801 Toussaint l'Ouverture took possession of the city
+and in 1805 it was successfully held by the French against the siege
+of the negro emperor Dessalines. This siege was the beginning of a
+series lasting for a century. In 1809 after a desperate struggle the
+city was recaptured for Spain by the Dominicans, but from 1822 to 1844
+it was in the hands of the Haitians, and abandoned by all the whites
+who could flee. Since the declaration of Dominican independence in
+1844 almost every revolution has involved a siege of the capital.
+Within the last twenty-five years the city has made rapid strides
+forward and spread far beyond the old city walls.
+
+To the stranger Santo Domingo is by far the most interesting city of
+the Republic, on account of its stirring history and its venerable
+monuments of the past. Unfortunately the relics of the early days have
+met with scant respect from later generations, and ruins which would
+be the pride of other cities have been wantonly demolished. The
+Haitian governors gloried in this kind of vandalism, using the old
+churches as quarries and destroying the coats of arms of famous
+families which were cut in stone on the facades of their former houses
+and in their chapels in the cathedral. One which they left, on a house
+on Mercedes street, adjoining the government building, was obliterated
+in 1907 by the erection of a balcony. Since the declaration of
+independence ignorance and negligence have been responsible for much
+damage and the few administrations which took an interest in the old
+monuments needed all their money for military purposes. Ancient
+bastions have been needlessly razed, inscriptions effaced and no steps
+taken for the preservation of such memorials as remained. In 1883 a
+concession for the improvement of Santo Domingo harbor even provided
+that the concessionnaire might tear down the ruins belonging to the
+state and use the material for filling purposes; happily he was able
+to carry out but little of this part of the contract. The great
+majority of the brick and stone structures of Santo Domingo are
+ancient houses and convents preserved or rebuilt with more or less
+alteration. In some cases behind walls and doorways of great age are
+little huts of the poor. Though many signs of the past have thus
+disappeared, many still remain. It is to be hoped that the American
+authorities in Santo Domingo will be less indifferent to the
+preservation of ancient monuments than has been the case in other West
+Indian countries.
+
+The most interesting ancient building is the massive ruin known as the
+"House of the Admiral" or "House of Columbus," which even now, after
+centuries of neglect and decay, gives eloquent testimony of former
+greatness. It was built soon after 1509 by Diego Columbus, the son of
+the great navigator, on a height overlooking the Ozama River. Here
+Diego Columbus governed with regal splendor and here most of his
+children were born. It was the home of his widow, Maria de Toledo,
+until her death in 1549. Here also their son Louis Columbus lived for
+many years and embarked on two of his mad marriages. Another son,
+Cristobal, who was in the government employ in Santo Domingo, also
+seems to have lived in this house, after Louis went to Spain in 1551.
+On Cristobal's death in 1571 and that of Louis in 1572, it passed to
+Cristobal's son Diego. From the date of this Diego's death in 1578,
+when the direct male line of the Discoverer's descendants became
+extinct, the history of the house becomes obscure: it was sequestered
+by court decree in the course of the long inheritance litigation
+between the members of the Columbus family and appears to have been
+awarded in 1583 to the Admiral of Aragon, son of a sister of Louis and
+Cristobal, and in 1605 to Nuno de Portugal, grandson of another
+sister; the former may have sojourned there temporarily, but it is
+doubtful whether the latter or any of his descendants ever visited
+Santo Domingo. There is reason to believe that it was occupied for a
+time by the family of Luis de Avila, judge of Santo Domingo City, who
+was married to a daughter of Cristobal and whose children were still
+living in the colony at the end of the sixteenth century. When in 1790
+a descendant of this Avila was at length awarded the last vestiges of
+the Columbus honors, no attention seems to have been given to this
+house, which was then as complete a ruin as at present, though it was
+in better condition and the arcade supporting the front porch was
+still extant.
+
+The edifice is built of stone blocks; porches supported by graceful
+arches were once an attractive feature; the windows and principal
+doorways were embellished with handsome arabesques; and Oviedo and
+other chroniclers dwell at length on the magnificence of the interior.
+They especially refer to the beauty and value of a sculpture showing
+the arms of Castile, located in the great reception hall behind the
+viceroy's throne. At the present time the building is reduced to a
+mere shell, roofless and windowless; in a part of its interior there
+is a little palm thatch shelter for stabling horses; while the court
+yard and terrace reek with offal from dirty cabins round about.
+
+At the foot of the house of Columbus is part of the old city wall
+erected in 1537 and of which numerous portions remain intact, though
+all traces of the moat have disappeared. The old city was in the form
+of a trapezium occupying an area of a caballeria or about 200 acres,
+and the wall on the north side, provided with numerous redoubts and
+watch towers, was much the longest, the western wall being the
+shortest. Santo Domingo is one of the cities of the Spanish main which
+lay claim to the story that when the accounts for the city's walls
+were laid before the king of Spain, he went, to the window and gazed
+at the horizon, saying he was "looking for the reflection of those
+walls, for they must be built of gold, they cost so much." Judging by
+the relative size of the walls, the story should rather be awarded to
+Cartagena, in Colombia, or possibly to another city, but Santo
+Domingo's walls are massive enough to have justified the Spanish king
+in squinting at the horizon, at least. The ancient gates which were
+formerly closed from sunset to sunrise, still remain, but no longer
+afford the only means of ingress and egress as breaches have been made
+in the walls at most street terminations. The most famous of the old
+gates is the "Puerta del Conde," "Gate of the Count," so called
+because it was constructed by the Count of Penalva, Governor of Santo
+Domingo, about 1655, though the bastion through which it leads is as
+old as the city wall. It was here that the cry of independence was
+raised on February 27, 1844, and it is therefore regarded as the
+cradle of Dominican independence and its official name is "Bulwark of
+the twenty-seventh of February." Another important gate is the "Gate
+of San Diego," also called "Gate of the Admiral," near the ruins of
+Diego Columbus' house and affording communication with the wharves on
+the Ozama River. It is one of the original three gates of the city. Up
+the river, near the lumber market, is a very old ceiba tree to which
+it is claimed Columbus once tied up his vessel. Still further up the
+river is a spring the enclosure about which is said to have been built
+by Diego Columbus.
+
+"La Fuerza," the fort and barracks, is situated at the southeast
+corner of the city. According to an inscription over the gate it was
+built in the year 1783. Within its enclosure on a bluff at the place
+where the Ozama empties into the sea, rises the ancient citadel, the
+"Torre del Homenaje," "Tower of Homage" the enormously thick walls of
+which were erected not later than 1504. There are many who affirm that
+it was built before 1500, although the town was then situated on the
+other side of the river, and a cell with a small barred window is
+pointed out as the cell in which Bobadilla imprisoned Columbus before
+sending him to Spain in chains. Others claim that recently-discovered
+old foundation-walls on the east side of the river were the
+foundations of the building in which Columbus was confined. "In that
+case," Dominican wags observe, "the Tower of Homage is the place where
+he would have been confined if it had then been erected." In any event
+the tower and the terraces below it are the oldest fortifications
+constructed by white men in America. Cortez and Pizarro, Velazquez,
+Ponce de Leon, Narvaez and many others passed out of the Ozama River
+under the shadow of this building, full of hope for the future. Within
+its somber walls have been immured many an Indian chief in the time of
+the conquest and many a revolutionist in later days. The tower proper
+has been for years a political prison, while around the courtyard at
+its base on the riverside, is the common jail.
+
+The churches form an important connecting link between old and new
+Santo Domingo. Of these the most beautiful and imposing is the
+cathedral, built in what may be called Ibero-Romanesque style. As
+early as 1506 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered its erection, in 1512 a
+grant of revenue was made and two years later the work of construction
+was begun. In one of the chapels is a large rough-hewn mahogany cross
+on which is painted the legend: "This is the first sign planted in the
+center of this field to mark the beginning of this magnificent temple
+in the year MDXIV." The work progressed slowly; an inscription in the
+doorway leading to the plaza states that the church was completed to
+that point in 1527 and another inscription in the old choir, torn down
+in 1877, stated that the building was finished in 1540. It is probable
+that the original plans called for an even loftier building. One of
+the towers first projected was begun, but it was never concluded and
+the belfry is still a temporary one. Of late years there have been
+attempts to provide for the completion of this tower by popular
+subscription. The building has been damaged repeatedly by earthquakes
+and the repairs made have changed its original outer appearance on the
+plaza side. In its roof there is still lodged a cannon-ball fired into
+the city by a Spanish battery during the siege of 1809.
+
+In the interior, great pillars of a soft dark-red tint support the
+high groined arches and the effect is severe and impressive. The altar
+at the head of the nave is beautifully inlaid with wrought silver and
+is surmounted by the coat of arms of Spain placed there by order of
+Charles V, a relic of Spanish days which was hidden away while the
+Haitians were in possession of the city. On the altar platform a
+marble slab indicates the place where the bones of Columbus were found
+in 1877, another slab the former location of the remains taken to Cuba
+in 1795 as the remains of Columbus, and still another the resting
+place of Louis Columbus, the grandson of the Discoverer. At the end of
+the nave, near the entrance door, is the airy marble monument beneath
+which is guarded the casket that contains the remains of the
+Discoverer of America.
+
+The cathedral like the other churches is made more interesting by the
+ancient epitaphs on slabs in the pavement and walls, marking the
+burial places of persons famous in the history of the island. In one
+of the lateral chapels, which belonged to the Bastidas family, the
+resting place of Bishop Bastidas, who in the early days was bishop in
+Venezuela, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo, is marked by a large marble
+recumbant figure of a bishop and the chapel is therefore known as "the
+chapel of the stone bishop." Nearby is the tomb of his father, that
+Rodrigo de Bastidas who was imprisoned by Bobadilla, and an epitaph
+full of abbreviations which reads:
+
+"Here lies the very magnificent Sir Don Rodrigo de Bastidas, first
+Adelantado and Governor and Captain-General of Santa Marta, who in the
+year 1502 discovered Terra-firma by order of the Catholic Sovereigns
+from Cape Vela to Darien: he died March 28, 1527."
+
+Close by is another epitaph:
+
+"Here lies the virtuous, Christian and religious lady Dona Isabel
+Rodrigo de Romera, native of the noble town of Carmona, who was wife
+of the Adelantado Don Rodrigo de Bastidas and mother of the most
+reverend Bishop of San Juan, Don Rodrigo de Bastidas. She died
+September 15, 1533. May she rest in peace."
+
+And in Latin:
+
+"I believe that my Redeemer lived and that on the judgment day I shall
+be resurrected."
+
+In another chapel is a slab ten feet long with an elaborate coat of
+arms, surmounted by a helmet with flowing plumes, and having an
+inscription reading:
+
+"Here lies the magnificent knight Diego Caballero, councilor of this
+Island of Espanola, first secretary of the first Royal Audiencia which
+the Catholic Sovereigns established in these Indies. He died January
+22, 1553."  Surrounding this inscription is another:
+
+"Likewise lies here the generous lady Isabel Bacan, his good wife: she
+died in the year 1551."
+
+Above is a verse stating that he flourished with the strength given
+him by God, and on an adjoining stone are the words;
+
+"I have ended my cares. Hope and fortune, remain and seek others to
+mock."
+
+On another tombstone is the inscription:
+
+"This tomb belongs to Don Francisco de Almansa, canon of this holy
+principal church and commissioner of the Holy Inquisition, and to
+his heirs."
+
+There are many other interesting inscriptions. In one of the chapels
+is an artistic gem, a well preserved picture of Our Lady of Antigua,
+presented by Ferdinand and Isabella who are represented in an attitude
+of devotion at the foot of the Virgin. It is probably by Antonio del
+Rincon, their court painter. Other very old and obscure paintings in
+the church are ascribed to Velazquez or Murillo. Another chapel,
+adorned with the Dominican coat of arms in marble relief, is the
+resting place of Dominican celebrities.
+
+The oldest Christian church in the new world was that of San Nicolas,
+founded by Governor Nicolas de Ovando in 1502. It was suffered to go
+to ruin, then restored and used as a military hospital and then again
+abandoned to decay until, overgrown with weeds and almost roofless, it
+was latterly used by a blacksmith as his workshop. The suggestion was
+frequently made that it be converted into a museum of Dominican
+antiquities, but the matter was neglected too long and in 1909 the
+historic building was condemned and the front portion demolished, but
+the groined arch over the presbytery remains.
+
+The most picturesque ruin of the city is that of the church of San
+Francisco, erected by the Franciscan monks about 1504 at the most
+conspicuous point in the city, and which is now, after the destruction
+of San Nicolas church, the oldest church ruin in America. It was the
+largest church in old Santo Domingo. Here were deposited and probably
+still rest, the remains of Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the
+Discoverer. The church and convent, like several other churches of the
+city, were badly damaged by the earthquake of 1751 but were rebuilt
+better than before. When the Haitians came the church was abandoned;
+in 1824 it was assigned to the negro immigrants from the United States
+as a Methodist church, but it was allowed to go to complete ruin and
+much of its masonry was utilized by the Haitian rulers. A small part
+of the monastery has been rebuilt for use as an asylum for the insane.
+The Franciscan community was one of the wealthiest of the city, and
+fronting on the city's principal market still stands a large house
+formerly belonging to it and known as the "Casa del Cordon," "House of
+the Cord," because of a Franciscan's girdle hewn in stone over the
+doorway. Tradition says that Diego Columbus resided here while his
+palace was under construction.
+
+The other larger churches have all been restored and among them may be
+mentioned the church of St. Dominic or Santo Domingo founded in 1507,
+with massive walls and arches. It contains numerous tombs belonging to
+families that flourished in the island in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, but most of the inscriptions are rudely carved.
+A slab in one of the chapels shows a coat of arms with thirteen stars;
+there is no inscription further than a short Latin quotation from the
+26th psalm, but the stone is supposed to date from the latter part of
+the sixteenth century and to mark the grave of Lope de Bardeci, the
+founder of the chapel. Other churches are the lofty Mercedes church by
+the side of the ruined monastery of the friars of Mercy; the church of
+Regina Angelorum, the spacious building adjoining which, now used by
+the courts of justice, was formerly a nunnery; that of St. Clara,
+formerly a nunnery and rebuilt from ruin in 1885 by the sisters of
+charity; the church of San Lazaro, at the leper asylum; the quaint old
+church of Santa Barbara; and the chapel of San Miguel, founded about
+1520 by Miguel de Pasamonte, the royal treasurer, an inveterate enemy
+of the Columbus family. The old Jesuit church is used as a theater and
+the former Jesuit convent is occupied by business houses and private
+residences.
+
+The main plaza of Santo Domingo is a pretty square planted with
+flowers and shade trees. In the center stands a bronze statue of
+Columbus who is represented with the flag of Spain taking possession
+of Quisqueya for his sovereigns. At the foot of the pedestal is an
+Indian writing thereon the words found engraved on the box that
+contained what are believed to be Columbus' remains: "Ill'tre. y
+Es'do. Varon D'n Cristoval Colon," "Illustrious and noble man Don
+Cristopher Columbus." On the south side of the plaza is the cathedral,
+on the west side the old city hall, recently renovated and provided
+with an ugly tower, and on the east side the government building,
+erected during the Haitian occupation with bricks from the San
+Francisco and Santa Clara churches. Popular superstition therefore
+regards this building as unlucky and points out that one of the Baez
+brothers was killed in a revolution when the family resided here. The
+edifice was for years occupied by all the government offices until
+the renovation of the ancient palace of government. Adjoining is the
+small building in which the Dominican Congress meets. It occupies a
+site on which in the olden days stood a prison, the walls of which
+still remain behind the Congress Hall. The spacious building known as
+the old palace of government is one of the most ancient edifices in
+the city. Its cornerstone was laid about 1504 by Ovando and it
+contained the offices of the Spanish governors-general in colonial
+times. Through neglect it was permitted to fall to ruin but since 1900
+it has gradually been renovated. Nearby is a large sundial, erected
+in 1753.
+
+The old palace of government is on Colon street, which was in the
+early days called "Calle de las Damas," "Street of the Ladies,"
+because on it resided the ladies who came from Spain with the wife of
+Diego Columbus. It is to be regretted that the old street names which
+were pregnant with memories of the past have been so lightly changed.
+At present most of the streets are named after events, battles or
+persons prominent in the more recent history of the country.
+
+The streets of the capital are not quite so narrow as those of Havana,
+San Juan and other old Spanish cities. After years of neglect the
+principal streets have at length been placed in excellent condition
+and the steam roller has even invaded the side streets. The sidewalks
+are generally narrow, being only about three feet in width, and as
+municipal supervision over them has not been carefully exercised,
+there are differences in grade along the sidewalks of certain streets
+and in passing along it is necessary to go up and down steps. Along
+the improved streets, however, new sidewalks and gutters have been
+constructed. The style of architecture of the houses with their thick
+walls and iron-barred windows makes the streets resemble those of
+other Spanish-American cities. Among the finest buildings of the city
+may be counted the palatial quarters of the young men's club "Casino
+de la Juventud" and of the Union Club, of which the most prominent men
+of the city, especially merchants, are members. Leading out of the
+city are two boulevards along which are fine residences of wealthier
+Dominicans.
+
+A city of such history naturally abounds with popular legends. Stories
+are current of a network of ancient subterranean passages which are
+said to connect the principal churches and the fort, and knowledge of
+the location of which has been lost because their entrances have
+either been walled up or become obstructed by debris. Local historians
+deride such tales, though admitting that underground passages may have
+existed at isolated points. It is related that not many years ago a
+woman was digging in her garden on a street which passes the ruins of
+Mercedes convent, when the earth gave way and an aperture became
+visible. Her husband investigated and found a subterranean passage
+which led across the street: and directly under the convent ruins,
+where it was choked up with stones and earth. Other stories refer to
+deep, forgotten vaults said to exist under many buildings. Popular
+rumor, morbid when dealing with President Heureaux, affirms that in
+vaults under the ancient mansion which was converted into a palace for
+him, the remains of some of his victims were found. In vaults and
+dungeons under the barracks of La Fuerza the Spaniards in retiring
+from the island at the close of the eighteenth century, secreted part
+of their military supplies. Many years later an old man who had
+assisted in walling up the stores revealed their existence to
+President Baez and he, when besieged in Santo Domingo in 1857 brought
+them out and utilized them against the revolutionists. The old
+mortars and grenades were found in excellent condition and at first
+caused a panic among the besiegers who thought the shells had fallen
+from the sky.
+
+The favorite stories are those relating to buried treasure. During the
+vicissitudes through which the island has passed and especially during
+the troublous period at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of
+the nineteenth century many persons who left the country first
+secreted their valuables in the belief that their absence would be
+only temporary. They did not return, their property passed into other
+hands and the treasure was forgotten. Occasionally, too, people buried
+their money for safe-keeping and died without imparting the secret.
+There have been authenticated cases of treasure-trove, especially in
+the first half of the nineteenth century. The finds have almost always
+been accidental, as when in hanging a hammock a nail gave way and
+revealed a cavity, or in rebuilding a hidden orifice was disclosed. In
+many popular stories a foreigner with a map plays a part. According to
+one of these tales a stranger appeared some years ago near Mercedes
+church taking measurements, so that the neighbors thought him insane.
+He finally approached the owner of one of the houses and offered to
+rent it. When his increased offers were refused he drew from his
+pocket a paper which he said showed the location of a hidden treasure
+and offered the houseowner a share if he were permitted to make the
+search. The cupidity of the other was aroused and he would agree to
+take nothing less than three-fourths of the whole, whereupon the
+stranger in a rage lit a match and burnt the paper before the
+horrified houseowner's eyes, exclaiming: "Now you will never find it."
+For months afterwards the proprietor delved through the ground below
+the house and perforated the walls in scores of places, but the
+prediction of the stranger would probably have been verified had it
+not been for an accident. Some four years later, after a heavy rain, a
+woman of the neighborhood came to draw water from the cistern of this
+particular house. As the rope stuck in the pulley she gave a tug,
+slipped and fell into the cistern to her waist in water. Her screams
+brought assistance and as she was drawn out it was noticed that in her
+descent, she had loosened several bricks in the wall of the cistern.
+An examination revealed an aperture large enough to hold a man, and
+filled with plate, jewelry and coins.
+
+In another story the stranger was more fortunate. He rented a small
+house, also on Mercedes street, paying several months' rent in
+advance. When after a few days the house was found closed it was
+thought the stranger had taken a trip to the country, but when two and
+three months passed and the tenant did not reappear, the proprietress
+applied to the authorities. The door was forced open and in the middle
+of the room a deep hole was found, at the bottom of which was an empty
+strongbox, while smaller boxes and the pick and shovel used in the
+excavation lay scattered around. On a table in the corner lay a
+parchment with a map that showed the location of the strongbox.
+Further investigation revealed that the stranger a week after his
+disappearance took passage on a schooner for a foreign port.
+
+The fortunate finders of such treasures have generally kept silence in
+order to avoid the possibility of adverse claimants, and when
+discovered would minimize the find. Popular rumor still designates
+several houses as containing hidden treasures. One of them, situated
+on Billini Plaza, near the cathedral, has all but been torn to pieces
+by tenants in vain efforts to penetrate the secret. In other cases the
+rumors are more vague. General Ferrand, the energetic French governor
+of Santo Domingo, is reported to have buried the state treasure before
+departing in 1808 on the disastrous expedition in which he lost his
+life in Palo Hincado, and in more than one place excavations have been
+made to seek it.
+
+Outside the walls of the city is the cemetery, which is pretty and
+clean and has many vaults and varicolored plants. The most conspicuous
+objects are the crosses which surmount the graves and the iron fences
+surrounding many lots, with a little lantern at each corner. The
+lanterns are lighted up on All Soul's Day, when people flock to the
+cemetery and decorate the graves of their departed friends with
+wreaths and flowers.
+
+An interesting monument of old Santo Domingo is the small fortress of
+San Geronimo, which stands deserted on the ocean shore about three
+miles from the city. It was built in the early days of Spanish
+colonization as a protection against foes who might land up the coast
+and is a good specimen of medieval military architecture, with its
+walls of immense thickness, its watch towers, its deep moat and its
+dark dungeons. In revolutions it was usually garrisoned and has been
+taken and retaken unnumbered times, and in 1903 it was bombarded by a
+Dominican cruiser.
+
+In the midst of its monuments of the past Santo Domingo throbs with
+the life of the present. Being one of the principal ports and the seat
+of the government it is the busiest city of the Republic. Its docks,
+markets and business streets are always congested with workers
+and traders.
+
+_San Carlos_ is a suburb of Santo Domingo City, adjoining the same on
+the northwest, and since 1910 forming an integral part thereof. It
+was founded towards the end of the seventeenth century by Canary
+Islanders. Owing to its proximity to Santo Domingo and as part of the
+town overlooks the capital, it has in all the sieges of Santo Domingo
+been held by the besiegers and lost heavily. The fifteen days' siege
+by the negro emperor Dessalines in 1805 caused serious damage; in the
+siege of eight months in 1808 by Juan Sanchez Ramirez it was almost
+entirely ruined; in the fifteen days' siege of 1849 by Santana it was
+burned; in the nine months' siege of 1857 by Santana it was again
+partially destroyed and since that time in every siege it has
+sustained damage. In the two months' siege in the beginning of 1904
+the church and other buildings were damaged by shells, and several
+blocks of dwellings were burned to the ground. Yet the town has always
+risen, phoenix-like, from its ashes. One of the points of interest is
+an old public cistern of great size and depth. Near San Carlos is the
+picturesque grotto of Santa Ana, said to have been an Indian
+sanctuary.
+
+On the Ozama River opposite the capital is _Villa Duarte_, formerly
+called _Pajarito_. On an adjoining estate is the ruined chapel of
+Rosario, believed to date from the first city of Santo Domingo and
+which may have been the church where Bobadilla proclaimed his
+authority over Columbus. Not far from the town is an interesting cave
+with three crystal pools called Tres Ojos.
+
+_San Cristobal_, about 16 miles to the west of the capital, had only a
+chapel and two or three huts in 1820, but attained more importance
+when slaves freed by the Haitians on the surrounding sugar estates
+settled there.
+
+_Bani_ is a pretty little town founded in 1764 and situated about 39
+miles west of Santo Domingo, between the foothills and the sea. Its
+chief pride is that it was the birthplace of Maximo Gomez, the famous
+warrior for Cuban independence. Gomez became a major in the Spanish
+army, fought against his countrymen during the War of the Restoration
+and abandoned Santo Domingo with the Spaniards, but this record has
+been forgiven by the Dominicans in view of his later services in
+behalf of Cuba libre.
+
+_Bayaguana_ and _Monte Plata_, about 30 and 28 miles northeast of
+Santo Domingo, respectively, were both founded in 1606 for the
+settlement of residents of coast towns destroyed in order to stop
+smuggling, the former receiving the inhabitants of Bayaja and Yaguana,
+the latter those of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata. The church of
+Bayaguana is visited by many pilgrims who come to adore an image of
+Christ to which miracles are attributed.
+
+Other villages of the province are: _San Lorenzo de los Minas_, 3
+miles northeast of Santo Domingo, first settled in 1719 by negroes of
+the Minas tribe, refugees from French Santo Domingo; _San Antonio de
+Guerra_, situated in the plains 19 miles northeast of the capital;
+_Boya_, 32 miles northeast of the capital, founded in 1533 by
+Enriquillo, the last Indian chief and by the last survivors of the
+Indians of the island: it contains an old church of composite
+aboriginal Gothic architecture, in which the remains of Enriquillo and
+of his wife Dona Mencia are believed to rest; _Mella_, 7 miles, and
+_La Victoria_, 12 miles north of the capital; _Yamasa_, 30 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo; and _Sabana Grande_, or _Palenque_, 22
+miles west of the city.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAN PEDRO DE MACORIS
+
+_San Pedro de Macoris_, about 45 miles east of Santo Domingo City, is
+one of the most modern and flourishing cities of the Republic. In
+1885 it was merely a small fishing village, about that time sugar
+plantations began to be established in the surrounding plains and the
+town commenced to grow. To-day there are pretty houses, the streets
+are clean and in good repair, the plaza has a handsome park and the
+whole city wears a prosperous look. There are busy scenes on the
+modern docks and in the harbor. Around Macoris, as in other parts of
+the Republic, there are large numbers of beautiful graceful cocoanut
+palms and royal palms.
+
+The Province of Macoris is small and contains but one other town
+worthy of mention, namely, _San Jose de los Llanos_, about 15 miles
+northeast of Macoris, founded in the plains in the eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SEIBO
+
+_Santa Cruz del Seibo_, 74 miles northeast of Santo Domingo, was
+originally founded by Juan de Esquivel in 1502, but being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1751, was moved to its present location, to the north
+of its old site. It lies in the center of a region devoted to cacao
+planting and stockraising. The town has a pretty church, and is
+celebrated in Dominican history as having instigated the reconquest
+for Spain in 1808 and as having been the home and bulwark of General
+Pedro Santana, who was idolized by the Seibanos.
+
+_Salvaleon de Higueey_, the easternmost city of the Republic, situated
+31 miles southeast of Seibo, was also founded by Juan de Esquivel in
+the days of Ovando. Its church contains a picture of Our Lady of
+Altagracia, to which miracles are ascribed and which attracts pilgrims
+from all parts of Santo Domingo and Haiti.
+
+Other towns are _Hato Mayor_, 18 miles west of Seibo; _Ramon Santana_,
+formerly called _Guaza_, 19 miles south-west of Seibo; _La Romana_,
+on the coast 25 miles south of Seibo, with rapidly expanding sugar
+estates; and _El Jovero_, a hamlet on the coast near the eastern end
+of Samana Bay.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAMANA
+
+_Santa Barbara de Samana_, 78 miles northeast of the capital of the
+Republic, is built on a cove on the north side of Samana Bay. The
+protected character of the inlet made it a favorite resort for pirates
+in the seventeenth century, and beginning with 1673, French buccaneers
+made several attempts to settle here but were driven out by the
+Spanish authorities. The town was definitely settled in 1756 by
+families from the Canary Islands. In the town and neighborhood live
+many English-speaking negroes, descendants of those who were brought
+from the United States by the Haitian President Boyer about 1825.
+
+A larger town is _Sanchez_ at the western end of Samana Bay,
+twenty-five miles from the town of Samana. In 1886 there was here a
+tiny hamlet, known as _Las Canitas_, but on becoming the terminus of
+the railroad from La Vega, the name of Sanchez, a hero of Dominican
+independence, was given it, and the town rapidly grew in size. Its
+dwellings are scattered over two ridges of land divided by a deep
+valley. On one of the ridges the houses are pretty one-story buildings
+with gardens in front. The beautiful grounds surrounding the house of
+the general manager of the Samana-Santiago Railroad are situated on a
+height overlooking the sparkling expanse of Samana Bay and give a
+suggestion of the possibilities of landscape gardening in Santo
+Domingo. Colored families from St. Thomas and the British West Indies
+and descendants of American negroes make up a considerable proportion
+of the population, so that more English is heard here than Spanish.
+
+On the south side of Samana Bay is the small village of _Sabana de la
+Mar_, commonly known as _Sabana la Mar_, founded by Canary Islanders
+in 1756. There are many stories of pirates' buried gold in
+this region.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PACIFICADOR
+
+_San Francisco de Macoris_, the capital of the province, is about 85
+miles northwest of Santo Domingo City and occupies the site of a fort
+established by Ovando in 1504 and known as the fort of La Magdalena.
+It was founded in 1774 around a chapel dedicated to St. Ann which
+stood on a ranch called San Francisco. Lying in a fertile district
+formerly devoted to tobacco and now one of the chief cacao regions of
+the island, it is a town of considerable business. It is also called
+_Macoris del Norte_, to distinguish it from San Pedro de Macoris,
+which is called Macoris del Este.
+
+_Villa Rivas_, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad, 19 miles from Samana
+bay, was formerly called Almacen, or Storehouse, because here was
+situated, before the railroad was built, a warehouse for the storage
+of merchandise imported and exported by way of Samana and the
+Yuna river.
+
+The other towns, all of recent foundation, are _Matanzas_, a fishing
+village on the edge of a cacao district on the northeast coast, and
+three villages named after heroes of the War of Restoration: _Cabrera_
+on the coast at Tres Amarras point; _Castillo_, 8 miles west of Rivas;
+and _Pimentel_, formerly called _Barbero_, a station on the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad and the center of an important cacao zone.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF LA VEGA
+
+_Concepcion de la Vega_, capital of the province and one of the most
+important cities of the Royal Plain, is 90 miles from Santo Domingo
+City. The old town of Concepcion de la Vega was founded by Columbus in
+1495 at the foot of the eminence known as Santo Cerro and at the place
+of residence of the Indian chief Guarionex. It quickly attained such
+importance that in 1508 it was declared a city and endowed with a coat
+of arms, and in the same year a bishopric was erected there, which
+was, however, in 1527 merged with the bishopric of Santo Domingo. An
+earthquake overthrew its fine buildings in 1564 and the city was
+thereupon relocated at a distance of three miles on the bank of the
+Camu. The site of the old city is now private property and is
+overgrown with tropical vegetation. Moss-grown foundation walls
+protrude from the ground; a mass of brickwork some twenty feet high
+and having the form of a blockhouse chimney remains of the old church;
+and part of the circular tower erected at the corner of the fort of
+Columbus, well provided with loop-holes for muskets, still remains
+standing. In desultory excavations made at different times small
+objects such as ancient spurs, stirrups and coins have been found.
+
+The new city led a languishing existence until it became the interior
+terminus of the Samana-Santiago Railroad which gave it a great
+impetus. It is regularly laid out, the streets are fairly wide and a
+majority of the houses are built of brick. The city has a pretty plaza
+laid out as a garden, a new market building, a theater, and like every
+other town of importance in Santo Domingo, a club. At the entrance to
+the town is a bronze statue of Gregorio Rivas, a progressive merchant
+and philanthropist of this region, who died twenty years ago.
+
+The feature of the city which attracts the traveler's attention
+unfavorably is the neglect of the city streets. During the dry season
+the lack of pavements does not matter but when the rains come the rich
+loam turns to a deep black mud. Along most streets there are narrow
+sidewalks, but where there are none, or where it is necessary to cross
+to the other side, the mode of progress is by hop, skip and jump from
+one dry place to another--the religion of the virtuous pedestrian
+being put to a severe test when after a strenuous jump he lands in a
+muddy place up to his shoe tops. At some crossings thoughtful
+storekeepers lay a plank of salvation for the passer-by. The city is a
+great center for cacao, tobacco and coffee, and several sawmills are
+kept busy cutting up pine logs from the surrounding hills.
+
+_Cotui_, about 31 miles southeast of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Ovando in 1505, being called _Las Minas_ in the early days because of
+the mines of gold, copper and other metals in the neighborhood.
+_Bonao_, about 26 miles south of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Columbus in 1496 to protect the mines in the nearby mountains and was
+the scene of Roldan's revolt against Columbus. Both of these towns
+almost disappeared when the colony declined and are now
+humble villages.
+
+Other villages are _Jarabacoa_, 18 miles southwest of La Vega;
+_Constanza_, 30 miles southwest of La Vega and rarely visited by
+strangers because of its isolation among the mountains, near the
+beautiful valley of Constanza; _Cevicos_, also hidden in the
+mountains, 12 miles southeast of Cotui; and _Santo Cerro_, 3 miles
+north of La Vega, on a hill which commands a magnificent view of the
+Royal Plain.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF ESPAILLAT
+
+_Moca_, also called _Espaillat_, 100 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, is a thriving city. It was the scene of the "Moca massacre" in
+1805, when the Haitian general Christophe, having guaranteed the
+safety of the inhabitants, induced them to return from their hiding
+places in the mountains and assemble in the church to the number of
+five hundred in order to hold a mass of thanksgiving, whereupon they
+were massacred by the Haitian soldiers. In more recent history it has
+been taken and retaken many times during revolutions and in 1899 was
+the scene of the killing of President Heureaux. Its houses are mostly
+one story in height and many are built of brick, while picturesque
+huts of the poor surround the town. Gutters have been constructed in
+the principal streets, but the possibilities of paving have by no
+means been exhausted. The town sustains two churches, one on the
+outskirts, and another with a peculiar square tower, on the plaza. The
+inhabitants take pride in their pretty flower-grown plaza and in the
+elaborate portal of their cemetery.
+
+The other town of the province is _Salcedo_, formerly called _Juana
+Nunez_, 7 miles east of Moca in a rich cacao district.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTIAGO
+
+_Santiago de los Caballeros_, Santiago of the Gentlemen, 115 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo, was founded as a military station on a
+bluff of the Yaque River about 1497 by order of Bartholomew Columbus,
+and settled in 1504 by thirty knights, from which circumstance it
+derives its name. It received many settlers from the old town of
+Isabela, was given a coat of arms in 1508, reached a flourishing
+state, and was destroyed in 1564 by the same earthquake which
+overthrew La Vega. Its inhabitants then removed to the present site,
+about six miles east of the location of the old city, the ruins of
+which are still to be seen. The city was burned three times by the
+French buccaneers during their struggles with the Spanish colonial
+authorities and later by the Haitian general Christophe on the
+occasion of the retreat of the emperor Dessalines in 1805. It had
+again attained importance when it was destroyed by an earthquake in
+1842. Once more it was reduced to ashes in 1863 at the outbreak of the
+War of the Restoration. To-day Santiago is one of the richest and most
+flourishing cities of the island and has aspirations to become the
+capital of the Republic, so that an intense rivalry exists with Santo
+Domingo. The streets are regular and clean and a general repair has
+been commenced. There are important business houses and well-stocked
+bazaars and the market place is one of the busiest in the country.
+
+The plaza in the center of the city has a handsome garden established
+by popular subscription, and gay with flowers and palms. Two churches
+are on the plaza, the larger of which has a beautiful altar. The
+remains of President Heureaux are buried here, his resting place being
+marked by a marble slab with the Dominican coat of arms. The
+government palace fronting on the plaza is a substantial affair with
+walls dating from Haitian times, and the city hall, also fronting on
+the plaza, is a fine structure. In the cemetery there is a street of
+beautiful mausoleums, the architecture of several being Egyptian in
+style and others bearing medallions or recumbent figures of the
+deceased. The volunteer fire corps of Santiago has a special lot and a
+pretty monument.  _San Jose de las Matas_, 24 miles southwest of
+Santiago, is situated on a high plain in the midst of the mountains
+and is surrounded by great pine forests. Its salubrious climate and
+picturesque environments make it a favorite summer resort for wealthy
+families of Santiago, Puerto Plata and Moca, and a health resort for
+persons afflicted with stomach or lung trouble. Nearby are hot and
+cold sulphur springs, the beautiful Inoa waterfall, the picturesque
+confluence of the Amina and Inoa rivers and the high Rubio Peak, which
+commands one of the finest panoramas in the island.
+
+Other towns are _Valverde_, formerly _Mao_, 30 miles northwest of
+Santiago; _Janico_, 14 miles southwest of Santiago, _Esperanza_, 27
+miles northwest of Santiago; and _Canton Pena_, also called
+_Tamboril_, 7 miles east of Santiago and having such close social
+relations with that city as to be regarded as a suburb of the same.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PUERTO PLATA
+
+_Puerto Plata_, 150 miles northwest of Santo Domingo, is the most
+important port of the north of the Republic. Columbus is said to have
+made the plans for the streets of the town; as early as 1499 there
+were settlers here; and in 1502 the city was formally founded by order
+of Ovando. It enjoyed prosperity during the first years of the colony,
+but in 1543 was attacked by pirates and thereafter rapidly went to
+decay. The stringent laws which restricted the commerce of the island
+to certain ports of the mother country encouraged contraband trade and
+the place became the headquarters for smugglers. The government
+endeavored to stop smuggling in 1606 by the brilliant expedient of
+destroying the town and moving all the inhabitants to Monte Plata, far
+in the interior of Santo Domingo province. In 1750 Puerto Plata was
+populated anew and shared with Monte Cristi the advantage of the law
+permitting free trade for ten years. It rapidly grew in population
+until it became the most important commercial point of the Republic,
+and the port of the entire Cibao region, part of which now finds an
+outlet at Sanchez. It was in a flourishing state and had fine houses
+when it was totally destroyed by fire in 1863, during the War of
+Restoration, whether by the Spaniards or the Dominicans remains in
+doubt. Prosperity again followed, many foreigners were attracted by
+its commercial possibilities and to-day it is again one of the most
+thriving towns of Santo Domingo.
+
+The first thing to attract the traveler's notice is the excellent
+condition of the city streets. Though the macadamized streets and the
+sidewalks are narrow, they are clean, well kept and well lighted at
+night. In streets, schools and public squares the city is in advance
+of most of the other cities of the Republic. This is attributed to a
+great extent to the presence of many cultured foreigners as well as to
+the progressive natives. The inhabitants of Puerto Plata boast that
+what Puerto Plata does the rest of the Republic does. They point as an
+example to their plaza. Formerly the plaza of Dominican cities was a
+bare, shadeless tract of ground in the center of the city. Puerto
+Plata was the first to plant trees, lay out a garden and provide its
+plaza with a music stand. This plaza in the center of the town is the
+oldest and prettiest of the city's three public squares and is now
+shaded by large, leafy trees and embellished with beautiful flowers
+and varicolored bushes. On Sunday nights on this plaza and on Thursday
+nights on one of the others, band concerts attract crowds of people,
+young and old, who promenade to the strains of the music. The belles
+of the city are very handsome and owing to the intermarriage of
+natives with foreigners from all parts of the world widely different
+types of beauty are to be observed at such concerts.
+
+On one side of the principal plaza is the church, on another stand
+side by side the theater, the government building, where the
+provincial offices are located, and the city hall, on the first floor
+of which is a well-attended school. The three principal clubs of the
+city are also located in commodious quarters fronting on this plaza.
+One of these clubs counts among its members most of the merchants and
+staid and elderly people, another is the club of the young men and a
+third is the ladies' club. The ladies' club is open only in the
+afternoon and evening, but in the clubs frequented by gentlemen games
+of billiards may be seen going on at almost any hour of the day.
+
+The buildings of the city are all of modern date. Only a few
+foundation walls near the ocean shore, and the old fort, remain from
+former days. The old fort is situated on the point of land partly
+enclosing Puerto Plata harbor and is surrounded on three sides by
+buildings of the present fort. It is a large round whitewashed
+structure having the appearance of a huge cheesebox; its walls are of
+enormous thickness and it is now used as a jail. In former days the
+inhabitants had much difficulty in obtaining drinking water, but
+Puerto Plata was the first city to be provided with a general system
+of water works, having been followed only recently by Santiago. The
+water is brought from a stream a little over a mile away. The ride
+there is a beautiful one but it goes to prove that the movement for
+good thoroughfares has not yet extended to the roads. From all parts
+of Puerto Plata Mt. Isabel de Torres is seen towering behind the city.
+The view obtained from the slopes of the mountain, over miles of
+shoreline and a broad expanse of ocean, is of indescribable grandeur.
+
+The traveler who visits Puerto Plata carries away with him pleasant
+memories of the clean city, its comfortable clubs, its hospitable
+citizens and its beautiful surroundings.
+
+Other towns of the province are _Altamira_, 18 miles southwest of
+Puerto Plata, astride a hill rising in the middle of a valley of the
+coast range of mountains; _Blanco_, on the coast 20 miles northwest of
+Puerto Plata and 10 miles east of the site of Isabela, the first city
+in the new world; and _Bajabonico_, 10 miles southwest of Puerto
+Plata, a village called into being by the building of the Central
+Dominican Railroad.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF MONTE CRISTI
+
+_San Fernando de Monte Cristi_, 196 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital of Monte Cristi province, was founded during the
+government of Ovando by sixty Spanish families, and after giving
+promise of prosperity decayed with the rest of the colony. It was
+supported for a time by a brisk contraband trade which sprang up with
+the Dutch and other nations and to put a stop to which the town was
+destroyed in 1606 like Puerto Plata and the inhabitants transferred to
+Monte Plata, to the south of the central mountain range. In 1750 a
+royal dispensation granted it the right to free trade with all nations
+for a period of ten years and it began to attain prominence as a port,
+but the wars with the Haitians, the War of Restoration with the
+Spaniards and the many civil wars have retarded its progress. Only in
+the last few years has it received a new impetus. The town is built
+about a mile from the shore, with which it is connected by a tiny
+horse car. About thirty houses are connected with a private system of
+waterworks which supplies water from the Yaque river. Situated as it
+is in the arid region of Santo Domingo the city bears much resemblance
+to some of the western towns of the United States.
+
+Other towns are _Guayubin_, 24 miles, _Sabaneta_, 36 miles, and
+_Moncion_, 46 miles southeast of Monte Cristi; and _Dajabon_, 22
+miles, _Restauracion_, 40 miles, and _Copey_, 12 miles southwest of
+Monte Cristi. They are all small villages. Dajabon, founded towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is situated on the east bank of
+the Massacre river, which constitutes the Haitian boundary, and is one
+of the inland ports of entry. Restauracion is peopled largely by
+French speaking negroes from Haiti.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF AZUA
+
+_Azua de Compostela_, about 83 miles west of Santo Domingo City, was
+founded by Diego de Velazquez in 1504 at a point four miles southwest
+of its present location. It was first called Compostela after a
+Galician official who held some property here, but the Indian name of
+the region prevailed. Hernando Cortez, later the conqueror of Mexico,
+settled here and for some five years was the notary of the town. At
+first prosperous, the city soon suffered a serious decline, but was
+beginning to revive when on August 18, 1751, it was entirely destroyed
+by an earthquake. The inhabitants then transferred the town to its
+present location on the western bank of the Via River. The ruins of
+the old city are still visible near the hamlet called Pueblo Viejo,
+Old Town. Azua was destroyed by fire three times in the Haitian wars:
+in 1805, by order of the Haitian emperor Dessalines, in 1844 by
+President Herard, and in 1849 by President Soulouque. To-day it is
+the most important town in the southwestern part of the Republic.
+Situated in an arid region, like Monte Cristi, it is similar to many a
+town in New Mexico and Arizona, with hot, sunny, shadeless streets
+beginning and ending in space, one story houses, a great plain of dark
+green beyond the town and purple mountains in the distance. The houses
+here are of wood or stone and with thatched or zinc roofs. There is a
+large new church, the images in which seem to be very old and do not
+distinguish themselves for beauty. The town is about three miles
+inland from the port, but a branch of a narrow gauge plantation
+railroad connects the city with the wharf and on steamer days a
+passenger car makes several trips. Azua is famous throughout Santo
+Domingo for its excellent "dulce de leche," a kind of milk taffy,
+which is well made elsewhere in the Republic, but is better in Azua as
+it is here prepared from goat's milk.
+
+_San Juan de la Maguana_, 48 miles northwest of Azua, was founded in
+1504 by Diego Velazquez in the beautiful Maguana valley where the
+Indian chief Caonabo had his residence, became almost extinct in 1606,
+but revived in 1764 with the establishment of new cattle ranches in
+the vicinity. During the Haitian wars it was burned repeatedly. Near
+the town is a curious relic of Indian times called Anacaona's circus
+or "el corral de los Indios," consisting of large stones laid in a
+huge circle, and in the center a strange cylindrical stone, carved
+with Indian figures, which is supposed to have served as the throne of
+the Indian queen Anacaona.
+
+_Las Matas de Farfan_, 64 miles northwest of Azua, was established in
+1780 and suffered greatly during the wars with the Haitians. Like the
+other villages of the Maguana valley its chief industry is
+stockraising. _Banica_, 75 miles northwest of Azua, on the Haitian
+frontier, was one of the towns established by Diego Velazquez in 1504.
+Though an important town in the early days it decayed, and in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century was abandoned entirely. During
+Haitian rule it was reestablished, but upon the declaration of
+Dominican independence was again abandoned for fear of Haitian
+vengeance, remaining so until the War of Restoration during which it
+was settled anew.
+
+Other villages are _San Jose de Ocoa_, also known as _Maniel_, 18
+miles northeast of Azua, founded in 1844 in a picturesque region;
+_Tubano_, 34 miles northwest of Azua; _El Cercado_, 12 miles southwest
+of Las Matas de Farfan; and _Comendador_, near the Haitian frontier,
+13 miles west of Las Matas de Farfan, the seat of one of the inland
+custom-houses.
+
+Dominican writers include among the towns pertaining to the Province
+of Azua those situated in that part of the territory of the former
+Spanish colony which is now held by Haiti. The principal towns in this
+territory are _Lares de Guajaba_ or _Hincha_, to-day called _Hinche_,
+which was founded in 1504 and was the birthplace of General Pedro
+Santana; _Las Caobas_, founded about the middle of the eighteenth
+century; _San Miguel de la Atalaya_, to-day called _St. Michel_,
+founded about the same time; and _San Rafael de la Angostura_, called
+_St. Raphael_ by the Haitians.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF BARAHONA
+
+_Barahona_, 126 miles west of Santo Domingo City, became capital of
+the Barahona district when a provincial government was established
+there in 1881. It is a small town, which began to be settled in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century, and suffered greatly during the
+Haitian wars and the revolutions following them. At present its fame
+is its fine coffee.
+
+Other towns are _Enriquillo_, formerly called _Petitru_ (Petit Trou)
+on the coast 22 miles south of Barahona; _Neiba_, 32 miles northwest
+of Barahona, founded a century ago and prevented from developing by
+the damages it sustained first in the Haitian, then in the civil wars;
+and _Duverge_, formerly called _Las Damas_, which commands a fine view
+of Lake Enriquillo with Cabras Island in the distance. In the
+northwest corner of the province is the small collection of huts
+called _Tierra Nueva_, and a few miles beyond, isolated in a wild
+region on the frontier, the inland customhouse of _Las Lajas_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE REMAINS OF COLUMBUS
+
+
+Burial of Columbus.--Disappearance of epitaph.--Removal of remains in
+1795.--Discovery of remains in 1877.--Resting place of Discoverer
+of America.
+
+
+The greatest pride of the Dominican people is that they are the
+custodians of the mortal remains of Christopher Columbus. The same
+honor is claimed by Spain, but a Dominican would consider it almost
+treasonable to doubt the justice of the Dominican claim. It is a
+strange freak of fate that not only should the great navigator have
+been denied in life the rewards promised him, not only should the new
+world he discovered have been given the name of another, but that his
+very tomb is a matter of controversy. It is admitted that after his
+death in Spain his remains were transferred to Santo Domingo City and
+there deposited in the cathedral. In 1795, when the Spanish colony of
+Santo Domingo was ceded to France, the Spaniards carried with them to
+Cuba what they supposed were the remains of Columbus, and these were
+in 1898 taken to Spain, but in the year 1877 another casket was
+brought to light in the Santo Domingo cathedral, with inscriptions
+which indicated that it contained the bones of the great Discoverer.
+
+It was the desire of Columbus to be buried in Santo Domingo, his
+favorite island. In his will, executed shortly before his death, he
+called on his son Diego to found, if possible, a chapel dedicated to
+the Holy Trinity, "and if this can be in the Island of Espanola, I
+should like to have it there where I invoked the Trinity, which is in
+La Vega, named Concepcion." Columbus died on May 20, 1506, in
+Valladolid and his body was deposited in the church of Santa Maria de
+la Antigua in that city. In 1513, or perhaps before, it was
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas
+in Seville, where was also deposited the body of his son Diego, who
+died in 1526. Diego Columbus, in his will of the year 1523, stated
+that he had been unable to carry out his father's wishes, but
+requested his heirs to found in the city of Santo Domingo, inasmuch as
+La Vega was losing population, a nunnery dedicated to St. Clara, the
+sanctuary of which was to be the burial place of the Columbus family.
+His plans were modified in favor of a nobler mausoleum and his widow,
+Maria de Toledo, in the name of her son Louis Columbus, applied to the
+king of Spain for the sanctuary of the cathedral of Santo Domingo as a
+burial place for her husband, his father and his heirs, which grant
+the king made in 1537 and reiterated in 1539. A difference having
+arisen with the bishop of Santo Domingo, who wished to reserve the
+higher platform of the sanctuary for the interment of prelates and
+cede only the lower portion to the Columbus family, the king in 1540
+again reiterated his concession of the whole sanctuary. According to
+the annals of the Carthusian monastery of Seville, the bodies of
+Christopher Columbus and his son were taken away in 1536, and it is
+probable that they were deposited in the cathedral of Santo Domingo in
+1540 or 1541, after the issue of the king's third order and the
+conclusion of the work on the cathedral. Where they were during the
+intervening four or five years and in what year they were brought to
+Santo Domingo, is not known. Las Casas, writing in 1544, states that
+the remains of the Admiral were at that time buried in the sanctuary
+of the cathedral of Santo Domingo. In the year 1572 Louis Columbus,
+the grandson of the Discoverer, died in Oran, in Africa, and his
+remains were taken to the Carthusian monastery in Seville. It is not
+known when they were brought to Santo Domingo, but the transfer
+probably took place in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+The early records of the Santo Domingo cathedral were burnt at the
+time of Drake's invasion in 1586, and those since that year have been
+so damaged by the ravages of tropical insects that little is left of
+them. They make little and only passing reference to the tomb of
+Columbus, and mention no monument or inscription whatever. Juan de
+Castellanos, in his book "Varones Ilustres de Indias," printed in
+1589, recites a Latin epitaph which he says appeared near the place
+where lay the body of Columbus in Seville, but pretty Latin epitaphs
+were Castellanos' weakness, and it is to be feared that this one, like
+others which he dedicated to American explorers, was nothing more than
+a figment of his poetic imagination. Two writers, Coleti and Alcedo,
+who almost two centuries later mentioned the same epitaph as marking
+the grave in Santo Domingo, must have copied from Castellanos.
+
+Undoubtedly there was at first some inscription to mark the tomb, but
+in the course of the years any slabs with inscriptions were permitted
+to disappear entirely from the graves of Columbus, his son and
+grandson, and the very existence of their remains in the cathedral
+became a matter of tradition. It is possible that the epitaphs
+disappeared at some time when the pavement of the church was renewed,
+or when damages inflicted by earthquake shocks were repaired, or when
+changes were made in the windows and doors about the main altar, or
+when the higher altar platform was extended to reach the desks on
+which lie the Gospels and Epistles. At any such times the slabs over
+the burial vaults may have been broken or laid aside and never
+replaced. It is also possible that they were intentionally removed in
+order to guard against profanation of the tombs by enemies in time of
+war or by West Indian pirates, who captured and sacked stronger cities
+than Santo Domingo. In 1655 when an English fleet under Admiral
+William Penn appeared before the city and landed an army under General
+Venables, there was great excitement and fear in Santo Domingo, and
+the archbishop ordered that the sacred ornaments and vessels be hidden
+and that "the sepulchres be covered in order that no irreverence or
+profanation be committed against them by the heretics, and especially
+do I so request with reference to the sepulchre of the old Admiral
+which is on the gospel side of my holy church and sanctuary," That
+other tombs were hidden, whether at this time or another, was shown in
+1879, when, on repairing the flooring in the chapel of the "stone
+bishop" in the cathedral, the slab indicating the grave of the
+Adelantado Rodrigo de Bastidas, the explorer, was found concealed
+under a stone, and it was discovered that the epitaph of Bastidas on a
+board which from time immemorial had hung on the wall of the chapel
+was an incorrect copy of the original graven on the burial slab. From
+the words of the archbishop it appears possible that the sepulchre of
+Columbus was marked in some way in 1655, although even then there may
+have been nothing, since the prelate saw fit to specify the point in
+the church where the tomb was situated.
+
+The first document in which tradition appears invoked for designating
+the burial place is the record of a synod held in 1683, which contains
+the following clause: "this Island having been discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, illustrious and very celebrated throughout the
+world, whose bones repose in a leaden box in the sanctuary next to the
+pedestal of the main altar of this our cathedral, with those of his
+brother Louis Columbus which are on the other side, according to the
+tradition of the old people of this Island." The synod and tradition
+were not strong in Columbus genealogy when they referred to Louis
+Columbus as the brother instead of the grandson of the Discoverer, and
+it is noticeable that no mention is made of the son Diego Columbus. It
+may be remarked, in passing, that the body of Bartholomew Columbus,
+brother of the Admiral, was deposited in the convent of San Francisco
+in Santo Domingo, upon his death in 1514, and while some writers
+suggest it may have been taken to Spain, there is nothing to indicate
+that it was ever given sepulture in the cathedral of Santo Domingo.
+
+After the lapse of another century tradition referred to two
+sepulchres, one of Christopher Columbus, on the right side of the
+altar, the other of his brother or son, on the left side of the altar.
+Moreau de Saint-Mery, a French diplomat and statesman, who lived in
+the French colony of St. Domingue for some years during the decade of
+1780 to 1790, in his book "Description de la partie espagnole de
+l'isle Saint-Domingue" states that, being desirous of obtaining
+accurate information with reference to the tomb of Columbus, he
+addressed himself to Jose Solano, an ex-governor of the colony, then
+in command of a fleet in the insular waters; that this official wrote
+a letter to his successor in the governorship, Isidoro Peralta, and
+that he received the following answer:
+
+"SANTO DOMINGO, March 29, 1783.
+
+"_My very dear friend and patron:_
+
+"I have received the kind letter of Your Excellency of the 13th of this
+month, and did not answer immediately in order to have time to
+ascertain the details it requests relative to Christopher Columbus,
+and also in order to enjoy the satisfaction of serving Your Excellency
+as far as is in my power and to permit Your Excellency to have the
+satisfaction of obliging the friend who has asked for those details.
+
+"With respect to Christopher Columbus, although the insects destroy
+the papers in this country and have converted whole archives into
+lace-work, I hope nevertheless to remit to Your Excellency the proof
+that the bones of Columbus are in a leaden box, enclosed in a stone
+box which is buried in the sanctuary on the side of the gospels and
+that those of Bartholomew Columbus, his brother, repose on the side of
+the epistles in the same manner and under the same precautions. Those
+of Christopher Columbus were transported from Seville, where they had
+been deposited in the pantheon of the dukes of Alcala after having
+been taken there from Valladolid, and where they remained until their
+transport here.
+
+"About two months ago, in working in the church, a piece of thick wall
+was thrown down and immediately reconstructed. This fortuitous event
+was the occasion of finding the box of which I have spoken, and which,
+although without inscriptions, was known, according to a constant and
+invariable tradition, to contain the remains of Columbus. In addition
+I am having a search made to see whether in the church archives or
+those of the government some document can be found which will furnish
+details on this point; and the canons have seen and stated that the
+greater part of the bones were reduced to dust and that bones of the
+forearm had been distinguished.
+
+"I send Your Excellency also a list of all the archbishops which this
+island has had and which is more interesting than that of its
+presidents, for I am assured that the first is complete, while in the
+second there are voids produced by the insects of which I have spoken
+and which attack some papers in preference to others.
+
+"I also refer to the buildings, the temples, the beauty of the ruins
+and the motive which determined the transfer of this city to the west
+bank of the river which constitutes its port. But with reference to
+the plan requested by the note there is a real difficulty, as this is
+forbidden me as governor; the superior understanding of Your
+Excellency will comprehend the reasons, etc."
+
+The documents sent by Governor Peralta were as follows:
+
+"I, Jose Nunez de Caceres, doctor in sacred theology of the pontifical
+and royal University of the Angelical St. Thomas d'Acquino, dignitary
+dean of this holy metropolitan church, primate of the Indies, do
+certify that the sanctuary of this holy cathedral having been torn
+down on January 30 last, for reconstruction, there was found, on the
+side of the platform where the gospels are chanted, and near the door
+where the stairs go up to the capitular room, a stone coffer, hollow,
+of cubical form and about a yard high, enclosing a leaden urn, a
+little damaged, which contained several human bones. Several years
+ago, under the same circumstances and I so certify, there was found on
+the side of the epistles, another similar stone box, and according to
+the tradition handed down by the old men of the country and a chapter
+of the synod of this holy cathedral, that on the side of the gospels
+is reputed to enclose the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus
+and that on the side of the epistles, those of his brother, nor has it
+been possible to verify whether they are those of his brother
+Bartholomew or of Diego Columbus, son of the admiral. In testimony
+whereof I have delivered the present in Santo Domingo, April 20, 1783.
+
+JOSE NUNEZ DE CACERES."
+
+An identical certificate, signed by Manuel Sanchez, was also sent, as
+well as a third which reads as follows:
+
+"I, Pedro de Galvez, schoolmaster, dignitary canon of this cathedral,
+primate of the Indies, do certify that the sanctuary having been
+overthrown in order to be reconstructed there was found on the side of
+the platform where the gospels are chanted, a stone coffer with a
+leaden urn, a little damaged, which contained human bones; and it is
+remembered that there is another of the same kind on the side of the
+epistles; and according to the report of the old men of the country
+and a chapter of the synod of this holy cathedral that on the side of
+the gospels encloses the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+and that on the side of the epistles those of his brother Bartholomew.
+In witness whereof I have delivered the present on April 26, 1783.
+
+PEDRO DE GALVEZ."
+
+The certificates were not carefully drafted, for in speaking of the
+rebuilding of the sanctuary only the interior thereof, probably only
+the platform, was referred to, and from a notarial document of
+December 21, 1795, quoted below, it is evident that by coffer was
+meant a vault and that the word urn was used synonymously with box.
+The papers give eloquent testimony of the uncertainty in which the
+eminent men's remains were involved. Governor Peralta died in 1786 and
+was interred under the altar platform near the supposed remains of
+Columbus. In 1787, when Moreau de St. Mery endeavored to find the
+official record of the find of 1783, it had already disappeared.
+
+In 1795 Spain ceded to France the entire Spanish part of Santo
+Domingo, and in evacuating the island the Spanish authorities
+determined to carry with them the remains of the great Discoverer. It
+is to be assumed that there were still persons connected with the
+cathedral who could point out the location of the vault accidentally
+discovered twelve years before and that as tradition referred to only
+one vault on that side of the altar, the remains contained therein
+were extracted without further investigation. The description of the
+vault opened tallies with that of the vault found in 1783. The
+document attesting the embarking of these remains reads as
+follows: "I, the undersigned clerk of the King, our Lord, in charge of
+the office of the chamber of this Royal Audiencia, do certify that on
+the twentieth day of December of the current year, there being in this
+holy cathedral the Commissioner Gregorio Savinon, perpetual member and
+dean of the very illustrious municipal council of this city, and in
+the presence of the most illustrious and reverend friar Fernando
+Portillo y Torres, most worthy Archbishop of this metropolitan see; of
+His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, Lieutenant-General of the royal
+navy of His Majesty; of Antonio Cansi, Brigadier in charge of the fort
+of this city; of Antonio Barba, Field-marshal and Commander of
+Engineers; of Ignacio de la Rocha, Lieutenant-colonel and
+Sergeant-major of this city, and of other persons of rank and
+distinction, a vault was opened which is in the sanctuary on the side
+of the gospel (between) the main wall and the pedestal of the main
+altar, which is one cubic yard in size, and in the same there were
+found several plates of lead, about one tercio in length, indicating
+that there had been a box of the said metal, and pieces of bone as of
+the tibia or other parts of some deceased person, and they were
+collected in a salver that was filled with the earth, which by the
+fragments of small bone it contained and its color could be seen to
+belong to that dead body; and everything was placed in an ark of
+gilded lead with iron lock, which being closed its key was delivered
+to the said illustrious Archbishop, and which box is about half a yard
+long and wide and in height something more than a quarter of a yard,
+whereupon it was transferred to a small coffin lined with black
+velvet, and adorned with gold trimmings, and was placed on a decent
+catafalque.
+
+"On the following day with the presence of the same illustrious
+Archbishop, His Excellency Aristizabal, the communities of Dominicans,
+Franciscans and Mercenarians, military and naval officers, and a
+concourse of distinguished persons, and people of the lower classes,
+mass was solemnly said and fasting enjoined, whereupon the same
+illustrious Archbishop preached.
+
+"On this day, about half past four o'clock in the afternoon there
+came to the holy cathedral the gentlemen of the Royal Order, to wit,
+Joaquin Garcia, Fieldmarshal, President-Governor and Captain-General
+of this Island of Espanola; Jose Antonio de Vrisar, knight of the
+royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, Minister of the
+royal and supreme council of the Indies and at present Regent of the
+Royal Audiencia; Justices Pedro Catani, dean; Manuel Bravo, likewise
+knight of the royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, and
+with honors and seniority in the Royal Audiencia of Mexico; Melchor
+Joseph de Foncerrada and Andres Alvarez Calderon, state's attorney;
+there being in the cathedral the most illustrious and reverend
+Archbishop, His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, the municipal
+council and religious communities, and a complete picket with draped
+banner, and taking the wooden box covered with plush and gold
+trimmings, in the interior of which was the box of gilded lead, which
+contained the remains exhumed on the preceding day, the President
+Joaquin Garcia, the Regent Joseph Antonio de Vrisar and the Justices,
+Dean Pedro Catani and Manuel Bravo conducted it to a little before the
+exit through the door of the said holy church, where the President and
+Regent separated, passed to their respective places and were
+substituted by Justice Foncerrada and Calderon, state's attorney, and
+upon leaving the church it was saluted by the said picket with a
+discharge of musketry, and there followed the Fieldmarshal and
+Commander of Engineers Antonio Barba, the Brigadier and Commander of
+militia Joaquin Cabrera, the Brigadier and Commander of the fort
+Antonio Cansi, and the colonel of the regiment 'Cantabria,' Gaspar de
+Casasola, and thereafter the military officers alternated according to
+their grade and seniority until reaching the city gate which leads to
+the harbor, where their places were taken by the members of the very
+illustrious municipal council of this city, dean Gregorio Savinon,
+Miguel Martinez Santalices, Francisco de Tapia and Francisco de
+Arredondo, judge of the rural court, and upon emerging from the gate
+it was placed upon a table prepared therefor; a response was chanted
+and during the same the forts saluted it with fifteen minute guns, as
+for an admiral, and one after another took the key of the ark and
+through the said illustrious Archbishop placed it in the hands of His
+Excellency Aristizabal, stating that they delivered the ark into his
+possession subject to the orders of the Governor of Havana as a
+deposit until His Majesty should determine what may be his royal
+pleasure, to which His Excellency acceded, accepting the ark in the
+manner stated and transferring it aboard the brigantine 'Descubridor,'
+which, with the other war-vessels waiting with insignia of mourning,
+also saluted it with fifteen guns, whereupon this certificate was
+concluded and signed by the parties.
+
+"Santo Domingo, December 21, 1795. Joaquin Garcia. Friar Fernando,
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo. Gabriel de Aristizabal. Gregorio Savinon.
+Jose Francisco Hidalgo."
+
+The brief account of the remains when everything else was related with
+such detail leads to the logical conclusion that there was no epitaph
+on the vault and no inscription on the leaden plates found within. The
+Spanish judicial chronicler's habit of minute description would not
+have permitted the omission of such important particulars, if they
+had existed.
+
+The remains were transferred to Havana where their reception was even
+more solemn than their embarkation in Santo Domingo. On January 19,
+1796, they were landed amid the booming of guns, conducted in state by
+the civil and military authorities and a large concourse to the plaza,
+and deposited on a magnificent bier in the shadow of the column
+erected where, according to tradition, the first mass was said in
+Havana and the first municipal council met. Here the ark was formally
+delivered to the Governor of Havana, who had it opened and its
+contents inspected, whereupon it was again closed and transferred with
+great pomp to the cathedral. The key was there delivered to the bishop
+and the remains deposited in a sepulchre with suitable bas-reliefs
+and inscriptions. The notarial narrative of the event goes into the
+most minute particulars, but the contents of the ark are merely
+described as "several leaden plates nearly a tercio in length, several
+small pieces of bone as of some deceased person, and some earth which
+seemed to be of that body."
+
+For over eighty years it was generally accepted in Santo Domingo, as
+throughout the world, that the bones of Columbus rested in the
+cathedral of Havana. There were, indeed, persons who handed down a
+tradition that the remains taken away by the Spaniards were not those
+of the great navigator and that these still remained under the altar
+platform in the Santo Domingo cathedral, but such persons were very
+few and no attention was paid to their allegations. Some Dominicans
+even called on the Spanish government to return the remains and let
+them be laid to rest in Dominican soil in accordance with the
+Discoverer's dying wish. In the meantime no one thought of the tombs
+of Diego Columbus or Louis Columbus, nor was it remembered that they
+were buried in the cathedral.
+
+In the year 1877 extensive repairs were undertaken in the cathedral of
+Santo Domingo. The worn brick flooring was to be replaced with marble
+squares, the old choir was to be torn down and a choir established
+elsewhere in the church, and the altar platform was to be extended
+into the church proper and reduced in height. Shortly after the work
+had begun, a heavy bronze image kept in the vestry--which adjoined the
+sanctuary on the side opposite that where the remains were exhumed in
+1795--was, on May 14, 1877, placed in a doorway long closed leading to
+the sanctuary. In doing so it was noticed that a hollow sound came
+from the wall adjoining and in order to ascertain the cause a small
+opening was made in the wall about a yard above the floor. It was then
+seen that there was a small vault under the altar platform of the
+church, and that the vault contained a metal box with human remains.
+Canon Billini, in charge of the cathedral, immediately ordered that
+the opening be closed until the return of the bishop from a pastoral
+visit to the Cibao. The hole was hidden behind a curtain and no
+immediate attention given to it. Towards the end of June Mr. Carlos
+Nouel, a friend of Canon Billini, obtained permission to look in at
+the box and deciphered a rude inscription reading, "El Almirante D.
+Luis Colon, Duque de Veragua, Marques de--" "The Admiral Don Louis
+Columbus, Duke of Veragua, Marquis of--." The last word was missing
+because of a hole in the corroded leaden plate, but was supposed to be
+"Jamaica." At this time the box was broken, because several days
+before in placing a scaffold in the church one of the posts had been
+located over the box and had broken through. The persons who
+afterwards sought to draw out the box pulled to overcome the obstacle
+and tore the weak plates apart entirely.
+
+The bishop returned on August 18, 1877, and being informed of what had
+happened, on September 1 invited the Cabinet officers, the consular
+corps and a number of civil and military authorities and private
+persons to witness the removal of the remains of Louis Columbus. To
+the chagrin of the bishop and canon, it was found that the plate with
+the inscription had been stolen. Probably shamed by ever increasing
+popular indignation, the grave-robber anonymously returned it on
+December 14, 1879, by leaving it in the cathedral door in a package
+addressed to the archbishop. The other plates with the earth and
+pieces of bone were carefully collected.
+
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY OF CATHEDRAL IN SEPTEMBER, 1877
+(Scale; 1 centimeter = 1 meter)
+
+1.  Vault containing remains of Christopher Colombus.
+2.  Vault opened by Spaniards in 1795.
+3.  Vault containing remains of Louis Columbus.
+4.  Pedestal of main altar.
+5.  Door leading to vestry.
+6.  Door leading to capitular room.
+7.  Location of containing wall of old altar platform, as it existed
+    in 1540.
+8.  Location of stairs which in 1540 led up to altar platform.
+9.  Tribune of the Gospels.
+10. Tribune of the Epistles.
+11. Steps of altar platform.
+12. Grave of Juan Sanchez Ramirez. Isidore Peralta had also been
+    buried at this spot.]
+
+
+The unexpected finding of the long forgotten remains of the grandson
+of the Admiral recalled the tradition that the Discoverer's body still
+remained in Santo Domingo, and several gentlemen, among them the
+Italian consul, requested the bishop to take advantage of the
+repairing of the church for a thorough investigation of the altar
+platform in order to ascertain whether it contained any other notable
+graves. The bishop gave his consent, and the investigation commenced
+on September 8, under the direction of Canon Billini. Digging was
+begun near the door of the capitular room and in a short time an
+unmarked grave was found containing human remains and military
+insignia. It was proven by witnesses that they were the remains of
+Juan Sanchez Ramirez, Captain-General of Santo Domingo, who died on
+February 12, 1811, and was buried in the same place where had been the
+grave of General Isidore Peralta. A narrow wall was then encountered
+which was afterwards found to be the containing wall of the ancient
+altar platform. On the ninth, a Sunday, the work went on during the
+morning with the permission of the bishop. An excavation was made at
+the place where, according to tradition, the remains taken to Havana
+had lain and soon a small vault was discovered quite empty. It was
+evidently the vault opened by the Spaniards in 1795. The examination
+was continued between this vault and the main altar, but nothing new
+was encountered, whereupon the work was left to be resumed on the
+following day, rather with the hope of finding something of Diego
+Columbus, for the empty vault seemed to show that the remains of
+Christopher Columbus were really removed in 1795.
+
+The excavations continued on September 10, 1877, between the empty
+vault and the wall. A large stone was found, and a piece broken off,
+disclosing another vault containing what appeared to be a square box.
+The bishop and the Italian consul were sent for immediately and upon
+their arrival the orifice was slightly enlarged and a metal box became
+clearly visible. It was covered with the dust of centuries, but an
+inscription was seen, in which abbreviations of the words "First
+Admiral" could faintly be distinguished. The work was stopped at once,
+the doors of the cathedral were locked and all the principal persons
+of the city invited to attend the further investigation of the vault's
+contents. The report of the find rapidly spread through the city,
+though distorted in some quarters, for one of the workmen hearing the
+bishop's joyful exclamation, "Oh, what a treasure!" conceived the idea
+that the box was full of gold pieces and so informed the people that
+gathered outside.
+
+The formal opening of the vault on the afternoon of that day and the
+examination of its contents are minutely described in the notarial
+document drawn up on the occasion:
+
+"In the City of Santo Domingo on the tenth of September of the year
+eighteen hundred and seventy-seven. At four o'clock in the afternoon
+upon invitation of the most illustrious and reverend Doctor Friar
+Roque Cocchia, Bishop of Orope, Vicar and Apostolic Delegate of the
+Holy See in the Republics of Santo Domingo, Venezuela and Haiti,
+assisted by presbyter Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, secretary of the
+bishopric, by the honorary penitentiary canon, presbyter Francisco
+Javier Billini, rector and founder of the College of San Luis Gonzaga
+and of the charity asylum, apostolic missionary and acting curate of
+the holy cathedral, and by presbyter Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate
+of the same, there met in the holy cathedral General Marcos A. Cabral,
+Minister of the Interior and Police; Licentiate Felipe Davila
+Fernandez de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations; Joaquin Montolio,
+Minister of Justice and Public Instruction; General Manuel A. Caceres,
+Minister of Finance and Commerce; and General Valentin Ramirez Baez,
+Minister of War and the Navy; and the citizens General Braulio
+Alvarez, Civil and Military Governor of the Province of the Capital,
+assisted by his secretary Pedro Maria Gautier; the honorable members
+of the illustrious municipal council of this capital, citizen Juan de
+la C. Alfonseca, president, and citizens Felix Baez, Juan Bautista
+Paradas, Pedro Mota, Manuel Maria Cabral and Jose Maria Bonetti,
+members; General Francisco Ungria Chala, military commandant of this
+city; citizens Felix Mariano Lluveres, president of the legislative
+chamber and Francisco Javier Machado, deputy to the same chamber; the
+members of the consular corps accredited to the Republic, Messrs.
+Miguel Pou, Consul of H.M. the Emperor of Germany, Luis Cambiaso,
+Consul of H.M. the King of Italy, Jose Manuel Echeverri, Consul of H.
+Catholic M. the King of Spain, Aubin Defougerais, Consul of the French
+Republic, Paul Jones, Consul of the United States of North America,
+Jose Martin Leyba, Consul of H.M. the King of the Netherlands, and
+David Coen, Consul of H.M. the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain; the citizens licentiates in medicine and surgery Marcos
+Antonio Gomez and Jose de Jesus Brenes; the civil engineer Jesus Maria
+Castillo, director of the work in this cathedral; the chief sexton of
+the same, Jesus Maria Troncoso, and the undersigned notaries public,
+Pedro Nolasco Polanco, Mariano Montolio and Leonardo Delmonte i
+Aponte, the first also being the acting notary of the curacy and the
+second the titular notary of the municipal council of this capital.
+
+"The most illustrious Bishop, in the presence of the gentlemen above
+designated and of a numerous concourse, declares: that the holy
+cathedral being undergoing repairs under the direction of the reverend
+Canon Francisco Javier Billini, and it having come to his notice that
+according to tradition and notwithstanding what appears from public
+documents with reference to the transfer of the remains of the Admiral
+Christopher Columbus to the city of Havana in the year seventeen
+hundred and ninety-five the said remains might still be in the place
+where they had been deposited and as such place the right side of the
+sanctuary was designated, under the spot occupied by the archbishop's
+chair; with the desire of clearing up the matters which tradition had
+carried to him, he authorized the reverend Canon Billini, upon his
+request, to make the necessary explorations; and as the latter was
+doing so with two workmen on the morning of this day, he discovered at
+a depth of two palms, more or less, the beginning of a vault which
+permitted part of a metal box to be seen; that immediately the said
+Canon Billini ordered the chief sexton, Jesus Maria Troncoso, to go to
+the archiepiscopal palace and inform His Grace of the result of the
+investigations, also informing the Minister of the Interior,
+requesting their presence without loss of time; that immediately His
+Grace proceeded to the holy cathedral where he found Jesus Maria
+Castillo, civil engineer, in charge of the repairs to this temple and
+two workmen who, in company with Canon Billini, guarded the small
+excavation which had been made, and at the same time Luis Cambiaso
+arrived, called by the said Canon Billini; that having personally made
+certain of the existence of the vault as well as that it contained the
+box to which Canon Billini made reference and an inscription being
+discovered on the upper part of what appeared to be the lid, he
+ordered that things be left as they were and that the doors of the
+temple be closed, the keys being confided to the reverend Canon
+Billini; proposing to invite, as he did invite, His Excellency the
+great citizen, President of the Republic, General Buenaventura Baez,
+his Cabinet, the consular corps and the other civil and military
+authorities named in the beginning of this certificate, in order to
+proceed with all due solemnity to the extraction of the box and give
+all required authenticity to the result of the investigation; and
+having advised the authorities, by their order municipal policemen
+were stationed at each one of the closed doors of the temple.
+
+"His Grace, stationed in the sanctuary, near the started excavation
+and surrounded by the authorities above mentioned and a very numerous
+concourse, all the doors of the temple having been opened, had the
+excavation continued, and a slab was removed, permitting the raising
+of the box, which was taken and shown by His Grace and found to be of
+lead. The said box was exhibited to all the authorities convoked, and
+thereupon was carried in procession through the interior of the temple
+and shown to the people.
+
+"The pulpit of the left nave of the temple being occupied by His
+Grace, by the reverend Canon Billini, who carried the box, the
+Minister of the Interior, the president of the municipal council and
+two of the notaries public who sign this document: His Grace opened
+the box and exhibited to the people a part of the remains it encloses;
+he also read the several inscriptions on the box, which prove beyond
+controversy that the remains are really and in fact those of the
+illustrious Genovese, the great Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+Discoverer of America. The truth of the matter being irrefutably
+ascertained, a salute of twenty-one guns, fired by the artillery of
+the fort, a general ringing of bells and strains of music from the
+military band, announced the happy and memorable event to the city.
+
+"Immediately the authorities convoked met in the vestry of the temple
+and proceeded in the presence of the undersigned notaries public, who
+certify thereto, to an examination and expert investigation of the box
+and its contents; the result of the examination being that the said
+box is of lead, has hinges and measures forty-two centimeters in
+length, twenty-one centimeters in depth and twenty and a half in
+width; containing the following inscriptions: on the upper side of the
+lid 'D. de la A, Per. Ate.'--On the left headboard 'C.' On the front
+side 'C'--On the right headboard 'A.' On raising the lid the following
+inscription was found on the inner side of the same carved in German
+Gothic characters: 'Illtre. y Esdo. Varon Dn. Cristobal Colon,' and in
+the said box human remains which on examination by the licentiate of
+equal class Jose de Jesus Brenes are found to be: A femur deteriorated
+in the upper part of the neck, between the great trochanter and its
+head. A fibula in its natural state. A radius also complete. The os
+sacrum in bad condition. The coccyx. Two lumbar vertabrae. One
+cervical and two dorsal vertabrae. Two calcanea. One bone of the
+metacarpus. Another of the metatarsus. A fragment of the frontal or
+coronal bone, containing half of an orbital cavity. A middle third of
+the tibia. Two more fragments of tibia. Two astragoli. One upper
+portion of shoulder-blade. One fragment of the lower jawbone. One half
+of an os humeri, the whole constituting thirteen small and
+twenty-eight large fragments, there being others reduced to dust.
+
+"In addition a leaden ball weighing about an ounce, more or less, was
+found and two small screws belonging to the box.
+
+"The examination mentioned having been terminated, the ecclesiastical
+and civil authorities and the illustrious municipal council resolved
+to close and seal the box with their respective seals and deposit it
+in the sanctuary of the church of Regina Angelorum, under the
+responsibility of the aforesaid penitentiary canon Francisco Javier
+Billini, until otherwise determined; His Grace, the Ministers, the
+consuls and the undersigned notaries immediately proceeding to affix
+their seals; and finally they determined to transfer the box in
+triumph to the said church of Regina Angelorum, accompanied by the
+veteran troops of the capital, batteries of artillery, music, and
+whatever else might give impressiveness and splendor to so solemn an
+act, for which the town was prepared as was noted from the great
+multitude which filled the temple and the cathedral plaza, to which we
+certify, as we do also that the present was signed by the gentlemen
+above named and other distinguished persons.
+
+"Friar Roque Cocchia, of the Order of Capuchins, Bishop of Orope,
+Apostolic Delegate to Santo Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela, Apostolic
+Vicar in Santo Domingo--Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, Capuchin, Secretary
+of His Excellency the Apostolic Delegate and Vicar--Francisco X.
+Billini--Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate of the cathedral--Marcos A.
+Cabral, Minister of the Interior and Police--Felipe Davila Fernandez
+de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations--Joaquin Montolio, Minister
+of Justice and Public Instruction--M. A. Caceres, Minister of Finance
+and Commerce--Valentin Ramirez Baez, Minister of War and the
+Navy--Braulio Alvarez, Governor of the Province--Pedro Ma. Gautier,
+Secretary--Juan de la C. Alfonseca, President of the Municipal
+council--Members, Felix Baez--Juan Bautista Paradas--Manuel Ma. Cabral
+B.--P. Mota--Jose M. Bonetti--Francisco Ungria Chala, Commandant of
+Arms--Felix Mariano Lluveres, President of the Legislative
+Chamber--Francisco Javier Machado, Deputy of the Legislative
+Chamber--The Consul of Spain, Jose Manuel Echeverri--Luigi Cambiaso,
+R. Consul of H. M. the King of Italy--Miguel Pou, Consul of the German
+Empire--Paul Jones, United States Consul--D. Coen, British
+Vice-Consul--J. M. Leyba, Consul of the Netherlands--A. Aubin
+Defougerais, Vice-Consul of France--Jesus Ma. Castillo, Civil
+Engineer--M. A. Gomez, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--J. J.
+Brenes, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--The chief sexton, Jesus
+Ma. Troncoso--A. Licairac--M. M. Santamaria--Domingo Rodriguez--Manuel
+de Jesus Garcia--Enrique Peinado--Federico Polanco--Lugardis Olivo--P.
+Mr. Consuegra--Eujenio de Marchena--Valentin Ramirez, Jr.--F.
+Perdomo--Joaquin Ramirez Morales--Amable Damiron--Jaime Ratto--Pedro
+N. Polanco, Notary Public--Leonardo Delmonte I Aponte, Notary
+Public--Mariano Montolio, Notary Public."
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on lid of lead box. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on inner side of lid. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+The vault so opened was a little larger than that opened in 1795, and
+separated therefrom by a six-inch wall. The leaden box was of rude
+construction, dented and much oxydized, the plates being a little
+thicker than those of the casket of Louis Columbus. The inscription on
+the outside of the lid "D. de la A. Per, Ate." was taken to mean
+"Descubridor de la America, Primer Almirante"--"Discoverer of America,
+First Admiral." The inscription on the inner side of the lid, without
+contractions, was: "Ilustre y Esclarecido Varon Don Cristobal
+Colon"--"Illustrious and noble man, Christopher Columbus." The letters
+"C C A" were interpreted as signifying "Cristobal Colon,
+Almirante"--"Christopher Columbus, Admiral." On January 3, 1878, a
+more minute examination of the remains was made at the request of the
+Spanish Academy of History and in the dust at the bottom of the box
+was found a small silver plate with two holes by which it had
+evidently been screwed with the two screws found at the first
+examination to some wooden board or receptacle. All vestige of wood
+had disappeared, either through decay or perhaps through destruction
+by insects, for on the walls of the vault are faint traces of ancient
+tracks made by the comejen or wood-eating ant. On one side of the
+plate was engraved in rude letters: "Ua. pte. de los rtos. del pmer.
+Alte. D. Cristoval Colon Des.," which is read as meaning "Ultima parte
+de los restos del primer Almirante, Don Cristoval Colon,
+Descubridor"--"Last part of the remains of the first Admiral, Don
+Christopher Columbus, Discoverer." On the reverse side are the words
+"Cristoval Colon" and several letters which indicate that the
+inscription "Ua. pte." etc., was begun here but was stopped, perhaps
+because there was not sufficient room.
+
+[Illustration: Obverse side of silver plate (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse side of silver plate. (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+The small lead ball, similar to a musket-ball, found in the box, has
+been the subject of much comment. It is not known that Columbus was
+ever wounded, though it is true that of many years of his life we
+have little information. Some writers make deductions from an
+equivocal sentence contained in a letter written by him to the rulers
+of Spain on his fourth voyage, in which he refers to his difficulties
+off the coast of Central America and says: "There the wound of my
+trouble opened." Others refer to an obscure sentence of Las Casas, but
+others believe that the ball was dropped in the box by accident,
+either when the box was prepared for the vault or at some time when in
+the course of the centuries the vault may have been casually opened as
+was the adjoining vault in 1783. At what time the remains were
+enclosed in this box and the inscriptions placed on the same it is
+impossible to determine; it may have been in Seville, or in the early
+days in Santo Domingo, or at a later date, perhaps when the epitaphs
+were removed from the vault.
+
+The remainder of the old altar platform was carefully examined but no
+other vaults or remains were discovered. With reference to the bones
+"of a deceased person" transferred in 1795 a logical conclusion can be
+reached: Christopher Columbus, his son Diego, and his grandson Louis
+were all buried in the Santo Domingo cathedral; the caskets, with
+inscriptions, of the first and third were found in 1877 and there are
+no other vaults under the old altar platform; therefore the remains
+taken away in 1795 with pieces of a casket without inscription, or the
+inscription of which had become illegible, were most probably those of
+Diego Columbus.
+
+Santo Domingo went wild with joy over the discovery. It was determined
+to erect a suitable monument for the remains with funds raised by
+private subscription and by a half per cent, surtax on imports. A
+beautiful marble memorial costing $40,000, guarded by bronze lions and
+adorned with bronze relief work depicting scenes from the life of
+Columbus, was designed by two Spanish sculptors. The first intention
+was to place the same in a mausoleum specially built for the purpose,
+but it was finally erected in the nave of the cathedral near the main
+door. A richly ornamented bronze box placed in the monument contains
+the leaden casket and the remains. Once a year on the anniversary of
+the find, the box is opened and the public permitted to gaze on
+its contents.
+
+The Spanish authorities would never admit the authenticity of the
+remains found in 1877, and the Spanish consul in Santo Domingo was
+bitterly criticized for affixing his signature to the notarial
+document relating the discovery. The Spaniards continue to claim that
+the true remains of the Discoverer are those which were transferred to
+Havana. Upon the evacuation of Cuba by Spain in 1898 these remains
+were solemnly removed and taken to Spain, where they now rest in the
+cathedral of Seville. Many investigations have been made from
+different sources and the majority of investigators report in favor of
+the Dominican contention, especially when they have personally visited
+Santo Domingo. The Spanish writers present no proof that the remains
+taken to Havana in 1795 were those of Christopher Columbus, but limit
+themselves to attacking the find of 1877. The insinuations and
+accusations, without corroborating facts, prove nothing but the temper
+of their authors. All criticisms have been refuted by showing that
+even supposing the box to date from the year 1540, other and
+indubitable inscriptions of that year have the same style of letters,
+abbreviations, spelling and words as those criticized. Further the
+appearance of the box and vault of 1877, the circumstances attending
+their discovery, and the irreproachable character of the Apostolic
+Delegate, of Canon Billini and of others connected with that event
+preclude all suspicion of fraud.
+
+On the whole, the weight of evidence is strongly in favor of the
+Dominican contention. It seems that, in spite of the acts of men, fate
+has permitted the remains of the Discoverer of America to repose in
+the principal cathedral of the island he loved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+GOVERNMENT
+
+
+Form of government.--Constitutions.--Presidents.--Election.--Powers.
+--Executive secretaries.--Land and sea forces.--Congress.--Local
+subdivisions.--Provincial governors.--Communal governments.
+
+
+From the date of the declaration of independence, February 27, 1844,
+down to the present time, with the exception only of a portion of the
+period of Spanish occupation of 1861 to 1865, Santo Domingo has
+remained in form at least, a republic. Herein it contrasts with its
+neighbor Haiti, which has experienced several monarchies. Thus
+Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor in 1804, Christophe assumed the
+title of king in 1810 and Soulouque had himself declared emperor in
+1849; and the latter two instituted pompous black nobilities. And
+though the Cibao of Santo Domingo and the region south of the Central
+Cordillera have ever been rivals and often in arms against each other
+under competing generals, there has never been any tendency to
+separate and form two states--as occurred in Haiti in 1806 when the
+northern portion fell under the sway of Christophe for a period of
+fourteen years, first as a nominal republic and later as a kingdom,
+while the southern portion became a republic under Petion and finally
+under Boyer.
+
+But although the country has in form remained a republic and the title
+of the chief of state has never been more pretentious than president
+or protector, in fact there have been few years when the government
+was not autocratic and the president an absolute monarch whose powers
+were limited only by his own generous impulses or the fear of
+alienating his more influential supporters. Dominican writers have
+even referred to the constitution as a conventional lie.
+
+The various Dominican presidents, as soon as securely in power, have
+generally been careful to follow constitutional forms, in an effort to
+deceive their followers and themselves into the belief that they were
+acting in regular course as servants of the people. The successful
+revolutionist was almost, always in haste to "legalize" his position
+by an election. Most of the presidents, among them Heureaux, have been
+great sticklers for form. Instead of moulding their wishes to conform
+to the constitution, however, they would mould the constitution to
+conform to their wishes, and repeatedly the first act of the
+successful revolutionist has been to promulgate a new constitution in
+accordance with his ideas. It has thus come to pass that the
+constitution, far from being revered as the immutable foundation of
+government, has rather been regarded as the convenient means for the
+president in office to exercise power. From 1844 to the present time
+nineteen constitutions have been promulgated in Santo Domingo, one in
+the year 1844, one each in 1858, 1859 and 1865, two in 1866 and one
+each in 1868, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1896, 1907
+and 1908.
+
+This extraordinary number is due in part to the practice of not
+enacting amendments to an existing constitution, but of promulgating
+the amended instrument as a new constitution. On three of the
+occasions here indicated a constitution was abrogated in order to
+revive a prior one. No account is taken in the above computation of
+the instances where a successful revolutionist in order to announce
+his adherence to the then existing constitution promulgated the same
+anew. Thus the constitution of 1896 was reestablished in 1903.
+
+The Dominican constitutions have all been modeled on the general lines
+of that of the United States, and have differed from each other only
+in detail. The term of office of the president has varied from one to
+six years and the powers conferred upon him have been more or less
+ample. The constitution of 1854, revived in 1859, 1866 and 1868,
+practically invested him with dictatorial powers, and the only
+legislative assembly it provided for was an "Advisory Senate" of
+nine members.
+
+The present constitution was drafted by a constitutional assembly
+which sat in Santiago de los Caballeros in the early part of 1908. It
+is disappointing both as a literary and political document. The style
+bears witness to the haste with which the instrument was compiled.
+Provisions quite unsuitable to Dominican conditions are included, such
+as that granting the right to vote to all male citizens over eighteen
+years of age. Such an extension of the suffrage would be looked upon
+askance even in countries where education is general, and in Santo
+Domingo would constitute a serious danger if really put into effect.
+While the presidential succession is left to be regulated by a law of
+Congress, the constitution goes into minute details regarding
+citizenship, naturalization and several other matters. Repeated
+attempts have been made to secure a new constitution and in 1914
+partial elections were held for a constitutional convention, but for
+one reason or another the plan has not matured. A new constitution
+will probably be provided in connection with the cessation of American
+occupation.
+
+According to the present constitution the president must be a native
+born Dominican, at least thirty-five years of age and with a
+residence of at least twenty years in the Republic. His term of office
+is fixed at six years, to be counted from the day of inauguration. The
+fact that no specific date is mentioned has repeatedly proved a matter
+of convenience to successful revolutionists. The designation of a
+presidential term of office in the various constitutions has thus far
+been something of an irony, for of the 43 executives who have come to
+the fore in the 70 years of national life, but three presidents have
+completed terms of office for which they were elected: Baez one term,
+Merino one and Heureaux four, nor was the distinction of these three
+due to ought but their success in suppressing revolutionary movements.
+Five vice-presidents completed presidential terms. Two presidents were
+killed and twenty deposed. The other chief magistrates resigned more
+or less voluntarily.
+
+Of the 43 presidents 15 were chosen by popular election according to
+constitutional forms, 5 were vice-presidents who succeeded to the
+presidency, 4 were provisional presidents elected by Congress, 10
+began as military presidents and then had themselves elected under
+constitutional forms, and 9 were purely and simply military
+provisional presidents.
+
+A comparison of the list of presidents with the roster of executives
+of Haiti reveals a disproportion, for though the black Republic has
+been in existence since 1804, it has had but twenty-nine chiefs of
+state, the average duration of whose rule was therefore much longer
+than has been the case in Santo Domingo. It is to be observed,
+however, that of the Haitian executives only one completed his term of
+office and voluntarily retired; of the others, four remained in power
+until their death from natural causes, eighteen were deposed by
+revolutions, one of them, committing suicide, another being executed
+on the steps of his burning palace, and still another being cut to
+pieces by the mob; five were assassinated; and one is chief magistrate
+at the present time.
+
+The president and members of the Senate and House of Deputies are
+elected by indirect vote. Electors whose number and apportionment
+among the several provinces and their subdivisions are prescribed by
+law, are chosen by general suffrage in what are called primary
+assemblies in the several municipalities and constitute electoral
+colleges which meet at the chief town of the respective province. The
+electors having cast their votes for president the minutes of the
+session are sent to the capital. The votes are counted in joint
+session of Congress and the successful candidate is proclaimed by
+that body.
+
+Though the election procedure designated in the constitution was
+gravely followed, yet not once in the history of the country has the
+result of an election been in doubt, nor is there an instance when the
+candidate of the government was not elected, excepting only the
+election of October, 1914, when the American government brought
+watchers from Porto Rico to avoid gross frauds and coercion. Usually
+everything was prepared beforehand and the primaries and the meetings
+of the electoral colleges were little more than ratification meetings.
+The votes of the electoral colleges were generally unanimous in favor
+of the government's candidate, yet the odd spectacle has repeatedly
+presented itself, of a unanimously elected president being driven out
+of the country within a few months by a general revolution.
+
+The constitution authorizes the president to conclude treaties with
+the consent of Congress, to appoint certain government officials, to
+receive foreign diplomatic representatives, and to grant pardons in
+certain cases, and makes him commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
+Most of the chief magistrates have not felt themselves hampered,
+however, whether in peace or war, by any enumeration of powers in the
+constitution, for their ascendancy has generally been such that their
+wishes would be complied with and their illegal acts ratified or
+ignored by a subservient Congress. President Heureaux so controlled
+Congress, the courts, and all public functionaries, that the
+government was practically identical with his personality.
+
+The constitution provides that in case of the death, resignation or
+disability of the president the Congress shall by law designate the
+person who is to act as president until the disability ceases or a new
+president is elected, and that if Congress is not sitting the Cabinet
+officers are immediately to call a session. This is an innovation, as
+from 1853 to 1907 the Dominican constitutions provided for a
+vice-president. The vice-president was generally a decorative feature.
+He was required to possess the same qualifications as the president
+and was chosen with the same formalities, but no duties were assigned
+to him, not even that of presiding in Congress, so that his only
+attribute was the glory of being a president in escrow. The newly
+elected vice-president therefore often quietly retired to his farm,
+emerging occasionally to act in the president's stead when the latter
+left the capital on a trip through the country. Frequently the
+vice-president was made delegate of the government in some part of the
+country and at times he was invested with a portfolio as one of the
+cabinet secretaries. During the administration of a strong president,
+as in the time of Heureaux, the vice-president was generally one of
+his satellites, whereas, when the president's power was not so firmly
+established, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales, one of
+his rivals would be mollified by the vice-presidency. In such cases
+friction frequently developed, and in the two cases specified the
+vice-presidents and presidential rivals, Vasquez and Caceres,
+overthrew the president and established themselves in power. Evidently
+in order to avoid such disturbances and temptations the constitution
+of 1908 abolished the office of vice-president. The lack of a definite
+successor to the president, however, enabled Victoria to seize the
+presidency after the death of Caceres in 1911 and has given rise to
+uncertainty and trouble in the cases of presidential succession since
+that time.
+
+It has been a custom, sometimes expressly authorized by the
+constitution, for the president to delegate executive powers and
+prerogatives to persons selected by him in various parts of the
+country, especially where revolutionary uprisings threatened. There
+has usually been such a delegate of the government in the Cibao and
+often one in Azua. They are powerful officials, inasmuch as they are
+regarded as the direct representatives of the president and his
+administration, command the local military forces, and constitute the
+fountain-head of all local executive appointments. Nominations as
+delegates of the government have been preferably conferred upon
+provincial governors or upon the vice-president. The president is
+naturally anxious to repose such powers in one of his confidants, but
+political exigencies have sometimes obliged him to soothe one of his
+rivals with the distinction and remain on the qui vive thereafter.
+More than one governmental delegate has overthrown the president and
+established himself in power.
+
+Provisional presidents have been numerous in Dominican history. After
+a successful revolution the victorious general usually proclaimed
+himself president of a provisional government and until the
+constitution was again declared in force he and his ministers united
+executive and legislative power. How far the acts of such de facto
+governments were legally binding upon the Republic has been questioned
+in cases where obligations were imposed upon the country, but foreign
+governments in asserting their rights have paid little attention to
+such quibbles.
+
+The constitution provides that there shall be such executive
+secretaries as may be determined by law. They are currently referred
+to as ministers and their number has been fixed at seven, namely, (1)
+secretary of the interior and police (interior y policia); (2)
+secretary of foreign relations (relaciones exteriores); (3) secretary
+of finance and commerce (hacienda y comercio); (4) secretary of war
+and the navy (guerra y marina); (5) secretary of justice and public
+instruction (justicia e instruccion publica); (6) secretary of
+agriculture and immigration (agricultura e inmigracion); (7) secretary
+of public development and communications (fomento y comunicaciones).
+Communication between Congress and the executive departments is
+rendered easier than in the United States by the constitutional
+provision that the secretaries of state are obliged to attend the
+Congressional sessions when called by Congress. This right of
+interpellation has frequently been exercised.
+
+The secretary of the interior and police is at the head of an
+important department. He is the administrative superior of the
+provincial governors and the communal and cantonal chiefs. His
+position renders him the sentinel of the government for the detection
+of revolutionary movements.
+
+The foreign office of the Republic is directed by the secretary of
+foreign affairs. The diplomatic service of Santo Domingo is limited
+to the modest needs of the country, the more important posts being
+those of minister plenipotentiary in the United States, Haiti and
+France and charge d'affaires in Cuba and Venezuela. The majority of
+consuls depend altogether upon consular fees for their remuneration,
+only a few of the more important being provided for in the budget. The
+consulates of most consequence have been considered to be those in the
+surrounding West India Islands and in New York City, for apart from
+their commercial relations with the Republic these places have been
+the favorite haunts of conspiring political exiles. Almost all the
+European countries are represented in the Dominican Republic either by
+ministers, charges d'affaires or consuls. Of the diplomatic
+representatives residing in Santo Domingo City the highest in rank is
+the American minister. Before 1904 the American minister to Haiti was
+accredited to the Dominican Republic as charge d'affaires. The United
+States has consular representatives at all the principal ports, there
+being an American consul at Puerto Plata and consular agents
+elsewhere. In the past, great respect has been shown to consulates
+even to the extent of allowing them privileges of extra-territoriality,
+and frequently political refugees have sought asylum under the flag of
+a mere consular agent.
+
+The secretary of finance and commerce has charge of the sources of
+national income, and the customs and internal revenue services, and
+under his authority the disbursements of the Republic are audited. The
+office for the compilation of statistics, organized a few years ago,
+is also in this department.
+
+The army, rural police, navy and the captaincies of the port are under
+the supervision of the secretary of war and the navy. This official is
+always a military man and generally takes the field in person in
+cases of revolutionary uprisings. During the insurrection of Jimenez
+against Morales in 1903-4, two of Morales' ministers of war were
+killed in battle.
+
+Upon the American occupation in 1916 the military force of the
+Republic was disbanded. There were at that time twelve military posts,
+one in the capital of each province. The commanders and their aides
+and the chiefs of forts and their assistants were treated as distinct
+from the regular army. The army's strength and organization have
+varied greatly; at the time of its dissolution the authorized strength
+was one infantry regiment of about 470 officers and men, and a band of
+33 men. Only a few months before, the preceding budget had authorized
+an infantry force of about 800 officers and men and a battery of
+mountain artillery of 100 officers and men, in addition to the
+all-important band. In reality, however, only the membership of the
+band was certain; in time of war the rest of the military
+establishment was much larger, and in time of peace it comprised
+numerous phantom soldiers, whose salaries were nevertheless regularly
+collected from the national treasury. Service was supposed to be
+voluntary, but the "volunteers" were generally picked out by communal
+chiefs and brought in under guard, sometimes tied with ropes to keep
+them from deserting.
+
+There was also an inefficient and overbearing rural police called the
+"Guardia Republicana," supposed to consist of seven companies of about
+800 officers and men, but here too things were not what they seemed.
+The higher officers of the Republican Guard were a brigadier-general,
+a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel and 2 majors; those of the army only a
+colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors, which was very modest for
+a country teeming with generals and where the budget of 1909 even
+appropriated $20,000 for a "corps of generals at the orders of the
+president."
+
+The American garrison in the Republic, comprising about 1000 men, took
+over the military posts in the Republic and lent strength to the
+Guardia Republicana. By an order of the military governor, of April 7,
+1917, the sum of $500,000 was set aside for the organization of a
+constabulary force to be called the "Guardia Nacional Dominicana," to
+take the place of the Dominican army, navy and police. This Dominican
+National Guard is to be commanded by a citizen of the United States
+and such other officers as the American government may consider
+necessary. Its organization is far advanced and it has already
+absorbed the Guardia Republicana. In it will be merged the frontier
+guard of about 70 men depending on the general receiver's office, and
+probably also the small municipal police squads that compel the
+observance of municipal ordinances.
+
+The Dominican navy is now composed of a single gunboat, the
+"Independencia." At the end of Heureaux's rule the country boasted
+three. The best of these was the "Restauracion," which went on the
+rocks at the entrance to Macoris harbor in one of the first conflicts
+between the Jimenistas and Horacistas. The story goes that the steamer
+was about to attack Macoris, that the pilot, in sympathy with the
+opposition, grounded her with a view to having her captured, but that
+a sudden storm drove her to complete destruction. Another gunboat was
+the "Presidente," which had figured in history, for it was nothing
+less than the yacht "Deerhound," on which the Confederate Admiral
+Semmes took refuge after the sinking of the "Alabama" by the
+"Kearsarge." In 1906 it was sent to Newport News for overhauling as
+old age had made it unseaworthy, but since the repairs would have cost
+more than the vessel was worth, it was sold for old iron. The
+survivor, the "Independencia" is a trim vessel with a crew of fifty
+officers and men. Attached to the general receiver's office are
+several gasoline revenue cutters, recently provided.
+
+The secretary of justice and public instruction has administrative
+supervision over the courts, jails and schools of the Republic, and
+the government subventions to primary and private schools are
+disbursed under his direction.
+
+The secretary of agriculture and immigration is the cabinet officer of
+most recent creation. Prior to the 1908 constitution agriculture had
+been in charge of the department of public development and there had
+been no special provision for immigration. The importance of these
+subjects for the Republic was felt to be such as to merit the
+establishment of a special department. In practice the department has
+done nothing, its efforts being hampered by revolutions and
+circumscribed by the limited sums at its disposal. Its activities have
+been confined to a general supervision of agriculture, the preparatory
+work of the establishment of an agricultural experiment station and
+the operation of a small meteorological service.
+
+The department of public development and communications has charge of
+the postal service of the Republic, of the national telegraph and
+telephone, of the lighthouses, and of the public works carried on by
+the government.
+
+The size of the national legislature of Santo Domingo has fluctuated
+considerably. Under the 1896 constitution the Congress consisted of a
+single house of twenty-four members, two from each of the then
+existing six provinces and six districts. The increase of the
+national income permitting greater expenditures, the constitution of
+1908 provided for two houses, one called the Senate, the other the
+Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of twelve members, one
+from each province, elected by the same electoral colleges that elect
+the president and holding office for six years. One-third of the
+Senate is renewed every two years. The number of members of the
+Chamber of Deputies is supposed to be in proportion to the number of
+inhabitants of the various provinces, but as there has been no census
+the number is provisionally fixed at twenty-four, two from each
+province. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a
+term of four years, also by the electoral colleges, which at the same
+time designate alternates for the several members.
+
+Congress meets each year in regular session on the anniversary of
+Dominican independence, February 27, and its session is limited to
+ninety days, which may, however, be extended sixty days more. Since
+there are no provincial legislatures the powers of the Congress, set
+forth in the Constitution, are sweeping. They include the right to
+legislate in general for every part of the Republic, to approve or
+reject treaties and to try the president, cabinet members and supreme
+court judges on impeachment charges.
+
+In practice the elections for deputies have been as perfunctory as
+those for president, though there were occasional contests. The
+character and attitude of Congress has varied with the character and
+condition of the presidents. During the incumbency of strong leaders,
+such as Santana, Baez and Heureaux, the Congress was little more than
+the tool of the executive, but when the personality of the president
+was not so overwhelming or when many of the deputies were followers of
+a rival chieftain, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales,
+an independent and sometimes a nagging spirit has been manifested.
+
+Under the American occupation the Congress was by decree of January 2,
+1917, declared in abeyance and all executive and legislative powers
+are temporarily exercised by the commander of the American forces. The
+heads of executive departments are officers of the American navy or
+marine corps. Otherwise the general structure of the government
+remains as before. The theory that Santo Domingo is an independent,
+sovereign country is carefully followed, though at times it leads to
+anomalous situations, as when the American military governor issues
+exequaturs to American consuls in Santo Domingo "by virtue of the
+powers vested in me by the Constitution of the Dominican Republic," or
+when the American minister, Hon. W. W. Russell, representing the
+United States and receiving his instructions from the United States
+State Department, calls on Admiral H. S. Knapp, chief executive of
+Santo Domingo, who takes his orders from the United States Navy
+Department.
+
+For administrative purposes the Republic is divided into twelve
+provinces; Azua, Barahona, Espaillat, La Vega, Macoris, Monte Cristi,
+Pacificador, Puerto Plata, Samana, Santiago, Santo Domingo and Seibo.
+Formerly six were known as provinces and six as maritime districts,
+though there was in practice no distinction between them. The
+provinces are subdivided into communes and cantons--a canton being a
+commune in embryo--and these in turn are subdivided into sections.
+Congress is empowered to create new provinces, communes and cantons.
+
+In the twelve provinces there are now sixty-five communes, several
+comprising cantons. The provinces bear the names of their capital
+towns, except Espaillat and Pacificador, the former of which is
+called after Ulises F. Espaillat who took a prominent part in the War
+of Restoration and was president in 1876, and the latter in honor of
+President Heureaux, on whom a fawning Congress conferred the title of
+Pacificador de la Patria, but these also are sometimes known by the
+names of their capitals, Moca and San Francisco de Macoris. The
+communes bear the names of their urban centers. Towns with long names
+are usually referred to by part of the name only, thus Santa Cruz del
+Seibo is known simply as El Seibo, Santa Barbara de Samana either as
+Santa Barbara or as Samana, etc.
+
+At the head of each province is an official who bears the title of
+governor. He acts as the direct agent of the president and is chief of
+the government police and commander of the military forces of the
+district. In civil matter he is dependent upon the department of the
+interior and police, in military affairs he is under the department of
+war and the navy. The governors are appointed by the president of the
+Republic and their salaries are paid from the national treasury. Under
+the present American occupation the various provinces still have their
+governors, but the real governors are the American officers locally in
+command of the occupation forces.
+
+In each commune and canton there is a communal or cantonal chief who
+represents the governor of the province. He is paid by the national
+government and is charged with the preservation of the peace in his
+jurisdiction. Again in each section there is a sectional chief, a
+local police officer who depends on the communal chief.
+
+The system of local chieftains of gradually diminishing category has
+brought Santo Domingo to resemble in some administrations a feudal
+monarchy rather than a constitutional republic. As governor the
+president usually chose prominent men of the locality, either friends
+whom he wished to reward or opponents or rivals whom he was obliged to
+placate. The communal chiefs were also appointed by the president,
+though the governor's wishes were respected to a large extent, and
+here too men of influence were selected, such influence usually being
+reckoned by the possession of a devoted following. The section chiefs
+were chosen under similar considerations.
+
+Though the law prescribes the duties of the governors, their local
+prestige, their authority as commanders of the military, and their
+activities in revolutionary times, have so exalted their position as
+to convert them into something like satraps and make them powerful
+supporters or dangerous rivals of the president. Many insurrections
+have been inaugurated by disaffected governors. At times provinces
+have remained practically independent for many months, ruled merely by
+the governor and a coterie of his friends, while the president, in the
+impossibility of imposing his authority, was obliged to acquiesce. A
+conspicuous example of such a peculiar state of affairs was furnished
+by the district of Monte Cristi, during the presidency of Morales. In
+December, 1903, the formidable insurrection of Jimenez against
+Provisional President Morales originated in Monte Cristi and though
+the government gradually regained the remainder of the country it was
+unable to subjugate this district, where the entire population was
+Jimenista and the character of the country rendered campaigning very
+difficult. Finally in the spring of 1904 a formal treaty was signed by
+which the insurgents agreed to lay down their arms upon the
+government's promise not to interfere in their district, where all
+executive appointments were thereafter to be made as recommended by
+the local authorities. Though constitutional forms were still
+observed a few military chiefs thus assumed the direction of affairs.
+Whenever any executive appointment was to be made, the name of the
+nominee was certified to the capital to be ratified as a matter of
+course; when orders came from Santo Domingo City, whether in civil or
+military affairs, they were obeyed or ignored as convenience dictated;
+the entire amount of the revenues collected in the Monte Cristi
+custom-house was retained in the district. In order to stimulate
+imports and increase the customs collections the local authorities
+even conceded a secret discount from the general tariff. With the
+enforcement of the San Domingo Improvement Company's arbitral award
+and the inauguration of the receivership for Santo Domingo the control
+of the custom-house passed out of the hands of the local chieftains,
+who sullenly protested as against an invasion of their treaty rights.
+In other matters the autonomy of the district remained unimpaired
+until the beginning of 1906 when upon the fall of Morales the
+government troops, in suppressing the revolution in the north, overran
+Monte Cristi province and restored its dependency upon the central
+government.
+
+The healthiest and most important political subdivisions in Santo
+Domingo are the communal governments, and whatever progress has been
+made in the Republic has been due largely to their initiative. They
+correspond to the Spanish "municipios" and the French "communes." In
+Santo Domingo the French name was introduced during Haitian
+occupation. The various towns constitute the centers of government,
+their jurisdiction extends over the surrounding rural districts, and
+the affairs of the whole are administered by a municipal council. The
+powers of such councils are manifold and far-reaching and their
+importance has been accentuated by the chronic impotency of the
+central government to foster public improvements. The councils
+exercise all the faculties commonly pertaining to city councils
+elsewhere and have control of education, sanitation, streets and roads
+in their respective districts. They also act as election boards.
+
+When an outlying hamlet of the rural belt has grown to sufficient size
+it is erected into a municipal district or canton and accorded a
+justice of the peace and a cantonal chief and governing board. It
+remains subject, however, to the municipal council of the commune of
+which it formed a part until further development warrants its
+segregation as an independent commune with its own council. The
+cantons, as well as some of the sections, are also provided with a
+cemetery and a small church or chapel.
+
+From among their number the municipal councilmen select a president
+who is regarded as mayor of the commune, though many of the duties
+elsewhere pertaining to mayors are discharged by an official called
+the syndic. The councilmen are supposed to be elected for a term of
+two years, but the oft repeated revolutions have interfered as
+seriously with their terms of office as with everything else. The
+average Dominican seems to manifest little interest in his municipal
+elections; my question as to when the last local election was held
+would generally be answered with uncertainty: "Last January, no, last
+April, no, I believe it was in November." After all, the elections
+have usually been mere ratifications of slates prepared beforehand. In
+the time of Heureaux the lists of new councilmen were often arranged
+in the capital and a few days before election remitted to the various
+towns, even with a designation of the person whom the council was
+later to choose as its president.
+
+The results of such a method of selection of councilmen has not been
+as unfavorable as might be expected. The position of councilman pays
+no salary and is not of sufficient importance to appeal to the
+politician, so that under the present system the principal merchants
+and other prominent men are frequently designated. The law does not
+prohibit foreigners from forming part of the municipal councils and
+they have frequently been chosen, especially in Puerto Plata.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+POLITICS AND REVOLUTIONS
+
+
+Political parties.--Elections.--Relation between politics and
+revolutions.--Conduct of revolutions.--Casualties.--Number of
+revolutions.--Effect of revolutions.
+
+
+The characteristic features of Dominican politics are the violence of
+political antagonism and the absence of differences of principle
+between the political parties. None of the three parties existing
+to-day has a platform, and the distinction between them is entirely a
+matter of the personality of the leaders. Each party alleges that it
+has the best people and the purest motives and views with alarm the
+government of the country by any other party. In practice therefore,
+politics follows the rule only too common in the Spanish-American
+countries, of resolving itself into a personal struggle between the
+"ins" and the "outs."
+
+In the early days of the Republic different policies were occasionally
+seriously considered. It was then held by some that independence
+should be preserved at any cost while others contended that in view of
+the constant, civil wars the country should seek peace and progress
+under the protection of some foreign power. Although the
+annexationists were at first called conservatives and their opponents
+liberals, these divergent views were not the exclusive property of any
+designated group of men, but the annexation idea was generally
+espoused by the party that happened to be in power, which thus hoped
+both to save the country and perpetuate its own rule, while
+independence was invariably supported by the opposition, which
+bristled with patriotic indignation and the fear that it might be
+permanently excluded from the banquet-table. Thus Santana obtained a
+return to Spanish rule in 1861 and Cabral a few years later agitated
+the question of American annexation and their action was denounced by
+Baez; yet shortly after Baez almost succeeded in securing annexation
+to the United States and was stigmatized as a traitor by Cabral.
+
+Another issue which existed for a few years after the separation from
+Haiti in 1844 was the division between clericals on the one hand and
+liberals on the other, a party division that has created havoc in
+other parts of Spanish America. The very indefinite claims on each
+side and the practical unanimity of the country in its attitude
+towards the church caused this issue to disappear.
+
+The real parties that kept see-sawing in and out of power from the
+early days of the Republic down to the time of Heureaux were those
+founded by General Pedro Santana and General Buenaventura Baez.
+Intimate friends in the struggles with Haiti which followed Santo
+Domingo's declaration of independence, their ambitious and domineering
+natures soon clashed, and each collected a group of friends and
+incessantly conspired against the other. The partisans of Baez, or
+Baecistas, adopted red for the color of the cockades and ribbons which
+distinguished them in the civil wars, and came to be known as the
+"Reds," while the followers of Santana, or Santanistas, adopted blue
+and were known as the "Blues."
+
+On the death of Santana in 1863, Luperon and Cabral became the leaders
+of the Blue party, and for several years after the expulsion of the
+Spaniards in 1865 the Reds and Blues took turns in setting up
+governments and having them overthrown. In 1873 General Ignacio Maria
+Gonzalez, a former adherent of Baez, assembled a following from both
+factions and formed a Green party with which he ousted the Reds who
+were then in power. In the next six years the Reds and Greens
+alternated in control, but in 1879 the Greens were driven out and
+definitely scattered by the Blues, who thereby gained a foothold which
+they did not lose for years. The death of Baez in 1884 threw the Reds
+into confusion and their constant persecution by the "blue" President
+Ulises Heureaux effectually crushed them. Ulises Heureaux with Blues,
+Reds and Greens built up his own party of "Lilicistas" which remained
+in power until his death in 1899. In the later years of Heureaux's
+rule the distinguishing color used by his troops was white.
+
+On the death of Heureaux, Juan Isidro Jimenez, as president, and
+Horacio Vasquez, as vice-president, came into power. The rivalry
+between Jimenez and Vasquez caused a division between their respective
+followers, who called themselves Jimenistas and Horacistas, thus
+forming the principal parties which continue to the present time. The
+old Reds and Blues had disappeared and their survivors aligned
+themselves with Jimenez and Vasquez indiscriminately; members of the
+Baez family joined old Blues to follow Jimenez, while other old Reds
+and Blues as well as the Lilicistas seemed to prefer Vasquez. In 1901
+an attempt was made to form a party known as the Republican Party,
+which it was intended to endow with a platform, but being composed
+largely of Jimenez' friends, it was viewed with suspicion and
+fell with him.
+
+In 1902 the Horacistas revolted and obtained the government, only to
+be overthrown in 1903 by followers of Jimenez. The new administration
+proving odious to both parties they combined to drive it out in the
+fall of 1903. The Horacistas gained the upper hand in the succeeding
+government and remained in power until 1912, though a serious division
+developed in the party, to the extent that the nominal leader, Horacio
+Vasquez, himself joined in conspiracies and uprisings against the
+administration. His efforts, combined with those of the Jimenistas,
+led to the choice of Archbishop Nouel as compromise candidate for
+president in 1912. Monsignor Nouel unsuccessfully attempted to govern
+with both parties and on his resignation in 1913 another Horacista
+became president. Again there was opposition from Horacistas as well
+as Jimenistas and in 1914 a Jimenista became provisional president.
+
+At about this time a small third party appeared, led by Federico
+Velazquez, a former Horacista. His followers are known as
+Velazquistas, though the party has adopted the official name of
+Progresista. In the elections of 1914 he joined forces with Jimenez,
+who thus secured the presidency. The government, or what remains of it
+under the present military occupation, is still constituted largely by
+followers of Jimenez and Velazquez.
+
+Though both Jimenistas and Horacistas claim to have the larger
+following in the country in general, it is probable that they are
+about equally matched, the Velazquistas holding the balance of power.
+
+The Jimenistas are often vulgarly called "bolos" or bob-tailed cocks,
+and the Horacistas "rabudos" or "coludos," meaning bushy-tailed or
+long-tailed cocks. In the fighting on the Monte Cristi plains the
+Jimenistas would often attack, but retire as soon as their opponents
+showed fight, and as such tactics reminded the Dominicans of the
+habits of bob-tailed fighting cocks, the nicknames were imposed.
+
+The men who attain prominence in politics range all the way from rude
+ignorant military chiefs to polished members of the aristocracy. In
+looking over the annals of Dominican history the same family names
+constantly recur and it may be affirmed that the government of the
+country has during the time of independence been in the hands of some
+twenty families, the members of which have swayed its councils and led
+its revolutions. They have tasted the sweets of power but also the
+bitterness of defeat, alternately occupying high positions in the
+government and pining in prison or exile. Almost all the chiefs of
+state since 1899 would have done honor to any country, but all have
+been obliged by the exigencies of politics to give places in their
+entourage to men of low standing, whose deeds or misdeeds when in
+power and whose unbridled ambition, have been a factor in the civil
+wars. At the present moment perhaps the most prominent political
+figure is Federico Velazquez, a man of unusual force of character, who
+as minister of finance under Caceres, enforced the settlement of the
+Dominican debt and gave what was probably the most honest
+administration of public revenues in the Republic's history. He is one
+of the few men having the moral courage openly to advocate American
+cooperation in the government of the country. He is about forty-seven
+years old, was born in Tamboril, near Santiago, and advanced through
+the stages of schoolmaster, shopkeeper, secretary to Vasquez and
+Caceres, and cabinet minister, to the position of a political leader.
+
+The ill-feeling akin to hatred between many members of the political
+parties is incredible to one not accustomed to Latin-American
+politics. They will have nothing in common, neither will acknowledge
+the existence of any good in the other, they endeavor to keep apart in
+the clubs, they do not care to buy in each other's stores. Even the
+women enter into this bitterness and engagements have been broken
+because the bridegroom was discovered to favor one party while the
+bride or her family sympathized with the other.
+
+The parties are not unalterably composed of the same individuals. On
+the contrary a great number of the leaders and of the rank and file
+are continually drifting from one party to another, evincing
+particular anxiety to "get on the band-wagon." These changelings,
+while they belong to any one party, affect to be its most ardent
+supporters in order to avert any suspicion of insincerity. Much of the
+disorder which has sapped the life-blood of the Republic has been due
+to disappointed office-seekers who suddenly veered about and joined
+the opposing party.
+
+Not only to personal ambitions and corruption of the persons in power,
+but also to the perfunctory mode in which elections have been
+conducted the many revolutions are to be ascribed. The municipal
+councils in the communes and the justices of the peace and two
+residents in the cantons form the election board before which the
+voters of the respective commune or canton are supposed to appear to
+deposit their votes. It is evident that if anything more than a small
+proportion of the qualified voters appeared, such election boards
+would be swamped, yet no difficulty has ever been registered. The
+election of the presidential candidate supported by the government was
+generally so certain that all other aspirants realized the futility of
+launching their candidacy, and their followers either voted for the
+official candidate or refrained from voting. In this connection I am
+reminded of the convincing political speeches attributed to one of
+the foremost men of La Vega during the farcical campaigns preceding
+the elections of Heureaux. He is quoted as saying: "My friends, this
+Republic is founded on the free and unrestricted suffrage of its
+citizens. It is the proud boast of the Dominican that under the
+constitution he may vote as he pleases. You are therefore free to cast
+your vote for whomsoever you prefer. I would not be your friend,
+however, if I did not advise you that whoever does not vote for
+Heureaux might as well leave the country." In elections for municipal
+councilmen and members of Congress there was occasionally an exception
+to the rule of having a cut and dried program and contests sometimes
+arose for a seat.
+
+The real campaigns and expressions of the people's will have therefore
+been the revolutions, and politics and revolutions have thus come to
+be regarded as going hand in hand. In a town of the Cibao an
+expression of the garrulous landlady of the inn attracted my
+attention. The old lady, after regaling me with the local gossip,
+started with her own troubles. "Two revolutions ago," she said--and
+her mode of measuring time struck me as peculiar--"my eldest son took
+a gun and went into politics." "Cojio un fusil y se metio en la
+politica"--"took a gun and went into politics," the phrase is sadly
+expressive.
+
+Such campaigns were only too easily begun. When a new president
+entered upon office on the crest of a successful revolution,
+apparently with the whole country behind him and his adversaries
+silenced or scattered, his popularity generally lasted until the
+spoils were distributed. ("To the victors belong the spoils" was the
+policy of the past; the American military authorities are making an
+important innovation by the introduction of civil service principles
+for selecting public employees.) The disappointed spirits immediately
+entered into the plots which the vanquished opponents were not slow in
+fomenting. The leader of the adverse party or one of his trusted
+lieutenants raised the standard of revolt and issued manifestoes which
+echoed with patriotic sentiments and decried the faults of the
+administration. He was joined by a number of disgruntled "generals"
+and their followers. The telegraph wires were cut and the revolution
+had begun.
+
+Before 1905 the seizure of a custom-house was invariably the next
+step, which would at the same time provide the insurgents with the
+sinews of war and make it impossible for the government to pay its
+employees in that province. The custom-houses were eliminated as pawns
+in the revolutionary game by the fiscal treaty with the United States,
+according to which the customs receipts were paid over to an American
+receiver-general. Revolutions for a short time became more difficult,
+but where there's a will there's a way, and under a new routine the
+necessary funds were derived from the government's internal revenues
+and from levies on private citizens.
+
+The first two or three weeks of a revolt constituted its critical
+period, for the government at once poured troops into the district in
+order to suppress the insurrection, while the rebels sought to obtain
+as many strategical points as possible. Both sides lived on the
+country while roaming about in pursuit of each other. If the
+government was victorious the leaders of the revolt would usually
+scramble across the border into Haitian territory, or leave the
+country by boat, or otherwise make themselves inconspicuous until the
+time was ripe for another rebellion. When the government was unready
+or unsuccessful, the insurrection spread with great rapidity from town
+to town until it arrived before the walls of Santo Domingo City.
+There was more or less of a siege and when the president capitulated
+he was permitted to board a vessel and go into exile. The head of the
+new revolution then assumed charge of the government and had himself
+elected president and the game began all over again.
+
+The personal property of the fallen adversaries was respected and
+there was no confiscation, such as has occasionally been witnessed in
+certain other Latin republics. When Baez was overthrown in 1858 there
+was an exception to the rule, his properties being seized by the
+Santana government on the ground that he was a traitor ready to
+deliver the country over to the Haitians and was guilty of other high
+crimes and misdemeanors. But when the wheel of fortune again brought
+Baez to the top he promptly reentered upon his lands.
+
+During the uprisings there has rarely been wanton destruction of
+property, the property of foreigners being especially respected. The
+owner of a plantation near Macoris told me that on one occasion the
+general of an insurgent force even halted at his gates and sent him a
+polite request for permission to cross the property. Such
+consideration was not universal, however, and large sums have been
+paid to foreigners for damages inflicted during revolutions. A serious
+inconvenience was caused farmers by revolutions as many laborers were
+enrolled in one army or the other, either voluntarily or by
+impressment.
+
+In the course of the insurrection there were numerous encounters
+between the rebels and the government troops, most of them being mere
+skirmishes. There is hardly a town where there are not houses which
+show the marks of bullets. The walls and gates of Santo Domingo City
+and the houses in the vicinity are full of such marks, though
+generally painted over now. In 1904 and 1905 one of the sights of the
+city was a beautiful villa opposite the Puerta del Conde, which had
+served as target for the government forces while occupied by the
+insurgents and was so peppered by shot and shell as to look like a
+sieve. The sieges of Santo Domingo City sometimes lasted for many
+months. At such times almost every citizen took part in the
+excitement, barricades were erected at every street opening and the
+rattle of musketry was heard at all hours.
+
+The proportion of shots fired to casualties inflicted is known to be
+enormous in all wars and in Santo Domingo it is almost incredible.
+Battles have been fought lasting for hours with thousands of shots
+fired, yet with not one man lost. There have been revolutionary
+uprisings lasting for months with not a man wounded. In Puerto Plata
+it is said that when the government troops attacked the city in 1904 a
+fierce battle ensued which continued from morning till the town was
+taken by storm in the evening; yet only one man was killed and his
+death was due to his own carelessness, for he appeared not far from
+where soldiers of the other side were training a cannon and refused to
+obey their warning to get out of the way, whereupon the cannon was
+discharged and his arm shot off, causing a mortal wound.
+
+At other times, however, the results have been far more serious, as
+many a maimed soldier and bereaved family can testify. The graves of
+victims of the revolutions are scattered all over the Republic. How
+many have fallen in the disturbances of the past fifteen years it is
+impossible to determine; I have heard estimates ranging from 1000 up
+to 15,000. Nor is revolutionizing a pleasant business when continued
+for any length of time. When the men entered a town contributions
+could be levied on the merchants, but when they were harassed and
+forced to retreat to the mountains they roamed for weeks half nude,
+bare-headed, barefooted, exposed to the weather, living on what
+bananas and wild fruits they could find or occasional wild hogs they
+were able to kill, undermining their constitutions and brutalizing
+their natures. The landlady whose son sought political distinction
+with a gun told me amid sobs that her boys were dutiful, industrious
+lads before being caught in the revolutionary torrent, but that in the
+woods they lost all inclination for work and returned home completely
+demoralized. From grieving relatives of victims I have heard many
+another story of ruined lives and early deaths. It is saddening to
+reflect on the tears which have been shed and the misery which has
+been caused by this long continued civil strife.
+
+While women have been heavy sufferers from the revolutions they have
+not hesitated to take sides and contribute their mite. Many are the
+stories current in Santo Domingo of women who smilingly passed through
+the enemy's ranks and carried ammunition and supplies concealed
+beneath their garments to their friends in the woods.
+
+Excluding the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was thrown off in
+1844 and that of 1863-65, which expelled the Spaniards, there have
+occurred in the seventy years of Dominican independence no less than
+twenty-three successful revolutions. One occurred in each of the years
+1848, 1844, 1849, 1857 and 1864, three in 1865, one each in 1866, 1867
+and 1873, three in 1876, one each in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1899 and 1902,
+two in 1903 and one each in 1912 and 1914. At times hardly had a
+revolution proved successful when a counter-revolution broke out and
+secured the victory.  The longest intermissions were from 1879 to
+1899 when the party of the dictator Heureaux was in power, and from
+1903 to 1912, when the indirect protection of the United States was
+sufficient to sustain the government.
+
+These were the successful revolutions; the unsuccessful insurrections
+are innumerable. It has been unfortunate for the credit of Santo
+Domingo that almost every little shooting affray is classed as an
+insurrection or revolution. Most of these unsuccessful uprisings have
+been unimportant excursions into the country by some disaffected local
+chief and a handful of followers, the band being promptly rounded up
+or scattered by government forces or induced to come in by promise of
+a job or some other consideration.
+
+The circumstance that the provincial governors found it to their
+advantage to have disturbances in their district explains many of the
+smaller commotions. Upon the outbreak of an insurrection or before the
+threat of an outbreak the authorities in the capital would authorize
+the provincial governor to recruit troops and draw funds for their
+payment. The governor would do so, but if two or three thousand men
+had been authorized he would raise only two or three hundred and
+forget to account for the balance of the money. The suppression of the
+"revolution" would thus benefit both his military reputation and his
+pocketbook. Governors were therefore prone to exaggerate rumors of
+insurrection and sometimes themselves sent out men to fire a few shots
+in the woods and create alarm.
+
+Other insurrections have been fierce and formidable and some
+administrations were obliged to engage in constant warfare in order to
+maintain themselves. A serious unsuccessful insurrection was that led
+by Gen. Casimiro de Moya against Heureaux in 1886, which lasted six
+months. The most widespread was that of Jimenez against the Morales
+government, lasting from December, 1903, to May, 1904, and during
+which the insurgents gained possession of practically the entire
+Republic. Other serious outbreaks occurred in 1904, 1905, 1906, 1909,
+1911, 1913 and 1916. The fires smouldered constantly, especially in
+the Cibao, which raises the largest crops of everything, including
+revolutions.
+
+The effect of such continuous commotion has been most disastrous to
+the country and the people at large. This is all the more saddening
+when it is considered that, less than ten per cent of the people took
+part in the disturbances. Revolutions, successful and unsuccessful,
+have been fought to a finish with less than a thousand men on either
+side. Ninety per cent of the population are law-abiding citizens who
+would like nothing better than to be let alone and permitted to pursue
+their vocations in peace. The other ten per cent were not entirely to
+blame: they have been the victims of their environment.
+
+Not only have the revolutionary disturbances caused enormous indirect
+loss to the country through paralyzation of agriculture, arrest of
+development and loss of credit, but they have also been a large direct
+expense. A considerable portion of every budget was devoted to
+appropriations for the purchase of war material and the maintenance of
+the military and naval establishment. When uprisings occurred the
+additional amounts necessary for their suppression have been taken
+from other appropriations, those for public works usually being the
+first to be cancelled. If the uprisings became serious the other
+appropriations of the budget were reduced by fifty or even
+seventy-five per cent until all the available cash was devoted to war
+purposes. In 1903 military and naval expenditures absorbed 71.7 per
+cent of the Republic's disbursements, and in 1904 72.6 per cent. At
+such times the government was reduced to a desperate struggle for
+existence; the loss of the custom-houses in power of the insurgents
+made its position still more precarious; it contracted loans on
+ruinous terms; it neglected its foreign obligations and paid its
+employees in promissory notes and even in postage stamps, which they
+would then peddle about the streets. Under such conditions it is
+natural that nothing was left for public improvements. Even under the
+peaceful administration of Heureaux a disproportionate part of the
+national funds was expended for military purposes and three gunboats
+were acquired and maintained, but not a single mile of improved road
+was laid out.
+
+With the American military occupation political conditions in the
+Dominican Republic have radically changed. The system of waging
+political campaigns by force of arms has stopped abruptly and
+absolutely. Revolutions have become a matter of history. Ballots will
+hereafter take the place of bullets, and politics will be conducted in
+the same manner as in other orderly countries. Evolution, not
+revolution, will be the characteristic of the future.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+LAW AND JUSTICE
+
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo.--Legal system.--Judicial
+organization.--Observance of laws.--Prisons.--Character of offenses.
+
+
+In the year 1510 the Spanish government established in Santo Domingo
+the first of the famous colonial audiencias, or royal high courts, the
+list of which appears like a roll call of Spain's former glories.
+Others were added later in Mexico, Guatemala, Guadalajara, Panama,
+Lima, Santa Fe de Bogota, Quito, Manila, Santiago de Chile, Charcas
+(now Sucre), and Buenos Aires. The audiencia of Santo Domingo at first
+had jurisdiction over all the territory under Spanish dominion in the
+new world, but upon the establishment, of the audiencia of Mexico and
+others its jurisdiction was confined to the West India Islands, and
+the north coast of South America. Its functions were both judicial and
+administrative, including the power to hear appeals from the judges of
+the district and from certain administrative authorities, and to
+intervene in certain matters of government, in the finances of the
+territory and in behalf of the public peace. The governor and
+captain-general of Santo Domingo was president of the royal audiencia,
+though not acting when it sat as a law court, and at times the
+audiencia alone temporarily carried on the government of one or more
+of the territories under its jurisdiction. It applied the law as
+expressed in the codification of the "Laws of the Indies," and the
+Spanish "Partidas." It sat in the building still called the old palace
+of government. During the dark days which fell upon the island in the
+seventeenth century, the presence of the audiencia helped to save the
+colony from being completely forgotten. It continued in its functions
+until the country was ceded to France, whereupon in 1799, it was
+removed to the city of Puerto Principe, in Cuba. Could its records but
+have been preserved a great many gaps in the history of Santo Domingo,
+Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela would be filled. It seems that the
+first records were destroyed by Drake in 1583, and almost all the
+later ones succumbed to the negligence of man and the voracity of the
+tropical insects. When the government of Cuba in 1906 honored the
+request of the government of the Dominican Republic for the return of
+such of the records of the audiencia of Santo Domingo as were still
+extant, it could find in its national archives and turn over but a
+score of bundles of documents, mostly records of suits regarding land
+boundaries in the eighteenth century, of little historic value. These
+and several small mahogany bookcases still preserved in the present
+audiencia of Havana, are the only tangible remains of this
+noted court.
+
+When Santo Domingo again came under Spanish rule in 1809, the colony
+was included in the territorial jurisdiction of the audiencia of
+Caracas. Upon the beginning of Haitian rule in 1822, when most of the
+distinguished citizens, including judges and lawyers, left the
+country, they took with them the ancient legal system. The Haitians
+imposed their laws, namely, the Code Napoleon and other French codes.
+These took such deep root that on the expulsion of the Haitians no
+attempt was made to return to the Spanish laws, which also at that
+time were still under the disadvantage of not having been revised and
+codified in accordance with modern needs.  In 1845 the laws of France
+were expressly adopted by the Dominican Republic. During the troublous
+times following little attention was given to the legal system, and
+there was not even a Spanish translation of the codes. After
+annexation to Spain in 1861 the Spanish authorities attempted to
+clarify the situation by introducing the Spanish penal code and law of
+criminal procedure and by appointing a commission to translate the
+civil code, in which they made several changes, but upon the
+reestablishment of the Republic in 1865 everything done in this
+respect by the Spaniards was annulled. Several efforts were later made
+to secure a translation of the codes, though laws were not often
+invoked amid so much civil unrest. As late as 1871 the American
+commission which visited the island reported that the administration
+of justice had practically fallen into disuse. The local military
+chiefs and the parish priests decided the questions that arose.
+
+As the country progressed in spite of itself, and there were periods
+of peace, the need of an official Spanish text of the laws became more
+pressing, and at length in 1882 a commission was appointed to
+translate and adapt the French codes. On the report of the commission
+a civil code, a code of civil procedure, a code of commerce, a penal
+code, a code of criminal procedure and a military code were approved
+in the year 1884. They are literal translations of the French codes
+with a few modifications to adapt them to local conditions. The penal
+codes are such close translations that several paragraphs relating to
+juries were retained, although the institution does not exist in Santo
+Domingo. It was tried in 1857, but discontinued in the following year.
+The Dominican Congress made but few changes in these important laws,
+which have therefore been more permanent than the constitution. The
+need for a further revision of the Dominican codes became urgent,
+however, and such revision has very recently been concluded by a
+commission which sat for that purpose; it is now being considered with
+a view to an early promulgation of the codes in amended form.
+
+Santo Domingo, the first Spanish colony, thus has no Spanish laws. It
+is the only Spanish country which has adopted French legislation so
+completely, and which looks so largely to France for its
+jurisprudence.
+
+The laws of Congress, and the decrees of the Executive relating to
+concessions, naturalization, pardons, and other matters, and, at
+present, the "executive orders" and decrees of the military
+government, are published in the Official Gazette, a government
+newspaper appearing almost daily. In addition to the calendar date,
+official papers are dated from the declaration of independence in 1844
+and the restoration of the Republic in 1863, somewhat as follows:
+"Given in the National Palace of Santo Domingo, Capital of the
+Republic, on the 3rd day of March, 1916, the 73rd year of Independence
+and the 53rd of the Restoration." In Haiti it was formerly the custom,
+after a successful revolution, to count dates not only from the
+declaration of independence but also from the proclamation of the
+latest revolution, the latter period being denominated the
+"regeneration," thus: In the 40th year of independence and the 3rd of
+the regeneration. In the Dominican Republic Baez introduced this rule
+in his presidency of 1868-1873, during which period decrees were dated
+in the following manner: "On the 3rd day of March, 1871, the 28th year
+of Independence, the 8th of the Restoration, and the 3rd of the
+Regeneration." The revolution of December, 1873, ended this
+regeneration, and the official references thereto.
+
+At the present time the judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
+sitting in the capital of the Republic, three courts of appeals, one
+in Santo Domingo, one in Santiago and one in La Vega; twelve courts of
+first instance, one in each province; and 70 alcaldias or justice of
+the peace courts, in the several communes and cantons. The supreme
+court is constituted by a presiding justice and six associate
+justices, who are elected by the Senate for terms of four years. It
+exercises original jurisdiction in cases against diplomatic
+functionaries and judges of courts of appeals, sits as a court of
+cassation in appeals from, the courts of appeals, finally decides
+admiralty cases and has certain other functions assigned to it by law.
+
+The three courts of appeals each have a presiding justice and four
+associate justices, all elected by the Senate for four year terms.
+They exercise appellate jurisdiction over cases adjudged by courts of
+first instance and courts-martial, and original jurisdiction in
+admiralty cases and in the prosecution of certain judicial and
+administrative officials. Prior to 1908 there was one supreme court,
+with five members, and no court of appeals. When the income of the
+country grew, the new constitution provided that the supreme court
+have at least seven members, and that at least two courts of appeals
+be established, with their necessary judges and clerks. The system is
+now costly and topheavy.
+
+The twelve district courts each have a judge of first instance and a
+judge of instruction, elected by the Senate for terms of four years.
+The judge of instruction is not, strictly speaking, a part of the
+court, his duty being to investigate the more serious criminal
+offenses, commit the offenders for the action of the court and report
+the result of his investigation to the prosecuting attorney. The
+courts of first instance have original jurisdiction in all criminal
+matters except the minor police offenses and in all civil matters
+except those expressly assigned to the justices of the peace. They
+hear appeals from the justices of the peace in civil and
+criminal cases.
+
+The local justices of the peace are called "alcaldes." The alcalde, in
+Spanish times, was an officer exercising both administrative and
+judicial functions, the name being derived from the Arabic "al cadi,"
+the judge, and whereas in Spain and most of the former Spanish
+colonies the alcalde has now only administrative duties and his office
+is equivalent to that of mayor, in Santo Domingo he now exercises
+solely judicial authority. (The office of "alcalde pedaneo," which may
+be roughly translated as deputy mayor, exists in Santo Domingo,
+however, this title being given to the municipal executive's agent in
+each section.) The alcalde's jurisdiction comprises the smaller police
+offenses and, in civil cases, matters involving less than $100, as
+well as certain cases, such as suits between innkeepers and guests,
+where the limit of his authority is raised to $300, and other cases,
+such as ejectment suits, where his jurisdiction attaches on account of
+the subject-matter. The alcaldes are appointed by the president of
+the Republic.
+
+In general the system works smoothly. The alcaldes are often ignorant
+men, but even in the United States the country magistrates are not
+always founts of wisdom. The judges of first instance and district
+attorneys are almost without exception respected in the community, and
+the present judges of the supreme court and of the courts of appeals
+enjoy a good reputation. Not infrequently political considerations
+have given rise to poor appointments, such as occurred in Barahona
+some years ago when the judge-elect telegraphed an indignant protest
+to the capital to the effect that he was unacquainted even with the
+rudiments of the law. The administration had not taken the trouble to
+ascertain whether he was a lawyer, but knowing he sought a position,
+had given him the first one at hand. This was rather an oversight, as
+the law requires such appointees to be members of the bar. On another
+occasion the legal requisite was filled by first declaring the
+aspirant a lawyer and then designating him for the post. These cases
+are exceptions, however. The integrity of the judges is not often
+questioned, but the alcaldes do not enjoy so good a reputation.
+
+At the present time there are also American provost courts which take
+cognizance of "offenses against the military government." This
+designation is broad enough to include anything the military
+authorities choose to include. Apart from a few cases of regrettable
+harshness these courts have done fairly well.
+
+While the various constitutions have expressly declared the
+independence of the judicial power, the authority of the courts has
+heretofore been rather relative, and they have studiously avoided
+conflicts with the other branches of the government. There is no case
+on record where they have declared a law unconstitutional. The supreme
+court when driven into a corner in 1904 even declared that it had not
+the authority to make such a declaration. The constitution of 1908
+modified the decision by expressly providing that the supreme court
+may decide as to the constitutionality of laws.
+
+This decision of the supreme court made little impression in the
+country, due probably in part to the ease with which the various
+administrations have disregarded the constitution when it suited their
+convenience. The little value of the constitution between friends has
+constantly been demonstrated. Certain provisions have been
+systematically violated, even by the best of administrations.
+Principal among them is the provision that no one be arrested without
+a warrant setting forth the offense, unless caught _in flagranti_, and
+the provision that every person imprisoned be informed of the cause of
+his imprisonment and submitted to examination within forty-eight hours
+after arrest, and not be detained for a longer time than permitted by
+law. These provisions have been dead letters as far as political
+prisoners are concerned. When a person was suspected of being involved
+in a conspiracy against the government he was liable at any moment to
+be seized and conducted to prison, where he might be detained
+indefinitely, until the danger was over, or he was considered
+innocuous. The ancient fortress at the river mouth in Santo Domingo,
+known as La Torre del Homenaje, bears over its entrance the sign,
+"Political Prison," and rarely has it been without tenants, even when
+the country was at peace and the constitutional guarantees were
+supposed to be in force. On one occasion when I heard a Dominican
+lawyer lament that a friend of his had thus been incarcerated for
+several months without a hearing, I inquired why he did not apply to a
+court and invoke the constitutional provision. The reply was, "The
+judge who signed an order to set the prisoner free would probably join
+him in jail before many hours had passed."
+
+Such ignoring of the written law was a relic of the days when the will
+of the military was the only law respected. Reminders of the old state
+of affairs continued to crop out, though the people and government
+were rapidly adopting other customs. An instance occurred in Sanchez
+during the presidency of Morales. A younger brother of the president
+was customs collector at that port and was accused by public rumor of
+irregularities in office. A customs employee having been discharged
+for spreading the rumor, called on the collector and invited him to a
+meeting outside; and the two adjourned to the bush, where shots were
+exchanged and young Morales was wounded in the leg. The aggressor was
+immediately seized by the general commanding the military forces in
+Sanchez and carried to the town cemetery, a grave was dug, and the
+general prepared to have him summarily shot. The town authorities
+interceded, but in vain, and the execution was about to take place
+when the ladies of the town succeeded in moving the commandant by
+their pleadings. The prisoner was remanded to the jail in Samana and
+was later tried by the court of first instance and acquitted. Much
+more recently the leader of the band that assassinated President
+Caceres was killed without trial.
+
+Some of the surviving military leaders of the old school find
+difficulty in adjusting themselves to the new conditions. Among them
+was General Cirilo de los Santos, better known by his nickname
+"Guayubin" (the name of the town where he was born) who took an active
+part in the political disturbances of the Republic for many years.
+When I traveled through the country with Prof. Hollander on his
+financial investigation we were guests of this hero of a hundred
+revolutions, who was then Governor of La Vega. In the course of
+conversation Prof. Hollander expressed gratification at the cessation
+of the custom of shooting political prisoners. The governor was at
+that time engaged in the persecution of one Perico Lasala, a perpetual
+revolutionist who was infesting the nearby hills and who has since
+done his country a favor by being killed in an incursion on the coast.
+The idea of not shooting this notorious character as soon as he was
+apprehended seemed grotesque to Guayubin--and perhaps not without
+reason. He cried, "If you were in my place and caught Perico Lasala,
+wouldn't you shoot even him?" "Why, no," was the answer. Guayubin's
+face fell and he became thoughtful. For the rest of the day he was
+strangely silent and he continued so on the morrow, when he
+accompanied us for several miles out of town. When bidding goodbye, he
+broke out: "I wish to ask your advice. If I should catch Perico
+Lasala, what would you advise me to do with him?" Dr. Hollander asked:
+"What do you do with persons who steal or commit similar violations of
+the law?" "We put them in jail." "Why, then, put Perico Lasala in
+jail." A look of inexpressible relief came over the face of the old
+warrior. "Of course!" he said, "I never thought of that."
+
+Not long after this incident General Guayubin met a political opponent
+against whom he harbored resentment. He immediately drew his revolver
+and began to shoot, and the object of his wrath escaped only by
+dexterous sprinting. At a session of Congress there was some criticism
+of his action and Guayubin resigned his office in disgust. The death
+of this fighter was as stern as his life. He attended a christening
+party at a house where there was a forgotten powder-cask; a spark fell
+into the powder and in the ensuing explosion Guayubin's eyesight was
+destroyed. Grimly refusing to take food or drink, he pined away.
+
+Prior to the American occupation, the Dominican penal establishments
+were as a rule in very bad condition. There is no penitentiary and
+portions of the forts or government houses are used as jails. The
+prisoners were herded together with little thought of cleanliness. The
+stench in some of the jail yards was at times almost unbearable. In
+justice it should be stated that the Dominican authorities frequently
+called the attention of their Congress to this condition of affairs.
+The prisons at Santo Domingo City and Santiago were exceptions to the
+rule; they were improved even to the extent of being endowed with a
+prison school.
+
+The political prisoners were generally given better accommodations, if
+there were any at hand, and had the privilege of securing their meals
+from the outside instead of being limited to the scant and repugnant
+prison food. During revolutions, however, when the prisons were
+overcrowded, the political prisoners were kept in irons and
+supervision was rigid. According to law the functionaries of each
+court of first instance were supposed to visit and examine the jails
+once a month, but as the date of their visit was known beforehand the
+inspection was little more than perfunctory. Not very long ago it was
+whispered in the Cibao that a judge in inspecting a jail accidentally
+passed through a door to a room he was evidently not expected to
+enter, and there to his own embarrassment and that of the warden found
+a score of prisoners whose names were not on the prison rolls.
+
+The more serious offenders were kept in irons. The Dominican
+authorities, realizing that they had no reason to be proud of their
+prisons, were loath to permit foreigners to visit the jails. When I
+called at the government building at Sanchez on one occasion, however,
+the commandant was absent and an indiscreet sergeant offered to show
+me the two rooms used for prison purposes. The building was a wooden
+one and one of the rooms, though heavily barred, did not seem unfitted
+except in case of overcrowding, which I was told sometimes occurred.
+The other room was extremely repulsive. It was dark and a foul odor
+rising from a hole in the wooden floor demonstrated the truth of the
+guide's remark that there was no outhouse for the use of the
+prisoners. Along one side of this room lay two long square-cut beams,
+one on the other, scalloped out so as to form a number of round holes
+along their juncture. It was evident they were used as stocks and my
+guide stated that he had seen a whole row of men sitting along the log
+with their feet thus confined. One or two of the holes were a little
+larger and it was explained that they were for the purpose of
+confining not the feet but the neck of the delinquent, and that this
+punishment was much worse, producing especial pain in the case of
+short-necked persons. The severest pain was produced, so the guide
+stated, when the delinquent was seated on the beam and his feet placed
+crosswise through the holes: he could bear the agony of this position
+for only a short time.
+
+The American authorities have made great improvements in the prisons
+and prison discipline. The jails are now so clean that they are almost
+show places.
+
+The revolutionary disturbances have seriously interfered with the
+proper execution of the sentences of the courts. It was a usual
+procedure for revolutionary forces, upon entering a town, to free the
+prisoners--either as a slap at the government or in order thereby to
+augment their own strength. In Puerto Plata, a few years ago, a
+merchant was convicted of fraudulent bankruptcy and sentenced to three
+years in jail; soon afterwards a revolutionary force took possession
+of the town and freed the prisoners; and a few hours later the
+townspeople were amused to see the lawyer who had been instrumental in
+securing the conviction himself led to prison at the instigation of
+the culprit.
+
+In March, 1903, when the political prisoners in the Santo Domingo
+prison broke out, they released the convicts, some of whom retained
+their gyves during the fighting which followed, until the revolution
+was successful several days later.
+
+The undeveloped state of the country has offered difficulties to the
+apprehension of criminals, and the proper enforcement of the law.
+Could a criminal but reach the mountains of the interior, which are
+almost entirely uninhabited, he would be safe from pursuit and might
+either wait to join the next uprising or proceed to a different part
+of the country, where he was unknown and where, owing to the
+difficulty of intercourse, detection would be unlikely. Instances have
+occurred more than once where an escaped malefactor has become a
+"general" of other outlaws and by threatening to raise an insurrection
+has induced the government to pardon him and his associates.
+
+In several regions there were up to the time of the American
+occupation local caciques who were almost absolute monarchs in their
+district. They and their followers considered themselves above the law
+and their power and influence were such that the government in the
+capital preferred to let them alone so long as they kept within
+bounds. Such gentlemen can hardly be expected to favor the American
+administration for they have been made to understand that their rights
+and remedies are no more than those of other citizens.
+
+In view of such conditions so favorable to wrongdoers, the low
+criminal record of Santo Domingo is all the more remarkable and speaks
+highly for the character of the population. Crimes evincing malice and
+a depraved disposition are exceedingly rare. The Dominican boasts that
+it is possible to travel without fear from one end of the Republic to
+the other, though unarmed and carrying large sums of money. The few
+attacks on travelers which are on record have generally been due to
+revenge or some other personal motive. There is petty thievery, but no
+more than anywhere else. A friend of mine used to remark that he had
+never seen so many chickens in a community where there were so many
+negroes. No criminal is so greatly despised as a thief, and to accuse
+a person of being "mean enough to steal a pig" is a mortal insult. A
+distinction is made, however, between public honesty and private
+honesty, and the impression has been only too general that stealing
+from the state is not stealing.
+
+The most common serious offenses are homicide and assaults committed
+in sudden quarrel or due to jealousy. Not a little mischief was caused
+by the unfortunate habit of going armed.
+
+The attractions of the fair sex give rise not only to crimes of
+jealous passion, but also to other missteps, such as seduction and
+similar offenses. The average of these is not greater, however, than
+in other southern countries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE DOMINICAN DEBT AND THE FISCAL TREATY WITH THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+Financial situation in 1905.--Causes of debt.--Amount of debt.--Bonded
+debt.--Liquidated debt.--Floating debt.--Declared claims.--Undeclared
+claims.--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house.--Fiscal convention of
+1905.--Modus vivendi.--Negotiations for adjustment of debt.--New bond
+issue.--Fiscal treaty of 1907.--Adjustment with creditors.--1912
+loan.--Present financial situation.
+
+
+Rarely have the fiscal affairs of a country experienced so rapid and
+radical a change for the better as those of Santo Domingo since 1904,
+and rarely has a financial measure so quickly proved its efficacy as
+the fiscal convention between the United States and Santo Domingo. In
+the beginning of the year 1905 Santo Domingo had fallen to the lowest
+depths of bankruptcy and financial discredit. After decades of civil
+disturbance, misrule and reckless debt contraction, the deluge had
+come. The substance of the country had been wasted in military
+expenditures; agriculture and commerce were stagnant; a debt of over
+$30,000,000 had been contracted with nothing to show for it but
+forty-two miles of narrow-gauge railroad and two small gunboats; the
+government obligations were chronically in default and interest
+charges were piling up at ruinous rates; every port of the Republic
+was pledged to foreign creditors who were clamoring for payment; one
+port had already been seized and the occupation of the others by
+foreign powers was imminent. At this juncture the Dominican government
+applied to the  United States for assistance and the custom-houses of
+the Republic were placed in charge of an American general receiver,
+with the obligation of reserving a specified portion of the customs
+income for the creditors and turning the remainder over to the
+Dominican government. The situation immediately changed as if by
+magic. The imports and exports, and with them the income of the
+government, quickly reached higher figures than the country had ever
+seen, the national debt was scaled down by almost one-half and the new
+Dominican bonds issued in 1907 to convert the old debt went nearly to
+par in the markets of the world.
+
+
+(a) Periodic accumulation of floating debt, owing to:
+     1. Political instability, requiring large outlays for soldiery,
+         for bribery of potential revolutionists, and for suppression
+         of actual revolutions.
+     2. Corruption of officials.
+     3. "Asignaciones" or pensions to mollify enemies and to reward
+         friends of the existing regime.
+(b) Usurious interest computations, on account of:
+     1. "Bonus" in principal,
+     2. Extravagant interest rates.
+(c) Interest default and compounding accumulations.
+(d) Recognition and liquidation of excessive or illegal claims as a
+      condition of further advances.
+
+
+In order to obtain more positive information with reference to
+outstanding Dominican indebtedness, for use in connection with the
+pending fiscal treaty, the American government in the early part of
+1905 commissioned a financial expert, Prof. Jacob H. Hollander, of
+Johns Hopkins University, to proceed to Santo Domingo and make an
+investigation of financial conditions. Prof. Hollander, in an
+elaborate report, found the amount of the claims pending against the
+Dominican Republic on June I, 1905, to be $40,269,404.38, distributed
+as follows:
+
+
+Bonded debt........................ $17,670,312.75
+Liquidated debt...................... 9,595,530.40
+Floating debt........................ 1,553,507.79
+Declared claims...................... 7,450,053.89
+Undeclared claims.................... 4,000,000.00
+                                   --------------
+Total indebtedness................. $40,269,404.38
+
+
+The bonded debt, as above designated, comprised the public
+indebtedness represented by outstanding bonds; the liquidated debt
+consisted of items secured by international protocols or by formal
+contracts; the floating debt consisted of admitted indebtedness,
+neither funded nor secured, but evidenced by public obligations; the
+declared claims were claims presented for reimbursement or indemnity
+but not expressly recognized by the government; and the undeclared
+claims were claims of the same nature not yet formally presented. A
+brief description of each of these items will afford an idea of the
+general character, of Dominican financiering and a better
+understanding of Dominican history.
+
+_Bonded Debt_. The bonded debt held by Belgians and
+French and amounting to $17,670,312.75, was the final
+outcome of eight consecutive bond issues floated by the
+Republic, as follows:
+
+
+               Interest
+                 per   Term
+Date   Amount    cent  years   Name_
+
+1869  L  757,700  6       25   Hartmont loan
+1888  L  770,000  6       30   Westendorp loan
+1890  L  900,000  6       56   Railway loan
+1893  L2,035,000  4       66   4 per cent consolidated gold bonds
+1893  $1,250,000  4       66   4 per cent gold debentures
+1894  $1,250,000  4       66   French-American reclamation
+                                consols
+1895  $1,750,000  4       66
+1897  L1,736,750  2-3/4  102   Obligations or de Saint Domingue
+      L1,500,000  4       83   Dominican unified debt 4 per cent
+                                bonds
+
+
+In making its very first loan, in 1869, the Dominican government fell
+into the hands of sharpers and was mercilessly fleeced. The bargain,
+even if it had been honestly carried out, was improvident enough.
+Reduced to American money the nominal amount of the loan was
+$3,788,500; of this amount the Republic was to receive but $1,600,000;
+yet it contracted to pay as interest and sinking fund in twenty-five
+years a sum amounting to $7,362,500. The contractors for the loan,
+Hartmont & Co., of London, were authorized to retain $500,000 as their
+commission. In fact, however, no more than $190,455 was ever paid to
+the Dominican government. The brokers claimed that they tendered a
+further sum of $1,055,500, though after the expiration of the time
+limited in their contract, and that the tender was refused because of
+negotiations then under way for the annexation of the Republic to the
+United States, but such tender is denied on the Dominican side. At all
+events, the loan contract was cancelled by the Dominican senate in
+1870 on the ground of non-compliance of the brokers with its
+conditions and the government made no payments for interest or sinking
+fund. The brokers nevertheless continued to sell bonds in London and
+pay the current interest with the proceeds. Incidentally in addition
+to collecting their commission, they turned a penny for themselves by
+taking the bonds with their friends at 50 and selling them to the
+public at 70. When the Dominican repudiation of the bond issue was
+published in England in 1872 a cash balance of $466,500 still remained
+to the credit of the Dominican government, but it was coolly pocketed
+by the principal agent, who claimed it as a set-off against alleged
+damages in connection with a concession he had near Samana. In the ten
+years of anarchy that followed in Santo Domingo no attempt was made to
+straighten out the matter. The bonds having gone into default in 1872
+dropped lower and lower until they reached 3 per cent in 1878.
+
+The setback received by the credit of the Republic by reason of the
+defaulted Hartmont bonds made further bond issues impossible for a
+number of years. Finally an Amsterdam banking house, Westendorp & Co.,
+was interested and in 1888 and 1890 floated the second and third bond
+issues for L770,000 and L900,000 respectively. The object of the
+second issue was to retire the Hartmont bonds at 20 per cent, to pay a
+number of floating interior debts the owners of which were harassing
+the government, and to provide cash for the treasury, principally for
+military and naval expenditures, while the third issue was designed to
+secure funds for the construction of a railroad between Puerto Plata
+and Santiago. For the purpose of providing for the service of the loan
+a collection office known as the "caisse de la regie," or simply
+"regie," under the management of Westendorp, took charge of the
+customhouses with the obligation of paying a certain amount to the
+government monthly and devoting the remainder to payment of interest
+and sinking fund of the loans. The arrangement was thus similar to the
+later receivership plan, but its vulnerable point was that it was
+operated by a private concern.
+
+The first instalments of interest and sinking fund on these two bond
+issues were paid from the proceeds of the bonds, then for several
+months the "regie" supplied funds, and then came the first crash. The
+government was ever in need of money and to secure the same violated
+its agreements by seizing certain revenues to pledge them to local
+merchants for advances, and by conniving at customs irregularities. As
+a result, after paying the sums for the budget, the "regie" had
+nothing left for the service of the bonds and they went into
+default in 1892.
+
+Westendorp was almost ruined by this occurrence and became anxious to
+draw out of his Dominican entanglements. He applied to Smith M. Weed
+and Brown and Wells, New York attorneys, to negotiate a sale of his
+bonds to the United States government, transferring also his right to
+collect the Dominican customs. The United States government declined,
+whereupon Weed, Wells and Brown organized the famous San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the laws of New Jersey, the claim of which
+was later the prime factor in bringing about American intervention in
+Santo Domingo. Subsequently two other companies, the San Domingo
+Finance Company and the Company of the Central Dominican Railway, were
+incorporated, also under the laws of New Jersey, as auxiliaries of the
+Improvement Company, but they were all managed by the same persons.
+The San Domingo Improvement Company took over Westendorp's holdings
+and was placed in control of the "regie." A fourth bond issue, of
+L2,035,000 was floated through the agency of the Improvement Company
+in 1893 for the conversion of the outstanding government bonds. The
+Improvement Company also completed the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, which was the only improvement it ever effected in the
+Republic and this it did with Dominican money. It further took from
+the Republic at rates very favorable to the Company a fifth, sixth and
+seventh bond issue, in 1893, 1894 and 1895 respectively, aggregating
+$4,250,000, for the payment of government indebtedness. The
+obligations paid by the first two of these issues were in considerable
+part inflated claims against the government, capitalized at excessive
+interest rates, those satisfied by the 1895 issue arose principally
+out of indemnity claims made by France for mistreatment of French
+citizens and for debts due them.
+
+The Dominican government took no warning from previous disasters but
+continued in its course of reckless debt contraction. In order to
+equip warships and arsenals it borrowed money right and left at rates
+of interest which ranged anywhere from 18 to 30 per cent per annum.
+The loans were guaranteed by customs revenues which the creditors were
+authorized to collect direct from the importer. Thus the amount
+collected by the "regie" was not sufficient to provide for the service
+of the ever increasing bonded debt and in 1897 there was
+another default.
+
+The old remedy of a new bond issue was to be tried again. The San
+Domingo Improvement Company undertook to float the eighth bond issue
+of L2,736,750 in bonds at 2-3/4 per cent and L1,500,000 in bonds at
+four per cent. With these bonds it contracted to convert all previous
+bonds then outstanding, to pay overdue interest and to secure for the
+government over $1,000,000 in cash. President Heureaux issued drafts
+on this presumption, but it soon became evident that it would be
+impossible for the Improvement Company to carry out the contract. The
+company blamed the government and the government the company. The
+situation quickly became chaotic. Eventually the conversion of the
+older bond issues was completed, though at enormous cost. Bonds to the
+value of L600,000 were absorbed during the transaction with at most a
+cash payment of $250,000 to the Dominican fiscal agent in Europe. In
+the meantime the government tried the experiment of a large emission
+of paper money in which the customs dues were partly payable. The
+paper depreciated as fast as it was issued, the revenues were again
+insufficient and the new bond issue suffered default in April, 1899.
+
+While plans for further action were under consideration, President
+Heureaux was shot in July, 1899, and the revolution which followed his
+death made Jimenez president. The new administration in 1900 entered
+into a contract with the San Domingo Improvement Company for a
+different distribution of the customs revenues, but a condition was
+introduced that the consent of the majority of bondholders be obtained
+for the funding of interest up to 1903. A large number of Belgian and
+French bondholders had become dissatisfied with the Improvement
+Company, however, and repudiated the contract and all connection with
+the Company. In Santo Domingo, too, there was general hostility
+towards the Improvement Company which was regarded as an associate of
+President Heureaux and an incubus on the development of the country.
+The Company claimed it had secured the consent of a majority of
+bondholders but the government decided it had not and in January,
+1901, President Jimenez issued a decree excluding the Improvement
+Company from the custom-houses.
+
+The government now made a new contract with the Franco-Belgian
+bondholders, and for the payment of its obligations pledged its
+customs revenues, and specifically the income of the ports of Santo
+Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris. But if there had been default
+before, in time of peace, with the "regie" in charge of the
+custom-houses, there was still less money available for the creditors
+now, with no control by creditors over collections and the government
+harassed by constant revolutionary uprisings. Small partial payments
+were made for two years and then ceased. As the Improvement Company's
+bond holdings became the subject of a special arrangement, the bonded
+debt of the Republic was considered to be that held by the French and
+Belgian creditors. However unsavory the debts which gave origin to the
+bond issues, and however imprudent most of the bond issues themselves,
+the great majority of bonds had passed into the hands of small
+holders, innocent third parties who sustained great loss by the
+continued suspension of payments.
+
+_Liquidated Debt_. The liquidated debt, secured by international
+protocol or formal contract, Prof. Hollander found to be as follows on
+June 1, 1905:
+
+
+San Domingo Improvement Company
+  (American and British)................. $4,403,532.71
+Consolidated internal debt
+  (chiefly Spanish, German and American).. 1,737.151.35
+Internal debt held by Vicini heirs
+  (Italian)............................... 1,598,876.04
+Old foreign debt
+  (chiefly Italian and Dutch)............... 365,183.20
+Sala claim (American)....................... 356,314.20
+Vicini heirs (Italian)...................... 242,716.32
+Italian protocol............................ 186,750.36
+Spanish-German protocol..................... 100,034.00
+B. Bancalari (Italian)...................... 175,000.00
+J. B. Vicini Burgos (Italian)................ 55,500.00
+Ros claim (American)......................... 39,967.78
+Two cacao contracts
+(chiefly Dominican and German)............... 68,296.16
+Bancalari, Lample & Co. (Italian)............ 16,733.19
+Twenty-eight minor contracts
+  (chiefly Spanish, American)............... 249,475.19
+                                          ------------
+Total.................................... $9,595,530.40
+
+
+The claim of the San Domingo Improvement Company was secured by a
+protocol between the American and Dominican governments. When the San
+Domingo Improvement Company was ousted from the custom-houses in 1901,
+it immediately appealed to the State Department in Washington. The
+State Department counselled a private settlement and negotiations with
+the Dominican government dragged on for almost two years. The
+Improvement Company claimed no less than $11,000,000 for the bonds it
+held or controlled, for its interest in the railroad from Puerto Plata
+to Santiago, for its shares of the extinct National Bank of Santo
+Domingo which it had purchased at the government's request, and for
+the settlement of a long list of minor claims. Arbitration was
+suggested by the Company, but the Dominican government finally offered
+a round sum of $4,500,000 and the offer was accepted. It is probable
+that the Republic fared better under this compromise than if the case
+had been submitted to arbitration, for though the Improvement
+Company's demands were greatly exaggerated, its position toward the
+government was that of a careful creditor who has kept minute account
+of all transactions as against a spendthrift debtor who has squandered
+his property with little or no record of his expenditures.
+
+By a protocol signed January 31, 1903, the Dominican government
+formally agreed to pay the sum of $4,500,000, leaving details to be
+settled by a board of arbitrators to be designated by the American and
+Dominican governments. The board met in Washington and rendered its
+award under date of July 14, 1904. It fixed the interest on the debt
+at four per cent per annum and designated the custom-houses of Puerto
+Plata, Sanchez, Samana and Monte Cristi as security for the debt. In
+the event of failure by the Dominican government to pay any of the
+monthly instalments specified, a financial agent, appointed by the
+United States, was authorized to enter into possession of the Puerto
+Plata custom-house, and if its revenues proved insufficient to take
+possession also of the other custom-houses designated. The Dominican
+government never made any payments and the financial agent took
+possession of the Puerto Plata custom-house in October, 1904.  Most
+of the other claims comprised in the liquidated debt had their origin
+in advances made to the government--often bearing interest at two or
+three per cent a month, or even more--and in indemnity claims for
+revolutionary damages. In making the liquidations, musty credits and a
+generous amount of compound interest were generally included and it
+was usually provided that the sums so agreed upon were themselves to
+bear interest. The greater portion of these claims was held by
+foreigners, Italian, German, Spanish and American holdings
+predominating. Payments, more or less feeble, were made in many cases
+on account of principal or interest up to 1903, but in that year, when
+the government was reduced to desperate straits in combatting
+insurrections, practically every item of the debt went into
+permanent default.
+
+The principal Italian claimants were the heirs of an Italian merchant,
+J.B. Vicini, and an Italian in business at Samana, Bartolo Bancalari
+by name, who with other Italian subjects became loud in their
+complaints at the non-payment of their claims. The Italian government
+began to do a little sword-clanking, the Italian minister came from
+Havana in a warship, and the upshot was the signing in 1904 of three
+protocols admitting most of these claims and solemnly promising to pay
+them. Payment of the internal debt held by the Vicini heirs and of the
+Italian revolutionary claims was guaranteed by five per cent of all
+the customs receipts of the Republic, the revenues of Santo Domingo
+City, Macoris, Sanchez and Puerto Plata being specifically pledged.
+The Bancalari debt was guaranteed by part of the customs revenues of
+Samana. Notwithstanding the protocols, no payments were made by the
+Dominican government.
+
+_Floating Debt_. The floating debt, consisting of admitted
+indebtedness, neither funded nor liquidated, but evidenced by some
+kind of public obligation, was found to be as follows:
+
+
+Registered deferred debt................... $587,710.24
+Registered floating debt.................... 140,850.27
+Privileged revolutionary debt................ 79,812.12
+Certificates of comptroller's office........ 633,124.60
+Certificates of treasury offices............. 31,771.07
+Open unsecured accounts...................... 80,239.49
+                                            ----------
+Total.................................... $1,553.507.79
+
+
+By the year 1902, a large number of small claims--many of them for
+supplies furnished and services rendered--had accumulated, the justice
+of which the government admitted but of which owing to the
+deficiencies in its books it had no record. Notices were accordingly
+published calling on holders of such lawful credits to present the
+same for registration. This was the origin of the so-called registered
+debts. The largest item was constituted by what was very aptly
+denominated the "deferred" debt, created in 1888. Prior to that time
+the government had covered its military deficits with money obtained
+from loan associations known as "credit companies," which flourished
+in the larger towns and which did business at an interest rate that
+fluctuated between five and ten per cent a month. When a settlement
+was finally made, part of the amount due these companies was paid in
+certificates of indebtedness, the law directing with subtle humor that
+they be paid from the annual surplus in the budget. There never was a
+surplus, nothing was ever paid, and the market value of these
+certificates fell to three per cent of their nominal value.
+
+The revolutionary debt above referred to, consisting of claims arising
+in the revolutions which brought Jimenez into power, was called
+"privileged" because it was assigned interest. To some extent it was,
+indeed, privileged, for partial payments were made until the middle of
+1903. The government certificates forming part of the floating debt,
+were acknowledgments of indebtedness issued by the government when it
+was pressed for ready money. Many bore no interest, others bore
+interest as high as two per cent a month. In view of the great
+uncertainty of payment the amount of indebtedness was generally either
+frankly or disguisedly inflated before being expressed in the
+certificate. Such certificates were sometimes admitted in part payment
+of customs dues.
+
+_Declared Claims_ Besides the admitted indebtedness, there were many
+claims for indemnity and reimbursement which had not been acknowledged
+by the government in contract form. Some had been formally filed with
+the government for the payment of specific amounts, while others were
+still general demands. The declared claims were as follows:
+
+
+Internal revolutionary claims................... $ 885,258.10
+American revolutionary claims...................    71,000.00
+Spanish revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+French revolutionary claims.....................   190,000.00
+Italian revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+German revolutionary claims.....................    10,000.00
+British revolutionary claims....................     5,000.00
+Cuban revolutionary claims......................    35,000.00
+Font claim (Spanish)............................   186,643.00
+Heureaux estate claim (Dominican)............... 3,100,000.00
+National bank notes............................. 1,574,647.00
+Lluberes contract (Dominican)...................   250,000.00
+West India Public Works Company claim (British).   250,000.00
+Vicini heirs claim (Italian)....................   812,505.00
+                                                ______________
+Total...........................................$7,450,053.89
+
+
+Most of the older claims of indemnity for damages suffered during
+revolutions crystallized into bonded indebtedness, were recognized in
+government contracts or protocols, drifted into the old foreign debt,
+or were represented by certificates of indebtedness. Some remained,
+however, and their number was greatly increased by the disturbances
+between 1899 and 1905. How exaggerated many such claims were, is
+illustrated by a story told by the Danish consul in Santo Domingo. A
+Danish subject came to him and complained that government soldiers had
+invaded his store and carried off merchandise. He begged the consul to
+present a damage claim of $10,000 gold, which was equivalent to
+$50,000 silver. The consul listened to his story and said: "You are
+asking for a large sum, I cannot get you that. I doubt whether I can
+get you more than $40, silver." "Make it gold, consul," was the
+immediate reply. Many other claims would not have suffered by a
+similar scaling down. Most claims were for houses burned, cattle
+killed, horses commandeered and fences and other property destroyed by
+government forces or revolutionists.
+
+The other declared claims arose principally out of alleged violations
+of concessions or other contractual obligations. The Heureaux estate
+claim, advanced by creditors of the Heureaux estate and based on the
+practical identity of the accounts of Heureaux and those of the
+government was later rejected by the Dominican courts. The outstanding
+national bank notes were those issued by the defunct Banque Nationale
+de Saint Domingue.
+
+_Undeclared Claims_. The undeclared claims, such as
+had not been formally presented, were estimated as
+follows:--
+
+
+American claims......................... L1,000,000
+British claims..........................     50,000
+Italian claims..........................    200,000
+Spanish and German claims...............    200,000
+Other foreign claims....................     50,000
+Dominican claims........................  2,500,000
+                                        ----------
+       Total............................ L4,000,000
+
+
+The foreign claims were principally for damages during revolutions,
+violations of contract, failure of justice, false imprisonment, etc.
+The principal one was an American claim, that of Wm. P. Clyde & Co.,
+of New York, of over $600,000 and was based on the failure of the
+Dominican government regularly to enforce certain high port dues
+against all vessels, save those of the Clyde line, as agreed in the
+Clyde concession. The Dominican claims were mostly old claims for
+unpaid salaries, revolutionary losses, merchandise furnished the
+government, etc.
+
+The situation towards the latter part of 1904 appeared hopeless. Every
+item of the enormous debt had been in default for many months and
+interest was accruing at such rate that the whole income of the
+country would hardly have been sufficient for the payment of interest
+alone. Commerce was handicapped by high wharf and harbor charges
+collected by private individuals under their concessions from the
+government, and by prohibitive port dues imposed on foreign vessels in
+accordance with the concession of the Clyde line. More than
+three-fourths of the debt was held by foreigners who were clamoring
+for payment. The general revenues of the country and every important
+custom-house had been mortgaged to these foreign creditors. In general
+terms it may be said that the ports of the northern coast were pledged
+primarily to Americans and secondarily to Italians, those of Samana
+Bay primarily to Italians and secondarily to Americans, and those of
+the southern coast primarily to French and Belgians and secondarily
+to Italians.
+
+Only one of the international protocols, however, specified when the
+custom-houses to which it referred were to be turned over and the
+manner in which the surrender was to be made. The others merely made
+the pledge in general terms, further negotiations being necessary to
+render it effective. The exception was the arbitral award of the San
+Domingo Improvement Company, which determined that in case of the
+nonpayment of any of the monthly instalments a financial agent, to be
+named by the United States government, was to enter into possession of
+the Puerto Plata custom-house. No payments of instalments were made by
+the Dominican government and in September, 1904, compliance with the
+terms of the award was demanded. On October 20, 1904, the
+vice-president of the San Domingo Improvement Company, designated as
+American financial agent, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+A cry of dismay ran through the land and the leading newspaper of
+Santo Domingo, the "Listin Diario," published an editorial under the
+expressive heading "Consummatum est," It was, indeed, the beginning of
+the end. The other foreign creditors now pressed their claims with
+more vigor than ever, and the preparations for turning over the Monte
+Cristi custom-house to the American financial agent, accomplished in
+February, 1905, stimulated them to greater exertions. In December,
+1904, the French representative in Santo Domingo, acting in behalf of
+the French and Belgian interests, threatened to seize the custom-house
+of Santo Domingo City, the mainstay of the government. The Italian
+creditors also demanded compliance with their agreements. It was
+obvious that the foreclosure of these foreign mortgages would mean
+indefinite foreign occupation and the absolute destruction of the
+Dominican government, as there would be no revenue left to sustain it.
+
+In this difficulty, the Dominican government proposed that all the
+ports of the Republic be taken over by the United States. The
+negotiations were carried on through the capable American minister in
+Santo Domingo, Thomas C. Dawson, and on February 7,1905, culminated in
+the signing of a treaty convention which provided that all Dominican
+customs duties be collected under the direction of the United States,
+that 45 per cent of the collections be turned over to the Dominican
+government for its expenses and the remaining 55 per cent be reserved
+as a creditors' fund, and that a commission be appointed to ascertain
+the true amount of Dominican indebtedness and the sums payable to
+each claimant.
+
+The treaty was laid before the United States Senate and met with a
+cold reception. In the United States there was even less desire than
+in Santo Domingo for American intervention in Dominican matters.
+Further the treaty was strongly advocated by President Roosevelt and
+the tension then existing between the Senate and the President
+endangered many of his measures. The Senate accordingly adjourned in
+March, 1905, without action on the Dominican treaty.
+
+It was the darkest hour for Santo Domingo. The creditors, tired of
+waiting, were in no mood to admit of further delay and the government,
+totally without resources, was in no position to appease them.
+Diplomacy was equal to the emergency and a modus vivendi was arranged,
+under which the President of the United  States was to designate a
+person to receive the revenues of all the custom-houses of the
+Republic and distribute the sums collected in a manner similar to that
+determined by the pending treaty, namely, to turn over 45 per cent of
+the receipts to the Dominican government and to deposit 55 per cent as
+a creditors' fund in a New York bank. This temporary arrangement went
+into effect on April 1, 1905. The new controller and general receiver
+of Dominican customs arrived with several American assistants and soon
+had the receivership service admirably organized. The effect was
+immediate. The creditors ceased their pressure, confidence returned,
+interior trade revived, smuggling was eliminated, the exports and
+imports increased and the customs receipts took a leap upwards.
+
+It was believed that the opposition in the United States Senate would
+be diminished, if, instead of the United States both adjusting the
+debt and collecting the money for its payment, the Dominican Republic
+should make a direct settlement with the creditors, and the United
+States merely undertake to administer the customs for the service of
+the debt as adjusted. Accordingly the Dominican government appointed
+the minister of finance, Federico Velazquez, as special commissioner
+to adjust the Republic's financial difficulties. After long and
+tedious negotiations, Minister Velazquez and his able adviser Dr.
+Hollander evolved three conditional agreements:
+
+(1) An agreement with the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. of New
+York, for the issue of fifty year 5 per cent bonds of the Dominican
+Republic to the amount of $20,000,000.
+
+(2) An agreement with the Morion Trust Company of New York to act as
+fiscal agent of the Dominican Republic and as depository in the debt
+adjustment.
+
+(3) An offer of settlement to the holders of recognized debts and
+claims, to adjust these in cash at rates varying from 10 to 90 per
+cent of the nominal values specified in the offer. The nominal
+aggregate, as recognized by the Republic, exclusive of accrued
+interest, was $31,833,510, for which it was proposed to pay
+$15,526,240, together with certain interest allowances.
+
+The proposed scaling down of the debts provoked opposition and
+remonstrance, but the creditors wisely reflected on the difference
+between a bird in the hand and more in the bush, and by the beginning
+of 1907 holders of credits had signified their assent in sufficient
+amount to assure the success of the readjustment.
+
+A new convention between the United States and the Dominican Republic
+was accordingly prepared, being signed in Santo Domingo on February 8,
+1907. It was ratified by the United States Senate on February 25, and
+by the Dominican Congress on May 3, 1907. The Dominican Congress added
+what it called explanatory articles to the law by which it approved
+the convention but made no change therein.
+
+This convention, a copy of which will be found in the appendix,
+recited that disturbed political conditions in the Dominican Republic
+had created debts and claims amounting to over $30,000,000; and that
+such debts and claims were a burden to the country and a barrier to
+progress; that the Dominican Republic had effected a conditional
+adjustment under which the total sum payable would amount to not more
+than $17,000,000; that part of the plan of settlement was the issue
+and sale of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000; that the plan was
+conditional upon the assistance of the United States in the collection
+of custom revenues of the Dominican Republic; and that "the Dominican
+Republic has requested the United States to give and the United
+States is willing to give such assistance."
+
+The two governments therefore agreed that the President of the United
+States shall appoint a general receiver of Dominican customs, who
+shall collect all the customs duties in the custom-houses of Santo
+Domingo until the payment or redemption of the entire bond issue. From
+the sums collected, after paying the expenses of the receivership the
+general receiver is on the first of each month to pay $100,000 to the
+Fiscal Agent of the loan and the remainder to the Dominican
+government. Whenever the customs collections exceed $3,000,000 in any
+year, one-half the excess shall be applied to the sinking fund for the
+further redemption of bonds.
+
+The Dominican government agrees to give the general receiver and his
+assistants all needful aid and full protection to the extent of its
+powers. The United States also undertakes to give the general receiver
+and his assistants such protection as it, may find to be required for
+the performance of their duties.
+
+The convention further stipulates that until the payment of the full
+amount of the bonds the Dominican Republic is not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States, and
+that a like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import duties.
+
+Even with the approval of the convention difficulties lay in the way
+of the debt adjustment. In Santo Domingo there was opposition to the
+plan by interested parties and by persons not sufficiently mindful of
+past errors and present dangers. The Dominican Congress mutilated the
+contracts with the bankers, who not only refused to accept the
+modifications, but declined to treat further with Minister Velazquez
+unless he were first invested with plenary powers. The Dominican
+Congress then extended the necessary authority, but it came late, for
+the fall of 1907 witnessed a money panic in the United States and the
+floating of a bond issue was impossible.
+
+After months of negotiations and struggle with recalcitrant creditors
+Minister Velazquez and Prof. Hollander finally perfected an
+arrangement under which the creditors were paid the amounts specified
+in the plan of adjustment, twenty per cent in cash and eighty per cent
+in bonds guaranteed by the fiscal convention. For the purpose of the
+cash payments the creditors' fund accumulated under the modus vivendi
+was utilized. The bonds were delivered to the creditors at the rate of
+98-1/2 per cent of their face value.
+
+Under the plan of settlement the outstanding Franco-Belgian bonds and
+most of the other debt items were redeemed at fifty per cent of their
+face value, the Improvement Company's claim at ninety per cent, the
+deferred debts and comptroller's certificates at ten per cent, and the
+remaining claims at rates varying from ten to forty per cent.
+Accumulated interest was remitted entirely by the creditors, except in
+three cases, in which it was greatly reduced. These terms were much
+better than the Republic could have expected from any commission of
+investigation. The arbitral award of the San Domingo Improvement
+Company was scaled down by only ten per cent, because the bonds
+comprised in the award had been included therein at only one-half
+their face value and the other credits had also been largely reduced;
+even this small discount brought howls of protest from British
+interests that had remained discreetly silent while the State
+Department was pressing the claim thinking it completely American.
+Payment under the plan of settlement was soon practically completed.
+Only one important group of creditors, the Vicini heirs, still refuses
+to assent to the plan and accept the amount set aside for them.
+
+Upon payment to the San Domingo Improvement Company, the Company
+turned over the Central Dominican Railway, from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, to the Dominican government. The right of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad to receive a percentage of the import duties
+collected at the port of Sanchez was redeemed by the delivery of
+$195,000 in bonds at par, an excellent bargain, made all the better by
+the circumstance that the railroad invested the proceeds of these
+bonds in the extension of its line in the interior. The restrictive
+concession and heavy damage claim of the Clyde Steamship Line were
+also cancelled, and the onerous wharf and harbor concessions at the
+various ports of the Republic were among the other important
+concessions acquired by the government by means of the bond issue.
+
+Thus debts and claims aggregating nearly $40,000,000 have been and
+will be discharged for about $17,000,000. The surplus remaining from
+the bond issue and the modus vivendi collections must, under the
+agreements made, be devoted to public improvements approved by the
+United States government: a portion has been so expended, and a fund
+of over $3,000,000 still remains available. In addition the Republic's
+credit was established on a high plane; burdensome concessions were
+redeemed and adequate revenues for the maintenance of the government
+and the progress of the country were assured. As time goes on proper
+appreciation will be given to the men who were the principal agents in
+securing this financial and economic regeneration, especially to the
+Minister of Finance, Federico Velazquez, and to Prof. Jacob H.
+Hollander.  While the fiscal convention largely increased the customs
+revenues, the Dominican government made no attempt to accumulate a
+reserve fund, but spent more even than authorized by its ever
+increasing budgets. During the period of civil strife following the
+assassination of President Caceres in 1911 the government, in order to
+carry on its military campaigns, neglected to pay the salaries of its
+civil employees, pledged its internal revenues, diverted and
+misapplied amounts of the trust fund set aside for public works, and
+incurred indebtedness for supplies and materials purchased and money
+borrowed. It thus violated the spirit and letter of the convention in
+which the Dominican Republic expressly agreed not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States.
+
+The American government, in its unwillingness to interfere in the
+internal affairs of the Dominican Republic, had suffered the Victoria
+administration to seize the government in Santo Domingo after the
+death of Caceres, and it now also condoned the violation of the fiscal
+convention. The American commission which went to Santo Domingo in
+1912 to reconcile the warring factions, found that an essential
+condition of the restoration of peace and the rehabilitation of the
+government was the payment of pending salaries and certain other
+debts. Accordingly the United States consented to an increase of the
+Dominican public debt by $1,500,000, and the Dominican government
+contracted a loan to that amount with the National City Bank of New
+York, which took the bonds at 97-1/2 Per cent. The bonds bore 6 per
+cent interest, and for the service of interest and sinking fund, it
+was agreed that the general receiver of customs pay over to the Bank,
+beginning in January, 1913, a monthly sum of $30,000. This bond issue
+was finally liquidated in 1917. The amount so borrowed was not
+sufficient to pay all the indebtedness of the Dominican government.
+The manner of circumventing the debt increase prohibition of the
+convention having been discovered, the interior debt was further
+augmented after that time by failure to pay salaries, by hypothecating
+stamps and stamped paper, and by contracting other obligations, either
+to combat insurrections or because of less worthy motives. In
+addition, claims for revolutionary damages were filed against the
+government.
+
+The foreign debt thus consists merely of the $20,000,000 customs
+administration loan of 1907. The sums paid into the sinking fund of
+this loan have been used to purchase bonds of this issue at their
+market price, somewhat less than par, and the interest falling due on
+such purchased bonds has also gone to swell the sinking fund. The
+value of the assets in the sinking fund on December 31, 1917,
+estimating the purchased customs administration bonds at par, was
+$6,019,161.50, exclusive of interest accruals in 1917.
+
+The interior debt, as a result of revolutionary confusion and
+defective accounting, became as problematic as in days of yore and was
+estimated at widely different figures. With a view to ascertaining the
+exact amount and making provision therefor, the military government,
+in July, 1917, constituted a commission consisting of three American
+and two Dominican citizens, who were charged with the duty of
+investigating and liquidating all claims against the government
+arising since the settlement of 1907. The American members appointed
+were J. H. Edwards, acting comptroller-general of Santo Domingo,
+chairman, Lt.-Col. J. T. Bootes, of the United States Marine Corps,
+and Martin Travieso, Jr., of the Porto Rican bar; the Dominicans were
+two attorneys, M. de J. Troncoso de la Concha and Emilio Joubert.
+Claimants were called upon to file their claims before January 1,
+1918, or be deemed to have relinquished their rights. The nominal
+amount of the claims so filed--comprising all outstanding internal
+debts--is a little more than $14,000,000, some of the claims being for
+indefinite sums. This figure is probably greatly exaggerated and will
+doubtless be subjected to drastic revision by the claims commission.
+
+The customs receivership has continued to render invaluable service.
+In peace and war its officials have distinguished themselves by a
+highly efficient, tactful and fearless discharge of their duties. Up
+to 1913 appointments to the service were determined by the fitness and
+experience of the appointee rather than by his political antecedents,
+and the officials appointed possessed unusual qualifications: the
+first general receiver, Col. George R. Colton, who held until 1907,
+his successor W. E. Pulliam, who continued until 1913, their deputy J.
+H. Edwards, and others, were experts trained in the Philippine
+customs service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FINANCES
+
+
+Financial system.--National revenues.--Customs tariff.--National
+budget.--Legal tender.--Municipal income.--Municipal budgets.
+
+The financial system of Santo Domingo is characterized by an
+inequitable mode of obtaining public revenue, whereby the burden of
+supporting the state is thrown upon the poorest classes in the form of
+indirect taxes upon articles of necessary consumption, and wherein
+taxation of property or contribution according to economic capacity
+plays little part. This is especially true with regard to
+municipal taxation.
+
+
+
+NATIONAL FINANCIAL SYSTEM
+
+The revenues of the general government are derived chiefly from
+customs duties and secondarily from miscellaneous minor sources. There
+is no direct tax on land. Prior to 1904 the revenues fluctuated
+according to the state of tranquillity of the country, being usually
+something less than $2,000,000 per annum, but immediately upon the
+establishment of the American receivership in April, 1905, they went
+up rapidly. The increase has continued steadily and the government's
+annual income now amounts to over $4,500,000.
+
+The proportion of revenue calculated from the various sources has
+fluctuated but little in the different budgets. The proportions
+appearing from the budget of 1916 are here shown, as well as those of
+the budget of 1910, at which period the interior revenues were
+administered with less leakage.
+
+
+                                   Per cent of total
+                                       1910  1916
+Customs duties........................ 77.2  81.7
+Impost on alcohol.....................  6.8   4.4
+State railroad........................  6.4   ...
+Revenue stamps........................  3.    3.6
+State wharves.........................  2.1   4.4
+Port dues.............................  1.5   1.8
+Stamped paper.........................  1.4   2.
+Post offices..........................   .7    .8
+Consular fees.........................   .4    .9
+National telegraph and telephones.....   .3    .2
+Miscellaneous.........................   .2    .2
+                                      -----------
+     Total........................... 100.  100.
+
+
+Almost 95 per cent of the customs receipts are obtained from import
+duties. The present customs tariff, which took effect on January 1,
+1910, made a radical change in the Dominican tariff system and was a
+step in the country's financial regeneration. Theretofore the
+Dominican tariff system was about as unscientific as could be
+imagined. It had been a tariff for revenue only, in the sense that
+the object was to obtain all the revenue possible and more;
+accordingly the common necessities of life were most heavily taxed.
+Originally, it appears, the tariff provided for the payment of an ad
+valorem duty on goods imported; later the discretionary power involved
+in the appraisement was taken away and a fixed, arbitrary value was
+assigned by law to each article, and on this value, known as the
+"aforo," a specified percentage was payable as customs duty.
+Successive governments, in their efforts to raise money, gradually
+increased this percentage until it reached 73.8 per cent. As the
+"aforo" valuation was as a general rule higher than the real value the
+imposition of so elevated a tax made all imported articles
+inordinately expensive. With respect to many items the lawmakers
+overreached themselves, for the duties were raised far beyond the
+point of maximum return.
+
+For years a desire prevailed to adjust the tariff on a rational and
+equitable basis, but as there were no statistics and the government
+feared its income might be reduced, nothing was accomplished. After
+the establishment of the receivership, full statistics of imports and
+exports became available. The general receiver's office and the
+Dominican government accordingly drafted a new tariff, to which the
+American government agreed under the terms of the fiscal convention.
+
+The new tariff is based almost entirely on specific schedules; only in
+exceptional instances, such as in the case of drugs, are ad valorem
+duties imposed. There were many reductions from the former tariff,
+especially on articles of prime necessity, but in some cases the rate
+remained substantially the same, while in a few it was slightly
+increased, a tendency being observed to protect home industries. On
+the whole the revision made an average reduction of about 15 per cent
+as compared with the former tariff, but the new duties are
+scientifically distributed and after a year of commercial readjustment
+the revenue reached higher figures than ever before.
+
+Less than 6 per cent of the customs receipts are derived from export
+duties. Such duties are imposed on cacao and a number of other
+articles, but not on sugar or tobacco. The tax is not a large one, but
+the imposition of any export tax is deplored.
+
+Wars and crop conditions have had their influence on the customs
+receipts, but the figures continue satisfactory, as appears from the
+following table of collections since the establishment of the
+receivership:
+
+
+GROSS CUSTOMS COLLECTIONS
+
+First Modus Vivendi year, April 1, 1905, to March 31, 1906
+....................................................     $2,502,154.31
+Second Modus Vivendi year, April 1,1906, to March 31, 1907
+....................................................     $3,181,763.48
+Four months' period, April 1, 1907, to July 31, 1907
+(termination of Modus Vivendi)......................     $1,161,426.61
+First convention year, Aug. 1, 1907 to July 31, 1908
+....................................................     $3,469,110.69
+Second convention year, Aug. 1, 1908 to July 1909
+....................................................     $3,359,389.71
+Third convention year, Aug. 1, 1909 to July 1910
+....................................................     $2,876,976.17
+Fourth convention year, Aug. 1, 1910 to July 1911
+....................................................     $3,433,738.92
+Fifth convention year, Aug. 1, 1911 to July 1912
+....................................................     $3,645,974.79
+Sixth convention year, Aug. 1, 1912 to July 1913
+....................................................     $4,109,294.12
+Seventh convention year, Aug. 1, 1913 to July 1914
+....................................................     $3,462,163.66
+Five months' period, Aug. 1, 1914 to Dec. 31, 1914
+....................................................     $1,209,555.54
+Ninth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1915 to Dec. 31, 1915
+....................................................     $3,882,048.40
+Tenth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1916 to Dec. 31, 1916
+...................................................      $4,035,355.43
+Eleventh fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1917 to Dec. 31, 1917
+...................................................      $5,329,574.20
+
+
+With regard to port dues, the Dominican government was long bound by a
+concession made to the Clyde line in 1878. Upon the redemption of this
+concession the port dues were in 1908 reduced to their present figure.
+
+An impost on alcohols was established in 1905, and ought to become an
+important source of revenue. The law is crude in that it taxes the
+distillation rather than the sale of alcohol and does not sufficiently
+guard against fraud. The receipts, which in the beginning were quite
+promising, fell off strangely in late years.
+
+The most recent sources of revenue are the Central Dominican Railway,
+from Puerto Plata to Santiago, acquired from the San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the debt settlement in 1908; the Moca
+extension of the railroad, finished by the government in 1910; and the
+wharves acquired by the redemption of the various port concessions.
+These properties at first gave the government a handsome revenue,
+which later diminished in a suspicious manner.
+
+The budget of the Republic kept pace with the growth of income, but
+the appropriations were practically all for personnel, while public
+works continued to be neglected and no provision was made for future
+contingencies or the establishment of a reserve fund. The annual
+budget enacted to become effective July 1, 1916, may be summarized
+as follows;
+
+
+ESTIMATED RECEIPTS
+
+Custom-houses:
+
+Import duties              $3,500,000
+Port dues                      80,000
+Export duties                 220,000
+
+Subtotal:                               $3,800,000
+
+Imposts:
+Alcohol                       200,000
+Stamps                        165,000
+
+Subtotal:                     365,000
+
+Communications:
+
+Postage stamps                 36,000
+Telegraph and telephone         5,000
+Wireless telegraph              5,000
+
+Subtotal:                                   46,000
+
+Consular fees                  40,000
+Stamped paper                  90,000
+
+State properties:
+
+Ozama lighting plant             4,500
+State wharves                  200,000
+Rentals and post-office boxes    1,000
+
+Subtotal:                                  205,500
+
+Miscellaneous                    6,200
+
+Total estimated receipts                $4,552,700
+
+
+ESTIMATED DISBURSEMENTS
+
+Service of public debt                              $1,966,746.86
+
+Legislative power                                      132,400.00
+  Including salaries of 12 senators and
+  24 deputies at $200 per month.
+
+Executive power...................................... $ 25,460.00
+  Expenses of president's office, including salary of
+  president at $800 per month.
+
+Judicial power........................................ 316,160.00
+  Including salaries of supreme court (with a chief
+  justice at $250 per month, six associate justices at
+  $160, and a state's attorney at $200); 3 courts of
+  appeals (each having a chief justice at $180 per
+  month, 4 associate justices at $140 and a state's
+  attorney at $180); 12 courts of first instance (each
+  having a judge at $150 per month, a state's attorney
+  at $130-$150, and one or two judges of instruction
+  at $130); 3 courts-martial costing $2,916 each; 70
+  justices of the peace with salaries ranging from $25
+  to $55 per month; and jails in each province, the
+  jailers receiving from $35 to $69 per month.
+
+Department of Interior and Police...................... 329,638.00
+  Including office of secretary of interior, who
+  receives $320 per month; 12 provincial governors with
+  salaries from $160 to $180 per month; 53 communal
+  chiefs, at $30 to $60; church salaries amounting to
+  $3,600; public celebrations $5,100; expenses of
+  sanitation service $15,000; and a long pension list
+  amounting to $188,240. Most of these pensions are of
+  $10, $12 or $15 per month, but 7 widows of former
+  presidents and other distinguished men receive $100
+  per month.
+
+Department of Foreign Affairs.......................... 122,572.00
+  Including office of secretary, whose salary is $320
+  per month; ministers to the United States, France and
+  Haiti at $500 per month; charge's in Cuba and
+  Venezuela at $250; and 23 consuls in the United
+  States, Porto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, St. Thomas, Panama,
+  Turks Island, Jamaica, England, France, Italy,
+  Holland, Spain and Belgium.
+
+Department of Finance and Commerce...................... 356,678.04
+  Including office of secretary, who receives $320 per
+  month; general comptroller's office; 10 treasury
+  agents with salaries from $80 to $112 monthly;
+  custom-houses (the collectors of the port receiving
+  from $80 to $200 per month); receiver-general's office
+  $43,152 (the salary of the general receiver is given
+  as $9,848.04 per annum and that of his deputy as $5,988);
+  coast guard service $6,000; wharf repairs $20,000.
+
+Department of War and the Navy.........................   593,815.26
+  Including office of secretary; 12 military posts (the
+  commanders receiving from $60 to $150 per month); 10
+  armories $4,980; military instructors $4,380;
+  president's staff $12,380; one infantry regiment of
+  about 470 officers and men (the colonel receiving $95
+  monthly, the men $l5); a band of 33 men; a police
+  force, called "republican guard" of about 800 officers
+  and men (salaries ranging from $200 for the brigadier
+  general and $140 for the colonel, to $18 for the
+  private); 2 military hospitals $31,867; a machine shop
+  $4,440; port captains at $50-$90 per month, and
+  doctors at $25-$50; and the gunboat $26,444.
+
+Department of Justice and Public Instruction...........    318,208.00
+  Including office of secretary; University of Santo
+  Domingo $23,700; Santiago professional institute $8,820;
+  2 jail schools; subventions to many municipal schools,
+  private and special schools, about $180,000;
+  33 scholarships, $23,870; pensions $23,988.
+
+Department of Agriculture and Immigration..............     18,740.00
+  Including office of secretary; experiment fields in
+  Santiago $3,000; weather bureau $3,980.
+
+Department of Development and Public Works.............    332,596.00
+  Including office of secretary; lighthouses $13,282;
+  postal service; telegraph, telephone and wireless
+  service; upkeep of dredge "Ozama."
+
+Chamber of Accounts....................................      7,980.00
+
+Miscellaneous..........................................     61,872.00
+
+Contingent expenses....................................     25,000.00
+
+Constitutional assembly................................     10,000.00
+
+Total estimated disbursements, besides debt service ... $2,651,119.30
+
+
+The figures in the budgets were not, absolute but were subject to
+modification by transfer of appropriation through presidential decree.
+The contingent expense fund and the military appropriations were thus
+frequently swelled at the expense of other services.
+
+The budget above shown was the last one enacted under the old
+conditions. It was never applied, but is given as a sample, because,
+while differing only slightly from the old budget which continued in
+force, it better illustrates conditions at the beginning of American
+occupation. The military government made numerous changes in the
+budget and rendered the appropriations for salaries of the president
+and cabinet secretaries available for other purposes, as the American
+naval and marine officers now performing the duties of these positions
+receive no compensation from the Dominican treasury. A comprehensive
+new budget, the first one of the period of transition and providing
+for some of the innovations recently introduced, was expected to
+become effective early in 1918.
+
+For the purpose of bringing order and efficiency into the collection
+and disbursement of the public revenues of Santo Domingo, the American
+government in 1913 urged that it be permitted to designate an American
+comptroller and financial adviser and the Bordas administration at
+length consented, but as there was no legal authority for such action
+and as the appointee was not characterized by unusual ability, the
+Jimenez administration declined to continue the arrangement. During
+the present military government and under the efficient direction of
+the acting comptroller-general, J. H. Edwards, valuable work is being
+done in revising the accounting system and generally placing the
+country's finances in order.
+
+All the accounts of the Republic are carried on in American money,
+which is legal tender and is current in all parts of the country. For
+about fifty years after the declaration of independence, coins of many
+countries, principally Mexican silver and Spanish gold, were in
+circulation, with the rate of exchange constantly fluctuating. In 1890
+the Republic joined the Latin convention and in the following year
+through the then existing Banque Nationale de Saint Domingue issued
+silver and copper coin to the value of about $200,000. The fall in the
+value of silver caused depreciation and a few of the silver coins of
+this issue which are still in circulation are valued at forty cents
+gold for five francs; the copper coins at a little less. In 1894 the
+gold standard was adopted and though no actual coinage took place all
+official financial transactions were thereafter based upon gold
+values. In 1895 and 1897 President Heureaux issued more silver coins
+or, rather, coins washed over with silver, to the nominal amount of
+$2,250,000, but the seigniorage was so enormous that the issue was a
+case of a government counterfeiting its own money. The rate of
+exchange fell to five pesos for one dollar gold and this is the rate
+legalized by the law of June 19, 1905, which made the American gold
+dollar the standard of the Dominican Republic.
+
+For a while the ordinary smaller business transactions continued to be
+based on silver values. On a trip to Santo Domingo in 1904 a friend
+and myself were driven from the wharf to the hotel and the coachman
+asked for two dollars. It seemed an outrageous charge, but we
+considered ourselves in the hands of the Philistines, and handed over
+an American two-dollar bill. "Excuse me until I can get change," said
+the coachman to our surprise, and ran into the hotel; in a moment he
+reappeared with a double handful of coins: "Here is your change," he
+said, "eight dollars." The charge had been only forty cents in gold.
+At the present time American money is the basis and Dominican silver
+and copper is regarded merely as fractional currency, one peso
+Dominican being equivalent to twenty cents American.
+
+At various times the Dominican Republic has had disastrous experiences
+with paper money issued without sufficient guarantees. One service
+rendered by the Spaniards during their occupation in the sixties was
+the retirement of large amounts of such paper. The troubles
+accompanying unsecured paper money had been forgotten when Heureaux in
+his attempts to raise funds floated an issue of a nominal amount of
+$3,600,000 in notes, of the Banque Nationale, in addition to a small
+amount already emitted by the bank. Such demoralization resulted that
+at one time it took twenty dollars in paper money to purchase one
+dollar in gold. The national bank notes having been demonetized,
+various amounts were purchased at auction by the administrations
+succeeding Heureaux and destroyed, and almost all the remainder has
+been redeemed at five to one under the 1907 debt settlement. The only
+paper now seen is American paper money, which circulates at a par with
+American silver and gold.
+
+
+
+MUNICIPAL FINANCES
+
+Like the national government, the municipalities or communes depend
+almost entirely upon indirect taxation for their revenues. One of the
+principal sources of income is the tax on the slaughter of cattle and
+sale of meat. The communes may further, with the authority of
+Congress, levy a "consumo" tax, a small duty on the imports and
+exports of merchants within their jurisdiction, which tax has given
+rise to much confusion and controversy. Business licenses also form an
+important fount of revenue. By a law of Congress (soon to be
+superseded by a decree of the military government) the municipalities
+are divided into several classes, according to their importance, and
+the licenses payable by the various kinds of business in the several
+classes are designated. The national government turns over to the
+various municipalities a portion of the impost on spirits and grants
+educational subventions to several municipalities for their primary
+schools. Minor sources of revenue are taxes on lotteries and raffles,
+vehicle licenses, amusement permits, cockpits, etc. Two towns, Santo
+Domingo and Santiago, have municipal lotteries. Under all these taxes
+a man might own scores of houses and great expanses of land without
+paying towards the maintenance of the state and municipality more than
+the poorest peon on his property.
+
+The sums collected for municipal purposes in all the communes of the
+Republic may be calculated at about $600,000 per annum, derived from
+the following sources:
+
+MUNICIPAL RECEIPTS
+
+
+                                          Approximate percentage
+                                             of entire income
+
+Municipal charges on imports and exports.............. 17.7
+Business licenses..................................... 15.3
+Markets............................................... 10.8
+Lottery tax........................................... 10.5
+Slaughter houses and meat transportation..............  9.2
+Alcohols..............................................  7.3
+Excises (alcabala)....................................  5.
+Amusement permits.....................................  3.5
+Public register.......................................  3.5
+Lotteries.............................................  2.5
+Lighting in private houses............................  2.3
+Ferryboats and bridges................................  3.1
+Municipal property and rentals........................  1.8
+Miscellaneous.........................................  8.5
+                                                      -----
+                                                      100.
+
+
+The largest budget is that of the capital city, with Santiago second.
+According to the latest figures available, in round numbers the
+income of the thirteen more important cities and towns is annually
+about as follows:
+
+
+Santo Domingo........................ $160,000
+Santiago de los Caballeros............. 90,000
+San Pedro de Macoris................... 50,000
+Puerto Plata........................... 40,000
+La Vega................................ 30,000
+Moca................................... 21,000
+Azua................................... 20,000
+San Francisco de Macoris............... 19,000
+Samana................................. 10,000
+Monte Cristi........................... 10,000
+Sanchez................................ 10,000
+Bani...................................  9,000
+San Cristobal..........................  8,000
+
+
+In almost every town the largest item of expenditure is for education,
+the maintenance of public primary schools. The more important cities,
+especially the capital, make fair appropriations for street repair and
+other municipal public works, but in the lesser communes such
+appropriations are negligible. Very little, practically nothing, is
+appropriated for roads. Some communes pay a small subvention to the
+church and assist in the repair of church buildings. On the whole,
+municipal services are only scantily looked after, but the fault is
+due more to lack of revenue than to improper distribution.
+Occasionally the national government renders assistance in the
+construction of some work pertaining to a municipality.
+
+The average distribution of municipal disbursements may be estimated
+about as follows:
+
+MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURES
+
+
+                                 Approximate percentage
+                                    of whole expenditure
+Education.......................................... 27.1
+Public works, street cleaning, etc................. 27.
+Police.............................................  8.4
+Administrative expenses (salaries of municipal
+officials and cost of tax collection)..............  7.5
+Public lighting....................................  7.
+Sanitation.........................................  4.
+Charity............................................  2.2
+Municipal debts....................................  1.9
+Miscellaneous...................................... 14.2
+                                                  ------
+                                                   100.
+
+
+In view of the lack of resources or interest on the part of
+municipalities and the central government, services of a public nature
+have frequently been assumed by private initiative. Many clubs and
+lodges maintain schools. Firemen's corps, where there are any, are
+volunteer organizations. For charity work, hospitals, educational
+work, etc., local committees are formed which raise funds by private
+subscription or by lottery, and in a number of towns the embellishment
+of the plazas is in charge of a "junta de ornato."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE FUTURE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+Attraction by the United States.--Political future of Santo
+Domingo.--Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+The history of the Dominican Republic affords a striking illustration
+of the rule that large bodies attract nearby smaller or weaker bodies
+whether in the world of physics or in international politics. The
+United States of America had scarcely become a nation when it began to
+absorb contiguous territory and exert a strong attraction on Cuba.
+With respect to Santo Domingo also, there was such attraction, as
+became evident in proposals for annexation or the establishment of a
+naval station. At times it appeared that the process was definitely
+checked, as when Spain annexed Santo Domingo in 1861, and when the
+United States Senate refused to annex the country in 1871, and when
+the Dominican Government cancelled the Samana Bay Concession in 1874,
+but these acts merely set back the clock of time which they could
+not stop.
+
+When Porto Rico and Cuba were occupied by the United States the
+attraction exerted on Santo Domingo was powerfully increased. From
+that time on the Dominican Republic was in fact a protectorate of the
+United States, though neither American nor Dominican statesmen would
+have admitted it. The modus vivendi of 1905 and the fiscal convention
+of 1907 gave expression, in part, to relations actually existing.
+
+A peculiar feature of the matter is that, except for a few very brief
+intervals, neither the United States nor the Dominican Republic has
+desired closer political relations and each country has done
+everything in its power to avoid them. The 1907 convention was
+approved in the United States Senate with only one vote to spare, and
+many of its supporters favored it principally because it was expected
+to obviate the necessity of further American intervention in Dominican
+affairs. It was believed that with the custom-houses removed from the
+political game the receipts and prosperity of the country would grow,
+revolutionists would no longer be able to finance uprisings, and civil
+wars would cease. The convention did indeed augment the country's
+revenues and prosperity, but it could not prevent uprisings entirely
+nor remove their causes. On the other hand it strengthened the bonds
+between the United States and Santo Domingo and led to the military
+occupation of 1916.
+
+What will the future bring? There is every reason to believe that the
+same attraction of Santo Domingo by the United States will continue
+with greater strength than ever, despite all that may be said or done,
+on either side, to oppose it. It is a force which cannot be overcome,
+and had best, be recognized and reckoned with. It is unnecessary to
+consider the sentimental objections to closer political relations
+between the two countries. Conditions in Santo Domingo, in the United
+States, and in the world at large are the causes of this force of
+attraction, for which the government of neither country is
+responsible.
+
+What then will the future relations between Santo Domingo and the
+United States be? It appears that at the present moment a plan similar
+to that tried in Haiti is under advisement, namely, to restore the
+Dominican government, but to leave the custom-houses under American
+administration, place the finances under American control, appoint an
+American supervisor of public works, and secure the peace by a police
+force under American officers. The real relations between the two
+countries would thus find further expression in the creation of a
+disguised protectorate.
+
+As a permanent solution it is not probable that this plan will prove
+satisfactory. It tends to create two independent governments in the
+same country; on the one side the Dominican government which will
+consider itself supreme and sooner or later resent dictation or lack
+of sympathy on the part of the American officials, and on the other
+hand the police heads and other American officers who will brook no
+interference with what they deem their duty. Friction is bound to
+develop; it is impossible for two independent governments to work side
+by side in the same territory; one authority must be paramount. At
+first the plan may appear to operate successfully because the desires
+of the American officials will be respected, but later when the new
+Dominican government has outgrown the novelty of the situation there
+are certain to be reciprocal demands which may lead to opposition.
+Another possible source of difficulty is that even among the proposed
+American officials there is no recognized superior and that here also
+differences may arise. Rather than go so far and no further, it were
+better to attempt less.
+
+The ultimate expression, more or less deferred, of the relations
+between the two countries, will most probably be a clearly defined
+protectorate with an amply authorized resident, or outright
+annexation. Which of these two courses is preferable? From a
+standpoint of the interests of the Dominican people annexation would
+appear better. A protected state has many obligations and few rights.
+It must defer to the wishes of the protector, but the protector is
+under no absolute duty to further its development or the happiness of
+its inhabitants. On the other hand, when annexed to the stronger
+state, it may expect and demand that interest be shown in its progress
+and well-being. While annexation would probably entail a temporary
+government by officials foreign to the country, American traditions
+would not permit such a condition to continue for any length of time
+and autonomy would eventually come.
+
+From an American standpoint a protectorate would seem preferable. It
+would carry the advantages of annexation without its responsibilities,
+without the undesirable feature of bringing into our body politic a
+people foreign in race, language and customs, and with less danger of
+stirring up South American susceptibilities. It would, however, permit
+of less latitude for the improvement of conditions in Santo Domingo.
+
+For some time to come it is probable that some form of protectorate
+will be the choice of both parties. Many American statesmen are
+opposed to annexation, and the Dominicans as a rule would prefer the
+phantom of sovereignty in a mediatized republic to the real advantages
+of annexation.
+
+It is only natural that Dominicans should feel sad at passing under
+the government of a foreign power. But those of clearer vision
+recognize that there is no alternative, that the independence of the
+Republic has long been a fiction, that real freedom is only now
+beginning to dawn, and that American assistance will give the greatest
+impetus to prosperity. For several years the number of persons taking
+such a broader view has been rapidly increasing. It was not long ago
+when friends of mine in Santo Domingo would lead me to the middle of
+the plazza, out of hearing of any eavesdropper, and then with bated
+breath confide their conviction that the only salvation of the
+country lay in the United States. Ruin and sorrow brought by the civil
+wars have caused such ideas to spread and be openly expressed. At
+present it may be said that many Dominicans welcome American
+assistance, that the great majority accept it, and that only a small
+minority are bitterly opposed to it, and these objectors are
+principally former politicians and revolutionists whose opinion counts
+for least. The number of those favoring American intervention is being
+increased by the splendid administrative work of the present American
+authorities and would doubtless be still further augmented by valuable
+constructive legislation and by a more uniform display of tact and
+kindliness on the part of all American officials.
+
+These relations between the two countries impose at least a moral duty
+upon the United States. They make it incumbent upon the United States,
+as far as is in its power, to foster the development of Santo Domingo
+and promote the happiness of the Dominican people. One measure it
+should adopt is the granting of suitable tariff concessions. Another
+measure is the creation, for the administration of the countries
+dependent on the United States, of a corps of trained men, selected
+and retained without regard to political considerations, thoroughly
+qualified for the duties they are to assume, speaking the language of
+the country where they are sent, and capable of a sympathetic
+understanding with the inhabitants. By showing an interest of this
+kind the United States will properly fulfill its proud mission of
+spreading liberty and prosperity in the new world.
+
+The closer relations between the United States and Santo Domingo will
+bring that country one boon of inestimable value, namely, peace. It is
+obvious that all the troubles which have befallen the Dominican
+Republic are due directly or indirectly to the state of civil
+disorder which has so long been the bane of the country. Another
+advantage which these relations will bring is a proper administration
+of the country's finances. Peace and efficient administration will
+mean the multiplication of roads, railroads and other public
+improvements, the extension of education and a rapid advance of the
+people and development of the country. When we think of the vast
+resources of Santo Domingo, the mineral treasures hidden within Its
+forest covered mountains, the unlimited agricultural wealth concealed
+beneath its fertile soil, the enchanting beauty of its scenery, the
+courtesy and hospitality of its people, its glorious early days and
+distressing later history, we must be glad that the clouds which have
+so long shrouded the land in darkness are definitely dissipated at
+last and that the sun of peace and prosperity has begun to shine.
+
+
+With peace assured and with means of communication provided, it is
+easy to make predictions as to the economic future of Santo Domingo.
+There will probably never be much manufacturing but agriculture will
+increase with enormous strides assisted by streams of foreign capital
+which will not be slow to realize the exceptional opportunities
+offered. Sugar growing will probably be preferred and the southern
+plains as well as a great portion of the rich Cibao Valley will soon
+be covered with waving canefields. Tobacco will also receive attention
+and perhaps fruit growing. Cacao and coffee will spread more slowly.
+Prospecting for mineral wealth will be undertaken. The extension of
+agriculture will stimulate commerce and augment, the wealth of the
+people. Within a few years the country will become one of the richest
+gardens of the West Indies.
+
+The curtain has gone down upon the epoch of revolutions, conspiracies,
+civil wars and destruction. That period belongs to the past as
+definitely as the era of freebooters and pirates. A new era has begun
+for beautiful Quisqueya, in which, under the protection of the Stars
+and Stripes, it is destined to enjoy a greater measure of freedom,
+progress and prosperity than its inhabitants have ever dreamed.
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+
+CHIEFS OF STATE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+1492-1918
+
+FIRST SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+Admiral Cristopher Columbus, viceroy                     1492-1500
+Adelantado Bartholomew Columbus                          1496-1498
+Comendador Francisco de Bobadilla                        1500-1502
+Comendador Nicolas de Ovando                             1502-1509
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1509-1515
+Licentiate Cristabal Lebran, in connection with Royal
+  Audiencia                                              1515-1516
+Luis de Figueroa, Bernardino de Manzanedo, and
+  Ildefonso de Santo Domingo, friars of the order of
+  San Jeranimo                                           1516-1519
+Licentiate Rodrigo de Figueroa                           1519-1520
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1520-1524
+Royal Audiencia, in connection with judges Caspar de
+  Espinosa and Alonso de Zuazo                           1524-1528
+
+
+_Governors and Captains-General _
+
+(Note. Owing to the incompleteness of the records
+the following list probably contains inaccuracies.)
+
+
+Sebastian Ramirez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcian de la Vega                              1528-1531
+Royal Audiencia                                          1531-1533
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcian de la Vega                              1533-1540
+Louis Columbus, Third Admiral                            1540-1543
+Licentiate Alonso Lapez de Cerrato                       1543-1549
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Archbishop of Santo
+  Domingo                                                1549-1556
+Licentiate Alonso de Maldonado                           1556-1560
+Licentiate Cepeda                                        1560
+Licentiate Veras                                         1560-1561
+Licentiate Alonso Arias de Herrera                       1561-1564
+Antonio de Osorio                                        1564-1583
+Licentiate Cristabal de Ovalles                          1583-1590
+Lope de Vega Portocarrero                                1590-1597
+Domingo de Osorio                                        1597-1608
+Diego Gamez de Sandoval                                  1608-1624
+Diego de Acuna                                           1624-1634
+Maestre de Campo Juan Bitrian de Viamonte                1634-1646
+Nicolas Velazco Altamirano                               1646-1649
+Maestre de Campo Gabriel de Chaves Osorio                1649-1652
+Bernardino de Menesets y Bracamonte, Count of Penalva    1652-1657
+Felix de Zuniga                                          1657-1658
+Andres Perez Franco                                      1658-1660
+Juan Francisco de Montemayor Cardova y Cuenca            1660-1662
+Juan de Balboa y Mogrovejo                               1662-1670
+Pedro de Carvajal y Lobos                                1670-1671
+Maestre de Campo Ignacio de Zayas Bazan                  1671-1677
+Dr. Juan de Padilla Guardiola y Guzman                   1677-1679
+Maestre de Campo Francisco de Segura Sandoval y
+  Castilla                                               1679-1684
+Maestre de Campo Andres de Robles                        1684-1689
+Admiral Ignacio Perez Caro                               1689-1698
+Maestre de Campo Gil Correoso Catalan                    1698-1699
+Severino de Manzaneda                                    1699-1702
+Admiral Ignacio Perez Caro                               1702-1706
+Licentiate Sebastian de Cerezada y Giran                 1706-1707
+Guillermo Morfi                                          1707-1713
+Brigadier Pedro de Niela y Torres                        1713-1714
+Colonel Antonio Landeche                                 1714-1715
+Brigadier Fernando Constanzo y Ramarez, Knight of
+  Santiago                                               1715-1723
+Colonel Francisco de la Rocha y Ferrer                   1723-1732
+Brigadier Alfonso de Castro y Mazo                       1732-1739
+Brigadier Pedro Zorrilla y de San Martin, Marquis of la
+  Gandara Real                                           1739-1750
+Brigadier Juan Jose Colomo                               1750
+Teniente rey Jose de Zunnier de Basteros                 1750-1751
+Brigadier Francisco Rubio y Penaranda                    1751-1759
+Field-Marshal Manuel de Azlor y Urries                   1759-1771
+Brigadier Jose Solano y Bote                             1771-1779
+Brigadier Isidore de Peralta y Rojas                     1779-1785
+Colonel Joaquan Garcia y Moreno                          1785-1786
+Brigadier Manuel Gonzalez de Torres                      1786-1788
+Brigadier Joaquan Garcia y Moreno                        1788-1801
+
+
+FRENCH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+
+General Toussaint l'Ouverture                            1801-1802
+General Antoine Nicolas Kerverseau                       1802-1803
+General Marie Louis Ferrand                              1803-1808
+General L. Barquier                                      1808-1809
+
+
+SECOND SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+
+Brigadier Juan Sanchez Ramarez                           1809-1811
+Colonel Manuel Caballero y Masot                         1811-1813
+Brigadier Carlos de Urrutia y Matos                      1813-1818
+Brigadier Sebastian Kindelan y Oregan                    1818-1821
+Brigadier Pascual Real                                   1821
+
+
+STATE OF COLOMBIAN REPUBLIC
+
+_Governor and President_
+
+
+Licentiate Jose Nunez de Caceres                         1821-1822
+
+
+HAITIAN RULE
+
+_Presidents_
+
+
+Jean Pierre Boyer                                        1822-1843
+Charles Riviare Herardi aine                             1843-1844
+
+
+FIRST REPUBLIC
+
+_Presidents_
+
+Central Council of Government (Provisional government)   1844
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1844-1848
+Manuel Jimenez, Constitutional President                 1848-1849
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1849-1853
+Pedro Santana, Constitutional President                  1853-1856
+Manuel de Regla Mota, Vice-President                     1856
+Buenaventura Baez, Vice-President                        1856-1858
+Jose Desiderio Valverde, Constitutional President        1858
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1858-1861
+
+THIRD SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+Lieutenant-General Pedro Santana                         1861-1862
+Lieutenant-General Felipe Ribero y Lemoine               1862-1863
+Brigadier Carlos de Vargas                               1863-1864
+Lieutenant-General Jose de la Gandara                    1864-1865
+
+SECOND REPUBLIC
+_Presidents_
+
+Jose Salcedo, Provisional President                      1863-1864
+Gaspar Polanco, Provisional President                    1864-1865
+Benigno Filorneno de Rojas, Provisional President        1865
+Pedro Antonio Pimentel, Constitutional President         1865
+Jose Maria Cabral, Provisional President                 1865
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1865-1866
+Jose Maria Cabral, Constitutional President              1866-1868
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1868-1873
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1874-1876
+Uliees F. Espaillat, Constitutional President            1876
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional President            1876
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1876-1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878
+Ignacio Marna Gonzalez, Constitutional President         1878
+Jacinto de Castro, President Supreme Court               1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878-1879
+Gregorio Luperan, Provisional President                  1879-1880
+Fernando A. de Merino, Constitutional President          1880-1882
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President                1882-1884
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, Constitutional President     1884-1885
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Vice-President and Provisional
+  President                                              1885-1887
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President (4 terms)      1887-1899
+Juan Wenceslao Figuereo, Vice-President                  1899
+Horacio Vasquez, Provisional President                   1899
+Juan Isidro Jimanez, Constitutional President            1899-1902
+Horacio Vasquez, Provisional President                   1902-1903
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903
+Carlos E. Morales, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903-1906
+Raman Caceres, Vice-President and Constitutional
+  President                                              1906-1911
+Eladio Victoria, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1911-1912
+Adolfo A. Nouel, Provisional President                   1912-1913
+Jose Bordas Valdez, Provisional President                1913-1914
+Raman Baez, Provisional President                        1914
+Juan Isidro Jimanez, Constitutional President            1914-1916
+Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, Provisional President      1916
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INTERVENTION
+
+_Military Governor_
+
+
+Rear-Admiral H. S. Knapp                                 1916-
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+OLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN USE IN SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+The equivalents between old weights and measures still in use in Santo
+Domingo with the legal or metric system, are as follows, the
+equivalents with American measures being also given:
+
+
+
+Dominican              American              Metric
+
+Measures of length:
+1 league                 3.46 miles                5.5727 kilometers
+1 ona                       3 feet, 10.79 inches   1.1884 meters
+1 yard                 35.996 inches               0.9143 meter
+1 vara                  32.91 inches                0.836 meter
+1 foot                 10.945 inches                0.278 meter
+1 inch                 0.9055 inch                  0.023 meter
+1 line [1]             0.0787 inch                  0.002 meter
+
+Surface measures:
+1 tarea [2]            0.1554 acre                 628.86 sq. meters
+1 caballeria           186.50 acres               75.4636 hectares
+
+Liquid measures:
+1 bottle               0.7392 quart                   720 grams
+1 gallon               3.3265 quarts                 3.34 liters
+
+Dry measures:
+1 fanega                1.575 bushels                55.5 liters
+1 almud                0.1596 bushel                5.625 liters
+1 cuartillo            0.0328 bushel                1.156 liter
+
+Weights:
+1 ton               2,028.232 pounds                  920 kilograms
+1 quintal             101.412 pounds                   46 kilograms
+1 arroba               25.353 pounds                 11.5 kilograms
+1 pound                 1.014 pounds                  460 grams
+1 ounce               0.06338 pound, or             28.75 grams
+                        1.014 ounces avoirdupois
+1 adarme                27.78 grains                  1.8 grams
+1 grain[3]             0.7706 grain                     5 centigrams
+
+The following measures are cited for comparison:
+
+                        American                        Metric
+Porto Rican cuerda     0.9701 acre              3930.4037 sq. meters
+Porto Rican caballeria 194.02 acres                78.608 hectares
+Cuban caballeria        33.16 acres               13.4202 hectares
+Haitian carreau         3.194 acres                12,928 sq. meters
+
+
+[Footnote 1: 12 lines = 1 inch; 12 inches = 1 foot; 3 feet = 1 vara; 3
+varas = 1 vara conuquera; 20,000 feet = 1 league]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tarea is a parcel of land measuring 100 square varas
+conuqueras. It is the usual measure of land. 300 tareas = 1 peonia; 4
+peonias = 1 caballeria.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 36 grains = 1 adarme; 16 adarmes = 1 ounce; 16 ounces = 1
+pound; 25 pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 20 quintals =
+1 ton.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+AMERICAN-DOMINICAN FISCAL CONVENTION OF 1907
+
+CONVENTION BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE DOMINICAN
+REPUBLIC PROVIDING FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
+COLLECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CUSTOMS REVENUES OF THE
+DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+
+
+_Concluded February 8, 1907
+
+Ratification advised by Senate February 25, 1907
+
+Ratified by President June 2, 1907
+
+Ratified by President of the Dominican Republic June 18, 1907
+
+Ratifications exchanged at Washington July 8, 1907
+
+Proclaimed July 25, 1907_
+
+BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+A PROCLAMATION
+
+Whereas a convention between the United States of America and the
+Dominican Republic providing for the assistance of the United States
+in the collection and application of the customs revenues of the
+Dominican Republic, was concluded and signed by their respective
+Plenipotentiaries at the City of Santo Domingo, on the eighth day of
+February, one thousand nine hundred and seven, the original of which
+convention, being in the English and Spanish languages, is word for
+word as follows:
+
+Whereas during disturbed political conditions in the Dominican
+Republic debts and claims have been created, some by regular and some
+by revolutionary governments, many of doubtful validity in whole or
+in part, and amounting in all to over $30,000,000, nominal or
+face value;
+
+And whereas the same conditions have prevented the peaceable and
+continuous collection and application of National revenues for payment
+of interest or principal of such debts or for liquidation and
+settlement of such claims; and the said debts and claims continually
+increase by accretion of interest and are a grievous burden upon the
+people of the Dominican Republic and a barrier to their improvement
+and prosperity;
+
+And whereas the Dominican Government has now effected a conditional
+adjustment and settlement of said debts and claims under which all its
+foreign creditors have agreed to accept about $12,407,000 for debts
+and claims amounting to about $21,184,000 of nominal or face value,
+and the holders of internal debts or claims of about $2,028,258
+nominal or face value have agreed to accept about $645,827 therefor,
+and the remaining holders of internal debts or claims on the same
+basis as the assents already given will receive about $2,400,000
+therefor, which sum the Dominican Government has fixed and determined
+as the amount which it will pay to such remaining internal debt
+holders; making the total payments under such adjustment and
+settlement, including interest as adjusted and claims not yet
+liquidated, amount to not more than about $17,000,000.
+
+And whereas a part of such plan of settlement is the issue and sale of
+bonds of the Dominican Republic to the amount of $20,000,000 bearing
+five per cent interest payable in fifty years and redeemable after ten
+years at 102-1/2 and requiring payment of at least one per cent per
+annum for amortization, the proceeds of said bonds, together with such
+funds as are now deposited for the benefit of creditors from customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic heretofore received, after payment
+of the expenses of such adjustment, to be applied first to the payment
+of said debts and claims as adjusted and second out of the balance
+remaining to the retirement and extinction of certain concessions and
+harbor monopolies which are a burden and hindrance to the commerce of
+the country and third the entire balance still remaining to the
+construction of certain railroads and bridges and other public
+improvements necessary to the industrial development of the country;
+And whereas the whole of said plan is conditioned and dependent upon
+the assistance of the United States in the collection of customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic and the application thereof so far
+as necessary to the interest upon and the amortization and redemption
+of said bonds, and the Dominican Republic has requested the United
+States to give and the United States is willing to give such
+assistance:
+
+The Dominican Government, represented by its Minister of State for
+Foreign Relations, Emiliano Tejera, and its Minister of State for
+Finance and Commerce, Federico Velasquez H., and the United States
+Government, represented by Thomas C. Dawson, Minister Resident and
+Consul General of the United States to the Dominican Republic,
+have agreed:
+
+I. That the President of the United States shall appoint, a General
+Receiver of Dominican Customs, who, with such Assistant Receivers and
+other employees of the Receivership as shall be appointed by the
+President of the United States in his discretion, shall collect all
+the customs duties accruing at the several customs houses of the
+Dominican Republic until the payment or retirement of any and all
+bonds issued by the Dominican Government in accordance with the plan
+and under the limitations as to terms and amounts hereinbefore
+recited; and said General Receiver shall apply the sums so collected,
+as follows:
+
+First, to paying the expenses of the receivership; second, to the
+payment of interest upon said bonds; third, to the payment of the
+annual sums provided for amortization of said bonds including interest
+upon all bonds held in sinking fund; fourth, to the purchase and
+cancellation or the retirement and cancellation pursuant to the terms
+thereof of any of said bonds as may be directed by the Dominican
+Government; fifth, the remainder to be paid to the Dominican
+Government. The method of distributing the current collections of
+revenue in order to accomplish the application thereof as hereinbefore
+provided shall be as follows:
+
+The expenses of the receivership shall be paid by the Receiver as they
+arise. The allowances to the General Receiver and his assistants for
+the expenses of collecting the revenues shall not exceed five per cent
+unless by agreement between the two Governments.
+
+On the first day of each calendar month the sum of $100,000 shall be
+paid over by the Receiver to the Fiscal Agent of the loan, and the
+remaining collection of the last preceding month shall be paid over to
+the Dominican Government, or applied to the sinking fund for the
+purchase or redemption of bonds, as the Dominican Government
+shall direct.
+
+_Provided_, that in case the customs revenues collected by the General
+Receiver shall in any year exceed the sum of $3,000,000, one half of
+the surplus above such sum of $3,000,000 shall be applied to the
+sinking fund for the redemption of bonds.
+
+II. The Dominican Government will provide by law for the payment of
+all customs duties to the General Receiver and his assistants, and
+will give to them all needful aid and assistance and full protection
+to the extent of its powers. The Government of the United States will
+give to the General Receiver and his assistants such protection as it
+may find to be requisite for the performance of their duties.
+
+III. Until the Dominican Republic has paid the whole amount of the
+bonds of the debt its public debt shall not be increased except by
+previous agreement between the Dominican Government and the United
+States. A like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import
+duties, it being an indispensable condition for the modification of
+such duties that the Dominican Executive demonstrate and that the
+President of the United States recognize that, on the basis of
+exportations and importations to the like amount and the like
+character during the two years preceding that in which it is desired
+to make such modification, the total net customs receipts would at
+such altered rates of duties have been for each of such two years in
+excess of the sum of $2,000,000 United States gold.
+
+IV. The accounts of the General Receiver shall be rendered monthly to
+the Contaduria General of the Dominican Republic and to the State
+Department of the United States and shall be subject to examination
+and verification by the appropriate officers of the Dominican and the
+United States Governments.
+
+V. This agreement shall take effect after its approval by the Senate
+of the United States and the Congress of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Done in four originals, two being in the English language, and two in
+the Spanish, and the representatives of the high contracting parties
+signing them in the City of Santo Domingo this 8th day of February, in
+the year of our Lord 1907.
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON,
+
+EMILIANO TEJERA,
+
+FEDERICO VELAZQUEZ H.
+
+
+And whereas the said convention has been duly ratified on both parts,
+and the ratifications of the two governments were exchanged in the
+City of Washington, on the eighth day of July, one thousand nine
+hundred seven;
+
+Now, therefore, be it known that I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of
+the United States of America, have caused the said convention to be
+made public, to the end that the same and every article and clause
+thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United
+States and the citizens thereof.
+
+In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal
+of the United States of America to be affixed.
+
+Done at the City of Washington, this 25th day of July in the year of
+our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and of the Independence
+of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty-second.
+
+[SEAL.] THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
+
+By the President:
+
+ROBERT BACON
+
+_Acting Secretary of State._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
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+
+Title: Santo Domingo
+       A Country With A Future
+
+Author: Otto Schoenrich
+
+Release Date: February, 2006 [EBook #9813]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on October 20, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SANTO DOMINGO ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, Michael Lockey
+and PG Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+A COUNTRY WITH A FUTURE
+
+BY
+
+OTTO SCHOENRICH
+
+
+1918
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+It is remarkable how little has been written about the Dominican
+Republic, a country so near to our shores, which has for years had
+intimate commercial and political relations with our country, which is
+at present under the provisional administration of the American
+Government, and which is destined to develop under the protection and
+guidance of the United States. The only comprehensive publications on
+the Dominican Republic, in the English language, are the Report of the
+United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo, published in
+1871, Hazard's "Santo Domingo, Past and Present," written about the
+same time, and Professor Hollander's notable Report on the Debt of
+Santo Domingo, published in 1905. The first and the last of these
+publications are no longer obtainable; hence, Hazard's book, written
+almost half a century ago, is still the chief source of information.
+
+These considerations prompted me to indite the following pages, in
+which I have essayed to give a bird's-eye view of the history and
+present condition of Santo Domingo. The task has been complicated by
+two circumstances. One is the extraordinary difficulty of obtaining
+accurate data. The other is the fact that the country has arrived at a
+turning point in its history. Any description of political, financial
+and economic conditions can refer only, or almost only, to the past;
+the American occupation has already introduced fundamental innovations
+which will shortly be further developed, and a rapid and radical
+transformation is in progress. Santo Domingo at this moment is a
+country which has no present, only a past and a future.
+
+My personal acquaintance with Santo Domingo and Dominican affairs is
+derived from observations on several trips to the Dominican Republic
+and Haiti, from friendships formed with prominent Dominican families
+during a residence of many years in Latin America, and from experience
+as secretary to the special United States commissioner to investigate
+the financial condition of Santo Domingo in 1905, and as secretary to
+the Dominican minister of finance during the 1906 loan negotiations.
+
+In compiling this work I have endeavored to read all books of any
+consequence which have been published with reference to Santo Domingo
+and Haiti and have especially consulted the following:
+
+José Ramón Abad,
+  "La República Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1886.
+
+Rudolf Cronau,
+  "Amerika, die Geschichte seiner Entdeckung";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+Enrique Deschamps,
+  "La República Dominicana, Directorio y Guía General";
+  Barcelona, 1906.
+
+José Gabriel García,
+  "Compendio de la Historia de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1896.
+
+H. Harrisse,
+  "Christophe Colomb";
+  Paris, 1884.
+
+Samuel Hazard,
+  "Santo Domingo, Past and Present, with a Glance at Haiti";
+  New York, 1873.
+
+Jacob H. Hollander,
+  "Report on the Debt of Santo Domingo";
+  59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Document;
+  Washington, 1905.
+
+Antonio López Prieto,
+  "Informe sobre los Restos de Colón";
+  Habana, 1878.
+
+Fernando A. de Meriño,
+  "Elementos de Geografía Física, Política e Histórica
+      de la República Dominicana";
+  Santo Domingo, 1898.
+
+Médéric Louis Elie Moreau de Saint-Méry,
+  "Description
+  de la partie espagnole de l'isle Saint-Domingue";
+  Philadelphia, 1796.
+
+Casimiro N. de Moya,
+  "Bosquejo Histórico del Descubrimiento y Conquista
+      de la Isla de Santo Domingo";
+  Santo Domingo, 1913.
+
+F.A. Ober,
+  "A Guide to the West Indies and Panama";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+Publications of the Dominican Government.
+
+Publications of the Bureau of American Republics
+      and the Pan-American Union.
+
+Annual Reports of the General Receiver of Customs of the
+      Dominican Republic to the Bureau of Insular Affairs,
+      War Department, Washington, 1907 to 1917.
+
+"Report of the United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo Domingo";
+  42d Congress, 1st Session, Senate Document,
+  Washington, 1871.
+
+Emiliano Tejera,
+  "Los Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1878;
+      and
+  "Los dos Restos de Colon";
+  Santo Domingo, 1879.
+
+L. Gentil Tippenhauer,
+  "Die Insel Haiti";
+  Leipzig, 1892.
+
+A. Hyatt Verrill,
+  "Porto Rico, Past and Present, and San Domingo of To-Day";
+  New York, 1914.
+
+William Walton, Jr.,
+  "Present State of the Spanish Colonies, including a particular
+      report of Hispañola";
+  London, 1810.
+
+O. S.
+
+New York, _January_, 1918.
+
+TABLE OF CONTENTS
+
+
+CHAPTER I. Historical Sketch-Days of the Conquest--1492 to 1533
+
+Aborigines--Discovery--Founding of Isabela--Disaffection of the
+  colonists--Indian wars--Oppression of the Indians--Founding of
+  Santo Domingo City--Roldan's insurrection--Humiliation of
+  Columbus--Ovando's administration--Extermination of the
+  natives--Administrations of Diego Columbus--Treaty with Indian
+  survivors.
+
+CHAPTER II. Historical Sketch--Colonial Vicissitudes--1533 to 1801
+
+Decline of the colony--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+  City--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters--French settlements in
+  western Santo Domingo--Border wars--Cession of western coast to
+  France--Return of prosperity--Effect of French Revolution--Negro
+  uprising in French Santo Domingo--Rise of Toussaint
+  l'Ouverture--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France--Evacuation
+  by Spain.
+
+CHAPTER III. Historical Sketch--Changes of Government--1801 TO 1844
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture--Exodus of whites--Capture of Santo
+  Domingo by French--War with negroes--Government of
+  Ferrand--Incursion of Dessalines--Insurrection of Sanchez
+  Ramirez--Reestablishment of Spanish rule--Proclamation of Colombian
+  State of Spanish Haiti--Conquest by Haiti--Haitian rule--Duarte's
+  conspiracy--Declaration of Independence.
+
+CHAPTER IV. Historical Sketch--First Republic and Spanish
+Annexation--1844 TO 1865.
+
+Constitution of the government--Santana's first administration--Wars
+  with the Haitians--Administration of Jimenez--Victory of Las
+  Carreras--Baez' first administration--Santana's second
+  administration--_Repulse of Soulouque_--Baez' second
+  administration--Period of the two governments--Santana's third
+  administration--Annexation negotiations--Annexation to Spain--War of
+  the Restoration.
+
+Chapter V. Historical Sketch--Second Republic-Revolutions and
+Dictatorships--1863 TO 1904.
+
+Restoration of the Republic--Military presidents--Cabral's
+  administration--Baez' fourth administration--Annexation negotiations
+  with the United States--Civil wars--Heureaux's rule--Administrations
+  of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil--Election of Morales.
+
+Chapter VI. Historical Sketch--American Influence-1904 to date (1918)
+
+Financial difficulties--Fiscal convention with the United
+ States--Caceres' administration--Provisional presidents--Civil
+  disturbances--Jimenez' second administration--American intervention.
+
+Chapter VII. Area and Boundaries
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo--Boundary
+  disputes--Harbors on north coast--Character of shore--Samana
+  Bay--Character of east and south coast--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+  Domingo--Ocoa Bay--Islands--Haitian frontier.
+
+Chapter VIII. Topography and Climate
+
+Mountains--Valleys and plains--Rivers--Lakes--Temperature and
+  Rainfall--Hurricanes--Health conditions.
+
+Chapter IX. Geology and Minerals
+
+Rock formation--Mineral
+  deposits--Gold-Copper--Iron--Coal--Silver--Salt--Building
+  stone--Petroleum--Mineral springs--Earthquakes.
+
+Chapter X. Flora and Fauna
+
+Agricultural conditions--Land titles and measures--Wet and arid
+  regions--Exports--Sugar--Cacao--Tobacco--Coffee--Tropical
+  fruits--Forest products--Insects--Reptiles--Fishery--Birds--Cattle
+  raising.
+
+Chapter XI. The People
+
+Population--Distribution--Race--Descendants of American
+  negroes--Language--Physical traits--Mental
+  traits--Amusements--Dances, theatres, clubs,
+  carnivals--Gaming--Morality--Homes.
+
+CHAPTER XII. Religion
+
+Catholic religion--Concordat--Ownership of church
+  buildings--Clergy--Religious sentiment--Shrines--Religious customs
+  and holidays--Religious toleration--Protestant sects.
+
+CHAPTER XIII. Education and Literature
+
+Education in Spanish times--Work of Hostos--School
+  organization--Professional institute--Primary and secondary
+  education--Literacy--Libraries--Newspapers--Literature--Fine arts.
+
+CHAPTER XIV. Means of Transportation and Communication
+
+Railroads-Samana--Santiago Railroad--Central Dominican
+  Railway--Roads--Mode of traveling--Inns--Principal highways--Steamer
+  lines--Postal facilities--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+CHAPTER XV. Commerce
+
+Exports and imports--Foreign trade--Trade with the United
+  States--Ports of entry--Wharf concessions--Domestic
+  trade--Business houses--Banks--Manufactures.
+
+CHAPTER XVI. Cities and Towns
+
+General condition of municipalities--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+  churches, streets, popular legends--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+  Province--San Pedro de Macoris--Seibo--Samana and
+  Sanchez--Pacificador Province--Conceptión de la Vega--Moca--Santiago
+  de los Caballeros--Puerto Plata--Monte Cristi--Azua--Barahona.
+
+CHAPTER XVII. The Remains of Columbus
+
+Burial of Columbus--Disappearance of epitaph--Removal of remains in
+  1795--Discovery of remains in 1877--Resting-place of Discoverer
+  of America.
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. Government
+
+Form of
+  government--Constitutions--Presidents--Election--Powers--Executive
+  Secretaries--Land and sea forces--Congress--Local
+  subdivisions--Provincial governors--Communal governments.
+
+CHAPTER XIX. Politics and Revolutions
+
+Political parties--Elections--Relation between politics and
+  revolutions--Conduct of revolutions--Casualties--Number of
+  revolutions--Effect of revolutions.
+
+CHAPTER XX. Law and Justice
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo--Legal system--Judicial
+  organization-Observance of law--Prisons--Character of offenses.
+
+CHAPTER XXI. The dominican debt and the fiscal treaty with the United
+States.
+
+Financial situation in 1905--Causes of debt--Amount of debt--Bonded
+  debt--Liquidated debt--Floating debt--Declared claims--Undeclared
+  claims--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house--Fiscal convention of
+  1905--Modus vivendi--Negotiations for adjustment of debt--New bond
+  issue--Fiscal treaty of 1907--Adjustment with creditors--19l2
+  loan--Present financial situation.
+
+CHAPTER XXII. Finances
+
+Financial system--National revenues--Customs tariff--National
+  budget--Legal tender--Municipal income--Municipal budgets.
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. The Future of Santo Domingo
+
+Attraction by the United States--Political future of Santo
+  Domingo-Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+APPENDIX A. Chiefs of State of Santo Domingo, 1492-1918
+
+APPENDIX B. Old Weights and Measures in Use in Santo Domingo
+
+APPENDIX C. American-Dominican Fiscal Convention of 1907
+
+INDEX
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+Columbus Monument on Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City.
+
+Map of Santo Domingo
+
+Historic Gateway "La Puerta del Conde," where
+    the independence of the Dominican Republic
+    was declared:
+        View from within the city
+        View from without, during a revolution
+
+The Strongest Presidents of Santo Domingo:
+        President Pedro Santana
+        President Buenaventura Baez
+        President Ulises Heureaux
+        President Ramon Caceres
+
+Four Prominent Dominicans:
+        President Juan Isidro Jimenez
+        President Horacio Vasquez
+        Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez
+        Archbishop Adolfo A. Nouel
+
+One of the Many Beautiful Spots on the Shores
+    of Samana Bay
+
+Partaking of Cocoanut-water
+
+Street in Bani
+
+Street in Puerto Plata
+
+A Roadside Store
+
+Building a House with the Products of the Palm-tree
+
+Room in "Casino de la Juventud," Santo Domingo City
+
+A Holiday Gathering, Santo Domingo City
+
+Ruins of San Francisco Church, Santo Domingo City
+
+A "Calvario" in the Road
+
+Road Scene: A Mudhole
+
+Wharf and Harbor of San Pedro de Macoris
+
+Entrance to Cathedral of Santo Domingo
+
+"House of Columbus," Ruins of Diego Columbus' Palace
+
+The "Tower of Homage," the oldest fortification erected by white men
+  in America:
+        View from mouth of Ozama River
+        View from within fort
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: Milkmen
+
+Puerto Plata Scene: The Ox as a Riding Animal
+
+Sanctuary of Santo Domingo Cathedral
+
+Diagram of Sanctuary of Cathedral
+
+Lead Box found in 1877 with Remains of Columbus
+
+Inscription on Lid of Lead Box
+
+Obverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+Reverse Side of Silver Plate
+
+The Bane of Santo Domingo: Intrenchment at Puerta del Conde during a
+  revolution
+
+Independence Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+Cathedral Plaza, Santo Domingo City
+
+
+SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--DAYS OF THE CONQUEST.--1492 to 1533
+
+
+Aborigines.--Discovery.--Founding of Isabela.--Disaffection of the
+colonists.--Indian wars.--Oppression of the Indians.--Founding of
+Santo Domingo City.--Roldan's insurrection.--Humiliation of
+Columbus,--Ovando's administration.--Extermination of the
+natives.--Administrations of Diego Columbus.--Treaty with Indian
+survivors.
+
+When Columbus, in December, 1492, sailed along the northern coast of
+the island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, he was more enchanted with what
+he saw than he had been with any of his previous discoveries. Giant
+mountains, covered with verdant forests, seemed to rise precipitately
+from the blue waters and lift their heads to the very clouds.
+Beautiful rivers watered fertile valleys, luscious fruits hung from
+the trees, fragrant flowers carpeted the ground, and the air was
+filled with the songs of birds of gay plumage. There were scenes of
+nature's magnificence such as are found only in the tropics. Columbus,
+as he gazed upon them in admiration, little thought that this
+beautiful island was to witness his greatest sorrows, that it was to
+be his final resting place, and that it was in later generations to
+become the theater of long years of war and carnage.
+
+At the time of its discovery the island of Santo Domingo was thickly
+inhabited. The native Indians were Arawaks belonging to the same race
+as those who occupied the other larger West India Islands. Unlike the
+fierce Caribs who inhabited some of the smaller Antilles, the Arawaks
+were of a gentle and meek disposition. They were inclined to idleness
+and sensuality. Columbus lauded their kindliness and generosity; the
+possession of these traits, however, did not prevent them from
+fighting bravely when exasperated.
+
+Living in the stone age, they knew none of the useful metals, but gold
+ornaments were used for adornment. Older men and married women wore
+short aprons of cotton or feathers; all other persons went entirely
+nude. Their favorite amusements were ball games and savage dances with
+weird, monotonous music; their religion was the worship of a great
+spirit and of subordinate deities represented by idols, called
+"zemis," carved of wood and stone in grotesque form, and of which some
+are still occasionally found in caverns or tombs. They dwelt in rude
+palm-thatched huts, the principal article of furniture being the
+hammock. Simple agriculture, hunting and fishing provided their means
+of livelihood.
+
+The natives called the island Haiti, signifying "high ground," but the
+western portion was also called Babeque or Bohio, meaning "land of
+gold" and the eastern part Quisqueya, meaning "mother of the earth."
+The name Quisqueya is the one by which Dominican poets now refer to
+their country. The inhabitants lived in communities ruled by local
+caciques, and the country was divided into five principal regions,
+each under an absolute chief cacique, as follows:
+
+Magua, signifying "watered plain," the northeastern part of the island
+and comprising most of what is to-day known as the Cibao--that part of
+the Dominican Republic lying north of the central mountain-range. The
+chief was Guarionex.
+
+Marien, or Mariel, comprised the northwestern portion of the island
+and was ruled by Guacanagari.
+
+Jaragua comprised the southwestern part, its chief being Bohechio, the
+oldest of the caciques.
+
+Maguana extended from the center of the island to the south coast near
+Azua and was ruled by the proud Caonabo.
+
+Higuey, or Higuayagua, the most bellicose portion of the country,
+comprised the entire southeast and was ruled by Cayacoa.
+
+Columbus happened upon the island on his first voyage. After
+discovering Guanahani on October 12, 1492, and vainly searching for
+Japan among the Bahama Islands, he discovered Cuba and while skirting
+along the north shore of what he supposed to be the mainland heard of
+an island said to be rich in gold, lying to the east. Taking an
+easterly course, he was abandoned by the Pinta, one of his caravels,
+whose captain, disregarding the admiral's signals, sailed away to seek
+his fortune alone. Continuing with his remaining caravels, the Santa
+Maria and the Niña, Columbus reached Cape Maisi, the easternmost point
+of Cuba, where he sighted a high mountainous land lying in a
+southeasterly direction. On the following day, December 6, 1492, he
+reached this land, which he called la Española, because it reminded
+him of Andalusia. In English histories the name is modified to
+Hispaniola. The port Columbus called San Nicolas, as he had entered it
+on St. Nicholas day, and it is now known as Mole St. Nicolas.
+
+Columbus then sailed along the north coast of the island and entered
+the pretty little port known to-day as Port-à-l'Ecu. Here, on December
+12, he solemnly took possession of the country in the name of his
+sovereigns, erecting a wooden cross on a high hill on the western
+side of the bay. He then visited Tortuga Island, to the north, giving
+it this name on account of its shape and the great number of turtles
+in the water near its coast. After stopping in a harbor which he
+called Puerto de Paz, Port of Peace, because of the harmony which
+prevailed at the meetings with the natives, Columbus continued in an
+easterly direction, but adverse winds compelled him to put into the
+bay of Santo Tomas, to-day bay of l'Acul, where the cordial
+intercourse with the natives was renewed. Here he received an embassy
+from the chief of the district, Guacanagari, inviting him to visit the
+cacique's residence, further along the coast, and bringing him as
+presents a wampum belt artistically worked and a wooden mask with
+eyes, tongue and nose of gold.
+
+To accept the invitation Columbus set sail on the morning of December
+24. In the evening when the admiral had retired the helmsman committed
+the indiscretion of confiding the helm to a ship's boy. About midnight
+when off Cape Haitien, near their destination, the vessel was caught
+in a current and swept upon a sandbank where she began to keel over.
+During the confusion which followed, Columbus had the mainmast chopped
+down but all efforts to right the ship were in vain, and Columbus and
+the crew were obliged to take refuge on the little Niña.
+
+As soon as Guacanagari received news of the disaster he sent large
+canoes filled with men to help the strangers transport their stores to
+the shore. The relations between the Spaniards and the Indians became
+most cordial, especially as the Spaniards were gratified to obtain
+much gold in exchange for articles of insignificant value, owing to
+which circumstances and to the natural advantages of the location,
+Columbus determined to build a fort with the wreckage of his vessel.
+The fort was on a hill east of the site of the present town of Cape
+Haitien. Columbus gave it the name of La Navidad because he had
+entered the bay on Christmas day, and leaving thirty-nine men as
+colonists set out on the Niña on January 4, 1493, on his return
+trip to Spain.
+
+Near the great yellow promontory on the north of the island, to which
+Columbus gave the name it still retains of Monte Cristi, the Pinta,
+which had deserted the other vessels off Cuba, was sighted. Columbus
+having heard the excuses of the Pinta's captain, took no action with
+respect to the latter's delinquency, but set about exploring a large
+river in the vicinity to which he gave the name of Rio de Oro and
+which to-day is called the Yaque. Continuing the journey along the
+coast of the island the vessels rounded the giant promontory of Cape
+Cabron and that of Samana and entered the great bay of Samana which
+Columbus at first took to be an arm of the sea. Here it was that the
+first armed encounter between sons of the old world and the new took
+place. The Indians set upon the Spaniards when they landed but were
+quickly driven to flight, one of their number being severely wounded.
+On the following day, however, a more pleasant meeting took place and
+presents were exchanged. On January 16 the two vessels set sail
+for Spain.
+
+The immense excitement produced in Spain by the discoveries of
+Columbus made the preparation of another expedition an easy matter,
+and on September 25, 1493, the admiral again set out from Spain, this
+time with sixteen ships and some 1300 men. After touching at several
+of the Leeward Islands and Porto Rico, the fleet sighted the Samana
+peninsula on November 22, 1493, and three days later arrived at Monte
+Cristi. Here the finding of two corpses of Spaniards filled the
+members of the expedition with grave apprehensions, which proved
+justified when two days later they arrived at La Navidad and found the
+fort completely destroyed, the Indian village burnt to the ground, and
+the whole neighborhood silent and desolate.
+
+Guacanagari was found at a village further inland and according to his
+story and that of other Indians, a number of Spaniards had succumbed
+to disease, others were killed in brawls among themselves and the
+remainder died at the hands of the inland caciques Caonabo and
+Guarionex and their warriors, who attacked and destroyed both the fort
+and the village of Guacanagari. At the same time it was stated that
+the Spaniards had made themselves hateful to the natives by their
+domineering disposition and their lewdness and covetousness. The
+finding in some of the native huts of objects that had belonged to the
+colonists, as well as other suspicious circumstances, caused Father
+Boil and other companions of Columbus to doubt the chief's story and
+insist that sanguinary vengeance be taken. Columbus, however, affected
+to be satisfied with the explanation given and determined to take no
+further action, but to seek a new location for the colony. From this
+time forward discord divided not only the Spaniards and Indians but
+also the Spaniards themselves.
+
+As the fleet was sailing east the weather obliged it to put into an
+indentation of the coast fifty miles east of Monte Cristi. The place
+so charmed the Spaniards that it was decided to found a town here. The
+first city of the new world was therefore laid out and Columbus gave
+it the name of Isabela, in honor of his royal patron. During the
+construction of the city Columbus sent two expeditions to the Cibao
+mountains, both of which succeeded in collecting a large amount
+of gold.
+
+It soon became evident that the neighborhood of Isabela was not a
+healthy one. Fever invaded the colony; Columbus himself was not
+exempt. Discontent came and an uprising among the soldiers was nipped
+in the bud. On recovering from his illness Columbus resolved to make
+an exploration of the interior; and with drums beating and flags
+flying a brilliant expedition left Isabela. The beautiful Royal Plain
+was soon reached and friendly relations established with its peaceful
+inhabitants, whose wonder at the Spaniards and terror at their horses
+knew no bounds. A fortress was founded on the banks of the Janico
+river and called Santo Tomas. Columbus then returned to Isabela to
+find the town in a state of excitement on account of petty quarrels
+and the general sickness. Picking out the principal malcontents he
+sent them to Santo Tomas, and ordered that another fortress be
+founded. On April 24, 1494, he left the island with three vessels for
+a voyage of exploration to the west, entrusting the government of the
+colony to his brother Diego and an executive council.
+
+But a short time elapsed before new dissensions broke out, followed by
+troubles with the Indians. A military expedition dispatched to the
+interior committed numerous depredations and drove the natives into
+the ranks of Caonabo, who was planning the expulsion of the strangers.
+The commander of the expedition, Moisen Pedro de Margarite, was called
+to account by Diego Columbus; but conspiring with Father Boil, the
+religious head of the colony, the two contrived to excite a popular
+insurrection against the governor, which may be regarded as the first
+Dominican revolution. At this time Bartholomew Columbus, another
+brother of the admiral, arrived with provisions, and the
+insurrectionists, taking possession of the ships, returned in them to
+Spain where they lost no opportunity to disparage the achievements of
+Columbus and to slander him and his brothers.
+
+The principal caciques of the island now formed an alliance and
+uniting their forces laid siege to Santo Tomas. Only Guacanagari
+refused to join them and hurried to Isabela to offer his services to
+the Spaniards. At this juncture, on September 29, 1494, Columbus, sick
+and weary, returned from his voyage, during which, after other
+discoveries, he had explored a portion of the south coast of the
+island. As soon as he had recovered sufficient strength he led an
+expedition into the interior, relieved Santo Tomas, won numerous
+victories over the natives and founded another fortress, La
+Concepcion, in the Vega Real, or Royal Plain. Caonabo, however,
+assembled a vast number of warriors and forced Columbus to renewed
+efforts. The Spaniards and Indians met where the ruins of the old city
+of Concepcion de la Vega now are, and the famous battle of the Royal
+Plain was fought on March 25, 1495. The natives are alleged by the
+Spanish historians to have numbered 100,000, while the Spaniards had
+but 200 men and 20 horses, besides the warriors of Guacanagari. In the
+battle, a bloody one, the Indians were completely beaten, their
+discomfiture being due principally to the superior arms of the
+Europeans and the fear inspired by the horses and by twenty
+blood-hounds brought into the fight by the Spaniards. On the occasion
+of this battle the miracle of the Santo Cerro, or Holy Hill, is said
+to have occurred, when, according to the Spanish chroniclers, the
+Indians captured an eminence on which the Spaniards had erected a
+wooden cross, but were unable to destroy the cross with fire or
+hatchet, and were finally frightened away by the apparition of the
+Virgin Mary.
+
+This one crushing defeat definitely broke the Indians' power, for
+though there were subsequent outbreaks they were only sporadic and,
+with one exception, of comparatively little importance. Caonabo still
+remained at large and the Spaniards secured possession of his person
+by one of those feats of individual prowess which mark the history of
+the conquest. The Spaniard Alonso de Ojeda went out in search of the
+cacique, and having found him with his warriors, suggested that they
+repair to Isabela together to arrange terms of peace with Columbus.
+The suggestion being accepted, they set out and on crossing the Yaque
+river Ojeda pressed the Indian to put on a pair of handcuffs,
+asserting that these bracelets were a distinction of the king of
+Castile. Caonabo acceded, whereupon the Spaniard sprang upon his horse
+and swinging the chief upon the croup, fled from the midst of the
+astonished warriors and bore him a prisoner to Isabela. Caonabo was
+later embarked for Spain but died on the voyage.
+
+A beginning was now made of the harsh oppression which was soon to
+cause the entire disappearance of the native race. A quarterly tribute
+was imposed on every Indian above the age of fourteen. Those who lived
+in the auriferous region of the Cibao were obliged to deliver as much
+gold dust as could be held in a small bell, others were to give
+twenty-five pounds of cotton. Many natives fled to the mountains to
+escape the onerous tax and new settlements were established by the
+Spaniards.
+
+The enemies of Columbus had in the meantime been sufficiently
+successful in Spain to cause one de Aguado to be sent out with the
+object of investigating conditions in the colony. His conduct from the
+very first was so arrogant that the admiral determined to return at
+once to justify himself before the court. On March  10, 1496, he
+embarked for Spain, leaving his brother Bartholomew as governor of
+the colony.
+
+Before his departure the news arrived of the discovery of several rich
+gold mines in the southern part of the island. They were found by a
+soldier named Miguel Diaz, who having fled to the wilderness to escape
+punishment for wounding a comrade, had established conjugal relations
+with an Indian woman near the present site of Santo Domingo City.
+Noticing that her consort was tiring of her, the lady tried to retain
+him by revealing the existence of gold deposits in the region; and
+Diaz promptly secured his pardon and promotion by reporting the find
+to Isabela. The romance had a sad ending, for the Indian, shocked at
+the cruel treatment accorded her countrymen by the Spaniards who came
+to the place, abandoned her husband and children and disappeared in
+the forest.
+
+On arriving in Spain, Columbus wrote his brother to found a town on
+the south coast at the mouth of the Ozama. Bartholomew Columbus
+immediately set out to select a site and on August 4, 1496, laid the
+first stone of the new city on the left bank of the Ozama, calling it
+Nueva Isabela, in honor of the queen. The name was afterwards changed
+to Santo Domingo in honor, so tradition has it, of the saint to whom
+the day of its foundation was dedicated. As the location of this city
+was much healthier than that of fever-ridden Isabela on the north
+coast, the settlers in an ever increasing stream removed to the new
+town which flourished as the other decayed, until after a few years
+Isabela was entirely abandoned. The only vestiges now remaining of it
+are a few ruined foundation walls and shapeless heaps of stone
+overgrown with rank tropical vegetation.
+
+Bartholomew Columbus busied himself with further explorations of the
+interior, founding a number of strongholds, among them Santiago de los
+Caballeros, which commanded the Royal Plain. While at Concepcion de la
+Vega he was informed that several Indians had burned an altar erected
+by friars in the interior, and had buried the sacred images. The
+bigoted governor had the Indians apprehended and burnt alive in the
+public square. This cruel act induced fourteen caciques to conspire
+for an uprising; but their designs being betrayed, they were captured
+by a bold stroke and two of them executed. Determined to crush the
+spirit of the natives, Bartholomew Columbus invaded and devastated the
+district of Monte Cristi, driving the Indians into the remote forests
+and capturing and imprisoning their chiefs.
+
+His severity was not confined to the Indians, but the Spaniards,
+naturally restive under the government of a Genovese, were also made
+to feel it until their disaffection developed into open rebellion.
+
+At the head of the conspiracy was Francisco Roldan, the judge of the
+colony, a man ambitious and seditious by nature, but who owed Columbus
+many favors. Others, disgusted because their dreams of gold had not
+been realized, followed him and the insurrection was soon well under
+way. The rebels took Isabela and sacked the government storehouse and
+then took steps to besiege Bartholomew Columbus at Concepcion de la
+Vega. The arrival of fresh troops and stores from Spain enabled the
+governor to hold the rebels in check.
+
+Such was the deplorable state of affairs when Columbus returned to the
+island on August 30, 1498. Realizing Roldan's strength, he consented
+to make terms under which the insurgents were to receive stores and
+other property and return to Spain. By the time their vessels were
+ready most of them had changed their mind and declined to go, but
+they wrote letters to Spain bitterly complaining of the admiral and
+his brothers, and accusing them of oppression and despotism. Columbus
+found himself obliged to agree to the most humiliating terms with the
+rebels, conceding a complete pardon, restoring them to their official
+posts, promising to pay their salary in arrears and distributing lands
+and Indians among them. Nevertheless, other quarrels followed,
+Columbus was forced to take severe measures and the complaints
+against him grew.
+
+Little by little the stories of arrogance and oppression circulated
+with reference to the Columbus brothers undermined the esteem in which
+they were held by the sovereigns, who were also disappointed at not
+seeing the fabulous wealth they had expected from the new discoveries.
+They determined to send to the island of Española a person authorized
+to investigate conditions and decide all disputes.
+
+Their choice for the mission was unfortunate; it fell on Francisco
+Bobadilla, a spiteful, arrogant and tactless man. On arriving in Santo
+Domingo on August 23, 1500, he immediately began to annul dispositions
+made by Columbus and sent for the admiral who was in the interior. As
+soon as Columbus appeared, Bobadilla, far exceeding his authority,
+caused him to be put in chains and confined in a cell of the fortress
+of Santo Domingo. He also imprisoned the brothers of Columbus and sent
+them to Spain together with the Discoverer, all chained like infamous
+criminals. At the same time he made a report attributing malfeasance,
+injustice and fraud to all.
+
+The administration of Bobadilla was disastrous. In his efforts to
+ingratiate himself with Columbus' enemies he heaped favors on Roldan
+and his followers and gave them franchises and lands. He made the
+slavery of the Indians more galling than ever, obliging them to labor
+in the fields and mines. Columbus' property and papers were
+confiscated and Columbus' friend, the explorer Rodrigo de Bastidas,
+was imprisoned and his property seized.
+
+The captain of the vessel bearing Columbus treated his distinguished
+prisoner with all possible deference and offered to take off the
+chains, but the Discoverer, whose heart was breaking under the
+indignities heaped upon him and the injustice of which he was the
+victim, proudly refused. When the vessel arrived in Spain the
+sovereigns, shocked at Bobadilla's proceedings, commanded the
+immediate release of Columbus, ordered that his property be restored
+and overwhelmed him with distinctions, though providing that his
+dignities as viceroy were to remain temporarily suspended; probably
+because the calculating spirit of King Ferdinand believed that too
+much power had been vested in his subject. Bobadilla was removed from
+office, and Nicolas de Ovando, a member of the religious-military
+order of Alcantara, was appointed governor in his place.
+
+Ovando arrived in Santo Domingo on April 15, 1502, with a fleet of
+thirty vessels, the largest which up to that time had arrived in the
+new world, carrying stores of every kind and over 1500 persons, among
+them many who later attained distinction in conquests on the mainland.
+He was courteous to Bobadilla, but took measures to send Roldan and
+the most turbulent of his companions back to Spain on the return of
+his fleet, the largest vessel of which was placed at the disposition
+of Bobadilla.
+
+Just before the sailing of the fleet, on June 30, 1502, Columbus
+unexpectedly appeared before the city on his fourth voyage, and asked
+permission to enter the port for protection from a hurricane which he
+believed was approaching. Ovando, either because he had secret orders,
+or perhaps because he feared Columbus' presence might cause renewed
+disturbances, denied the request, and the great man, deeply wounded by
+the refusal, sought shelter further up the coast.
+
+The pilots of the great fleet derided Columbus' prediction and the
+ships set sail. They had not reached the easternmost point of the
+island when a terrific hurricane broke loose. All but two of the
+vessels were lost, and by a strange coincidence one of these two bore
+Rodrigo de Bastidas, the friend of Columbus, while the other, the
+smallest and weakest vessel of the fleet, was the one that carried
+Columbus' property. Bobadilla, Roldan and other enemies of the
+admiral, and many other passengers and Indian captives perished and
+large stores of gold were lost. Columbus' squadron rode out the storm
+in safety in a cove of the bay of Azua, whereupon he continued
+his voyage.
+
+On land, too, the hurricane wrought great destruction. The houses of
+the town of Santo Domingo were demolished and as the right bank of the
+Ozama was higher and seemed more suitable, Ovando ordered that the
+town be rebuilt on that side, where it now stands.
+
+Ovando now inaugurated a period of general prosperity. He established
+peace and order, issued rules for the different branches of the public
+service, placed honest men in the posts of responsibility and
+encouraged industry and agriculture. Yet, strange mixture of energy
+and cruelty, of valor and bigotry that he was, his treatment of the
+Indians was most oppressive. To each Spanish landholder was assigned a
+number of Indians under the pretext that they were to be given
+religious instruction and accustomed to work; but so onerous and
+unremitting was the labor imposed that they succumbed to disease by
+thousands, while thousands of others perished by their own hand in an
+epidemic of suicide which swept through the country, and many fled to
+almost inaccessible mountain regions.
+
+But two Indian chieftains still reigned in the island, one the Indian
+queen Anacaona in the district of Jaragua, the other the chief of
+Higuey. Ovando's severe measures against the natives made him ready to
+believe the tales of conspiracies brought to him. He therefore sent a
+troop of 300 infantry under Diego Velazquez, the future conqueror of
+Cuba, and 70 horsemen, to the territory of Anacaona, where they were
+received with every mark of kindness. The Spaniards invited the
+natives to witness a military drill and when the queen, her principal
+caciques and a great crowd of Indians were assembled, the exercises
+commenced. The Indians were awed by the spectacle so new and imposing
+to them, when suddenly the trumpets gave a signal, the infantry opened
+fire and the cavalry charged on the defenseless spectators. All the
+Indians who could not escape by flight were massacred without respect
+to age or sex. Anacaona alone was spared and carried off to Santo
+Domingo where she was shortly afterwards ignominiously executed, on
+the pretext that she was not sufficiently sincere in the Catholic
+religion which she had recently professed! A tenacious persecution of
+the Indians who would not become slaves was instituted and but few
+were able to hide in the mountains of the interior.
+
+In 1503 the subjugation of the last remaining independent chieftain,
+Cotubanama, lord of Higuey, in the extreme eastern part of the island,
+was undertaken. Near this province a Spaniard wantonly set his hound
+upon one of the principal natives, and the Indian was torn to pieces,
+whereupon the chief, indignant at his friend's death, caused a
+boatload of Spaniards to be killed, thus giving Ovando a welcome
+excuse for the invasion. Four hundred Spaniards dealt death and
+desolation throughout the region, pursuing the Indians into the
+mountains and forests and sparing neither women nor children. When at
+last they captured and hung an aged Indian woman revered as a
+prophetess, the terrified aborigines sued for peace and agreed to pay
+a heavy tribute. A fortress was erected at Higuey, but the conduct of
+the Spanish garrison was so outrageous that the Indians in desperation
+again rose, and killed every Spaniard in the district. Ovando then
+began a war of extermination and the Indians were killed off by
+thousands, Cotubanama resisted heroically but in vain, and after being
+beaten in a number of desperate battles he withdrew to the island of
+Saona, southeast of Santo Domingo. Here he was surprised and captured
+by the Spaniards, his remaining warriors mercilessly shot and he
+himself taken to the city of Santo Domingo and hung. With his death
+the island was thoroughly pacified, though at a bloody cost, and the
+conquest proper ended.
+
+On August 13, 1504, Columbus once more arrived in Santo Domingo. On
+his ill-fated fourth voyage he had been shipwrecked in Jamaica and one
+of his men crossed the ocean in an open boat, to solicit aid of
+Ovando. The latter, after dallying for months, finally yielded to the
+murmurings of the colony and sent for the Discoverer. He received
+Columbus well, but subjected him to humiliation by arbitrarily
+liberating a mutineer imprisoned by the admiral. Disappointed and sad,
+the great navigator left the shores of the island he loved and
+returned to Spain where his death occurred two years later. The
+golden age of the colony was now at hand. Ovando built up the city of
+Santo Domingo, constructed forts and other defences, and laid the
+foundations of most of its public buildings. Fine private residences
+and great churches and convents were erected. Sugar-cane was
+introduced in 1506 and gave rich returns, the production of the gold
+mines continued to increase, and cattle raising brought large profits.
+The Indians were dying out under the rigorous treatment, and others
+were imported from the surrounding islands under the pretense of
+converting them to Christianity; and when these also succumbed, the
+importation of negroes from Africa was commenced. About 1508 the
+island began to be called Santo Domingo, but for almost three
+centuries royal decrees continued to refer to it as Espanola. So
+flourishing was its state at this time that thirteen of its towns were
+granted coats of arms and three were declared cities. The colony was
+and for many years continued to be a starting point for voyages of
+discovery and conquest in the islands and along the shores of the
+Caribbean Sea.
+
+After the death of Christopher Columbus his son Diego made fruitless
+efforts to recover the honors of which his father had been despoiled,
+but it was not until he married Maria de Toledo, the beautiful niece
+of the Duke of Alba, that he met with partial success, probably more
+because of the influence of his wife's family than because of the
+justice of his claims. In 1509 he was appointed governor of Santo
+Domingo to succeed Ovando and arrived in the colony with his wife, his
+uncles, and a brilliant suite.
+
+Diego Columbus inaugurated his administration with a splendor till
+then unknown in the new world, establishing a kind of vice-regal
+court. He built the castle of which the ruins are still to be seen
+near the San Diego gate in the city of Santo Domingo, and which in its
+glory must have been an imposing structure. Unfortunately many persons
+transferred to the son the hatred they had borne the father and he
+found his plans balked. Intending to carry into effect the royal
+dispositions relative to the release of the Indians from slavery he
+incurred the hostility of the planters and when he desisted owing to
+their opposition, he was attacked by the friars. Complaints poured in
+upon King Ferdinand; the accusation most calculated to arouse the
+suspicious monarch's fears was that the second admiral, as Diego
+Columbus was called, harbored the intention of proclaiming himself
+sovereign of Santo Domingo. Ferdinand accordingly instituted the
+audiencia or high court of justice of Santo Domingo, which was
+invested with a comprehensive jurisdiction, being authorized to hear
+appeals even from decisions of the governor, whose powers were thus
+materially curtailed.
+
+This circumstance, as well as a new distribution of the Indians, made
+over the head of the governor, induced Diego Columbus to return to
+Spain in 1515 in order to defend his interests. During the term of the
+two governors who succeeded him, various dispositions were made for
+the protection of the natives whose numbers were rapidly diminishing
+notwithstanding importations from the other islands and from South
+America. The only result of these orders was a change of masters; for
+when Diego Columbus returned as governor in 1520, he found the Indians
+exploited by the priests and officers of the crown to whom they had
+been intrusted ostensibly for religious instruction, while the
+mine-owners and planters now employed negro slaves.
+
+Almost simultaneously with the return of the second admiral began the
+insurrection of a young Indian cacique known as Enrique. This noble
+Indian, a relative of Anacaona, had been converted to Christianity and
+educated by the Spaniards, but was nevertheless enslaved in one of the
+"repartimientos," or distributions. His wife having been gravely
+offended by the Spaniard to whom they were assigned, he retired to the
+almost inaccessible mountains in the center of the island, and many of
+the remaining natives fled to join him. Efforts to dislodge him were
+in vain and negotiations only elicited from him the promise to act on
+the defensive alone, which was equivalent to an indefinite truce. The
+number of negro slaves had in the meantime increased, and the
+treatment given them was as harsh as that which had been accorded the
+aborigines. As a result an insurrection, the first negro uprising in
+the new world, began near Santo Domingo City on December 27, 1522.
+Several Spaniards were murdered, but the troops overpowered the
+mutineers and a number were hung.
+
+Diego Columbus continued in his efforts to promote the welfare of the
+colony, but became involved in a quarrel with the royal audiencia and
+found himself obliged in March, 1524, to return to Spain where he died
+two years later. The new governor, Bishop Sebastian Ramirez de
+Fuenleal, was appointed president of the royal court, and the offices
+of governor and president of the court were thenceforth consolidated.
+Both he and his successor used their best efforts to promote
+immigration into the colony which was beginning to suffer on account
+of the draughts of men that left for the mainland. An army was
+dispatched against the insurgent chief Enrique who still menaced the
+tranquillity of the colonists from his mountain fastnesses. When it was
+found impossible to reach him, peaceful methods were employed.
+Negotiations were opened, and a treaty of peace signed in 1533, on an
+island in the beautiful lake still known as Lake Enriquillo. By this
+treaty the Indians, now reduced to not more than 4000 in number, were
+freed from slavery and assigned lands in Boya, in the mountains to the
+northeast of Santo Domingo City. From this time forward there is no
+further mention of the Indians in the island's history; they
+disappeared completely by dying out and by assimilation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--COLONIAL VICISSITUDES.--1533 TO 1801
+
+
+Decline of the colony.--English attacks on Santo Domingo
+City.--Settlement of Tortuga by freebooters.--French settlements in
+western Santo Domingo.--Border wars.--Cession of western coast to
+France.--Return of prosperity.--Effect of French revolution.--Negro
+uprising in French Santo Domingo.--Rise of Toussaint l'Ouverture.
+--Cession of Spanish Santo Domingo to France.--Evacuation by Spain.
+
+Within forty years after its discovery Santo Domingo had passed the
+zenith of its glory. The vast and wealthy countries discovered and
+conquered on the mainland of America absorbed the attention of
+colonists and of the government, and Santo Domingo quickly sank to a
+position of economic and political insignificance. So little
+importance was given the island by chroniclers during the ensuing two
+hundred and fifty years and so few are the records remaining, that not
+even the names of all the governors and the periods of their rule can
+be accurately determined. The colony barely existed, the monotony of
+its life was interrupted only by occasional attacks or menaces of
+attacks by pirates or other foes.
+
+Every effort was made to prevent decay. Decrees were issued forbidding
+emigration or the recruiting of troops for expeditions of discovery,
+but they were evaded. Thus Louis Columbus, the grandson of the
+Discoverer and one of the most influential men of the colony, fitted
+out an expedition against Veragua. African slaves continued to be
+imported to take the place of the exterminated Indians, but as their
+importation was expensive the mines were abandoned and the number of
+sugar estates declined. For the greater part of the period from 1533
+to 1556 the government was in the hands of an energetic man,
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo and La Vega,
+and later first Archbishop of Santo Domingo. He pushed to a conclusion
+the work on the cathedral and other religious edifices then building,
+repaired the edifices belonging to the state and constructed the walls
+and bastions which still surround the city. He was able to ward off
+the attacks of corsairs, who multiplied in West Indian waters to such
+an extent that in 1561 the Spanish Government forbade vessels to
+travel to and from the new world except under convoy.
+
+In 1564 the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepcion de la
+Vega were completely destroyed by an earthquake and the few remaining
+inhabitants reestablished the towns at short distances from the
+original sites. The entire intercourse of the colony with Spain was
+reduced to two or three caravels a year and the revenues sank so low
+that the salaries of state officials were paid and continued to be
+paid for over two hundred years, from the treasury of Mexico.
+
+The year 1586 was marked by the capture of Santo Domingo City by the
+noted English navigator, Sir Francis Drake, during the celebrated
+cruise on which he took the strongest towns on the Spanish main. On
+the morning of January 11, 1586, the inhabitants of Santo Domingo City
+were thrown into consternation at seeing eighteen foreign vessels in
+the roadstead, in a line which stretched from Torrecilla Point to the
+slaughterhouse. To the joy of the people the fleet set sail for the
+west, but their joy was short lived, for the next morning messengers
+arrived with the news that the enemy had landed at the mouth of the
+Jaina River and was marching on the city. Preparations were made for
+defense, but terror gained the upper hand and soon the civil and
+religious authorities, the monks and nuns and the entire population
+were fleeing in confusion on foot, in carts and in canoes, leaving
+their belongings behind. Some one hundred and fifty men remained to
+dispute the passage of Lieutenant-General Carliell who appeared at the
+head of a thousand men. They were quickly dispersed by the invaders
+who entered the gates with little loss and proceeded to the plaza
+where they encamped. For twenty-five days Drake held the deserted
+city, carrying on negotiations meanwhile for its ransom. When these
+flagged he ordered the gradual destruction of the town and every
+morning for eleven days a number of buildings were burned and
+demolished, a work of some difficulty on account of the solidity of
+the houses. Not quite one-third of the city was so destroyed when the
+residents paid a ransom of 25,000 ducats, about $30,000, for the
+remainder. Drake thereupon embarked, carrying with him the bronze
+cannon of the fort and whatever of value he found in the churches and
+private houses. He also ordered the hanging of several friars, held by
+him as prisoners, in retaliation for the murder of a negro boy whom he
+had sent with a flag of truce.
+
+Seventy years later Santo Domingo was again attacked by English
+forces, this time with the object of making a permanent landing.
+Oliver Cromwell after declaring war against Spain sent a fleet to the
+West Indies under the command of Admiral William Penn, having on board
+an army of 9000 men. The fleet appeared off Santo Domingo City on May
+14, 1655, and a landing was effected in two bodies, the advance guard
+under Col. Buller going ashore at the mouth of the Jaina River while
+the main body under General Venables disembarked at Najayo, much
+further down the coast. Buller met with strong resistance at Fort San
+Geronimo and was forced to retire to Venables' intrenchments. The
+united English forces made several attempts to march on the capital,
+but fell into ambuscades and sustained heavy losses. Despairing of
+success, the fleet and army left the island on June 3 and proceeded to
+Jamaica, which they captured.
+
+The rovers of the sea and the restrictive trade regulations imposed by
+the Spanish government, which limited trade with the new world to the
+single port of Seville in Spain, made development of the island's
+commerce impossible. The trade restrictions had the effect of
+encouraging a brisk contraband traffic with Dutch vessels on the north
+coast, to stop which the Spanish government adopted the incredible
+expedient of shutting up every port except Santo Domingo City and
+ordering the destruction of the north coast towns. Puerto Plata, Monte
+Cristi and two villages on the coast of what is now Haiti were thus
+destroyed in 1606 and the inhabitants transferred to towns almost in
+the center of the island, where they were far removed from temptation
+to smuggle. The measure temporarily stopped contraband trade on the
+north coast, but destroyed all legitimate trade in that region,
+transformed the coast into a desert and furnished an opportunity for
+the settlement of the buccaneers in the northwest.
+
+The English, French and Dutch, in resisting Spain's claim to sole
+trading rights in the new world, authorized the fitting out of
+privateers that often degenerated into pirates. The bays and inlets of
+the coast of Santo Domingo became favorite resorts for such ships. The
+depot of the corsairs on the island of St. Christopher having been
+destroyed by the Spaniards in 1630, a number of refugees sought
+shelter on the island of Tortuga, on the northwest coast of Haiti.
+Some of them began to cultivate the soil, others took to hunting wild
+cattle on the mainland of Haiti, while others indulged in piracy.
+Tortuga soon became the busy headquarters of reckless freebooters of
+all nations, who here fitted out daring expeditions and returned to
+waste their gains in wild carousals. In 1638 the Spanish governor of
+Santo Domingo made a descent on the island and destroyed the
+settlement, but most of the buccaneers were absent at the time and the
+only result of the raid was to cause them to organize under the
+captaincy of an Englishman named Willis. French national pride
+asserted itself, however, and with the assistance of a French force
+from St. Christopher, the English inhabitants of Tortuga, who were in
+a minority, were persuaded to leave for Jamaica, and Tortuga
+thenceforth continued under French governors.
+
+In 1648 the Spaniards of Santo Domingo made another fruitless attempt
+to expel the buccaneers; but in 1653 the Spanish governor, the Count
+of Peñalva, collected a force which caught the island unawares and was
+strong enough to overawe the inhabitants, who were permitted to leave,
+though abandoning all their property. The Spaniards left a garrison
+but the persistent Frenchmen returned and drove it out. In 1664 the
+French West India Company took possession, established a garrison, and
+appointed as governor an energetic man, D'Ogeron, under whom the
+country rapidly advanced in prosperity and commerce. With the idea of
+encouraging permanent settlement, D'Ogeron had women brought over from
+the slums of Paris and portioned out as wives to the rude colonists.
+
+The rapidly increasing population caused settlements to be made on
+the Haitian mainland, and the city of Port-de-Paix was founded on a
+beautiful bay opposite Tortuga. The city flourished to such an extent
+and the advantages of settlement on the mainland were so superior that
+the settlers of Tortuga gradually left the smaller island and settled
+along the Haitian coast. Within twenty years Tortuga was practically
+deserted and it so continues to this day.
+
+A better class of people now arrived from France. Families were
+brought in from Anjou and Brittany, and the French settlements
+continued to spread all the way down the western coast of the island,
+the French settlement at Samana being withdrawn. Slaves were imported
+from Africa, and in 1678 a rising took place among them, which was
+easily put down. In 1684 the French government formally sent out
+commissioners to provide for the regular government of the colony, and
+churches and courts of justice were established.
+
+The Spanish inhabitants of Santo Domingo meanwhile made attack after
+attack on the French, but the Spanish colony was in such reduced
+straits that no extended efforts were possible. Where the French were
+repulsed the Spaniards were too few numerically to hold the territory
+and it was soon reoccupied. Angered at the repeated aggressions,
+D'Ogeron sent out an expedition under Delisle in 1673, which landed at
+Puerto Plata and marched inland to Santiago. The inhabitants fled to
+La Vega and only avoided the burning of their city by paying a ransom
+of 25,000 pesos, whereupon Delisle returned to the French colony.
+D'Ogeron at this time proposed to the French government the conquest
+of the entire island for France, and would probably have attempted to
+carry out this plan, had not his death occurred shortly after.
+
+Cordial relations existing between France and Spain in 1685,
+tentative boundary agreements were made between the French and Spanish
+authorities, but each side accused the other of violations and the
+strife continued as before. When in 1689, war broke out between Spain
+and France, the French governor organized an expedition to invade the
+Spanish section. He reached Santiago where some of his men died after
+consuming meat and wine found in the deserted houses. Believing them
+poisoned, he ordered the torch to be applied to the city and retired
+after seeing it reduced to ashes. Admiral Perez Caro, the Spanish
+governor, thereupon made preparations for a telling blow on the
+French. The colony's militia and regular troops sent by the viceroy of
+Mexico invaded the French section and on January 21, 1692,
+administered a crushing defeat on the opposing force in the plain of
+La Limonade, killing the French governor and his principal officers.
+The victorious army marched through the French settlements, desolating
+the fields and putting all prisoners to the sword. At the same time a
+new settlement the French had made at Samana was exterminated.
+
+The new French governor found the affairs of his colony in very bad
+condition; but with the assistance of refugees from other islands he
+sent an expedition to Jamaica, from where over 3,000 slaves together
+with stores of indigo and other property were carried off. In
+retaliation the English and Spanish fleets combined and with 4,000 men
+aboard set sail from Manzanillo Bay in 1695, and sacked and burned
+Cape Français and Port-de-Paix, the English carrying off all the men
+they took prisoners and the Spaniards the women and children.
+Hostilities were ended in 1697 by the peace of Ryswick by which Spain
+recovered territory conquered from her by the French and ceded the
+western part of the island of Santo Domingo to France. The occupation
+of the western coast by France, so long resented as an intrusion, was
+thus formally recognized.
+
+The French colony immediately entered upon an era of prosperity which
+soon made it the richest country of the West Indies. Great plantations
+of tobacco, indigo, cacao, coffee and sugar were established. The
+country came to be known as the paradise of the West Indies and the
+wealth of the planters became proverbial. The grave defect was that
+this prosperity was built on the false foundation of slavery. In 1754
+the population numbered 14,000 whites, 4000 free mulattoes and
+172,000 negroes.
+
+The Spanish colony on the other hand sank lower than ever. Practically
+abandoned by the mother country, there was no commerce beyond a little
+contraband and only the most indispensable agriculture, the
+inhabitants devoting themselves almost entirely to cattle raising. The
+ports were the haunts of pirates, and a number of Dominicans also
+became corsairs. By the year 1730 the entire country held but 6000
+inhabitants, of whom about 500 lived in the ruined capital and the
+remaining urban population was disseminated among the vestiges of
+Cotui, Santiago, Azua, Banica, Monte Plata, Bayaguana, La Vega, Higuey
+and Seibo. Such was the poverty prevailing that a majority of the
+people went in rags; and the arrival of the ship from Mexico, which
+brought the salaries of the civil officials and the military, was
+hailed with the joyful ringing of church bells.
+
+To how great an extent this depression was due to trade restrictions
+is evident from the circumstance that when in 1740 several ports were
+opened to foreign commerce there was an immediate change for the
+better. Agriculture expanded, exports and imports increased, money
+circulated, the cost of the necessaries of life fell, the population
+rapidly increased and many new towns sprang up. According to an
+ecclesiastical census the population had in 1785 advanced to 152,640
+inhabitants. Of these only 30,000 were slaves, owing to the Spanish
+laws which made it easy for a slave to purchase his freedom. Many of
+the freemen were negroes or mulattoes.
+
+In 1751 the colony was visited by a severe hurricane, which caused the
+Ozama to leave its banks, and by a destructive earthquake which
+overthrew the cities of Azua and Seibo and did much damage to the
+church buildings of Santo Domingo. Azua and Seibo were reestablished
+on their present sites. Another earthquake in 1770 destroyed several
+towns in the French part of the island.
+
+From the beginning of the century the boundary between the French and
+Spanish colonies of Santo Domingo had been a source of constant
+friction and bickerings. A preliminary agreement had been made in
+1730, but in 1776 a permanent treaty was drafted, it was ratified at
+Aranjuez in 1777, and the boundary was marked with stone monuments.
+
+When the French revolution broke out in 1789 both the Spanish and
+French colonies of Santo Domingo were enjoying a high degree of
+prosperity. In the French colony there were about 30,000 whites, and
+the haughty white planters were wont to indulge in every form of
+luxury and sybaritic pleasure; the negro slaves, whose number had
+grown to almost half a million, were subjected to the most barbarous
+ill-treatment; and a class of about 30,000 ambitious free mulattoes
+had arisen, many of whom where cultured and wealthy, but who were all
+rigidly excluded from participation in public affairs. It was evident
+that but a spark was needed to produce what might turn out to be a
+general conflagration.
+
+The spark came in the formation of the National Assembly in France and
+its declaration of the rights of man. The mulattoes at once petitioned
+the National Assembly for civil and political rights, which were in
+1790 equivocally denied and in 1791 finally granted them. The whites
+resisted the government decrees and uprisings began. The first of
+these was a revolt of the mulattoes under Ogé, which was quickly
+suppressed. Ogé fled to Spanish Santo Domingo, but was surrendered by
+the Spaniards on condition that his life be spared, a promise that was
+not kept for he was publicly broken on the wheel. Jean François,
+another mulatto, then raised an insurrection of the negroes in the
+north, marching on Cape Français, burning and murdering, with the body
+of a white infant carried on a spear-head at the head of his troops.
+His forces were defeated by the whites, who commenced an
+indiscriminate slaughter of their victims. The negroes thereupon rose
+in every direction and the paradise of the West Indies became a hell.
+The great plantation houses were burned, the wide estates desolated,
+white women were ravished and murdered and white men put to death with
+horrible tortures, while the liberated slaves indulged in orgies at
+which the beverage was rum mixed with human blood. It was a fearful
+day of reckoning.
+
+In 1793, France went to war with England and Spain. The Spanish
+authorities of Santo Domingo made overtures to negro leaders of whom a
+number entered the Spanish army as officers of high rank, among them
+Toussaint, an intelligent ex-slave who later assumed the surname of
+l'Ouverture and who showed remarkable military and administrative
+qualities. The French government sent commissioners to the colony,
+whose tactless handling of a difficult situation fanned the flames of
+civil war. The English attacked the colony, captured Port-au-Prince,
+and enlisted the aid of the revolted slaves in overrunning the
+surrounding country. When they besieged Port-de-Paix the French
+commander sent secret emissaries to Spanish Santo Domingo and induced
+Toussaint to desert from the Spanish ranks and with his negro
+followers help to drive out the English. Killing the Spanish soldiers
+he found in his way, Toussaint went to fight the English, with such
+success that in 1797 he was made general-in-chief of all the French
+troops. The English, decimated by disease, were obliged to leave in
+1798 and sign a treaty of peace with Toussaint by which the island was
+recognized as an independent and neutral state during their war with
+France. The operations in Santo Domingo are said to have cost the
+English $100,000,000 in money and 45,000 lives.
+
+In the meanwhile border fights were going on in Spanish Santo Domingo
+between Toussaint's troops and forces collected from the various
+Spanish possessions on the Caribbean Sea. They continued until 1795,
+when by the treaty of Basle peace was declared between France and
+Spain and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo was--to the dismay of
+its inhabitants--ceded to France, the whole island thus passing under
+French control. Toward the end of that year part of the Spanish troops
+and members of religious orders embarked and an emigration of the
+better families began, many taking their slaves with them. The
+Spaniards also exhumed what they supposed to be the remains of
+Columbus in the cathedral of Santo Domingo and carried them to Havana.
+One of the terms of the treaty was that the colony should formally be
+delivered when French troops were sent to occupy it, but as the
+French were at this time kept busy in the western portion, the Spanish
+governor and authorities continued to administer the country for
+several years. Little by little troops and civil officials were
+withdrawn and in 1799 the royal audiencia or high court was
+transferred to Puerto Principe, in Cuba, most of the lawyers of the
+colony leaving at the same time with their families.
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture was now in supreme command in the west, though
+nominally holding under the French republic. He displayed considerable
+ability in promoting peace, ordered the blacks to return to work and
+gave protection to the whites. It was evident, however, that he aimed
+to make himself absolute master of the whole island. Pursuant to this
+plan he called on the Spanish governor, General Joaquin Garcia, to
+surrender the Spanish colony in accordance with the stipulations of
+the treaty of Basle, Governor Garcia prepared to resist, but Toussaint
+invaded the colony with an army, was successful in a skirmish on the
+Nizao River and appearing before the capital protested that he came as
+a French general in the name of the French republic. Garcia had no
+alternative but to comply with the negro chief's demands. On the 27th
+of January, 1801, Toussaint l'Ouverture entered the capital with his
+troops and formally took possession. Amid the booming of cannon the
+Spanish ensign was lowered and the French tricolor raised; and
+Toussaint invited the authorities to the cathedral where a Te Deum was
+chanted. Governor Garcia immediately embarked for Cuba with the
+remaining Spanish civil and military authorities.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--CHANGES OF GOVERNMENT.-18O1 TO 1844
+
+
+Rule of Toussaint l'Ouverture.--Exodus of whites.--Capture of Santo
+Domingo by French.--War with negroes.--Government of Ferrand.
+--Incursion of Dessalines.--Insurrection of Sanchez Ramirez.
+--Reestablishment of Spanish rule.--Proclamation of Colombian
+State of Spanish Haiti.--Conquest by Haiti.--Haitian rule.--Duarte's
+conspiracy.--Declaration of Independence.
+
+
+Toussaint l'Ouverture's occupation of Santo Domingo occasioned a new
+exodus of white families who were fearful of what might happen under
+negro rule. From the French portion of the island the whites had been
+emigrating since the first uprisings; a number had fled into the
+Spanish colony and these now also left. It is estimated that in the
+decade beginning with 1795 the Spanish portion lost over 40,000
+inhabitants, more than one-third of its population. Most of the
+persons who abandoned the island during these troublous times settled
+in Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela, where they established coffee and
+sugar plantations, to the great advantage of these countries. Some of
+the most prominent families of Cuba to-day are descendants of families
+which left Santo Domingo at this time.
+
+Toussaint tried to stem the tide of emigration by issuing conciliatory
+proclamations; but when he found his efforts in vain, it is claimed
+that he conceived the idea of a general massacre of the whites
+remaining in the capital. He ordered the entire population, without
+distinction of age or sex to gather on the plaza and the men, women
+and children to be separated into different groups, the whole plaza
+being surrounded by strong forces of cavalry. Appearing before the
+terrified people Toussaint declared slavery abolished and began to
+walk up and down and ask the women in broken Spanish whether they were
+French or Spanish, touching them with his cane in an ever more
+insolent manner. It was too much for one high-spirited young woman,
+who commenced to upbraid him for daring to touch her. At this critical
+moment a severe storm, that had been gathering since he appeared on
+the plaza, broke, and Toussaint, apparently regarding it as a sign of
+divine disapproval, ordered the children removed, then permitted the
+women to retire and finally sent the soldiers to their barracks,
+leaving the men to disperse of themselves.
+
+Toussaint divided the Spanish part of the island into two departments,
+making his brother Paul l'Ouverture governor of the south with
+headquarters at Santo Domingo and General Clervaux governor of the
+Cibao, with headquarters at Santiago. He then made a journey through
+the country, being everywhere received by the frightened inhabitants
+with every mark of distinction. Upon his return to the French section
+he promulgated, in July, 1801, a constitution for the island, by which
+he was declared governor for life and commander-in-chief, with the
+right of appointing his successor and with an annual salary of 300,00
+francs. At the same time he confiscated the property of persons who
+had emigrated.
+
+Toussaint's constitution was a challenge to Napoleon Bonaparte, who
+having temporarily made peace with England, determined to reestablish
+French authority in the island. He accordingly dispatched to Santo
+Domingo a fleet with a well-equipped army of 25,000 men under his
+brother-in-law, General Le Clerc. Upon arriving in Samana Bay the
+force was divided into several bodies which were to operate in
+different parts of the island. The reconquest of the Spanish part was
+confided to Generals Kerverseau and Ferrand.
+
+General Ferrand landed in Monte Cristi and without difficulty took
+possession of the Cibao while the colored chief, Clervaux, knowing the
+hostility of the population toward him, retired without giving battle.
+General Kerverseau took Samana by assault and then sailed for Santo
+Domingo City. The negro Governor Paul l'Ouverture prepared to resist,
+but a brave Dominican, Colonel Juan Baron, organized an
+insurrectionary force and placed himself in communication with
+Kerverseau. The first attempt at uprising was a failure, as his plans
+were betrayed, and a rough sea prevented the French from landing. His
+enemies took the opportunity to sack the town of San Carlos, outside
+the city gates, and to murder a number of Dominicans. Baron gathered a
+larger force and in unison with Kerverseau demanded the surrender of
+the city. Paul l'Ouverture reluctantly capitulated and the French thus
+assumed command of the Spanish portion of the island, with Kerverseau
+as governor. When Toussaint heard of what had occurred he ordered the
+murder of a battalion of Dominican soldiers whom he had retained
+as hostages.
+
+The war waged between the French and the blacks in the old French
+Colony of St. Domingue was characterized by nameless atrocities
+committed on both sides. The last vestiges of former prosperity were
+swept away and the country converted into a wilderness. Toussaint was
+captured through treachery and died in a European prison, but yellow
+fever invaded the French ranks and did great havoc. Le Clerc died, and
+Rochambeau, his successor, was unable, even with reinforcements, to
+hold his own. England, again at war with France, impeded further
+reinforcements and actively assisted the insurgent negroes. Death by
+disease and wounds made the great French army melt away, and towards
+the end of 1803 the last remnant was forced off the island. On January
+1, 1804, the negro generals proclaimed the island an independent
+republic under the name of Haiti, one of the island's Indian names.
+Jean Jacques Dessalines, a rough, illiterate negro, but of
+indefatigable energy, was made governor for life, with dictatorial
+powers. One of his first acts was to order the extermination of such
+whites as still remained. Dessalines a year later assumed the title
+of emperor.
+
+Ferrand, the French general in the Cibao, conceived the project of
+disobeying his orders to evacuate and of trying to hold Spanish Santo
+Domingo for France. Finding that Kerverseau was ready to capitulate,
+he determined to assume command himself, feeling sure that the French
+government would approve his action, if his plans were successful. He
+therefore marched to Santo Domingo City and after a few days'
+parleying deposed Kerverseau, placed him aboard a vessel that carried
+him to Mayaguez, in Porto Rico, and assumed the governorship.
+
+Dessalines did not long keep him waiting. Desiring to extend his
+authority over the whole island, and angered by an injudicious decree
+of Ferrand, which permitted the enslaving of Haitians of over fourteen
+years found beyond their frontier, he invaded the country with a horde
+of 25,000 men. The population of the border towns fled before him in
+terror, the very slaves remaining with their masters rather than join
+him. Victorious in an engagement on the Yaque river, he laid siege to
+the capital on March 5, 1805. In the meantime his lieutenant,
+Christophe, overran the Cibao, sacking the towns and committing
+horrors. Santiago was captured before the inhabitants had time to
+flee, and a large number were murdered by the savage invaders. The
+members of the municipal council were hung, naked, on the balcony of
+the city hall; the people who had sought refuge in the main church
+were put to the sword and their bodies mutilated; and the priest was
+burnt alive in the church, the furniture of the edifice constituting
+his funeral pyre.
+
+Santo Domingo City had been placed in a state of defense and artillery
+mounted on the tower of Mercedes church and the roofs of the San
+Francisco and Jesuit churches. The garrison consisted of some 2,000
+men, but to maintain these and the 6,000 inhabitants of the city as
+well as the refugees there were only limited supplies on hand. Food
+quickly ran low when, providentially, a French fleet appeared before
+the city. The admiral, who thought the entire island abandoned by the
+French, was delighted to find the French flag still flying and gladly
+rendered assistance. A desperate sortie was made on March 28, the
+twenty-third day of the siege, with such success that Dessalines
+precipitately retired, abandoning his stores. The main body of the
+Haitians retreated by way of the Cibao, the others through the south,
+all devastating the country as far as they could. Azua, San José de
+las Matas, Monte Plata, Cotui, San Francisco de Macoris, La Vega,
+Santiago and Monte Cristi were reduced to ashes. In Moca 500
+inhabitants, deceived by the promises of Christophe, returned from
+their hiding places in the hills and assembled for divine service in
+the parish church, where they were butchered by the negro soldiers. In
+La Vega and Santiago the Haitian troops made prisoners of numerous
+families, aggregating 900 persons among men, women and children in La
+Vega and probably more in Santiago, and forced them to accompany the
+army to northern Haiti, where they were kept in captivity, working
+practically as slaves for their captors, for four years. The march was
+full of horrors for the poor prisoners, who were prohibited from
+wearing hats or shoes and were brutally treated by their guards.
+
+As a civil administrator Ferrand did excellent work. He encouraged the
+resettlement of the abandoned fields, persuaded emigrated families to
+return, established schools and began to build water-works for the
+capital, a work which he nearly completed, but which was abandoned by
+his successors and has never been realized in the century that has
+since transpired. Napoleon on hearing of Ferrand's conduct not only
+approved everything he had done but sent him the cross of the Legion
+of Honor and financial assistance. Ferrand was especially impressed
+with the importance of Samana Bay and made plans for a city to be
+located west of the town of Samana, to which he intended to give the
+name of Napoleon. The peaceful conditions to which the country
+returned were only troubled by British vessels which occasionally
+attempted to establish blockades. On February 6, 1806, a British
+squadron of eight vessels under Sir John Duckworth badly defeated a
+French squadron, also of eight vessels, in a hotly contested fight off
+Point Palenque to the southwest of Santo Domingo City.
+
+Although Ferrand was personally liked, discontent began to brew in the
+country. The inhabitants were loyal to Spain and chafed under foreign
+rule; many believed there was danger of Haitian invasion so long as
+the French remained; certain tax exactions stirred up animosity; and
+the stories of Spain's resistance to Napoleon's aggressions inflamed
+the spirits of the leading men. Conspiracies ensued, fomented
+principally by a Cotui planter named Juan Sanchez Ramirez, who had
+emigrated in 1803, but returned after four years of exile, and the
+Spanish flag was formally raised in Seibo in October, 1808. Ferrand
+immediately set out to quell the uprising and on November 7, 1808, met
+Sanchez Ramirez at Palo Hincado, about two miles west of Seibo. He was
+vigorously attacked by the revolutionists, his native troops deserted,
+and his other troops were cut to pieces. Seeing that all was lost and
+that all his work was ruined, Ferrand blew out his brains with
+a pistol.
+
+The revolutionists received assistance from the governor-general of
+Porto Rico and from their former enemy Christophe, who had made
+himself king of northern Haiti; a British squadron took Samana, the
+only post held by the French outside of Santo Domingo City, and raised
+the Spanish flag; and Sanchez Ramirez laid siege to the capital, where
+the French general Barquier had assumed command, while British vessels
+blockaded it by sea. The siege lasted almost nine months, during which
+the besieged suffered greatly from want of provisions, being reduced
+to eating dogs and cats, and the surrounding country was devastated by
+sorties and foraging parties. The severest fighting took place about
+San Geronimo castle, on the shore three miles west of the city, which
+was taken and retaken. In the sixth and seventh months of the siege
+the city was repeatedly bombarded from land and sea, but without
+result. At length Sanchez applied to the governor of Jamaica and a
+British force under Sir Hugh Lyle Carmichael was sent to his
+assistance. It landed at Palenque and took up a position in San
+Carlos. A general assault had been determined upon, when the brave
+little defender of the city, realizing the hopelessness of further
+resistance, agreed to capitulate to the English. On July 9, 1809, the
+French flag was lowered and the country again became a dependency of
+Spain, and in 1814 Spain's dominion was confirmed by the treaty
+of Paris.
+
+Spain had been busy fighting the French within her own borders, and
+when normal conditions were restored had her hands full in keeping
+order and in trying to bring her revolting colonies of America back to
+obedience. She had little time for affairs in Santo Domingo, and did
+nothing to ameliorate conditions. The colony was left to vegetate in
+absolute poverty. This second Spanish era came to be known as the
+period of "Espana boba," "stupid Spain," as the home government
+remained so indifferent to the colony's affairs. The only redeeming
+feature was the return of a number of exiled families. Sanchez
+Ramirez, who had been proclaimed governor-general, was confirmed in
+the office and held the same until his death in 1811, being succeeded
+by Spanish military officers.
+
+In the first years of the new Spanish colony there was an undefined
+attempt at uprising on the part of a few white hotheads, and an
+attempt to incite the slaves against their masters on the part of a
+few black ones, but in both cases the ringleaders were captured and
+put to death. The great struggle for independence in South America
+gradually influenced the minds of the inhabitants of Santo Domingo;
+Bolivar's brief visit to Haiti also had its effect, and secret
+separatist societies began to be founded. In the beginning of 1821 a
+conspiracy was discovered and numerous arrests made. Plotting
+continued nevertheless, stimulated by a prominent lawyer, José Nuñez
+de Caceres, who dreamed of making the country a state of Bolivar's
+Colombian Republic. On the night of November 30, 1821, the conspiracy
+culminated in an uprising in the capital; most of the troops had been
+won over to the cause of independence and offered no resistance; the
+rest were taken by surprise; and the revolutionists without difficulty
+made themselves masters of the gateway "Puerta del Conde" and of the
+other gates and forts. The Spanish governor was placed under arrest
+and put aboard a vessel sailing for Europe, and the Colombian flag was
+raised. Public proclamation was made of the independent and sovereign
+State of Spanish Haiti, affiliated with the Republic of Colombia, and
+José Nuñez de Caceres assumed the office of political governor and
+president of the State, while the provincial assembly became a
+provisional junta of government.
+
+The State of Spanish Haiti lasted barely nine weeks. An emissary sent
+to Colombia for assistance in maintaining independence was
+unsuccessful. Another emissary sent to President Boyer of Haiti, for
+the negotiation of a treaty, brought back the answer that "the whole
+island should constitute a single republic under the flag of Haiti."
+For several years Boyer, a dark mulatto, who had united Haiti under
+his rule, had been endeavoring to influence the colored people on the
+Spanish side of the border, to such an extent that the activities of
+his agents repeatedly provoked protests from the Spanish governors,
+and he now recognized that his opportunity had come. Invading the
+country in the north and south his forces captured the most important
+points. He met with no resistance, due to the fact that the temporary
+government was entirely unprepared, that the population feared a
+repetition of the horrors of 1805, and that many were in sympathy with
+him while others were indifferent. On February 9, 1822, Nuñez de
+Caceres was obliged to deliver the keys of Santo Domingo City to the
+invader and the whole island came under the dominion of Haiti.
+
+The twenty-two years of Haitian rule marked a period of social and
+economic retrogression for the old Spanish portion of the island. Most
+of the whites, especially the more prominent families, the principal
+representatives of the community's wealth and culture, definitely
+abandoned the country, some immediately upon the advent of the
+Haitians, others in 1824, when a hopeless conspiracy in favor of a
+restoration of Spanish rule was quenched in blood, and others in 1830,
+when a quixotic demand of the Spanish king for a return of his domain
+was refused by Boyer. The Haitians, anxious to eliminate the whites,
+encouraged such emigration and confiscated the property left by the
+emigrants. The policy of the Haitian government was to build up a
+strong African state in the whole island, and in pursuance of this
+policy it emancipated all slaves, colonized Haitian negroes on the
+Samana peninsula and in other parts of the Spanish-speaking territory
+and brought in colored people from the United States. Some of these
+remained in Puerto Plata, others in Santo Domingo City, but the larger
+number settled on the Samana peninsula, where their descendants still
+form the bulk of the population. Every effort was made to Haitianize
+the country by extending the Haitian laws, and imposing Haitian
+governors. Representation was also accorded in the Haitian congress.
+In 1825 the French government recognized the independence of the
+French part of the island in consideration of the payment of an
+indemnity, toward which the Haitians forced the Spanish part to
+contribute.
+
+The wanton acts of the Haitian authorities, their hostility to whites
+and lighter colored mulattoes, their opposition to the Spanish
+language and customs, and their neglect of the country's development,
+caused much discontent, and the idea of separating from Haiti began to
+be entertained. An enthusiastic young man, Juan Pablo Duarte, who had
+been educated in Europe, in 1838 founded a secret revolutionary
+society, called "La Trinitaria," to work for the country's
+independence. In May, 1842, an earthquake destroyed Santiago and La
+Vega, as well as Cape Haitien and other towns in the western part of
+the island, and with lesser earthquakes which followed caused a panic
+throughout the country, which in turn made conditions more favorable
+for a change of government.
+
+In the meantime opposition to Boyer had spread in Haiti also, and in
+1843 gave rise to a revolution, as a result of which Boyer was driven
+from the country and Charles Hérard installed as dictator-president.
+Duarte redoubled his activities for independence, struggling against
+the opinion of many who thought such an aspiration hopeless, but his
+plans were discovered and he and others obliged to flee. His work had
+been well done, however; his ideas continued to spread, and it was
+determined to proclaim the independence of Santo Domingo on February
+27, 1844. Late that night a large group of Dominicans under Francisco
+del Rosario Sanchez appeared at the principal gateway of Santo Domingo
+City, "Puerta del Conde," and received the surrender of the guard, and
+on the following morning the Dominican flag, as designed by Duarte,
+was waving over the gate.
+
+Dessalines, the emperor of Haiti, had adopted red and blue, two of the
+colors of the French Republic's flag, for the flag of Haiti, leaving
+out white, because to this hated color he attributed all the
+misfortunes of his country and his race. Duarte took the Haitian
+colors, arranged them in four alternate squares and placed a white
+cross in the center to signify the union of the races through
+Christianity and civilization.
+
+The other points of vantage were quickly occupied and the Haitian
+general, finding himself shut up in the fort "La Fuerza" without hope
+of successful resistance, surrendered and was permitted to withdraw
+with his officers. On the same day or within a few days afterward the
+flag of the new republic was raised in every town of the old Spanish
+colony of Santo Domingo, except certain towns in the west which are
+still in possession of the Haitians, and the country entered upon the
+period of independence.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--FIRST REPUBLIC AND SPANISH ANNEXATION.--1844 TO
+1865.
+
+
+Constitution of the government.--Santana's first administration.--Wars
+with the Haitians.--Administration of Jimenez.--Victory of Las
+Carreras.--Baez' first administration.--Santana's second
+administration.--Repulse of Soulouque.--Baez' second administration.
+--Period of the two governments.--Santana's third administration.
+--Annexation negotiations.--Annexation to Spain.--War of the
+Restoration.
+
+
+Immediately upon the declaration of independence a central council of
+government was formed for the provisional administration of the
+country's affairs. The new republic assumed the name of Dominican
+Republic and the people were thenceforth known as Dominicans. The
+first business before the central council of government was to prepare
+for the defense of the territory against the Haitian president,
+Hérard, who was advancing with an army to reestablish his authority.
+An encounter took place near Azua, in which the Dominican forces,
+under General Pedro Santana, were victorious, but instead of following
+up his victory, Santana fell back on Bani and permitted the enemy to
+occupy Azua. In the meantime another Haitian army was advancing in the
+north. In the midst of his operations Hérard was interrupted by the
+news of a revolutionary movement against him in Haitian territory, and
+hastily recalling his troops, retired to combat it, burning Azua and
+devastating the country through which he passed.
+
+Many prominent Dominicans were in doubt as to whether the republic
+would be able to maintain a stable government and resist the
+incursions of the Haitians, and believed that the best course for the
+safety and prosperity of the country would be to seek the protection
+of a foreign power. These men, who came to be known as conservatives
+and who counted Santana among their number, began to spread their
+doctrines and were bitterly opposed by a different element, calling
+themselves liberals, among whom were Duarte, returned from exile, and
+the members of the central council of government. A number of
+prominent conservatives were obliged to go into hiding in order to
+escape imprisonment, and the central council of government appointed
+Duarte its representative in the north and ordered that General
+Francisco del Rosario Sanchez supersede Santana in command of the
+troops in the south. Duarte was proclaimed president of the republic
+by the people of the north, but Santana's soldiers refusing to
+recognize any other leader, marched on the capital, which they entered
+on July 12, 1844, and deposed the central council of government,
+declaring Santana chief of state with dictatorial powers. Thus the
+unhappy series of revolutions which have done such harm to the
+Dominican Republic was inaugurated within five months after the
+declaration of independence.
+
+Santana organized a new central council of government and sent
+emissaries to the Cibao, or northern part of the republic, where he
+won over the army and the principal leaders. Duarte, Sanchez and
+others who had risked their lives and spent their fortunes in behalf
+of Dominican independence were arrested, imprisoned in irons in the
+ancient "Tower of Homage" of Santo Domingo and exiled as traitors to
+their country!
+
+A constitutional convention was called, which met at San Cristobal
+and drafted the first constitution of the Republic, taking the
+constitution of the United States as a model. It was promulgated on
+November 6, 1844. In accordance with a provision of the constitution
+that the convention elect the president for the first two terms,
+General Santana was chosen, as was to be expected. General Pedro
+Santana, who thus became the first constitutional president, was a
+rough, uncouth and uneducated man, but possessed of keen perception
+and great personal bravery. He had a strong strain of negro and
+probably also of Indian blood. Born in Hincha, he had left his native
+town during the troubles of the early part of the century and settled
+in the province of Seibo, where he acquired an ascendency over the
+population that made him a kind of local demigod.
+
+Conspiracies against Santana's government were immediately set on foot
+by the liberals, but were discovered and three ringleaders were
+executed on the first anniversary of the Republic's independence. In
+the spring of 1845 the first Congress met and proceeded to organize
+the government.
+
+In the meantime a guerilla warfare had been going on with the Haitians
+along the border, and President Pierrot, who had overthrown Hérard,
+was preparing to invade the Dominican Republic. His two armies were at
+first successful and captured several border towns, but that which
+entered in the south was repulsed at Estrelleta, while that which
+invaded the north was defeated at Beler. A small Haitian fleet which
+set out to attack Puerto Plata blundered on a shoal where it was left
+high and dry and captured by the Dominicans.
+
+Steps were now taken to secure the recognition of the republic by
+foreign powers. The government soon found itself in financial
+difficulties, as it was expensive to maintain the country in a state
+of defense against the Haitians, and an issue of paper money without
+sufficient guarantees made matters worse. Revolutionary mutterings
+were heard, and though a number of leaders were shot, the public
+discontent grew greater and more apparent. Santana comprehended the
+situation and determined to resign the presidency, which he did on
+August 4, 1848. The cabinet officers temporarily carried on the
+government and called an election, as a result of which General Manuel
+Jimenez, who had fought the Haitians and had been secretary of war
+under Santana, was declared president, entering upon office on
+September 8, 1848.
+
+In his efforts to face the economic troubles of the government Jimenez
+disbanded part of the army and reduced military expenses. The moment
+was inopportune, for the implacable Haitians, who continued to
+consider Santo Domingo as Haitian territory in revolt, were preparing
+for another invasion. Soulouque, who had attained the presidency of
+the black republic, made a sudden incursion and marched victoriously
+as far as Azua. The Dominican government observed a vacillating policy
+which provoked general distrust and protests from the friends of
+Santana, whose partisans in the Congress called on him to take command
+of the army. Jimenez at first demurred but finally consented, and
+Santana, emerging from retirement, collected a few hundred ragged
+troops at Sabana Buey, near Azua. Soulouque attempted to move eastward
+by way of the canon of El Número, but was prevented by a Dominican
+force under General Duvergé; he then tried the pass of Las Carreras
+and was met and utterly defeated on April 21, 1849, by General
+Santana. The Haitians retreated to their own territory, burning Azua
+and other towns on the way.  Quarrels between President Jimenez and
+Congress continued meanwhile, and his opponents induced the army to
+declare itself against the president and request General Santana "not
+to lay down his arms until a government was established which would
+respect the constitution and the laws and forever banish discord from
+Dominican soil." The Congress called the president to appear before
+it, and some of the officers of his staff, hearing him harshly
+criticised, drew swords and pistols to punish the offending
+congressman, and only the energy of the speaker, Buenaventura Baez,
+averted a bloody conflict. Congress adjourned to San Cristobal, the
+most important towns of the country rose against the administration,
+and Santana laid siege to the capital. After the siege had lasted a
+week, and the suburban town of San Carlos had been destroyed by fire,
+President Jimenez yielded to the arguments of the British, French and
+American consuls and agreed to resign the presidency and leave the
+country on a British warship. Santana entered the city at the head of
+his army on May 30, 1849, and assumed the reins of government, one of
+his first measures being a wholesale expulsion of Jimenez followers.
+He was crowned with honors by Congress and given the title of
+"Libertador."
+
+The electoral college having been convened, Santiago Espaillat was
+chosen president, but refused to accept, realizing that Santana would
+expect to manage him as a puppet. Colonel Buenaventura Baez was then
+chosen and on December 24,1849, entered upon his first term as
+president of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Baez, who was to play a leading part in the history of his country
+during the next thirty years, was the antithesis of Santana in manners
+and education. Born in Azua in 1812, the oldest of a family of seven
+children, his father had sent him to Europe to study and he returned
+one of the most polished and best educated Dominicans of his day.
+Under Haitian rule he was a member of the Haitian congress and of one
+of the Haitian constitutional assemblies. Almost white himself, he
+here distinguished himself by his boldness in opposing measures
+restricting the rights of whites in Haiti. After the declaration of
+independence of Santo Domingo he was a member of the first
+constitutional assembly and speaker of the first congress, being
+elected from the province of Azua, where his influence was similar to
+that enjoyed by Santana in Seibo. Until he became president he was a
+close friend of Santana.
+
+Baez determined to take the offensive against Haiti, and a small naval
+campaign was undertaken in which Dominican government schooners
+captured Anse-à-Pitre and one or two other villages on the southern
+coast of Haiti, which were sacked and burned by the Dominicans. At the
+same time Baez requested the mediation of the United States, France
+and England to put an end to the struggle between Haiti and the
+Dominican Republic. Soulouque, who had meanwhile proclaimed himself
+Emperor of Haiti, offered to agree to peace and recognize Baez, but on
+condition that the Haitian flag be raised in Santo Domingo and the
+sovereignty of Haiti be admitted. His conditions were naturally
+rejected by the Dominicans, and the mediating powers informed the
+negro emperor that if he persisted in his plans of invading Santo
+Domingo they would be obliged to impose a suspension of hostilities
+for ten years. Nevertheless his forces continued to mass on the
+frontiers and small bodies actually entered Dominican territory, but
+were driven back. Upon the protests of the three powers Soulouque
+explained the incursions as having been due to disobedience to orders,
+and under pressure agreed to a truce for one year, during which
+negotiations were to continue for a definite treaty of peace or an
+armistice of ten years. In December, 1852, the minister of foreign
+affairs of France notified Haiti that the maritime nations of Europe
+were disposed to maintain the independence of Santo Domingo.
+
+A period of peace now began which afforded a breathing-spell to the
+country. Upon the expiration of Baez' four year term, Santana was
+again elected president and entered upon the office on February 15,
+1853. It was one of the occasions, only too rare in Dominican history,
+on which a president served out his term and personally delivered up
+the office to his successor.
+
+The domineering spirit of Santana gave rise to serious dissensions. He
+quarrelled with the clergy, which had been taking an active part in
+politics since the declaration of independence, forced the archbishop,
+under penalty of expulsion, to take the oath of allegiance to the
+constitution, and banished several priests. One of the reasons for his
+stand was perhaps the circumstance that Baez had sought to attract the
+church. For several years Santana had become jealous of the extension
+of Baez' influence and wrathful at the independent spirit displayed by
+his former protegé. It soon became apparent that the retirement of
+Baez was equivalent to a fall from power. In July, 1853, Santana
+issued a proclamation in which he accused Baez of treason and of
+playing into the hands of the Haitians, and ordered his banishment.
+Baez fled from the country and answered with a fiery counter-appeal,
+justifying himself and accusing Santana of despotism, whereupon the
+breach between the two strong men was complete. Santana also quarrelled
+with Congress and banished or shot his principal adversaries.  In
+1854 a constitutional convention assembled to draft a constitution
+more to Santana's taste than the existing one. The presidential term
+was extended to six years and the office of vice-president was
+introduced, General Manuel de Regla Mota being elected to this office
+when General Felipe Alfau declined it. This constitution did not last
+six months, for before the end of the year Santana had it further
+restricted.
+
+Under fear of foreign complications Haiti had remained quiet for
+several years, but in 1855, when England and France were engaged in
+the Crimean war, the emperor Soulouque made a last determined effort
+to subjugate Santo Domingo. One army advanced by way of the south,
+another through the central valley; both captured the border towns and
+drove the Dominican outposts before them; and both were defeated on
+the same day, December 22, 1855, the southern army at Cambronal, near
+Neiba, by a Dominican force under General Sosa, and the other on the
+savanna of Santomé, by a force under General José Maria Cabral. Not to
+be deterred, Soulouque rallied his men within Haitian territory, shot
+a few of his generals, and, believing all the Dominican forces
+collected in the south, marched north to invade the Cibao. Here he was
+met by another band of Dominicans at Sabana Larga and again defeated,
+retreating precipitately to his dominions. It was the last Haitian
+invasion, but Haiti did not formally recognize the independence of the
+Dominican Republic until 1874.
+
+The harsh measures of Santana had provoked general dissatisfaction and
+the friends of Baez seized the opportunity to conspire in his favor.
+Santana realized that the days of his government were numbered, and
+resigned the presidency as he had done in 1849, retiring to his farm
+near Seibo. Manuel de Regla Mota, the vice-president, thereupon on
+March 26, 1856, became president. Baez soon after arrived in the
+country and was elected vice-president; thereupon Regla Mota resigned
+as president and Baez thus slid into the presidency in a perfectly
+legal manner.
+
+The second administration of Baez opened with a revolution against him
+in the Neiba district, which was promptly put down. Baez then had
+Santana arrested and exiled, feeling uncomfortable while his former
+chief remained in the country. But he was not destined to have peace.
+An ill-considered issue of more paper money, when the rate of exchange
+with gold was already fifty to one, created indignation in the tobacco
+region of the Cibao and on July 7, 1857, Santiago declared itself in
+revolution. The movement rapidly spread, a provisional government was
+set up in the Cibao, the forces of Baez were repulsed, and soon the
+president held only Santo Domingo City and Samana. The revolutionists
+called a constitutional convention which met at Moca and in February,
+1858, promulgated another constitution, designating Santiago as the
+capital. An election was held in the midst of the war and General José
+Desiderio Valverde was declared elected president. For months there
+were thus two governments in the country. The revolutionists began the
+siege of Santo Domingo City towards the end of July, 1857, and later
+Santana arrived and took charge of military operations. There were
+frequent artillery duels, the fourteenth anniversary of Dominican
+independence, February 27, 1858, being celebrated by a cannonade along
+the Ozama River lasting all day. Fortunately the most distinctive
+feature of the combats was the noise, but the Baez family suffered,
+two of the president's brothers being killed in the war. Baez held out
+for eleven months, but after the fall of Samana and when Santo
+Domingo was reduced to starvation he at length yielded to the
+entreaties of the foreign consuls and capitulated on June 12, 1858. As
+soon as he had embarked for Curaçao, General Santana marched into the
+city with the victorious army.
+
+It was not compatible with Santana's character to be subordinate to
+anyone else, and by the end of July he had with the government
+at Santiago and set up a government of his own "in order
+that the lovers of liberty be not disquieted, in order that peace
+prevail, and in order that the nation be saved," as he said in his
+proclamation. The Santiago government attempted to resist but was
+overcome and its members banished. Santana declared the constitution
+of December, 1854, in force again and called an election at which he
+was, of course, chosen president, taking the oath of office on January
+31, 1859. He thereupon crushed a revolution in Azua, executing the
+leaders. As the large amount of paper in circulation caused
+difficulties, he coolly repudiated the greater part, upon which a
+number of European countries temporarily broke off diplomatic
+relations because of the injury done their citizens and forced him to
+retire the paper by issuing in lieu thereof certificates acceptable
+for customs dues. This trouble removed, he devoted himself to securing
+the annexation of Santo Domingo to Spain.
+
+From the earliest days of the Dominican Republic the most prominent
+men had believed that the happiness of the country depended upon
+securing the protection of a strong power, capable of preserving
+order, and the years of warfare confirmed them in their opinion. The
+hope of remaining in power was also an incentive to the party which
+happened to be in control. Spain and France were preferred, for
+reasons of identity or similarity of language, customs and religion.
+Many also favored the United States, but while the republican form of
+government and the probability of commercial advantages were
+attractions, the existence of slavery and of prejudice against the
+colored race inspired misgivings. As early as 1843, even before the
+declaration of independence, an attempt was made to secure a French
+protectorate, and during the first war with Haiti, Santana continued
+the negotiations. In 1846 an attempt was made to obtain a Spanish
+protectorate. In 1849 President Baez in his message to Congress
+referred to the advisability of "hastening a solution of the matter by
+obtaining the intervention and protection of a strong nation which
+would offer the most advantageous terms, for on this depends public
+prosperity."
+
+On October 18, 1849, the Dominican minister of foreign affairs in a
+note to the French consul, stated that "the present situation of the
+country and the barbarous wars with the Haitians, obliged him to beg,
+in the name of his government, that the government of France give a
+definite solution to the important matter of the protectorate; and if
+the decision of France should unfortunately be in the negative, that
+it at least be not deferred too long to prevent him from addressing
+himself to the special representative of the United States, who had
+just arrived." The United States was mentioned as a bogey, for when
+France declined, the Dominican government stated that it could not
+consider the negative as final and appealed to the French sentiments
+of humanity. In 1854 another strong attempt was made to secure a
+Spanish protectorate. Neither France nor Spain was anxious to annex a
+hornet's nest, and Spain was fearful that any uprising against her
+authority would find an echo in Cuba and Porto Rico. In 1855
+negotiations were opened with General William L. Cazneau, special
+agent of President Pierce, for the lease of the Samana peninsula to
+the United States, and in the following year Captain (later
+Major-General) George B. McClellan, of the United States Army, made an
+examination of Samana Bay. Nothing came of this matter owing to
+opposition by foreign powers and the fall of the Santana government.
+Most annexation negotiations were secret, as the opponents of the
+party that happened to be in power never failed to stigmatize them as
+treasonable.
+
+The fear of American influence was one of the reasons given by the
+Haitian emperor Soulouque for his invasion of 1855, and for an
+invitation issued by him in 1858 to the Dominican people, calling upon
+them to return to the Haitian flag. It had its influence on the
+Spanish government also, which began to look more kindly upon
+annexation propositions and agreed to furnish arms, ammunition and
+military instructors to Santo Domingo. In 1860 Santana addressed
+himself directly to the Queen of Spain, and proposed a closer union.
+Bases for annexation were drawn up, founded "on the free and
+spontaneous wish of the Dominican people." Santana was careful to win
+over the local military chiefs to his ideas. His opponents vainly
+combatted the proposition from Curaçao and from Haiti, which was now a
+republic again.
+
+On March 18, 1861, the people of the capital assembled on the main
+plaza pursuant to a call issued on the day before, General Santana and
+the members of his government appeared on the gallery of the palace of
+justice, a document was read to the public proclaiming the
+reincorporation of the country as a part of the Spanish dominions, and
+thereupon the red and gold flag of Spain was raised on the fort and on
+the gate "Puerta del Conde" and saluted with 101 guns. On the same day
+and during the week following, the Spanish flag was raised with
+similar ceremonies in most of the other towns. A few days later
+Spanish troops were disembarked at different points. Santana was
+appointed governor and captain-general of the colony, with the rank of
+lieutenant-general in the Spanish army.
+
+The Dominican conspirators in Haiti, comprising General Sanchez and
+others who had distinguished themselves in securing independence for
+their country, crossed the boundary and endeavored to stir up an
+insurrection, but with such misfortune that they were surrounded and
+the majority captured. Santana ordered the prisoners shot and twenty
+were executed on July 4, 1861, notwithstanding the protests of General
+Pelaez, the Spanish officer second in command. The act provoked
+bitterness against Spain and made the men so killed martyrs in the
+eyes of their countrymen. It also marked the beginning of strained
+relations between Santana and Pelaez, made worse by Santana's
+arrogance. The friction resulted in Santana's resignation on January
+7, 1862. He evidently hoped the queen would ask him to reconsider and
+give him carte blanche in Dominican affairs, but the resignation was
+accepted, though sweetened by the grant to him of the title of Marques
+de las Carreras and a life pension of $12,000 per annum. His
+successors in the governorship were high officers of the Spanish army.
+
+Discontent was not slow in spreading among the people. Injudicious
+measures enacted by the Spanish authorities, the importation of hordes
+of foreign officials, the overbearing manners of several local Spanish
+commanders, increases in the budget, intolerance on the part of the
+Spanish priests, and the natural unrest of the Dominicans, all
+combined to give rise to small revolts which were put down, until, on
+August 16, 1863, a farmer named Cabrera with a small band of
+followers, at Capotillo, near Guayubin in the Cibao, began an
+insurrection which quickly became general and is known in Dominican
+history as the War of the Restoration. The Spanish forces of the Cibao
+valley were obliged to concentrate in Fort San Luis, at Santiago de
+los Caballeros, where they were besieged by the insurgents. The
+Dominicans also captured Puerto Plata, but the city was retaken by
+Spanish troops from Cuba. Reinforcements were sent to the besieged
+garrison of Santiago, and in the fight which the Dominicans made to
+prevent the joining of the Spanish forces, the city of Santiago was
+set on fire and reduced to ashes. The Spaniards determined to evacuate
+the place, and marched down to the coast, being constantly harassed by
+Dominican guerillas, so that they lost over a thousand men before
+reaching Puerto Plata. The Dominicans established a provisional
+government with its capital at Santiago and the country continued to
+be devastated with fire and sword.
+
+General Santana was given command of a Spanish force to put down the
+insurrection in the east, but insisting on carrying out his own plan
+of campaign, he disobeyed orders and so rudely answered the
+governor-general's remonstrances that he was summarily removed from
+his position. In high dudgeon he retired to the capital, and it is
+stated that the governor intended to ship him off to Cuba; but on June
+14, 1864, he suddenly died, after an illness of only a few hours.
+
+If the Spaniards had displayed energy in opposing the revolutionists
+they would probably have carried off the victory, but the whole number
+of their troops on the island available for military service at any
+one time rarely reached eight thousand men. A campaign in the Monte
+Cristi district which might have ended the war was rendered sterile
+by the lack of troops. Finally the Spaniards, unable to garrison the
+towns they won, were reduced to the possession of Santo Domingo City
+and a few other places near the seacoast, all practically in a state
+of siege. Meanwhile the military operations were costing the home
+government large sums of money, and it became evident that, owing to
+the failure to strike at the right time, the subjugation of the
+country would entail enormous expenditures. Political conditions in
+Spain were not favorable to such a war of conquest, and the Spanish
+government determined to withdraw from Santo Domingo, alleging that
+Spain had taken possession only because she believed the Dominicans
+were anxious for annexation but that she did not wish to remain
+against their will. Possible complications with the United States,
+just emerging from the Civil War, were probably also taken into
+account. On May 1, 1865, the Queen of Spain sanctioned a law of the
+Spanish Cortes providing for the relinquishment of the colony. The
+Spanish forces were brought together at Santo Domingo City, and on
+July 11, 1865, after the guns in the forts had been spiked and the
+military stores on hand had been destroyed, the troops and the
+authorities embarked in a fleet assembled for that purpose and the
+Spanish flag was lowered, for the last time, in Santo Domingo.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--SECOND REPUBLIC.--REVOLUTIONS AND
+DICTATORSHIPS.--1863 TO 1904.
+
+
+Restoration of the republic.--Military presidents.--Cabral's
+administration.--Baez' fourth administration.--Annexation negotiations
+with the United States.--Civil wars.--Heureaux's rule.--Administrations
+of Jimenez, Vasquez and Woss y Gil.--Election of Morales.
+
+
+From the very beginning of the War of the Restoration and for several
+years afterwards, the principal Dominican military chiefs were engaged
+in a disgraceful squabble for leadership. As soon as the Spanish
+forces retired from Santiago the revolutionists, on September 14,
+1863, proclaimed the restoration of the republic and set up a
+provisional government under the presidency of General José Antonio
+Salcedo. The other generals accused Salcedo of lack of energy in
+pushing the war and on October 10, 1864, deposed him and made General
+Gaspar Polanco president in his stead. Poor Salcedo tried to resist,
+but was captured, hurried by a friend from one camp to another to keep
+him from being shot, and at last foully murdered. Polanco did not
+enjoy his triumph long. A reaction set in, a revolution was initiated
+against him, his troops deserted, he was captured and imprisoned, and
+on January 24, 1865, a superior council of government was formed by
+the insurgents, presided over by General Benigno Filomeno de Rojas.
+The council called a constitutional convention which proclaimed the
+constitution of Moca of 1858 and in March, 1865, elected General Pedro
+Antonio Pimentel president. It was he who entered Santo Domingo City
+after the evacuation by the Spaniards.
+
+Hardly had the evacuation taken place when Generals Cabral and
+Manzueta raised an insurrection which overthrew Pimentel's government
+while he was absent on the Haitian border, and General José Maria
+Cabral, an educated mulatto, was proclaimed Protector of the Republic.
+Cabral had formerly been one of the most enthusiastic followers of
+Baez but it soon became evident that he was working for himself. He
+convoked a constitutional assembly which was convening when General
+Pedro Guillermo rose in the east and proclaimed General Buenaventura
+Baez president. The movement was successful and the Congress,
+completely convinced by the sight of a sword unsheathed in its
+presence by one of the victorious generals, elected Baez to the
+presidency.
+
+Since his overthrow in 1858 Baez had been in exile, but he had
+accepted Spanish sovereignty and the rank of fieldmarshal in the
+Spanish army. On the outbreak of the War of the Restoration, he sent
+Cabral to join the Dominican forces as his representative. He was now
+living in Curaçao and a commission journeyed there to invite him back
+to Santo Domingo, a council inaugurated on October 25, 1865, meanwhile
+taking charge. A new constitution was drafted and promulgated on
+November 14, 1865, and on the same day Baez entered upon his office.
+Neither he nor the constitution lasted long. The constitution being
+too liberal, he had it abrogated on April 19, 1866, and Santana's
+constitution of December 16, 1854, was adopted in its stead. This
+action was the excuse for an insurrection which broke out in Santiago
+on May 1, 1866, under the leadership of Pimentel in combination with
+Cabral, and quickly assumed such alarming proportions that Baez found
+it prudent to resign before the end of the month and retire
+to Curaçao.
+
+As usual a constitutional assembly was called, and a new constitution
+was promulgated on September 26, 1866. An election was held and Cabral
+chosen president by a practically unanimous vote. Nevertheless his
+government had scarcely a day's peace from insurrections. It found
+time, however, to resume amicable relations with Spain, to make a
+commercial treaty with the United States and to found a professional
+institute. Other relations with the United States were also planned;
+for as Spain and France were eliminated from the annexation idea and
+the United States had abolished slavery, this country was looked upon
+with greater favor. The cost of the government's military activities
+was such that a strong attempt was made to lease Samana Bay to the
+United States for two million dollars; but as complete control was not
+offered the plan fell through. Later a special commissioner was sent
+to Washington to negotiate for the absolute lease of the Samana
+peninsula and Samana Bay, which negotiations were the prelude to the
+later annexation negotiations, but they were interrupted by a
+revolution in favor of Baez which broke out in Monte Cristi on October
+7, 1867. and deposed Cabral on January 31, 1868. A council of generals
+administered affairs until Baez took charge for the fourth time, on
+May 4, 1868.
+
+In accordance with established usage, the existing constitution was
+abrogated and Baez' pet constitution, that of December, 1854, placed
+in force, but with amendments. Baez then began to rule with a firm
+hand, and though occasionally bothered by small uprisings on the
+Haitian border, promoted by Cabral, Luperon and other unruly spirits,
+managed to sustain himself in power for almost his full term of six
+years. He was able to realize what had been the golden dream of
+administrations since the birth of the Republic, the contracting of a
+foreign loan. Hartmont & Co., a firm of London bankers, agreed to
+issue bonds of the Republic to the amount of £757,700, though at a
+ruinous rate, and actually paid over £38,095. The dream turned to a
+nightmare, for when the government annulled the contract on the ground
+of failure to comply with conditions, the bankers continued to issue
+bonds and kept the proceeds themselves; and the bonds thus
+fraudulently issued constituted the nucleus of the enormous debt which
+later led to American intervention.
+
+Though Baez had, for political reasons, protested against Cabral's
+negotiations with the United States, he was too sagacious a statesman
+to fail to recognize the value of American protection. It was now
+Cabral's turn to indulge in tirades full of patriotic indignation, for
+Baez actively pursued negotiations for the annexation of the country
+to the United States. On November 29, 1869, two treaties were signed
+in Santo Domingo City by representatives of the American and Dominican
+governments: by one the Samana peninsula and Samana Bay were leased to
+the United States for fifty years at an annual rental of $150,000, and
+by the other the Dominican Republic was annexed to the United States.
+Baez submitted the annexation treaty to a plebiscite in his country in
+February, 1870, and an overwhelming vote was cast in favor thereof.
+While the adversaries of the treaty did not dare to oppose it actively
+within the country, it is probable that the vote represented the true
+sentiment of the Dominican people, for aside from the evident economic
+advantages of annexation, the influence of Baez was such that the
+people were ready to follow blindly whatever he advised.  Both
+treaties lapsed, but the annexation treaty was renewed and President
+Grant in his messages to Congress strongly urged its passage. Powerful
+opposition developed in the United States Senate, led by Senator
+Sumner, and the treaty failed of ratification. By a resolution of
+Congress, approved January 12, 1871, the President of the United
+States was authorized to send a commission of inquiry to Santo
+Domingo. President Grant appointed three eminent men, Benjamin F.
+Wade, Andrew D. White and Samuel G. Howe, who were assisted by
+Frederick Douglas, Major-General Franz Sigel and a number of
+scientists. The commission proceeded to Santo Domingo, travelled
+across the country in several directions and made an extensive report,
+which is still an important source of information as to the
+characteristics of the island. The commission's report was transmitted
+to Congress, and President Grant made another earnest plea for the
+annexation of Santo Domingo. Congress took no further action, however,
+and the United States thus deliberately rejected an opportunity to
+obtain control of a most important strategical position and to secure
+peace and prosperity to the Dominican people.
+
+It is interesting to speculate on what the future of Santo Domingo
+would have been if annexation had been realized. The power of the
+United States would have maintained peace; salutary laws would have
+educated the people in self-government; liberal tariff concessions
+would have stimulated agriculture and industry; the influx of a good
+stock of immigrants would have developed and settled the interior;
+honest administration would have provided roads and schools, and soon
+the country would have attained a high degree of development and
+prosperity. The failure of the United States to extend a helping hand
+condemned Santo Domingo to long years of anarchy and dictatorships.
+
+When it became apparent that nothing would come of the annexation
+plans, the Baez administration, on December 28, 1872, rented the
+Samana peninsula to an American corporation, the "Samana Bay Company,"
+for ninety-nine years, at an annual rental of $150,000. The company,
+which intended to found a large city on Samana Bay, actually paid the
+sum of $147,229.91, the greater part in gold and the remainder in arms
+and ammunition. This payment, with that received on account of the
+Hartmont bonds, and with the higher customs receipts due to quiet
+conditions, afforded relief to the treasury; while peace brought the
+country a prosperity further increased by the immigration of numerous
+Cubans driven from their homes by the ten years' war that had begun
+in 1869.
+
+President Baez did not lose hope in the ultimate realization of
+annexation, and it was also his intention to have himself reelected
+for another term of six years. These circumstances were used against
+him by his ambitious enemies, and on November 25, 1873, a revolution
+broke out in Puerto Plata which spread so rapidly that Baez was
+obliged to capitulate on December 31 of the same year. A new
+generation, grown up since the independence of the country and which
+had come to look upon civil disorder as a normal condition, now came
+into power, and the question of foreign annexation ceased to be
+an issue.
+
+A period of constant revolutionary ferment and frequent changes of the
+constitution followed, with a wearisome succession of military
+presidents. General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez became provisional
+president in 1874, took advantage of the non-payment of an annuity by
+the Samana Bay Company to rescind the contract with the company,
+called a national assembly, which formulated the constitution of March
+24, 1874, and had himself elected president, entering upon office on
+April 6 of that year. As the constitution did not suit him, he called
+a new national convention and had another constitution promulgated on
+March 9, 1875. This was too much even for Santo Domingo, and his
+enemies formed a powerful league in Santiago with a view to having him
+impeached, but the Congress rejected the charges. Another civil war
+was imminent when Gonzalez resigned on February 23, 1876.
+
+The council of ministers took charge of the government and held an
+election at which Ulises F. Espaillat was designated president. He
+entered upon office on April 29, 1876, and as he was an excellent man
+would have given a good account of himself under different conditions;
+but General Gonzalez started a revolution on the Haitian frontier, and
+on October 5, 1876, Espaillat was ousted. A superior council of
+government was formed, which appointed General Gonzalez president in
+the beginning of November, 1876. Gonzalez had been in power for just
+one month when he was overthrown, in December, 1876, by a revolution
+that originated in the Cibao, and General Buenaventura Baez became
+president for the fifth time. The Republic thus had four presidents in
+1876: Gonzalez twice, Espaillat and Baez. Baez called a constitutional
+convention and the constitution of May 14, 1877, was promulgated.
+Under the influence of the younger element he was less autocratic than
+in his previous administrations, but perhaps for that very reason his
+whole term was one prolonged struggle with insurrections, until he was
+obliged to surrender on February 24, 1878. He retired to Porto Rico
+and died near Mayaguez in 1884.  Two governments were now
+established, General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez being proclaimed president
+in the Cibao, and General Cesareo Guillermo in Santo Domingo. An
+agreement was reached by them on April 13, 1878, and Guillermo became
+provisional president of the entire country. The constitution of 1877
+was reproclaimed with amendments, an election was held and General
+Gonzalez was declared constitutional president, entering upon office
+on July 6, 1878. Guillermo immediately started a revolution with
+General Ulises Heureaux and compelled Gonzalez to abdicate on
+September 2, 1878. It was the end of Gonzalez' meteoric presidential
+flights, but after a period of retirement he ventured into public life
+again, and for many years was Dominican minister to Haiti.
+
+Jacinto de Castro, the president of the supreme court, acted as
+president until September 29,1878, when he was succeeded by the
+council of ministers of which Guillermo was chief. The constitution of
+1878 was promulgated, with amendments, on February 11, 1879, and on
+February 28, Guillermo, after going through the form of an election,
+became constitutional president. He did not last long. On October 6,
+1879, a revolution broke out at Puerto Plata and a provisional
+government was formed under the presidency of General Gregorio
+Luperon, an intelligent negro, who had been imprisoned for larceny
+under Spanish rule, but had redeemed himself by signal services in the
+War of the Restoration. Guillermo resisted two months, but was
+compelled to surrender on December 6, 1879.
+
+Luperon did not depart from the usual custom, but called a
+constitutional assembly which, in 1880, adopted with amendments the
+constitution of 1879, and fixed the presidential term at two years.
+Luperon then held an election and gave the presidency, for the two
+years beginning September 1, 1880, to one of his supporters, Father
+Fernando de Meriño, an eloquent priest who had taken an active part in
+politics since his youth, and who later became archbishop of Santo
+Domingo. The reverend gentleman suppressed all revolutionary uprisings
+with uncompromising severity and did not hesitate to execute the
+conspirators that fell into his hands.
+
+During Meriño's administration General Ulises Heureaux served as
+minister of the interior and began to wield the power which he was to
+retain for twenty years. Heureaux was born in Puerto Plata about 1846.
+Both of his parents were negroes, his father being a Haitian who
+followed the sea and afterwards became a merchant, and his mother a
+St. Thomas woman. He received a mercantile education and took part as
+a subordinate in the War of the Restoration against the Spaniards. On
+the withdrawal of the Spaniards, in 1865, he became a bandit on the
+Haitian border and practised horse stealing on a large scale. Later he
+obtained a position in the Puerto Plata custom-house and took a more
+and more prominent part in the civil disturbances of his country,
+until he became well known as a politician and a revolutionist. He
+distinguished himself by his bravery and was many times wounded.
+Throughout these civil wars he remained a sturdy follower of General
+Luperon, the successor of Santana as leader of the "Blue" party and an
+implacable opponent of General Buenaventura Baez, the chief of the
+"Reds" and of General Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, the leader of the
+"Greens." When General Luperon overthrew President Cesareo Guillermo,
+in 1879, Heureaux was closely associated with the revolutionary movement.
+
+Heureaux was able to strengthen himself to such an extent that when,
+in 1882, Luperon determined to become president himself he found that
+his former follower had outgrown him in power. The result was that
+Heureaux became president and served from September 1, 1882, to
+September 1, 1884. When his term expired a bitter struggle ensued with
+Luperon, who still retained considerable influence. Luperon's
+candidate was Segundo Imbert, while Heureaux supported General
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, who was ultimately victorious. Luperon
+went into exile, but later became reconciled with Heureaux and
+returned to die in Santo Domingo.
+
+Billini entered upon the presidency on September 1, 1884, but became
+restive under the demands of Heureaux and his friends and resigned on
+May 15, 1885. The vice-president, Alejandro Woss y Gil, succeeded to
+the chief office. His term was to have expired in September of the
+following year, but a formidable insurrection broke out in July, 1886,
+under General Casimiro N. de Moya, with the object of preventing
+Heureaux from carrying out his design of succeeding Gil. After six
+months of fighting, during which the number of fatalities was happily
+remarkably small, Heureaux was victorious, and having had himself
+re-elected, resumed the presidency on January 6, 1887, until which
+time Woss y Gil remained in office.
+
+The biennial elections were a source of annoyance even to one who was
+sure of victory, and Heureaux therefore called a constitutional
+convention which amended the constitution then in force and lengthened
+the presidential term to four years, beginning in 1889. As General
+Cesareo Guillermo, Heureaux's former companion in arms and later
+opponent, was understood to be nursing aspirations for the presidency,
+Heureaux sought to apprehend him. Guillermo fled, but finding himself
+pressed, committed suicide. No further obstacle opposed Heureaux's
+election, and he was again inaugurated on February 27, 1889.
+
+In the meantime negotiations had been undertaken for the contracting
+of new foreign loans, and one was floated in 1888 and another in 1892.
+The government's fiscal agent who secured these loans in Europe was
+General Eugenio Generoso Marchena, a man of much influence. In 1892
+General Marchena announced himself as a candidate for the presidency.
+Heureaux won without difficulty, but still uneasy, he arrested
+Marchena in Santo Domingo, imprisoned him for a year and sent him to
+Azua to be shot.
+
+During Heureaux's new term, beginning in 1893, the country by
+improvident bond issues and debt contraction, made rapid strides in
+the direction of bankruptcy. In 1893, the San Domingo Improvement
+Company, an American corporation, under contract with the government
+took charge of the customs collections for the purpose of providing
+for the services of the loans. The illegal imprisonment of several
+Frenchmen gave rise to friction with the French government and in 1894
+a French fleet appeared before Santo Domingo City, but the matter was
+adjusted by the payment of an indemnity. As the 1889 constitution
+forbade a president from holding office for more than two terms in
+succession, Heureaux, wishing to continue in the presidency, obviated
+the difficulty by the simple expedient of promulgating a new
+constitution in 1896, in which the limitation was removed. He was
+declared unanimously elected in 1896 and began his final term on
+February 27, 1897.
+
+The long period of comparative peace enjoyed by the country under the
+rule of President Ulises Heureaux, or "Lilis," as the dictator was
+popularly known, brought seeming progress and prosperity, though at a
+heavy price. Many of his opponents Heureaux was able to buy, and in
+this way he retained the loyalty of hundreds of little military chiefs
+scattered through the country. Those whom he could not buy he
+persecuted, imprisoned, exiled, or executed. While possessing pleasant
+and affable manners, he was unrelenting in his persecution of
+conspirators and many stories are told of his harshness in this
+respect. It is related that when he was minister of the interior under
+Meriño he discovered that his brother-in-law was implicated in a plot;
+he therefore invited him to dinner and after they had dined, asked how
+his guest had enjoyed the meal. "Very well," was the answer. "I am
+glad of that," said Heureaux, "for I am about to have you shot. Take a
+cigar," he added pleasantly, "it will be your last." And it was, for
+the execution followed at once. On another occasion, so the story
+goes, after he had become president, a prominent general was his guest
+and after dinner they took a stroll. Coming to a place in the suburbs
+where workmen were digging a peculiar trench, the general inquired,
+"What are they digging here?" "They are digging your grave," answered
+Heureaux, and before the general could recover from his consternation
+a squad of soldiers appeared. He was shot and buried then and there.
+The governor of Macoris and the minister of war were both powerful men
+whose influence was feared by Heureaux. He therefore cunningly wrought
+up the latter against the former to such an extent that one fine
+morning the minister suddenly appeared in Macoris and had the governor
+summarily shot. An outcry was made by the governor's friends, and
+Heureaux, affecting indignation at the act, had the minister of war
+executed. Many of his prisoners mysteriously disappeared, and popular
+rumor points out one of the lower platforms of the fort "La Fuerza,"
+where an aguacate tree formerly grew, as the place where prisoners
+were shot at night, their bodies being thrown to the sharks at the
+base of the cliff. Some of the dictator's suspects were assassinated
+in the public streets. Even exiles were not secure from his wrath and
+in one instance a Dominican writer named Eugenio Deschamps, who had
+been publishing articles against him in Porto Rico, was seriously
+wounded in the streets of Ponce by an assassin's bullet.
+
+Ability and unscrupulousness, courage and cruelty, resolution and
+cunning were mingled in the character of Heureaux. Over the country he
+exercised the powers of an absolute monarch. He was the fountain head
+of all government and the real chief of every department. The accounts
+of the government and his private accounts were treated by him as one
+and the same thing. His ambition to remain in power necessitated the
+expenditure of large sums which he obtained through improvident
+foreign loans and usurious contracts with local merchants. Those whom
+he favored grew rich; his enemies he ruined. In other ways also his
+morals swerved from the straight and narrow path, and an isolated town
+gloried in the distinction of being the only place in the Republic
+where the president did not have a mistress. He himself stated that he
+had no concern as to what history would say of him, since he would not
+be there to read it.
+
+During the latter part of Heureaux's administration the leaders of the
+opposition were recognized as Juan Isidro Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez,
+Vasquez was the chief of a large landholding family of the Cibao.
+Jimenez had been a prominent merchant, at one time carrying on
+mercantile houses in Monte Cristi, New York, Paris and Hamburg; his
+family had formerly been prominent in Dominican affairs, his father
+having been president of the Republic in 1848 and his grandfather one
+of the leading spirits of the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was
+thrown off. Jimenez was born in Santo Domingo City in 1846 and as a
+boy went to Haiti with his father, growing up in Port-au-Prince. As a
+youth he removed to Monte Cristi, where he established himself in
+business and took part in the War of the Restoration against the
+Spaniards. Having with Heureaux, he resided for a number of
+years in Cape Haitien, Haiti, and from there directed conspiracies
+against the dictator.
+
+In May, 1898, Jimenez made a bold attempt to overthrow the Heureaux
+government. He fitted out a small steamer, the "Fanita," in the United
+States and left ostensibly to aid the Cuban insurgents; and as the
+United States was then at war with Spain the expedition was not
+opposed by the American government. A landing was made at Monte Cristi
+with only twenty-five men, a general uprising being expected as soon
+as his arrival became known. Jimenez' followers took the town, but the
+governor of the district was able to escape to the country and
+returned with a large force, driving Jimenez back to his vessel with a
+loss of one-half of his companions. The "Fanita" had touched in the
+Bahamas on the way down and on returning to Inagua Island, Jimenez was
+arrested by the British authorities as a filibuster. Heureaux sent a
+man-of-war to Nassau and did all he could to have the case pressed.
+Jimenez was tried twice; at the first trial the jury did not agree,
+and the second time he was acquitted.
+
+Though popular hatred against Heureaux was strong on account of his
+tyrannical conduct and his attempts to compel the circulation of a
+large issue of inconvertible bank notes with which he flooded the
+country, the fear in which he was held prevented any general uprising.
+There were many, however, among them Horacio Vasquez, who never ceased
+conspiring against the dictator. When it became known that Heureaux
+was resolved to bring about Vasquez' death, Ramon Caceres, a cousin of
+Vasquez, and other members of the Vasquez clan, were drawn into the
+conspiracies. The father of Caceres, once vice-president under Baez,
+had been killed, it is said, by order of Heureaux. In July, 1899, when
+Heureaux prepared for a trip through the Cibao, he was informed of a
+plot to kill him on the way. When he arrived in Moca he thought that
+no danger awaited him there, as he expected that if any attack were to
+be made on him it would be at some solitary portion of the road and
+not in a town in broad daylight. When about to leave Moca on July 26,
+1899, he ordered the governor of the province to arrest Caceres and
+his companions. Caceres was informed of the order by the secretary of
+the governor, who was his friend, and knowing that the arrest would
+probably be followed by an execution, with several companions he
+repaired to a store where Heureaux was talking with the proprietor,
+the provincial treasurer. As soon as Heureaux appeared in the doorway
+Caceres began to shoot, and the other conspirators continued firing,
+although the first shot had been fatal. Heureaux before falling drew
+his revolver and returned the fire, but the darkness of death clouded
+his vision and the shots went wild, one of them, however, killing a
+beggar to whom he had a few moments before given alms. Caceres and his
+companions fled to the mountains, and the body of Heureaux was taken
+to Santiago, where it was afterwards interred in the cathedral. Juan
+Wenceslao Figuereo, vice-president of the Republic, an aged negro,
+succeeded to the presidency.
+
+The death of Heureaux precipitated a revolution headed by General
+Horacio Vasquez. President Figuereo made no resistance, but at the end
+of August resigned, together with his cabinet, first designating a
+committee of citizens to administer affairs until the arrival of
+Vasquez, who entered the capital on September 5, 1899, and became the
+head of the provisional government. Jimenez in the meantime hastened
+to the country and was everywhere received with rejoicing. The two
+leaders arranged that Jimenez should become president and Vasquez
+vice-president, and an election was held on October 20, by which this
+result was attained, the inauguration taking place November 20, 1899.
+Ramon Caceres, the slayer of Heureaux, was made governor of Santiago
+and delegate of the government in the Cibao.
+
+The Jimenez administration was the reaction of that of Heureaux. It
+deserved, more than any the Republic had had up to that time, the name
+of civil and constitutional government. The executive was not
+absolute, as in the time of Heureaux, nor were there sanguinary
+executions. Almost too little restraint was exercised, and the press,
+so long muzzled, began to convert its liberty into license. Jimenez,
+too, was so good-hearted that at times he yielded to importunities
+which had better been resisted. The financial problems left by the
+Heureaux administration caused considerable trouble and though the
+waste of the public revenues was curtailed, large sums were still
+absorbed in the payment of revolutionary claims and of pensions for
+local military chiefs.
+
+Jealousies soon ripened between Jimenez and Vasquez, who was known to
+long for the presidency and had only temporarily laid aside his
+aspirations on account of the overwhelming popularity of Jimenez. Each
+of the chiefs collected a group of friends about him and in this way
+originated the still existing political parties, Jimenistas and
+Horacistas, the respective followers of Jimenez and Horacio Vasquez.
+Several minor uprisings occurred but were suppressed by the
+government. In the beginning of 1902 the Dominican Congress, which was
+composed largely of Vasquez' friends, considered the advisability of
+impeaching President Jimenez on account of the financial transactions
+of the administration, and a vote of censure was finally passed.
+Jimenez believed Vasquez at the bottom of the agitation and endeavored
+to have the municipalities protest against the action of Congress.
+Rumors became current that Jimenez intended to imprison his
+vice-president and thus insure his own reelection. Vasquez, urged on
+by his friends, therefore started a revolution in the Cibao, and after
+a fight in San Carlos and a four days' siege of the capital entered
+Santo Domingo City on May 2, 1902, and became president of a
+provisional government. Jimenez sought refuge in the French consulate
+and embarked for Porto Rico a few days later.
+
+General Horacio Vasquez was born in Moca and was a ranchman, merchant
+and planter. He possessed military capacity and took a minor part in
+several revolutions. At first a friend of Heureaux, he afterwards
+became one of his bitterest enemies, and for a number of years lived
+as an exile in Cuba and Porto Rico, returning to Moca shortly before
+the death of Heureaux to remain in retirement on his plantation. The
+Vasquez administration had as much difficulty with financial matters
+as that of his predecessor, but the president had little opportunity
+to show what he could do. Local outbreaks began in Monte Cristi and
+became general in October, 1902. Disturbances continued until March
+24, 1903, when, during the absence of President Vasquez in the Cibao,
+the political prisoners in the fort of Santo Domingo City, through
+connivance with the general in charge, broke out, took the fort,
+liberated the convicts, threw the city into a panic with a continued
+fusillade, and proclaimed a revolution. They were for the most part
+Jimenistas and "Lilicistas," or members of the old Heureaux party, and
+their candidate for the presidency would probably have been Jimenez;
+but in Jimenez' absence the presidency was offered to Figuereo and
+others, who declined, and was finally accepted by Alejandro Woss y
+Gil, who had only the week before been liberated from the same
+political prison.
+
+General Vasquez returned with an army, arriving before Santo Domingo
+City at the end of March. The ensuing siege was one long battle,
+during which a portion of the suburban town of San Carlos was
+destroyed by fire. On April 18, 1903, Generals Alvarez and Cordero,
+the best generals of the besiegers, made a violent attack on the city
+and effected an entrance, but fighting continued in the streets and
+these leaders and most of the storming party were killed. Vasquez
+thereupon fled to Santiago, resigned his post, and left the country
+for Cuba. On the triumph of his party a year later, he returned to
+Santo Domingo and retired to his plantation in Moca.
+
+Woss y Gil, who thus became president of the provisional government,
+called a session of Congress and by appointments favorable to his
+interests so intrenched himself that his continuance as president
+became assured. Jimenez, who arrived shortly after, advanced the claim
+that he was still president de jure, since the constitutional term of
+four years for which he had been elected had not expired, and he
+denominated the Vasquez government a temporary and illegal usurpation
+of power. In his efforts to regain office he sent his friend Eugenio
+Deschamps to treat with Gil, but Deschamps, seeing Gil obdurate, made
+an agreement by which Woss y Gil was to become president and Deschamps
+vice-president, Jimenez was obliged to yield to the inevitable and
+returned to Porto Rico in the hope of eventually succeeding Woss y
+Gil. An election was held in which Woss y Gil and Deschamps were the
+only candidates and on June 20, 1903, they were inaugurated.
+
+In General Alejandro Woss y Gil the Republic had a very talented man
+as president. Born in Seibo, he had entered politics in his youth, and
+became a friend and follower of Heureaux. At times he was governor of
+a province, later for a long period Dominican consul at New York, and
+from 1885 to 1887 president of the Republic. He had received a good
+education and traveled extensively, spoke several modern languages,
+had some knowledge of the classic languages, and was a poet, musician
+and writer.
+
+Unfortunately the talents of Woss y Gil did not extend to the securing
+of an honest and efficient administration. The ministers appointed by
+him were exceedingly injudicious selections, and a carnival of fraud
+and dishonesty was soon in progress. Discontent grew general, and by
+the end of October, 1903, General Carlos F. Morales, governor of
+Puerto Plata, raised the standard of revolt and his troops marched on
+the capital. The revolution was supported by both parties, the
+Jimenistas and Horacistas, and was known as the "war of the union."
+Morales, the leader of the insurrection, had been a follower of
+Jimenez and favored the aspirations of the latter to the extent even
+of sending requests to Jimenez to come to Santo Domingo at once. The
+siege of Santo Domingo City lasted for about three weeks. On November
+24, 1903, Woss y Gil, finding himself vanquished, permitted Morales'
+troops to enter the city and sought refuge in the British consulate.
+Three days later a German man-of-war carried him to Porto Rico, and he
+later continued to Cuba, where he long resided in the city
+of Santiago.
+
+For a short time a tripartite revolution was in progress, the
+supporters of Woss y Gil, Horacio Vasquez and Jimenez fighting in
+different parts of the country. Morales, on entering Santo Domingo,
+became president of the provisional government. The new governors of
+the Cibao were Jimenistas, but most of the appointments Morales made
+in the south were Horacistas, and it began to be suspected among the
+Jimenez followers that he had designs on the presidency. When Jimenez
+arrived in Santiago he realized that his ambitions were again
+endangered and he and his friends grew restless. On December 6, 1903,
+Jimenez fled from Santiago to Monte Cristi, claiming that Morales had
+sent a troop of fifty men to assassinate him.
+
+A counter revolution followed at once and swiftly attained large
+proportions. It became the most serious unsuccessful revolution the
+Republic had seen. At one time the whole country was in the hands of
+Jimenez except Santo Domingo City and the small port of Sosua, near
+Puerto Plata. The government forces were able to retake Puerto Plata,
+but the siege of the capital continued uninterruptedly from December
+to February. Attacks and sallies were frequent, every house along the
+walls and in the suburbs soon showed bullet marks and the town of San
+Carlos was again partially destroyed by fire. Finally Morales defeated
+the besiegers,  and in March, Macoris was taken by the government
+forces and the backbone of the revolution was broken. The insurrection
+had spent itself on account of lack of supplies and efficient leaders.
+Jimenez, financially ruined by his attempts to reestablish himself in
+power, again withdrew to Porto Rico. The government forces were unable
+to retake the Monte Cristi district, but an agreement was reached by
+which the Jimenista authorities remained in full control and the
+district became practically independent.
+
+An election was held, as a result of which Carlos F. Morales became
+president and Ramon Caceres vice-president, and they were inaugurated
+on June 19, 1904. The new president, Morales, was an unusually clever
+man, although his conduct sometimes betrayed that he came from a
+family in which there had been mental derangement. He was born in
+Puerto Plata, studied for the priesthood, took orders, and held the
+office of parish priest in various places in the Cibao. After the
+death of a brother who participated in Jimenez' ill-fated "Fanita"
+expedition and was killed in the attack on Monte Cristi, Morales took
+an interest in public affairs and during the administration of Jimenez
+became a member of Congress. At this time he laid aside his religious
+habit, married, and devoted himself exclusively to politics. During
+the Vasquez administration he was an exile in Cuba, but on the
+ascendancy of Woss y Gil he was made governor of Puerto Plata, and in
+this capacity initiated the revolt against the Gil government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+HISTORICAL SKETCH.--AMERICAN INFLUENCE.--1904 TO DATE (1918)
+
+
+Financial difficulties.--Fiscal convention with the United
+States.--Caceres' administration.-Provisional presidents.--Civil
+disturbances.--Jimenez' second administration.--American intervention.
+
+
+The enormous foreign and internal debt left by the Heureaux
+administration had been constantly increased by ruinous loans to which
+the succeeding governments were obliged to resort during the years of
+civil warfare, until the country was in a condition of hopeless
+bankruptcy. In the beginning of 1904 every item of the debt had been
+in default for months.
+
+Under pressure from foreign governments, the principal debt items due
+foreign citizens had been recognized in international protocols and
+the income from each of the more important custom-houses was
+specifically pledged for their payment, but in no case was payment
+made. One of these protocols, signed with the American chargé
+d'affaires, liquidated the government's accounts with the San Domingo
+Improvement Company, which had been turned out from the administration
+of custom-houses by President Jimenez, and provided for a board of
+arbitration to settle the manner of payment. The arbitrators
+determined the instalments payable and specified the custom-house of
+Puerto Plata and certain others as security, which were to be turned
+over to an American agent in case of failure to pay. No payment being
+made, the American agent demanded compliance with the arbitral award
+and on October 20, 1904, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+The other foreign creditors, principally French, Belgian, and Italian,
+naturally began to clamor for the payment of their credits and for the
+delivery of the custom-houses pledged to them. To have done so would
+have meant absolute ruin, as the government would have been entirely
+deprived of means of subsistence. In face of the imminent likelihood
+of foreign intervention the Dominican government applied to the United
+States for assistance, and in February, 1905, the protocol of an
+agreement between the Dominican Republic and the United States was
+approved, providing for the collection of Dominican customs revenues
+under the direction of the United States, and the segregation of a
+specified portion toward the ultimate payment of the debt. The treaty
+was submitted to the United States Senate, but that body adjourned in
+March, 1905, without final action. The creditors again became
+importunate and an interim modus vivendi was therefore arranged, under
+which the Dominican customs were to be collected by a receiver
+designated by the President of the United States, and the proportion
+mentioned in the pending treaty was reserved as a creditors' fund. The
+temporary arrangement went into effect on April 1, 1905, and the
+effect was immediately apparent. Confidence was restored, the customs
+receipts rose to higher figures than ever before, and the prospects of
+peace became brighter as revolutionists could no longer count on
+captured customhouses to replenish their exchequer.
+
+The position of President Morales was a difficult one. He was an
+ex-Jimenista at the head of an Horacista government, and there was no
+sympathy between him and his council. The Horacistas distrusted him
+and forced him to dismiss his friends from the cabinet and to make
+distasteful appointments. Seeing that he was being reduced to a
+figurehead, Morales secretly tried to form a party for himself or make
+arrangements with the Jimenistas who for months had been conspiring
+and threatening to rise. The friction became more severe until
+Morales, fearing that both his office and his life were in danger, on
+the day before Christmas, 1905, fled from the capital, while the
+Jimenistas rose in Monte Cristi and marched down to attack Santiago
+and Puerto Plata.
+
+It was the anomalous spectacle of a president leading an insurrection
+against his own government. Fortune was against the insurgents from
+the beginning. Morales, while trying to scale a rocky wall near the
+Jaina River, in the neighborhood of the capital, fell and sprained his
+leg, so that he was unable to proceed further but was obliged to
+remain in hiding in the woods, suffering much pain. In the Cibao,
+important dispatches of the revolutionists were captured by the
+government forces, which were thus enabled to make surprise attacks.
+The insurgents attacked Puerto Plata under their best general,
+Demetrio Rodriguez, an intelligent mulatto, and would probably have
+taken the town, had not Rodriguez received a bullet in the temple,
+whereupon his men became panic-stricken and dispersed. Morales saw
+that all was lost and returned to the capital, where he went to the
+American legation for protection. On the following morning, January
+12, 1906, with his foot bandaged and tears rolling down his cheeks, he
+wrote out his resignation. He was immediately conveyed to Porto Rico
+on an American cruiser. The triumph of the government was complete,
+its troops overran Monte Cristi, and an Horacista was made governor of
+the district. Morales fixed his residence in the island of St. Thomas
+and later in France. He continually conspired for a return to the
+presidency, and was once tried for filibustering in Porto Rico, but
+acquitted. A friendly administration made him Dominican minister in
+Paris, where he died in 1914.
+
+Upon the resignation of Morales the vice-president, General Ramon
+Caceres, assumed the presidency. Caceres was born in Moca on December
+15, 1867, and was a prominent cacao-planter. It was he who killed
+Heureaux in 1899, after which he entered public life, being governor
+of Santiago and delegate of the government in the Cibao during the
+administrations of Jimenez and Vasquez, an exile in Cuba during the
+administration of Woss y Gil, and vice-president and governmental
+delegate during the administration of Morales. He had the appearance
+of an honest country squire, large of body and great of heart.
+
+During the years 1906 and 1907 special attention was given to the
+settlement of the debts of the republic. A new bond issue of
+$20,000,000 was made for the purpose of converting the old debts, and
+an arrangement was effected with the principal creditors, by which the
+amounts due were reduced by about one-half. Instead of the still
+pending convention of February, 1905, with the United States, a new
+fiscal treaty was agreed upon, and approved by the United States
+Senate and the Dominican Congress, taking effect on August 1, 1907. In
+similarity with the provisions of the modus vivendi, the customs
+income of the Republic is collected by a General Receiver of Dominican
+Customs, appointed by the President of the United States, and a
+portion of the income is set aside by him for the service of the loan.
+
+For years the various governments had been planning to revise the
+constitution of 1896, Vasquez even calling a constitutional
+convention; but the political kaleidoscope turned before such
+intentions could be realized. Conditions becoming sufficiently stable,
+a new constitution was promulgated on September 9, 1907. It was found
+unsatisfactory and a constitutional convention met in Santiago and on
+February 22, 1908, promulgated the present constitution, by which the
+presidential term was lengthened to six years and the office of
+vice-president abolished. An election was held and General Ramon
+Caceres was chosen president, entering upon his new term on July
+1, 1908.
+
+As a result of the Dominican-American fiscal arrangement the old debt
+was practically all canceled, burdensome concessions were redeemed,
+and a large portion of the surplus from the new bond issue was set
+aside for public works, of which several were undertaken. A few
+uprisings by dissatisfied chiefs remained local and unsuccessful. A
+border clash with Haiti, which in January, 1911, caused the dispatch
+of troops to the frontier, was settled by diplomacy. The hope of
+continued peaceful conditions gave a new impulse to agriculture,
+industry and commerce, and the exports and imports increased year
+by year.
+
+At a time when the future seemed brightest, the Republic was suddenly
+startled by the news of the assassination of President Caceres on
+Sunday afternoon, November 19, 1911. The president, with a single
+companion, was returning from a drive along the new road to San
+Geronimo. At Guibia, a suburb of the capital, a number of conspirators
+rushed for the carriage, seized the reins of the horse and began to
+shoot. The president's companion fled, but Caceres, a fearless man and
+an excellent shot, returned the fire. Almost simultaneously a bullet
+shattered his right wrist. The coachman lashed the horse in an
+attempt to escape, but the horse reared and threw the carriage against
+a hedge. The coachman then dragged Caceres from the carriage and
+assisted him to the stable of a house on the roadside, adjoining the
+American legation, but the conspirators meantime continued to fire
+furiously and several shots struck the president. Seeing their object
+accomplished, the assassins withdrew, and the president, mortally
+wounded, was carried to the American legation, where he expired a few
+minutes later.
+
+The conspirators were a handful of malcontents led by General Luis
+Tejera, a young man of prominent family, at one time governor of the
+capital under Caceres, but lately estranged. Caceres had known of
+Tejera's seditious sentiments but refused to take them seriously.
+Immediately after the shooting, the conspirators hastened away in a
+waiting automobile, carrying with them their leader Tejera, who had
+been wounded in the leg during the affray. At the Jaina ferry the
+automobile was accidentally precipitated into the river, and the
+wounded man was fished out half drowned. The other conspirators left
+him in a hut by the road and escaped. Tejera was found by the
+pursuers, taken to the fort in Santo Domingo City, and summarily
+executed.
+
+The commandant of arms of the capital, General Alfredo M. Victoria,
+who controlled the military forces, permitted his own ambitions to
+influence him more than the welfare of his country. Being only
+twenty-six years old, he was not of the constitutional age to be
+president, but listening to the counsel of scheming politicians, he
+dominated the situation by force of arms and brought about the
+selection of his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as provisional president. The
+latter was a senator from Santiago province, and had at one time been
+a member of Caceres' cabinet, but he was not regarded as of
+presidential calibre and his selection provoked general surprise and
+indignation. General Victoria's army was a potent argument; it
+withered the ambition of other aspirants to the presidency, and
+Senator Victoria was elected provisional president and entered upon
+office December 6, 1911. In the following February the usual form of
+public election was gone through and on February 27, 1912, he took the
+oath of office as constitutional president. His nephew occupied
+important cabinet positions under the new administration.
+
+The general opposition to President Victoria and to the method of
+electing him found expression in revolutionary uprisings throughout
+the country, especially in the Cibao and Azua. Ex-President Vasquez,
+ex-President Morales and several Jimenista generals took the field
+independently. Morales was captured, but the others continued the
+fight. Beginning early in December, 1911, the war dragged on for
+months, both sides sustaining heavy losses and extensive sections of
+the country being devastated.
+
+It became apparent that there was a deadlock, the government being
+powerless to subdue the revolutionists, while the revolutionists were
+unable to carry on an active campaign against the government. The
+American government eventually extended its good offices with a view
+to the reestablishment of peace and order. A special commission
+appointed by the President of the United States and consisting of an
+official of the War Department and another of the State Department
+arrived in Santo Domingo in October, 1912, and initiated a series of
+conferences with government and revolutionary leaders. An agreement
+was concluded and in accordance therewith the Dominican Congress
+assembled on November 26, 1912, accepted the resignation of President
+Victoria, and elected the archbishop of Santo Domingo, Monsignor
+Adolfo A. Nouel, as provisional president for a period of two years.
+He was inducted into office on December 1, 1912.
+
+Archbishop Nouel, a man of great learning, beloved and respected
+throughout the country, entered upon his duties with the announced
+purpose of giving an impartial administration and governing with both
+parties. The difficulties of the plan were soon impressed upon him,
+particularly as he relied entirely upon moral suasion to carry his
+policies into effect. Pressure was applied for favors which he could
+not grant, his appointments were bitterly criticised as savoring of
+nepotism or as unduly favoring one side or the other, and some of the
+fiercer military chiefs assumed a menacing attitude. Sick and
+disgusted, Monsignor Nouel resigned the presidential office on March
+31, 1913, and embarked for Europe.
+
+The Dominican Congress immediately considered the choice of a
+temporary successor and after many ballots elected a compromise
+candidate, General José Bordas Valdez, an Horacista senator from Monte
+Cristi, as provisional president for a period of one year. He assumed
+office April 14, 1913. His designation did not please the Jimenistas,
+and the Horacistas also became hostile when it appeared that President
+Bordas contemplated forming a party of his own. His opponents promptly
+rose in the Cibao and took possession of the ports of Puerto Plata,
+Sanchez and Samana, which were thereupon blockaded by the government
+forces. In the latter part of September, 1913, the revolutionists laid
+down their arms on the promise of the American minister that free
+elections for presidential electors and members of a constitutional
+convention would be guaranteed. A municipal election was in fact
+held, but President Bordas, alleging that conditions were too
+unsettled for a general presidential election, held on as president de
+facto beyond the term for which he had been provisionally elected. On
+the day his term ended, April 13, 1914, another revolution broke out
+and rapidly spread to all parts of the Republic. Puerto Plata was
+occupied by the insurgents and blockaded for several months by
+government vessels, the blockade being accompanied by a siege of the
+city under the direction of the president himself. On the other hand,
+the insurgents laid siege to the capital. The government contracted
+heavy debts to carry on the war and the commerce of the country
+suffered greatly.
+
+Again the American government lent its good offices for the
+restoration of order. In August, 1914, a commission of three delegates
+of the United States arrived in Santo Domingo to present a plan for
+the resignation of Bordas, the selection of a provisional president by
+the chiefs of the several political parties, a revision of the
+election law, and the holding of general elections. The plan was
+agreed to, President Bordas resigned, and Dr. Ramon Baez, a son of
+former President Buenaventura Baez, was elected by the Dominican
+Congress as provisional president on August 27, 1914.
+
+Popular elections were held in October, at which there were four
+candidates: ex-President Juan Isidro Jimenez, ex-President Horacio
+Vasquez, ex-Minister of Finance Federico Velazquez, and a fourth of
+little consequence. The Jimenez and Velazquez forces effected a
+combination, as a result of which Juan Isidro Jimenez was elected
+president a second time, and took the oath of office on December
+5, 1914.
+
+For a moment it seemed as though the country was at last entering upon
+an era of peace and prosperity. The government made efforts to solve
+the financial problems left by the recent civil wars and to resume
+public improvements. Investments of foreign capital increased, and
+agriculture and commerce expanded.
+
+The elements of disorganization were present, however, in as strong a
+degree as ever. Corruption was general in the administration of the
+public funds, but attempts at reform had no result further than to
+stimulate violent opposition. The old leaven of sedition was at work,
+and disgruntled military chiefs found a willing leader in the minister
+of war, General Desiderio Arias, a chronic revolutionist from Monte
+Cristi, who had for years used the popularity of Jimenez as a cloak
+for his own aspirations. The president, aged and infirm, was unable to
+meet the situation with energy, and disinclined to adopt
+severe measures.
+
+In the early part of 1916 Arias had his friends in Congress vote to
+impeach President Jimenez for alleged frauds. The matter was still
+under discussion, and the president was ill at his country place on
+the San Cristobal road, near Santo Domingo City, when in April, 1916,
+General Arias suddenly seized the military control of the capital and
+issued a proclamation by which he practically deposed Jimenez and
+assumed the executive power himself.
+
+Another civil war was imminent when deliverance came in an unexpected
+manner. For many years past in previous disturbances, one or both of
+the warring factions had looked to the United States government for
+help in restoring order, and diplomatic assistance had time after time
+put an end to strife. The endless succession of revolts had at length
+exhausted the patience of the American government. In the face of
+another general war with its attendant destruction of life and
+property, harm to American and other foreign interests, and danger of
+international complications (a British and a French man-of-war were
+already solicitously hovering off the capital), the American
+government took decisive action. With the consent of President
+Jimenez, it landed marines at old San Geronimo castle, on the Guibia
+road, near Santo Domingo City.
+
+Though Jimenez approved of this action and recognized that his country
+could not emerge from the slough of revolution without American
+assistance, he was depressed at the condition of affairs, and in view
+of his physical feebleness felt himself unequal to the task of guiding
+the country through impending difficulties. He therefore on May 6,
+1916, resigned the presidency of the Republic, and subsequently
+returned to Porto Rico to live. The council of ministers temporarily
+assumed the administration.
+
+Arias, dismayed at the action of the United States, made protest, but
+the American government refused to admit the legality or sincerity of
+his conduct. Its troops advanced on Santo Domingo City and
+Rear-Admiral Caperton, the American commander, gave Arias twenty-four
+hours to evacuate. He promptly obeyed, and on May 15 the Americans
+occupied the city.
+
+American troops continued to be landed, at Puerto Plata on June 5; at
+Monte Cristi on June 19; and at other seaports as necessity demanded,
+until a total of about 1800 marines had been disembarked. They
+proceeded into the interior, taking over the preservation of public
+order and disarming the inhabitants. They advanced on foot, in
+improvised motor trucks, and as real "horse marines," in accordance
+with a plan to secure thorough pacification by having them appear in
+all parts of the country.  The American marines met with no serious
+opposition except in the Cibao, in the section between Monte Cristi,
+Puerto Plata and Santiago, where the following of Arias was strongest.
+To clear this section two columns were launched from the seacoast with
+Santiago as the objective, the first of 800 men from Monte Cristi, the
+second of about 200 men from Puerto Plata, the entire force being
+under command of Brigadier-General Joseph H. Pendleton. The
+expeditionary force from Monte Cristi, under Colonel Dunlop, advanced
+along the highway, which was little more than a muddy trail through a
+jungle of cactus and thorny brush, and several Americans were shot
+from ambush. Repeatedly small detachments of rebels made a stand upon
+some favorable piece of ground, until routed by the marines. The
+decisive encounter took place on July 1, 1916, at Guayacanes, near
+Esperanza, where a force of 400 marines after a stubborn fight carried
+a strongly entrenched position defended by about 300 rebels. The
+American losses were 1 enlisted man killed and 1 officer and 7
+enlisted men wounded; the rebels are estimated to have lost several
+score between killed and wounded, their leader, Maximito Cabral, being
+killed fighting in the trenches after all his men were dead or
+driven off.
+
+The second column, from Puerto Plata, under Major Bearss, opened up
+the railroad, encountering its principal resistance at the tunnel
+south of Altamira. The two columns joined forces at Navarrete and then
+occupied Santiago. All the insurgents eventually dispersed or
+surrendered, and Arias himself submitted to the American military
+control, which became absolute throughout the country. The total
+American losses in occupying the country were 3 officers killed and 3
+wounded and 4 enlisted men killed and 12 wounded; the losses of the
+insurgents are estimated at between 100 and 300 killed and wounded.
+
+The Dominican Congress proceeded on July 25, 1916, to elect a
+temporary president, and chose Dr. Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, a
+distinguished physician and highly cultured man. It was understood
+that he was to hold for six months and was not to seek reelection at
+the general election to be held within that time. The United States
+government, however, was loath to extend recognition unless assured
+that Santo Domingo would enter upon a path of order and progress. The
+fiscal treaty of 1907 had not secured the peace expected of it; the
+prohibition against the contracting of further indebtedness had been
+frequently violated; disorder and corruption had continued; and the
+American government deemed its task uncompleted if it should surrender
+the country to the same chaotic conditions. It accordingly required,
+as a condition of recognizing Henriquez, that a new treaty between the
+two countries be adopted, similar to the recently approved treaty
+between the United States and Haiti, where a series of revolutions
+culminating in a massacre of prisoners had the year before obliged the
+American government to intervene. The principal features of this
+treaty were the collection of customs under American auspices, the
+appointment of an American financial adviser, and the establishment of
+a constabulary force officered by Americans.
+
+Henriquez, jealous of his country's sovereignty and fearful that the
+proposed arrangement would make the Dominican government a puppet
+controlled by all-powerful and not sufficiently responsible American
+officials, refused to accede to the American demands. The American
+authorities thereupon declined to pay over any of the Republic's
+revenues to a government which they did not recognize. Inasmuch as
+they not only collected the customs and port dues, but had assumed
+control of the other revenues as well, the Henriquez government was
+left penniless. Nevertheless, the American demands continued to be
+rejected. As a result, no salaries were paid in any part of the
+Republic; the officials who continued in their duties did so with the
+hope of being compensated at some future date; some services, such as
+the mail service, were discontinued almost entirely; and the whole
+machinery of the government was paralyzed.
+
+This tension and anomalous condition lasted for several months. As the
+term for which Henriquez had been elected drew to a close, it became
+evident that he had no idea of retiring from the presidency, but, on
+the contrary, intended to hold general elections, in which he expected
+to be the successful candidate. The deadlock thus threatened to
+continue indefinitely, and the American government thereupon
+determined to cut the Gordian knot.
+
+On November 29, 1916, Captain (later Rear-Admiral) H. S. Knapp, of the
+United States navy, commander of the American cruiser force in
+Dominican waters, and of the forces of occupation of the Dominican
+Republic, issued a proclamation, declaring the Dominican Republic
+under the military administration of the United States. The
+proclamation recited that the Dominican Republic had failed to live up
+to the terms of the treaty of 1907; that the American government had
+patiently endeavored to aid the Dominican government, but that the
+latter was not inclined or able to adopt the measures suggested,
+wherefore the American government believed the time at hand to take
+steps to assure the execution of said Convention and to maintain
+domestic tranquillity in the Republic. He therefore declared that the
+Dominican Republic was placed in a state of military occupation by the
+forces under his command; that the object of the occupation was not to
+destroy Dominican sovereignty, but to restore order; that Dominican
+laws were to continue in effect so far as they did not conflict with
+the objects of the occupation or the decrees of the military
+government; that the Dominican courts were to continue in their
+functions, except that offenses against the military government were
+to be judged by military courts; and that all the revenues of the
+Dominican government were to be paid over to the military government,
+which would administer the same. He called on all inhabitants to
+cooperate with the forces of the United States.
+
+The military government so established took full possession of the
+country. The chiefs of the executive departments not having appeared
+in their offices, their posts were declared vacant and filled with
+officers of the American navy. In the country at large, there was
+little open opposition, and such as appeared was suppressed without
+difficulty. The inhabitants quickly reconciled themselves to the
+situation, realizing that it was to the best interests of their
+country. Dr. Henriquez, the ex-president, left for Cuba in the early
+part of December.
+
+The military government thereupon proceeded to organize the finances,
+to pay arrears of salaries, to subdue several bandits who refused
+allegiance, and to confiscate all arms. Absolute order and security,
+greater than have prevailed in Santo Domingo since colonial days, were
+soon established. The military government then devoted itself to the
+construction of public works, especially roads, the organization of a
+police force, and in general to the improvement of the country.
+
+ After the Washington government determined to participate in the
+European war, the American military governor on April 12, 1917,
+connected Santo Domingo with the war by canceling the exequaturs of
+the German consular representatives in the Dominican Republic; there
+was no formal rupture, as no diplomatic representative of either
+country was at the time residing in the other. German residents were
+subjected to surveillance by the American authorities.
+
+The Dominican Republic is still (January, 1918) being administered by
+American naval officers and the work of reorganization continues.
+Eventually--in all likelihood after the European war--the government
+is to be turned back to the Dominican people, and it is probable that
+such devolution will be under conditions that will assure a stable
+government, peace and progress.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+
+AREA AND BOUNDARIES
+
+Area of Republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo.--Boundary
+disputes.--Harbors on north coast.--Character of shore.--Samana
+Bay.--Character of east and south coast.--Harbors of Macoris and Santo
+Domingo.--Ocoa Bay.--Islands.--Haitian frontier.
+
+
+Of the great chain of islands which extends in a vast semi-circle from
+the southern coast of Florida to the northeastern coast of Venezuela,
+the second largest is the Island of Haiti or Santo Domingo, situated
+midway between Cuba and Porto Rico, and lying between latitude
+17°36'40" and 19°58'20" north and longitude 68°18' and 74°51' west of
+Greenwich. The island is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the north,
+the Mona Channel on the east, the Caribbean Sea on the south, and the
+Windward Passage on the west. The nearest point of Porto Rico is 54
+miles distant, of Cuba 50 miles, of Jamaica 90 miles and of Venezuela,
+the nearest country on the South American continent, 480 miles. The
+distance from Puerto Plata, on the north coast of the island, to New
+York is 1255 miles, to Havana 710 miles, and to Southampton 3925
+miles. The distance from Santo Domingo City to San Juan, Porto Rico,
+is 230 miles, to La Guayra 500 miles, and to Colon 810 miles.
+
+The island is divided between two political entities, the western one,
+comprising one-third of its surface, being the Republic of Haiti,
+while the eastern one is popularly known as Santo Domingo or San
+Domingo, though it is officially termed the Dominican Republic. These
+two republics present at once interesting resemblances and contrasts.
+They are separated by no natural bounds; their soil, resources, and
+political conditions are similar; but while in Haiti the language and
+historical associations are French and the numerically predominant
+race stock is black, in Santo Domingo, on the other hand, the language
+and historical associations are Spanish, and the mulatto rather than
+the black is most in evidence.
+
+The area of the island is generally stated at 28,249 square miles, of
+which Haiti is credited with 10,204 square miles and the Dominican
+Republic with 18,045 square miles. Since no part of the island has
+ever been carefully surveyed, such figures can be regarded as only
+approximately correct. The Dominican Republic is therefore about as
+large as the States of New Hampshire and Vermont together, less than
+half as large as Cuba and more than five times the size of Porto Rico.
+
+In the above estimate of the area of the two Republics no account is
+taken of their reciprocal claims to further lands. Each claims about
+1500 square miles occupied by the other. The Dominicans affirm they
+have a right to the plain of Hinche and St. Raphael, comprising some
+of the finest agricultural lands on the island. They contend that
+Haiti is entitled only to the territory embraced in the confines of
+the old French colony of Saint-Domingue. Under the treaty of Aranjuez,
+of June 3, 1777, the boundaries of the French and Spanish colonies on
+the Island of Santo Domingo were carefully defined and marked by
+monuments. In 1795 the Spanish colony was ceded to France; but when in
+1804 the Haitians declared the independence of the island, they were
+able to control little more than the old French portion, most of the
+old Spanish portion remaining in the possession of France. The
+boundary line remained unchanged when the old Spanish portion again
+came under the rule of Spain in 1809. In 1822 Haitian rule was
+extended over the entire island, but in 1844, when the inhabitants of
+the eastern portion proclaimed their independence their declaration
+comprised the whole of the old Spanish part of the island. The Haitian
+government made strenuous efforts to reconquer the revolting
+provinces, with the final result that it was able to retain and still
+retains 1500 square miles more than belonged to the former French
+colony. This is the portion still claimed by Santo Domingo.
+
+On the other hand, the Haitians, based on alleged boundary conditions
+and tentative arrangements in 1856 and 1874, claim a strip of land now
+occupied by Santo Domingo lying along the border and also aggregating
+about 1500 square miles. Maps published in Haiti always show the
+boundary line from five to forty miles further east than it is
+in reality.
+
+Arbitration has repeatedly been suggested to determine the boundary,
+and efforts were made in 1895 to submit the question to the Pope and
+in 1911 to resort to The Hague, but without success.
+
+The Haitians have not only peopled and carefully guarded the territory
+controlled by them, but have attempted to push the frontier further
+east toward the line they claim. In 1911 and a year later, alleged
+encroachments by Haiti almost led to war between the two countries.
+The United States interposed its good offices and in 1912 suggested as
+provisional boundary, until otherwise determined by mutual agreement
+between the two countries, the line which was observed as boundary in
+1905 when the American receiver general of customs took charge of the
+frontier custom-houses. Both countries agreeing, the line as suggested
+has since been regarded as the boundary and bids fair to become, with
+perhaps a few unimportant modifications, the permanent boundary
+between Haiti and Santo Domingo. The outlook for arbitration seems to
+be no better now than heretofore, nor is it probable that any court of
+arbitration would divest either Haiti or Santo Domingo of any
+considerable portion of the lands they have so long possessed.
+
+The boundary disputes have not tended to improve the relations between
+the two countries, which formerly regarded each other with a hatred
+that has only in the past fifty years softened down to mutual distrust
+and dislike. It has frequently happened that the authorities of one
+country abetted insurrections in the other; and it was common practice
+for insurgents in either country to retreat across the border to
+recuperate in the other. In the Dominican revolutions of 1912 to 1914
+several bands of revolutionists had permanent headquarters on the
+Haitian side.
+
+The greatest breadth of the Dominican Republic, from the Morro of
+Monte Cristi to Cape Beata, is about 170 miles, the greatest length,
+from Cape Engaño to the Haitian frontier, about 260 miles. The
+Republic has a coast line of about 940 miles, on which there are
+several good ports and large bays.
+
+One of these is Manzanillo Bay, which lies at the extreme northwestern
+point of the Republic. Large and well protected, affording excellent
+anchorage for any class of vessels, it is one of the best harbors and
+perhaps the most important point strategically, on the north coast of
+the island. It receives the waters of the Dajabon or Massacre River,
+which constitutes part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican
+Republic, and of the turbulent Yaque del Norte, which here forms a
+delta of considerable extent. Owing to the proximity of Monte Cristi
+the various projects for the establishment of a port and custom-house
+at this point have hitherto failed of realization.
+
+Fifteen miles to the northeast of Manzanillo Bay is the ancient port
+of Monte Cristi, discovered by Columbus, in his vessel the Niña, on
+his first voyage. The great explorer landed here to examine the plain
+near the shore, and departed at dawn on January 6, 1493. The port of
+Monte Cristi is a large open bay with a fine roadstead, but the
+shallow water near the shore obliges vessels to anchor over a mile
+from land. On the eastern side the harbor is sheltered by a high
+promontory now known as El Morro, to which Columbus gave the name of
+Monte Cristi, after a remarkable profile, recalling the pictures of
+Christ, which is visible in the outlines of the mount to vessels
+entering the harbor. The isolated, treeless mountain under the usually
+cloudless sky of beautiful blue strongly recalls the buttes of our
+Western plains.
+
+The range of mountains known as the Monte Cristi Range, forms a
+background for the entire northern coast of the Republic. From Monte
+Cristi for fifty miles east, to the bay of Isabela, the shore is bleak
+and barren, formed of rocks and cliffs with short intervals of sandy
+beach. Isabela Bay is where the first Spanish settlement in America
+was laid out by Columbus in 1493. Little remains to mark the site, but
+the white palm-fringed strand gleams in the sunlight and is caressed
+by the blue waters just as in Columbus' day. The harbor at the mouth
+of a stream flowing down from the mountains is small and shallow, but
+it is occasionally visited by coastwise vessels in search of cargoes
+of mahogany and other woods from the nearby hills.
+
+Thirty miles east of Isabela lies Puerto Plata. The intervening coast
+possesses a few small ports of little importance, but sometimes
+visited by coasting schooners. The most important one is Blanco,
+which during the War of the Restoration with the Spaniards was the
+insurgents' port of entry and the base of considerable illicit trade
+with Turks Island. The harbor of Puerto Plata, the most important city
+on the north coast, is formed by a small bay, enclosed on the sea side
+by a reef of coral rock. There is plenty of depth within, but little
+room, and only three or four large steamers can with safety anchor
+here at the same time. The harbor is well protected except on the
+north. During gales from that direction it becomes exceedingly
+uncomfortable, and the narrow entrance channel quite dangerous.
+Portions of wrecks rising above the foaming water of the reef--the
+broken bow of one vessel and ship's engine of another--bear witness to
+the perils lurking there at such times. Near the shore the harbor is
+shallow, and though there is little tide, the water recedes some
+distance. To avoid the difficulty there is a long pier for the use of
+small boats and it is no longer necessary, as of yore, for passengers
+to be carried ashore from boats in the arms of the boatmen. A fine
+public dock for large vessels is also nearing completion.
+
+A broad and fertile coast plain extends from Puerto Plata some
+twenty-five miles to the small port of La Goleta. On this plain about
+twelve miles from Puerto Plata, lies the port of Sosua. La Goleta is a
+distributing point for the lumber cut in this district. A considerable
+portion thereof proceeds from the headwaters of the nearby river
+Yásica, being floated down the river and then along the ocean shore.
+From the Yásica River, the mouth of which is about 100 feet wide, an
+uneven rocky stretch of coast extends in a southeasterly direction to
+Cape Frances Viejo, where there is a new lighthouse. Numerous brooks
+traverse this region and leap down to the sea from the rocks, in
+beautiful cascades often twenty and thirty feet in height. Near Cape
+Frances lies the small town formerly called Tres Amarras and now
+Cabrera. The Monte Cristi Range terminates here, its foothills forming
+the promontories of Cape Frances and Point Sabaneta. Travel along this
+rugged part of the coast is difficult; in order to avoid the
+troublesome gullies of the shore, the trail often runs far inland
+through dense jungle. The rocks are of a conglomerate formation, and
+are worn by the waves into the most fantastic shapes. From the
+appearance of the cliffs it seems that at remote periods two distinct
+upheavals of the land took place, the first of which formed the peaks
+which rise about twelve miles in the interior, the second and more
+recent one giving origin to the great rocks along the coast. The
+precipices in the interior, which in ages past were washed by the sea,
+rise to a sheer height of from two hundred to four hundred feet and
+are crowned with trees. The rocky masses in the coast forests are full
+of clefts and caverns which furnish habitation to millions of bees.
+
+The shore now curves southward and becomes low and sandy. There are
+low coast plains covered with trees, especially groves of palm trees,
+which extend far into the interior. Four rivers are crossed, which
+carry comparatively little water, and the mouths of which are
+obstructed by sand bars caused by the prevailing north and east winds.
+As a result of these bars the streams flood the country and form large
+stagnant lakes, that have effectively prevented a settlement of the
+region. Some seven miles before reaching the mouth of the Gran Estero
+there is a little town called Matanzas, a kind of headquarters for
+turtle fishermen and which, though the entrance to its bay is almost
+closed by a sand bank, is often visited by coasting schooners that
+call for cacao from nearby plantations.  What is called the Gran
+Estero is a network of bayous and channels, some upon the surface,
+others subterranean, which extends from the Yuna River to the ocean
+and traverses the marshy plain forming the neck of the Samana
+peninsula. It is apparent that the Yuna River centuries ago emptied
+into the ocean and that what is to-day the Samana peninsula was once
+an island separated by a broad channel from the mainland, to which it
+became united by the gradual rise of the land and by the alluvium
+deposited by the river. The great swamp so formed is in one place as
+much as 18 miles wide, and is covered with stunted mangrove trees and
+rank weeds and bushes. The decaying vegetation gives the water of the
+bayous and stagnant ponds a dirty coffee color and taints the air with
+malarial miasma. The opening of channels and draining of the swamp
+would remedy the defects, at the same time providing important means
+of communication and reclaiming large tracts of the richest
+agricultural land.
+
+From Matanzas the coast extends due east, closely following the
+mountain range which beginning near Port Jackson forms the backbone of
+the Samana peninsula. Spurs of the mountains rise precipitously from
+the sea which foams at their rocky base, and from the summits to the
+water's edge the country is covered with luxuriant vegetation. The few
+rocky coves along the shore were a favorite resort for buccaneers in
+days gone by. One of them is Port Jackson; the entrance is rendered
+dangerous by a coral reef, but once within, the deep waters are always
+tranquil and offer good shelter to the little craft of the turtle
+fishermen. Though the waters of this region are said to teem with the
+finest fish but little attention is paid to fishing. Another cove,
+difficult of access because of the jagged rocks near the entrance, is
+Port Escondido, or Hidden Port, near the most conspicuous feature of
+this coast, the lofty promontory of Cape Cabron, or Cabo del
+Enamorado, Lover's Cape. The easternmost point of the peninsula is the
+rugged double-terraced headland of Cape Samana, reckoned as the
+beginning of Samana Bay, though strictly speaking the Bay begins at
+the majestic cliff known as Balandra Point.
+
+This magnificent bay, one of the great harbors of the world and the
+finest by far of the West Indies, has ever excited the admiration of
+travelers. Securely sheltered against storms, of an extent sufficient
+to accommodate the navies of the world, easily fortified and defended,
+occupying a highly important strategical position, its advantages
+cannot be overestimated. Samana Bay, a submerged extension of the
+great valley of the Yuna River, is thirty-five miles in length and
+from ten to fifteen miles in width. Looking up the Bay from the
+entrance no land is descried on the horizon. Columbus, when he first
+entered, believed he was on an ocean channel dividing two islands. The
+north coast is protected by the low mountain-range of the Samana
+peninsula, in places resembling the Palisades on the Hudson, and the
+southern shore is fringed by a chain of hills, so that the emerald
+green waters of the Bay are perfectly sheltered against all winds
+except those from the east. Even here the effect of the wind is
+modified and it is only during eastern gales that choppy waves oblige
+small boats to seek the coves along the shore. About four miles from
+Point Balandra, is a group of five islets, known as the Cayos
+Levantados. The channel between these Keys and the northern shore of
+the Bay, 2000 yards in width with a maximum depth of 140 and a minimum
+depth of 50 feet, constitutes the principal entrance to the Bay, the
+only one which is available for large vessels. The other channel,
+known as the  Half Moon Channel, lies immediately south of the Keys;
+but being narrow and shallow, is navigable only by vessels of light
+draft. The great expanse of water, fifteen miles in width, between
+this channel and the south shore of the Bay is so dotted with shoals
+as to be absolutely impassable. It will thus be seen that the actual
+entrance to the great Bay is quite narrow and could easily be defended
+by mines or by fortifications on the Cayos and the peninsula. The Bay
+is like a great bottle with a very narrow neck. The Spaniards, in
+fact, established a small fort on the headland, its ruins being now
+hidden by dense underbrush.
+
+It seems surprising that no large and flourishing metropolis should
+have arisen on the shores of this splendid body of water. Apparently
+the principal reason why it did not appeal to the Spaniards was that
+owing to the prevailing easterly breezes their clumsy vessels would
+have encountered difficulty in leaving. Since the days of steam, of
+course, this trouble is obviated. The value of the Bay as a naval
+station has been widely advertised, and France, England and the United
+States have at various times entertained projects of acquiring it. The
+American government in 1869 even negotiated a treaty for the lease of
+Samana peninsula and Samana Bay, but the United States Senate failed
+to act and the treaty was lost by expiration of time. The Bay would
+constitute a military and commercial key to this part of the world for
+any power possessing it.
+
+Near Balandra point is the tiny settlement of Las Flechas, located
+upon the scene of the first encounter marked by bloodshed between the
+Spaniards and Indians. A number of Columbus' men having landed here in
+January, 1493. were attacked by Indians and in the ensuing engagement
+an Indian was wounded.  The occurrence induced Columbus to name the
+Bay Golfo de las Flechas, Gulf of the Arrows. At the end of the main
+channel of entrance to the Bay the north shore is indented by the
+large and commodious basin of Clara, and about two miles further to
+the west is the harbor of the old city of Santa Barbara de Samana, a
+tranquil sheet of water, separated from the Bay proper by several
+small islands, but which can be entered only by vessels drawing less
+than twenty feet. Beyond Samana the coast becomes a little less steep
+and the verdure-covered mountains recede sufficiently to give room to
+narrow coast plains, thickly grown with cocoa-nut palms. Along the
+beach are landscapes of idyllic beauty. Deep water extends up to the
+shore and there are half a dozen points which excel for landing
+places. Some twenty miles from Samana the last offshoots from the
+mountains encompass the town of Sanchez. Beyond in a large
+semi-circle, the end of the Bay is skirted by the great swamp which
+comprises the Gran Estero and the delta of the Yuna River.
+
+The town of Sanchez, the terminus of the railroad from La Vega, is an
+important outlet for the products of the Royal Plain, but though one
+of the principal ports of the Republic its situation on Samana Bay is
+unfavorable. Located where the Samana mountains slope into the Gran
+Estero, the site is ill adapted for the expansion of the settlement;
+the vicinity of the great marsh is not inviting, though the prevailing
+eastern breezes serve to drive back its noxious emanations; and the
+harbor, even now so shallow that vessels are obliged to anchor a mile
+from shore, is gradually silting up with sediment from the Yuna River.
+The story goes that the selection of this unpropitious spot for the
+terminus of the railroad was due to the passion of a moment. A tract
+of land at Point Santa Capuza, five miles down the bay, where a level
+coast plain and deep water up to the very shore invited the
+establishment of a port, had previously been chosen. The railroad had
+been extended to this spot and the foundations of the shops were being
+laid when the principal owner of the road, who was directing the
+construction work, learned that several of his engineers had acquired
+a controlling interest in a portion of the site of the projected town.
+The choleric Scotchman immediately removed his headquarters to Las
+Cañitas, where Sanchez is now located, and though a vast amount of
+digging and filling was necessary the shops were erected here and the
+road to Santa Capuza was abandoned. The railroad has since purchased,
+for a song, almost all the land which caused the trouble, but as it
+has only recently expended £10,000 in the extension of its wharf at
+Sanchez from six to ten feet on water, and made other improvements,
+there is evidently no intention of moving the terminus.
+
+Beginning at Sanchez the entire western shore of Samana Bay is lined
+by swamp land, interspersed with the sandbanks formed by the various
+mouths of the Yuna. Turning east, the coast becomes almost
+inaccessible owing to the reefs and rocks which line it and constitute
+the beginning of low rocky ridges running into the interior. This
+region, known as "Los Haitis," continues until the Bay of San Lorenzo
+is reached. This capacious inlet, the only good harbor on the southern
+coast of Samana Bay is almost completely landlocked by a peninsula
+extending across its mouth, and affords good anchorage. The project of
+establishing a city and free port here was considered in 1883 and a
+comprehensive concession was granted with this object in view, but
+nothing was done and the concession lapsed. San Lorenzo Bay is also
+called Bahia de las Perlas, from the pearls found in its waters in
+the early-days; it is related that in 1531 five pecks were sent to
+Spain as the royal fifth. On the western side of the bay are extensive
+and beautiful stalactitic caves, in pre-Columbian days the abode of
+Indians, and in the seventeenth century a favorite resort for pirates,
+who were well acquainted with every nook and inlet along the shores of
+Samana Bay. Some five miles to the east of the Bay of San Lorenzo lies
+the village of Sabana la Mar. So shallow is the water here that not
+even small vessels can approach near to the low and sandy shore. The
+same condition prevails along the remainder of the southern shore of
+Samana Bay. Branching from the low hills that skirt the coast is the
+headland of Cape Rafael at the end of the Bay, forming a fitting
+counterpart to Cape Samana on the north.
+
+Turning southeasterly along the coast Point Nisibon is reached, where
+a calcareous rock formation and soil suitable for sugar planting
+begins. Forty miles of rocky shore intervene between this point and
+Cape Engaño, the easternmost cape of the island, with a new
+lighthouse, the light of which is visible twenty miles away. The coast
+now leads southwesterly to Point Espada, shaped like a sword, and but
+twenty-five miles distant from the Island of Mona, a dependency of
+Porto Rico. Southwest from Point Espada lies the largest island of the
+Dominican Republic, the Island of Saona, fifteen miles long by four
+miles wide, the low hills of which are covered with abundant
+vegetation. At the time of the conquest it was the home of a numerous
+Indian population; later when owned by the Jesuits it had well-kept
+plantations; to-day it is almost uninhabited. Not far away are the
+smaller islands of Catalina and Catalinita, which possess valuable
+timber but like Saona are uninhabited.  From Point Palmilla opposite
+Saona Island, the shore-line, fringed with coral rocks, turns
+northwest and then due west. It bounds the great flat region of Santo
+Domingo, and to the traveler on passing ships is the most monotonous
+part of the coast, for in the absence of mountains to break the
+sky-line, there is nothing to be seen but a low palm-crowned rocky
+wall with surf beating at its base. The harbors are estuaries of
+rivers; those of La Romana, Soco and San Pedro de Macoris are of this
+description.
+
+San Pedro de Macoris is the principal port for the exportation of
+sugar. Its harbor is commodious, but access thereto is rendered
+difficult by a bar traversed only by a narrow and tortuous channel.
+Extensive harbor improvements were here undertaken under a concession
+which caused considerable litigation and discussion until it was
+redeemed by the government by means of the 1907 bond issue.
+
+In the forty miles intervening between San Pedro de Macoris and Santo
+Domingo City, about the only place of interest is the Bay of Andres,
+midway between the two cities, which is the home of innumerable wild
+ducks. The City of Santo Domingo is situated on the west bank of the
+Ozama River, the mouth of which constitutes the city's harbor. Since
+the town was founded four centuries ago the width of the river here
+seems to have diminished by fully one-fourth owing to accretion along
+the shores. A bar across the entrance renders access impracticable for
+vessels drawing more than fifteen feet of water. This bar has given
+considerable trouble, for at times it has grown in such manner as to
+leave a depth of but five feet. It is now kept open by means of
+jetties and dredging. Within the bar the river is perfectly smooth and
+vessels can without trouble draw up to the dock, but the roadstead
+outside is generally very rough and the embarking and disembarking of
+passengers is attended with experiences more exciting than pleasant.
+At this place more than one passenger has had an involuntary bath and
+many a piece of luggage lies at the bottom of the sea. On two
+occasions on which I disembarked here in stormy weather it seemed an
+even wager that the boat would be swamped before reaching the
+river mouth.
+
+The wall of coral rock girding the coast continues as far as Point
+Palenque, when it is succeeded by sandy beach. This inhospitable shore
+has been the witness of stirring episodes, for it was near Fort San
+Geronimo where the American troops came ashore in 1916; at the mouth
+of the Jaina that Drake disembarked in 1586 to accomplish his bold
+reduction of Santo Domingo City; at the cove of Najayo where Penn and
+Venables landed in 1655 in their unsuccessful descent upon the colony;
+and near Port Palenque where a British force under Carmichael landed
+in 1809 to assist the Dominicans in retaking Santo Domingo City from
+the French. Off Point Palenque, too, in 1806 a British squadron under
+Vice-Admiral Duckworth defeated a French squadron commanded by
+Rear-Admiral Lessiegues, forcing two French ships-of-the-line ashore
+and capturing several other vessels. The ports are all shallow and
+unsheltered, but are occasionally visited by coasting sloops in quest
+of timber and other products of the country.
+
+The lofty mountains which in Santo Domingo City can be discerned on
+the distant horizon have at Palenque become more distinct and
+approached nearer to the shore. On the green plain which slopes from
+their base to the sea, white specks, glittering in the sun, betray the
+presence of the town of Bani. But little further on, the mountains
+rise from the very shore, their spurs in the surf, their peaks capped
+by clouds.  The triangular bay of Ocoa, the second largest of the
+Republic, is now reached. Almost 25 miles in width at its mouth with a
+length of some 13 miles, its extent earned for it, in olden days, the
+name of Puerto Hermoso de los Españoles, the beautiful port of the
+Spaniards. It has plenty of water and is well protected by high hills
+on both sides, but on account of its wide entrance becomes very rough
+in a south wind. There are several good anchorages along its shore,
+and inlets which are used as harbors by various plantations. At its
+southeastern entrance is the landlocked body of water known as Caldera
+or Kettle Bay, claimed to be the best harbor on the southern coast of
+the Republic. It is separated from the ocean by a long narrow tongue
+of land, and being securely sheltered from all winds, its surface is
+always as placid as a lake. Caldera Bay is presumed to be the harbor
+in which Columbus on his fourth voyage rode out the great hurricane of
+1502 which demolished the infant city of Santo Domingo and sunk the
+gold fleet that had just set sail for Spain. This harbor was a
+rendezvous for the Spanish war vessels and transports in 1861 when
+Spain resumed control of Santo Domingo and again in 1865 when she
+relinquished possession. The extent and depth of Caldera Bay are
+claimed to be sufficient to accommodate the largest ships, but vessels
+seldom venture into it, as the charts of this part of the coast are
+deficient.
+
+At the upper end of Ocoa Bay is Port Tortuguero, the harbor of the
+city of Azua, affording good anchorage, but very rough in south winds.
+It. was the scene of one of the few naval engagements in the history
+of Santo Domingo, for here on April 15, 1844, two Dominican schooners
+sustained a drawn battle with three Haitian vessels. The surrounding
+hills appear almost bare of vegetation owing to the aridity of the
+climate. The only buildings at the port are a small custom-house and
+several sheds, the city of Azua lying about three miles inland. The
+former harbor of Azua, Puerto Viejo or Escondido, Old or Hidden Port,
+is a sheltered inlet on the western side of Ocoa Bay, but is available
+only for vessels of light draft.
+
+Point Martin Garcia where the western side of Ocoa Bay is regarded as
+terminating also marks the beginning of another large bay, Neiba Bay,
+which has the form of a cul-de-sac, with a length of eighteen miles
+and an average breadth of seven miles. It is open to the southeast,
+but in all other directions is well protected by high mountains. The
+water is of ample depth and there are several good anchorages, the
+best being the port of the small city of Barahona.
+
+From Neiba Bay to Cape Beata the coast waters are shallow and are only
+visited by small vessels which come to take away lumber or coffee from
+the neighboring heights. At Cape Beata, the southernmost cape of the
+Republic, the coast turns northwest, to the Pedernales River, which
+forms part of the boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic.
+Several small bays indent this portion of the shore, the one most
+favorable for shipping being Las Aguilas Bay, also known as Bahia sin
+Fondo, or Bottomless Bay. This part of the country, the Baboruco
+peninsula, is very sparsely inhabited. In the beginning of the
+nineteenth century it was the abode of maroons, half-savage fugitive
+slaves and their descendants.
+
+Four miles to the southwest of Cape Beata lies Beata Island, sloping
+down from an elevation in the south to a long point in the north. Its
+greatest length is about 7 miles, its maximum breadth 3 miles, and
+access is difficult as the only anchorage is on the eastern side
+almost two miles from land. The island is covered with dense forests
+in which wild cattle abound. During the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries the island was a convenient resort for the pirates that
+infested the Spanish main; at one time it is said to have contained
+fine plantations, but at present it is only occasionally visited by
+Dominican or Haitian fishermen.
+
+Rising precipitously from the sea, at a distance of about ten miles
+southwest of Beata Island, is a huge bell-shaped mass of rock, 500
+feet in height, almost two miles in length and a mile in width. It
+reminded Columbus of a giant ship under full sail, wherefore he named
+it Alta Vela, or High Sail, sometimes corrupted to Alto Velo. The
+valuable deposits of guano on the rock induced a party of Americans in
+1860 to take possession of it in the name of the United States as an
+ownerless guano island, but upon protest by the Dominican authorities
+the American government promptly recognized the superior rights of
+Santo Domingo. Visible from far out at sea, with a lighthouse on its
+summit, the great granite peak stands like a sentinel guarding the
+southern shore of the Republic.
+
+On the land side the vague boundary has varied constantly, influenced
+by the conflicting Haitian and Dominican claims, the greater or less
+energy of the border authorities on each side, and the tendency of the
+rapidly increasing Haitian population to establish homes in the
+uninhabited frontier region of Santo Domingo. The absolute lack of
+correct maps and the rugged character of the country make it
+difficult, even on the spot, to determine where the boundary line
+should be considered to run. In riding through the region about Lake
+Azuei, I noticed some bad dents in the frontier and came to the
+conclusion that not all the boundary pushing has been done
+by Haitians.
+
+On the frontier as provisionally fixed by the American government in
+1912, the Dajabon, Capotillo or Massacre River constitutes the
+northern end of the boundary. The lower course of this river is the
+only part of the boundary line where Haitian and Dominican claimants
+are able to agree. In the mountains to the west of Restauracion the
+line jumps over to the headwaters of the Libon River, which it follows
+to the upper Artibonite, continuing along this river as far as Banica.
+From here it runs across high mountains between Comendador and Hondo
+Valle on the Dominican side and Belladere and Savanette on the Haitian
+side, to the north shore of Lake Azuei, thence across the lake to the
+headwaters of the Pedernales River--with an indentation to give Haiti
+the post of Bois Tombé--and along that river to the sea. For the
+greater part of its extent the line traverses a wild mountainous
+country, rarely visited on the Dominican side, except by smugglers or
+an occasional frontier guard.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE
+
+
+Mountains.--Valleys and plains.--Rivers.--Lakes.--Temperature and
+rainfall.--Hurricanes.--Health conditions.
+
+It is related that an English admiral, in endeavoring to illustrate to
+George III the topography of one of the West India Islands crumpled up
+a piece of paper in his hand and laid it on the table before the
+monarch, saying: "That, sir, is the island." The traveler touring the
+West Indies finds the story following him from place to place. Among
+the islands which claim to have given origin to the anecdote is Haiti,
+and however that may be, such description seems to apply admirably.
+Rugged irregular mountain ranges interspersed with valleys form the
+greater part of the surface, while in the southeast a great plain
+extends from the mountains to the coast.
+
+The mountains of the Dominican Republic may be grouped in five
+principal ranges, two along the northern coast, one in the center of
+the island, and two in the southwest. They all extend from east to
+west and present numerous offshoots, especially the central range
+which is the most important one and comprises the highest peaks.
+
+One of the northern ranges is the short Samana Range, beginning at
+Cape Samana, extending the length of the Samana Peninsula, over thirty
+miles, and ending near the Gran Estero. The greatest altitude is
+attained by Mt. Pilon de Azucar and Mt. Diablo which are 1900 and
+1300 feet in height, respectively. This group at first sight appears
+to be an extension of the second chain, the Monte Cristi Range, but
+its geological formation proves it rather to belong to the great
+central range. It was probably at a remote period an island lying off
+from the mainland.
+
+The other northern range has its beginning near Samana Bay and extends
+all the way to Monte Cristi. It is known as the Monte Cristi Range
+though the eastern portion is also called the Sierra de Macoris. It
+sends several branches to the coast, the most important one being that
+which terminates at Puerto Plata. The highest points of the range are
+Mt. Diego de Ocampo, with an altitude of 4000 feet, Nord Peak 3500
+feet, and Mt. Murazo 3400 feet. A notable landmark is Mt. Isabel de
+Torres, 2300 feet in height, which overlooks Puerto Plata. Its head is
+usually shrouded in a cap of clouds, and small mists frequently hover
+about its surface. To Columbus, passing out at sea on his first
+voyage, the cloudcap appeared shining like burnished silver in the
+morning sun. He took it to be snow until closer investigation
+disclosed its true nature, whereupon he named the mountain Monte
+Plata, or Silver Mount, and the port at the base was afterwards called
+Puerto Plata. The mountain is said to have been given its present
+name, Isabel de Torres, in honor of the wife of a prominent settler,
+Diego de Ocampo, domiciled in Santiago in the early days, after whom
+the great mountain near that city was named. According to a local
+legend, this couple, although blessed with worldly goods, was also
+mutually possessed of such a nagging spirit and ungovernable temper
+that a separation became necessary, the husband remaining in Santiago,
+the wife removing to Puerto Plata. When leagues intervened between
+them their conduct was so charming that the inhabitants of the two
+cities gave their names to the high mountains near the respective
+towns. "If you doubt the story," the legend concludes, "there are the
+mountains to prove it."
+
+The principal mountain range, the Cordillera Central, begins at the
+extreme eastern point of the island, traverses the center of the
+Republic, crosses into Haitian territory and sinks into the sea at
+Mole St. Nicolas to reappear in Cuba, on the other side of the
+Windward Passage. It constitutes a part of the great ridge which forms
+the backbone of all the islands bounding the Caribbean Sea on the
+north. In the eastern part of Santo Domingo the range consists merely
+of a chain of high hills which rarely reach an altitude of more than
+900 feet, but in the center and west of the Republic it assumes much
+greater magnitude, sending out branches which are important mountain
+chains in themselves, and several of its peaks are over 6000 feet in
+height. The highest point in the island and in the West Indies is Mt.
+Tina, with an altitude of 10,300 feet, a magnificent outpost of that
+branch of the central range which traverses the south-central portion
+of the Republic. The next highest point, is Yaque Peak, 9700 feet
+high, nearly at the center of the island. The dense jungle covering
+the rugged slopes of these giants has so far baffled the few attempts
+at exploration of their summits. To the west of Yaque Peak is Mt.
+Cucurucho, 7400 feet high, and to the northwest Mt. Entre los Rios,
+8000 feet and Mt. Gallo, 8200 feet in height. It must be remembered
+that in the absence of any careful measurements, the altitudes given
+are mere approximations.
+
+The Cordillera Central is peculiar in its numerous branches which are
+often more intricate in their ramifications and comprise loftier peaks
+than the parent range. The most important of these branches are those
+which extend from Mt. Banilejo to the southern coast, and fill the
+district between San Cristobal and Azua with a jumble of mountains.
+Besides Mt. Tina, already mentioned, their principal peaks are Mt. Rio
+Grande, 6900 feet, overlooking the beautiful Constanza Valley, and Mt.
+Valdesia, 5900 feet high. One of the best defined ranges on the south
+is the Sierra del Agua, which runs south from the Central Cordillera
+to the San Juan River. The branches on the north are even more
+numerous and cover a greater area. Among them special reference may be
+made to the Sierra Zamba, which runs parallel to the Yaque del Norte
+River, the Sierra de San José de las Matas, the Santiago Range, the
+Jarabacoa Range and the Cotui Range.
+
+The fourth principal mountain range of the Republic, the Neiba Range,
+is sometimes classed as a part of the Cordillera Central. It rises on
+the western bank of the Neiba River and runs west parallel with the
+central chain, into Haitian territory. Among its principal peaks is
+Mt. Panso, 6200 feet high. The fifth principal range, situated in the
+extreme southwest of the Republic, is known as the Baboruco Range, and
+sometimes as Maniel de los Negros. It begins at the Caribbean coast
+south of Barahona Bay and runs west into Haiti, forming an integral
+portion of the mountain chain that traverses the great peninsula in
+the south of the Republic of Haiti.
+
+These several ranges and their offshoots divide the country into a
+number of distinct regions, which, owing to the difficulty of
+communication, have developed more or less independently of one
+another. The most important division is that effected by the broad
+central belt of mountains which, twelve miles wide in its narrowest
+part, and extending from the shores of the Mona Channel to and beyond
+the Haitian frontier, constitutes a rugged barrier between the north
+and the south of the Republic.
+
+The district to the north of the Central Cordillera, comprising the
+richest portion of the country, still retains its old Indian name
+"Cibao"--a word which awoke fond hopes in the heart of Columbus who
+identified it with "Cipango," the Japan he was so eagerly seeking. The
+Cibao includes the northern slope of the central range with the
+fertile valleys enclosed by branches of that range, the Samana
+peninsula, the Monte Cristi Range with its valleys and coastal plains,
+and particularly the magnificent valley of the Cibao, which lying
+between the central chain and the Monte Cristi Range, extends all the
+way from Samana Bay to Manzanillo Bay. The length of this remarkable
+valley is about 150 miles, its average breadth is 10 miles in the
+northwestern and 15 miles in the southeastern part, and it comprises
+the most fertile lands and the most populous interior towns of the
+Republic. The highest part of the valley is about 600 feet above
+sea-level and is situated at its middle point, near the city of
+Santiago, where a line of low hills dividing the valley into two parts
+forms a watershed for its rivers. The northwestern of these two
+sections is known as the Santiago or Yaque valley and forms the
+greater portion of the basin of the Yaque del Norte, while the
+southeastern half, through which the Yuna River flows, is the superb
+Royal Valley or Royal Plain.
+
+One of the most beautiful views in the Cibao Valley, and in the world,
+is obtained from the historic eminence of Santo Cerro, an outpost
+hill of the central range, situated about three miles from the city of
+La Vega. From the foot of this hill the great plain stretches into the
+distance, meeting the azure sky on the eastern horizon, and far in
+the north skirting the brown slopes of the lofty Monte Cristi
+mountains, the more remote peaks of which are but faintly perceptible
+in their envelope of blue haze. A rich carpet of dark green
+overspreads the plain, where lighter spots indicate patches of tilled
+land and silver threads betray the presence of streams. The cities of
+Moca and La Vega are easily distinguished and on clear days even San
+Francisco de Macoris can be discerned. Clouds or rainstorms moving
+over portions of the vast expanse, add animation to the landscape.
+Columbus, gazing out upon the enchanting scene, was so impressed by
+its magnificence that he gave the great vale the name it still
+bears--La Vega Real, The Royal Plain.
+
+To the south of the central range the number of plains is greater. The
+largest expanse of level land on the island is the great plain which
+forms the southeastern part of the Dominican Republic. It includes
+almost the entire region east of the Jaina River and south of the
+central range, being about 115 miles long by 30 miles wide. This
+Eastern Valley or Seibo Plain, as it is sometimes called, is covered
+with forests and broad savannas, the most notable of which are
+comprised in the series of prairies known as Los Llanos, the Plains.
+
+Two smaller and irregular plains are the arid Bani coastal plain,
+lying between the Nizao River and the Ocoa, with a length of 25 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 12 miles, and the Azua Valley, winding
+from Mt. Numero, near the Ocoa, to the Neiba River, a distance of 33
+miles with a breadth of from 3 to 30 miles.
+
+The Neiba Valley, situated in the southwestern portion of the Republic
+between the Neiba and the Baboruco Mountains is more regular. It is
+part of the valley which stretches from Neiba Bay, in Santo Domingo,
+to Port-au-Prince in Haiti. The Dominican portion is 65 miles long by
+12 miles wide, and over one-half of its area is covered by the waters
+of Lake Enriquillo. The peninsula south of the Baboruco Mountains is
+an uneven plateau.
+
+In the very center of the Republic, surrounded on all sides by lofty
+mountains of the central group, is Constanza Valley, rich but to-day
+almost inaccessible. No less rich, but many times larger, is the other
+interior plain, known as the Eastern or Central Valley, a succession
+of fertile valleys, extending from the Neiba River to St. Raphael,
+almost 115 miles, with a width of from nine to twenty miles. The
+entire plain is claimed by the Dominican Republic, but more than half
+is in possession of Haiti.
+
+All these various valleys and plains enjoy the advantage of being
+watered by a comprehensive network of rivers of greater or less size.
+Many of the streams are navigable for miles in the lower part of their
+course by boats and canoes, affording means of communication to which
+the wretched condition of the land highways gives added importance.
+
+The largest river of the Republic is the Yaque del Norte, some 240
+miles in length, which rises on the slope of Yaque Peak, describes a
+circuitous northerly course, receiving numerous mountain affluents,
+until it reaches the vicinity of the city of Santiago de los
+Caballeros, whence, turning northwesterly it flows through the
+Santiago Valley, being reinforced by scores of tributaries. Its waters
+are finally discharged partially into Monte Cristi Bay and partly
+through its many mouthed delta into Manzanillo Bay. Detritus and
+driftwood brought down by the river, for many years entirely filled
+the Monte Cristi channel, and still constitute barriers which cause
+large lagoons to form in the delta and to inundate extensive tracts of
+rich farmland. Though the bars at its entrance render the river
+inaccessible for larger boats, it is navigable for canoes over its
+entire course in the Santiago Valley.
+
+Another large river is the yellow Yuna, which waters the eastern part
+of the Cibao Valley. Rising in the mountains near the center of the
+Republic, it directs its course to the Royal Plain where it receives
+the waters of the rapid Camu, and thence flows eastwardly and enters
+Samana Bay through a marshy delta, its total length being over 200
+miles. Part of its waters find their way through the great swamp, the
+Gran Estero, into the Atlantic Ocean. Up to its junction with the
+Camu, a distance of some 30 miles, the Yuna is navigable by boats and
+barges, and above the junction both the Yuna and the Camu are
+navigable by canoes for nearly 30 miles more though there are shallow
+stretches where the streams run rapidly and great care is necessary.
+In former days, the Yuna was one of the chief outlets of the Cibao;
+freight and passengers were transported over its course to Samana Bay
+and on the waters of the Bay to the town of Samana where transshipment
+to larger vessels took place. With the establishment of the railroad
+from La Vega to Sanchez, the river has lost much of its old-time
+importance.
+
+The third largest river is the Neiba or Yaque del Sur, which rises
+near the sources of the Yaque del Norte and pursues a southerly
+direction for some 180 miles, emptying into Neiba Bay. The repetition
+of geographical means is one of the peculiarities of Santo Domingo.
+Thus there are two rivers and a mountain named Yaque, several
+mountains named Cucurucho, a mountain-range and two cities named
+Macoris while in a host of minor instances rivers, mountains and
+districts in different parts of the country have identical names. The
+repetition of names seems all the more curious as the Dominicans have
+not hesitated to change historic names of towns and streets. The Yaque
+del Sur, or Neiba River, receives several copious affluents, the
+largest one being the San Juan River. Much of the lumber exported at
+Barahona is floated down the Yaque and the river is navigable about 20
+miles for flat-bottomed boats, though rapids and rocky ledges
+interpose obstacles.
+
+The other rivers of the southern part of Santo Domingo are much
+smaller. The principal one is the Ozama, at the mouth of which the
+capital city is located. This river is about 60 miles in length and
+carries a surprising amount of water. Being navigable by barges for 9
+miles from its mouth and by canoes for 15 miles, it forms an important
+avenue of supply for Santo Domingo City. In the three miles from its
+junction with the Isabela to the sea, its depth is about 24 feet, but
+over the sandbar at its mouth but 15 feet. Two rivers in the
+southeastern peninsula, the Macoris and the Soco furnish valuable
+outlets for the products of the sugar estates on their banks. A number
+of Dominican streams offer peculiarities. In the mountains there are
+brooks which gush out of the hillside, merrily ripple on for miles and
+vanish into the ground as mysteriously as they came. A number of coast
+streams sink into the sand of the beach, just before reaching the
+ocean. The Brujuelas River, which rises on the edge of the great
+plains, northwest of Bayaguana, flows south 25 miles through the
+plains and disappears in the ground a mile from the sea. Most streams
+ordinarily insignificant and innocent looking, are in a surprisingly
+short space of time converted by rains into raging torrents. The most
+formidable of these torrential rivers is the Nizao which flows into
+the Caribbean Sea near Point Palenque. In the lower part of this
+river's course its bed is about a mile wide, of which only a small
+portion is covered by the several branches of the river, the remainder
+being taken up with sandbanks, gravel beds, marshy tracts and stagnant
+bayous; and so frequently and erratically does the river change its
+channels, and to such sudden rises is it subject, that the local
+authorities are obliged to keep guides stationed on its banks almost
+continuously, in order to direct travelers across.
+
+The rapids and cascades of Dominican streams are pregnant with
+possibilities, but up to the present time they have remained in their
+pristine condition, nor is their energy utilized to drive a single
+piece of machinery. The largest and most beautiful waterfall of the
+island is doubtless that of the Jimenoa River, in the mountains some
+ten miles south of the city of La Vega, where the Jimenoa rushes over
+a precipice one hundred feet in height, producing clouds of spray and
+a roar that can sometimes be perceived as far as Jarabacoa, six miles
+away. Another beautiful fall is that of the Dajabon River, on the
+Haitian frontier, 30 feet in height, and there are notable cascades
+also on the Comate River, near Bayaguana, on the great plains; on the
+Nigua and Higuero Rivers, not many miles from Santo Domingo City; on
+the Inova River, near the town of San José de las Matas; and on the
+Guaranas River, on the Haitian frontier in the commune of Neiba.
+
+The only lakes of any size are two which lie in the Neiba Valley, the
+larger one, Lake Enriquillo, being comprised entirely within Dominican
+territory, while of the smaller one, variously called Etang Saumatre,
+or Lake Azuei, or Laguna del Fondo, through which the frontier line
+passes, less than one-fourth is under Dominican jurisdiction. They are
+both very picturesque, and with the greenish color of their water and
+their arid mountain surroundings recall portions of Lake Titicaca in
+Bolivia. In stormy weather they become as rough as the ocean. Lake
+Enriquillo derives its name from the last Indian cacique of the
+Island, the romantic chieftain Enriquillo, who after fiercely
+resisting the Spaniards finally in 1533 concluded an honorable peace
+with them on the island of Cabras in the center of this lake. The lake
+is over 70 miles in circumference, having a length of about 33 miles
+and a width ranging from 3 to 9 miles, Cabras Island, 6 miles long by
+one in width, is the home of herds of goats. Lake Azuei is but 15
+miles in length with a width of from 2 to 7 miles.
+
+Though the two lakes are scarcely five miles apart, Lake Enriquillo is
+102 feet below and Lake Azuei 56 feet above sea-level. Both lakes
+receive the waters of several small fresh water creeks, yet they
+apparently have no outlet and their water is salt, that of Lake Azuei
+only slightly, but that of Lake Enriquillo more so than the sea. On
+Cabras Island, however, there is a fresh water spring, and three
+lagoons to the east and south of Lake Enriquillo also contain fresh
+water. Lake Azuei often shows the paradox of going down during the
+rainy season and rising during the dry season; the phenomenon is
+attributed to the presence of springs at the bottom of the lake, which
+are unusually copious at the end of the rainy season. Both lakes have
+at least one variety of ocean fish, though the nearest point of the
+seacoast is some twenty miles distant; turtles abound in both and
+there are many alligators in Lake Enriquillo and a few in Lake Azuei.
+
+The climate of Santo Domingo is that of the torrid zone and is
+characterized by heat and humidity. Yet the heat rarely becomes as
+intense as it sometimes does in the United States in summer and the
+nights are always cool and pleasant. The mean annual temperature of
+Santo Domingo City is between 77° and 78° Fahrenheit, and the
+variation between the mean temperature of the hottest and coolest
+month is hardly more than 6°. The highest temperature recorded in
+Santo Domingo City in a period of seven years was 95°. The average
+highest temperature in July and August is between 91° and 92°. In the
+mountainous regions of the interior there is a noticeable difference
+in temperature; it is necessary to sleep under a blanket every night
+of the year and the temperature sometimes falls below the freezing
+point. The pleasantest months of the year are from December
+to February.
+
+The heat of the climate is tempered and rendered bearable by cooling
+breezes which are seldom absent. During the day the prevailing breeze
+is from the east, but shortly after sunset a breeze sets in from the
+interior, blowing out to the ocean, and continues until after sunrise.
+
+The heavy rains also tend to cool the atmosphere. The island is so cut
+up by mountain ranges running in different directions that there is no
+regular rainy season for the whole country. In the south, the west and
+the interior, the rainy season is generally reckoned as lasting from
+April to November, while in the eastern section the rainy season is
+from May to December. These seasons are not absolute, for at times
+there are heavy rains during what should be the dry season, while
+occasionally there are many days of drouth during the wet months. The
+rains are rarely long-continued drizzles, but instead for several
+hours the floodgates of heaven are opened wide, after which the sky
+clears and remains serene until the following day. The amount of
+rainfall varies in different parts of the country, being lightest in
+the arid districts of Monte Cristi, Azua and Barahona.
+
+The United States Weather Bureau maintained a station at Santo Domingo
+City for a number of years and from the observations made the
+following data are compiled:
+
+
+OBSERVATIONS FOR SANTO DOMINGO CITY
+
+                   Highest     Lowest      Mean              Average
+       Mean        temperature temperature relative Average  number
+       temperature recorded    recorded    humidity rainfall of days
+          °F          °F          °F       per cl.  inches   with rain
+
+January   74          86          61          85      2.01      11
+February  74          88          60          82       .96       8
+March     75          87          59          79      2.15       9
+April     76          91          59          80      6.86      14
+May       78          88          67          83      6.29      13
+June      78          90          67          86      7.42      18
+July      79          92          67          86      8.34      18
+August    80          95          68          84      6.77      17
+September 79          93          69          85      7.63      16
+October   79          92          67          86      9.63      15
+November  78          91          64          85      2.76      11
+December  76          89          61          87      2.09      11
+------------------------------------------------------------------
+Annual    77          95          59          84     62.91     161
+
+
+Santo Domingo has at intervals felt the violence of the destructive
+hurricanes which occasionally ravage the West Indies. They often
+combine the features of a tornado and a cloudburst, and while the
+furious whirlwind wrecks houses, uproots trees and strips forests bare
+of leaves, the accompanying severe rains swell the streams to abnormal
+height and cause extensive inundations. The hurricane season is
+reckoned as beginning in July and ending in October and when during
+this period a sudden fall of the barometer announces the proximity of
+unusual atmospheric disturbances all shipping keeps to the harbors and
+the dwellers on shore take measures to guard against the devastating
+rage of the wind.
+
+The first West Indian hurricane of which we have any record was that
+of 1502 which destroyed the first city of Santo Domingo and sank a
+Spanish fleet. More recent storms felt in Santo Domingo were those of
+1834, 1865, 1876 and 1883. That of September 6, 1883, desolated the
+southwestern provinces of the Republic, and the rise of the Ozama
+River swept away the bridge connecting the capital with the opposite
+shore. The hurricane of 1899 which laid waste the nearby island of
+Porto Rico was scarcely felt in Santo Domingo. The latest unusually
+heavy storm was that which swept over the Republic during the first
+week of November, 1909, and caused much damage, especially in the
+Cibao. A sudden storm in the afternoon of August 29, 1916, accompanied
+by a kind of tidal wave, surprised the American 14,500 ton armored
+cruiser "Memphis" at anchor in the roadstead of Santo Domingo City and
+wrecked it against the rocky shore.
+
+With regard to health conditions, the Dominican Republic has been
+maligned because of the fevers that decimated the English and French
+armies in the Haitian wars of a century ago. It must be remembered,
+however, that the French part of the island being shut out from the
+eastern breezes by high mountain ranges is hotter than the Spanish
+part, and that the European troops, improperly clad and fed, underwent
+great hardships and were ignorant of sanitary precautions. Among
+travelers it is the concensus of opinion that climatic conditions in
+the Dominican Republic are as favorable as in any other tropical
+country. Far from presenting dangers to health there are few districts
+in the Republic which with proper hotel accommodations would not
+offer delightful refuge to invalids seeking to escape the rigors of
+the northern winter. The salubrity of the climate is reflected in the
+sturdy character of the peasantry, and exemplified by numerous cases
+of unusual longevity. In the towns the death-rate is somewhat higher
+than in the country regions; but the very fact that in spite of
+uncleaned streets, reeking garbage heaps, and defiance of sanitary
+precepts by the majority of the inhabitants, there has been so
+comparatively little sickness, bears strong witness to the
+healthfulness of the country. By a law of 1912 boards of health were
+established, and under American impulse more attention is now being
+given to sanitation.
+
+As no census of the Republic has ever been taken and data relative to
+births and deaths have not been collected regularly, it is not
+possible to compile statistics as to the death rate in the various
+provinces. The data so far available seem to indicate that the
+healthiest province is Puerto Plata, followed by Santiago, Azua and
+Monte Cristi, after which come Santo Domingo, La Vega, Espaillat,
+Pacificador, Samana and Barahona. The mortality rate is highest in the
+province of Macoris where the annual number of deaths is reported to
+average about thirty per thousand.
+
+The most frequent endemic diseases are malaria which is to be feared
+near marshes and stagnant waters, pulmonary consumption, which,
+however, is not more common than in the United States, and diseases of
+the digestive organs. Yellow fever is unknown and the sporadic cases
+which have occurred were due to the importation of the disease from
+other countries. The only epidemic in recent years occurred in Puerto
+Plata in 1901 when ten deaths were recorded.
+
+The hookworm disease is very prevalent, but its ravages are not so
+apparent as in certain other tropical countries. Venereal diseases are
+exceedingly common. Evidences of the presence of leprosy and
+elephantiasis are occasionally seen. The measures taken for the
+segregation of lepers are far from thorough; the lepers' asylum of
+Santo Domingo City is situated inside the city walls and is surrounded
+by habitations of the poor. Cases of typhoid fever are sometimes
+registered during the hot spell, from July to October, but the victims
+are usually foreigners who have been careless of climatic
+requirements. The foreigner who will observe temperance and prudence
+in all things, who will be careful of what he eats and drinks, who
+will avoid exposure to rain showers, or to drafts when in
+perspiration, will easily become acclimated. Realizing that many
+tropical disorders originate in a foul stomach, the natives upon the
+slightest provocation have recourse to a purgative, and the custom is
+one which the stranger should not hesitate to adopt.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+GEOLOGY AND MINERALS
+
+
+Rock formation.--Mineral
+deposits.--Gold.--Copper.--Iron.-Coal.--Silver.--Salt--Building
+stone.--Petroleum.--Mineral springs.--Earthquakes.
+
+
+The geological formation and the mineral wealth of the Dominican
+Republic have never been thoroughly studied, in part because of the
+physical difficulties and in part as a result of the civil
+dissensions. The government has never had money to spare for such
+objects, and private investigators have suffered much hardship and
+lost many days in opening paths through tangled underbrush, and in
+crossing rugged mountain ranges in uninhabited regions. The physical
+obstacles and the necessarily superficial examination consequent
+thereon may explain the contradictions of detail in different reports.
+About the middle of the nineteenth century several studies were
+published, and three scientists who accompanied the American
+Commission of Inquiry in the year 1871 made a report on geological
+conditions.
+
+From such studies as have been published it appears that the rock
+formations of Santo Domingo correspond to the secondary, the lower and
+middle tertiary and the quaternary epoch. The most ancient part of the
+island is the central mountain range, also a series of protuberances
+in the Samana peninsula, the nucleus of the Baboruco mountains and a
+single point in the northern coast range near Puerto Plata. The
+tertiary lands are those forming the entire northern part of the
+island from the central range to the sea, portions of the Samana
+peninsula between the older rocks, a large area to the southwest of
+the Zamba hills, smaller tracts between the Jaina and Nizao rivers,
+and the region between the salt lakes on the Haitian frontier and
+between Barahona and Neiba. The modern lands are the coast plains and
+the small terraces on the south of the central range and on the south
+of the Baboruco mountains, the Maguana, Azua and Neiba valleys, small
+areas on the north coast at the foot of the mountains, and the marshes
+and Yuna River delta at the head of Samana Bay.
+
+In the central mountain range is found a nucleus of eruptive rocks
+which have raised and twisted sedimentary strata, covering them and
+forcing them aside. This nucleus is not a regular feature of the whole
+length of the chain, but is an irregular mass beginning about at the
+middle, in the region of the Jaina River, and extending in a series of
+parallel lines obliquely across the backbone of the range to the
+border of the Republic and on into Haiti. Among these rocks and bent
+and broken by them are the slates, conglomerates and calcareous rocks
+which are found in the mountains and over the whole surface of the
+island. The character of the central range and the inclination of the
+strata of cretaceous rocks make it probable that the island emerged
+from the sea in the eocene period, its area being then confined to the
+extent of the central mountain chain, with a few small islands to the
+south, one or more islets to the northeast, comprising the older peaks
+of the Samana range, and a small archipelago to the southeast, where
+the hills of Seibo now are. During the miocene period these islands
+became surrounded with coral reefs, the vestiges of which remain in
+strips of calcareous rock found in the same position in which they
+were deposited. Towards the end of the tertiary period, after a time
+of quiet, there was a new rise of the land. While the hills to the
+south of Samana Bay and the bed of the Cibao Valley from Samana Bay to
+Monte Cristi rose slowly, there was an upheaval further to the north,
+and the Monte Cristi Range was formed. Before this period it had been
+a bar at sea-level, covered with a clayey sediment of chalk. At a
+later geological period the great plains to the north and east of
+Santo Domingo City were formed.
+
+Traces of valuable minerals are so general in the Republic that it is
+said there is hardly a commune where a more or less abundant mineral
+deposit is not found. The exceptions are the lands of recent coralline
+formation, such as the municipality of San Pedro de Macoris and the
+southern portion of the commune of Higuey.
+
+The magnet which attracted the Spaniards at the time of the conquest
+was the island's mineral wealth, especially the gold deposits. It is a
+historical fact that large quantities of gold in dust and nuggets were
+collected during the first years of Spanish colonization. According to
+the Spanish writers, from 1502 to 1530 placer gold was produced to the
+value of from $200,000 to $1,000,000 per annum. The fleet which set
+out in 1502 and was wrecked by a hurricane before leaving the coast
+waters of Santo Domingo was laden with gold mined in the island. A
+tribute of a small amount of gold each year was imposed on half the
+Indians of the country. Much of the gold came from the mountains
+behind Santiago and La Vega, from the gold-bearing sands of the Jaina
+River, around Buenaventura, and from the vicinity of Cotui, then
+called "Las Minas." Ancient pits are still to be found in all these
+places. At La Vega a mint was established for coining gold and silver.
+A nugget of extraordinary size was found by an Indian woman in a
+brook near the Jaina River; her Spanish masters in their exultation
+had a roast suckling pig served on it, boasting that never had the
+king of Spain dined from so valuable a table. The Indian received no
+part of the gold: "she was lucky if they gave her a piece of the pig,"
+remarks Father Las Casas. This nugget was purchased by Bobadilla to
+send to Spain, and went down with the 1502 treasure fleet.
+
+The gold deposits found by the Spaniards were the surface
+accumulations of centuries. When these were exhausted and the supply of
+cheap labor fell off owing to the dying out of the Indians, the
+mineral production waned. In 1502 labor difficulties caused a
+temporary cessation in mining. In 1511 many mines were definitely
+closed because of the scarcity of laborers and because the cultivation
+of sugar-cane offered surer profits. Then came the discovery of mines
+of fabulous wealth in Mexico and Peru, and the interest they aroused,
+as well as the lack of labor in Santo Domingo, caused the mines of the
+island to be completely neglected. Finally, in 1543, mining work
+ceased and by a royal decree all mines were ordered closed.
+Prospecting and desultory mining, especially placer mining, have been
+kept up, however, until the present day.
+
+The prospecting has generally been confined to the more accessible
+regions and nothing is known of the mountain valleys in the interior.
+The mineral deposits discovered have been of sufficient richness to
+cause the formation of mining companies for their development or
+further investigation. I do not, however, know of a single case where
+prospectors or mining companies have ever made expenses. The cause of
+failure has most frequently been the lack of transportation facilities
+in the island, on account of which the cost of carrying the ore to a
+place where it might be reduced became prohibitive. Sometimes
+enterprises failed because the deposit turned out to be too small,
+sometimes because the ore did not keep up to the standard, and not
+infrequently mining companies fell by the wayside because of bad
+management. Enough evidence of mineral wealth has been found to
+justify the belief that workable deposits do exist, and to warrant
+careful further investigation, especially as the means of
+communication are extended.
+
+The metals most frequently found are gold, copper and iron. Veins of
+auriferous quartz are found throughout the central chain, the richest
+lodes being encountered in metamorphic rocks near crystalline
+formations. The metal is most abundant in placers formed in the river
+beds. Such placers are common in the Jaina River and its tributaries
+in the province of Santo Domingo; in Bonao creek in Seibo province;
+and in the Verde River, the streams of Sabaneta and a number of other
+streams of the Cibao. On the upper Jaina and on the Verde River there
+are still persons who make their living by washing gold from the river
+sands. Hydraulic mining was attempted in Santiago province, but after
+the construction of an expensive canal the project was abandoned.
+Under the liberal mining law mining privileges have in recent years
+been granted for gold mines reported at numerous places in the
+communes of San Jose de las Matas, San Cristobal, Janico, San Juan de
+la Maguana, Sabaneta and others. Prof. William P. Black, one of the
+scientists accompanying the United States Commission of Inquiry in
+1871, reported:
+
+"There is a very considerable extent of gold-bearing country in the
+interior and gold is washed from the rivers at various points. It is
+found along the Jaina, upon the Verde, and upon the Yaque and its
+tributaries, and doubtless upon the large rivers of the interior.
+Some portions of the gold fields were worked anciently by the
+Spaniards and Indians. There are doubtless many gold deposits, not
+only along the bed of rivers, but on the hills, which have never been
+worked, and there probably is considerable gold remaining among the
+old workings. The appearance of the soil and rocks is such as to
+justify the labor and expense of carefully prospecting the
+gold region."
+
+Copper is next to gold in frequency of occurrence. Some of the best
+deposits have been found in the commune of San Cristobal, province of
+Santo Domingo. A company working lodes at Mount Mateo on the Nigua
+River, encountered ore yielding as high as 33 per cent of copper. On
+the Jaina River near the ruins of Buenaventura, I have seen promising
+ledges of copper ore. Copper carbonates predominated, the green ore
+known as malachite and the beautiful blue ore azurite were quite
+common, and white quartz, which on being broken showed little specks
+of native copper, was also to be found. The asperity of the region,
+the absence of roads and the uncertainty as to the extent of these
+deposits caused the attempts at working them to be but feeble until
+recently, when extensive works of development were undertaken in the
+vicinity. Copper veins have also been reported in the mountains of the
+commune of Bani, province of Santo Domingo; in the communes of Cotui
+and Bonao, province of La Vega; in the canton of Moncion, province of
+Monte Cristi; in the commune of San Juan de la Maguana, province of
+Azua, and at a number of other places.
+
+Iron is reported in large quantities in various parts of the country.
+The largest deposit so far known is on the banks of the Maimon River
+in the municipality of Cotui, being a bed of black magnetic oxide of
+iron, nine miles long. It is said to be excellent in quality and
+inexhaustible in quantity. The difficulties of transportation in this
+case could be obviated by the canalization of the river to its
+confluence with the Yuna River, so as to make it navigable for small
+boats. Iron ore has been discovered on the slope of Mt. Isabel de
+Torres behind the city of Puerto Plata, limonite deposits at various
+places in Santo Domingo province, and a rich black iron oxide on the
+upper Ozama River. A layer of iron pyrites extending from Los Llanos
+all the way to Sabana la Mar was believed by its discoverers to be a
+gold mine. The central ridge of Santo Domingo is part of the same
+mountain chain which extends through Santiago province in Cuba where
+enormous quantities of iron are produced, and it is not improbable
+that some of the Dominican mines will be found to pay.
+
+Coal mines found in the Samana peninsula produced a kind of lignite
+which proved of little commercial value and gave rise to the belief
+that the Republic's coal deposits had not emerged from the formative
+period. Later investigations show that while there is considerable
+undeveloped lignite, coal suitable for fuel is not wanting. Small coal
+deposits have been discovered in the Cibao Valley, between the central
+and the northern mountain chain, in the province of Pacificador and
+that of Santiago. Anthracite coal found at Tamboril, near the city of
+Santiago, was used to run a small motor exhibited at an industrial
+fair in Santiago in 1903. In the commune of Altamira, province of
+Puerto Plata, lignite and anthracite beds have been discovered, and
+traces of anthracite have also been found in San Cristobal commune,
+and in the petroleum region of Azua. In the central mountain chain a
+valuable coal deposit has been found on the Haitian side and similar
+beds may be expected in Santo Domingo.
+
+Silver has been discovered at Tanci, near Yásica, in the commune of
+Puerto Plata. The old chronicles refer to silver mines at Jarabacoa
+and Cotui in La Vega province, also to others near Santiago, near
+Higuey and on the Jaina River. Platinum occurs at Jarabacoa, traces of
+quicksilver have been found near Santiago, Banica and San Cristobal,
+and tin in Seibo and Higuey.
+
+Rock salt is found near Neiba in inexhaustible quantities, there being
+several hills of native salt covered with a thin layer of soil. The
+fact that the waters of Lake Enriquillo are saltier than the sea is
+attributed by some to a deposit of this kind. The salt is so pure that
+it does not attract moisture and deliquesce. The isolation of the
+district has been an obstacle to the development of the salt mines,
+but there is a project for the building of a railroad to the port of
+Barahona. Part of the salt used in the island comes from salt ponds
+near Azua, where salt is obtained from sea water by solar evaporation.
+
+On a hill at the confluence of the Jimenoa and the Yaque del Norte an
+alum deposit reaches the surface and the natives gather alum which
+they sell in Santiago City. A deposit of amber having been reported in
+the Cibao a company was formed several years ago for its development,
+but as the company did nothing, so far as known, except issue stock,
+and no part of the untold millions which were affirmed to be within
+easy reach has materialized, the deposit is not regarded as possessing
+commercial value.
+
+For building purposes there is a large variety of limestone and lime.
+The coral rock is easy to quarry and soft enough to shape with the
+axe, but exposure to the air makes it hard as granite, as is proven by
+the old buildings and city walls of Santo Domingo City, which have
+stood for centuries. In the central range, on the Samana peninsula and
+near Puerto Plata, granite, syenite and other building stones are
+found, but owing to the absence of transportation facilities they are
+not utilized. In the Bani region a sandstone occurs from which
+grindstones are made. Clay of a fine grade, proper for the manufacture
+of bricks and tiles, is abundant. Clays of various colors, found in
+the interior of the island, are suitable for the manufacture of
+paints. Gypsum is found, especially in Azua province, and the presence
+of kaolin and feldspar in the province of Santo Domingo, south of the
+central range, offers a possibility of porcelain manufacture.
+
+Petroleum has been found in large quantities in the vicinity of Azua.
+The presence of the oil is suspected in other parts of the island and
+it is claimed that a petroleum belt which is believed to extend from
+Pennsylvania to Venezuela embraces a considerable portion of the
+Dominican Republic. Near Puerto Plata, during rains, one of the
+streams flowing down from the mountains in the Mameyes section, is
+covered with greasy spots thought to be petroleum that has oozed from
+the subsoil. Traces of petroleum have also been discovered near Neiba,
+and in the provinces of Pacificador and Seibo.
+
+Borings have been made only in the neighborhood of Azua. A pool known
+as "agua hedionda," "stinking water," had long suggested petroleum,
+and an American company known as the West Indies Petroleum Mining and
+Export Company undertook the development of the field. Oil was struck
+on November 14, 1904, the well spouting oil to a height of seventy
+feet and producing about 500 barrels per day. The grade of the oil was
+22 Baume gravity with an asphaltum base. It was better than the
+average of Texas oil and was considered a good fuel and lubricating
+product. The main difficulty in this field was the presence of salt
+water above the oil (as is often the case in oil regions), which here
+came in rapidly at a depth of about 900 to 1000 feet. It was necessary
+to put a gate valve on the first well, keeping it enclosed for a
+period of six months, in order to prevent the damaging of the
+surrounding property from the flow of oil, as there were no storage
+tanks. During this time the continued agitation of the casing by the
+gas pressure and the looseness of the upper soils and shales let in
+the salt water and ruined the well, and, it is to be feared, to some
+extent affected the surrounding territory. The company sunk four wells
+more, all but one of which produced some oil, but as the salt water
+entered in such large quantities they were unable to penetrate below
+the 1200 feet level and were forced to abandon the wells at just about
+the depth where they expected to reach the real oil sand. The fifth
+well showed greater evidence of a genuine oil field than any drilled
+previously but for the same reason it could not be carried to the
+desired depth. At this point dissensions arose in the management of
+the company with regard to the method of drilling, the suggestion
+being made that a combination drilling machinery comprising what is
+known as the rotary process be adopted in combination with the old
+cable rig style. No agreement was reached, and operations were
+discontinued. Since the beginning of 1917 other interests have made
+investigations and it is rumored that development work will shortly
+begin. There are indications that if drilled with the proper
+appliances the field will yield excellent results. How far the Azua
+oil field extends is a matter of conjecture, but it has been estimated
+to cover an area of over 190 square miles.
+
+Thermal springs are also found near Azua. At Resoli, about 21 miles
+southwest of Azua City, there are hot sulphur springs of very copious
+flow. Nearby there is one of tepid water, slightly acid and stinging,
+though pleasant to the taste, and with no trace of sulphur. Within a
+radius of a hundred yards there are about a dozen springs of different
+temperatures and medicinal properties, and the place is admirably
+adapted for the location of a health resort. Mineral springs,
+especially sulphur springs, abound along the western frontier of the
+Republic. On the Viajama River, where a sulphur mine is reported,
+there are cold sulphur springs which are said to have gushed forth for
+the first time during the earthquake of 1751. To the east of Santiago
+are the Anibaje springs which contain sulphur and iron. Hot and cold
+sulphur springs are found in the outskirts of San José de las Matas,
+southwest of Santiago, and hot springs at Banica, and to the east and
+west of Lake Enriquillo.
+
+While there are no volcanoes on the island, severe seismic
+disturbances have at times occasioned great havoc and loss of life.
+One of the first and most memorable was that of 1564 which overthrew
+the cities of La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros. La Vega was at
+that time a good sized town with substantial brick houses, and the
+masses of masonry strewn about in the thicket which now covers the
+site of the old city give evidence of the force of the earthquake. In
+1654 and 1673 dwellings and churches in Santo Domingo City were
+damaged by lesser shocks, and in 1751 an earthquake wrecked edifices
+in the capital, and completely destroyed the old city of Azua and the
+town of Seibo. The most recent and perhaps the most disastrous
+earthquake was that of 1842 when a violent commotion in the northern
+part of the island demolished the cities of Santiago de los Caballeros
+on the Dominican side and Cape Haitien on the Haitian side, bringing
+death to hundreds of their inhabitants. Since that date there have
+been no severe shocks, though, as is the case in other West India
+Islands, slight tremblings of the earth are not infrequent. I have
+experienced several of such tremblings in Santo Domingo and have never
+been able to ward off a kind of creepy feeling when the rattling of
+windows and doors indicated their approach and passage. Near the ruins
+of ancient La Vega the natives point out a spot in the woods which
+they call "tembladera" and where they say the earth quakes at the
+approach of man. Investigation discloses that while the earth really
+does tremble when anyone walks at this place the cause is not so
+deep-seated as many imagine, the phenomenon being caused by the fact
+that the rich loamy soil is sustained by the interlaced roots of
+trees, the foundation having been washed away by subterranean waters,
+and the grassy floor is swayed by every motion upon it.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+
+FLORA AND FAUNA
+
+Agricultural conditions.--Land titles and measures.--Wet and arid
+regions.--Exports.--Sugar.--Cacao.--Tobacco.--Coffee.--Tropical
+fruits.--Forest products.--Insects.--Reptiles.--Fishery.--Birds.
+--Cattle raising.
+
+
+Of all the islands visited by Columbus none impressed him so favorably
+as Santo Domingo. His enthusiasm is reflected in the glowing
+description given in his letter to his friend and patron, Luis de
+Santangel, dated February 15, 1493, of which the following forms part:
+
+"In it (la Española) there are many havens on the sea, coast,
+incomparable with any others I know in Christendom--and plenty of
+rivers, so good and great that it is a marvel. The lands there are
+high, and in it there are very many ranges of hills and most lofty
+mountains, incomparably beyond the Island of Cetrefrey (Teneriffe);
+all most beautiful in a thousand shapes and all accessible, and full
+of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the
+sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage, as may be
+imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in
+Spain in May, and some of them were in flower, some in fruit, some in
+another stage, according to their kind. And the nightingale was
+singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of
+November, round about the way I was going. There are palm trees of six
+or eight species, wondrous to see for their beautiful variety; but so
+are the other trees and fruits and plants therein. There are wonderful
+pine groves and very large plains of verdure, and there is honey and
+many kinds of birds and great diversity of fruits. There are many
+mines of metals in the earth, and the population is of inestimable
+number. Española is a marvel; the mountains and hills, and plains, and
+fields, and the soil so beautiful and rich for planting and sowing,
+for breeding cattle of all sorts, for building towns and villages.
+There could be no believing, without seeing, such harbors as are here,
+as well as the many and great rivers and excellent waters, most of
+which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants there is great
+diversity from those of Juana (Cuba). In this island there are many
+species and great mines of gold and other metals."
+
+Columbus' panegyric on the beauty, fertility and resources of the
+Island has been echoed by every writer and traveler who has since
+visited the country. The United States Commission of Inquiry to Santo
+Domingo reported in 1871: "The resources of the country are vast and
+various, and its products may be increased with scarcely any other
+limit than the labor expended upon them.... Taken as a whole, this
+Republic is one of the most fertile regions on the face of the earth.
+The evidence of men well acquainted with the other West India Islands
+declares this to be naturally the richest of them all." Yet the
+country's wonderful resources are to-day in almost virgin condition;
+in the greater part of the Republic's extent they remain absolutely
+untouched; in the remainder the beginning of development has scarcely
+been made.
+
+In the first days of the colony it appeared that agricultural
+prosperity would quickly be attained. Great plantations were set out
+and the remains of palaces and convents in Santo Domingo City testify
+to the wealth they produced. But the prosperity was founded on the
+basis of slavery. The laughing aborigines soon succumbed under forced
+labor, the importation of negroes was found expensive, and hopes of
+better fortune attracted the colonists to the American continent.
+While the country languished under restrictive trade regulations,
+stock raising became almost the sole pursuit of the Spanish section of
+the island. In the meantime the French settled the western coast, and
+the name of their colony, also founded on slavery, became a synonym
+for wealth and luxury. The development of the Spanish section had
+scarcely begun at the end of the eighteenth century when it was
+blocked by wars, the Haitian occupation, and later by the civil
+disturbances. The native had no incentive to accumulate property,
+which would only attract revolutionists, and the foreigner was chary
+of investing his money in so turbulent a community. What progress has
+been made is due to the short periods of peace, principally the period
+of Heureaux's ascendancy, from 1880 to 1899, and the periods from 1905
+to date. The rapid and gratifying strides made since the
+Dominican-American fiscal treaty increased the probabilities of peace
+are an indication of what the country may and will in time attain. As
+an English-speaking resident put it, paraphrasing a familiar saying in
+the United States, "If the people will only raise more cacao and less
+Hades, the country will soon be a paradise." At the present time the
+most serious obstacle to rural development is the lack of adequate
+means of communication--roads and railroads. It is evident that the
+interior cannot be developed so long as the cost of transportation is
+prohibitive or the roads are impassable during a great part of
+the year.
+
+The condition of land titles leaves much to be desired. All titles are
+supposed to be derived from original grants by the crown or the
+government of the Republic. As there is no record extant of such
+grants and as much land has been acquired by adverse possession, the
+amount of land remaining to the state cannot even be the subject of an
+intelligent guess. The greater part of such land passed to the
+Republic as successor to the Spanish crown, another portion was added
+in 1844 by the confiscation of property belonging to Haitians, but no
+attempt has ever been made to survey or even to list state lands.
+According to some estimates the state owns as much as one or even
+two-fifths the area of the Republic, but it is probable that these
+estimates are exaggerated and almost the only tracts remaining to the
+government are situated in the inaccessible mountain region of the
+interior and along the Haitian border. The income of the Republic is
+still insufficient to leave money for the investigation of public
+lands, and every year's delay will permit more of such lands to be
+absorbed by private persons.
+
+A large portion of the rural land is held in common. Tracts originally
+belonging to one owner descended undivided among his heirs for
+generations, individual heirs sometimes sold their shares, and the
+result is that often the tract belongs in common to many persons, some
+of them holding very small shares. The shares of the co-owners are
+known as "pesos de posesión," "dollars of possession," corresponding
+to the value given them at some remote period. The owner of any
+undivided portion of such "comunero" property, though he hold only one
+or two shares or "pesos de posesión," may enter upon and cultivate any
+part of the land he finds unoccupied by other co-owners, and use
+anything growing or existing thereon, except certain timber or unless
+it be the result of the labor of other co-owners. That this peculiar
+mode of enjoying the comunero property has not resulted in friction
+and conflicts may be ascribed to the smallness of the cultivated
+fields, the small population and the enormous expanse of vacant land.
+For the prospective purchaser the doubts surrounding the title to
+comunero lands are enhanced by the existence of fraudulent "peso"
+titles and by the destruction of public offices where title transfers
+should have been recorded. In recent years much division of comunero
+land among the co-owners has been going on and such action is
+facilitated by a law of 1911, but the importance of the matter merits
+additional laws to cheapen and hasten the division.
+
+All the planting of small crops by the poorer countryman is done in
+what are called "conucos," cleared spaces fenced by sticks laid
+tightly against each other in order to keep out the wild pigs which
+infest the country. The construction of the fences is a laborious
+task, yet after one or two years they require extensive repairs, and
+when the repairs are such as to amount to a practical rebuilding, the
+"conuco" is commonly abandoned, and a new one located elsewhere. This
+method is wasteful of fence-material and land. The planting is done in
+the most primitive way, commonly by making a hole in the ground with a
+machete or by using a forked stick as a plow. There are few hoes, and
+among the natives no modern steel plows.
+
+A "conuco" is usually about one acre in extent, or to be precise
+twenty-five varas conuqueras square. Though the metric system is the
+official system of measurement and is gradually coming into use, many
+of the older standards still prevail. A common measure of length is
+the Castilian vara, about equivalent to an English yard; the vara
+conuquera, about two and a half yards; the tarea, used for measuring
+fences, twenty-five varas conuqueras in length, and the league,
+something over three miles. The common units of surface measurement
+are the tarea, of about one-sixth acre, and the caballeria of 1200
+tareas or about 200 acres.
+
+Generally speaking, a line drawn from Cape Isabela on the north coast,
+through Santiago, to the mouth of the Nizao River in the south,
+divides the country into two regions of which the eastern one has
+abundant rainfall and luxuriant tropical vegetation, while in the
+western one there is little rain, and cactus plants and thorny bushes
+betoken the aridity of the soil. The two ends of the Cibao Valley seem
+like different countries, the eastern end covered with palm-trees,
+ferns and other flora of the torrid zone, and the western portion dry
+and dotted with giant cacti of fantastic shape. In the country near
+Azua and Monte Cristi I have imagined myself on the plains of New
+Mexico, with their scorching heat, their cactus, mesquite bushes and
+distant violet mountains fading into the azure sky. While arid, these
+western regions of Santo Domingo are as fertile as the rest of the
+country and when irrigated give remarkable crops. One of the Dominican
+government's projects is an extensive irrigation scheme for the Monte
+Cristi district. The most productive portion of the Republic is
+undoubtedly the Royal Plain in the Cibao Valley, which is of almost
+incredible fertility. It is covered with a rich black loam from three
+to fifteen feet deep, as can be seen wherever brooks have cut ravines
+into the earth, and is referred to as the Mississippi Valley of the
+Dominican Republic.
+
+The greater or less elevation of the land has likewise produced
+different agricultural zones: the lower plains of the southern coast
+are favored for sugar planting; the slightly higher lands are given
+over to cacao and coffee, and the highest part of the country, the
+mountain region, is covered with timber. Broad savannas are a feature
+of the southern portion of the Republic; on the plains to the east of
+Santo Domingo City, all the way to the ocean, there are great seas of
+grass, like the prairies of the United States, with large islands of
+trees, while to the west they constitute lakes in a continent
+of forest.
+
+All tropical fruits grow in profusion and many vegetables, fruits and
+cereals indigenous to countries of the temperate zone are successfully
+grown. Practically all the vegetables and fruits, as well as the
+grains and staples of the Middle States of the American Union may be
+produced, especially in the higher portion of the island. The fact
+that raspberries and delicious grapes grow wild in the highland
+indicates the possibilities of fruit culture. With a view to
+encouraging agriculture the various provinces for years had "boards of
+development" paid from national funds, but the positions on these
+boards were regarded as political plums, and while the members drew
+their salaries, no other result of their activities was apparent. The
+government has also made spasmodic attempts to establish an
+agricultural experiment station, but with its limited resources
+nothing tangible has been accomplished. The establishment and
+extension of large sugar estates was stimulated by a law of
+agricultural franchises, enacted in 1911, granting excessively broad
+privileges and exemptions to sugar, cacao and coffee plantations which
+registered under that law.
+
+The table on the opposite page shows the quantity and value of the
+principal exports of the Dominican Republic since 1913 and is the best
+illustration of the fact that agriculture is the mainstay of
+the country.
+
+
+          EXPORTS OF THE DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+                       1913         1914         1915         1916
+Sugar (raw) kilos[1] 78,849,465  101,428,847  102,800,551 122,642,514
+             value   $3,650,556   $4,943,452   $7,676,383 $12,028,297
+Cacao        kilos   19,470,827   20,744,517   20,223,023  21,053,305
+             value   $4,119,955   $3,896,489   $4,863,754  $5,958,669
+Tobacco leaf kilos    9,790,398    3,705,549    6,235,409   7,925,151
+             value   $1,121,775     $394,224     $972,896  $1,433,323
+Coffee       kilos    1,048,922    1,831,938    2,468,435   1,731,718
+             value     $257,076     $345,579     $458,431    $316,827
+Hides and    kilos      541,154      685,042      638,020     616,446
+   skins     value     $241,072     $253,832     $270,356    $334,665
+Sugar cane   value       --        $62,585     $195,782    $295,622
+Bananas      bunches    592,804      114,142      327,169     348,560
+             value     $296,368      $57,044     $166,432    $172,615
+Beeswax and
+   honey     value     $206,749     $207,290     $144,579    $176,144
+Molasses     kilos   12,064,038   17,962,441   15,484,205  18,752,440
+             value      $60,737      $93,787     $100,023    $120,738
+Forest       value     $167,037      $66,464      $64,368     $57,250
+  products
+Cotton       kilos      242,221      167,123     141,623       91,258
+             value      $85,398      $67,830     $60,600      $31,759
+All other    value     $263,224     $200,211    $240,457     $601,964
+  exports
+                     ------------------------------------------------
+Total       value   $10,469,947  $10,588,787  $15,209,061 $21,527,873
+
+[Footnote 1: 1 kilo = 2.2 pounds]
+
+Sugar, the leading export, is the principal product of the southern
+portion of the Republic. In contrast with the cultivation of cacao,
+coffee and tobacco, sugar planting requires a large outlay of capital.
+The fields must be carefully prepared, extensive ditching must be done
+in order to provide irrigation during the dry season; the fields must
+be cleaned repeatedly while the cane is growing; and when the cane
+eventually matures, after fourteen to eighteen months of growth,
+it must upon cutting be immediately transported to the mill,
+where expensive machinery grinds it and fabricates sugar from
+the cane juice. The large sugar plantations of the country
+are all owned by foreigners, principally Americans and Italians,
+but dependent upon them are many small plots, planted under
+contract with the central factory by small native owners or
+contractors. Before the establishment of the first of these
+plantations near Macoris in the early eighties, the apparatus for
+making sugar was as crude as that employed by the first colonists,
+consisting of small presses turned by oxen, and large caldrons to boil
+the cane. The other West India Islands are dotted with the ruins of
+old sugar mills erected in the beginning and middle of the last
+century, but those days were not favorable to investment in Santo
+Domingo and such buildings and ruins are absolutely wanting in
+this island.
+
+Most of the large plantations are located in the vicinity of San Pedro
+de Macoris, and to them the city owes its rapid development. These
+represent a value of millions of dollars, are equipped with plantation
+railroads and modern mills and extend over thousands of acres of the
+plains behind the city. The great Consuelo estate, the Santa Fé
+plantation, the Porvenir and the Puerto Rico estates are owned by
+American capital, and two others, the Quisqueya and Cristobal Colon
+plantations are owned by Americans and Cubans. The Angelina estate is
+an Italian investment, but its owners hold it in the name of the
+General Industrial Company, a corporation organized by them under the
+laws of New Jersey, apparently with a view to claiming American
+protection in case of disturbances. The principal owners of this
+estate as well as of other Italian sugar estates on the south coast
+are heirs of J.B. Vicini, who was a wealthy Italian merchant of Santo
+Domingo City.
+
+One of the largest sugar estates of the Republic is the Central
+Romana, which controls some 40,000 acres near the port of La Romana,
+and is owned by the South Porto Rico Sugar Company. Since the first
+crop in 1911 the cane has been shipped to the mill at Guanica, Porto
+Rico, for grinding, but a huge fifteen-roller mill, which will be the
+largest on the island, is now in course of erection at La Romana.
+
+Two plantations near Santo Domingo City, San Isidro and La Fé, belong
+to Americans. The Italia sugar estate at Yaguate, near the Nizao
+River, the Ocoa estate and the Central Azuano, on the outskirts of
+Azua all belong to the Vicini heirs. At Azua there is another
+plantation, the Ansonia estate, which is the property of Americans.
+The plantations at Azua and Ocoa are watered by irrigation, those of
+Azua deriving their water from artesian wells. American capital is
+also establishing sugar plantations near Barahona. On the north coast
+there are only two small sugar plantations near Puerto Plata, in which
+German and Spanish capital is interested, but another is being
+established at Sosua.
+
+So rich are the Dominican lands that cane will grow from the same root
+for ten and even twenty years, while in Porto Rico and the lesser
+Antilles long cultivation has exhausted the soil and replanting is
+necessary every three years. Near Macoris the planters have had so
+much land available that instead of replanting they have often
+abandoned their old fields and taken up virgin lands instead. The
+busiest time in Macoris is the crop season from November to May. Many
+laborers are then required, and as native labor is not abundant, large
+numbers of negroes come from the British West Indies to work on the
+plantations, returning to their homes when the cane has been cut.
+
+Most of the Dominican sugar goes to the United States and a large
+portion is eventually sold in Canada and England. When the amount of
+sugar produced in little Porto Rico is compared with that grown in
+Santo Domingo, it is evident that the Dominican production might
+easily be increased to twenty times its present figure.
+
+While sugar attracts the foreigner, the Dominican's favorite staple
+has been cacao. The cacao or chocolate tree grows in a number of the
+West India Islands, but in none of them is it cultivated to such an
+extent as in Santo Domingo. Cacao is peculiarly fitted to be a "poor
+man's crop," as little land and labor are required and, while the
+trees are growing, corn, bananas and other crops can be raised on the
+same field. Most of the cacao is raised on small plantations,
+producing from fifty to one hundred barrels, a barrel being worth
+about eight dollars. For the preparation and planting of the field of
+a poor man the whole family turns out and neighbors often come to
+help, regular planting bees being organized. The larger landowner
+makes contracts for the preparation of his lands, paying at the rate
+of $2 or $2.50 a tarea.
+
+The best months for planting cacao are the wet months, which in the
+Cibao are May and October. Small holes are dug in the earth about
+three yards apart and three beans placed in each. When the sprouts
+grow into young trees, two of the three should be cut off, and the
+best developed allowed to remain; but the countrymen generally permit
+all three to grow, with resulting dwarfed trees and poor crops. To
+protect the small plants from the hot sun a yuca or cassava plant is
+set out next to each one. While the trees are growing, corn is planted
+between the rows and three or even four crops are obtained in each
+year. After two years the cacao trees begin to bloom, after three
+years they begin to give fruit, and their production gradually
+increases until their eighth year when they reach mature growth. Each
+tree furnishes about two pounds of cacao per year. On the larger
+plantations less attention is paid to ancillary crops and the cacao
+plants are raised in seedbeds, the seedlings being transplanted to the
+field after six months or a year. When the pods containing the cacao
+beans are ripe the beans are extracted, soaked in water and then dried
+in the sun. During the crop season cacao beans are spread on mats
+before every native hut and in the streets of every town and village
+in the Cibao, and the sourish smell of the drying bean pervades
+the air.
+
+The principal cacao region is the Cibao and the upper Seibo plain, and
+the largest plantation, belonging to the well-known Swiss chocolate
+manufacturer, Suchard, is situated near Sabana la Mar, on the south
+side of Samana Bay. The cacao here produced is not of the finest
+grade, such as that grown in Ecuador, but goes to make the cheaper
+grades of chocolate.
+
+The ease with which cacao is planted and the profits to be derived
+from it often cause the small farmers to neglect everything else for
+cacao and purchase articles of food which they could themselves raise.
+The consequence is that when the cacao crop fails, there is widespread
+want and discontent.
+
+Cacao has been exported since 1888, before which time it was grown for
+local consumption only. For years it led the country's exports, until
+sugar took first place in 1914. The greater portion of the cacao crop
+is exported through the port of Sanchez, on Samana Bay. Formerly
+almost the whole crop went to Europe, Havre being the chief market,
+but of late years the United States has become one of the
+principal buyers.
+
+The cultivation of tobacco is confined to the Cibao region, where it
+was grown by the Indians when the Spaniards landed. It is a crop
+yielding rapid returns, but cacao has paid so much better that the
+progress of tobacco culture has been slow. The effort of the
+countrymen to produce quantity rather than quality has prevented the
+development of the finer grades and the price paid for Dominican
+tobacco is low. While the tobacco grown is of inferior quality, there
+is no reason why it should not be susceptible of improvement as the
+climatic and soil conditions of the interior valleys are very similar
+to those of the tobacco regions of Cuba and Porto Rico.
+
+Tobacco is grown mostly by small planters and sold to the large
+commercial houses of Santiago and Puerto Plata. Practically the entire
+crop is exported through Puerto Plata. Before the European war the
+great market for Dominican tobacco was Hamburg. Up to 1907 tobacco was
+exported only in leaf, but since then a small cigarette industry has
+developed.
+
+Coffee is another native crop the development of which has been
+checked by the popularity of cacao. It is also a crop which can be
+grown with profit on small tracts of land. The coffee bushes flourish
+in the mountains and are grown under the shade of larger trees. A
+clearing having been made in the forest, the small coffee trees are
+planted in rows or irregularly and near each a banana or plantain
+tree. The latter reach full height within six months and afford shade
+until guava and other shade trees planted on the field have attained
+sufficient size. A wait of five years is necessary before the coffee
+bushes begin to bear, but after that they continue indefinitely every
+year, the only labor required being that of keeping the plantation
+clear of brush and picking the berries when they are ripe. The trees
+grow to a height of six or eight feet; they bloom with a fragrant,
+white, star-like flower which on withering leaves the green embryo of
+the berry. When the berry has reached the size of a hazel-nut it turns
+red and is picked, much of the picking being done by women.  The
+berries are poured into a simple machine which extracts the two coffee
+beans encased in each berry. The beans are dried in the sun, on the
+largest plantations in drying machines. They are then transported to
+the merchants in town, where they are polished in another machine,
+assorted and bagged for export. The town of Moca owes its name to the
+fact that the principal coffee plantations lie in its vicinity. Other
+important coffee districts are Santiago and Bani. About two-thirds of
+the coffee of the Republic is exported from Puerto Plata.
+
+The coffee of Santo Domingo is of excellent quality. In normal times
+the greater portion was exported to France and Germany, but most of it
+now goes to the United States.
+
+With one exception the limitless resources of Santo Domingo with
+reference to fruit culture have remained untouched. The single
+exception was the United Fruit Company's banana plantation at Sosua,
+about ten miles east of Puerto Plata, and even this estate is at
+present, in consequence of the greater attractiveness of sugar, being
+converted into a sugar plantation. Otherwise there has been no attempt
+to raise fruit for export, though the sweet and bitter orange, the
+lemon, the lime, the grapefruit and the paradoxical sweet lemon, grow
+wild. Pineapples are raised only for the small home consumption. An
+obstacle to the cultivation of such fruits at the present time would
+be the absence of rapid fruit steamers to the United States. The
+fruits peculiar to the torrid zone all grow in profusion and among
+them the native is fondest of the juicy mango, the guava, the aguacate
+or alligator pear, the anon or custard apple, the guanabana or
+soursop, the mamon or sweetsop, the mamey or marmalade fruit, the
+nispero or sapodilla and the tamarind. From the large palm-groves
+about Samana Bay cocoanuts and a little copra are exported,
+principally to the United States.
+
+Small attempts have been made to cultivate other products to which the
+country is adapted. Growers of cotton and hemp are encouraged by
+results, but a rice plantation established in the swamp-lands near the
+head of Samana Bay proved a failure rather on account of errors of
+management than for other reasons.
+
+In the forests which cover her mountains Santo Domingo has hardwoods,
+dyewoods and building timber of inestimable value. Only a generation
+ago mahogany trees grew all the way to the water's edge, but years of
+wasteful cutting have exhausted the nearer supplies and the more
+valuable woods must now be sought in the interior. In the mountains
+and on the high plateaus of the interior there are hundreds of square
+miles of Spanish cedar and longleaf pine. The principal woods exported
+are mahogany, guayacan, known to commerce as lignum vitae (one of the
+hardest woods and so heavy that when in loading the steamer a log
+drops into the sea it sinks to the bottom like iron), bera or bastard
+lignum vitae, espinillo or yellowwood, campeche or logwood (a famous
+dyeing material), sparwood and cedar. Other forest products exported
+are dividivi, a tanning bark, and resins. Most of these exports go to
+the United States and England. For the preparation of lumber for local
+needs there are sawmills in La Vega and Santiago de los Caballeros.
+
+With regard to indigenous fauna Santo Domingo occupies a position
+midway between the diverse and abundant fauna of Cuba and the more
+limited species of the Leeward Islands. Insects abound and in all the
+coast towns it is necessary to sleep under a mosquito bar. Wild bees
+are found in many parts of the country and apiculture has met with
+much success.  Of poisonous insects there are few. Those sometimes
+met with are the species of tarantula known as the hairy spider, the
+spider known as guava, and the blue spider, also the scorpion and the
+centipede. Their sting produces intense pain, inflammation and fever.
+They are found in crevices, under stones, in caves, and in rotten
+wood. The last two are often seen in old houses, but daily use of the
+broom and duster will make them appear but rarely. Some of these
+animals grow to a large size. On a ride on the Haitian border my horse
+shied at a tarantula in the trail, and in calling my Dominican
+companion's attention to it, I remarked that it was as large as a
+saucer. "That is nothing," he replied, "there are many around here as
+large as a soup plate."
+
+There are few classes of reptiles. Santo Domingo is a paradise where
+serpents are at a discount, for they are few in number and although
+occasionally some are found of considerable size, they are all
+harmless. Lizards are plentiful in the forests, the largest class
+being known as iguana, which is eaten by some of the country people,
+as it was in former days by the Indians. The lizards are all
+inoffensive. A species of alligator is found in the lower waters of
+the Yaque del Norte and of the Yaque del Sur, and in the salt lakes on
+the Haitian border. Tortoises occur in such numbers that their shell
+forms an article of commerce.
+
+Crustaceans and testaceans are abundant in number though few in
+species. A tiny oyster is found, not much larger than a thumb-nail,
+but very succulent. The marine fauna is the same as that of the
+neighboring Antilles, the sea and rivers teeming with edible fish, to
+which, however, but little attention is paid. Sharks infest the coasts
+and render bathing unsafe except behind protecting reefs.
+Occasionally, too, a manati, or sea-cow, is seen. This strange mammal
+has breasts which resemble those of a human being and emits cries
+that sound almost human. It was probably a party of manati gamboling
+about in the water which induced Columbus gravely to enter in his
+logbook that he had sighted mermaids near Monte Cristi.
+
+Of birds there are over one hundred and fifty species, about
+ninety-five of which are residents and among these several peculiar to
+this island. The forests resound with the cries of parrots and other
+birds of beautiful plumage; from any point on the coast pelicans and
+other ichthyophagous birds can be observed darting into the waters
+after their prey; the lakes and rivers are the home of thousands of
+wild ducks; myriads of wild pigeons breed in the woods; and the number
+of insectivorous birds, including the sweet-singing nightingale,
+jilguero and turpial, the swallow and the small pitirre and colibri,
+is infinite. The caves are inhabited by swarms of bats, the guano of
+which, mingled with the calcareous detritus of the rocky walls, is
+found in great deposits and constitutes a good fertilizer.
+
+At the time of the discovery the Spaniards found very few kinds of
+quadruped mammals. One was the agouti, looking like a large rat and
+inhabiting the forests; another the coati, similar to the squirrel and
+easily domesticated. Three other classes are mentioned, the quemi,
+mohui and perro mudo (dumb dog), but are not now to be found and as
+the description of two of them almost tallies with that of the others
+above mentioned, it is possible that different names were applied to
+the same animals. It is possible, too, that reference was made to the
+solenodon or almiqui, an animal long thought to be extinct but of
+which several specimens have recently been found in Santo Domingo.
+This animal is about two feet, long and resembles a rat, but having a
+long prehensile snout and the habits of an ant-eater, it is considered
+to be a remnant of the early zoölogical type from which diverged both
+the rodents and the insectivorous animals of the present.
+
+The Spaniards introduced the European domestic animals, which
+immediately began to flourish. During the seventeenth and eighteenth
+century the principal and for a long time almost the only industry of
+the Spanish portion of the island was cattle-raising. Some of the
+cattle and pigs escaped to the woods and reverted to the wild state,
+and towards the middle and end of the seventeenth century great herds
+of wild cattle roamed over the island. Such herds no longer exist, but
+wild pigs have found their way to the most remote recesses of the
+mountains and are the plague of the fields. The equine species, sprung
+from the Andalusian horses brought by the Spaniards, has degenerated
+considerably and the best horses in the Republic today are of Porto
+Rican stock, but attention is at last being given to breeding. The
+largest herds of cattle roam about in the unfenced arid regions of the
+northwest. Hides are exported in large quantities, but there is little
+dairying. Of late years attention is being directed to improving the
+stock and several stock farms have been established near San Pedro
+de Macoris.
+
+Sheep raising is followed to some extent in the arid regions of the
+southwest and northwest, but the wool is of coarse grade. An important
+industry in these regions, especially in the neighborhood of Azua, is
+goat-raising. My inquiry as to the population of Azua was answered by
+the purser of the Clyde line steamer: "About three thousand people and
+about three million goats." Though his estimate of the number of goats
+may have been somewhat exaggerated, the fact is that they are
+everywhere in evidence and charge through the streets in droves, and
+at the great Azua church I found a goat in the vestibule looking
+reverently in. Over nine-tenths of the goatskins exported from the
+Republic go to the United States.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+
+THE PEOPLE
+
+Population.--Distribution.--Race.--Descendants of American
+negroes.--Language.--Physical traits.--Mental traits.--Amusements.
+--Dances, theaters, clubs, carnivals.--Gaming.--Morality.--Homes.
+
+
+The estimates of the early Spanish writers as to the Indian population
+of Hispaniola at the time of its first settlement in 1493 range all
+the way from one million to three million inhabitants. While it is
+probable that the former number was nearer to the truth, it is evident
+that the island was well inhabited, for Columbus found every valley
+swarming with natives. The severe labor imposed by the Spaniards made
+such frightful inroads on the native population that within a decade
+labor for the plantations and mines began to grow scarce and forty
+thousand inhabitants of the Bahama Islands were imported to increase
+the supply. They were lured on board the Spanish transports by the
+promise that they were to be conveyed to the beautiful home of their
+departed ancestors and though they did indeed quickly join their
+deceased relatives, it was not until after a taste of purgatory in the
+mines of Santo Domingo. In 1507 the entire Indian population was
+estimated at only 70,000, in 1508 it had fallen to 40,000, and in 1514
+to 14,000. Six years later the remnant of the aborigines united in the
+mountains to resist the Spaniards to the end, but in 1533 a treaty was
+concluded by which the Indians were assigned certain lands near Boya,
+thirty miles northeast of Santo Domingo City. According to some
+authorities 4000 and according to others only 600 natives remained to
+take advantage of this provision. Thereafter all mention of the
+Indians disappears from Dominican annals. Types recalling Indian
+characteristics are sometimes seen, however, and it is probable that
+some Indian blood is still represented in the country.
+
+Father Las Casas, the friend of the Indians, is credited with the
+suggestion that in place of the frail natives negroes be imported for
+labor in the mines and on the plantations. The earliest importations
+seem to have taken place in the opening years of the sixteenth
+century, for as early as 1505 King Ferdinand authorized the shipment
+of more negroes in lots of 100. Later, licenses were issued for the
+importation of negro slaves by the thousands and many more were
+probably smuggled in. The Spanish population also grew rapidly until
+about 1530 when the colony reached the zenith of its wealth and
+prosperity. Twelve years later, when the decline had become marked, it
+was estimated that besides a substantial white population there were
+30,000 negro slaves on the island. The superior attractions of other
+newly discovered countries and the fear of piratical invasions had by
+1591 decreased the total population of the colony to 15,000. This
+number remained almost stationary until about 1663 when it began to
+dwindle further until the low water mark was reached, about 1737, and
+the entire population of the Spanish portion of the island was
+estimated at but 6,000. Timely tariff concessions revived trade and
+encouraged immigration and new importations of slaves the number of
+inhabitants increased rapidly and in 1785 was reckoned at 150,000,
+including 30,000 slaves and a considerable proportion of free colored
+persons.  A decade later saw the beginning of the negro insurrection
+in the French section of Santo Domingo; the horrors attending this
+war, the invasion of the Spanish colony by the Haitians, the menace of
+further invasions, the frequent changes of sovereignty, and adverse
+economic conditions, produced an exodus in the course of which the
+great majority of the white population abandoned the island, many with
+all their slaves and dependents. A few returned, but in 1809 it was
+calculated that the inhabitants of Spanish Santo Domingo numbered
+104,000 and in 1819 but 63,000, of whom the greater number were
+colored. During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, white emigration
+again took place and white immigration was discouraged, while
+settlements of negroes from Haiti and the United States were made in
+different parts of the country. The increase of the population since
+that time has been subject to little outside influence; there has been
+practically no emigration, and immigration has been insignificant, the
+few new settlers being chiefly negroes from the British colonies,
+Haitians, Porto Ricans, Syrians and European merchants. In 1863 an
+ecclesiastical census, based on the returns of the various parish
+priests, placed the population at 207,700. This number may be
+described as little more than a compilation of guesses and was
+probably exaggerated. A similar ecclesiastical census taken in 1888
+gave a total of 382,312 inhabitants.
+
+These ecclesiastical computations were founded to some extent on
+parish records of baptisms and burials, but this basis became more and
+more precarious as the population increased. Probably the records most
+nearly accurate are the baptismal records of the Church, for almost
+every Dominican is baptized at some time in his life. The death
+records are the least complete on account of the obstacles presented
+during the civil disorders and the distance at which many country
+people live from the place of registry. A law of civil registry,
+requiring the inscription of all births, marriages and deaths has been
+only indifferently carried out and during times of insurrection
+entirely suspended. A government census was begun in 1908 but not
+concluded. Any accurate computation is thus out of the question.
+
+Unofficial estimates of the population to-day range all the way from
+400,000 to 920,000. In 1908 an official estimate based on birth
+statistics, placed it at 605,000. An unofficial estimate in 1917, made
+on the assumption that there are 1000 inhabitants for every 37 births
+reported, calculated the total population at 795,432, thus distributed
+among the several provinces:
+
+Santo Domingo ... 127,976
+Santiago ........ 123,972
+La Vega.......... 105,000
+Pacificador......  90,569
+Seibo............  68,135
+Espaillat........  64,108
+Azua ............  59,783
+Puerto Plata  ...  55,864
+Monte Cristi  ...  41,459
+Macoris..........  28,000
+Barahona ........  17,891
+Samana ..........  12,675
+
+The estimate of 37 births per 1000 inhabitants is probably too large
+as the birth-rate in Jamaica is but 34.6, in the Leeward Islands 33,
+and in the birth-registration area of the United States only 24.9. A
+reduction of ten per cent in the above figures would probably make
+them more nearly correct. That would give a total population of about
+715,000. Accepting the number of inhabitants as 715,000 the
+population per square mile is about 39.6. A comparison with the
+surrounding West Indian countries reveals considerable disproportion.
+The Dominican Republic is not quite one-half the size of Cuba but has
+only one-fourth the number of inhabitants; it is almost double the
+size of the Republic of Haiti but has less than one-half the
+inhabitants; it is five times the size of Porto Rico and has but
+one-half the population; it is one hundred and seven times as large as
+Barbados but has only four times the population. If the Dominican
+Republic were as densely populated as the neighboring Republic of
+Haiti, it would have 3,000,000 inhabitants; if the population were as
+dense as that of Porto Rico, it would be 7,000,000; if the Republic
+were as densely inhabited as Barbados it would have over 21,000,000
+people. Though the climatic and topographical conditions of the
+country would not permit it to become as thickly populated as
+Barbados, there is no reason why it should not support a population
+proportional to that of Porto Rico.
+
+As in the other West India Islands the population is principally
+rural. There are probably not more than a dozen towns in the Republic
+with more than 1500 inhabitants. A government census of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital and largest urban center, taken in November, 1908,
+showed a population of 18,626, and the number is now estimated
+as 21,000.
+
+A census of Santiago de los Caballeros, taken by the municipal
+authorities in 1903, showed an urban population of 10,921, the present
+estimate being 14,000. The estimated population of Puerto Plata is
+about 7000; La Vega and San Pedro de Macoris are believed to have
+about 5000 inhabitants each, but in every other case the urban
+population falls below 3000.  The population of the Dominican
+Republic is not scattered uniformly over the country, but is to be
+found chiefly in a fringe along the shore all the way from Monte
+Cristi to Barahona, and in the Cibao Valley. The most densely
+populated region is that part of the Cibao Valley known as the Royal
+Plain. In the mountainous interior there are vast stretches almost or
+entirely uninhabited; and remote valleys which have not been visited
+since the days of the conquest.
+
+The vicissitudes through which Santo Domingo has passed, the departure
+of so large a proportion of whites in the beginning of the nineteenth
+century and the intermingling of blood before and since that time have
+determined the character of the population. At the present time the
+pure negroes are in a minority, constituting probably less than
+one-fourth the entire population. The great majority of the
+inhabitants are of mixed Spanish and African blood, their color
+ranging from black to white. The lighter shades predominate,
+especially in the Cibao. There is also a sprinkling of pure whites,
+the majority of whom are to be found in the Cibao region or are
+foreigners residing in the larger cities. Many families would pass for
+white anywhere, showing absolutely no trace of colored blood, and it
+is difficult to believe confidential assurances of their intimate
+friends, indicating a different condition. A few families trace their
+ancestry back to the first Spanish colonists. As most of the blacks
+live south of the central mountain range the population of this region
+is a good deal darker than that of the northern part of the island.
+The census of Santo Domingo City in 1908 reported 7016 whites, 6934
+colored persons and 4676 blacks, but apart from the circumstance that
+numerous white foreigners reside in the capital, it is probable that
+many persons were classified as white who would have been considered
+colored in the United States under the stricter rules there
+prevailing.
+
+A comparison with Haiti discloses marked racial differences. In the
+French-speaking republic about ninety per cent of the inhabitants are
+pure blacks, the remainder being mulattoes. The distinction between
+the two countries is due to several circumstances: in Santo Domingo
+the pure blacks have never been in a majority; the whites have never
+all left the country; massacres of mulattoes and whites have never
+taken place; there have never been political parties based on color;
+and the relations between the races have always been cordial. In
+company, side by side, mulattoes, blacks and whites have lived,
+worked, enjoyed themselves and fought their revolutions. There is
+absolutely no color line. A friend of mine from Virginia received
+quite a shock the first time he attended a state ball in Santo Domingo
+and saw an immense negro, as black as coal, a member of Congress,
+dancing with a girl as white as any of the foreign ladies present. He
+rushed to the refreshment room and beckoned to a tall mulatto in a
+dress suit: "I'll have something to cool off, here waiter--" He was
+stopped just in time for he was mistaking the secretary of foreign
+affairs for a waiter; but after this experience he was afraid of
+giving his order to anyone else for fear he might be offending some
+other high official. The blacks are commonly the lower laborers, but
+negroes are to be found in all grades of society and are not
+infrequently represented in the cabinet itself. Of the presidents the
+majority have been of mixed blood, but several, like Luperon and
+Heureaux, were full-blood negroes. It appears that the strong strain
+of white blood in the country has elevated all, mulattoes and negroes.
+The negroes have produced men of high ability: Heureaux, for
+instance, though unscrupulous and cruel, was a man of remarkable
+sagacity and energy.
+
+It must not be supposed for a moment that the Dominicans are inimical
+to whites or, like their neighbors, the Haitians, prefer to see their
+country peopled by negroes only. On the contrary they are anxious to
+be considered as belonging to the white race and are not pleased by
+reference to their mixed blood. For this reason the former policy of
+the United States of sending colored men as ministers and consuls to
+Santo Domingo was resented by the Dominicans who saw therein an
+evidence of contempt. I have often heard Dominican statesmen express
+an eager desire for immigration, but only white immigration. This
+sentiment is reflected in immigration laws and in several concessions
+granted in late years in which the concessionnaire was prohibited from
+importing laborers of African or Asiatic descent. The Congress has
+even made appropriations for the introduction of white families and
+their settlement along the Haitian frontier, but the isolation of this
+region and other circumstances made such laws impracticable of
+execution.
+
+During Haitian rule, from 1822 to 1844, a different policy prevailed.
+President Boyer was desirous of seeing every part of the island
+populated by blacks and accordingly settled Haitian negroes in various
+parts of Santo Domingo and encouraged negro immigration from the
+United States by premiums to ship captains bringing such immigrants.
+The American negroes were distributed in Haiti and in Santo Domingo,
+particularly near Puerto Plata and in the Samana peninsula. The Puerto
+Plata settlers have mingled with the rest of the population, but
+around the town of Samana, where the largest settlement, consisting of
+some sixty families, was made, the descendants of the American
+immigrants still form a distinct class. Large portions of the
+peninsula are taken up by their well kept farms, and one of the
+sections or districts into which the commune of Samana is divided, is
+officially named "Sección de los Americanos." The people still
+preserve the English language and proudly proclaim that they are "of
+American abstraction."
+
+They have kept considerably aloof and only in recent years have there
+been marriages between them and their Spanish-speaking neighbors.
+Their exclusiveness has more than once been criticised by Dominicans.
+Of the original settlers all have passed away, their surviving
+children are advanced in age and the third generation is in its prime.
+The Methodist preacher of the district, a kindly black man, presented
+me to the oldest person of the American colony, a woman of about
+eighty years of age who was born only a few years after her parents
+arrived from Virginia. As the old woman stood smiling in the door of
+her little cabin, the walls of which were covered with leafy creepers,
+she looked the picture of an old Southern mammy. Her dialect was
+typical; when I said: "I am glad to meet you, Mrs. Sheppard," she
+answered, beaming, "Me likewise, I'se always glad to meet Americans, I
+is." Several of the American negroes have distinguished themselves in
+military matters, one of the most noted being General Anderson who
+grew gray in many revolutions.
+
+Between the coast towns and the ports of the surrounding countries,
+particularly Porto Rico, there is considerable coming and going. This
+was called to my attention the first time I set foot on Dominican
+soil, when a large negro darted out from a group of loungers on the
+wharf and seized my suit-case, crying: "Let me carry your baggage,
+Judge." Surprised, I inquired how he knew me, whereupon he asked
+reproachfully: "Don't you remember you sent me to jail in Mayaguez
+for shampooing a saucy stevedore's head with a brick?"
+
+Whether as a settler or transient visitor the foreigner may be sure of
+courteous and respectful treatment so long as he himself observes the
+proprieties. The laws grant the foreigner rights as ample as in the
+most advanced countries of the world.
+
+The language of Santo Domingo is Spanish, and the comparative purity
+with which it is spoken is remarkable when the long period of
+isolation of the country and the extended duration of Haitian rule are
+considered. In this particular Haiti offers a contrast, for though
+French is the official language the mass of the people speak Creole
+French, a patois unintelligible to anyone who has not lived in Haiti.
+The Dominicans do not lisp the "c" as do the Spaniards, and other
+peculiarities of Spanish as spoken in America are manifest, but on the
+whole the difference between the Dominican's Spanish and the
+Spaniard's Spanish may be compared to the difference between English
+as spoken in the United States and as spoken in England. Like several
+other Spanish-American nations the Dominicans are to be distinguished
+by their preference for certain words and endings, and by their accent
+and inflection. As everywhere else the unlettered classes are given to
+grammatical faults and provincialisms, but on the whole the vocabulary
+of the Dominican peasant contains fewer archaic expressions and Indian
+roots than that of the Porto Rican "jibaro" and is more easily
+understood by the outsider. Slight differences of pronunciation are
+noticeable in different parts of the country: the people of Seibo are
+inclined to use the vowel "i" instead of the consonant "r" and say
+"poique" instead of "porque," somewhat as the New York street urchin
+says "boid" for "bird"; the people of Santiago sometimes drop the "r"
+entirely and say "poque," as the Southern negro in the United States
+says "fo" for "four"; the peasants of Puerto Plata show a tendency to
+use the "u" instead of "o" and say "tudu" instead of "todo," like some
+of the inhabitants of Catalonia in Spain. The Azuans claim to speak
+the best Spanish of the Republic, but their claim is disputed by other
+provinces.
+
+Besides Spanish, the English and French languages are heard to a
+limited extent. On the Samana peninsula, where the descendants of
+American negroes are in a majority, as much English is spoken as
+Spanish, and in the coast towns, San Pedro de Macoris, Puerto Plata,
+Monte Cristi and Santo Domingo, it is also often heard. In these
+cities it is usually the singsong English of negroes from the British
+colonies. Along the Haitian border and at the extremity of the Samana
+peninsula, where a Haitian colony was planted by President Boyer, the
+French language is spoken. On the wharf at Monte Cristi I have
+encountered fruit-vendors from the interior who spoke no language
+except Creole French. Some persons who have been born and bred on the
+Samana peninsula know not a word of Spanish but only English. Many
+members of the wealthier class of the Republic have studied or
+traveled in Europe or the United States and speak one or more foreign
+languages. In Puerto Plata I was surprised to hear a jet-black negro
+speak German fluently; he had been educated in a commercial school in
+Hamburg. The larger cities have their foreign colonies, consisting
+principally of merchants, and most of the languages of Europe are
+represented.
+
+As a race the Dominicans are robust and sturdy. All the Dominican
+presidents of late years have been men of commanding physique, fitting
+representatives of their people. As far as industry is concerned the
+average Dominican is little more laborious than absolutely necessary
+to support himself and his family. Why should he do more when nature
+has been so bountiful and when in the past any accumulated fruits of
+his toil might have been swept away by the next revolution? The spirit
+of the tropics pervades the country and the tendency not to do to-day
+what can be conveniently left for "mañana" is constantly observed.
+
+The Dominican women are as a rule graceful of body and fair of face,
+with large and beautiful eyes. They make devoted wives and loving
+mothers. The ladies of the better class are quite as susceptible to
+the allurements of Parisian fashions as their American and European
+cousins, and the scenes at balls and at evening promenades on the
+plaza are very attractive. The heat of the climate makes a liberal use
+of powder necessary, and it almost seems as if the darker the color of
+the woman the greater is her fondness for powder, so that some of the
+negresses assume an almost grayish hue. The Dominican woman is very
+domestic, she rarely goes out except to church, to an occasional dance
+or to the band concerts on the plaza. Before her marriage she is
+carefully chaperoned and guarded; all courting takes place in the
+presence of her mother or some other near relative.
+
+Notwithstanding the large mixture of African blood and long isolation
+of the Dominican race, the strong personality of the Spaniard has
+survived unmodified and the population is to-day as thoroughly Spanish
+in character, customs and mode of thinking as the people of Cuba and
+Porto Rico. How completely the Spanish consciousness pervades the
+country was illustrated by a remark made to an American naval officer
+by the mayor of an inland town of Santo Domingo; he was a very black
+negro, but in the course of a discussion observed: "Your arguments
+will fit Anglo-Saxons, but _we Latins_ are a different people." The
+first trait noticeable is the politeness of Dominicans of every
+degree. Only once have I met a rude official and that by a curious
+coincidence was the very first one with whom I had dealings, but after
+this beginning there were no further exceptions to the rule. A
+charming characteristic is the open-hearted hospitality everywhere
+encountered. The stranger who is introduced in any home is immediately
+assured in the customary Spanish way: "This is your house." The words,
+though figuratively spoken, are sincere, and the hosts are glad to
+have their new friend visit their house as though it were his own. As
+companions the Dominicans are delightful, being generally jovial and
+amiable. Some there are, especially among the country people, whose
+natural reticence makes them seem sullen, but once the ice is broken
+they are quite as light-hearted as the others.
+
+In the idealistic tendency of their mind the Dominicans strongly show
+their brotherhood with the other Spanish peoples. In this connection
+the spirit of their renowned kinsman, Don Quixote de la Mancha, is
+often in evidence. When one of them mounts his Rocinante in defense of
+some particularly attractive abstract proposition, nothing less than a
+blow from a windmill will bring him back to reality. And so when any
+person or group of persons become enamored of an idea they are
+unwilling to brook contradiction or compromise. The inclination of the
+majority to do their will irrespective of the wishes of the minority
+and the unwillingness of the minority to bow to the resolutions of the
+majority have been and will continue to be grave problems in the
+government of the country. Even in personal relations a spirit of
+intolerance can frequently be noticed and while almost anything is
+forgiven a friend, not a single redeeming feature is recognized in an
+enemy. To their idealistic tendency may be ascribed the worship of the
+words "patriotism" and "liberty." Unnumbered sins have been committed
+under the cloak of patriotism, and true personal liberty, such as it
+is understood in the United States, has never prevailed in Santo
+Domingo; but the adoration of these conceptions continues and it is to
+be hoped that now, with American assistance, it will bring real and
+lasting liberty to the country. Perhaps it is their idealism, as much
+as their isolation, which causes the Dominicans to take themselves so
+very seriously and renders them so extremely sensitive to criticism or
+jokes on the subject of their country, customs or revolutions.
+
+Foreigners sometimes complain that the affirmations of Dominicans
+cannot be trusted. In many cases investigation has shown that these
+foreigners were misled with regard to some mine, woodland or other
+property they had come to buy. Persons anxious to sell mines and other
+undeveloped properties have not distinguished themselves for veracity
+in any country, and with regard to sincerity in general the Dominicans
+may be regarded as no better but certainly no worse than the general
+run of humanity. With their personal friends they are generally loyal
+and true, but in their political relations the picture is not so
+attractive; for while there have been many cases where subordinates
+have followed their fallen chief into exile rather than submit to the
+victor, it is saddening to note the frequency with which governors of
+provinces and other local authorities have betrayed the confidence
+reposed in them by the chief executive, and have initiated or joined
+revolutionary uprisings. I have heard both ex-President Jimenez and
+ex-President Morales sorrowfully complain that their fall was due to
+the treachery of trusted subordinates. A particularly repulsive case
+of perfidiousness was that of General Luis Felipe Vidal, a prominent
+politician, who participated in the murder of President Caceres,
+though he had only a few hours before visited the President, played
+billiards with him and fondled his infant daughter.
+
+Of all amusements there is none which appeals so strongly to every
+class of the population as dancing. Every public holiday is an excuse
+for the giving of a "baile" or dance, and when holidays are scarce the
+"baile" is arranged anyhow. So, while elsewhere special occasions are
+celebrated by banquets, here the rule is to give a dance. Historical
+anniversaries, political triumphs, religious holidays, weddings,
+birthdays, christenings: all are celebrated by dances. Waltz music is
+popular but the favorite dance music is the pretty Porto Rican
+"danza," which is kin to Mexican airs and to the Cuban "guaracha" and
+may be compared to a flowing brook, now gliding along serenely, now
+rushing in cascades. The dances are often interrupted by the serving
+of sweets and ices.
+
+In the country the dance music is quite different. A rhythmic beating
+is kept up on a drum made of a barrel or hollow log and rude fiddles
+or guitars or an accordion play an accompaniment. To the traveler,
+riding along his road at night, the deep regular rumbling of the drums
+of distant "bailes" comes with indescribable weirdness. In some dances
+the participants engage in a monotonous chant, in others there are
+pauses in which the young men must quickly improvise verses on some
+subject suggested by one of the lassies. In the cities the dances
+begin at ten o'clock at night and last until the wee hours of morning,
+but in the country they begin at almost any time and occasionally last
+two or three days--especially during the Christmas holidays.
+
+These country dances with drum accompaniment are similar to those
+popular among the negroes in Porto Rico and are probably an African
+legacy. But, like Porto Rico, the Dominican Republic is absolutely
+free from the practise of those barbarous negro rites, of which dances
+like these often form part, and which are known in Haiti under the
+name of "voudou," in Cuba under that of "witchcraft" and in the
+British West Indies under that of "obeah," and which sometimes lead
+even to human sacrifices. This is all the more remarkable in Santo
+Domingo as the adjoining Republic of Haiti has been the worst sufferer
+from such practices.
+
+The country dances are occasionally the scenes of violent personal
+altercations. While drunkenness is very rare and a drunkard is
+regarded almost as a social outcast, the countrymen are fond of
+regaling themselves with rum made of cane juice, and at dances where
+such rum is served it is not infrequent for some one to become unduly
+excited. If he happened to meet another in the same condition and a
+controversy arose with reference to some dusky damsel, a frequent
+unfortunate outcome was, until lately, for both to draw revolvers and
+blaze away at each other and if ejected from the house to stand nearby
+and fire through the wooden walls. In Porto Rico such affairs are
+decided with the machete and only the immediate combatants are hurt,
+but revolver bullets are more dangerous to the innocent bystander than
+to those doing the shooting. In Macoris I was told of a dance where
+the casualties were fifteen killed--more than in the average
+revolution. Yet so deep-seated is the fondness for dancing that after
+the smoke has cleared away and the dead or wounded victim been
+removed, it has often happened that the ladies dried their tears and
+men and women continued with the "baile."
+
+Up to the time of American intervention in 1916, the practise of
+carrying weapons was general. In the country a man strapped on his
+pistol or carried his gun as he would in other countries put on his
+necktie or take up his cane. At the railroad stations in the Cibao I
+have sometimes observed everyone congregated about the station wearing
+a revolver more or less visible, except two or three, evidently the
+poorest farm-laborers, who could not afford anything more than a dirk
+and who gazed at the others with envious eyes. Beautiful pearl-handled
+revolvers were proudly exhibited to the public eye, and on one
+occasion I saw a little boy not over ten years old with a revolver
+that reached to his knee. The habit was all the more indefensible as
+it was absolutely unnecessary, Santo Domingo being as safe a country
+to travel in as any other. Governors of provinces sometimes forbade
+the carrying of arms, but the prohibition was rarely enforced with
+reference to their friends and adherents. The American authorities
+have put a stop to the habit, however, and confiscated all the arms
+they could find; some 15,000 rifles and revolvers have thus been
+taken up.
+
+After all, the average Dominican will resent a shot less than a blow.
+A story is told of a prominent youth in the capital who received a
+slap during a quarrel; the aggressor fled, but the young man kept
+holding his handkerchief to his cheek for days until he met his
+assailant and was able to wipe out the insult in blood.
+
+Only in the larger towns are there facilities for the gratification of
+the popular fondness for theatrical performances. Puerto Plata has a
+pretty theatre. In Santo Domingo City the ancient Jesuit church, long
+abandoned, was converted into a theater, the stage being located
+where the altar formerly stood, the boxes occupying the aisles, and
+the chairs of the audience being arranged in the nave; but a new
+open-air theatre, the "Teatro Independencia," is more commodious. The
+Spanish drama is popular, as well as the delightful Spanish "zarzuela"
+or musical comedy. Owing to the isolation of the country it is not
+often visited by good professional troupes, and the interior is
+entirely dependent upon amateur talent.
+
+In social life the clubs are prominent features. A town must be
+unimportant indeed if it has not at least one club where the men can
+meet, read the papers and play cards or billiards. The first attention
+shown the stranger within the gates is to take him to the club and
+enroll him as a visitor, this action being equivalent to a general
+local introduction. The clubs give pleasant musical and literary
+entertainments and dances attended by the best local society. In Santo
+Domingo, Puerto Plata and Santiago the ladies have a club of their own
+where they can meet and chat to their hearts' content. Needless to say
+the most popular entertainments and dances are those given by the
+"Club de Damas." All these clubs have been of great value in the
+social development of the country and many of them have given
+important impulses to education.
+
+Another valuable contribution to civic development is rendered by the
+municipal bands existing in many towns. They are voluntary
+associations and tend to awaken in the inhabitants an interest and
+pride in their city. On Sunday night and sometimes on other nights
+during the week they play on the plaza, while the people, following
+the usual custom in the Spanish cities, promenade up and down. Such
+scenes are very attractive, the ladies, dressed in their best, with
+their light gowns brilliant in the moonlight; the men walking with
+them or watching the promenaders. It is on the plaza and in the
+ball-room where Cupid's arrows do most execution.
+
+Of late years some interest has been shown in athletics, and baseball
+has invaded the island. Bicycle races occasionally form part of public
+celebrations, and horse-races and tournaments have long been popular.
+
+Santo Domingo may be said to have two carnivals, one on St. Andrew's
+day, November 30, the other during the three days preceding Lent. The
+former is the more exciting. Until recent years there was not a person
+in the capital and Santiago, where the populace was most given to the
+typical diversion of the day, who did not voluntarily or involuntarily
+participate therein. The diversion consisted in throwing water or
+flour or both on everyone within reach. The poorer people would arm
+themselves with great syringes and discharge them at every passerby or
+through the keyholes of house-doors. Others would station themselves
+at points of vantage with barrels and tubs of water and duck the
+unwary they were able to entrap. People of the better class would
+place great tubs of water on their balconies or roofs, which the
+servants would assiduously keep filled while their masters emptied
+buckets-full on friends in the street. The young men rode through the
+streets in open carriages, bombarding the ladies on balconies and
+housetops with eggs filled with perfumed water, and receiving
+drenchings in return. Within the last few years the authorities have
+restricted or prohibited the throwing of water, and the principal
+celebration of the day is now what is called a "white dance" given by
+the better society, at which the participants are supposed to come
+dressed in white in order that the many-colored confetti, serpentines
+and gilt powders which those present throw at each other between
+dances, may appear to better effect. During the carnival proper,
+before Lent, the streets are filled with masked persons in groups or
+alone, who dance, make impudent remarks or otherwise indulge in
+nonsense, to the special delight of the ubiquitous small boy. The
+better class celebrate with masquerade balls, where the merry spirit
+of the Dominican is given free rein.
+
+The principal vice of the country is gaming. Men of the better class
+play cards, dominoes, chess, checkers and billiards, for money, but
+they do so rather for pastime than for gain. Among the poorer classes,
+however, the predominant idea is that of making money quickly. Cards
+and dice are often used, but the typical form of gambling, the one at
+which the poor countryman is fondest of staking his hard-earned wages,
+is the cockfight. Every town has its cockpit where on Sundays and
+holidays the barbarous sport is carried on in the presence of crowds
+of whooping, screaming spectators who often ride miles to attend. The
+authorities claim that efforts have been made to stop this sport, but
+that they have all been unavailing. It constitutes a source of
+municipal income, the right to open cockpits being annually conceded
+to the highest bidder by the various municipalities. Raffles and
+lotteries are also permitted by law, being subject to taxation by the
+municipalities, and in one or two cities there are municipal
+lotteries.
+
+With respect to morality the same conditions may be said to prevail in
+Santo Domingo as in other southern countries, the women being in
+general virtuous and pure and the men inclined to amorous intrigues.
+The official statistics relating to marriages and births show that of
+the children born in the Republic almost sixty per cent are
+illegitimate. These figures, while serious, are rendered less alarming
+than would appear at first sight by the large number of what the
+census-takers term "consensual unions" among the humbler classes, or
+cases where a man and woman, though not united by marriage ceremony,
+live together publicly as man and wife, rear a family and are as
+faithful to each other as if they were legitimately married. "Married
+but not parsoned" is the way in which such unions are referred to in
+some of the British West Indies. The considerable number of these
+unions may be explained by the high cost of the marriage
+ceremony,--for while there are some priests ready to waive their fees
+for a religious wedding and some alcaldes who are satisfied with what
+the law allows for the civil ceremony, others are not so
+complaisant--also by the fact that such unions have become so common
+that the parties see nothing wrong in them, and further by the
+circumstance that the parties often believe it more to their advantage
+to remain single rather than to be married. A friend of mine had a
+respectable colored man working on his plantation, the head of a large
+family, but not married to the woman with whom he had been living for
+over a score of years and to whom he was devotedly attached. My friend
+endeavored to persuade him to marry the woman, but the answer was a
+determined negative. "If I marry her she will know I have to support
+her and she may get careless and lazy. Knowing that I can leave her
+when I like she will continue to behave herself." Persuasion was then
+tried with his wife and her refusal was almost identical: "If I marry
+him he will know that I am bound to him and then he may go and fall in
+love with some other woman. Knowing that I can leave him when I like
+he will continue to behave himself."
+
+The homes of the poorer people are mere huts generally built of
+palmwood and covered with palm-thatch. The houses of the country
+people are exactly like the "bohios" used by the Indians at the time
+of the conquest, as pictured and described by the early writers. In
+the towns outside of the capital wooden houses are the rule and some
+of the wealthier people have pretty chalets. In the large cities there
+is a good deal of "mampostería" construction: brick or stone work,
+covered with cement. In the capital the walls of a majority of the
+houses have come down from the early days and are of great
+solidity--here a man's house is literally his fortress. The barred
+windows of the olden days are here still to be seen. One-story
+structures are the rule, and there are few if any of more than two
+stories. The heat of the climate makes window-glass impracticable and
+the windows and doors are fitted with shutters which permit the air to
+pass through. Except in the houses of the wealthiest persons the
+furniture is very simple and of small amount. In the parlors a
+caneseat sofa, several rockers and chairs and a small table with a few
+knicknacks are arranged everywhere in the same way. The bedsteads are
+of iron and the bedroom furniture is reduced to the simplest articles.
+The floors are bare except for a few rugs. The climate is responsible
+for the simplicity of the furniture, as carpets would breed insects,
+and more furniture would mean endless cleaning and dusting, since
+everything must be open all day. The kitchens are not furnished with
+iron stoves, but cooking is done on brick hearths, as in Cuba and
+Porto Rico. The most serious drawback about Dominican houses is the
+want of proper bathing facilities and of sanitary closets, due to lack
+of running water in most cities. The most attractive feature of the
+houses is the patio, or yard, which is often gay with flowers, though
+not so assiduously cared for as in some other Spanish countries. In
+similarity to other tropical lands home life is not nearly so intense
+as in colder climates.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+
+RELIGION
+
+Catholic religion.--Concordat.--Ownership of church
+buildings.--Clergy.--Religious sentiment.--Shrines.--Religious customs
+and holidays.--Religious toleration.--Protestant sects.
+
+The Roman Catholic creed has been the dominant religion of Santo
+Domingo from the time of the conquest. When Columbus arrived on his
+second voyage he brought with him twelve friars, some of whom were as
+holy men as their leader, the vindictive Father Boil, was a nuisance.
+Others were not long in arriving and soon the country had as many
+priests in proportion as Spain herself. Large estates came into
+possession of the church, and in the city of Santo Domingo imposing
+churches and spacious cloisters were erected, which still stand,
+either in ruins or used for religious or secular purposes. There were
+three monasteries, two nunneries, and some ten churches and chapels in
+the capital.
+
+As early as 1511 bishops were appointed for Santo Domingo and
+Concepcion de la Vega and in 1547 the first archbishopric in the new
+world was established in Santo Domingo City. From 1516 to 1519 the
+island was governed directly by three friars, and the licentiate
+Alonso de Fuenmayor, who governed thirty years later, was not only
+governor and captain-general of the island, and president of the royal
+audiencia, but archbishop of Santo Domingo as well. The Inquisition
+was established in Santo Domingo in 1564.
+
+With the decline of the colony the number of churchmen declined also,
+and by the middle of the seventeenth century the majority of the
+church buildings were closed and falling to ruin and the church's vast
+country estates were abandoned. The revival of the country during the
+eighteenth century affected the church as well, but the occupation by
+Haitians and French during the beginning of the nineteenth century
+caused its influence to wane, and restrictive legislation under
+Haitian dominion and the expulsion of the archbishop for political
+reasons in 1830, severed all connection with Rome for many years. The
+first archbishop appointed after the independence of the Republic was
+consecrated in 1848.
+
+The Roman Catholic religion is now the recognized state religion. In
+1884 the Dominican government entered into an agreement with the Holy
+See according to the terms of which the archbishop of Santo Domingo is
+to be appointed by the Pope from a list of three names, native
+Dominicans or residents of the Republic, submitted by the Dominican
+Congress, which in turn engaged to pay the salary of the archbishop
+and certain other officials. The agreement as to the payments
+incumbent upon the Dominican government had the same fate as other
+financial contracts: it was observed for a short time and then
+disregarded, so that for years only small appropriations have been
+made for church purposes.
+
+In the year 1908 a controversy arose with reference to the ownership
+of the buildings and lands occupied by the church. The archbishop and
+church officials claimed that such buildings belong to the church
+absolutely; while the government officials alleged that they are the
+property of the state, possessed by the church with the state's
+consent. Previously few persons had ever given a thought to the
+matter, the church having as many buildings as it could properly care
+for, and more, while other former religious edifices were used by the
+state. Contributions for the erection and repair of churches were
+frequently made by Dominican towns without exciting discussion. The
+controversy of 1908 was precipitated by the determination of the
+church authorities to erect a mausoleum in the cathedral of Santo
+Domingo City for the remains of the late Archbishop Meriño. The
+Executive of Santo Domingo demanded that the government's permission
+be first obtained, but the church officials refused to ask for such
+permission, holding it unnecessary. Neither side lacked historical
+grounds for its contention. In the old colonial days church and state
+were united and the questions of ownership of the church buildings
+never arose. When the Haitians assumed control in 1822 they considered
+the church edifices as the property of the state alone and religious
+services continued only by sufferance of the government. Upon the
+establishment of the independence of Santo Domingo, the new
+government, although friendly towards the Catholic Church, took a
+similar view of the ownership of church edifices and property. By law
+of June 7, 1845, of the Dominican Congress, all "censos" and other
+perpetual rents established in favor of the church were declared
+extinguished and by law of July 2, 1845, all property, real and
+personal, formerly belonging to convents and orders no longer in being
+in the country was formally proclaimed to pertain to the state. In
+1853 burials in churches were prohibited by law of Congress as being
+dangerous to the public health, but in exceptional cases the Executive
+granted permission therefor on the payment of a fee which of late
+years has been $300. On the other hand, it was argued that the church
+has been in uninterrupted possession of its present buildings for
+centuries; that these buildings are not comprised in the laws of
+1845; that a law of 1867 granting the gardens of the archbishop's
+residence to the municipality of Santo Domingo for the establishment
+of a market and cockpit was repealed in 1871 as being a despoilment of
+the church and unconstitutional; and that when the mausoleum of
+Columbus was erected in the cathedral the committee in charge,
+presided over by the vice-president of the Republic, applied for
+permission to the authorities of the church. The dispute regarding the
+mausoleum of Archbishop Meriño came to an end when the government
+receded from its demand, but the main question is not regarded
+as settled.
+
+At the present time the Republic is divided into fifty-seven parishes.
+The episcopal head is the Archbishop of Santo Domingo. In 1903, when
+old age had enfeebled Archbishop Meriño, one of his assistants,
+Monsignor Adolfo Nouel, was made titular Archbishop of Metymne, and on
+the death of the venerable churchman in 1906 succeeded him as
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo.
+
+In the olden days many religious orders were represented in the
+island, but to-day the clergy is secular, with the exception of a few
+friars brought over in recent years from Spain and France. The
+majority of the priests are native Dominicans, graduated from the
+seminary in the capital. There are in the clerical body a number of
+black sheep, far too fond of the pleasures of the flesh. Of this stamp
+was a noted prelate, of whom I was told when I asked whether he was
+old: "Yes, quite old, his oldest son is over forty." As a general
+rule, however, the priests of Santo Domingo are earnest, hardworking,
+honorable men. The standard is being raised through the efforts of the
+present Archbishop Nouel.
+
+The unfortunate political history of the country has not been
+conducive to the establishment of eleemosynary institutions or to
+other philanthropic activity, and such work has devolved almost
+exclusively upon the priests. The names of many of these are held in
+grateful remembrance for their efforts in behalf of charity. Perhaps
+the most celebrated was Father Billini, who, a member of one of the
+foremost families of Santo Domingo, consecrated his life to helping
+his fellowmen. He was a father to the poor and through his efforts the
+insane asylum of Santo Domingo, an orphan asylum and a college were
+established. His name became notable in other directions also, for he
+was instrumental in the discovery of the remains of Columbus in the
+Santo Domingo cathedral in 1877. At times the methods of the good
+father were a little spectacular: thus on one occasion when
+supplicating Heureaux in behalf of several prisoners sentenced to
+death, he took off his hat and vowed he would not put it on again
+until the prisoners were pardoned, but the order of execution was
+carried out and ever afterwards Father Billini went hatless. In so
+great esteem is his name held that the only statue in Santo Domingo
+City, besides that of Columbus on the plaza, is erected to his memory.
+
+Practically the entire population of the country is at least nominally
+Roman Catholic. Among the educated classes in the cities the women, as
+a rule, are devout; the men either openly acknowledge themselves free
+thinkers or their religion is very superficial indeed. On one occasion
+a Dominican earnestly assured me he was a Catholic and would always
+remain one, "but," he added, "I cannot accept all the doctrines of the
+church: thus I do not believe in the Virgin Mary, nor the saints, nor
+the power of the priests to forgive sins, nor in the divinity of
+Christ, but I feel almost certain of the existence of a God." The
+fondness for display makes the ornate ceremonies of the Catholic
+Church popular with all, however, and they are observed by officers of
+the state whenever possible. The president always goes to mass after
+taking the oath of office, and the army flags are solemnly blessed.
+
+The less educated people of the cities and most of the country people
+not only hold their priests in great respect, but are blindly
+superstitious. It is common to find crosses in the courtyards of
+country houses, placed there to keep evil spirits away. Frequently
+also, three crosses are seen in conspicuous places near the roadside
+or even in the middle of the road. They are supposed to propitiate the
+Almighty, and pious persons mumble prayers as they pass them. When the
+destruction wrought by the Martinique volcano became known here, the
+dismay of the countrymen was responsible for more than one "calvario"
+(calvary), as these collections of crosses are called. It is
+especially desired by the country people to receive the last
+sacraments from the priests before death. On one occasion far out in
+the country I met a crowd of people engaged in transporting a dying
+man many miles to the priest in the nearest town. When asked why the
+priest was not called to the sick man, they explained innocently: "He
+couldn't come. The priest is too fat."
+
+There are in the territory of the Republic several shrines of more
+than usual renown, which at certain seasons of the year attract crowds
+of worshipers, some coming all the way from Porto Rico. Wonderful
+cures of invalids are registered which recall the miracles of Lourdes.
+The most celebrated of these churches is the one on the Santo Cerro,
+the Holy Hill, built on the exact spot where forces of Columbus
+planted their cross when defending the hill against the Indians. After
+the Indians had stormed the place all their efforts to destroy the
+cross were unavailing, so the story goes, and they were finally driven
+to precipitate flight by the apparition of the Virgin, sitting on the
+cross. A church was founded on the spot and a convent near by. During
+the dark years of the colony the convent was abandoned and fell to
+ruin but at no time was a priest lacking to look after the site of the
+miracle. In the time of Heureaux the humble wooden chapel then
+crowning the hill was replaced by a larger but modest brick church,
+the greater part of the bricks being carried up from the ruins of the
+old city of La Vega which lie at the foot of the hill. The church
+occupies an eminence overlooking the great Royal Plain. Its most
+prized treasure, which is reverently kissed by the priest before he
+shows it to the stranger, consists of two splinters about an inch
+long, of black wood, parts of the original cross of Columbus, enclosed
+in another small cross of gold filigree work. A larger piece of the
+original cross is kept in the cathedral at Santo Domingo City, to be
+exhibited on special occasions. The pieces of the original cross
+carried away by the Spaniards were enough to make a score of crosses,
+yet nevertheless there was always some wood left, which circumstance
+was heralded as an additional miracle.
+
+Within the church on the Holy Hill, in one of the chapels, there is a
+hole in the stone floor a little over two feet square and deep, which
+is pointed out as the exact place where the cross of Columbus stood.
+There is nothing so coveted by pilgrims as to be able to kneel in this
+hole and offer up their prayers. The soil from this spot is credited
+with strange powers, such as that of healing wounds on which it is
+laid, and that of causing floods to subside, when sprinkled on the
+troubled waters. The late Archbishop Meriño assured me that the
+miraculous nature of the spot is evidenced by the fact that however
+much soil is taken out of the hole, the bottom thereof always retains
+the same level, but my later inspection of the dry yellow earth at the
+bottom disclosed nothing unusual. Near the Santo Cerro church is the
+trunk of the nispero tree, gnarled with age, from which Columbus is
+said to have cut the wood for his cross. All around are miserable
+shacks, inhabited, so the pure-minded priest of the church sorrowfully
+told me, by people the conduct of many of whom is quite at variance
+with the holiness supposed to pervade the place.
+
+The town of Bayaguana, to the northeast of Santo Domingo City, also
+attracts the faithful, especially about the first of the year, by
+reason of the fame of the "Cristo de Bayaguana," a very ancient figure
+of Christ in the church of that town. In the same way Higuey in the
+eastern part of the island is specially noted for its shrine of the
+"Altagracia," a picture of the Virgin, of which tradition says that in
+the early days of the colony it was given by an aged mysterious
+stranger to the father of a devout maiden who had pined therefor. The
+church is built on the site of an orange tree under which, it is said,
+the picture was first admired by the girl and her relatives; the trunk
+of this tree is shown behind the altar of the church. Pilgrimages to
+this place take place preferably about the twenty-first of January and
+the miracles ascribed to the Virgin are astounding. Miracles of quite
+a different nature are attributed to an image of Saint Andrew, in the
+capital. The populace confidently believe that as sure as this figure
+is carried to the street an earthquake will follow.
+
+There are always several altars in the churches, surmounted by figures
+of the saints to whom they are dedicated. Some of these statues are
+quite beautiful, others, in some of the poorer churches, are hideous.
+As in other Spanish countries the churches are bare of seats, and
+people who attend either send small chairs before the service, or
+stand. It is not unusual to see well dressed ladies carrying their
+chairs to church. Women are much more in evidence than men, and the
+Dominican woman is not different from her sisters in other countries,
+for a new hat or dress is apt to awaken in her an irresistible
+yearning to go to church. Young men are fond of attending, too, but it
+is to be feared that in many cases their object is to see the young
+ladies rather than to hear the sermon.
+
+The custom of celebrating the saint's day instead of the birthday is
+followed, so that birthdays pass unperceived while the day dedicated
+in the calendar of the Catholic Church to the saint whose name a
+person bears, is the day which he celebrates and on which he receives
+the felicitations of his friends.
+
+Christmas tide is not a time when presents are exchanged, and
+Christmas trees are not found, save rarely and where the foreign
+influence is strong. There is no lack of celebration, however. On
+Christmas Eve the churches are crowded and there are banquets and
+dances going on everywhere. In the cities the small boys amuse
+themselves by setting off fireworks. During the Christmas week dances
+are frequent, and in the country they continue sometimes for days to
+the lugubrious accompaniment of accordions and large drums. December
+the twenty-eighth, Holy Innocents' day, is All Fools' day, instead of
+April the first, it being argued that just as the innocents of Herod's
+day were made to suffer, so the innocents of this age should be
+persecuted. Many are the pranks perpetrated and the small boy is in
+his glory. On New Year's Eve many families receive their friends;
+there is generally some large ball, and the new year is ushered in
+with fireworks and other noises.
+
+The great day of the year for the children is the sixth of January,
+the feast of Epiphany, or Three Kings' Day, as it is called in Santo
+Domingo. Just as the three wise men from the East brought presents to
+the infant Christ in ages past, so they now make the rounds and leave
+presents for deserving children, thus taking the place of our Santa
+Claus. The receptacles they choose for the good things they deliver
+are either the children's slippers or shoes, or boxes made ready by
+the little ones. For weeks before the anxiously awaited day, letters
+are written to the Kings, explaining what gifts would be acceptable,
+and are given to the parents who undertake to deliver them. The
+children are careful to facilitate the display of the Kings'
+generosity by placing their shoes or boxes in conspicuous places and
+filling the boxes with grass, so that the horses of the Kings can eat.
+Their thoughtfulness is rewarded, for on the following morning the
+visit of the Kings is attested by indubitable evidence, as there is an
+abundance of toys and sweets and the grass is often quite strewn
+about. Excited little ones are sure they heard the pawing of the
+horses on the balcony. The Kings usually show a magnanimous disregard
+of past offenses, but occasionally they leave a letter of advice or
+warning, and they have even been known to place a switch in the box of
+a particularly bad boy.
+
+Easter is celebrated with great solemnity. In order to provide
+opportunity for observing all the ceremonies prescribed by the church,
+they are so arranged that the ceremonies corresponding to the
+commemoration of the death of Christ are begun on Thursday at noon and
+the celebration of the resurrection on Saturday at noon, and this is
+the order of dates accepted by the people in general. On Thursday and
+Friday soldiers form a guard of honor before the churches, and up to
+Easter of 1906 there was a strict prohibition of any vehicle going
+through the streets between Thursday noon and Saturday noon. Not a
+wheel was permitted to turn in this period, giving rise to much
+inconvenience and discomfort. Since 1906 a more liberal view has
+prevailed. At this time as on certain other church festivals, solemn
+religious processions wind through the streets.
+
+The church has charge of several small hospitals and orphan asylums. A
+few schools in the Republic are also under its auspices, but in
+general religious education is much neglected.
+
+Although the Catholic religion is the state religion and is professed
+by so large a majority of the population, the influence of the church
+in the government is no more than in many countries where no such
+circumstances prevail. Discipline in the priesthood is limited almost
+entirely to ecclesiastical matters and priests otherwise speak and act
+for themselves. They frequently participate in politics and are often
+to be met in municipal councils and in Congress, and in such cases
+their acts indicate that they sit, not as priests representing the
+church, but entirely as individuals representing the constituency from
+which they were elected. Father Meriño, who later became archbishop,
+was elected president and served out his term. President Morales had
+been a priest, but had abandoned the priesthood when he was elected to
+Congress. The present head of the church, Archbishop Nouel, has also
+been president, under a temporary compromise.
+
+Another peculiarity of Dominican Catholicism is its tolerant attitude
+towards freemasonry. It is not unusual for persons who are recognized
+as fervent Catholics to be at the same time enthusiastic masons.
+There are instances even of devout families, where one of the sons
+belongs to the priesthood and the other sons and the father are
+zealous masons, but where all live under the same roof in absolute
+concord. The first lodges were founded in 1858 and there are lodges to
+be found to-day in all the principal cities. Several of them have
+their own buildings, that at Santiago being especially worthy of
+remark. They have done excellent work in behalf of charity and
+education. The lodges of Santo Domingo City, Santiago, La Vega and
+Moca maintain free public schools, and the lodge of Puerto Plata a
+hospital. The lodges of oddfellows in the Republic have done similar
+good work.
+
+The absence of religious fanaticism is further exemplified by the
+tolerance accorded other religious sects. These, it is true, are but
+slimly represented. Of the Jewish faith there are probably not two
+dozen persons in the Republic. The Protestants are almost entirely
+negroes from the British and former Danish islands and other
+foreigners, and descendants of the American negroes settled in Santo
+Domingo. For these the Wesleyan Methodist Church of England maintains
+a flourishing mission with chapels in Puerto Plata, Samana, and
+Sanchez and a small branch in Santo Domingo City. The principal chapel
+is in Puerto Plata, which is also the residence of the minister in
+charge of the mission. The African Methodist Church also has small
+stations at Samana and San Pedro de Macoris, though the word "African"
+does not tend to make the church popular in Santo Domingo. There is
+further an almost abandoned Baptist mission in Puerto Plata and Monte
+Cristi. In all these churches, services are generally carried on in
+the English language alone. In San Francisco de Macoris, Protestant
+services are conducted in Spanish by devotees who do not seem to be
+ordained by any particular sect.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+
+EDUCATION AND LITERATURE
+
+Education in Spanish times.--Work of Hostos.--School
+organization.--Professional institute.--Primary and secondary
+education.--Literacy.--Libraries.--Newspapers.--Literature.--Fine Arts.
+
+
+As in other Spanish colonies, it was not the policy of the Spanish
+government in Santo Domingo to foster popular education. Learning was
+confined to the clergy and the aristocracy and was imparted only by
+servants of the church. As early as 1538, the Dominican friars
+obtained a papal bull for the establishment of a university, and in
+1558 the institution known as the University of St. Thomas of Aquino
+was inaugurated by them in Santo Domingo City, with faculties of
+medicine, philosophy, theology and law, the principal branch being
+theology. This university acquired considerable celebrity, but
+practically disappeared during the colony's decline, being revived by
+royal decree of May 26, 1747, which gave it the title of Royal and
+Pontifical University of Santo Domingo. The cession of the island to
+France and the wars which followed weakened the famous institution,
+which was definitely closed by the Haitians when they assumed control
+of the government. The Haitian occupation and the civil disorders of
+the first forty years of the Republic were not propitious for the
+spreading of education. Beyond a theological seminary founded in 1848,
+there were only a few humble public and private schools, leading a
+precarious existence.  An eminent Porto Rican educator, Eugenio M. de
+Hostos, was responsible for the intellectual renaissance of Santo
+Domingo. This remarkable man was one of those talented dreamers
+produced by Latin-America, a lover of the abstract ideal in
+government, philosophy and pedagogy, erudite, eloquent, with an
+enthusiasm which fired his pupils and hearers. Early in life he
+conceived the idea which he preached unceasingly: that of a
+Confederated West Indian Republic, in which the principal states were
+to be Cuba, Santo Domingo and Porto Rico. Inspired by the Cuban war of
+independence of 1868 to 1878, he wrote and spoke throughout Spanish
+America in behalf of the union of the Spanish speaking peoples of the
+West Indies, the first step to that end to be the independence of
+Cuba. In 1880 he arrived for the third time in Santo Domingo, where he
+was then less known than in South America. Having obtained from the
+government a commission to found normal schools in the Republic, he
+was appointed director of the normal school of Santo Domingo City. He
+came as the right man at the right time. His teachings touched a
+responsive chord in the hearts of the Dominicans; his unsparing
+condemnation of old pedagogical methods and eager advocacy of new ones
+gave rise to discussions which awakened a general interest in
+education and letters; and his aggressive enthusiasm smote the rock
+which held Dominican literature bound. A prominent Dominican
+historian, Americo Lugo, says: "I believe that what may be called
+national literature does not begin until after the arrival in the
+Republic of the eminent educator Eugenio M. de Hostos."
+
+Hostos labored in Santo Domingo for eight years, during which time he
+had as pupils many who have since become prominent in the councils of
+the Republic. The baneful policies of Heureaux forced his departure,
+and he settled in Chile with his family, being appointed professor of
+constitutional law at the National University. Upon the conclusion of
+the Spanish-American war, when it became apparent that Porto Rico
+would be American and his ideal of an Antillan Confederation
+definitely shattered, he journeyed to Washington to labor in behalf of
+Porto Rico, returning later to his native island in the hope of
+uniting the Porto Ricans in a demand for autonomy. There political
+passion ran high, and Hostos, disappointed, went back to Santo
+Domingo, where his entry was almost triumphal. He again assumed charge
+of public education though the civil disorders filled him with
+sadness. In 1903 he died in Santo Domingo, but the seed he sowed lives
+and flourishes and his memory is revered by Dominicans.
+
+In 1884 a general school law was passed, repeatedly modified since,
+according to which primary instruction is a charge upon the
+municipality, while the cost of secondary instruction is to be
+defrayed by the state. Supreme inspection over educational matters was
+given to the Minister of Justice and Public Instruction, who was
+assisted by a superior board of education with school inspectors in
+the various provinces. There were further special boards of education
+in each province, presided over by the governor, and school boards in
+the communes which are not capitals of provinces and in the cantons.
+Owing to the difficulty of finding competent personnel, the inspection
+of the educational institutions has generally been perfunctory and the
+teachers have done pretty much as they pleased. Unfortunately the
+financial limitations of the country have not permitted the
+development of the schools in the measure desired. Since the middle of
+1917 numerous changes in the school system and curriculum have been
+decreed by the Department of Public Instruction and the system is
+undergoing a general reorganization.
+
+In 1882 a "Professional Institute" was founded, the name of which was
+in 1914 changed to "University of Santo Domingo," and it is now called
+the Central University of Santo Domingo. It occupies the same building
+in the capital, adjoining the church of St. Dominic, where the old
+university was located. It confers degrees in five branches: law,
+medicine, pharmacy, dental surgery and mathematics and surveying.
+Practically all the lawyers of the Republic have graduated from this
+school. Most of the native pharmacists, also, have studied here. With
+reference to instruction in medicine and surgery, and in dentistry,
+the institution is handicapped by the lack of a suitable hospital and
+clinic. As a result those who wish to adopt any of these professions
+pursue their studies abroad, if possible, and all the best known
+physicians are graduates of foreign universities. The entire annual
+appropriation for the University is only about $24,000. A similar
+institution, on a smaller scale, is the Professional Institute of
+Santiago, founded in 1916. In several cities there are high schools
+called normal schools, and other institutions called superior schools,
+and the capital has an academy of drawing, painting and sculpture.
+
+With the exception of a few private schools, primary education is in
+the hands of the municipalities, which are assisted by small
+subventions from the national government. In the municipalities there
+is more enthusiasm for education than in Congress, if we judge from
+the figures presented by the budgets. Every little town takes pride in
+making its budget for education as large as possible, year after year.
+The total amount spent for educational purposes, however, including
+salaries, rent, supplies, subventions and teachers' pensions, is only
+in the neighborhood of $500,000, contributed about in equal shares by
+the state and the municipalities.
+
+The total number of scholars enrolled is only about 20,000. The
+schools are generally located in rented houses, there being no
+buildings erected expressly for school purposes. Their equipment is as
+a rule deficient. The teaching force is handicapped by lack of
+facilities and training. The salaries of the elementary teachers are
+very small, and while some municipalities are prompt in their
+payments, others lag far behind, and the Spanish saying "as hungry as
+a schoolmaster" has not lost all its meaning.
+
+If the amounts expended for education are not large, it is due to lack
+of money and not to lack of realization of the advantages of learning.
+The interest manifested in education and the eagerness of parents to
+furnish their children as much schooling as possible, are among the
+most hopeful signs for the future. In the towns and villages where the
+schools are located, most children learn at least to read and write,
+but out in the country illiteracy and ignorance reign supreme. In the
+absence of statistics it is not possible to determine the proportion
+of illiterates; there is no doubt, however, that it is very large, and
+I have heard it estimated at all the way from seventy to ninety per
+cent of the population over ten years of age.
+
+Some of the best schools are private institutions, one of the best
+known being the institute for girls and young ladies, founded by Santo
+Domingo's foremost woman poet, Salomé Ureña de Henriquez. It is the
+custom also for well-to-do families to send their children abroad for
+study and to travel themselves, and the Dominicans are not few who,
+besides their native Spanish, speak other languages, acquired abroad.
+Within the country, too, there is a predilection among the upper class
+for the study of foreign tongues, and many learn English and French in
+the family circle or by association with persons speaking these
+languages.
+
+As a result of the educational limitations, the population of the
+country may be divided into three groups: first, a number of persons,
+small in comparison with the whole number of inhabitants, who compare
+in culture, education and accomplishments with members of the best
+society in any country; second, a much larger group of persons who
+possess knowledge more or less rudimentary; and third, the great
+majority of the inhabitants, who are unlettered and unlearned.
+
+One obstacle to the spread of information is the lack of public
+libraries. There is a public library in Puerto Plata, and various
+clubs in the larger towns have libraries, for their members or the
+public, but they are all very small and limited. The newspapers,
+therefore, furnish the only source of reading for the majority.
+Practically all the papers are published in the cities of Santo
+Domingo, Santiago and Puerto Plata, and all are of modest dimensions.
+Many newspapers have been founded in the Republic and after leading an
+ephemeral existence have succumbed, some because their editors were
+persuaded by threats or rewards on the part of the government to cease
+publication, and the greater portion because of financial
+embarrassment. Notwithstanding the constitutional precept guaranteeing
+free speech, editors of the opposition have generally found it more
+healthy to withdraw to the neighboring countries and conduct their
+campaigns at long range. On the other hand, it must be said that
+several governments have honestly endeavored to allow the press full
+liberty, but that the privilege has always been abused. The principal
+daily newspaper of the Republic, and the one having the largest
+circulation is the "Listin Diario" of Santo Domingo. It is a four-page
+sheet and its daily edition is about 10,000 copies. It is the only
+paper having a cable service, and it receives its cablegrams from the
+French cable company, whose line crosses the island. It is also one of
+the oldest of the existing newspapers, having been founded in 1889,
+and maintained itself by constantly observing a prudent attitude. In
+the capital there also appear the "Gaceta Oficial," in which the laws
+and governmental decisions and announcements are published; the
+"Boletín Municipal," containing municipal announcements; several
+reviews whose character is indicated by their title: "Revista Médica,"
+"Revista de Agricultura," "Revista Judicial," "Boletín Masónico"; two
+small humorous papers; two commercial sheets; an illustrated paper,
+"Blanco y Negro," and a well-known literary monthly, "Cuna de América"
+(Cradle of America). Santiago also boasts a daily paper, "El Diario,"
+as also several smaller papers and literary periodicals. In Puerto
+Plata "El Porvenir," the oldest of existing Dominican newspapers, is
+published, as well as three less important sheets.
+
+Especially interesting among these publications are the "Cuna de
+América" and others devoted to belles-lettres. They constitute a
+reflection of current Dominican literature, being given over to poems,
+lyric compositions, biographic, historical, philosophic and other
+articles, and extracts from new plays and books. In these periodicals
+most of the poems which have brought fame to Santo Domingo
+have appeared.
+
+Before the intellectual awakening incident to the labors of Hostos the
+number of Dominican writers was small. Little was done in colonial
+times. In the turbulent period following the cessation of Spanish
+sovereignty at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the situation
+of the country was not favorable for the cultivation of the muses, but
+scions of the families who then emigrated have made their names
+immortal in the literature of Cuba and other neighboring countries.
+Juan Pablo Duarte, the liberator, Antonio Delmonte y Tejada, the
+historian, and a small group of others who flourished shortly before
+or at the time of the establishment of the Republic, may be said to
+initiate the literature of the country, but their fame is mostly
+local. The first generation of Dominican citizens furnished a somewhat
+larger proportion of literary men, among whom may be mentioned the
+venerable Emiliano Tejera, the late Archbishop Fernando A. de Meriño,
+Francisco X. Amiama, Francisco Gregorio Billini, Mariano A. Cestero,
+the historian Jose G. Garcia and the novelist Manuel de J. Galvan,
+though it is significant that the best productions of some of these
+appeared after 1880. It is since that year that literature has really
+flourished. So fecund have Dominican writers been, and so excellent
+their productions, that Santo Domingo occupies a proud place in the
+beautiful field of Latin-American literature, where only a few years
+ago it was practically unknown. There is an abundance of poets,
+essayists, historians and novelists worthy of mention, and an attempt
+to single out a few might lead to unjust distinctions. A number of the
+best writers are women, and all prominent newspaper men are also
+distinguished in literature.
+
+In poetry, especially lyric poetry, the Dominican writers excel. They
+show great depth of feeling and a full command of the sonorous
+Castilian tongue. A favorite theme is, of course, the old story which
+is ever new. The civil wars have inspired many pathetic compositions,
+and poems like Salomé Ureña's apostrophe to the ruins of colonial
+times, Bienvenido S. Nouel's elegy on the ruins left by the late
+revolutions, and Enrique Henriquez' "Miserere!", gems of verse, are
+veritable cries of anguish at the desolation wrought by fratricidal
+strife. Perhaps it is the poets' sorrow at the misfortunes of their
+country which is the cause of the note of sadness so often to be
+remarked in Dominican writings. Some writers are classed as poets
+though they have versified little or not at all; of these Tulio M.
+Cestero, one of the most popular of the younger writers, is an
+example, it being said of him that "he writes his poetry in prose."
+
+The love of poetry is by no means confined to persons of higher
+education, but is general throughout the country. It has been said
+that if there were one engineer in Santo Domingo for every hundred
+poets, there would be fewer mudholes in the roads. The productions of
+some poetasters are characterized by an abundance of rare adjectives,
+which are introduced as well to give an impression of depth of thought
+as to advertise the author's erudition. However, there are so many
+good poets that forgiveness is readily extended to the others.
+
+The national song of Santo Domingo, an ode to liberty, was written by
+a school teacher, Emilio Prud'homme. The music was composed by José
+Reyes, who died several years ago, and is agreeable and almost
+majestic. Reyes occupies probably the most prominent place among
+Dominican composers. Others have also obtained prominence, and their
+number is constantly increasing; among them special mention may be
+made of José de J. Ravelo, one of the younger men whose work has
+attracted attention and gives promise of even better things.
+
+In painting and sculpture several Dominicans have attained prominence
+of late fears. The principal artists are Arturo Grullon, a prominent
+oculist; Luis Desangles; and Miss Adriana Billini, whose paintings
+have received prizes in Paris, Porto Rico and Havana respectively.
+Desangles painted the picture "Caonabo," which hangs in the session
+hall of the City Council of Puerto Plata and shows the Indian chief in
+chains. The sculptors are few, and their fame so far is only local,
+The foremost is Abelardo Rodriguez U., a photographer of the capital,
+who is something of an artistic genius. His photographs can compete in
+artistic merit with the best produced anywhere, and he is also a
+painter of no small merit. His best known sculpture is the figure of a
+dying guerilla soldier, significantly entitled, "Uno de tantos"--"One
+of so many."
+
+Powerful assistance has been given to education and artistic
+development by various clubs and literary associations, especially
+women's clubs, throughout the country. Though at times eclipsed by
+revolutionary turmoil, their work has continued undaunted and has had
+gratifying results. The educational plane attained by Santo Domingo in
+spite of all obstacles, and the general recognition of the supreme
+importance of public instruction, justify confident predictions of
+advance in the future.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION
+
+
+Railroads.--Samana-Santiago Railroad.--Central Dominican
+Railway.--Roads.--Mode of Traveling.--Inns.--Principal highways.
+--Steamer lines.--Postal facilities.--Telegraph and telephone lines.
+
+
+A potent cause of the undeveloped state of Santo Domingo's agriculture
+has been the absence of transportation facilities, which has likewise
+been a cause and an effect of the internal disturbances. There are but
+two public railroads in the Republic, both in the Cibao region, with
+an aggregate length of 144 miles. The highways are generally little
+more than trails, difficult and dangerous even in dry weather, and
+almost impassable in the rainy season. It is therefore not surprising
+that the northern and southern sections of the Republic should have
+developed almost as different countries and that large areas in the
+interior should be practically uninhabited.
+
+The importance and possibilities of railroad lines have been
+recognized and numerous concessions for railroad construction have
+been sought and granted; but the concessionnaires have, as a rule,
+either been impecunious, entering the field only with speculative
+intentions, or have been frightened off by the internal disturbances,
+and in either case the concession has been permitted to lapse.
+
+The oldest of the two railroads now in operation is the road known as
+the Samana-Santiago Railroad--something of a misnomer, as the road
+neither reaches Samana, on the one side, nor Santiago on the other,
+but extends from Sanchez, at the head of Samana Bay, to La Vega, a
+distance of 62 miles in the interior, with a branch to San Francisco
+de Macoris, 7 miles, and another branch to Salcedo, 11 miles, and
+Moca, 7 miles, or a total length of 87 miles. Prior to its
+construction, the products of the eastern portion of the Royal Plain
+had been floated on lighters or light draft boats down the Yuna River
+and across Samana Bay to Samana, where they were transshipped to
+ocean-going vessels. The value of a railroad in this region early
+became apparent, and a concession granted in 1881 was acquired by
+Alexander Baird, a wealthy Scotchman, who constructed the road. Under
+the concession the Dominican government granted the right to build and
+operate a railroad from Samana to Santiago, to construct wharves on
+Samana Bay and collect wharf dues, and to enjoy certain tax exemptions
+and other privileges.
+
+The Gran Estero, the large swamp just west of Sanchez, proved much
+more difficult to cross than the engineers had calculated. It
+swallowed up tons of rock and thousands of pounds sterling. Further
+disappointment arose when public lands promised by the government
+failed to materialize. The enthusiasm of the promoters cooled and the
+construction work on the railroad ceased when La Vega was reached. To
+the east of Sanchez the road was continued along the Samana peninsula
+to Point Santa Capuza, but this position was abandoned and the
+terminus was established at Sanchez. The road from Sanchez to La Vega
+was opened to traffic in 1886.
+
+The important city of San Francisco de Macoris lay seven miles to the
+north of the line of the Samana-Santiago railroad and in 1892 a
+concession was granted to a prominent Dominican for the building of a
+connecting road. It was constructed with Dominican capital from La
+Gina to San Francisco de Macoris, and is leased to the Samana-Santiago
+Road and operated as a branch of this road.
+
+In 1907 the Samana-Santiago Railroad waived its right to the
+percentage of import duties collected at Sanchez, in consideration of
+a payment made by the government, and agreed to construct a branch
+line to Salcedo and later continue it to Moca. A line from Las
+Cabullas, on the main road, to Salcedo was promptly built and opened
+to traffic, but the Moca extension was delayed by civil disturbances
+and not completed until 1917.
+
+The gauge of the Samana-Santiago road is 1.10 meters, about three feet
+six inches. It rises very gradually from sea-level at Sanchez to the
+altitude of La Vega and Moca, about 400 feet. The engineering problems
+attending its construction and preservation have been those connected
+with the crossing of the Gran Estero swamp, and the bridging of
+numerous small tributaries of the Yuna River, which from modest
+brooklets in the dry season swell to turbulent torrents in rainy
+weather. The bridge across the Camu River near La Vega has been washed
+away repeatedly and further trouble has been caused by the river
+changing its course.
+
+The journey from Sanchez to La Vega, including the side trip to San
+Francisco de Macoris, consumes five and a half hours. After leaving
+Sanchez the end of the Samana range is soon reached and for miles the
+train travels across a mangrove swamp, where the bushy vegetation is
+exceedingly dense and the roadbed is covered with grass. Forests
+follow, the trees of which are encumbered with great hanging vines. As
+soon as a higher level is reached, clearings become frequent. At the
+stations along the route the entire population of the small towns
+seems to turn out to await the train's arrival. At two larger places,
+Villa Rivas and Pimentel, the train makes lengthier stops. The houses
+all along are similar, one story wooden buildings, generally
+whitewashed and roofed with tiles, corrugated zinc or palm thatch. La
+Gina is the beginning of the branch line which extends through
+monotonous woodland to San Francisco de Macoris. On the main line,
+after passing La Gina, there are numerous cacao plantations, and near
+La Vega the muddy Cotui road emerges from the woods and follows the
+railroad. About eight miles from La Vega is the station of Las
+Cabullas, the starting point of the branch to Salcedo and Moca.
+
+Affording, as it does, the outlet for the products of the eastern
+portion of the Cibao, the Samana-Santiago railroad transports the
+greater part of the cacao exported from the country. It has been the
+most important factor in the development of the Royal Plain, but owing
+to the country's internal troubles was run at a loss for years. It is
+well managed and of late years has made handsome profits.
+
+The name of the other Dominican railroad is also misleading, it being
+called the Central Dominican Railway, though only extending from
+Puerto Plata, on the north coast, to Santiago de los Caballeros, a
+distance of 41 miles, with an extension to Moca, 16 miles, a total of
+57 miles. Its name is due to the fact, that it was considered the
+first section of a road which was ultimately to connect Puerto Plata
+and Santo Domingo City. The need for such a road had been and is still
+urgently felt, and the construction of no portion was more imperative
+than that between Santiago and the coast. The mountain roads in this
+section were indescribably bad; a trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata
+meant at least two days of dangerous riding; and all merchandise to
+and from Santiago had to be transported on mule-back. President
+Heureaux therefore considered himself fortunate when the Dominican
+government was able, in 1890, in connection with a bond issue, to make
+contracts with the banking firm of Westendorp & Co., of Amsterdam, for
+the construction of the section of the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago. Belgian money was furnished and Belgian engineers made the
+plans. The road was given a gauge of only two feet six inches, and the
+short-sightedness is inconceivable which permitted the adoption on
+this road of a gauge different from that of the Samana-Santiago
+Railroad, when the two were expected to join in Santiago. Ultimately
+the gauge of the Central Dominican Railway will have to be widened,
+but the change will cost a considerable sum and require a complete
+renovation of the rolling stock. In view of the steepness of the
+slopes to be surmounted, the plans contemplated the construction, on
+several portions of the road, of a rack-line or cremaillère, a third
+track provided with cogs, between the other two, and the use of
+special mountain-climbing locomotives having a cogwheel by means of
+which the ascent was to be accomplished and the descent regulated. The
+Belgian engineers built the road from Puerto Plata as far as
+Bajabonico, a distance of about eleven miles.
+
+At this stage the financial difficulties of the Dominican government
+induced the Belgians to sell their rights to American interests, which
+formed the San Domingo Improvement Company to take them over. American
+engineers accordingly finished the road to Santiago. The rack-rail
+feature being undesirable, plans were made for the construction of the
+road as an adhesion road. No further rack-rail was built and one of
+the portions constructed was converted, but two short stretches of
+rack-rail remained near Puerto Plata, one of one mile and another of
+three miles. The Central Dominican Railway Company was incorporated
+for the operation of the road.
+
+During the controversy later carried on between the Dominican
+government and the San Domingo Improvement Company the Company
+contended that the road had cost in the neighborhood of $3,000,000, or
+about $600,000 in excess of the sums realized by the sale of the bonds
+assigned by the government to defray the cost of construction. The
+dispute found its settlement in the protocol of January 31, 1903, by
+which the Dominican government agreed to purchase all the holdings of
+the Improvement Company. In the negotiations of which this convention
+was an incident, the value of the railroad was generally estimated at
+$1,500,000. Upon the delivery by the Dominican government of the cash
+and bonds agreed upon by the settlement of 1907 as the price of the
+Improvement Company's interests, the Company, in February, 1908,
+turned over the railroad to the government. It has since been operated
+by the Dominican government with satisfactory results, though it has
+suffered serious injury from revolutions. The insurgents destroyed
+bridges and the rack-rail; the latter has not been replaced, and the
+four and ten per cent grades are now laboriously overcome by means of
+Shay geared engines. Surveys show that the troublesome grades can be
+avoided by the construction of curves which will increase the length
+of the road by not more than three or four miles.
+
+Owing to the mountainous character of the country traversed, the
+scenery on this road is splendid. The speed attained by the trains
+would not alarm a nervous wreck, for though the length of the road is
+about 41 miles, the ascent from Puerto Plata to Santiago takes almost
+six hours and the return trip from Santiago five, in which the slow
+engines, the steep grades, the former rack-road section and the
+numerous long stops have equal shares of responsibility. The roadbed
+is very rough and the passengers are considerably shaken up, but the
+memory of what used to be helps to mitigate the discomfort. On one of
+my trips over the road, when a fellow-passenger made a remark about
+the severe jolting that almost shook us off our seats, an elderly
+Dominican gentleman observed: "My friend, you evidently never took a
+trip from Santiago to Puerto Plata before the railroad was built.
+Compared with travel then, this mode of conveyance is like being
+carried in angels' arms." As on the Samana-Santiago Road, the regular
+trains are mixed trains, that is, a freight and passenger together,
+usually looking like a freight train with a small passenger car
+attached. Except in unusually dull periods there is one daily train
+each way. The city of Santiago is about 600 feet above the level of
+the sea; from here the course is over a rich plain among tobacco farms
+and meadows full of cattle, for a distance of about twelve miles,
+until the foothills are reached and the ascent of the coast range is
+begun. Higher and higher along the mountainside, through country
+wilder and wilder, the train winds its way to the highest point of the
+road, 1580 feet above sea-level and 20 miles from Santiago, where a
+short tunnel pierces the mountain. The mountain pass at this point is
+1720 feet above sea-level and is the lowest one in twenty miles. At
+the station on the other side of the mountain a fifteen minute stop is
+made for lunch. Then begins a rapid descent along a deep valley, on
+the wooded slopes of which little houses peer out between the trees.
+The town of Altamira, on a knob in the middle of the valley, is
+passed, and further down, near Bajabonico, a small sugar plantation.
+Another ascent, on which is the old rack-road section, is now
+reached; a powerful mountain engine is placed before the train and
+slowly works its way up. From the top of the ridge the scene is
+magnificent. Below, in the far distance, Puerto Plata is seen, a
+miniature city with tiny bright-colored houses, nestling at the foot
+of the great verdure-covered cone, Mt. Isabel de Torres; before it
+lies its almost circular harbor with what look like toy ships riding
+at anchor; the foam of the breakers on the reefs at the harbor
+entrance gleams in the sunlight; and beyond, in vast immensity extends
+the blue expanse of the ocean. On the final descent quicker time is
+made than anywhere else on the road.
+
+The extension of the Central Dominican Railroad from Santiago to Moca
+was built and is operated by the Dominican government. In 1894 a
+franchise was granted the San Domingo Improvement Company for the Moca
+road, and grading was done for several miles outside of Santiago, but
+the financial troubles of the Dominican government suspended the work.
+When better times came, the government in 1906 began to build the road
+from Santiago to Moca with current revenues, and it was opened to
+traffic in 1910. At Moca this road is met by the extension of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad from Salcedo, so that it is possible to
+travel by rail through the fertile Cibao from Sanchez to Puerto Plata,
+though the difference in gauge requires a change of cars at Moca.
+
+A railroad between the Cibao and Santo Domingo City has long been
+contemplated. Government engineers a few years ago surveyed a route
+from Santo Domingo City to La Gina, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad,
+passing through Cotui. The route is 80 miles long, and the estimated
+cost is about $2,325,000. Such a through railroad would open up great
+tracts now isolated, afford an easy means of communication between
+the north and south, and be of inestimable advantage to the Republic.
+It is the most urgent and important public work under consideration in
+the country.
+
+Another road which has long been projected and which the Dominican
+government in 1906 determined to have constructed with current
+revenues, is one in the east, from Seibo, on the plains in the
+interior, to the port of La Romana in the southern coast. This region,
+excellently adapted for cacao raising and sugar planting, has been
+kept secluded by bad roads. After several thousand dollars had been
+spent in surveys and a little grading, the work was stopped by lack of
+funds and the government decided that the expense of construction and
+the undeveloped character of the country counselled an abandonment of
+the project for the moment. If the railroad is finally built, it will
+probably be from Seibo to San Pedro de Macoris and not to La Romana.
+
+Even in the immediate vicinity of Santo Domingo City most roads are in
+such bad condition that during the rainy season villages only a few
+miles away cannot be reached except by floundering through the mud for
+many hours, and even during the dry season, with all conditions
+favorable, it requires two days hard riding to reach the city of Azua,
+80 miles to the west. A railroad from the capital to Azua has
+therefore been proposed repeatedly, and in 1901 a concession was
+granted for the first section thereof, from Santo Domingo to San
+Cristobal, a distance of 16 miles, with the right of extension. The
+revolution of the spring of 1903 interrupted the construction of this
+road, but a little work was done in 1906 under a new contract, which
+has since been declared lapsed.
+
+Private plantation railroads are to be found on several sugar
+plantations near La Romana, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo City
+and Azua, and on the United Fruit Company's plantation near Puerto
+Plata. They aggregate about 225 miles in length and are used
+exclusively for the purposes of the respective estates, except one
+which carries passengers between the town of Azua and its port on
+steamer days.
+
+In several of the larger cities carriages and light automobiles can be
+hired at a reasonable figure, and furnish the principal means of
+communication within the city and to other places as far as the roads
+will permit. Between Monte Cristi and La Vega there is a regular
+automobile service, as also between Santo Domingo City and nearby
+towns. In only one place is there a car line--in Monte Cristi, where a
+small car runs--if that term can be applied to its motion--between the
+town and the harbor, a little more than a mile away. The cars, each
+drawn by a meek little mule, remind one of matchboxes on wheels; they
+are open on all sides and contain simply two benches, back to back,
+which will hold a maximum of three passengers each. In Santo Domingo
+City there was a horse car line for almost twenty years, running out
+as far as Fort San Geronimo, about three miles; but in March, 1903,
+while the city was under siege during a revolution, the car barns were
+destroyed by fire and with them the entire rolling stock, the car
+axles being taken for barricades. In 1915 the government granted
+several franchises for electric car lines, one for Santo Domingo City,
+with the right to extend as far as Bani; another for Santiago, with
+the right of extension to Janico; and a third for Macoris, with the
+right of extension to Seibo, but no work has been done on
+these projects.
+
+On certain parts of the country roads there is communication by oxcart
+during the dry season, and in the arid region such communication is
+possible almost all the year round. On the Samana peninsula and in
+other mountain districts, merchandise is occasionally transported in
+Indian fashion, on two poles tied to a horse and trailing on the
+ground behind. In general, however, recourse must be had for
+transportation purposes to the faithful horse and the patient donkey.
+In the northern part of the Republic the ox is often used as a beast
+of burden and sometimes for riding, furnishing an odd spectacle. The
+ox is guided by a string tied to a ring in his nose, but neither the
+configuration of his back nor his gait are to be recommended for
+comfortable rides.
+
+Most of the roads of Santo Domingo can be called roads only by
+courtesy. They are generally little more than trails of greater or
+less width. The larger receipts enjoyed by the government since the
+customs collections were taken over by Americans in 1905, have caused
+a little improvement. Thus, a first-class macadam road has been
+constructed from Santo Domingo City to San Cristobal, a distance of
+sixteen miles; the old trail from Santo Domingo to San Pedro de
+Macoris has become available for automobiles; and the royal road in
+the Cibao from La Vega through Moca and Santiago to Monte Cristi, a
+distance of about 100 miles, formerly a horror, has been converted
+into a fair dirt road. The amount of work to be done appears all the
+more appalling when it is considered that in the small island of
+Jamaica, less than one-fourth the size of the Dominican Republic,
+there are 1000 miles of fine roads. The American authorities in the
+island are giving considerable attention to the improvement of the
+principal highways around and between the more important cities, and
+valuable work is being done. By an executive order of November 23,
+1917, the military governor appropriated $650,000, to be expended on
+portions of a trunk road which is ultimately to connect Santo Domingo,
+La Vega, Moca, Santiago and Monte Cristi.
+
+The majority of the roads and trails have scarcely been touched since
+their course was fixed, centuries ago. Occasionally the abutting
+property owners or an energetic communal chief cut away encroaching
+vegetation or drained an unusually bad bog or threw dirt from the
+sides of the road to the middle in order to raise it above water level
+in the wet season, but such instances of civic thoughtfulness have
+been only too infrequent.
+
+During the rainy season travel becomes troublesome on all roads and
+impossible on many. On the unimproved highways deep, dangerous bogs
+form in every depression, containing either liquid mud where the horse
+is almost forced to swim, or soft tough clay, where the horse's feet
+are imprisoned and the animal in its desperate efforts to jerk itself
+free indulges in contortions anything but pleasant for the rider. The
+horses and cargo animals ever treading in each other's footsteps,
+cause the earth to wear away in furrows across the road, which fill
+with water and with mud of all colors and conditions of toughness.
+With few interruptions the monotonous splash, splash, splash of
+horses' feet constantly accompanies the traveler. The first ten
+minutes of such a journey on slippery ground make the trip appear an
+adventure, the next ten an experience, but after that the expedition
+becomes exceedingly wearisome. In the dry season all moisture
+disappears and the ridges between the mud trenches become hard as
+brick. The efforts of travelers to avoid bad places by going around
+them has caused the roads to become very wide in places--the width
+varying from one to over a hundred feet. At times, in grassy or stony
+stretches, the road disappears entirely, and the traveler's best guide
+is the telegraph wire, where there is one. Again it passes through
+thorny woods with overhanging branches which continually threaten to
+unhorse the rider. Thus it winds along, through forests and plains,
+over fallen logs and trees, beside precipices, down steep banks,
+across rapid streams. A trip into the interior in Santo Domingo
+requires a good horse, a strong constitution and a large supply
+of patience.
+
+In rainy weather the traveled roads are even worse than the
+unfrequented ones, for the ground is rendered more miry, and the bogs
+are more frequent. On a highroad near La Vega I arrived at a mudhole
+where an old man was being rescued by a passer-by from drowning in the
+liquid mud; I snapped a photograph of the scene when he was still
+knee-deep. Near the city of Moca there is a slope where many a horse
+has fallen and thrown its rider on the slippery loam. A friend of mine
+who for safety's sake alighted from his horse to walk to the other
+side of the gully, had his foot so tightly lodged in the pasty mud
+that, in his straining to withdraw it, the foot slipped out of the
+shoe, which remained as firmly imbedded as before. His posture and
+predicament were naturally a good deal more amusing for his companions
+than for himself. Yet some of these roads in dry weather are excellent
+dirt roads. On a road in the Cibao I made a trip of fifteen miles in
+the rainy season in five hours of hard riding and arrived with an
+exhausted horse; six months later when the road was dry I made the
+same journey comfortably in an hour and a half. On the first of these
+occasions--it was in the course of a vacation trip for the purpose of
+studying the country--I happened upon two other travelers and together
+we floundered for many weary miles through black mud varying from the
+consistency of soup to that of pudding. The road was indescribably
+bad, and riders and horses were covered with mire and thoroughly
+fatigued. That evening at the inn, through the open door between our
+rooms, I heard my traveling companions discussing me. One of them
+asked: "What is his object in coming here?" The other answered: "He
+says he is traveling for pleasure." "Then," responded the first
+solemnly, "he is either lying or he is insane."
+
+The streams must usually be crossed either by fording or by ferry, and
+not infrequently the horse must swim part of the distance across.
+Outside the railroad bridges, there are scarcely half a dozen bridges
+which deserve the name in the Dominican Republic. A good bridge has
+recently been constructed over the Jaina River on the San Cristobal
+road, and another was completed in May, 1917, across the Ozama River
+at Santo Domingo City, in place of one destroyed by a freshet some
+years ago. Bridges, where there are any, are generally rude logs laid
+across brooks.
+
+When journeying overland it is advisable to take advantage as much as
+possible of moonlight nights. It is best to rise at two or three
+o'clock in the morning, ride until about eleven o'clock, then rest for
+about three hours while the sun is highest, and then continue till
+evening. Riding at night, however, exposes one to the danger of making
+too intimate an acquaintance with some mudhole or some low hanging
+bough or telegraph wire, but these risks can be avoided by vigilance.
+The hours of dawn are the coolest of the twenty-four, and more
+distance can be covered with less fatigue than later in the day.
+
+If the traveler takes the precaution to furnish himself with canned
+food before starting on a journey inland, he will not regret his
+foresight. Inns do not exist out in the country. In the larger cities,
+indeed, there are hotels, but all are modest establishments. Perhaps
+the most pretentious is the French Hotel in Santo Domingo City. In
+hotels which are located in important seaports or railroad termini and
+are frequented by travelers, the meals and accommodations are fair. In
+other localities the food is almost inedible to an unaccustomed
+palate, and the sleeping accommodations are primitive cots. Even in
+important towns like Moca and Azua I found the inns kept by poor
+mulatto women, widows with families, having one room for travelers,
+divided from the family apartment by a thin partition, through which
+all the proceedings on the other side could be followed throughout
+the night.
+
+The difficulty of land transportation explains why, with the exception
+of three cities in the Cibao, all important towns are located on the
+seacoast. It also makes plain why water transportation is preferred to
+travel by land, and the inhabitants of the north and south await the
+bi-weekly steamer rather than make the trip overland, which in the
+most favorable cases will take about three days. The roads and trails
+are used for travel locally or when boat connections are not
+convenient or feasible, and for mail transportation. The following are
+the principal highways:
+
+1. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao, by way of Bonao. There are
+three roads from Santo Domingo City to the Cibao, the most westerly
+one being the Bonao trail, the most easterly one the Sillon de la
+Viuda and the middle one the Gallinas trail. The Bonao road leaves
+Santo Domingo by way of Duar Avenue and San Carlos and ascends gently
+in a northwesterly direction through slightly rolling land to the
+Santa Rosa plain, which it traverses. As far as Los Alcarrizos it has
+been improved, but further on it is merely a dirt road without
+drainage and becomes one long slough in rainy weather. On the Jobo
+savanna the road divides; the eastern branch runs along a range of
+hills and the western branch over to the Jaina River, where it passes
+the site of the old mining town of Buenaventura, of which only a few
+vestiges of walls remain. Whichever of the two branches the traveler
+takes, he will be sorry he did not choose the other, for they are
+equally bad. The branches meet on the plain of Las Nasas, from where
+the highway continues through wooded lands and natural meadows,
+crossing the Jaina River three times and the Guananitos River nine
+times. The soil is a rich, soft loam, pure vegetable detritus, and the
+frequent rains and the absence of drainage make this part of the road
+very difficult at all seasons. After crossing a stretch of beautiful
+savanna, known as Sabana del Puerto, the ascent of a range of the
+central mountain system begins. The road makes many windings along the
+mountain side until the heights of Laguneta are attained. The high
+hill of Piedra Blanca must be crossed and a number of small streams
+forded before Bonao is reached. From Bonao to La Vega the road is of
+the same general character. There are many miry places, many ascents
+and descents and many difficult river passes, the Yuna River, near
+Bonao, being crossed by ferry. On some of the steep descents the
+horses and mules accustomed to the road put their four feet together
+and slide, while the unaccustomed traveler feels his hair standing on
+end. The distance from Santo Domingo City to Bonao is about 65 miles;
+from Bonao to La Vega some 30 miles.
+
+This seems to have been an ancient Indian trail between Santo Domingo
+and the Cibao. Bartholomew Columbus, under orders from his brother,
+founded both Buenaventura and Bonao in 1496 as military posts, as
+part of the chain of forts stretching across the island. The decay of
+these towns when the mines were abandoned, the miry soil and the many
+crossings of streams all caused travel to be diverted to the road of
+the Sillon de la Viuda. The Bonao road, being the most direct route to
+La Vega, has been designated by the military government for
+improvement as a trunk road.
+
+2. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the pass of the
+Sillon de la Viuda, or Widow's Chair. While the Widow's Chair road is
+about twenty miles longer than the Bonao road, it is preferable since
+on the whole it lies over firmer ground. It leads due north from Santo
+Domingo City and after four miles the Isabela River is crossed by
+ferry near its confluence with the Ozama. A steep ascent follows and
+the road runs through wooded land until the town of Mella is reached.
+Small forests and wide savannas follow each other in rapid succession;
+the Ozama River is forded and a stretch of swampy soil with bad bogs
+is encountered. A fine piece of prairie land known as the Luisa
+savanna is crossed, more natural meadows follow and the ascent of the
+central mountain range begins. The road becomes so steep that the
+rider can scarcely keep his seat on his horse. From the summit, the
+Widow's Pass, which is almost 2000 feet above the level of the sea, a
+sublime view of mountains, valleys and plains is obtained. The pass
+itself is a narrow rocky defile where a score of men might hold an
+army at bay. It is said that there are lower passes in the vicinity by
+utilizing which the steep grade might be avoided, but the fact could
+be ascertained only by a more thorough exploration than has yet been
+made. On the north the road descends through heavy timber, with many
+miry places. Savannas separated by small forests are then crossed and
+the little town of Cevicos is reached, the halfway place between Santo
+Domingo and La Vega. Eighteen miles further on, separated from Cevicos
+by a hard road crossed by numerous deep gullies, sleeps the ancient
+town of Cotui. The Yuna River near Cotui must be crossed in canoes.
+Then follows a road thirty-five miles long to La Vega, which in the
+rainy season is little more than mud and water, but leads through a
+beautiful wooded country. It is better to take the road from Cotui to
+La Gina, or that to Pimentel, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and
+complete the journey by rail, for though the character of these trails
+is similar to the La Vega trail, they are only about fifteen
+miles long.
+
+3. Road from Santo Domingo to the Cibao by way of the Gallinas Pass.
+This is also an ancient trail which formerly passed through the town
+of Yamasá, but was diverted to shorten the distance to the Cibao.
+Leaving Santo Domingo the same route is followed as in going to the
+Widow's Pass, as far as Mella, where the road branches off to the
+left. Small grassy plains and rolling wooded lands are traversed, as
+is also the wide prairie known as the Maricao savanna. Several streams
+are forded, among them the upper Ozama, and the country continues of
+the same general character until the huts on the old cattle ranch of
+la Guazuma, formerly Las Gallinas, are sighted. Here the road slopes
+upward as far as the foot of the Demajagua mountain, when a long
+tedious ascent to the pass begins, followed by a rough ride through
+the mountains. The long descent toward Cotui is broken by numerous
+water-courses. No less than eleven smaller streams are forded, and
+there are three crossings of the Chacuey River, before the road
+leading to Cotui from Cevicos and the Widow's Pass is attained near
+the former town. By this road it is about 65 miles from Santo Domingo
+to Cotui.
+
+The three passes described are the only ones suitable, so far as
+known, for communication between the capital and the Cibao. There are,
+indeed, lower and more convenient passes farther to the east, but the
+roads emerge near Samana Bay, too far from the Royal Plain to be
+available. The middle route of the three, that by way of the Gallinas
+Pass, is followed by the telegraph line and used by the post. It has
+been preferred by travelers for it is considered the shortest road to
+the Cibao and its highest point is reported to be only about 1200 feet
+above sea-level.
+
+4. Road from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar. Since the southeastern
+part of the Dominican Republic consists of great plains, the roads in
+this region are all perfectly level and less difficult than those of
+the mountains, but they are little more than trails and the wide
+savannas make traveling monotonous. The road which turns northeast
+from Santo Domingo on the left side of the Ozama passes the sugar
+estates there situated, continues by a wide path through a lightly
+wooded country to the town of Guerra and shortly thereafter enters
+upon the Guabatico prairie, which it crosses in its entire width of
+over twenty miles. The ascent to the first pass, that of the
+Castellanos mountain, then begins. The descent is as easy as the
+ascent, a valley is crossed in which the headwaters of the Macoris
+River are forded, and then follows a long ascent to the second pass.
+From the foot of the mountain to El Valle and Sabana la Mar the
+country is wooded and the road level and wide, but so miry as to be
+practically impassable during the entire rainy season. The distance
+from Santo Domingo to Sabana la Mar is something over sixty miles.
+
+5. Road from Santo Domingo to Higuey. This road is the same as the
+Sabana la Mar road as far as Guerra, then traverses small forests and
+grassy plains to Seibo, passing through the important towns of Los
+Llanos and Hato Mayor. The greater part of the last 36 miles of the
+road, from Seibo to Higuey, runs over the foothills of the central
+mountain range. The entire length of the road is about 110 miles.
+
+6. Road from Santo Domingo to Azua. On this ancient road more military
+expeditions have marched and fought than on any other in the island of
+Santo Domingo. Spanish, British, French, Haitian, Dominican and
+American forces have tramped on its dusty course. The road runs west
+from Santo Domingo City parallel with the seashore. Near the city it
+is a perfectly level boulevard bordered by pretty cottages. About
+three miles from the town the small fortress of San Geronimo is
+passed, a romantic structure, built by the early Spaniards as an
+outpost against piratical invasions. Seven miles further on is the
+collection of huts constituting the town of Jaina on the river of the
+same name. A fine new bridge spans the river and the road continues
+through luxuriant tropical vegetation. The little town of Nigua, with
+an old chapel perched high on a hill, is reached, and here the road
+divides, the left branch continuing near the seashore, while the right
+branch turns inland to San Cristobal. The former pursues its way over
+land generally level though with occasional steep hills and cut by
+frequent brooks, skirts the ocean beach for a short distance, crosses
+the turbulent Nizao River by a long and dangerous ford and enters the
+arid country. The other branch extends to the grass-grown town of San
+Cristobal, where the macadam road from Santo Domingo ends. Continuing,
+the road traverses a fertile country by way of the town of Yaguate,
+crosses the broad bed of the Nizao River, which changes its channels
+with dangerous frequency, threads a way through monotonous woods and
+joins the other road near Paya. But a few miles further on is the
+clean little town of Bani. From here two roads lead to Azua. The
+inland road leads through the pass of Las Carreras,--where Santana on
+April 21, 1849, assured the independence of Santo Domingo by his
+victory over the Haitian forces--and finally joins the coast road. The
+road of the seacoast, which, though longer, is preferable by reason of
+being more level, leaves Bani through a weird country, where giant
+cactus is the only vegetation produced by the rocky soil. After
+crossing a stretch of grass-grown tableland it descends to the waters
+of Ocoa Bay and continues literally through the surf. Several hours of
+travel through a dreary forest of cactus and thorny brush then follow
+before Azua is reached.
+
+7. Cibao Valley Road. The road, or combination of roads, from Samana
+Bay to Monte Cristi, lies in level country. The urgency for the
+improvement of the eastern portion has been less since the
+establishment of the railroad from Sanchez to La Vega, and the trail
+from near the mouth of the Yuna River to San Francisco de Macoris,
+with the branches from there to Moca and La Vega, is now important
+only locally. The two roads between La Vega and Santiago, however, in
+the heart of the Royal Plain, are the most important and most heavily
+traveled highways in the Republic. They run through the most fertile
+section of the island, are quite level, and available for carts and
+automobiles, but in the rainy season they become very muddy. The
+direct road from La Vega to Santiago is about twenty-seven miles long
+and lies to the south of the famous Santo Cerro. The other road is
+about six miles longer and passes through the important city of Moca.
+After leaving La Vega and crossing the yellow Camu, the latter road
+skirts the northern slope of the Santo Cerro and the traveler who
+can, deserts it temporarily to climb the rocky height and regale
+himself with a view of the most magnificent valley of the West Indies.
+Upon passing the second brook after leaving the foot of the Santo
+Cerro the road traverses historic ground, for here stood the important
+city of La Concepción, or old La Vega. The distance from La Vega to
+Moca is about fifteen miles and from here two roads lead on to
+Santiago, both about eighteen miles long and both lined with fine
+cacao plantations, but one turning a little to the south while the
+other approaches the foothills and leads through the smiling town of
+Tamboril. From Santiago on there are two roads, one to the north and
+the other to the south of the Yaque River. They lie through a dry
+country where cactus is the favorite product of the soil. The road
+along the northern bank of the Yaque is the better of the two, since
+the roadbed is good and there are few rivers to cross. It is the
+highway between Santiago and Monte Cristi, a distance of sixty-seven
+miles, and passes through the inland town of Guayubin. The southern
+road crosses numerous streams which flow down from the Cordillera to
+join the Yaque, turns southwesterly at Guayubin and continues to
+Dajabon and on into the borders of Haiti.
+
+The above are the highways of most traffic. There is further a main
+road or rather trail westward from Azua along Lake Enriquillo and
+leading on to Port-au-Prince; another from Azua northwesterly through
+the fertile valley of San Juan, also leading into Haiti; and two
+perilous trails branching off from the latter road and running through
+remote mountain regions to Santiago and La Vega. There is no direct
+communication in Dominican territory between the northwestern and
+southwestern portions of the Republic, and it is necessary either to
+make a long detour or to pass through Haitian territory. Less
+important local trails, more or less difficult of travel, are to be
+found in all inhabited portions of the country.
+
+In order to avoid the troubles of land travel, recourse is had,
+whenever possible, to water transportation. The foreign steamship
+lines afford considerable relief in this respect, for they generally
+stop at more than one port of the Republic. In normal times there are
+four foreign steamer lines with passenger service to Dominican
+ports, namely:
+
+The Clyde line, with bi-weekly sailings between New York and Santo
+Domingo, stopping at Monte Cristi, Puerto Plata, Samana, Sanchez,
+Macoris and Santo Domingo City, and Azua.
+
+The Cuban "Herrera Line," with a tri-weekly steamer service between
+ports of Cuba and Porto Rico, calling at Santo Domingo City
+and Macoris.
+
+The "Compagnie Générale Transatlantique," two routes of which touch in
+the Republic. A monthly steamer between French and Haitian ports calls
+at Puerto Plata, and returning also at Sanchez, in the Dominican
+Republic, and then makes calls in Porto Rico and St. Thomas. A smaller
+steamer plying once a month between Haitian ports and Guadeloupe and
+Martinique calls at Santiago de Cuba, Santo Domingo City, Porto Rican
+ports and St. Thomas. The steamers on these routes, though not
+uncomfortable, are venerable hulks which have seen long service in
+different parts of the world.
+
+The Hamburg-American Line, a monthly steamer of which called regularly
+at Santo Domingo City and also at other points in the Republic when
+cargo conditions were favorable, and connected with other ports in the
+Antilles and with vessels from Europe. Other steamers of this line
+called at the northern ports to take cargo to Europe.
+
+There is further a fruit line between Boston and Puerto Plata and
+sugar steamers between New York and Macoris during the cane grinding
+season, but they carry no passengers. How far the interests of Spain
+and Santo Domingo have diverged is indicated by the fact that not one
+of the Spanish transatlantic liners which run to Porto Rico, Cuba,
+Central and South America, touches in Santo Domingo.
+
+A steamer of the Bull line runs between ports in Santo Domingo and
+Porto Rico and there is also a coast line under Dominican registry,
+which extends to Porto Rico, but the steamers of which do not
+distinguish themselves for comfort. Thus there is at present frequent
+steamer service between Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, but little
+communication with Haiti and Cuba.
+
+Most of the steamer lines touching in the Republic carry mails. Santo
+Domingo is a member of the International Postal Union and its post
+offices offer the usual facilities, except that there is no money
+order system. More than three-quarters of the incoming foreign mail
+comes from the United States, including Porto Rico, and over one-half
+the outgoing foreign mail is directed to this country. The American
+authorities are engaged in a thorough re-organization of the Dominican
+postal service.
+
+In connection with the post offices the government operates a
+telegraph and telephone system. The government lines connect all the
+more important points in the country. Constructed without plan or
+method and insufficiently cared for, these lines are all in poor
+condition and badly in need of repair or reconstruction. The charges
+are high and the service poor. The government also has a wireless
+telegraph station at Santo Domingo City and another at Macoris.
+
+The French Submarine Telegraph Co. affords Santo Domingo cable
+connection with the rest of the world. Its cable touches at Puerto
+Plata and Santo Domingo City, crossing the Republic by means of a land
+line which is also open to local messages. The interruptions of
+communication over this land line in the various revolutions have
+given rise to numerous damage claims on the part of the Company.
+
+There are also telephone lines on the Samana-Santiago Railroad and on
+the Central Dominican Railroad operated in connection with the
+respective roads. Local public telephone systems are in operation in
+Santo Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris, and there are private
+telephone lines between the principal cities and plantations in
+their vicinity.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+COMMERCE
+
+
+Exports and imports.--Foreign trade.--Trade with the United States.--
+Ports of entry.--Wharf concessions.--Domestic trade.--Business
+houses.--Banks.--Manufactures.
+
+
+The fact that Dominican commerce has more than trebled in twelve years
+demonstrates the epoch-making character of the fiscal convention with
+the United States. The trade figures since 1905 are as follows:
+
+
+              GROWTH OF DOMINICAN TRADE
+       (All figures are in American currency)
+
+           Imports         Exports         Total
+
+1905     $ 2,736,828     $ 6,896,098     $ 9,632,926
+1906       4,065,437       6,536,378      10,601,915
+1907       4,948,961       7,628,356      12,577,317
+1908       4,767,775       9,396,487      14,164,262
+1909       4,425,913       8,113,690      12,539,603
+1910       6,257,691      10,849,623      17,107,314
+1911       6,949,662      10,995,546      17,945,208
+1913       8,217,898      12,385,248      20,603,146
+1913       9,272,278      10,469,947      19,742,225
+1914       6,729,007      10,588,787      17,317,794
+1915       9,118,514      15,209,061      24,327,575
+1916      11,664,430      21,527,873      33,192,303
+
+
+The increase in 1916 over 1915 was almost as much as the entire trade
+of the country in 1905. The temporary setback of 1909 was caused by
+the partial failure of the cacao crop and the paralyzation of
+commerce in anticipation of lower tariff rates. That of 1914 was due
+to the European war and a domestic revolution. Santo Domingo has,
+however, repeatedly presented the anomalous spectacle of showing
+enormous trade figures in the midst of warfare, as for example, in
+1912. The advance in commerce has been especially marked since the
+presence of the American troops assured peaceful conditions.
+
+Not a year has passed since 1904 without a large balance of trade in
+favor of Santo Domingo. While the greater part of this is represented
+by huge sugar profits which have gone to foreign investors, a
+considerable portion remained in the country. The great increase in
+wealth since 1904 is apparent to anyone who knew the country at
+that time.
+
+The imports cover the wide range to be expected in a nonmanufacturing,
+agricultural country in the tropics. The principal imports in
+1916 were:
+
+
+Cotton goods                                          $1,721,534
+Iron and steel manufactures, including sugar machinery 1,562,367
+Rice                                                   1,080,068
+Wheat flour                                              621,900
+Provisions, meat and dairy products                      530,195
+Oils                                                     545,284
+Bagging and other manufactures of vegetable fiber        508,644
+Vehicles and boats                                       408,832
+Manufactures of leather                                  385,518
+Wood and manufactures of wood                            317,421
+Codfish and other preserved fish and fish products       309,204
+Chemicals, drugs and dyes                                293,072
+Soap, and ingredients for the manufacture of soap        233,991
+Paper and manufactures of paper                          171,706
+Beer                                                     168,901
+Agricultural implements                                  121,830
+
+
+The United States furnished practically all the flour and other
+breadstuffs, oils, lumber, agricultural implements and leather
+articles and most of the cotton goods, hardware, machinery, fish, meat
+and dairy products. Before the European war all the rice was bought in
+Germany, as well as a considerable portion of the fish, beer, meat and
+dairy products. At present the rice is brought from the United States
+and England. The other imports from England are almost entirely cotton
+goods and bagging, with some iron and steel manufactures.
+
+In the chapter on the flora of the country, statistics are given with
+reference to the exports of the country, which are, as there pointed
+out, principally: sugar, cacao, tobacco, coffee, bananas, beeswax and
+honey, hides, cotton, hardwoods and dyewoods.
+
+Owing to its geographical position the United States naturally has the
+greater part of Dominican trade, but since the European war set the
+commerce of the world awry that proportion has grown until in 1916 the
+imports from the United States, including Porto Rico, were 90.4 per
+cent of the total and the exports to the United States and Porto Rico
+were 82.8 per cent of the total, though the latter figure varies
+somewhat from final destination, as much of the sugar and cacao is
+shipped subject to order. Before the European war something more than
+one-half of the trade of Santo Domingo was with the United States,
+one-fifth with Germany, and the remainder with France, England and
+other countries. The countries of origin of imports and destination of
+exports of the Dominican Republic in the year 1916, as compared with
+the list for 1913, the last preceding normal year, are here shown:
+
+DOMINICAN TRADE BY COUNTRIES
+
+
+IMPORTS
+                          1913                       1916
+
+                    Value     Percentage       Value       Percentage
+                              of whole                     of whole
+
+Cuba             $     7,352       .08        $   136,587      1.17
+France               274,318       2.96           152,358      1.30
+Germany            1,677,833      18.10              ----      ----
+Italy                173,105       1.87            63,450      .54
+Porto Rico            62,900       .67            378,219      3.24
+Spain                210,781       2.27           151,451      1.30
+United Kingdom       730,191       7.88           481,305      4.13
+United States      5,769,061      62.22        10,162,698     87.13
+Other Countries      366,737       3.95           138,362      1.19
+
+Total            $ 9,272,278     100.00       $11,664,430    100.00
+
+EXPORTS
+
+Cuba             $    27,536        .26       $    19,447      .09
+France               887,907       8.48           287,799      1.34
+Germany            2,068,384      19.76              ----      ----
+Italy                 20,430        .19             2,496      .01
+Porto Rico            28,994        .28           425,483      1.98
+United Kingdom       241,810       2.31           105,107      .49
+United States      5,600,768      53.49        17,412,088     80.88
+Other Countries    1,594,118      15.23         3,275,543     15.21
+
+Total            $10,469,947     100.00       $21,527,873    100.00
+
+
+Very interesting statistics with reference to all these matters are
+published annually in the report of the general receiver of Dominican
+customs. Since the establishment of the receivership full and accurate
+trade statistics have become available for the first time in the
+history of the Republic. Before 1891 no statistics at all were kept.
+During the nineties there was an attempt at compilation, but the
+corruption in the custom-houses was so notorious that the figures
+cannot be regarded as reliable. For the disturbed years immediately
+following the death of Heureaux the data are incomplete and uncertain.
+
+The question of shipping has been a serious problem confronting
+Dominican commerce since the beginning of the European war. Freight
+rates are rising to almost prohibitive figures, which have their
+effect in an enormous increase in the cost of living, Santo Domingo
+has as much reason as the rest of the world to desire an early
+cessation of the world calamity.
+
+After the war the old trade rivalry will be revived, but American
+commerce with the Republic should easily retain its lead, if properly
+cultivated. The observations so frequently made with reference to the
+extension of American trade with South America also hold good in the
+case of Santo Domingo. American merchants should send as
+representatives cultured men who speak Spanish; they should provide
+catalogs in good Spanish with accurate descriptions of the articles
+offered; they should fill orders as received, without substituting
+other articles; they should pack their shipments very carefully and
+with a view to local transportation conditions. The success of the
+Germans in building up their Dominican trade was due in large measure
+to the polish and fluent Spanish of their representatives, to their
+thorough study of local conditions, and to their favorable terms
+of payment.
+
+American commerce with Santo Domingo would be further stimulated and
+strengthened by a tariff reciprocity agreement similar to the customs
+convention between the United States and Cuba. The mutual advantages
+of such an agreement would be enormous and the development of Santo
+Domingo would be effectively promoted. Closer relations would also be
+fostered by a postal convention applying the domestic rates of postage
+to all mail between the two countries, a good beginning having been
+made by a recent arrangement applying the domestic postage rate to
+letters between the United States and the Dominican Republic.
+
+The Dominican Republic has twelve ports of entry, but nine-tenths of
+the foreign commerce goes through the ports of Macoris, Santo Domingo,
+Sanchez and Puerto Plata. The first two supply the import and export
+requirements of the southern portion of the Republic, the other two
+those of the Cibao. The other eight custom-houses exist for local
+convenience and for the prevention of smuggling. This is especially
+true of the three along the Haitian frontier. In former years there
+was considerable smuggling across the border, as the import duties on
+certain articles in Haiti are much lower than in the Dominican
+Republic. Although the profitable smuggling business demoralized trade
+in those regions, the government did not interfere with it owing to
+the difficulty of policing the wild and sparsely populated border
+district. The American general receiver determined that the back door
+should be guarded as well as the front entrance, and formed a frontier
+guard which stopped contraband traffic, though at a heavy cost, for
+two brave American officials have been killed and three wounded by
+smugglers and outlaws, while fourteen Dominican guardsmen and
+inspectors have been killed and twenty-three wounded. The expense of
+the three frontier custom-houses is greater than the revenue they
+produce, but entries in Azua, Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata increased
+significantly after the frontier guard began its patrolling.
+Incidentally the guard has helped to keep the boundary line in place.
+
+In the seaports most of the loading and unloading is done by lighters,
+the wharves generally being small affairs. Only in Puerto Plata (where
+extensive harbor improvements are now under way), Macoris and Santo
+Domingo can larger vessels approach the wharves. All the wharves were
+built under concessions from the government, which, in the
+impossibility to provide them itself on account of its perpetual lack
+of funds, was obliged to procure their construction by granting the
+right to collect a specified wharf tax, more or less onerous, for a
+period of years. The Santo Domingo City wharf concession provided that
+everything exported from and imported into this city or any other
+coast point in the province must pay the tax, whether the wharf was
+used or not. The Samana wharf concession; as amended, gave the right
+to collect certain high wharf taxes for fifty years, from 1875 to
+1925, in return for the building of a diminutive dock. One of the
+important objects accomplished through the 1907 bond issue was the
+redemption by the government of the monopolistic wharf concessions.
+
+A peculiar feature of the country's domestic trade is that almost
+fifty per cent of it is in the hands of Syrians. These people are
+found in a number of the West India Islands, but nowhere have they
+gained such a foothold as in Santo Domingo. They appeared in the
+nineties, and for a number of years confined their activities to
+peddling goods about the country, both men and women traveling around
+with great bundles of merchandise which they spread out wherever they
+met prospective purchasers. Their next step was to establish retail
+stores and crowd the native Dominican storekeeper out, and of late
+years they have opened large business houses. They are not regarded
+as a desirable element, as they do not amalgamate or mingle with the
+Dominican population, but seem possessed of the single idea to make a
+fortune and return with it to their country.
+
+Such part of the retail trade as is not controlled by Syrians, is
+mostly in the hands of Dominicans. The stores are generally small,
+with a limited stock of goods; they have no show-windows, but are
+arranged on the style of bazars. Fixed prices are rare and most sales
+become negotiations with the polite shopkeeper. In the country it is
+customary for the storekeeper to make advances of merchandise to the
+smaller farmers until crop time; they then pay him in cacao, coffee,
+tobacco or other farm products, which he remits to the seaport to the
+wholesale merchant with whom he deals.
+
+The larger business houses are in a majority of cases owned by
+foreigners, principally of Italian, German, Spanish, American and
+Cuban citizenship, and now also including numerous Syrian firms. A
+majority of those classed as Americans are natives of Porto Rico. A
+number of these merchants arrived in Santo Domingo as poor men and by
+hard work and shrewd investment built up respectable firms. They
+carefully preserved their foreign nationality as a valuable asset
+which protected them from undue interference on the part of the
+government. One of the most prominent and successful merchants of
+Santo Domingo was the late J.B. Vicini, an Italian who came to the
+country penniless, but with his energy and sagacity amassed the
+largest fortune of the island. His business is now managed by
+his sons.
+
+The larger merchants combine a banking business with their export and
+import business. The foremost of these private bankers of late years
+was Santiago  Michelena, a Porto Rican. Less than ten years ago there
+was not a single bank in the Republic, but there are now three well
+equipped banking institutions, all of them with their local
+headquarters in the capital. One of these is the International Banking
+Corporation, which is connected with the National City Bank of New
+York; it entered the Dominican Republic in April, 1917, by taking over
+Michelena's banking business. It has a branch in Macoris and Puerto
+Plata and agencies and correspondents throughout the country. Another
+bank is the Royal Bank of Canada, which does a flourishing business in
+a number of the West India Islands; it has branches in five cities of
+the Dominican Republic. The third bank is the Banco Nacional de Santo
+Domingo, incorporated by Americans under the Dominican banking law of
+1909, with a capital of $500,000. Although it has several branches,
+its business is not so active as that of the other banks, since it has
+lent most of its capital to the government. Under the banking law this
+institution has the right to issue bank notes, but it has not
+attempted to use the privilege.
+
+Slowly the establishment of small factories has proceeded, for the
+partial provision of local needs. The principal cities have ice
+plants, of which some are subject to annoying interruptions. In the
+Cibao there are several sawmills. Further there are, in the larger
+cities, small establishments for the manufacture of cigars,
+cigarettes, matches, rum, straw hats, shoes, chocolate, soap and a few
+other articles. These are financed by Dominican capital and are not
+able to supply the local demand. In Santo Domingo City are the remains
+of a costly brewery erected by Americans with a view to supplying the
+West Indies; it was ruined, so local reports say, by bad management
+and has been idle for fifteen years. If the amount of soap used by a
+people is really an index of its degree of civilization, then the
+Dominicans can claim to be far advanced, for the consumption of soap
+manufactured in the country and imported, is very considerable. The
+government has encouraged manufacturing enterprises and repeatedly
+granted concessions exempting their machinery and raw material from
+import duties for specified periods. The number of manufacturing
+plants will doubtless increase, but agriculture is bound to remain the
+mainstay of the country.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+CITIES AND TOWNS
+
+
+General condition of municipalities.--Santo Domingo City; ruins,
+churches, streets, popular legends.--Other towns of Santo Domingo
+Province.--San Pedro de Macoris.--Seibo.--Samana and Sanchez.
+--Pacificador Province.--Concepción de La Vega.--Moca.--Santiago
+de los Caballeros.--Puerto Plata.--Monte Cristi.--Azua.--Barahona.
+
+
+Compared with cities in the United States a majority of Dominican
+towns are hoary with age. The capital city and a number of others were
+founded more than a century before Virginia was settled, and had begun
+to decline almost a hundred years before the Pilgrims landed on
+Plymouth Rock. Yet such have been the vicissitudes of the country that
+only one city, the capital, shows signs of its antiquity; the others
+from their appearance might be taken to be but a few decades old, and
+with the exception of two or three ancient churches in the interior
+none of the older buildings of these towns have survived the ravages
+of time, wars and earthquakes. The modern appearance of most cities is
+heightened by the fact that frame structures predominate, and outside
+of Santo Domingo, Santiago, La Vega and Puerto Plata stone houses are
+infrequent.
+
+The impoverishment of the country by periodic revolutions has had its
+effect on the municipalities and prevented their proper development.
+In no city are all municipal needs and services properly attended to,
+and in most towns they are all badly neglected. Sanitary inspection is
+nowhere given due attention; sewers are practically unknown; but two
+cities, Puerto Plata and  Santiago, have a general system of
+waterworks, the others being dependent on water drawn from cisterns or
+wells, or carried from rivers or springs; in all but five or six
+little attention is paid to the condition of the streets. Only
+Santiago, Puerto Plata and Santo Domingo have electric light, but that
+of Santo Domingo is very deficient. Little by little conditions are
+improving and especially the larger municipalities are endeavoring to
+improve their streets and provide a water supply.
+
+To the smallness of the urban centers their lack of municipal
+conveniences is partly to be attributed. The Dominican towns are all
+built on the same general plan as other Spanish cities, being
+constructed around a central plaza on which the church and government
+building are located.
+
+The principal cities are the capitals of the twelve provinces, and the
+city of Sanchez. A brief description of these cities follows, with a
+reference to the other more important towns and villages of
+each province.
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+_Santo Domingo de Guzmán_, the capital of the Republic and of the
+province of the same name, is the oldest city founded by Europeans in
+the new world, the first city, Isabela, having disappeared a few years
+after settlement. It was founded by Bartholomew Columbus in 1496 on
+the east bank of the Ozama River as the capital of the colony, but the
+small houses constituting the town having been destroyed by a
+hurricane in 1502 it was transferred to the west bank of the river by
+order of Governor Ovando. It grew rapidly in population and wealth
+until it merited the eulogies of Oviedo who wrote to Charles V in 1525
+that he did not hesitate to assure that there was not in Spain a city
+he would prefer whether on account of advantageous and agreeable
+location, beauty and arrangement of squares and streets or charms of
+the surrounding country, adding that "their Highnesses oftentimes
+lodged in palaces which have neither the conveniences, the ample size
+nor the wealth of some of those in Santo Domingo." By the middle of
+the sixteenth century the city had passed the zenith of its glory, and
+its capture by Drake in 1586 and the destruction of the houses about
+the main plaza was a severe blow. The decline continued rapidly,
+although in 1655 the city was still strong enough to repel an invasion
+by Admiral William Penn. In 1684 and 1691 it was visited by
+destructive earthquakes and in 1700 it was full of ruins among which
+grew great trees. The lowest ebb was reached about 1737 when the
+population had fallen to 500 "and," writes Father Valverde, "more than
+half the buildings of the capital were entirely ruined, and of those
+still standing two-thirds were uninhabitable or closed and the other
+third was more than enough for the population. There were houses and
+lands whose owners were unknown, and of which people took advantage as
+belonging to the first one who might occupy them, either because there
+was entire lack of heirs of the owners or because they had emigrated
+elsewhere." In a few years, however, the tide of fortune turned and
+the city's rise was as rapid as its decline had been long, until by
+about the year 1790 it had quite recovered its ancient glory. Another
+reverse was quick in coming, for the cession to France in 1795 and the
+revolt of the negroes in French Saint-Domingue drove away the best
+inhabitants. In 1801 Toussaint l'Ouverture took possession of the city
+and in 1805 it was successfully held by the French against the siege
+of the negro emperor Dessalines. This siege was the beginning of a
+series lasting for a century. In 1809 after a desperate struggle the
+city was recaptured for Spain by the Dominicans, but from 1822 to 1844
+it was in the hands of the Haitians, and abandoned by all the whites
+who could flee. Since the declaration of Dominican independence in
+1844 almost every revolution has involved a siege of the capital.
+Within the last twenty-five years the city has made rapid strides
+forward and spread far beyond the old city walls.
+
+To the stranger Santo Domingo is by far the most interesting city of
+the Republic, on account of its stirring history and its venerable
+monuments of the past. Unfortunately the relics of the early days have
+met with scant respect from later generations, and ruins which would
+be the pride of other cities have been wantonly demolished. The
+Haitian governors gloried in this kind of vandalism, using the old
+churches as quarries and destroying the coats of arms of famous
+families which were cut in stone on the facades of their former houses
+and in their chapels in the cathedral. One which they left, on a house
+on Mercedes street, adjoining the government building, was obliterated
+in 1907 by the erection of a balcony. Since the declaration of
+independence ignorance and negligence have been responsible for much
+damage and the few administrations which took an interest in the old
+monuments needed all their money for military purposes. Ancient
+bastions have been needlessly razed, inscriptions effaced and no steps
+taken for the preservation of such memorials as remained. In 1883 a
+concession for the improvement of Santo Domingo harbor even provided
+that the concessionnaire might tear down the ruins belonging to the
+state and use the material for filling purposes; happily he was able
+to carry out but little of this part of the contract. The great
+majority of the brick and stone structures of Santo Domingo are
+ancient houses and convents preserved or rebuilt with more or less
+alteration. In some cases behind walls and doorways of great age are
+little huts of the poor. Though many signs of the past have thus
+disappeared, many still remain. It is to be hoped that the American
+authorities in Santo Domingo will be less indifferent to the
+preservation of ancient monuments than has been the case in other West
+Indian countries.
+
+The most interesting ancient building is the massive ruin known as the
+"House of the Admiral" or "House of Columbus," which even now, after
+centuries of neglect and decay, gives eloquent testimony of former
+greatness. It was built soon after 1509 by Diego Columbus, the son of
+the great navigator, on a height overlooking the Ozama River. Here
+Diego Columbus governed with regal splendor and here most of his
+children were born. It was the home of his widow, Maria de Toledo,
+until her death in 1549. Here also their son Louis Columbus lived for
+many years and embarked on two of his mad marriages. Another son,
+Cristobal, who was in the government employ in Santo Domingo, also
+seems to have lived in this house, after Louis went to Spain in 1551.
+On Cristobal's death in 1571 and that of Louis in 1572, it passed to
+Cristobal's son Diego. From the date of this Diego's death in 1578,
+when the direct male line of the Discoverer's descendants became
+extinct, the history of the house becomes obscure: it was sequestered
+by court decree in the course of the long inheritance litigation
+between the members of the Columbus family and appears to have been
+awarded in 1583 to the Admiral of Aragon, son of a sister of Louis and
+Cristobal, and in 1605 to Nuño de Portugal, grandson of another
+sister; the former may have sojourned there temporarily, but it is
+doubtful whether the latter or any of his descendants ever visited
+Santo Domingo. There is reason to believe that it was occupied for a
+time by the family of Luis de Avila, judge of Santo Domingo City, who
+was married to a daughter of Cristobal and whose children were still
+living in the colony at the end of the sixteenth century. When in 1790
+a descendant of this Avila was at length awarded the last vestiges of
+the Columbus honors, no attention seems to have been given to this
+house, which was then as complete a ruin as at present, though it was
+in better condition and the arcade supporting the front porch was
+still extant.
+
+The edifice is built of stone blocks; porches supported by graceful
+arches were once an attractive feature; the windows and principal
+doorways were embellished with handsome arabesques; and Oviedo and
+other chroniclers dwell at length on the magnificence of the interior.
+They especially refer to the beauty and value of a sculpture showing
+the arms of Castile, located in the great reception hall behind the
+viceroy's throne. At the present time the building is reduced to a
+mere shell, roofless and windowless; in a part of its interior there
+is a little palm thatch shelter for stabling horses; while the court
+yard and terrace reek with offal from dirty cabins round about.
+
+At the foot of the house of Columbus is part of the old city wall
+erected in 1537 and of which numerous portions remain intact, though
+all traces of the moat have disappeared. The old city was in the form
+of a trapezium occupying an area of a caballeria or about 200 acres,
+and the wall on the north side, provided with numerous redoubts and
+watch towers, was much the longest, the western wall being the
+shortest. Santo Domingo is one of the cities of the Spanish main which
+lay claim to the story that when the accounts for the city's walls
+were laid before the king of Spain, he went, to the window and gazed
+at the horizon, saying he was "looking for the reflection of those
+walls, for they must be built of gold, they cost so much." Judging by
+the relative size of the walls, the story should rather be awarded to
+Cartagena, in Colombia, or possibly to another city, but Santo
+Domingo's walls are massive enough to have justified the Spanish king
+in squinting at the horizon, at least. The ancient gates which were
+formerly closed from sunset to sunrise, still remain, but no longer
+afford the only means of ingress and egress as breaches have been made
+in the walls at most street terminations. The most famous of the old
+gates is the "Puerta del Conde," "Gate of the Count," so called
+because it was constructed by the Count of Peñalva, Governor of Santo
+Domingo, about 1655, though the bastion through which it leads is as
+old as the city wall. It was here that the cry of independence was
+raised on February 27, 1844, and it is therefore regarded as the
+cradle of Dominican independence and its official name is "Bulwark of
+the twenty-seventh of February." Another important gate is the "Gate
+of San Diego," also called "Gate of the Admiral," near the ruins of
+Diego Columbus' house and affording communication with the wharves on
+the Ozama River. It is one of the original three gates of the city. Up
+the river, near the lumber market, is a very old ceiba tree to which
+it is claimed Columbus once tied up his vessel. Still further up the
+river is a spring the enclosure about which is said to have been built
+by Diego Columbus.
+
+"La Fuerza," the fort and barracks, is situated at the southeast
+corner of the city. According to an inscription over the gate it was
+built in the year 1783. Within its enclosure on a bluff at the place
+where the Ozama empties into the sea, rises the ancient citadel, the
+"Torre del Homenaje," "Tower of Homage" the enormously thick walls of
+which were erected not later than 1504. There are many who affirm that
+it was built before 1500, although the town was then situated on the
+other side of the river, and a cell with a small barred window is
+pointed out as the cell in which Bobadilla imprisoned Columbus before
+sending him to Spain in chains. Others claim that recently-discovered
+old foundation-walls on the east side of the river were the
+foundations of the building in which Columbus was confined. "In that
+case," Dominican wags observe, "the Tower of Homage is the place where
+he would have been confined if it had then been erected." In any event
+the tower and the terraces below it are the oldest fortifications
+constructed by white men in America. Cortez and Pizarro, Velazquez,
+Ponce de Leon, Narvaez and many others passed out of the Ozama River
+under the shadow of this building, full of hope for the future. Within
+its somber walls have been immured many an Indian chief in the time of
+the conquest and many a revolutionist in later days. The tower proper
+has been for years a political prison, while around the courtyard at
+its base on the riverside, is the common jail.
+
+The churches form an important connecting link between old and new
+Santo Domingo. Of these the most beautiful and imposing is the
+cathedral, built in what may be called Ibero-Romanesque style. As
+early as 1506 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered its erection, in 1512 a
+grant of revenue was made and two years later the work of construction
+was begun. In one of the chapels is a large rough-hewn mahogany cross
+on which is painted the legend: "This is the first sign planted in the
+center of this field to mark the beginning of this magnificent temple
+in the year MDXIV." The work progressed slowly; an inscription in the
+doorway leading to the plaza states that the church was completed to
+that point in 1527 and another inscription in the old choir, torn down
+in 1877, stated that the building was finished in 1540. It is probable
+that the original plans called for an even loftier building. One of
+the towers first projected was begun, but it was never concluded and
+the belfry is still a temporary one. Of late years there have been
+attempts to provide for the completion of this tower by popular
+subscription. The building has been damaged repeatedly by earthquakes
+and the repairs made have changed its original outer appearance on the
+plaza side. In its roof there is still lodged a cannon-ball fired into
+the city by a Spanish battery during the siege of 1809.
+
+In the interior, great pillars of a soft dark-red tint support the
+high groined arches and the effect is severe and impressive. The altar
+at the head of the nave is beautifully inlaid with wrought silver and
+is surmounted by the coat of arms of Spain placed there by order of
+Charles V, a relic of Spanish days which was hidden away while the
+Haitians were in possession of the city. On the altar platform a
+marble slab indicates the place where the bones of Columbus were found
+in 1877, another slab the former location of the remains taken to Cuba
+in 1795 as the remains of Columbus, and still another the resting
+place of Louis Columbus, the grandson of the Discoverer. At the end of
+the nave, near the entrance door, is the airy marble monument beneath
+which is guarded the casket that contains the remains of the
+Discoverer of America.
+
+The cathedral like the other churches is made more interesting by the
+ancient epitaphs on slabs in the pavement and walls, marking the
+burial places of persons famous in the history of the island. In one
+of the lateral chapels, which belonged to the Bastidas family, the
+resting place of Bishop Bastidas, who in the early days was bishop in
+Venezuela, Porto Rico and Santo Domingo, is marked by a large marble
+recumbant figure of a bishop and the chapel is therefore known as "the
+chapel of the stone bishop." Nearby is the tomb of his father, that
+Rodrigo de Bastidas who was imprisoned by Bobadilla, and an epitaph
+full of abbreviations which reads:
+
+"Here lies the very magnificent Sir Don Rodrigo de Bastidas, first
+Adelantado and Governor and Captain-General of Santa Marta, who in the
+year 1502 discovered Terra-firma by order of the Catholic Sovereigns
+from Cape Vela to Darien: he died March 28, 1527."
+
+Close by is another epitaph:
+
+"Here lies the virtuous, Christian and religious lady Doña Isabel
+Rodrigo de Romera, native of the noble town of Carmona, who was wife
+of the Adelantado Don Rodrigo de Bastidas and mother of the most
+reverend Bishop of San Juan, Don Rodrigo de Bastidas. She died
+September 15, 1533. May she rest in peace."
+
+And in Latin:
+
+"I believe that my Redeemer lived and that on the judgment day I shall
+be resurrected."
+
+In another chapel is a slab ten feet long with an elaborate coat of
+arms, surmounted by a helmet with flowing plumes, and having an
+inscription reading:
+
+"Here lies the magnificent knight Diego Caballero, councilor of this
+Island of Española, first secretary of the first Royal Audiencia which
+the Catholic Sovereigns established in these Indies. He died January
+22, 1553."  Surrounding this inscription is another:
+
+"Likewise lies here the generous lady Isabel Bacan, his good wife: she
+died in the year 1551."
+
+Above is a verse stating that he flourished with the strength given
+him by God, and on an adjoining stone are the words;
+
+"I have ended my cares. Hope and fortune, remain and seek others to
+mock."
+
+On another tombstone is the inscription:
+
+"This tomb belongs to Don Francisco de Almansa, canon of this holy
+principal church and commissioner of the Holy Inquisition, and to
+his heirs."
+
+There are many other interesting inscriptions. In one of the chapels
+is an artistic gem, a well preserved picture of Our Lady of Antigua,
+presented by Ferdinand and Isabella who are represented in an attitude
+of devotion at the foot of the Virgin. It is probably by Antonio del
+Rincon, their court painter. Other very old and obscure paintings in
+the church are ascribed to Velazquez or Murillo. Another chapel,
+adorned with the Dominican coat of arms in marble relief, is the
+resting place of Dominican celebrities.
+
+The oldest Christian church in the new world was that of San Nicolas,
+founded by Governor Nicolas de Ovando in 1502. It was suffered to go
+to ruin, then restored and used as a military hospital and then again
+abandoned to decay until, overgrown with weeds and almost roofless, it
+was latterly used by a blacksmith as his workshop. The suggestion was
+frequently made that it be converted into a museum of Dominican
+antiquities, but the matter was neglected too long and in 1909 the
+historic building was condemned and the front portion demolished, but
+the groined arch over the presbytery remains.
+
+The most picturesque ruin of the city is that of the church of San
+Francisco, erected by the Franciscan monks about 1504 at the most
+conspicuous point in the city, and which is now, after the destruction
+of San Nicolas church, the oldest church ruin in America. It was the
+largest church in old Santo Domingo. Here were deposited and probably
+still rest, the remains of Bartholomew Columbus, the brother of the
+Discoverer. The church and convent, like several other churches of the
+city, were badly damaged by the earthquake of 1751 but were rebuilt
+better than before. When the Haitians came the church was abandoned;
+in 1824 it was assigned to the negro immigrants from the United States
+as a Methodist church, but it was allowed to go to complete ruin and
+much of its masonry was utilized by the Haitian rulers. A small part
+of the monastery has been rebuilt for use as an asylum for the insane.
+The Franciscan community was one of the wealthiest of the city, and
+fronting on the city's principal market still stands a large house
+formerly belonging to it and known as the "Casa del Cordón," "House of
+the Cord," because of a Franciscan's girdle hewn in stone over the
+doorway. Tradition says that Diego Columbus resided here while his
+palace was under construction.
+
+The other larger churches have all been restored and among them may be
+mentioned the church of St. Dominic or Santo Domingo founded in 1507,
+with massive walls and arches. It contains numerous tombs belonging to
+families that flourished in the island in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, but most of the inscriptions are rudely carved.
+A slab in one of the chapels shows a coat of arms with thirteen stars;
+there is no inscription further than a short Latin quotation from the
+26th psalm, but the stone is supposed to date from the latter part of
+the sixteenth century and to mark the grave of Lope de Bardeci, the
+founder of the chapel. Other churches are the lofty Mercedes church by
+the side of the ruined monastery of the friars of Mercy; the church of
+Regina Angelorum, the spacious building adjoining which, now used by
+the courts of justice, was formerly a nunnery; that of St. Clara,
+formerly a nunnery and rebuilt from ruin in 1885 by the sisters of
+charity; the church of San Lazaro, at the leper asylum; the quaint old
+church of Santa Barbara; and the chapel of San Miguel, founded about
+1520 by Miguel de Pasamonte, the royal treasurer, an inveterate enemy
+of the Columbus family. The old Jesuit church is used as a theater and
+the former Jesuit convent is occupied by business houses and private
+residences.
+
+The main plaza of Santo Domingo is a pretty square planted with
+flowers and shade trees. In the center stands a bronze statue of
+Columbus who is represented with the flag of Spain taking possession
+of Quisqueya for his sovereigns. At the foot of the pedestal is an
+Indian writing thereon the words found engraved on the box that
+contained what are believed to be Columbus' remains: "Ill'tre. y
+Es'do. Varon D'n Cristoval Colon," "Illustrious and noble man Don
+Cristopher Columbus." On the south side of the plaza is the cathedral,
+on the west side the old city hall, recently renovated and provided
+with an ugly tower, and on the east side the government building,
+erected during the Haitian occupation with bricks from the San
+Francisco and Santa Clara churches. Popular superstition therefore
+regards this building as unlucky and points out that one of the Baez
+brothers was killed in a revolution when the family resided here. The
+edifice was for years occupied by all the government offices until
+the renovation of the ancient palace of government. Adjoining is the
+small building in which the Dominican Congress meets. It occupies a
+site on which in the olden days stood a prison, the walls of which
+still remain behind the Congress Hall. The spacious building known as
+the old palace of government is one of the most ancient edifices in
+the city. Its cornerstone was laid about 1504 by Ovando and it
+contained the offices of the Spanish governors-general in colonial
+times. Through neglect it was permitted to fall to ruin but since 1900
+it has gradually been renovated. Nearby is a large sundial, erected
+in 1753.
+
+The old palace of government is on Colon street, which was in the
+early days called "Calle de las Damas," "Street of the Ladies,"
+because on it resided the ladies who came from Spain with the wife of
+Diego Columbus. It is to be regretted that the old street names which
+were pregnant with memories of the past have been so lightly changed.
+At present most of the streets are named after events, battles or
+persons prominent in the more recent history of the country.
+
+The streets of the capital are not quite so narrow as those of Havana,
+San Juan and other old Spanish cities. After years of neglect the
+principal streets have at length been placed in excellent condition
+and the steam roller has even invaded the side streets. The sidewalks
+are generally narrow, being only about three feet in width, and as
+municipal supervision over them has not been carefully exercised,
+there are differences in grade along the sidewalks of certain streets
+and in passing along it is necessary to go up and down steps. Along
+the improved streets, however, new sidewalks and gutters have been
+constructed. The style of architecture of the houses with their thick
+walls and iron-barred windows makes the streets resemble those of
+other Spanish-American cities. Among the finest buildings of the city
+may be counted the palatial quarters of the young men's club "Casino
+de la Juventud" and of the Union Club, of which the most prominent men
+of the city, especially merchants, are members. Leading out of the
+city are two boulevards along which are fine residences of wealthier
+Dominicans.
+
+A city of such history naturally abounds with popular legends. Stories
+are current of a network of ancient subterranean passages which are
+said to connect the principal churches and the fort, and knowledge of
+the location of which has been lost because their entrances have
+either been walled up or become obstructed by debris. Local historians
+deride such tales, though admitting that underground passages may have
+existed at isolated points. It is related that not many years ago a
+woman was digging in her garden on a street which passes the ruins of
+Mercedes convent, when the earth gave way and an aperture became
+visible. Her husband investigated and found a subterranean passage
+which led across the street: and directly under the convent ruins,
+where it was choked up with stones and earth. Other stories refer to
+deep, forgotten vaults said to exist under many buildings. Popular
+rumor, morbid when dealing with President Heureaux, affirms that in
+vaults under the ancient mansion which was converted into a palace for
+him, the remains of some of his victims were found. In vaults and
+dungeons under the barracks of La Fuerza the Spaniards in retiring
+from the island at the close of the eighteenth century, secreted part
+of their military supplies. Many years later an old man who had
+assisted in walling up the stores revealed their existence to
+President Baez and he, when besieged in Santo Domingo in 1857 brought
+them out and utilized them against the revolutionists. The old
+mortars and grenades were found in excellent condition and at first
+caused a panic among the besiegers who thought the shells had fallen
+from the sky.
+
+The favorite stories are those relating to buried treasure. During the
+vicissitudes through which the island has passed and especially during
+the troublous period at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of
+the nineteenth century many persons who left the country first
+secreted their valuables in the belief that their absence would be
+only temporary. They did not return, their property passed into other
+hands and the treasure was forgotten. Occasionally, too, people buried
+their money for safe-keeping and died without imparting the secret.
+There have been authenticated cases of treasure-trove, especially in
+the first half of the nineteenth century. The finds have almost always
+been accidental, as when in hanging a hammock a nail gave way and
+revealed a cavity, or in rebuilding a hidden orifice was disclosed. In
+many popular stories a foreigner with a map plays a part. According to
+one of these tales a stranger appeared some years ago near Mercedes
+church taking measurements, so that the neighbors thought him insane.
+He finally approached the owner of one of the houses and offered to
+rent it. When his increased offers were refused he drew from his
+pocket a paper which he said showed the location of a hidden treasure
+and offered the houseowner a share if he were permitted to make the
+search. The cupidity of the other was aroused and he would agree to
+take nothing less than three-fourths of the whole, whereupon the
+stranger in a rage lit a match and burnt the paper before the
+horrified houseowner's eyes, exclaiming: "Now you will never find it."
+For months afterwards the proprietor delved through the ground below
+the house and perforated the walls in scores of places, but the
+prediction of the stranger would probably have been verified had it
+not been for an accident. Some four years later, after a heavy rain, a
+woman of the neighborhood came to draw water from the cistern of this
+particular house. As the rope stuck in the pulley she gave a tug,
+slipped and fell into the cistern to her waist in water. Her screams
+brought assistance and as she was drawn out it was noticed that in her
+descent, she had loosened several bricks in the wall of the cistern.
+An examination revealed an aperture large enough to hold a man, and
+filled with plate, jewelry and coins.
+
+In another story the stranger was more fortunate. He rented a small
+house, also on Mercedes street, paying several months' rent in
+advance. When after a few days the house was found closed it was
+thought the stranger had taken a trip to the country, but when two and
+three months passed and the tenant did not reappear, the proprietress
+applied to the authorities. The door was forced open and in the middle
+of the room a deep hole was found, at the bottom of which was an empty
+strongbox, while smaller boxes and the pick and shovel used in the
+excavation lay scattered around. On a table in the corner lay a
+parchment with a map that showed the location of the strongbox.
+Further investigation revealed that the stranger a week after his
+disappearance took passage on a schooner for a foreign port.
+
+The fortunate finders of such treasures have generally kept silence in
+order to avoid the possibility of adverse claimants, and when
+discovered would minimize the find. Popular rumor still designates
+several houses as containing hidden treasures. One of them, situated
+on Billini Plaza, near the cathedral, has all but been torn to pieces
+by tenants in vain efforts to penetrate the secret. In other cases the
+rumors are more vague. General Ferrand, the energetic French governor
+of Santo Domingo, is reported to have buried the state treasure before
+departing in 1808 on the disastrous expedition in which he lost his
+life in Palo Hincado, and in more than one place excavations have been
+made to seek it.
+
+Outside the walls of the city is the cemetery, which is pretty and
+clean and has many vaults and varicolored plants. The most conspicuous
+objects are the crosses which surmount the graves and the iron fences
+surrounding many lots, with a little lantern at each corner. The
+lanterns are lighted up on All Soul's Day, when people flock to the
+cemetery and decorate the graves of their departed friends with
+wreaths and flowers.
+
+An interesting monument of old Santo Domingo is the small fortress of
+San Geronimo, which stands deserted on the ocean shore about three
+miles from the city. It was built in the early days of Spanish
+colonization as a protection against foes who might land up the coast
+and is a good specimen of medieval military architecture, with its
+walls of immense thickness, its watch towers, its deep moat and its
+dark dungeons. In revolutions it was usually garrisoned and has been
+taken and retaken unnumbered times, and in 1903 it was bombarded by a
+Dominican cruiser.
+
+In the midst of its monuments of the past Santo Domingo throbs with
+the life of the present. Being one of the principal ports and the seat
+of the government it is the busiest city of the Republic. Its docks,
+markets and business streets are always congested with workers
+and traders.
+
+_San Carlos_ is a suburb of Santo Domingo City, adjoining the same on
+the northwest, and since 1910 forming an integral part thereof. It
+was founded towards the end of the seventeenth century by Canary
+Islanders. Owing to its proximity to Santo Domingo and as part of the
+town overlooks the capital, it has in all the sieges of Santo Domingo
+been held by the besiegers and lost heavily. The fifteen days' siege
+by the negro emperor Dessalines in 1805 caused serious damage; in the
+siege of eight months in 1808 by Juan Sanchez Ramirez it was almost
+entirely ruined; in the fifteen days' siege of 1849 by Santana it was
+burned; in the nine months' siege of 1857 by Santana it was again
+partially destroyed and since that time in every siege it has
+sustained damage. In the two months' siege in the beginning of 1904
+the church and other buildings were damaged by shells, and several
+blocks of dwellings were burned to the ground. Yet the town has always
+risen, phoenix-like, from its ashes. One of the points of interest is
+an old public cistern of great size and depth. Near San Carlos is the
+picturesque grotto of Santa Ana, said to have been an Indian
+sanctuary.
+
+On the Ozama River opposite the capital is _Villa Duarte_, formerly
+called _Pajarito_. On an adjoining estate is the ruined chapel of
+Rosario, believed to date from the first city of Santo Domingo and
+which may have been the church where Bobadilla proclaimed his
+authority over Columbus. Not far from the town is an interesting cave
+with three crystal pools called Tres Ojos.
+
+_San Cristobal_, about 16 miles to the west of the capital, had only a
+chapel and two or three huts in 1820, but attained more importance
+when slaves freed by the Haitians on the surrounding sugar estates
+settled there.
+
+_Bani_ is a pretty little town founded in 1764 and situated about 39
+miles west of Santo Domingo, between the foothills and the sea. Its
+chief pride is that it was the birthplace of Maximo Gomez, the famous
+warrior for Cuban independence. Gomez became a major in the Spanish
+army, fought against his countrymen during the War of the Restoration
+and abandoned Santo Domingo with the Spaniards, but this record has
+been forgiven by the Dominicans in view of his later services in
+behalf of Cuba libre.
+
+_Bayaguana_ and _Monte Plata_, about 30 and 28 miles northeast of
+Santo Domingo, respectively, were both founded in 1606 for the
+settlement of residents of coast towns destroyed in order to stop
+smuggling, the former receiving the inhabitants of Bayajá and Yaguana,
+the latter those of Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata. The church of
+Bayaguana is visited by many pilgrims who come to adore an image of
+Christ to which miracles are attributed.
+
+Other villages of the province are: _San Lorenzo de los Minas_, 3
+miles northeast of Santo Domingo, first settled in 1719 by negroes of
+the Minas tribe, refugees from French Santo Domingo; _San Antonio de
+Guerra_, situated in the plains 19 miles northeast of the capital;
+_Boyá_, 32 miles northeast of the capital, founded in 1533 by
+Enriquillo, the last Indian chief and by the last survivors of the
+Indians of the island: it contains an old church of composite
+aboriginal Gothic architecture, in which the remains of Enriquillo and
+of his wife Doña Mencia are believed to rest; _Mella_, 7 miles, and
+_La Victoria_, 12 miles north of the capital; _Yamasá_, 30 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo; and _Sábana Grande_, or _Palenque_, 22
+miles west of the city.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAN PEDRO DE MACORÍS
+
+_San Pedro de Macorís_, about 45 miles east of Santo Domingo City, is
+one of the most modern and flourishing cities of the Republic. In
+1885 it was merely a small fishing village, about that time sugar
+plantations began to be established in the surrounding plains and the
+town commenced to grow. To-day there are pretty houses, the streets
+are clean and in good repair, the plaza has a handsome park and the
+whole city wears a prosperous look. There are busy scenes on the
+modern docks and in the harbor. Around Macoris, as in other parts of
+the Republic, there are large numbers of beautiful graceful cocoanut
+palms and royal palms.
+
+The Province of Macoris is small and contains but one other town
+worthy of mention, namely, _San José de los Llanos_, about 15 miles
+northeast of Macoris, founded in the plains in the eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SEIBO
+
+_Santa Cruz del Seibo_, 74 miles northeast of Santo Domingo, was
+originally founded by Juan de Esquivel in 1502, but being destroyed by
+an earthquake in 1751, was moved to its present location, to the north
+of its old site. It lies in the center of a region devoted to cacao
+planting and stockraising. The town has a pretty church, and is
+celebrated in Dominican history as having instigated the reconquest
+for Spain in 1808 and as having been the home and bulwark of General
+Pedro Santana, who was idolized by the Seibanos.
+
+_Salvaleón de Higüey_, the easternmost city of the Republic, situated
+31 miles southeast of Seibo, was also founded by Juan de Esquivel in
+the days of Ovando. Its church contains a picture of Our Lady of
+Altagracia, to which miracles are ascribed and which attracts pilgrims
+from all parts of Santo Domingo and Haiti.
+
+Other towns are _Hato Mayor_, 18 miles west of Seibo; _Ramón Santana_,
+formerly called _Guaza_, 19 miles south-west of Seibo; _La Romana_,
+on the coast 25 miles south of Seibo, with rapidly expanding sugar
+estates; and _El Jovero_, a hamlet on the coast near the eastern end
+of Samana Bay.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SAMANÁ
+
+_Santa Bárbara de Samaná_, 78 miles northeast of the capital of the
+Republic, is built on a cove on the north side of Samana Bay. The
+protected character of the inlet made it a favorite resort for pirates
+in the seventeenth century, and beginning with 1673, French buccaneers
+made several attempts to settle here but were driven out by the
+Spanish authorities. The town was definitely settled in 1756 by
+families from the Canary Islands. In the town and neighborhood live
+many English-speaking negroes, descendants of those who were brought
+from the United States by the Haitian President Boyer about 1825.
+
+A larger town is _Sánchez_ at the western end of Samana Bay,
+twenty-five miles from the town of Samana. In 1886 there was here a
+tiny hamlet, known as _Las Canitas_, but on becoming the terminus of
+the railroad from La Vega, the name of Sanchez, a hero of Dominican
+independence, was given it, and the town rapidly grew in size. Its
+dwellings are scattered over two ridges of land divided by a deep
+valley. On one of the ridges the houses are pretty one-story buildings
+with gardens in front. The beautiful grounds surrounding the house of
+the general manager of the Samana-Santiago Railroad are situated on a
+height overlooking the sparkling expanse of Samana Bay and give a
+suggestion of the possibilities of landscape gardening in Santo
+Domingo. Colored families from St. Thomas and the British West Indies
+and descendants of American negroes make up a considerable proportion
+of the population, so that more English is heard here than Spanish.
+
+On the south side of Samana Bay is the small village of _Sábana de la
+Mar_, commonly known as _Sábana la Mar_, founded by Canary Islanders
+in 1756. There are many stories of pirates' buried gold in
+this region.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PACIFICADOR
+
+_San Francisco de Macoris_, the capital of the province, is about 85
+miles northwest of Santo Domingo City and occupies the site of a fort
+established by Ovando in 1504 and known as the fort of La Magdalena.
+It was founded in 1774 around a chapel dedicated to St. Ann which
+stood on a ranch called San Francisco. Lying in a fertile district
+formerly devoted to tobacco and now one of the chief cacao regions of
+the island, it is a town of considerable business. It is also called
+_Macoris del Norte_, to distinguish it from San Pedro de Macoris,
+which is called Macoris del Este.
+
+_Villa Rivas_, on the Samana-Santiago Railroad, 19 miles from Samana
+bay, was formerly called Almacén, or Storehouse, because here was
+situated, before the railroad was built, a warehouse for the storage
+of merchandise imported and exported by way of Samana and the
+Yuna river.
+
+The other towns, all of recent foundation, are _Matanzas_, a fishing
+village on the edge of a cacao district on the northeast coast, and
+three villages named after heroes of the War of Restoration: _Cabrera_
+on the coast at Tres Amarras point; _Castillo_, 8 miles west of Rivas;
+and _Pimentel_, formerly called _Barbero_, a station on the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad and the center of an important cacao zone.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF LA VEGA
+
+_Concepción de la Vega_, capital of the province and one of the most
+important cities of the Royal Plain, is 90 miles from Santo Domingo
+City. The old town of Concepción de la Vega was founded by Columbus in
+1495 at the foot of the eminence known as Santo Cerro and at the place
+of residence of the Indian chief Guarionex. It quickly attained such
+importance that in 1508 it was declared a city and endowed with a coat
+of arms, and in the same year a bishopric was erected there, which
+was, however, in 1527 merged with the bishopric of Santo Domingo. An
+earthquake overthrew its fine buildings in 1564 and the city was
+thereupon relocated at a distance of three miles on the bank of the
+Camu. The site of the old city is now private property and is
+overgrown with tropical vegetation. Moss-grown foundation walls
+protrude from the ground; a mass of brickwork some twenty feet high
+and having the form of a blockhouse chimney remains of the old church;
+and part of the circular tower erected at the corner of the fort of
+Columbus, well provided with loop-holes for muskets, still remains
+standing. In desultory excavations made at different times small
+objects such as ancient spurs, stirrups and coins have been found.
+
+The new city led a languishing existence until it became the interior
+terminus of the Samana-Santiago Railroad which gave it a great
+impetus. It is regularly laid out, the streets are fairly wide and a
+majority of the houses are built of brick. The city has a pretty plaza
+laid out as a garden, a new market building, a theater, and like every
+other town of importance in Santo Domingo, a club. At the entrance to
+the town is a bronze statue of Gregorio Rivas, a progressive merchant
+and philanthropist of this region, who died twenty years ago.
+
+The feature of the city which attracts the traveler's attention
+unfavorably is the neglect of the city streets. During the dry season
+the lack of pavements does not matter but when the rains come the rich
+loam turns to a deep black mud. Along most streets there are narrow
+sidewalks, but where there are none, or where it is necessary to cross
+to the other side, the mode of progress is by hop, skip and jump from
+one dry place to another--the religion of the virtuous pedestrian
+being put to a severe test when after a strenuous jump he lands in a
+muddy place up to his shoe tops. At some crossings thoughtful
+storekeepers lay a plank of salvation for the passer-by. The city is a
+great center for cacao, tobacco and coffee, and several sawmills are
+kept busy cutting up pine logs from the surrounding hills.
+
+_Cotuí_, about 31 miles southeast of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Ovando in 1505, being called _Las Minas_ in the early days because of
+the mines of gold, copper and other metals in the neighborhood.
+_Bonao_, about 26 miles south of La Vega, was founded by order of
+Columbus in 1496 to protect the mines in the nearby mountains and was
+the scene of Roldan's revolt against Columbus. Both of these towns
+almost disappeared when the colony declined and are now
+humble villages.
+
+Other villages are _Jarabacoa_, 18 miles southwest of La Vega;
+_Constanza_, 30 miles southwest of La Vega and rarely visited by
+strangers because of its isolation among the mountains, near the
+beautiful valley of Constanza; _Cevicos_, also hidden in the
+mountains, 12 miles southeast of Cotui; and _Santo Cerro_, 3 miles
+north of La Vega, on a hill which commands a magnificent view of the
+Royal Plain.
+
+
+
+ PROVINCE OF ESPAILLAT
+
+_Moca_, also called _Espaillat_, 100 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, is a thriving city. It was the scene of the "Moca massacre" in
+1805, when the Haitian general Christophe, having guaranteed the
+safety of the inhabitants, induced them to return from their hiding
+places in the mountains and assemble in the church to the number of
+five hundred in order to hold a mass of thanksgiving, whereupon they
+were massacred by the Haitian soldiers. In more recent history it has
+been taken and retaken many times during revolutions and in 1899 was
+the scene of the killing of President Heureaux. Its houses are mostly
+one story in height and many are built of brick, while picturesque
+huts of the poor surround the town. Gutters have been constructed in
+the principal streets, but the possibilities of paving have by no
+means been exhausted. The town sustains two churches, one on the
+outskirts, and another with a peculiar square tower, on the plaza. The
+inhabitants take pride in their pretty flower-grown plaza and in the
+elaborate portal of their cemetery.
+
+The other town of the province is _Salcedo_, formerly called _Juana
+Núñez_, 7 miles east of Moca in a rich cacao district.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF SANTIAGO
+
+_Santiago de los Caballeros_, Santiago of the Gentlemen, 115 miles
+northwest of Santo Domingo, was founded as a military station on a
+bluff of the Yaque River about 1497 by order of Bartholomew Columbus,
+and settled in 1504 by thirty knights, from which circumstance it
+derives its name. It received many settlers from the old town of
+Isabela, was given a coat of arms in 1508, reached a flourishing
+state, and was destroyed in 1564 by the same earthquake which
+overthrew La Vega. Its inhabitants then removed to the present site,
+about six miles east of the location of the old city, the ruins of
+which are still to be seen. The city was burned three times by the
+French buccaneers during their struggles with the Spanish colonial
+authorities and later by the Haitian general Christophe on the
+occasion of the retreat of the emperor Dessalines in 1805. It had
+again attained importance when it was destroyed by an earthquake in
+1842. Once more it was reduced to ashes in 1863 at the outbreak of the
+War of the Restoration. To-day Santiago is one of the richest and most
+flourishing cities of the island and has aspirations to become the
+capital of the Republic, so that an intense rivalry exists with Santo
+Domingo. The streets are regular and clean and a general repair has
+been commenced. There are important business houses and well-stocked
+bazaars and the market place is one of the busiest in the country.
+
+The plaza in the center of the city has a handsome garden established
+by popular subscription, and gay with flowers and palms. Two churches
+are on the plaza, the larger of which has a beautiful altar. The
+remains of President Heureaux are buried here, his resting place being
+marked by a marble slab with the Dominican coat of arms. The
+government palace fronting on the plaza is a substantial affair with
+walls dating from Haitian times, and the city hall, also fronting on
+the plaza, is a fine structure. In the cemetery there is a street of
+beautiful mausoleums, the architecture of several being Egyptian in
+style and others bearing medallions or recumbent figures of the
+deceased. The volunteer fire corps of Santiago has a special lot and a
+pretty monument.  _San José de las Matas_, 24 miles southwest of
+Santiago, is situated on a high plain in the midst of the mountains
+and is surrounded by great pine forests. Its salubrious climate and
+picturesque environments make it a favorite summer resort for wealthy
+families of Santiago, Puerto Plata and Moca, and a health resort for
+persons afflicted with stomach or lung trouble. Nearby are hot and
+cold sulphur springs, the beautiful Inoa waterfall, the picturesque
+confluence of the Amina and Inoa rivers and the high Rubio Peak, which
+commands one of the finest panoramas in the island.
+
+Other towns are _Valverde_, formerly _Mao_, 30 miles northwest of
+Santiago; _Jânico_, 14 miles southwest of Santiago, _Esperanza_, 27
+miles northwest of Santiago; and _Canton Peña_, also called
+_Tamboril_, 7 miles east of Santiago and having such close social
+relations with that city as to be regarded as a suburb of the same.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF PUERTO PLATA
+
+_Puerto Plata_, 150 miles northwest of Santo Domingo, is the most
+important port of the north of the Republic. Columbus is said to have
+made the plans for the streets of the town; as early as 1499 there
+were settlers here; and in 1502 the city was formally founded by order
+of Ovando. It enjoyed prosperity during the first years of the colony,
+but in 1543 was attacked by pirates and thereafter rapidly went to
+decay. The stringent laws which restricted the commerce of the island
+to certain ports of the mother country encouraged contraband trade and
+the place became the headquarters for smugglers. The government
+endeavored to stop smuggling in 1606 by the brilliant expedient of
+destroying the town and moving all the inhabitants to Monte Plata, far
+in the interior of Santo Domingo province. In 1750 Puerto Plata was
+populated anew and shared with Monte Cristi the advantage of the law
+permitting free trade for ten years. It rapidly grew in population
+until it became the most important commercial point of the Republic,
+and the port of the entire Cibao region, part of which now finds an
+outlet at Sanchez. It was in a flourishing state and had fine houses
+when it was totally destroyed by fire in 1863, during the War of
+Restoration, whether by the Spaniards or the Dominicans remains in
+doubt. Prosperity again followed, many foreigners were attracted by
+its commercial possibilities and to-day it is again one of the most
+thriving towns of Santo Domingo.
+
+The first thing to attract the traveler's notice is the excellent
+condition of the city streets. Though the macadamized streets and the
+sidewalks are narrow, they are clean, well kept and well lighted at
+night. In streets, schools and public squares the city is in advance
+of most of the other cities of the Republic. This is attributed to a
+great extent to the presence of many cultured foreigners as well as to
+the progressive natives. The inhabitants of Puerto Plata boast that
+what Puerto Plata does the rest of the Republic does. They point as an
+example to their plaza. Formerly the plaza of Dominican cities was a
+bare, shadeless tract of ground in the center of the city. Puerto
+Plata was the first to plant trees, lay out a garden and provide its
+plaza with a music stand. This plaza in the center of the town is the
+oldest and prettiest of the city's three public squares and is now
+shaded by large, leafy trees and embellished with beautiful flowers
+and varicolored bushes. On Sunday nights on this plaza and on Thursday
+nights on one of the others, band concerts attract crowds of people,
+young and old, who promenade to the strains of the music. The belles
+of the city are very handsome and owing to the intermarriage of
+natives with foreigners from all parts of the world widely different
+types of beauty are to be observed at such concerts.
+
+On one side of the principal plaza is the church, on another stand
+side by side the theater, the government building, where the
+provincial offices are located, and the city hall, on the first floor
+of which is a well-attended school. The three principal clubs of the
+city are also located in commodious quarters fronting on this plaza.
+One of these clubs counts among its members most of the merchants and
+staid and elderly people, another is the club of the young men and a
+third is the ladies' club. The ladies' club is open only in the
+afternoon and evening, but in the clubs frequented by gentlemen games
+of billiards may be seen going on at almost any hour of the day.
+
+The buildings of the city are all of modern date. Only a few
+foundation walls near the ocean shore, and the old fort, remain from
+former days. The old fort is situated on the point of land partly
+enclosing Puerto Plata harbor and is surrounded on three sides by
+buildings of the present fort. It is a large round whitewashed
+structure having the appearance of a huge cheesebox; its walls are of
+enormous thickness and it is now used as a jail. In former days the
+inhabitants had much difficulty in obtaining drinking water, but
+Puerto Plata was the first city to be provided with a general system
+of water works, having been followed only recently by Santiago. The
+water is brought from a stream a little over a mile away. The ride
+there is a beautiful one but it goes to prove that the movement for
+good thoroughfares has not yet extended to the roads. From all parts
+of Puerto Plata Mt. Isabel de Torres is seen towering behind the city.
+The view obtained from the slopes of the mountain, over miles of
+shoreline and a broad expanse of ocean, is of indescribable grandeur.
+
+The traveler who visits Puerto Plata carries away with him pleasant
+memories of the clean city, its comfortable clubs, its hospitable
+citizens and its beautiful surroundings.
+
+Other towns of the province are _Altamira_, 18 miles southwest of
+Puerto Plata, astride a hill rising in the middle of a valley of the
+coast range of mountains; _Blanco_, on the coast 20 miles northwest of
+Puerto Plata and 10 miles east of the site of Isabela, the first city
+in the new world; and _Bajabonico_, 10 miles southwest of Puerto
+Plata, a village called into being by the building of the Central
+Dominican Railroad.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF MONTE CRISTI
+
+_San Fernando de Monte Cristi_, 196 miles northwest of Santo Domingo
+City, the capital of Monte Cristi province, was founded during the
+government of Ovando by sixty Spanish families, and after giving
+promise of prosperity decayed with the rest of the colony. It was
+supported for a time by a brisk contraband trade which sprang up with
+the Dutch and other nations and to put a stop to which the town was
+destroyed in 1606 like Puerto Plata and the inhabitants transferred to
+Monte Plata, to the south of the central mountain range. In 1750 a
+royal dispensation granted it the right to free trade with all nations
+for a period of ten years and it began to attain prominence as a port,
+but the wars with the Haitians, the War of Restoration with the
+Spaniards and the many civil wars have retarded its progress. Only in
+the last few years has it received a new impetus. The town is built
+about a mile from the shore, with which it is connected by a tiny
+horse car. About thirty houses are connected with a private system of
+waterworks which supplies water from the Yaque river. Situated as it
+is in the arid region of Santo Domingo the city bears much resemblance
+to some of the western towns of the United States.
+
+Other towns are _Guayubín_, 24 miles, _Sabaneta_, 36 miles, and
+_Monción_, 46 miles southeast of Monte Cristi; and _Dajabón_, 22
+miles, _Restauración_, 40 miles, and _Copey_, 12 miles southwest of
+Monte Cristi. They are all small villages. Dajabon, founded towards
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is situated on the east bank of
+the Massacre river, which constitutes the Haitian boundary, and is one
+of the inland ports of entry. Restauración is peopled largely by
+French speaking negroes from Haiti.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF AZUA
+
+_Azua de Compostela_, about 83 miles west of Santo Domingo City, was
+founded by Diego de Velazquez in 1504 at a point four miles southwest
+of its present location. It was first called Compostela after a
+Galician official who held some property here, but the Indian name of
+the region prevailed. Hernando Cortez, later the conqueror of Mexico,
+settled here and for some five years was the notary of the town. At
+first prosperous, the city soon suffered a serious decline, but was
+beginning to revive when on August 18, 1751, it was entirely destroyed
+by an earthquake. The inhabitants then transferred the town to its
+present location on the western bank of the Via River. The ruins of
+the old city are still visible near the hamlet called Pueblo Viejo,
+Old Town. Azua was destroyed by fire three times in the Haitian wars:
+in 1805, by order of the Haitian emperor Dessalines, in 1844 by
+President Herard, and in 1849 by President Soulouque. To-day it is
+the most important town in the southwestern part of the Republic.
+Situated in an arid region, like Monte Cristi, it is similar to many a
+town in New Mexico and Arizona, with hot, sunny, shadeless streets
+beginning and ending in space, one story houses, a great plain of dark
+green beyond the town and purple mountains in the distance. The houses
+here are of wood or stone and with thatched or zinc roofs. There is a
+large new church, the images in which seem to be very old and do not
+distinguish themselves for beauty. The town is about three miles
+inland from the port, but a branch of a narrow gauge plantation
+railroad connects the city with the wharf and on steamer days a
+passenger car makes several trips. Azua is famous throughout Santo
+Domingo for its excellent "dulce de leche," a kind of milk taffy,
+which is well made elsewhere in the Republic, but is better in Azua as
+it is here prepared from goat's milk.
+
+_San Juan de la Maguana_, 48 miles northwest of Azua, was founded in
+1504 by Diego Velazquez in the beautiful Maguana valley where the
+Indian chief Caonabo had his residence, became almost extinct in 1606,
+but revived in 1764 with the establishment of new cattle ranches in
+the vicinity. During the Haitian wars it was burned repeatedly. Near
+the town is a curious relic of Indian times called Anacaona's circus
+or "el corral de los Indios," consisting of large stones laid in a
+huge circle, and in the center a strange cylindrical stone, carved
+with Indian figures, which is supposed to have served as the throne of
+the Indian queen Anacaona.
+
+_Las Matas de Farfán_, 64 miles northwest of Azua, was established in
+1780 and suffered greatly during the wars with the Haitians. Like the
+other villages of the Maguana valley its chief industry is
+stockraising. _Bánica_, 75 miles northwest of Azua, on the Haitian
+frontier, was one of the towns established by Diego Velazquez in 1504.
+Though an important town in the early days it decayed, and in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century was abandoned entirely. During
+Haitian rule it was reestablished, but upon the declaration of
+Dominican independence was again abandoned for fear of Haitian
+vengeance, remaining so until the War of Restoration during which it
+was settled anew.
+
+Other villages are _San José de Ocoa_, also known as _Maniel_, 18
+miles northeast of Azua, founded in 1844 in a picturesque region;
+_Túbano_, 34 miles northwest of Azua; _El Cercado_, 12 miles southwest
+of Las Matas de Farfan; and _Comendador_, near the Haitian frontier,
+13 miles west of Las Matas de Farfan, the seat of one of the inland
+custom-houses.
+
+Dominican writers include among the towns pertaining to the Province
+of Azua those situated in that part of the territory of the former
+Spanish colony which is now held by Haiti. The principal towns in this
+territory are _Lares de Guajaba_ or _Hincha_, to-day called _Hinche_,
+which was founded in 1504 and was the birthplace of General Pedro
+Santana; _Las Caobas_, founded about the middle of the eighteenth
+century; _San Miguel de la Atalaya_, to-day called _St. Michel_,
+founded about the same time; and _San Rafael de la Angostura_, called
+_St. Raphael_ by the Haitians.
+
+
+
+PROVINCE OF BARAHONA
+
+_Barahona_, 126 miles west of Santo Domingo City, became capital of
+the Barahona district when a provincial government was established
+there in 1881. It is a small town, which began to be settled in the
+beginning of the nineteenth century, and suffered greatly during the
+Haitian wars and the revolutions following them. At present its fame
+is its fine coffee.
+
+Other towns are _Enriquillo_, formerly called _Petitrú_ (Petit Trou)
+on the coast 22 miles south of Barahona; _Neiba_, 32 miles northwest
+of Barahona, founded a century ago and prevented from developing by
+the damages it sustained first in the Haitian, then in the civil wars;
+and _Duvergé_, formerly called _Las Damas_, which commands a fine view
+of Lake Enriquillo with Cabras Island in the distance. In the
+northwest corner of the province is the small collection of huts
+called _Tierra Nueva_, and a few miles beyond, isolated in a wild
+region on the frontier, the inland customhouse of _Las Lajas_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+THE REMAINS OF COLUMBUS
+
+
+Burial of Columbus.--Disappearance of epitaph.--Removal of remains in
+1795.--Discovery of remains in 1877.--Resting place of Discoverer
+of America.
+
+
+The greatest pride of the Dominican people is that they are the
+custodians of the mortal remains of Christopher Columbus. The same
+honor is claimed by Spain, but a Dominican would consider it almost
+treasonable to doubt the justice of the Dominican claim. It is a
+strange freak of fate that not only should the great navigator have
+been denied in life the rewards promised him, not only should the new
+world he discovered have been given the name of another, but that his
+very tomb is a matter of controversy. It is admitted that after his
+death in Spain his remains were transferred to Santo Domingo City and
+there deposited in the cathedral. In 1795, when the Spanish colony of
+Santo Domingo was ceded to France, the Spaniards carried with them to
+Cuba what they supposed were the remains of Columbus, and these were
+in 1898 taken to Spain, but in the year 1877 another casket was
+brought to light in the Santo Domingo cathedral, with inscriptions
+which indicated that it contained the bones of the great Discoverer.
+
+It was the desire of Columbus to be buried in Santo Domingo, his
+favorite island. In his will, executed shortly before his death, he
+called on his son Diego to found, if possible, a chapel dedicated to
+the Holy Trinity, "and if this can be in the Island of Española, I
+should like to have it there where I invoked the Trinity, which is in
+La Vega, named Concepción." Columbus died on May 20, 1506, in
+Valladolid and his body was deposited in the church of Santa Maria de
+la Antigua in that city. In 1513, or perhaps before, it was
+transferred to the Carthusian monastery of Santa Maria de las Cuevas
+in Seville, where was also deposited the body of his son Diego, who
+died in 1526. Diego Columbus, in his will of the year 1523, stated
+that he had been unable to carry out his father's wishes, but
+requested his heirs to found in the city of Santo Domingo, inasmuch as
+La Vega was losing population, a nunnery dedicated to St. Clara, the
+sanctuary of which was to be the burial place of the Columbus family.
+His plans were modified in favor of a nobler mausoleum and his widow,
+Maria de Toledo, in the name of her son Louis Columbus, applied to the
+king of Spain for the sanctuary of the cathedral of Santo Domingo as a
+burial place for her husband, his father and his heirs, which grant
+the king made in 1537 and reiterated in 1539. A difference having
+arisen with the bishop of Santo Domingo, who wished to reserve the
+higher platform of the sanctuary for the interment of prelates and
+cede only the lower portion to the Columbus family, the king in 1540
+again reiterated his concession of the whole sanctuary. According to
+the annals of the Carthusian monastery of Seville, the bodies of
+Christopher Columbus and his son were taken away in 1536, and it is
+probable that they were deposited in the cathedral of Santo Domingo in
+1540 or 1541, after the issue of the king's third order and the
+conclusion of the work on the cathedral. Where they were during the
+intervening four or five years and in what year they were brought to
+Santo Domingo, is not known. Las Casas, writing in 1544, states that
+the remains of the Admiral were at that time buried in the sanctuary
+of the cathedral of Santo Domingo. In the year 1572 Louis Columbus,
+the grandson of the Discoverer, died in Oran, in Africa, and his
+remains were taken to the Carthusian monastery in Seville. It is not
+known when they were brought to Santo Domingo, but the transfer
+probably took place in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+The early records of the Santo Domingo cathedral were burnt at the
+time of Drake's invasion in 1586, and those since that year have been
+so damaged by the ravages of tropical insects that little is left of
+them. They make little and only passing reference to the tomb of
+Columbus, and mention no monument or inscription whatever. Juan de
+Castellanos, in his book "Varones Ilustres de Indias," printed in
+1589, recites a Latin epitaph which he says appeared near the place
+where lay the body of Columbus in Seville, but pretty Latin epitaphs
+were Castellanos' weakness, and it is to be feared that this one, like
+others which he dedicated to American explorers, was nothing more than
+a figment of his poetic imagination. Two writers, Coleti and Alcedo,
+who almost two centuries later mentioned the same epitaph as marking
+the grave in Santo Domingo, must have copied from Castellanos.
+
+Undoubtedly there was at first some inscription to mark the tomb, but
+in the course of the years any slabs with inscriptions were permitted
+to disappear entirely from the graves of Columbus, his son and
+grandson, and the very existence of their remains in the cathedral
+became a matter of tradition. It is possible that the epitaphs
+disappeared at some time when the pavement of the church was renewed,
+or when damages inflicted by earthquake shocks were repaired, or when
+changes were made in the windows and doors about the main altar, or
+when the higher altar platform was extended to reach the desks on
+which lie the Gospels and Epistles. At any such times the slabs over
+the burial vaults may have been broken or laid aside and never
+replaced. It is also possible that they were intentionally removed in
+order to guard against profanation of the tombs by enemies in time of
+war or by West Indian pirates, who captured and sacked stronger cities
+than Santo Domingo. In 1655 when an English fleet under Admiral
+William Penn appeared before the city and landed an army under General
+Venables, there was great excitement and fear in Santo Domingo, and
+the archbishop ordered that the sacred ornaments and vessels be hidden
+and that "the sepulchres be covered in order that no irreverence or
+profanation be committed against them by the heretics, and especially
+do I so request with reference to the sepulchre of the old Admiral
+which is on the gospel side of my holy church and sanctuary," That
+other tombs were hidden, whether at this time or another, was shown in
+1879, when, on repairing the flooring in the chapel of the "stone
+bishop" in the cathedral, the slab indicating the grave of the
+Adelantado Rodrigo de Bastidas, the explorer, was found concealed
+under a stone, and it was discovered that the epitaph of Bastidas on a
+board which from time immemorial had hung on the wall of the chapel
+was an incorrect copy of the original graven on the burial slab. From
+the words of the archbishop it appears possible that the sepulchre of
+Columbus was marked in some way in 1655, although even then there may
+have been nothing, since the prelate saw fit to specify the point in
+the church where the tomb was situated.
+
+The first document in which tradition appears invoked for designating
+the burial place is the record of a synod held in 1683, which contains
+the following clause: "this Island having been discovered by
+Christopher Columbus, illustrious and very celebrated throughout the
+world, whose bones repose in a leaden box in the sanctuary next to the
+pedestal of the main altar of this our cathedral, with those of his
+brother Louis Columbus which are on the other side, according to the
+tradition of the old people of this Island." The synod and tradition
+were not strong in Columbus genealogy when they referred to Louis
+Columbus as the brother instead of the grandson of the Discoverer, and
+it is noticeable that no mention is made of the son Diego Columbus. It
+may be remarked, in passing, that the body of Bartholomew Columbus,
+brother of the Admiral, was deposited in the convent of San Francisco
+in Santo Domingo, upon his death in 1514, and while some writers
+suggest it may have been taken to Spain, there is nothing to indicate
+that it was ever given sepulture in the cathedral of Santo Domingo.
+
+After the lapse of another century tradition referred to two
+sepulchres, one of Christopher Columbus, on the right side of the
+altar, the other of his brother or son, on the left side of the altar.
+Moreau de Saint-Méry, a French diplomat and statesman, who lived in
+the French colony of St. Domingue for some years during the decade of
+1780 to 1790, in his book "Description de la partie espagnole de
+l'isle Saint-Domingue" states that, being desirous of obtaining
+accurate information with reference to the tomb of Columbus, he
+addressed himself to José Solano, an ex-governor of the colony, then
+in command of a fleet in the insular waters; that this official wrote
+a letter to his successor in the governorship, Isidoro Peralta, and
+that he received the following answer:
+
+"SANTO DOMINGO, March 29, 1783.
+
+"_My very dear friend and patron:_
+
+"I have received the kind letter of Your Excellency of the 13th of this
+month, and did not answer immediately in order to have time to
+ascertain the details it requests relative to Christopher Columbus,
+and also in order to enjoy the satisfaction of serving Your Excellency
+as far as is in my power and to permit Your Excellency to have the
+satisfaction of obliging the friend who has asked for those details.
+
+"With respect to Christopher Columbus, although the insects destroy
+the papers in this country and have converted whole archives into
+lace-work, I hope nevertheless to remit to Your Excellency the proof
+that the bones of Columbus are in a leaden box, enclosed in a stone
+box which is buried in the sanctuary on the side of the gospels and
+that those of Bartholomew Columbus, his brother, repose on the side of
+the epistles in the same manner and under the same precautions. Those
+of Christopher Columbus were transported from Seville, where they had
+been deposited in the pantheon of the dukes of Alcala after having
+been taken there from Valladolid, and where they remained until their
+transport here.
+
+"About two months ago, in working in the church, a piece of thick wall
+was thrown down and immediately reconstructed. This fortuitous event
+was the occasion of finding the box of which I have spoken, and which,
+although without inscriptions, was known, according to a constant and
+invariable tradition, to contain the remains of Columbus. In addition
+I am having a search made to see whether in the church archives or
+those of the government some document can be found which will furnish
+details on this point; and the canons have seen and stated that the
+greater part of the bones were reduced to dust and that bones of the
+forearm had been distinguished.
+
+"I send Your Excellency also a list of all the archbishops which this
+island has had and which is more interesting than that of its
+presidents, for I am assured that the first is complete, while in the
+second there are voids produced by the insects of which I have spoken
+and which attack some papers in preference to others.
+
+"I also refer to the buildings, the temples, the beauty of the ruins
+and the motive which determined the transfer of this city to the west
+bank of the river which constitutes its port. But with reference to
+the plan requested by the note there is a real difficulty, as this is
+forbidden me as governor; the superior understanding of Your
+Excellency will comprehend the reasons, etc."
+
+The documents sent by Governor Peralta were as follows:
+
+"I, José Nuñez de Caceres, doctor in sacred theology of the pontifical
+and royal University of the Angelical St. Thomas d'Acquino, dignitary
+dean of this holy metropolitan church, primate of the Indies, do
+certify that the sanctuary of this holy cathedral having been torn
+down on January 30 last, for reconstruction, there was found, on the
+side of the platform where the gospels are chanted, and near the door
+where the stairs go up to the capitular room, a stone coffer, hollow,
+of cubical form and about a yard high, enclosing a leaden urn, a
+little damaged, which contained several human bones. Several years
+ago, under the same circumstances and I so certify, there was found on
+the side of the epistles, another similar stone box, and according to
+the tradition handed down by the old men of the country and a chapter
+of the synod of this holy cathedral, that on the side of the gospels
+is reputed to enclose the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus
+and that on the side of the epistles, those of his brother, nor has it
+been possible to verify whether they are those of his brother
+Bartholomew or of Diego Columbus, son of the admiral. In testimony
+whereof I have delivered the present in Santo Domingo, April 20, 1783.
+
+JOSÉ NUÑEZ DE CACERES."
+
+An identical certificate, signed by Manuel Sanchez, was also sent, as
+well as a third which reads as follows:
+
+"I, Pedro de Galvez, schoolmaster, dignitary canon of this cathedral,
+primate of the Indies, do certify that the sanctuary having been
+overthrown in order to be reconstructed there was found on the side of
+the platform where the gospels are chanted, a stone coffer with a
+leaden urn, a little damaged, which contained human bones; and it is
+remembered that there is another of the same kind on the side of the
+epistles; and according to the report of the old men of the country
+and a chapter of the synod of this holy cathedral that on the side of
+the gospels encloses the bones of the Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+and that on the side of the epistles those of his brother Bartholomew.
+In witness whereof I have delivered the present on April 26, 1783.
+
+PEDRO DE GALVEZ."
+
+The certificates were not carefully drafted, for in speaking of the
+rebuilding of the sanctuary only the interior thereof, probably only
+the platform, was referred to, and from a notarial document of
+December 21, 1795, quoted below, it is evident that by coffer was
+meant a vault and that the word urn was used synonymously with box.
+The papers give eloquent testimony of the uncertainty in which the
+eminent men's remains were involved. Governor Peralta died in 1786 and
+was interred under the altar platform near the supposed remains of
+Columbus. In 1787, when Moreau de St. Méry endeavored to find the
+official record of the find of 1783, it had already disappeared.
+
+In 1795 Spain ceded to France the entire Spanish part of Santo
+Domingo, and in evacuating the island the Spanish authorities
+determined to carry with them the remains of the great Discoverer. It
+is to be assumed that there were still persons connected with the
+cathedral who could point out the location of the vault accidentally
+discovered twelve years before and that as tradition referred to only
+one vault on that side of the altar, the remains contained therein
+were extracted without further investigation. The description of the
+vault opened tallies with that of the vault found in 1783. The
+document attesting the embarking of these remains reads as
+follows: "I, the undersigned clerk of the King, our Lord, in charge of
+the office of the chamber of this Royal Audiencia, do certify that on
+the twentieth day of December of the current year, there being in this
+holy cathedral the Commissioner Gregorio Saviñon, perpetual member and
+dean of the very illustrious municipal council of this city, and in
+the presence of the most illustrious and reverend friar Fernando
+Portillo y Torres, most worthy Archbishop of this metropolitan see; of
+His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, Lieutenant-General of the royal
+navy of His Majesty; of Antonio Cansi, Brigadier in charge of the fort
+of this city; of Antonio Barba, Field-marshal and Commander of
+Engineers; of Ignacio de la Rocha, Lieutenant-colonel and
+Sergeant-major of this city, and of other persons of rank and
+distinction, a vault was opened which is in the sanctuary on the side
+of the gospel (between) the main wall and the pedestal of the main
+altar, which is one cubic yard in size, and in the same there were
+found several plates of lead, about one tercio in length, indicating
+that there had been a box of the said metal, and pieces of bone as of
+the tibia or other parts of some deceased person, and they were
+collected in a salver that was filled with the earth, which by the
+fragments of small bone it contained and its color could be seen to
+belong to that dead body; and everything was placed in an ark of
+gilded lead with iron lock, which being closed its key was delivered
+to the said illustrious Archbishop, and which box is about half a yard
+long and wide and in height something more than a quarter of a yard,
+whereupon it was transferred to a small coffin lined with black
+velvet, and adorned with gold trimmings, and was placed on a decent
+catafalque.
+
+"On the following day with the presence of the same illustrious
+Archbishop, His Excellency Aristizabal, the communities of Dominicans,
+Franciscans and Mercenarians, military and naval officers, and a
+concourse of distinguished persons, and people of the lower classes,
+mass was solemnly said and fasting enjoined, whereupon the same
+illustrious Archbishop preached.
+
+"On this day, about half past four o'clock in the afternoon there
+came to the holy cathedral the gentlemen of the Royal Order, to wit,
+Joaquin Garcia, Fieldmarshal, President-Governor and Captain-General
+of this Island of Española; José Antonio de Vrisar, knight of the
+royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, Minister of the
+royal and supreme council of the Indies and at present Regent of the
+Royal Audiencia; Justices Pedro Catani, dean; Manuel Bravo, likewise
+knight of the royal and distinguished order of Charles the Third, and
+with honors and seniority in the Royal Audiencia of Mexico; Melchor
+Joseph de Foncerrada and Andres Alvarez Calderon, state's attorney;
+there being in the cathedral the most illustrious and reverend
+Archbishop, His Excellency Gabriel de Aristizabal, the municipal
+council and religious communities, and a complete picket with draped
+banner, and taking the wooden box covered with plush and gold
+trimmings, in the interior of which was the box of gilded lead, which
+contained the remains exhumed on the preceding day, the President
+Joaquin Garcia, the Regent Joseph Antonio de Vrisar and the Justices,
+Dean Pedro Catani and Manuel Bravo conducted it to a little before the
+exit through the door of the said holy church, where the President and
+Regent separated, passed to their respective places and were
+substituted by Justice Foncerrada and Calderon, state's attorney, and
+upon leaving the church it was saluted by the said picket with a
+discharge of musketry, and there followed the Fieldmarshal and
+Commander of Engineers Antonio Barba, the Brigadier and Commander of
+militia Joaquin Cabrera, the Brigadier and Commander of the fort
+Antonio Cansi, and the colonel of the regiment 'Cantabria,' Gaspar de
+Casasola, and thereafter the military officers alternated according to
+their grade and seniority until reaching the city gate which leads to
+the harbor, where their places were taken by the members of the very
+illustrious municipal council of this city, dean Gregorio Saviñon,
+Miguel Martinez Santalices, Francisco de Tapia and Francisco de
+Arredondo, judge of the rural court, and upon emerging from the gate
+it was placed upon a table prepared therefor; a response was chanted
+and during the same the forts saluted it with fifteen minute guns, as
+for an admiral, and one after another took the key of the ark and
+through the said illustrious Archbishop placed it in the hands of His
+Excellency Aristizabal, stating that they delivered the ark into his
+possession subject to the orders of the Governor of Havana as a
+deposit until His Majesty should determine what may be his royal
+pleasure, to which His Excellency acceded, accepting the ark in the
+manner stated and transferring it aboard the brigantine 'Descubridor,'
+which, with the other war-vessels waiting with insignia of mourning,
+also saluted it with fifteen guns, whereupon this certificate was
+concluded and signed by the parties.
+
+"Santo Domingo, December 21, 1795. Joaquin Garcia. Friar Fernando,
+Archbishop of Santo Domingo. Gabriel de Aristizabal. Gregorio Saviñon.
+José Francisco Hidalgo."
+
+The brief account of the remains when everything else was related with
+such detail leads to the logical conclusion that there was no epitaph
+on the vault and no inscription on the leaden plates found within. The
+Spanish judicial chronicler's habit of minute description would not
+have permitted the omission of such important particulars, if they
+had existed.
+
+The remains were transferred to Havana where their reception was even
+more solemn than their embarkation in Santo Domingo. On January 19,
+1796, they were landed amid the booming of guns, conducted in state by
+the civil and military authorities and a large concourse to the plaza,
+and deposited on a magnificent bier in the shadow of the column
+erected where, according to tradition, the first mass was said in
+Havana and the first municipal council met. Here the ark was formally
+delivered to the Governor of Havana, who had it opened and its
+contents inspected, whereupon it was again closed and transferred with
+great pomp to the cathedral. The key was there delivered to the bishop
+and the remains deposited in a sepulchre with suitable bas-reliefs
+and inscriptions. The notarial narrative of the event goes into the
+most minute particulars, but the contents of the ark are merely
+described as "several leaden plates nearly a tercio in length, several
+small pieces of bone as of some deceased person, and some earth which
+seemed to be of that body."
+
+For over eighty years it was generally accepted in Santo Domingo, as
+throughout the world, that the bones of Columbus rested in the
+cathedral of Havana. There were, indeed, persons who handed down a
+tradition that the remains taken away by the Spaniards were not those
+of the great navigator and that these still remained under the altar
+platform in the Santo Domingo cathedral, but such persons were very
+few and no attention was paid to their allegations. Some Dominicans
+even called on the Spanish government to return the remains and let
+them be laid to rest in Dominican soil in accordance with the
+Discoverer's dying wish. In the meantime no one thought of the tombs
+of Diego Columbus or Louis Columbus, nor was it remembered that they
+were buried in the cathedral.
+
+In the year 1877 extensive repairs were undertaken in the cathedral of
+Santo Domingo. The worn brick flooring was to be replaced with marble
+squares, the old choir was to be torn down and a choir established
+elsewhere in the church, and the altar platform was to be extended
+into the church proper and reduced in height. Shortly after the work
+had begun, a heavy bronze image kept in the vestry--which adjoined the
+sanctuary on the side opposite that where the remains were exhumed in
+1795--was, on May 14, 1877, placed in a doorway long closed leading to
+the sanctuary. In doing so it was noticed that a hollow sound came
+from the wall adjoining and in order to ascertain the cause a small
+opening was made in the wall about a yard above the floor. It was then
+seen that there was a small vault under the altar platform of the
+church, and that the vault contained a metal box with human remains.
+Canon Billini, in charge of the cathedral, immediately ordered that
+the opening be closed until the return of the bishop from a pastoral
+visit to the Cibao. The hole was hidden behind a curtain and no
+immediate attention given to it. Towards the end of June Mr. Carlos
+Nouel, a friend of Canon Billini, obtained permission to look in at
+the box and deciphered a rude inscription reading, "El Almirante D.
+Luis Colon, Duque de Veragua, Marques de--" "The Admiral Don Louis
+Columbus, Duke of Veragua, Marquis of--." The last word was missing
+because of a hole in the corroded leaden plate, but was supposed to be
+"Jamaica." At this time the box was broken, because several days
+before in placing a scaffold in the church one of the posts had been
+located over the box and had broken through. The persons who
+afterwards sought to draw out the box pulled to overcome the obstacle
+and tore the weak plates apart entirely.
+
+The bishop returned on August 18, 1877, and being informed of what had
+happened, on September 1 invited the Cabinet officers, the consular
+corps and a number of civil and military authorities and private
+persons to witness the removal of the remains of Louis Columbus. To
+the chagrin of the bishop and canon, it was found that the plate with
+the inscription had been stolen. Probably shamed by ever increasing
+popular indignation, the grave-robber anonymously returned it on
+December 14, 1879, by leaving it in the cathedral door in a package
+addressed to the archbishop. The other plates with the earth and
+pieces of bone were carefully collected.
+
+
+[Illustration: SANCTUARY OF CATHEDRAL IN SEPTEMBER, 1877
+(Scale; 1 centimeter = 1 meter)
+
+1.  Vault containing remains of Christopher Colombus.
+2.  Vault opened by Spaniards in 1795.
+3.  Vault containing remains of Louis Columbus.
+4.  Pedestal of main altar.
+5.  Door leading to vestry.
+6.  Door leading to capitular room.
+7.  Location of containing wall of old altar platform, as it existed
+    in 1540.
+8.  Location of stairs which in 1540 led up to altar platform.
+9.  Tribune of the Gospels.
+10. Tribune of the Epistles.
+11. Steps of altar platform.
+12. Grave of Juan Sanchez Ramirez. Isidore Peralta had also been
+    buried at this spot.]
+
+
+The unexpected finding of the long forgotten remains of the grandson
+of the Admiral recalled the tradition that the Discoverer's body still
+remained in Santo Domingo, and several gentlemen, among them the
+Italian consul, requested the bishop to take advantage of the
+repairing of the church for a thorough investigation of the altar
+platform in order to ascertain whether it contained any other notable
+graves. The bishop gave his consent, and the investigation commenced
+on September 8, under the direction of Canon Billini. Digging was
+begun near the door of the capitular room and in a short time an
+unmarked grave was found containing human remains and military
+insignia. It was proven by witnesses that they were the remains of
+Juan Sanchez Ramirez, Captain-General of Santo Domingo, who died on
+February 12, 1811, and was buried in the same place where had been the
+grave of General Isidore Peralta. A narrow wall was then encountered
+which was afterwards found to be the containing wall of the ancient
+altar platform. On the ninth, a Sunday, the work went on during the
+morning with the permission of the bishop. An excavation was made at
+the place where, according to tradition, the remains taken to Havana
+had lain and soon a small vault was discovered quite empty. It was
+evidently the vault opened by the Spaniards in 1795. The examination
+was continued between this vault and the main altar, but nothing new
+was encountered, whereupon the work was left to be resumed on the
+following day, rather with the hope of finding something of Diego
+Columbus, for the empty vault seemed to show that the remains of
+Christopher Columbus were really removed in 1795.
+
+The excavations continued on September 10, 1877, between the empty
+vault and the wall. A large stone was found, and a piece broken off,
+disclosing another vault containing what appeared to be a square box.
+The bishop and the Italian consul were sent for immediately and upon
+their arrival the orifice was slightly enlarged and a metal box became
+clearly visible. It was covered with the dust of centuries, but an
+inscription was seen, in which abbreviations of the words "First
+Admiral" could faintly be distinguished. The work was stopped at once,
+the doors of the cathedral were locked and all the principal persons
+of the city invited to attend the further investigation of the vault's
+contents. The report of the find rapidly spread through the city,
+though distorted in some quarters, for one of the workmen hearing the
+bishop's joyful exclamation, "Oh, what a treasure!" conceived the idea
+that the box was full of gold pieces and so informed the people that
+gathered outside.
+
+The formal opening of the vault on the afternoon of that day and the
+examination of its contents are minutely described in the notarial
+document drawn up on the occasion:
+
+"In the City of Santo Domingo on the tenth of September of the year
+eighteen hundred and seventy-seven. At four o'clock in the afternoon
+upon invitation of the most illustrious and reverend Doctor Friar
+Roque Cocchia, Bishop of Orope, Vicar and Apostolic Delegate of the
+Holy See in the Republics of Santo Domingo, Venezuela and Haiti,
+assisted by presbyter Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, secretary of the
+bishopric, by the honorary penitentiary canon, presbyter Francisco
+Javier Billini, rector and founder of the College of San Luis Gonzaga
+and of the charity asylum, apostolic missionary and acting curate of
+the holy cathedral, and by presbyter Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate
+of the same, there met in the holy cathedral General Marcos A. Cabral,
+Minister of the Interior and Police; Licentiate Felipe Davila
+Fernandez de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations; Joaquin Montolio,
+Minister of Justice and Public Instruction; General Manuel A. Caceres,
+Minister of Finance and Commerce; and General Valentin Ramirez Baez,
+Minister of War and the Navy; and the citizens General Braulio
+Alvarez, Civil and Military Governor of the Province of the Capital,
+assisted by his secretary Pedro Maria Gautier; the honorable members
+of the illustrious municipal council of this capital, citizen Juan de
+la C. Alfonseca, president, and citizens Felix Baez, Juan Bautista
+Paradas, Pedro Mota, Manuel Maria Cabral and José Maria Bonetti,
+members; General Francisco Ungria Chala, military commandant of this
+city; citizens Felix Mariano Lluveres, president of the legislative
+chamber and Francisco Javier Machado, deputy to the same chamber; the
+members of the consular corps accredited to the Republic, Messrs.
+Miguel Pou, Consul of H.M. the Emperor of Germany, Luis Cambiaso,
+Consul of H.M. the King of Italy, Jose Manuel Echeverri, Consul of H.
+Catholic M. the King of Spain, Aubin Defougerais, Consul of the French
+Republic, Paul Jones, Consul of the United States of North America,
+José Martin Leyba, Consul of H.M. the King of the Netherlands, and
+David Coen, Consul of H.M. the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great
+Britain; the citizens licentiates in medicine and surgery Marcos
+Antonio Gomez and Jose de Jesus Brenes; the civil engineer Jesus Maria
+Castillo, director of the work in this cathedral; the chief sexton of
+the same, Jesus Maria Troncoso, and the undersigned notaries public,
+Pedro Nolasco Polanco, Mariano Montolio and Leonardo Delmonte i
+Aponte, the first also being the acting notary of the curacy and the
+second the titular notary of the municipal council of this capital.
+
+"The most illustrious Bishop, in the presence of the gentlemen above
+designated and of a numerous concourse, declares: that the holy
+cathedral being undergoing repairs under the direction of the reverend
+Canon Francisco Javier Billini, and it having come to his notice that
+according to tradition and notwithstanding what appears from public
+documents with reference to the transfer of the remains of the Admiral
+Christopher Columbus to the city of Havana in the year seventeen
+hundred and ninety-five the said remains might still be in the place
+where they had been deposited and as such place the right side of the
+sanctuary was designated, under the spot occupied by the archbishop's
+chair; with the desire of clearing up the matters which tradition had
+carried to him, he authorized the reverend Canon Billini, upon his
+request, to make the necessary explorations; and as the latter was
+doing so with two workmen on the morning of this day, he discovered at
+a depth of two palms, more or less, the beginning of a vault which
+permitted part of a metal box to be seen; that immediately the said
+Canon Billini ordered the chief sexton, Jesus Maria Troncoso, to go to
+the archiepiscopal palace and inform His Grace of the result of the
+investigations, also informing the Minister of the Interior,
+requesting their presence without loss of time; that immediately His
+Grace proceeded to the holy cathedral where he found Jesus Maria
+Castillo, civil engineer, in charge of the repairs to this temple and
+two workmen who, in company with Canon Billini, guarded the small
+excavation which had been made, and at the same time Luis Cambiaso
+arrived, called by the said Canon Billini; that having personally made
+certain of the existence of the vault as well as that it contained the
+box to which Canon Billini made reference and an inscription being
+discovered on the upper part of what appeared to be the lid, he
+ordered that things be left as they were and that the doors of the
+temple be closed, the keys being confided to the reverend Canon
+Billini; proposing to invite, as he did invite, His Excellency the
+great citizen, President of the Republic, General Buenaventura Baez,
+his Cabinet, the consular corps and the other civil and military
+authorities named in the beginning of this certificate, in order to
+proceed with all due solemnity to the extraction of the box and give
+all required authenticity to the result of the investigation; and
+having advised the authorities, by their order municipal policemen
+were stationed at each one of the closed doors of the temple.
+
+"His Grace, stationed in the sanctuary, near the started excavation
+and surrounded by the authorities above mentioned and a very numerous
+concourse, all the doors of the temple having been opened, had the
+excavation continued, and a slab was removed, permitting the raising
+of the box, which was taken and shown by His Grace and found to be of
+lead. The said box was exhibited to all the authorities convoked, and
+thereupon was carried in procession through the interior of the temple
+and shown to the people.
+
+"The pulpit of the left nave of the temple being occupied by His
+Grace, by the reverend Canon Billini, who carried the box, the
+Minister of the Interior, the president of the municipal council and
+two of the notaries public who sign this document: His Grace opened
+the box and exhibited to the people a part of the remains it encloses;
+he also read the several inscriptions on the box, which prove beyond
+controversy that the remains are really and in fact those of the
+illustrious Genovese, the great Admiral Christopher Columbus,
+Discoverer of America. The truth of the matter being irrefutably
+ascertained, a salute of twenty-one guns, fired by the artillery of
+the fort, a general ringing of bells and strains of music from the
+military band, announced the happy and memorable event to the city.
+
+"Immediately the authorities convoked met in the vestry of the temple
+and proceeded in the presence of the undersigned notaries public, who
+certify thereto, to an examination and expert investigation of the box
+and its contents; the result of the examination being that the said
+box is of lead, has hinges and measures forty-two centimeters in
+length, twenty-one centimeters in depth and twenty and a half in
+width; containing the following inscriptions: on the upper side of the
+lid 'D. de la A, Per. Ate.'--On the left headboard 'C.' On the front
+side 'C'--On the right headboard 'A.' On raising the lid the following
+inscription was found on the inner side of the same carved in German
+Gothic characters: 'Illtre. y Esdo. Varon Dn. Cristobal Colon,' and in
+the said box human remains which on examination by the licentiate of
+equal class Jose de Jesus Brenes are found to be: A femur deteriorated
+in the upper part of the neck, between the great trochanter and its
+head. A fibula in its natural state. A radius also complete. The os
+sacrum in bad condition. The coccyx. Two lumbar vertabrae. One
+cervical and two dorsal vertabrae. Two calcanea. One bone of the
+metacarpus. Another of the metatarsus. A fragment of the frontal or
+coronal bone, containing half of an orbital cavity. A middle third of
+the tibia. Two more fragments of tibia. Two astragoli. One upper
+portion of shoulder-blade. One fragment of the lower jawbone. One half
+of an os humeri, the whole constituting thirteen small and
+twenty-eight large fragments, there being others reduced to dust.
+
+"In addition a leaden ball weighing about an ounce, more or less, was
+found and two small screws belonging to the box.
+
+"The examination mentioned having been terminated, the ecclesiastical
+and civil authorities and the illustrious municipal council resolved
+to close and seal the box with their respective seals and deposit it
+in the sanctuary of the church of Regina Angelorum, under the
+responsibility of the aforesaid penitentiary canon Francisco Javier
+Billini, until otherwise determined; His Grace, the Ministers, the
+consuls and the undersigned notaries immediately proceeding to affix
+their seals; and finally they determined to transfer the box in
+triumph to the said church of Regina Angelorum, accompanied by the
+veteran troops of the capital, batteries of artillery, music, and
+whatever else might give impressiveness and splendor to so solemn an
+act, for which the town was prepared as was noted from the great
+multitude which filled the temple and the cathedral plaza, to which we
+certify, as we do also that the present was signed by the gentlemen
+above named and other distinguished persons.
+
+"Friar Roque Cocchia, of the Order of Capuchins, Bishop of Orope,
+Apostolic Delegate to Santo Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela, Apostolic
+Vicar in Santo Domingo--Friar Bernardino d'Emilia, Capuchin, Secretary
+of His Excellency the Apostolic Delegate and Vicar--Francisco X.
+Billini--Eliseo J'Andoli, assistant curate of the cathedral--Marcos A.
+Cabral, Minister of the Interior and Police--Felipe Davila Fernandez
+de Castro, Minister of Foreign Relations--Joaquin Montolio, Minister
+of Justice and Public Instruction--M. A. Caceres, Minister of Finance
+and Commerce--Valentin Ramirez Baez, Minister of War and the
+Navy--Braulio Alvarez, Governor of the Province--Pedro Ma. Gautier,
+Secretary--Juan de la C. Alfonseca, President of the Municipal
+council--Members, Felix Baez--Juan Bautista Paradas--Manuel Ma. Cabral
+B.--P. Mota--Jose M. Bonetti--Francisco Ungria Chala, Commandant of
+Arms--Felix Mariano Lluveres, President of the Legislative
+Chamber--Francisco Javier Machado, Deputy of the Legislative
+Chamber--The Consul of Spain, Jose Manuel Echeverri--Luigi Cambiaso,
+R. Consul of H. M. the King of Italy--Miguel Pou, Consul of the German
+Empire--Paul Jones, United States Consul--D. Coen, British
+Vice-Consul--J. M. Leyba, Consul of the Netherlands--A. Aubin
+Defougerais, Vice-Consul of France--Jesus Ma. Castillo, Civil
+Engineer--M. A. Gomez, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--J. J.
+Brenes, Licentiate in Medicine and Surgery--The chief sexton, Jesus
+Ma. Troncoso--A. Licairac--M. M. Santamaria--Domingo Rodriguez--Manuel
+de Jesus Garcia--Enrique Peinado--Federico Polanco--Lugardis Olivo--P.
+Mr. Consuegra--Eujenio de Marchena--Valentin Ramirez, Jr.--F.
+Perdomo--Joaquin Ramirez Morales--Amable Damiron--Jaime Ratto--Pedro
+N. Polanco, Notary Public--Leonardo Delmonte I Aponte, Notary
+Public--Mariano Montolio, Notary Public."
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on lid of lead box. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+[Illustration: Inscription on inner side of lid. (2/5 actual size)]
+
+The vault so opened was a little larger than that opened in 1795, and
+separated therefrom by a six-inch wall. The leaden box was of rude
+construction, dented and much oxydized, the plates being a little
+thicker than those of the casket of Louis Columbus. The inscription on
+the outside of the lid "D. de la A. Per, Ate." was taken to mean
+"Descubridor de la América, Primer Almirante"--"Discoverer of America,
+First Admiral." The inscription on the inner side of the lid, without
+contractions, was: "Ilustre y Esclarecido Varon Don Cristobal
+Colon"--"Illustrious and noble man, Christopher Columbus." The letters
+"C C A" were interpreted as signifying "Cristobal Colón,
+Almirante"--"Christopher Columbus, Admiral." On January 3, 1878, a
+more minute examination of the remains was made at the request of the
+Spanish Academy of History and in the dust at the bottom of the box
+was found a small silver plate with two holes by which it had
+evidently been screwed with the two screws found at the first
+examination to some wooden board or receptacle. All vestige of wood
+had disappeared, either through decay or perhaps through destruction
+by insects, for on the walls of the vault are faint traces of ancient
+tracks made by the comejen or wood-eating ant. On one side of the
+plate was engraved in rude letters: "Ua. pte. de los rtos. del pmer.
+Alte. D. Cristoval Colon Des.," which is read as meaning "Ultima parte
+de los restos del primer Almirante, Don Cristoval Colon,
+Descubridor"--"Last part of the remains of the first Admiral, Don
+Christopher Columbus, Discoverer." On the reverse side are the words
+"Cristoval Colon" and several letters which indicate that the
+inscription "Ua. pte." etc., was begun here but was stopped, perhaps
+because there was not sufficient room.
+
+[Illustration: Obverse side of silver plate (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+[Illustration: Reverse side of silver plate. (Enlarged 1/20)]
+
+The small lead ball, similar to a musket-ball, found in the box, has
+been the subject of much comment. It is not known that Columbus was
+ever wounded, though it is true that of many years of his life we
+have little information. Some writers make deductions from an
+equivocal sentence contained in a letter written by him to the rulers
+of Spain on his fourth voyage, in which he refers to his difficulties
+off the coast of Central America and says: "There the wound of my
+trouble opened." Others refer to an obscure sentence of Las Casas, but
+others believe that the ball was dropped in the box by accident,
+either when the box was prepared for the vault or at some time when in
+the course of the centuries the vault may have been casually opened as
+was the adjoining vault in 1783. At what time the remains were
+enclosed in this box and the inscriptions placed on the same it is
+impossible to determine; it may have been in Seville, or in the early
+days in Santo Domingo, or at a later date, perhaps when the epitaphs
+were removed from the vault.
+
+The remainder of the old altar platform was carefully examined but no
+other vaults or remains were discovered. With reference to the bones
+"of a deceased person" transferred in 1795 a logical conclusion can be
+reached: Christopher Columbus, his son Diego, and his grandson Louis
+were all buried in the Santo Domingo cathedral; the caskets, with
+inscriptions, of the first and third were found in 1877 and there are
+no other vaults under the old altar platform; therefore the remains
+taken away in 1795 with pieces of a casket without inscription, or the
+inscription of which had become illegible, were most probably those of
+Diego Columbus.
+
+Santo Domingo went wild with joy over the discovery. It was determined
+to erect a suitable monument for the remains with funds raised by
+private subscription and by a half per cent, surtax on imports. A
+beautiful marble memorial costing $40,000, guarded by bronze lions and
+adorned with bronze relief work depicting scenes from the life of
+Columbus, was designed by two Spanish sculptors. The first intention
+was to place the same in a mausoleum specially built for the purpose,
+but it was finally erected in the nave of the cathedral near the main
+door. A richly ornamented bronze box placed in the monument contains
+the leaden casket and the remains. Once a year on the anniversary of
+the find, the box is opened and the public permitted to gaze on
+its contents.
+
+The Spanish authorities would never admit the authenticity of the
+remains found in 1877, and the Spanish consul in Santo Domingo was
+bitterly criticized for affixing his signature to the notarial
+document relating the discovery. The Spaniards continue to claim that
+the true remains of the Discoverer are those which were transferred to
+Havana. Upon the evacuation of Cuba by Spain in 1898 these remains
+were solemnly removed and taken to Spain, where they now rest in the
+cathedral of Seville. Many investigations have been made from
+different sources and the majority of investigators report in favor of
+the Dominican contention, especially when they have personally visited
+Santo Domingo. The Spanish writers present no proof that the remains
+taken to Havana in 1795 were those of Christopher Columbus, but limit
+themselves to attacking the find of 1877. The insinuations and
+accusations, without corroborating facts, prove nothing but the temper
+of their authors. All criticisms have been refuted by showing that
+even supposing the box to date from the year 1540, other and
+indubitable inscriptions of that year have the same style of letters,
+abbreviations, spelling and words as those criticized. Further the
+appearance of the box and vault of 1877, the circumstances attending
+their discovery, and the irreproachable character of the Apostolic
+Delegate, of Canon Billini and of others connected with that event
+preclude all suspicion of fraud.
+
+On the whole, the weight of evidence is strongly in favor of the
+Dominican contention. It seems that, in spite of the acts of men, fate
+has permitted the remains of the Discoverer of America to repose in
+the principal cathedral of the island he loved.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+GOVERNMENT
+
+
+Form of government.--Constitutions.--Presidents.--Election.--Powers.
+--Executive secretaries.--Land and sea forces.--Congress.--Local
+subdivisions.--Provincial governors.--Communal governments.
+
+
+From the date of the declaration of independence, February 27, 1844,
+down to the present time, with the exception only of a portion of the
+period of Spanish occupation of 1861 to 1865, Santo Domingo has
+remained in form at least, a republic. Herein it contrasts with its
+neighbor Haiti, which has experienced several monarchies. Thus
+Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor in 1804, Christophe assumed the
+title of king in 1810 and Soulouque had himself declared emperor in
+1849; and the latter two instituted pompous black nobilities. And
+though the Cibao of Santo Domingo and the region south of the Central
+Cordillera have ever been rivals and often in arms against each other
+under competing generals, there has never been any tendency to
+separate and form two states--as occurred in Haiti in 1806 when the
+northern portion fell under the sway of Christophe for a period of
+fourteen years, first as a nominal republic and later as a kingdom,
+while the southern portion became a republic under Petion and finally
+under Boyer.
+
+But although the country has in form remained a republic and the title
+of the chief of state has never been more pretentious than president
+or protector, in fact there have been few years when the government
+was not autocratic and the president an absolute monarch whose powers
+were limited only by his own generous impulses or the fear of
+alienating his more influential supporters. Dominican writers have
+even referred to the constitution as a conventional lie.
+
+The various Dominican presidents, as soon as securely in power, have
+generally been careful to follow constitutional forms, in an effort to
+deceive their followers and themselves into the belief that they were
+acting in regular course as servants of the people. The successful
+revolutionist was almost, always in haste to "legalize" his position
+by an election. Most of the presidents, among them Heureaux, have been
+great sticklers for form. Instead of moulding their wishes to conform
+to the constitution, however, they would mould the constitution to
+conform to their wishes, and repeatedly the first act of the
+successful revolutionist has been to promulgate a new constitution in
+accordance with his ideas. It has thus come to pass that the
+constitution, far from being revered as the immutable foundation of
+government, has rather been regarded as the convenient means for the
+president in office to exercise power. From 1844 to the present time
+nineteen constitutions have been promulgated in Santo Domingo, one in
+the year 1844, one each in 1858, 1859 and 1865, two in 1866 and one
+each in 1868, 1874, 1875, 1877, 1878, 1879, 1880, 1887, 1896, 1907
+and 1908.
+
+This extraordinary number is due in part to the practice of not
+enacting amendments to an existing constitution, but of promulgating
+the amended instrument as a new constitution. On three of the
+occasions here indicated a constitution was abrogated in order to
+revive a prior one. No account is taken in the above computation of
+the instances where a successful revolutionist in order to announce
+his adherence to the then existing constitution promulgated the same
+anew. Thus the constitution of 1896 was reestablished in 1903.
+
+The Dominican constitutions have all been modeled on the general lines
+of that of the United States, and have differed from each other only
+in detail. The term of office of the president has varied from one to
+six years and the powers conferred upon him have been more or less
+ample. The constitution of 1854, revived in 1859, 1866 and 1868,
+practically invested him with dictatorial powers, and the only
+legislative assembly it provided for was an "Advisory Senate" of
+nine members.
+
+The present constitution was drafted by a constitutional assembly
+which sat in Santiago de los Caballeros in the early part of 1908. It
+is disappointing both as a literary and political document. The style
+bears witness to the haste with which the instrument was compiled.
+Provisions quite unsuitable to Dominican conditions are included, such
+as that granting the right to vote to all male citizens over eighteen
+years of age. Such an extension of the suffrage would be looked upon
+askance even in countries where education is general, and in Santo
+Domingo would constitute a serious danger if really put into effect.
+While the presidential succession is left to be regulated by a law of
+Congress, the constitution goes into minute details regarding
+citizenship, naturalization and several other matters. Repeated
+attempts have been made to secure a new constitution and in 1914
+partial elections were held for a constitutional convention, but for
+one reason or another the plan has not matured. A new constitution
+will probably be provided in connection with the cessation of American
+occupation.
+
+According to the present constitution the president must be a native
+born Dominican, at least thirty-five years of age and with a
+residence of at least twenty years in the Republic. His term of office
+is fixed at six years, to be counted from the day of inauguration. The
+fact that no specific date is mentioned has repeatedly proved a matter
+of convenience to successful revolutionists. The designation of a
+presidential term of office in the various constitutions has thus far
+been something of an irony, for of the 43 executives who have come to
+the fore in the 70 years of national life, but three presidents have
+completed terms of office for which they were elected: Baez one term,
+Merino one and Heureaux four, nor was the distinction of these three
+due to ought but their success in suppressing revolutionary movements.
+Five vice-presidents completed presidential terms. Two presidents were
+killed and twenty deposed. The other chief magistrates resigned more
+or less voluntarily.
+
+Of the 43 presidents 15 were chosen by popular election according to
+constitutional forms, 5 were vice-presidents who succeeded to the
+presidency, 4 were provisional presidents elected by Congress, 10
+began as military presidents and then had themselves elected under
+constitutional forms, and 9 were purely and simply military
+provisional presidents.
+
+A comparison of the list of presidents with the roster of executives
+of Haiti reveals a disproportion, for though the black Republic has
+been in existence since 1804, it has had but twenty-nine chiefs of
+state, the average duration of whose rule was therefore much longer
+than has been the case in Santo Domingo. It is to be observed,
+however, that of the Haitian executives only one completed his term of
+office and voluntarily retired; of the others, four remained in power
+until their death from natural causes, eighteen were deposed by
+revolutions, one of them, committing suicide, another being executed
+on the steps of his burning palace, and still another being cut to
+pieces by the mob; five were assassinated; and one is chief magistrate
+at the present time.
+
+The president and members of the Senate and House of Deputies are
+elected by indirect vote. Electors whose number and apportionment
+among the several provinces and their subdivisions are prescribed by
+law, are chosen by general suffrage in what are called primary
+assemblies in the several municipalities and constitute electoral
+colleges which meet at the chief town of the respective province. The
+electors having cast their votes for president the minutes of the
+session are sent to the capital. The votes are counted in joint
+session of Congress and the successful candidate is proclaimed by
+that body.
+
+Though the election procedure designated in the constitution was
+gravely followed, yet not once in the history of the country has the
+result of an election been in doubt, nor is there an instance when the
+candidate of the government was not elected, excepting only the
+election of October, 1914, when the American government brought
+watchers from Porto Rico to avoid gross frauds and coercion. Usually
+everything was prepared beforehand and the primaries and the meetings
+of the electoral colleges were little more than ratification meetings.
+The votes of the electoral colleges were generally unanimous in favor
+of the government's candidate, yet the odd spectacle has repeatedly
+presented itself, of a unanimously elected president being driven out
+of the country within a few months by a general revolution.
+
+The constitution authorizes the president to conclude treaties with
+the consent of Congress, to appoint certain government officials, to
+receive foreign diplomatic representatives, and to grant pardons in
+certain cases, and makes him commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
+Most of the chief magistrates have not felt themselves hampered,
+however, whether in peace or war, by any enumeration of powers in the
+constitution, for their ascendancy has generally been such that their
+wishes would be complied with and their illegal acts ratified or
+ignored by a subservient Congress. President Heureaux so controlled
+Congress, the courts, and all public functionaries, that the
+government was practically identical with his personality.
+
+The constitution provides that in case of the death, resignation or
+disability of the president the Congress shall by law designate the
+person who is to act as president until the disability ceases or a new
+president is elected, and that if Congress is not sitting the Cabinet
+officers are immediately to call a session. This is an innovation, as
+from 1853 to 1907 the Dominican constitutions provided for a
+vice-president. The vice-president was generally a decorative feature.
+He was required to possess the same qualifications as the president
+and was chosen with the same formalities, but no duties were assigned
+to him, not even that of presiding in Congress, so that his only
+attribute was the glory of being a president in escrow. The newly
+elected vice-president therefore often quietly retired to his farm,
+emerging occasionally to act in the president's stead when the latter
+left the capital on a trip through the country. Frequently the
+vice-president was made delegate of the government in some part of the
+country and at times he was invested with a portfolio as one of the
+cabinet secretaries. During the administration of a strong president,
+as in the time of Heureaux, the vice-president was generally one of
+his satellites, whereas, when the president's power was not so firmly
+established, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales, one of
+his rivals would be mollified by the vice-presidency. In such cases
+friction frequently developed, and in the two cases specified the
+vice-presidents and presidential rivals, Vasquez and Caceres,
+overthrew the president and established themselves in power. Evidently
+in order to avoid such disturbances and temptations the constitution
+of 1908 abolished the office of vice-president. The lack of a definite
+successor to the president, however, enabled Victoria to seize the
+presidency after the death of Caceres in 1911 and has given rise to
+uncertainty and trouble in the cases of presidential succession since
+that time.
+
+It has been a custom, sometimes expressly authorized by the
+constitution, for the president to delegate executive powers and
+prerogatives to persons selected by him in various parts of the
+country, especially where revolutionary uprisings threatened. There
+has usually been such a delegate of the government in the Cibao and
+often one in Azua. They are powerful officials, inasmuch as they are
+regarded as the direct representatives of the president and his
+administration, command the local military forces, and constitute the
+fountain-head of all local executive appointments. Nominations as
+delegates of the government have been preferably conferred upon
+provincial governors or upon the vice-president. The president is
+naturally anxious to repose such powers in one of his confidants, but
+political exigencies have sometimes obliged him to soothe one of his
+rivals with the distinction and remain on the qui vive thereafter.
+More than one governmental delegate has overthrown the president and
+established himself in power.
+
+Provisional presidents have been numerous in Dominican history. After
+a successful revolution the victorious general usually proclaimed
+himself president of a provisional government and until the
+constitution was again declared in force he and his ministers united
+executive and legislative power. How far the acts of such de facto
+governments were legally binding upon the Republic has been questioned
+in cases where obligations were imposed upon the country, but foreign
+governments in asserting their rights have paid little attention to
+such quibbles.
+
+The constitution provides that there shall be such executive
+secretaries as may be determined by law. They are currently referred
+to as ministers and their number has been fixed at seven, namely, (1)
+secretary of the interior and police (interior y policia); (2)
+secretary of foreign relations (relaciones exteriores); (3) secretary
+of finance and commerce (hacienda y comercio); (4) secretary of war
+and the navy (guerra y marina); (5) secretary of justice and public
+instruction (justicia e instrucción pública); (6) secretary of
+agriculture and immigration (agricultura e inmigración); (7) secretary
+of public development and communications (fomento y comunicaciones).
+Communication between Congress and the executive departments is
+rendered easier than in the United States by the constitutional
+provision that the secretaries of state are obliged to attend the
+Congressional sessions when called by Congress. This right of
+interpellation has frequently been exercised.
+
+The secretary of the interior and police is at the head of an
+important department. He is the administrative superior of the
+provincial governors and the communal and cantonal chiefs. His
+position renders him the sentinel of the government for the detection
+of revolutionary movements.
+
+The foreign office of the Republic is directed by the secretary of
+foreign affairs. The diplomatic service of Santo Domingo is limited
+to the modest needs of the country, the more important posts being
+those of minister plenipotentiary in the United States, Haiti and
+France and chargé d'affaires in Cuba and Venezuela. The majority of
+consuls depend altogether upon consular fees for their remuneration,
+only a few of the more important being provided for in the budget. The
+consulates of most consequence have been considered to be those in the
+surrounding West India Islands and in New York City, for apart from
+their commercial relations with the Republic these places have been
+the favorite haunts of conspiring political exiles. Almost all the
+European countries are represented in the Dominican Republic either by
+ministers, chargés d'affaires or consuls. Of the diplomatic
+representatives residing in Santo Domingo City the highest in rank is
+the American minister. Before 1904 the American minister to Haiti was
+accredited to the Dominican Republic as chargé d'affaires. The United
+States has consular representatives at all the principal ports, there
+being an American consul at Puerto Plata and consular agents
+elsewhere. In the past, great respect has been shown to consulates
+even to the extent of allowing them privileges of extra-territoriality,
+and frequently political refugees have sought asylum under the flag of
+a mere consular agent.
+
+The secretary of finance and commerce has charge of the sources of
+national income, and the customs and internal revenue services, and
+under his authority the disbursements of the Republic are audited. The
+office for the compilation of statistics, organized a few years ago,
+is also in this department.
+
+The army, rural police, navy and the captaincies of the port are under
+the supervision of the secretary of war and the navy. This official is
+always a military man and generally takes the field in person in
+cases of revolutionary uprisings. During the insurrection of Jimenez
+against Morales in 1903-4, two of Morales' ministers of war were
+killed in battle.
+
+Upon the American occupation in 1916 the military force of the
+Republic was disbanded. There were at that time twelve military posts,
+one in the capital of each province. The commanders and their aides
+and the chiefs of forts and their assistants were treated as distinct
+from the regular army. The army's strength and organization have
+varied greatly; at the time of its dissolution the authorized strength
+was one infantry regiment of about 470 officers and men, and a band of
+33 men. Only a few months before, the preceding budget had authorized
+an infantry force of about 800 officers and men and a battery of
+mountain artillery of 100 officers and men, in addition to the
+all-important band. In reality, however, only the membership of the
+band was certain; in time of war the rest of the military
+establishment was much larger, and in time of peace it comprised
+numerous phantom soldiers, whose salaries were nevertheless regularly
+collected from the national treasury. Service was supposed to be
+voluntary, but the "volunteers" were generally picked out by communal
+chiefs and brought in under guard, sometimes tied with ropes to keep
+them from deserting.
+
+There was also an inefficient and overbearing rural police called the
+"Guardia Republicana," supposed to consist of seven companies of about
+800 officers and men, but here too things were not what they seemed.
+The higher officers of the Republican Guard were a brigadier-general,
+a colonel, a lieutenant-colonel and 2 majors; those of the army only a
+colonel, 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors, which was very modest for
+a country teeming with generals and where the budget of 1909 even
+appropriated $20,000 for a "corps of generals at the orders of the
+president."
+
+The American garrison in the Republic, comprising about 1000 men, took
+over the military posts in the Republic and lent strength to the
+Guardia Republicana. By an order of the military governor, of April 7,
+1917, the sum of $500,000 was set aside for the organization of a
+constabulary force to be called the "Guardia Nacional Dominicana," to
+take the place of the Dominican army, navy and police. This Dominican
+National Guard is to be commanded by a citizen of the United States
+and such other officers as the American government may consider
+necessary. Its organization is far advanced and it has already
+absorbed the Guardia Republicana. In it will be merged the frontier
+guard of about 70 men depending on the general receiver's office, and
+probably also the small municipal police squads that compel the
+observance of municipal ordinances.
+
+The Dominican navy is now composed of a single gunboat, the
+"Independencia." At the end of Heureaux's rule the country boasted
+three. The best of these was the "Restauración," which went on the
+rocks at the entrance to Macoris harbor in one of the first conflicts
+between the Jimenistas and Horacistas. The story goes that the steamer
+was about to attack Macoris, that the pilot, in sympathy with the
+opposition, grounded her with a view to having her captured, but that
+a sudden storm drove her to complete destruction. Another gunboat was
+the "Presidente," which had figured in history, for it was nothing
+less than the yacht "Deerhound," on which the Confederate Admiral
+Semmes took refuge after the sinking of the "Alabama" by the
+"Kearsarge." In 1906 it was sent to Newport News for overhauling as
+old age had made it unseaworthy, but since the repairs would have cost
+more than the vessel was worth, it was sold for old iron. The
+survivor, the "Independencia" is a trim vessel with a crew of fifty
+officers and men. Attached to the general receiver's office are
+several gasoline revenue cutters, recently provided.
+
+The secretary of justice and public instruction has administrative
+supervision over the courts, jails and schools of the Republic, and
+the government subventions to primary and private schools are
+disbursed under his direction.
+
+The secretary of agriculture and immigration is the cabinet officer of
+most recent creation. Prior to the 1908 constitution agriculture had
+been in charge of the department of public development and there had
+been no special provision for immigration. The importance of these
+subjects for the Republic was felt to be such as to merit the
+establishment of a special department. In practice the department has
+done nothing, its efforts being hampered by revolutions and
+circumscribed by the limited sums at its disposal. Its activities have
+been confined to a general supervision of agriculture, the preparatory
+work of the establishment of an agricultural experiment station and
+the operation of a small meteorological service.
+
+The department of public development and communications has charge of
+the postal service of the Republic, of the national telegraph and
+telephone, of the lighthouses, and of the public works carried on by
+the government.
+
+The size of the national legislature of Santo Domingo has fluctuated
+considerably. Under the 1896 constitution the Congress consisted of a
+single house of twenty-four members, two from each of the then
+existing six provinces and six districts. The increase of the
+national income permitting greater expenditures, the constitution of
+1908 provided for two houses, one called the Senate, the other the
+Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of twelve members, one
+from each province, elected by the same electoral colleges that elect
+the president and holding office for six years. One-third of the
+Senate is renewed every two years. The number of members of the
+Chamber of Deputies is supposed to be in proportion to the number of
+inhabitants of the various provinces, but as there has been no census
+the number is provisionally fixed at twenty-four, two from each
+province. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a
+term of four years, also by the electoral colleges, which at the same
+time designate alternates for the several members.
+
+Congress meets each year in regular session on the anniversary of
+Dominican independence, February 27, and its session is limited to
+ninety days, which may, however, be extended sixty days more. Since
+there are no provincial legislatures the powers of the Congress, set
+forth in the Constitution, are sweeping. They include the right to
+legislate in general for every part of the Republic, to approve or
+reject treaties and to try the president, cabinet members and supreme
+court judges on impeachment charges.
+
+In practice the elections for deputies have been as perfunctory as
+those for president, though there were occasional contests. The
+character and attitude of Congress has varied with the character and
+condition of the presidents. During the incumbency of strong leaders,
+such as Santana, Baez and Heureaux, the Congress was little more than
+the tool of the executive, but when the personality of the president
+was not so overwhelming or when many of the deputies were followers of
+a rival chieftain, as in the administrations of Jimenez and Morales,
+an independent and sometimes a nagging spirit has been manifested.
+
+Under the American occupation the Congress was by decree of January 2,
+1917, declared in abeyance and all executive and legislative powers
+are temporarily exercised by the commander of the American forces. The
+heads of executive departments are officers of the American navy or
+marine corps. Otherwise the general structure of the government
+remains as before. The theory that Santo Domingo is an independent,
+sovereign country is carefully followed, though at times it leads to
+anomalous situations, as when the American military governor issues
+exequaturs to American consuls in Santo Domingo "by virtue of the
+powers vested in me by the Constitution of the Dominican Republic," or
+when the American minister, Hon. W. W. Russell, representing the
+United States and receiving his instructions from the United States
+State Department, calls on Admiral H. S. Knapp, chief executive of
+Santo Domingo, who takes his orders from the United States Navy
+Department.
+
+For administrative purposes the Republic is divided into twelve
+provinces; Azua, Barahona, Espaillat, La Vega, Macoris, Monte Cristi,
+Pacificador, Puerto Plata, Samana, Santiago, Santo Domingo and Seibo.
+Formerly six were known as provinces and six as maritime districts,
+though there was in practice no distinction between them. The
+provinces are subdivided into communes and cantons--a canton being a
+commune in embryo--and these in turn are subdivided into sections.
+Congress is empowered to create new provinces, communes and cantons.
+
+In the twelve provinces there are now sixty-five communes, several
+comprising cantons. The provinces bear the names of their capital
+towns, except Espaillat and Pacificador, the former of which is
+called after Ulises F. Espaillat who took a prominent part in the War
+of Restoration and was president in 1876, and the latter in honor of
+President Heureaux, on whom a fawning Congress conferred the title of
+Pacificador de la Patria, but these also are sometimes known by the
+names of their capitals, Moca and San Francisco de Macoris. The
+communes bear the names of their urban centers. Towns with long names
+are usually referred to by part of the name only, thus Santa Cruz del
+Seibo is known simply as El Seibo, Santa Barbara de Samaná either as
+Santa Barbara or as Samana, etc.
+
+At the head of each province is an official who bears the title of
+governor. He acts as the direct agent of the president and is chief of
+the government police and commander of the military forces of the
+district. In civil matter he is dependent upon the department of the
+interior and police, in military affairs he is under the department of
+war and the navy. The governors are appointed by the president of the
+Republic and their salaries are paid from the national treasury. Under
+the present American occupation the various provinces still have their
+governors, but the real governors are the American officers locally in
+command of the occupation forces.
+
+In each commune and canton there is a communal or cantonal chief who
+represents the governor of the province. He is paid by the national
+government and is charged with the preservation of the peace in his
+jurisdiction. Again in each section there is a sectional chief, a
+local police officer who depends on the communal chief.
+
+The system of local chieftains of gradually diminishing category has
+brought Santo Domingo to resemble in some administrations a feudal
+monarchy rather than a constitutional republic. As governor the
+president usually chose prominent men of the locality, either friends
+whom he wished to reward or opponents or rivals whom he was obliged to
+placate. The communal chiefs were also appointed by the president,
+though the governor's wishes were respected to a large extent, and
+here too men of influence were selected, such influence usually being
+reckoned by the possession of a devoted following. The section chiefs
+were chosen under similar considerations.
+
+Though the law prescribes the duties of the governors, their local
+prestige, their authority as commanders of the military, and their
+activities in revolutionary times, have so exalted their position as
+to convert them into something like satraps and make them powerful
+supporters or dangerous rivals of the president. Many insurrections
+have been inaugurated by disaffected governors. At times provinces
+have remained practically independent for many months, ruled merely by
+the governor and a coterie of his friends, while the president, in the
+impossibility of imposing his authority, was obliged to acquiesce. A
+conspicuous example of such a peculiar state of affairs was furnished
+by the district of Monte Cristi, during the presidency of Morales. In
+December, 1903, the formidable insurrection of Jimenez against
+Provisional President Morales originated in Monte Cristi and though
+the government gradually regained the remainder of the country it was
+unable to subjugate this district, where the entire population was
+Jimenista and the character of the country rendered campaigning very
+difficult. Finally in the spring of 1904 a formal treaty was signed by
+which the insurgents agreed to lay down their arms upon the
+government's promise not to interfere in their district, where all
+executive appointments were thereafter to be made as recommended by
+the local authorities. Though constitutional forms were still
+observed a few military chiefs thus assumed the direction of affairs.
+Whenever any executive appointment was to be made, the name of the
+nominee was certified to the capital to be ratified as a matter of
+course; when orders came from Santo Domingo City, whether in civil or
+military affairs, they were obeyed or ignored as convenience dictated;
+the entire amount of the revenues collected in the Monte Cristi
+custom-house was retained in the district. In order to stimulate
+imports and increase the customs collections the local authorities
+even conceded a secret discount from the general tariff. With the
+enforcement of the San Domingo Improvement Company's arbitral award
+and the inauguration of the receivership for Santo Domingo the control
+of the custom-house passed out of the hands of the local chieftains,
+who sullenly protested as against an invasion of their treaty rights.
+In other matters the autonomy of the district remained unimpaired
+until the beginning of 1906 when upon the fall of Morales the
+government troops, in suppressing the revolution in the north, overran
+Monte Cristi province and restored its dependency upon the central
+government.
+
+The healthiest and most important political subdivisions in Santo
+Domingo are the communal governments, and whatever progress has been
+made in the Republic has been due largely to their initiative. They
+correspond to the Spanish "municipios" and the French "communes." In
+Santo Domingo the French name was introduced during Haitian
+occupation. The various towns constitute the centers of government,
+their jurisdiction extends over the surrounding rural districts, and
+the affairs of the whole are administered by a municipal council. The
+powers of such councils are manifold and far-reaching and their
+importance has been accentuated by the chronic impotency of the
+central government to foster public improvements. The councils
+exercise all the faculties commonly pertaining to city councils
+elsewhere and have control of education, sanitation, streets and roads
+in their respective districts. They also act as election boards.
+
+When an outlying hamlet of the rural belt has grown to sufficient size
+it is erected into a municipal district or canton and accorded a
+justice of the peace and a cantonal chief and governing board. It
+remains subject, however, to the municipal council of the commune of
+which it formed a part until further development warrants its
+segregation as an independent commune with its own council. The
+cantons, as well as some of the sections, are also provided with a
+cemetery and a small church or chapel.
+
+From among their number the municipal councilmen select a president
+who is regarded as mayor of the commune, though many of the duties
+elsewhere pertaining to mayors are discharged by an official called
+the syndic. The councilmen are supposed to be elected for a term of
+two years, but the oft repeated revolutions have interfered as
+seriously with their terms of office as with everything else. The
+average Dominican seems to manifest little interest in his municipal
+elections; my question as to when the last local election was held
+would generally be answered with uncertainty: "Last January, no, last
+April, no, I believe it was in November." After all, the elections
+have usually been mere ratifications of slates prepared beforehand. In
+the time of Heureaux the lists of new councilmen were often arranged
+in the capital and a few days before election remitted to the various
+towns, even with a designation of the person whom the council was
+later to choose as its president.
+
+The results of such a method of selection of councilmen has not been
+as unfavorable as might be expected. The position of councilman pays
+no salary and is not of sufficient importance to appeal to the
+politician, so that under the present system the principal merchants
+and other prominent men are frequently designated. The law does not
+prohibit foreigners from forming part of the municipal councils and
+they have frequently been chosen, especially in Puerto Plata.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+POLITICS AND REVOLUTIONS
+
+
+Political parties.--Elections.--Relation between politics and
+revolutions.--Conduct of revolutions.--Casualties.--Number of
+revolutions.--Effect of revolutions.
+
+
+The characteristic features of Dominican politics are the violence of
+political antagonism and the absence of differences of principle
+between the political parties. None of the three parties existing
+to-day has a platform, and the distinction between them is entirely a
+matter of the personality of the leaders. Each party alleges that it
+has the best people and the purest motives and views with alarm the
+government of the country by any other party. In practice therefore,
+politics follows the rule only too common in the Spanish-American
+countries, of resolving itself into a personal struggle between the
+"ins" and the "outs."
+
+In the early days of the Republic different policies were occasionally
+seriously considered. It was then held by some that independence
+should be preserved at any cost while others contended that in view of
+the constant, civil wars the country should seek peace and progress
+under the protection of some foreign power. Although the
+annexationists were at first called conservatives and their opponents
+liberals, these divergent views were not the exclusive property of any
+designated group of men, but the annexation idea was generally
+espoused by the party that happened to be in power, which thus hoped
+both to save the country and perpetuate its own rule, while
+independence was invariably supported by the opposition, which
+bristled with patriotic indignation and the fear that it might be
+permanently excluded from the banquet-table. Thus Santana obtained a
+return to Spanish rule in 1861 and Cabral a few years later agitated
+the question of American annexation and their action was denounced by
+Baez; yet shortly after Baez almost succeeded in securing annexation
+to the United States and was stigmatized as a traitor by Cabral.
+
+Another issue which existed for a few years after the separation from
+Haiti in 1844 was the division between clericals on the one hand and
+liberals on the other, a party division that has created havoc in
+other parts of Spanish America. The very indefinite claims on each
+side and the practical unanimity of the country in its attitude
+towards the church caused this issue to disappear.
+
+The real parties that kept see-sawing in and out of power from the
+early days of the Republic down to the time of Heureaux were those
+founded by General Pedro Santana and General Buenaventura Baez.
+Intimate friends in the struggles with Haiti which followed Santo
+Domingo's declaration of independence, their ambitious and domineering
+natures soon clashed, and each collected a group of friends and
+incessantly conspired against the other. The partisans of Baez, or
+Baecistas, adopted red for the color of the cockades and ribbons which
+distinguished them in the civil wars, and came to be known as the
+"Reds," while the followers of Santana, or Santanistas, adopted blue
+and were known as the "Blues."
+
+On the death of Santana in 1863, Luperon and Cabral became the leaders
+of the Blue party, and for several years after the expulsion of the
+Spaniards in 1865 the Reds and Blues took turns in setting up
+governments and having them overthrown. In 1873 General Ignacio Maria
+Gonzalez, a former adherent of Baez, assembled a following from both
+factions and formed a Green party with which he ousted the Reds who
+were then in power. In the next six years the Reds and Greens
+alternated in control, but in 1879 the Greens were driven out and
+definitely scattered by the Blues, who thereby gained a foothold which
+they did not lose for years. The death of Baez in 1884 threw the Reds
+into confusion and their constant persecution by the "blue" President
+Ulises Heureaux effectually crushed them. Ulises Heureaux with Blues,
+Reds and Greens built up his own party of "Lilicistas" which remained
+in power until his death in 1899. In the later years of Heureaux's
+rule the distinguishing color used by his troops was white.
+
+On the death of Heureaux, Juan Isidro Jimenez, as president, and
+Horacio Vasquez, as vice-president, came into power. The rivalry
+between Jimenez and Vasquez caused a division between their respective
+followers, who called themselves Jimenistas and Horacistas, thus
+forming the principal parties which continue to the present time. The
+old Reds and Blues had disappeared and their survivors aligned
+themselves with Jimenez and Vasquez indiscriminately; members of the
+Baez family joined old Blues to follow Jimenez, while other old Reds
+and Blues as well as the Lilicistas seemed to prefer Vasquez. In 1901
+an attempt was made to form a party known as the Republican Party,
+which it was intended to endow with a platform, but being composed
+largely of Jimenez' friends, it was viewed with suspicion and
+fell with him.
+
+In 1902 the Horacistas revolted and obtained the government, only to
+be overthrown in 1903 by followers of Jimenez. The new administration
+proving odious to both parties they combined to drive it out in the
+fall of 1903. The Horacistas gained the upper hand in the succeeding
+government and remained in power until 1912, though a serious division
+developed in the party, to the extent that the nominal leader, Horacio
+Vasquez, himself joined in conspiracies and uprisings against the
+administration. His efforts, combined with those of the Jimenistas,
+led to the choice of Archbishop Nouel as compromise candidate for
+president in 1912. Monsignor Nouel unsuccessfully attempted to govern
+with both parties and on his resignation in 1913 another Horacista
+became president. Again there was opposition from Horacistas as well
+as Jimenistas and in 1914 a Jimenista became provisional president.
+
+At about this time a small third party appeared, led by Federico
+Velazquez, a former Horacista. His followers are known as
+Velazquistas, though the party has adopted the official name of
+Progresista. In the elections of 1914 he joined forces with Jimenez,
+who thus secured the presidency. The government, or what remains of it
+under the present military occupation, is still constituted largely by
+followers of Jimenez and Velazquez.
+
+Though both Jimenistas and Horacistas claim to have the larger
+following in the country in general, it is probable that they are
+about equally matched, the Velazquistas holding the balance of power.
+
+The Jimenistas are often vulgarly called "bolos" or bob-tailed cocks,
+and the Horacistas "rabudos" or "coludos," meaning bushy-tailed or
+long-tailed cocks. In the fighting on the Monte Cristi plains the
+Jimenistas would often attack, but retire as soon as their opponents
+showed fight, and as such tactics reminded the Dominicans of the
+habits of bob-tailed fighting cocks, the nicknames were imposed.
+
+The men who attain prominence in politics range all the way from rude
+ignorant military chiefs to polished members of the aristocracy. In
+looking over the annals of Dominican history the same family names
+constantly recur and it may be affirmed that the government of the
+country has during the time of independence been in the hands of some
+twenty families, the members of which have swayed its councils and led
+its revolutions. They have tasted the sweets of power but also the
+bitterness of defeat, alternately occupying high positions in the
+government and pining in prison or exile. Almost all the chiefs of
+state since 1899 would have done honor to any country, but all have
+been obliged by the exigencies of politics to give places in their
+entourage to men of low standing, whose deeds or misdeeds when in
+power and whose unbridled ambition, have been a factor in the civil
+wars. At the present moment perhaps the most prominent political
+figure is Federico Velazquez, a man of unusual force of character, who
+as minister of finance under Caceres, enforced the settlement of the
+Dominican debt and gave what was probably the most honest
+administration of public revenues in the Republic's history. He is one
+of the few men having the moral courage openly to advocate American
+cooperation in the government of the country. He is about forty-seven
+years old, was born in Tamboril, near Santiago, and advanced through
+the stages of schoolmaster, shopkeeper, secretary to Vasquez and
+Caceres, and cabinet minister, to the position of a political leader.
+
+The ill-feeling akin to hatred between many members of the political
+parties is incredible to one not accustomed to Latin-American
+politics. They will have nothing in common, neither will acknowledge
+the existence of any good in the other, they endeavor to keep apart in
+the clubs, they do not care to buy in each other's stores. Even the
+women enter into this bitterness and engagements have been broken
+because the bridegroom was discovered to favor one party while the
+bride or her family sympathized with the other.
+
+The parties are not unalterably composed of the same individuals. On
+the contrary a great number of the leaders and of the rank and file
+are continually drifting from one party to another, evincing
+particular anxiety to "get on the band-wagon." These changelings,
+while they belong to any one party, affect to be its most ardent
+supporters in order to avert any suspicion of insincerity. Much of the
+disorder which has sapped the life-blood of the Republic has been due
+to disappointed office-seekers who suddenly veered about and joined
+the opposing party.
+
+Not only to personal ambitions and corruption of the persons in power,
+but also to the perfunctory mode in which elections have been
+conducted the many revolutions are to be ascribed. The municipal
+councils in the communes and the justices of the peace and two
+residents in the cantons form the election board before which the
+voters of the respective commune or canton are supposed to appear to
+deposit their votes. It is evident that if anything more than a small
+proportion of the qualified voters appeared, such election boards
+would be swamped, yet no difficulty has ever been registered. The
+election of the presidential candidate supported by the government was
+generally so certain that all other aspirants realized the futility of
+launching their candidacy, and their followers either voted for the
+official candidate or refrained from voting. In this connection I am
+reminded of the convincing political speeches attributed to one of
+the foremost men of La Vega during the farcical campaigns preceding
+the elections of Heureaux. He is quoted as saying: "My friends, this
+Republic is founded on the free and unrestricted suffrage of its
+citizens. It is the proud boast of the Dominican that under the
+constitution he may vote as he pleases. You are therefore free to cast
+your vote for whomsoever you prefer. I would not be your friend,
+however, if I did not advise you that whoever does not vote for
+Heureaux might as well leave the country." In elections for municipal
+councilmen and members of Congress there was occasionally an exception
+to the rule of having a cut and dried program and contests sometimes
+arose for a seat.
+
+The real campaigns and expressions of the people's will have therefore
+been the revolutions, and politics and revolutions have thus come to
+be regarded as going hand in hand. In a town of the Cibao an
+expression of the garrulous landlady of the inn attracted my
+attention. The old lady, after regaling me with the local gossip,
+started with her own troubles. "Two revolutions ago," she said--and
+her mode of measuring time struck me as peculiar--"my eldest son took
+a gun and went into politics." "Cojió un fusil y se metió en la
+politica"--"took a gun and went into politics," the phrase is sadly
+expressive.
+
+Such campaigns were only too easily begun. When a new president
+entered upon office on the crest of a successful revolution,
+apparently with the whole country behind him and his adversaries
+silenced or scattered, his popularity generally lasted until the
+spoils were distributed. ("To the victors belong the spoils" was the
+policy of the past; the American military authorities are making an
+important innovation by the introduction of civil service principles
+for selecting public employees.) The disappointed spirits immediately
+entered into the plots which the vanquished opponents were not slow in
+fomenting. The leader of the adverse party or one of his trusted
+lieutenants raised the standard of revolt and issued manifestoes which
+echoed with patriotic sentiments and decried the faults of the
+administration. He was joined by a number of disgruntled "generals"
+and their followers. The telegraph wires were cut and the revolution
+had begun.
+
+Before 1905 the seizure of a custom-house was invariably the next
+step, which would at the same time provide the insurgents with the
+sinews of war and make it impossible for the government to pay its
+employees in that province. The custom-houses were eliminated as pawns
+in the revolutionary game by the fiscal treaty with the United States,
+according to which the customs receipts were paid over to an American
+receiver-general. Revolutions for a short time became more difficult,
+but where there's a will there's a way, and under a new routine the
+necessary funds were derived from the government's internal revenues
+and from levies on private citizens.
+
+The first two or three weeks of a revolt constituted its critical
+period, for the government at once poured troops into the district in
+order to suppress the insurrection, while the rebels sought to obtain
+as many strategical points as possible. Both sides lived on the
+country while roaming about in pursuit of each other. If the
+government was victorious the leaders of the revolt would usually
+scramble across the border into Haitian territory, or leave the
+country by boat, or otherwise make themselves inconspicuous until the
+time was ripe for another rebellion. When the government was unready
+or unsuccessful, the insurrection spread with great rapidity from town
+to town until it arrived before the walls of Santo Domingo City.
+There was more or less of a siege and when the president capitulated
+he was permitted to board a vessel and go into exile. The head of the
+new revolution then assumed charge of the government and had himself
+elected president and the game began all over again.
+
+The personal property of the fallen adversaries was respected and
+there was no confiscation, such as has occasionally been witnessed in
+certain other Latin republics. When Baez was overthrown in 1858 there
+was an exception to the rule, his properties being seized by the
+Santana government on the ground that he was a traitor ready to
+deliver the country over to the Haitians and was guilty of other high
+crimes and misdemeanors. But when the wheel of fortune again brought
+Baez to the top he promptly reentered upon his lands.
+
+During the uprisings there has rarely been wanton destruction of
+property, the property of foreigners being especially respected. The
+owner of a plantation near Macoris told me that on one occasion the
+general of an insurgent force even halted at his gates and sent him a
+polite request for permission to cross the property. Such
+consideration was not universal, however, and large sums have been
+paid to foreigners for damages inflicted during revolutions. A serious
+inconvenience was caused farmers by revolutions as many laborers were
+enrolled in one army or the other, either voluntarily or by
+impressment.
+
+In the course of the insurrection there were numerous encounters
+between the rebels and the government troops, most of them being mere
+skirmishes. There is hardly a town where there are not houses which
+show the marks of bullets. The walls and gates of Santo Domingo City
+and the houses in the vicinity are full of such marks, though
+generally painted over now. In 1904 and 1905 one of the sights of the
+city was a beautiful villa opposite the Puerta del Conde, which had
+served as target for the government forces while occupied by the
+insurgents and was so peppered by shot and shell as to look like a
+sieve. The sieges of Santo Domingo City sometimes lasted for many
+months. At such times almost every citizen took part in the
+excitement, barricades were erected at every street opening and the
+rattle of musketry was heard at all hours.
+
+The proportion of shots fired to casualties inflicted is known to be
+enormous in all wars and in Santo Domingo it is almost incredible.
+Battles have been fought lasting for hours with thousands of shots
+fired, yet with not one man lost. There have been revolutionary
+uprisings lasting for months with not a man wounded. In Puerto Plata
+it is said that when the government troops attacked the city in 1904 a
+fierce battle ensued which continued from morning till the town was
+taken by storm in the evening; yet only one man was killed and his
+death was due to his own carelessness, for he appeared not far from
+where soldiers of the other side were training a cannon and refused to
+obey their warning to get out of the way, whereupon the cannon was
+discharged and his arm shot off, causing a mortal wound.
+
+At other times, however, the results have been far more serious, as
+many a maimed soldier and bereaved family can testify. The graves of
+victims of the revolutions are scattered all over the Republic. How
+many have fallen in the disturbances of the past fifteen years it is
+impossible to determine; I have heard estimates ranging from 1000 up
+to 15,000. Nor is revolutionizing a pleasant business when continued
+for any length of time. When the men entered a town contributions
+could be levied on the merchants, but when they were harassed and
+forced to retreat to the mountains they roamed for weeks half nude,
+bare-headed, barefooted, exposed to the weather, living on what
+bananas and wild fruits they could find or occasional wild hogs they
+were able to kill, undermining their constitutions and brutalizing
+their natures. The landlady whose son sought political distinction
+with a gun told me amid sobs that her boys were dutiful, industrious
+lads before being caught in the revolutionary torrent, but that in the
+woods they lost all inclination for work and returned home completely
+demoralized. From grieving relatives of victims I have heard many
+another story of ruined lives and early deaths. It is saddening to
+reflect on the tears which have been shed and the misery which has
+been caused by this long continued civil strife.
+
+While women have been heavy sufferers from the revolutions they have
+not hesitated to take sides and contribute their mite. Many are the
+stories current in Santo Domingo of women who smilingly passed through
+the enemy's ranks and carried ammunition and supplies concealed
+beneath their garments to their friends in the woods.
+
+Excluding the revolution by which the Haitian yoke was thrown off in
+1844 and that of 1863-65, which expelled the Spaniards, there have
+occurred in the seventy years of Dominican independence no less than
+twenty-three successful revolutions. One occurred in each of the years
+1848, 1844, 1849, 1857 and 1864, three in 1865, one each in 1866, 1867
+and 1873, three in 1876, one each in 1877, 1878, 1879, 1899 and 1902,
+two in 1903 and one each in 1912 and 1914. At times hardly had a
+revolution proved successful when a counter-revolution broke out and
+secured the victory.  The longest intermissions were from 1879 to
+1899 when the party of the dictator Heureaux was in power, and from
+1903 to 1912, when the indirect protection of the United States was
+sufficient to sustain the government.
+
+These were the successful revolutions; the unsuccessful insurrections
+are innumerable. It has been unfortunate for the credit of Santo
+Domingo that almost every little shooting affray is classed as an
+insurrection or revolution. Most of these unsuccessful uprisings have
+been unimportant excursions into the country by some disaffected local
+chief and a handful of followers, the band being promptly rounded up
+or scattered by government forces or induced to come in by promise of
+a job or some other consideration.
+
+The circumstance that the provincial governors found it to their
+advantage to have disturbances in their district explains many of the
+smaller commotions. Upon the outbreak of an insurrection or before the
+threat of an outbreak the authorities in the capital would authorize
+the provincial governor to recruit troops and draw funds for their
+payment. The governor would do so, but if two or three thousand men
+had been authorized he would raise only two or three hundred and
+forget to account for the balance of the money. The suppression of the
+"revolution" would thus benefit both his military reputation and his
+pocketbook. Governors were therefore prone to exaggerate rumors of
+insurrection and sometimes themselves sent out men to fire a few shots
+in the woods and create alarm.
+
+Other insurrections have been fierce and formidable and some
+administrations were obliged to engage in constant warfare in order to
+maintain themselves. A serious unsuccessful insurrection was that led
+by Gen. Casimiro de Moya against Heureaux in 1886, which lasted six
+months. The most widespread was that of Jimenez against the Morales
+government, lasting from December, 1903, to May, 1904, and during
+which the insurgents gained possession of practically the entire
+Republic. Other serious outbreaks occurred in 1904, 1905, 1906, 1909,
+1911, 1913 and 1916. The fires smouldered constantly, especially in
+the Cibao, which raises the largest crops of everything, including
+revolutions.
+
+The effect of such continuous commotion has been most disastrous to
+the country and the people at large. This is all the more saddening
+when it is considered that, less than ten per cent of the people took
+part in the disturbances. Revolutions, successful and unsuccessful,
+have been fought to a finish with less than a thousand men on either
+side. Ninety per cent of the population are law-abiding citizens who
+would like nothing better than to be let alone and permitted to pursue
+their vocations in peace. The other ten per cent were not entirely to
+blame: they have been the victims of their environment.
+
+Not only have the revolutionary disturbances caused enormous indirect
+loss to the country through paralyzation of agriculture, arrest of
+development and loss of credit, but they have also been a large direct
+expense. A considerable portion of every budget was devoted to
+appropriations for the purchase of war material and the maintenance of
+the military and naval establishment. When uprisings occurred the
+additional amounts necessary for their suppression have been taken
+from other appropriations, those for public works usually being the
+first to be cancelled. If the uprisings became serious the other
+appropriations of the budget were reduced by fifty or even
+seventy-five per cent until all the available cash was devoted to war
+purposes. In 1903 military and naval expenditures absorbed 71.7 per
+cent of the Republic's disbursements, and in 1904 72.6 per cent. At
+such times the government was reduced to a desperate struggle for
+existence; the loss of the custom-houses in power of the insurgents
+made its position still more precarious; it contracted loans on
+ruinous terms; it neglected its foreign obligations and paid its
+employees in promissory notes and even in postage stamps, which they
+would then peddle about the streets. Under such conditions it is
+natural that nothing was left for public improvements. Even under the
+peaceful administration of Heureaux a disproportionate part of the
+national funds was expended for military purposes and three gunboats
+were acquired and maintained, but not a single mile of improved road
+was laid out.
+
+With the American military occupation political conditions in the
+Dominican Republic have radically changed. The system of waging
+political campaigns by force of arms has stopped abruptly and
+absolutely. Revolutions have become a matter of history. Ballots will
+hereafter take the place of bullets, and politics will be conducted in
+the same manner as in other orderly countries. Evolution, not
+revolution, will be the characteristic of the future.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+LAW AND JUSTICE
+
+
+Audiencia of Santo Domingo.--Legal system.--Judicial
+organization.--Observance of laws.--Prisons.--Character of offenses.
+
+
+In the year 1510 the Spanish government established in Santo Domingo
+the first of the famous colonial audiencias, or royal high courts, the
+list of which appears like a roll call of Spain's former glories.
+Others were added later in Mexico, Guatemala, Guadalajara, Panama,
+Lima, Santa Fé de Bogotá, Quito, Manila, Santiago de Chile, Charcas
+(now Sucré), and Buenos Aires. The audiencia of Santo Domingo at first
+had jurisdiction over all the territory under Spanish dominion in the
+new world, but upon the establishment, of the audiencia of Mexico and
+others its jurisdiction was confined to the West India Islands, and
+the north coast of South America. Its functions were both judicial and
+administrative, including the power to hear appeals from the judges of
+the district and from certain administrative authorities, and to
+intervene in certain matters of government, in the finances of the
+territory and in behalf of the public peace. The governor and
+captain-general of Santo Domingo was president of the royal audiencia,
+though not acting when it sat as a law court, and at times the
+audiencia alone temporarily carried on the government of one or more
+of the territories under its jurisdiction. It applied the law as
+expressed in the codification of the "Laws of the Indies," and the
+Spanish "Partidas." It sat in the building still called the old palace
+of government. During the dark days which fell upon the island in the
+seventeenth century, the presence of the audiencia helped to save the
+colony from being completely forgotten. It continued in its functions
+until the country was ceded to France, whereupon in 1799, it was
+removed to the city of Puerto Principe, in Cuba. Could its records but
+have been preserved a great many gaps in the history of Santo Domingo,
+Cuba, Porto Rico and Venezuela would be filled. It seems that the
+first records were destroyed by Drake in 1583, and almost all the
+later ones succumbed to the negligence of man and the voracity of the
+tropical insects. When the government of Cuba in 1906 honored the
+request of the government of the Dominican Republic for the return of
+such of the records of the audiencia of Santo Domingo as were still
+extant, it could find in its national archives and turn over but a
+score of bundles of documents, mostly records of suits regarding land
+boundaries in the eighteenth century, of little historic value. These
+and several small mahogany bookcases still preserved in the present
+audiencia of Havana, are the only tangible remains of this
+noted court.
+
+When Santo Domingo again came under Spanish rule in 1809, the colony
+was included in the territorial jurisdiction of the audiencia of
+Caracas. Upon the beginning of Haitian rule in 1822, when most of the
+distinguished citizens, including judges and lawyers, left the
+country, they took with them the ancient legal system. The Haitians
+imposed their laws, namely, the Code Napoleon and other French codes.
+These took such deep root that on the expulsion of the Haitians no
+attempt was made to return to the Spanish laws, which also at that
+time were still under the disadvantage of not having been revised and
+codified in accordance with modern needs.  In 1845 the laws of France
+were expressly adopted by the Dominican Republic. During the troublous
+times following little attention was given to the legal system, and
+there was not even a Spanish translation of the codes. After
+annexation to Spain in 1861 the Spanish authorities attempted to
+clarify the situation by introducing the Spanish penal code and law of
+criminal procedure and by appointing a commission to translate the
+civil code, in which they made several changes, but upon the
+reestablishment of the Republic in 1865 everything done in this
+respect by the Spaniards was annulled. Several efforts were later made
+to secure a translation of the codes, though laws were not often
+invoked amid so much civil unrest. As late as 1871 the American
+commission which visited the island reported that the administration
+of justice had practically fallen into disuse. The local military
+chiefs and the parish priests decided the questions that arose.
+
+As the country progressed in spite of itself, and there were periods
+of peace, the need of an official Spanish text of the laws became more
+pressing, and at length in 1882 a commission was appointed to
+translate and adapt the French codes. On the report of the commission
+a civil code, a code of civil procedure, a code of commerce, a penal
+code, a code of criminal procedure and a military code were approved
+in the year 1884. They are literal translations of the French codes
+with a few modifications to adapt them to local conditions. The penal
+codes are such close translations that several paragraphs relating to
+juries were retained, although the institution does not exist in Santo
+Domingo. It was tried in 1857, but discontinued in the following year.
+The Dominican Congress made but few changes in these important laws,
+which have therefore been more permanent than the constitution. The
+need for a further revision of the Dominican codes became urgent,
+however, and such revision has very recently been concluded by a
+commission which sat for that purpose; it is now being considered with
+a view to an early promulgation of the codes in amended form.
+
+Santo Domingo, the first Spanish colony, thus has no Spanish laws. It
+is the only Spanish country which has adopted French legislation so
+completely, and which looks so largely to France for its
+jurisprudence.
+
+The laws of Congress, and the decrees of the Executive relating to
+concessions, naturalization, pardons, and other matters, and, at
+present, the "executive orders" and decrees of the military
+government, are published in the Official Gazette, a government
+newspaper appearing almost daily. In addition to the calendar date,
+official papers are dated from the declaration of independence in 1844
+and the restoration of the Republic in 1863, somewhat as follows:
+"Given in the National Palace of Santo Domingo, Capital of the
+Republic, on the 3rd day of March, 1916, the 73rd year of Independence
+and the 53rd of the Restoration." In Haiti it was formerly the custom,
+after a successful revolution, to count dates not only from the
+declaration of independence but also from the proclamation of the
+latest revolution, the latter period being denominated the
+"regeneration," thus: In the 40th year of independence and the 3rd of
+the regeneration. In the Dominican Republic Baez introduced this rule
+in his presidency of 1868-1873, during which period decrees were dated
+in the following manner: "On the 3rd day of March, 1871, the 28th year
+of Independence, the 8th of the Restoration, and the 3rd of the
+Regeneration." The revolution of December, 1873, ended this
+regeneration, and the official references thereto.
+
+At the present time the judicial power is vested in a supreme court,
+sitting in the capital of the Republic, three courts of appeals, one
+in Santo Domingo, one in Santiago and one in La Vega; twelve courts of
+first instance, one in each province; and 70 alcaldias or justice of
+the peace courts, in the several communes and cantons. The supreme
+court is constituted by a presiding justice and six associate
+justices, who are elected by the Senate for terms of four years. It
+exercises original jurisdiction in cases against diplomatic
+functionaries and judges of courts of appeals, sits as a court of
+cassation in appeals from, the courts of appeals, finally decides
+admiralty cases and has certain other functions assigned to it by law.
+
+The three courts of appeals each have a presiding justice and four
+associate justices, all elected by the Senate for four year terms.
+They exercise appellate jurisdiction over cases adjudged by courts of
+first instance and courts-martial, and original jurisdiction in
+admiralty cases and in the prosecution of certain judicial and
+administrative officials. Prior to 1908 there was one supreme court,
+with five members, and no court of appeals. When the income of the
+country grew, the new constitution provided that the supreme court
+have at least seven members, and that at least two courts of appeals
+be established, with their necessary judges and clerks. The system is
+now costly and topheavy.
+
+The twelve district courts each have a judge of first instance and a
+judge of instruction, elected by the Senate for terms of four years.
+The judge of instruction is not, strictly speaking, a part of the
+court, his duty being to investigate the more serious criminal
+offenses, commit the offenders for the action of the court and report
+the result of his investigation to the prosecuting attorney. The
+courts of first instance have original jurisdiction in all criminal
+matters except the minor police offenses and in all civil matters
+except those expressly assigned to the justices of the peace. They
+hear appeals from the justices of the peace in civil and
+criminal cases.
+
+The local justices of the peace are called "alcaldes." The alcalde, in
+Spanish times, was an officer exercising both administrative and
+judicial functions, the name being derived from the Arabic "al cadi,"
+the judge, and whereas in Spain and most of the former Spanish
+colonies the alcalde has now only administrative duties and his office
+is equivalent to that of mayor, in Santo Domingo he now exercises
+solely judicial authority. (The office of "alcalde pedaneo," which may
+be roughly translated as deputy mayor, exists in Santo Domingo,
+however, this title being given to the municipal executive's agent in
+each section.) The alcalde's jurisdiction comprises the smaller police
+offenses and, in civil cases, matters involving less than $100, as
+well as certain cases, such as suits between innkeepers and guests,
+where the limit of his authority is raised to $300, and other cases,
+such as ejectment suits, where his jurisdiction attaches on account of
+the subject-matter. The alcaldes are appointed by the president of
+the Republic.
+
+In general the system works smoothly. The alcaldes are often ignorant
+men, but even in the United States the country magistrates are not
+always founts of wisdom. The judges of first instance and district
+attorneys are almost without exception respected in the community, and
+the present judges of the supreme court and of the courts of appeals
+enjoy a good reputation. Not infrequently political considerations
+have given rise to poor appointments, such as occurred in Barahona
+some years ago when the judge-elect telegraphed an indignant protest
+to the capital to the effect that he was unacquainted even with the
+rudiments of the law. The administration had not taken the trouble to
+ascertain whether he was a lawyer, but knowing he sought a position,
+had given him the first one at hand. This was rather an oversight, as
+the law requires such appointees to be members of the bar. On another
+occasion the legal requisite was filled by first declaring the
+aspirant a lawyer and then designating him for the post. These cases
+are exceptions, however. The integrity of the judges is not often
+questioned, but the alcaldes do not enjoy so good a reputation.
+
+At the present time there are also American provost courts which take
+cognizance of "offenses against the military government." This
+designation is broad enough to include anything the military
+authorities choose to include. Apart from a few cases of regrettable
+harshness these courts have done fairly well.
+
+While the various constitutions have expressly declared the
+independence of the judicial power, the authority of the courts has
+heretofore been rather relative, and they have studiously avoided
+conflicts with the other branches of the government. There is no case
+on record where they have declared a law unconstitutional. The supreme
+court when driven into a corner in 1904 even declared that it had not
+the authority to make such a declaration. The constitution of 1908
+modified the decision by expressly providing that the supreme court
+may decide as to the constitutionality of laws.
+
+This decision of the supreme court made little impression in the
+country, due probably in part to the ease with which the various
+administrations have disregarded the constitution when it suited their
+convenience. The little value of the constitution between friends has
+constantly been demonstrated. Certain provisions have been
+systematically violated, even by the best of administrations.
+Principal among them is the provision that no one be arrested without
+a warrant setting forth the offense, unless caught _in flagranti_, and
+the provision that every person imprisoned be informed of the cause of
+his imprisonment and submitted to examination within forty-eight hours
+after arrest, and not be detained for a longer time than permitted by
+law. These provisions have been dead letters as far as political
+prisoners are concerned. When a person was suspected of being involved
+in a conspiracy against the government he was liable at any moment to
+be seized and conducted to prison, where he might be detained
+indefinitely, until the danger was over, or he was considered
+innocuous. The ancient fortress at the river mouth in Santo Domingo,
+known as La Torre del Homenaje, bears over its entrance the sign,
+"Political Prison," and rarely has it been without tenants, even when
+the country was at peace and the constitutional guarantees were
+supposed to be in force. On one occasion when I heard a Dominican
+lawyer lament that a friend of his had thus been incarcerated for
+several months without a hearing, I inquired why he did not apply to a
+court and invoke the constitutional provision. The reply was, "The
+judge who signed an order to set the prisoner free would probably join
+him in jail before many hours had passed."
+
+Such ignoring of the written law was a relic of the days when the will
+of the military was the only law respected. Reminders of the old state
+of affairs continued to crop out, though the people and government
+were rapidly adopting other customs. An instance occurred in Sanchez
+during the presidency of Morales. A younger brother of the president
+was customs collector at that port and was accused by public rumor of
+irregularities in office. A customs employee having been discharged
+for spreading the rumor, called on the collector and invited him to a
+meeting outside; and the two adjourned to the bush, where shots were
+exchanged and young Morales was wounded in the leg. The aggressor was
+immediately seized by the general commanding the military forces in
+Sanchez and carried to the town cemetery, a grave was dug, and the
+general prepared to have him summarily shot. The town authorities
+interceded, but in vain, and the execution was about to take place
+when the ladies of the town succeeded in moving the commandant by
+their pleadings. The prisoner was remanded to the jail in Samana and
+was later tried by the court of first instance and acquitted. Much
+more recently the leader of the band that assassinated President
+Caceres was killed without trial.
+
+Some of the surviving military leaders of the old school find
+difficulty in adjusting themselves to the new conditions. Among them
+was General Cirilo de los Santos, better known by his nickname
+"Guayubin" (the name of the town where he was born) who took an active
+part in the political disturbances of the Republic for many years.
+When I traveled through the country with Prof. Hollander on his
+financial investigation we were guests of this hero of a hundred
+revolutions, who was then Governor of La Vega. In the course of
+conversation Prof. Hollander expressed gratification at the cessation
+of the custom of shooting political prisoners. The governor was at
+that time engaged in the persecution of one Perico Lasala, a perpetual
+revolutionist who was infesting the nearby hills and who has since
+done his country a favor by being killed in an incursion on the coast.
+The idea of not shooting this notorious character as soon as he was
+apprehended seemed grotesque to Guayubin--and perhaps not without
+reason. He cried, "If you were in my place and caught Perico Lasala,
+wouldn't you shoot even him?" "Why, no," was the answer. Guayubin's
+face fell and he became thoughtful. For the rest of the day he was
+strangely silent and he continued so on the morrow, when he
+accompanied us for several miles out of town. When bidding goodbye, he
+broke out: "I wish to ask your advice. If I should catch Perico
+Lasala, what would you advise me to do with him?" Dr. Hollander asked:
+"What do you do with persons who steal or commit similar violations of
+the law?" "We put them in jail." "Why, then, put Perico Lasala in
+jail." A look of inexpressible relief came over the face of the old
+warrior. "Of course!" he said, "I never thought of that."
+
+Not long after this incident General Guayubin met a political opponent
+against whom he harbored resentment. He immediately drew his revolver
+and began to shoot, and the object of his wrath escaped only by
+dexterous sprinting. At a session of Congress there was some criticism
+of his action and Guayubin resigned his office in disgust. The death
+of this fighter was as stern as his life. He attended a christening
+party at a house where there was a forgotten powder-cask; a spark fell
+into the powder and in the ensuing explosion Guayubin's eyesight was
+destroyed. Grimly refusing to take food or drink, he pined away.
+
+Prior to the American occupation, the Dominican penal establishments
+were as a rule in very bad condition. There is no penitentiary and
+portions of the forts or government houses are used as jails. The
+prisoners were herded together with little thought of cleanliness. The
+stench in some of the jail yards was at times almost unbearable. In
+justice it should be stated that the Dominican authorities frequently
+called the attention of their Congress to this condition of affairs.
+The prisons at Santo Domingo City and Santiago were exceptions to the
+rule; they were improved even to the extent of being endowed with a
+prison school.
+
+The political prisoners were generally given better accommodations, if
+there were any at hand, and had the privilege of securing their meals
+from the outside instead of being limited to the scant and repugnant
+prison food. During revolutions, however, when the prisons were
+overcrowded, the political prisoners were kept in irons and
+supervision was rigid. According to law the functionaries of each
+court of first instance were supposed to visit and examine the jails
+once a month, but as the date of their visit was known beforehand the
+inspection was little more than perfunctory. Not very long ago it was
+whispered in the Cibao that a judge in inspecting a jail accidentally
+passed through a door to a room he was evidently not expected to
+enter, and there to his own embarrassment and that of the warden found
+a score of prisoners whose names were not on the prison rolls.
+
+The more serious offenders were kept in irons. The Dominican
+authorities, realizing that they had no reason to be proud of their
+prisons, were loath to permit foreigners to visit the jails. When I
+called at the government building at Sanchez on one occasion, however,
+the commandant was absent and an indiscreet sergeant offered to show
+me the two rooms used for prison purposes. The building was a wooden
+one and one of the rooms, though heavily barred, did not seem unfitted
+except in case of overcrowding, which I was told sometimes occurred.
+The other room was extremely repulsive. It was dark and a foul odor
+rising from a hole in the wooden floor demonstrated the truth of the
+guide's remark that there was no outhouse for the use of the
+prisoners. Along one side of this room lay two long square-cut beams,
+one on the other, scalloped out so as to form a number of round holes
+along their juncture. It was evident they were used as stocks and my
+guide stated that he had seen a whole row of men sitting along the log
+with their feet thus confined. One or two of the holes were a little
+larger and it was explained that they were for the purpose of
+confining not the feet but the neck of the delinquent, and that this
+punishment was much worse, producing especial pain in the case of
+short-necked persons. The severest pain was produced, so the guide
+stated, when the delinquent was seated on the beam and his feet placed
+crosswise through the holes: he could bear the agony of this position
+for only a short time.
+
+The American authorities have made great improvements in the prisons
+and prison discipline. The jails are now so clean that they are almost
+show places.
+
+The revolutionary disturbances have seriously interfered with the
+proper execution of the sentences of the courts. It was a usual
+procedure for revolutionary forces, upon entering a town, to free the
+prisoners--either as a slap at the government or in order thereby to
+augment their own strength. In Puerto Plata, a few years ago, a
+merchant was convicted of fraudulent bankruptcy and sentenced to three
+years in jail; soon afterwards a revolutionary force took possession
+of the town and freed the prisoners; and a few hours later the
+townspeople were amused to see the lawyer who had been instrumental in
+securing the conviction himself led to prison at the instigation of
+the culprit.
+
+In March, 1903, when the political prisoners in the Santo Domingo
+prison broke out, they released the convicts, some of whom retained
+their gyves during the fighting which followed, until the revolution
+was successful several days later.
+
+The undeveloped state of the country has offered difficulties to the
+apprehension of criminals, and the proper enforcement of the law.
+Could a criminal but reach the mountains of the interior, which are
+almost entirely uninhabited, he would be safe from pursuit and might
+either wait to join the next uprising or proceed to a different part
+of the country, where he was unknown and where, owing to the
+difficulty of intercourse, detection would be unlikely. Instances have
+occurred more than once where an escaped malefactor has become a
+"general" of other outlaws and by threatening to raise an insurrection
+has induced the government to pardon him and his associates.
+
+In several regions there were up to the time of the American
+occupation local caciques who were almost absolute monarchs in their
+district. They and their followers considered themselves above the law
+and their power and influence were such that the government in the
+capital preferred to let them alone so long as they kept within
+bounds. Such gentlemen can hardly be expected to favor the American
+administration for they have been made to understand that their rights
+and remedies are no more than those of other citizens.
+
+In view of such conditions so favorable to wrongdoers, the low
+criminal record of Santo Domingo is all the more remarkable and speaks
+highly for the character of the population. Crimes evincing malice and
+a depraved disposition are exceedingly rare. The Dominican boasts that
+it is possible to travel without fear from one end of the Republic to
+the other, though unarmed and carrying large sums of money. The few
+attacks on travelers which are on record have generally been due to
+revenge or some other personal motive. There is petty thievery, but no
+more than anywhere else. A friend of mine used to remark that he had
+never seen so many chickens in a community where there were so many
+negroes. No criminal is so greatly despised as a thief, and to accuse
+a person of being "mean enough to steal a pig" is a mortal insult. A
+distinction is made, however, between public honesty and private
+honesty, and the impression has been only too general that stealing
+from the state is not stealing.
+
+The most common serious offenses are homicide and assaults committed
+in sudden quarrel or due to jealousy. Not a little mischief was caused
+by the unfortunate habit of going armed.
+
+The attractions of the fair sex give rise not only to crimes of
+jealous passion, but also to other missteps, such as seduction and
+similar offenses. The average of these is not greater, however, than
+in other southern countries.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+THE DOMINICAN DEBT AND THE FISCAL TREATY WITH THE UNITED STATES
+
+
+Financial situation in 1905.--Causes of debt.--Amount of debt.--Bonded
+debt.--Liquidated debt.--Floating debt.--Declared claims.--Undeclared
+claims.--Surrender of Puerto Plata custom-house.--Fiscal convention of
+1905.--Modus vivendi.--Negotiations for adjustment of debt.--New bond
+issue.--Fiscal treaty of 1907.--Adjustment with creditors.--1912
+loan.--Present financial situation.
+
+
+Rarely have the fiscal affairs of a country experienced so rapid and
+radical a change for the better as those of Santo Domingo since 1904,
+and rarely has a financial measure so quickly proved its efficacy as
+the fiscal convention between the United States and Santo Domingo. In
+the beginning of the year 1905 Santo Domingo had fallen to the lowest
+depths of bankruptcy and financial discredit. After decades of civil
+disturbance, misrule and reckless debt contraction, the deluge had
+come. The substance of the country had been wasted in military
+expenditures; agriculture and commerce were stagnant; a debt of over
+$30,000,000 had been contracted with nothing to show for it but
+forty-two miles of narrow-gauge railroad and two small gunboats; the
+government obligations were chronically in default and interest
+charges were piling up at ruinous rates; every port of the Republic
+was pledged to foreign creditors who were clamoring for payment; one
+port had already been seized and the occupation of the others by
+foreign powers was imminent. At this juncture the Dominican government
+applied to the  United States for assistance and the custom-houses of
+the Republic were placed in charge of an American general receiver,
+with the obligation of reserving a specified portion of the customs
+income for the creditors and turning the remainder over to the
+Dominican government. The situation immediately changed as if by
+magic. The imports and exports, and with them the income of the
+government, quickly reached higher figures than the country had ever
+seen, the national debt was scaled down by almost one-half and the new
+Dominican bonds issued in 1907 to convert the old debt went nearly to
+par in the markets of the world.
+
+
+(a) Periodic accumulation of floating debt, owing to:
+     1. Political instability, requiring large outlays for soldiery,
+         for bribery of potential revolutionists, and for suppression
+         of actual revolutions.
+     2. Corruption of officials.
+     3. "Asignaciones" or pensions to mollify enemies and to reward
+         friends of the existing régime.
+(b) Usurious interest computations, on account of:
+     1. "Bonus" in principal,
+     2. Extravagant interest rates.
+(c) Interest default and compounding accumulations.
+(d) Recognition and liquidation of excessive or illegal claims as a
+      condition of further advances.
+
+
+In order to obtain more positive information with reference to
+outstanding Dominican indebtedness, for use in connection with the
+pending fiscal treaty, the American government in the early part of
+1905 commissioned a financial expert, Prof. Jacob H. Hollander, of
+Johns Hopkins University, to proceed to Santo Domingo and make an
+investigation of financial conditions. Prof. Hollander, in an
+elaborate report, found the amount of the claims pending against the
+Dominican Republic on June I, 1905, to be $40,269,404.38, distributed
+as follows:
+
+
+Bonded debt........................ $17,670,312.75
+Liquidated debt...................... 9,595,530.40
+Floating debt........................ 1,553,507.79
+Declared claims...................... 7,450,053.89
+Undeclared claims.................... 4,000,000.00
+                                   --------------
+Total indebtedness................. $40,269,404.38
+
+
+The bonded debt, as above designated, comprised the public
+indebtedness represented by outstanding bonds; the liquidated debt
+consisted of items secured by international protocols or by formal
+contracts; the floating debt consisted of admitted indebtedness,
+neither funded nor secured, but evidenced by public obligations; the
+declared claims were claims presented for reimbursement or indemnity
+but not expressly recognized by the government; and the undeclared
+claims were claims of the same nature not yet formally presented. A
+brief description of each of these items will afford an idea of the
+general character, of Dominican financiering and a better
+understanding of Dominican history.
+
+_Bonded Debt_. The bonded debt held by Belgians and
+French and amounting to $17,670,312.75, was the final
+outcome of eight consecutive bond issues floated by the
+Republic, as follows:
+
+
+               Interest
+                 per   Term
+Date   Amount    cent  years   Name_
+
+1869  £  757,700  6       25   Hartmont loan
+1888  £  770,000  6       30   Westendorp loan
+1890  £  900,000  6       56   Railway loan
+1893  £2,035,000  4       66   4 per cent consolidated gold bonds
+1893  $1,250,000  4       66   4 per cent gold debentures
+1894  $1,250,000  4       66   French-American reclamation
+                                consols
+1895  $1,750,000  4       66
+1897  £1,736,750  2-3/4  102   Obligations or de Saint Domingue
+      £1,500,000  4       83   Dominican unified debt 4 per cent
+                                bonds
+
+
+In making its very first loan, in 1869, the Dominican government fell
+into the hands of sharpers and was mercilessly fleeced. The bargain,
+even if it had been honestly carried out, was improvident enough.
+Reduced to American money the nominal amount of the loan was
+$3,788,500; of this amount the Republic was to receive but $1,600,000;
+yet it contracted to pay as interest and sinking fund in twenty-five
+years a sum amounting to $7,362,500. The contractors for the loan,
+Hartmont & Co., of London, were authorized to retain $500,000 as their
+commission. In fact, however, no more than $190,455 was ever paid to
+the Dominican government. The brokers claimed that they tendered a
+further sum of $1,055,500, though after the expiration of the time
+limited in their contract, and that the tender was refused because of
+negotiations then under way for the annexation of the Republic to the
+United States, but such tender is denied on the Dominican side. At all
+events, the loan contract was cancelled by the Dominican senate in
+1870 on the ground of non-compliance of the brokers with its
+conditions and the government made no payments for interest or sinking
+fund. The brokers nevertheless continued to sell bonds in London and
+pay the current interest with the proceeds. Incidentally in addition
+to collecting their commission, they turned a penny for themselves by
+taking the bonds with their friends at 50 and selling them to the
+public at 70. When the Dominican repudiation of the bond issue was
+published in England in 1872 a cash balance of $466,500 still remained
+to the credit of the Dominican government, but it was coolly pocketed
+by the principal agent, who claimed it as a set-off against alleged
+damages in connection with a concession he had near Samana. In the ten
+years of anarchy that followed in Santo Domingo no attempt was made to
+straighten out the matter. The bonds having gone into default in 1872
+dropped lower and lower until they reached 3 per cent in 1878.
+
+The setback received by the credit of the Republic by reason of the
+defaulted Hartmont bonds made further bond issues impossible for a
+number of years. Finally an Amsterdam banking house, Westendorp & Co.,
+was interested and in 1888 and 1890 floated the second and third bond
+issues for £770,000 and £900,000 respectively. The object of the
+second issue was to retire the Hartmont bonds at 20 per cent, to pay a
+number of floating interior debts the owners of which were harassing
+the government, and to provide cash for the treasury, principally for
+military and naval expenditures, while the third issue was designed to
+secure funds for the construction of a railroad between Puerto Plata
+and Santiago. For the purpose of providing for the service of the loan
+a collection office known as the "caisse de la regie," or simply
+"regie," under the management of Westendorp, took charge of the
+customhouses with the obligation of paying a certain amount to the
+government monthly and devoting the remainder to payment of interest
+and sinking fund of the loans. The arrangement was thus similar to the
+later receivership plan, but its vulnerable point was that it was
+operated by a private concern.
+
+The first instalments of interest and sinking fund on these two bond
+issues were paid from the proceeds of the bonds, then for several
+months the "regie" supplied funds, and then came the first crash. The
+government was ever in need of money and to secure the same violated
+its agreements by seizing certain revenues to pledge them to local
+merchants for advances, and by conniving at customs irregularities. As
+a result, after paying the sums for the budget, the "regie" had
+nothing left for the service of the bonds and they went into
+default in 1892.
+
+Westendorp was almost ruined by this occurrence and became anxious to
+draw out of his Dominican entanglements. He applied to Smith M. Weed
+and Brown and Wells, New York attorneys, to negotiate a sale of his
+bonds to the United States government, transferring also his right to
+collect the Dominican customs. The United States government declined,
+whereupon Weed, Wells and Brown organized the famous San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the laws of New Jersey, the claim of which
+was later the prime factor in bringing about American intervention in
+Santo Domingo. Subsequently two other companies, the San Domingo
+Finance Company and the Company of the Central Dominican Railway, were
+incorporated, also under the laws of New Jersey, as auxiliaries of the
+Improvement Company, but they were all managed by the same persons.
+The San Domingo Improvement Company took over Westendorp's holdings
+and was placed in control of the "regie." A fourth bond issue, of
+£2,035,000 was floated through the agency of the Improvement Company
+in 1893 for the conversion of the outstanding government bonds. The
+Improvement Company also completed the railroad from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, which was the only improvement it ever effected in the
+Republic and this it did with Dominican money. It further took from
+the Republic at rates very favorable to the Company a fifth, sixth and
+seventh bond issue, in 1893, 1894 and 1895 respectively, aggregating
+$4,250,000, for the payment of government indebtedness. The
+obligations paid by the first two of these issues were in considerable
+part inflated claims against the government, capitalized at excessive
+interest rates, those satisfied by the 1895 issue arose principally
+out of indemnity claims made by France for mistreatment of French
+citizens and for debts due them.
+
+The Dominican government took no warning from previous disasters but
+continued in its course of reckless debt contraction. In order to
+equip warships and arsenals it borrowed money right and left at rates
+of interest which ranged anywhere from 18 to 30 per cent per annum.
+The loans were guaranteed by customs revenues which the creditors were
+authorized to collect direct from the importer. Thus the amount
+collected by the "regie" was not sufficient to provide for the service
+of the ever increasing bonded debt and in 1897 there was
+another default.
+
+The old remedy of a new bond issue was to be tried again. The San
+Domingo Improvement Company undertook to float the eighth bond issue
+of £2,736,750 in bonds at 2-3/4 per cent and £1,500,000 in bonds at
+four per cent. With these bonds it contracted to convert all previous
+bonds then outstanding, to pay overdue interest and to secure for the
+government over $1,000,000 in cash. President Heureaux issued drafts
+on this presumption, but it soon became evident that it would be
+impossible for the Improvement Company to carry out the contract. The
+company blamed the government and the government the company. The
+situation quickly became chaotic. Eventually the conversion of the
+older bond issues was completed, though at enormous cost. Bonds to the
+value of £600,000 were absorbed during the transaction with at most a
+cash payment of $250,000 to the Dominican fiscal agent in Europe. In
+the meantime the government tried the experiment of a large emission
+of paper money in which the customs dues were partly payable. The
+paper depreciated as fast as it was issued, the revenues were again
+insufficient and the new bond issue suffered default in April, 1899.
+
+While plans for further action were under consideration, President
+Heureaux was shot in July, 1899, and the revolution which followed his
+death made Jimenez president. The new administration in 1900 entered
+into a contract with the San Domingo Improvement Company for a
+different distribution of the customs revenues, but a condition was
+introduced that the consent of the majority of bondholders be obtained
+for the funding of interest up to 1903. A large number of Belgian and
+French bondholders had become dissatisfied with the Improvement
+Company, however, and repudiated the contract and all connection with
+the Company. In Santo Domingo, too, there was general hostility
+towards the Improvement Company which was regarded as an associate of
+President Heureaux and an incubus on the development of the country.
+The Company claimed it had secured the consent of a majority of
+bondholders but the government decided it had not and in January,
+1901, President Jimenez issued a decree excluding the Improvement
+Company from the custom-houses.
+
+The government now made a new contract with the Franco-Belgian
+bondholders, and for the payment of its obligations pledged its
+customs revenues, and specifically the income of the ports of Santo
+Domingo City and San Pedro de Macoris. But if there had been default
+before, in time of peace, with the "regie" in charge of the
+custom-houses, there was still less money available for the creditors
+now, with no control by creditors over collections and the government
+harassed by constant revolutionary uprisings. Small partial payments
+were made for two years and then ceased. As the Improvement Company's
+bond holdings became the subject of a special arrangement, the bonded
+debt of the Republic was considered to be that held by the French and
+Belgian creditors. However unsavory the debts which gave origin to the
+bond issues, and however imprudent most of the bond issues themselves,
+the great majority of bonds had passed into the hands of small
+holders, innocent third parties who sustained great loss by the
+continued suspension of payments.
+
+_Liquidated Debt_. The liquidated debt, secured by international
+protocol or formal contract, Prof. Hollander found to be as follows on
+June 1, 1905:
+
+
+San Domingo Improvement Company
+  (American and British)................. $4,403,532.71
+Consolidated internal debt
+  (chiefly Spanish, German and American).. 1,737.151.35
+Internal debt held by Vicini heirs
+  (Italian)............................... 1,598,876.04
+Old foreign debt
+  (chiefly Italian and Dutch)............... 365,183.20
+Sala claim (American)....................... 356,314.20
+Vicini heirs (Italian)...................... 242,716.32
+Italian protocol............................ 186,750.36
+Spanish-German protocol..................... 100,034.00
+B. Bancalari (Italian)...................... 175,000.00
+J. B. Vicini Burgos (Italian)................ 55,500.00
+Ros claim (American)......................... 39,967.78
+Two cacao contracts
+(chiefly Dominican and German)............... 68,296.16
+Bancalari, Lample & Co. (Italian)............ 16,733.19
+Twenty-eight minor contracts
+  (chiefly Spanish, American)............... 249,475.19
+                                          ------------
+Total.................................... $9,595,530.40
+
+
+The claim of the San Domingo Improvement Company was secured by a
+protocol between the American and Dominican governments. When the San
+Domingo Improvement Company was ousted from the custom-houses in 1901,
+it immediately appealed to the State Department in Washington. The
+State Department counselled a private settlement and negotiations with
+the Dominican government dragged on for almost two years. The
+Improvement Company claimed no less than $11,000,000 for the bonds it
+held or controlled, for its interest in the railroad from Puerto Plata
+to Santiago, for its shares of the extinct National Bank of Santo
+Domingo which it had purchased at the government's request, and for
+the settlement of a long list of minor claims. Arbitration was
+suggested by the Company, but the Dominican government finally offered
+a round sum of $4,500,000 and the offer was accepted. It is probable
+that the Republic fared better under this compromise than if the case
+had been submitted to arbitration, for though the Improvement
+Company's demands were greatly exaggerated, its position toward the
+government was that of a careful creditor who has kept minute account
+of all transactions as against a spendthrift debtor who has squandered
+his property with little or no record of his expenditures.
+
+By a protocol signed January 31, 1903, the Dominican government
+formally agreed to pay the sum of $4,500,000, leaving details to be
+settled by a board of arbitrators to be designated by the American and
+Dominican governments. The board met in Washington and rendered its
+award under date of July 14, 1904. It fixed the interest on the debt
+at four per cent per annum and designated the custom-houses of Puerto
+Plata, Sanchez, Samana and Monte Cristi as security for the debt. In
+the event of failure by the Dominican government to pay any of the
+monthly instalments specified, a financial agent, appointed by the
+United States, was authorized to enter into possession of the Puerto
+Plata custom-house, and if its revenues proved insufficient to take
+possession also of the other custom-houses designated. The Dominican
+government never made any payments and the financial agent took
+possession of the Puerto Plata custom-house in October, 1904.  Most
+of the other claims comprised in the liquidated debt had their origin
+in advances made to the government--often bearing interest at two or
+three per cent a month, or even more--and in indemnity claims for
+revolutionary damages. In making the liquidations, musty credits and a
+generous amount of compound interest were generally included and it
+was usually provided that the sums so agreed upon were themselves to
+bear interest. The greater portion of these claims was held by
+foreigners, Italian, German, Spanish and American holdings
+predominating. Payments, more or less feeble, were made in many cases
+on account of principal or interest up to 1903, but in that year, when
+the government was reduced to desperate straits in combatting
+insurrections, practically every item of the debt went into
+permanent default.
+
+The principal Italian claimants were the heirs of an Italian merchant,
+J.B. Vicini, and an Italian in business at Samana, Bartolo Bancalari
+by name, who with other Italian subjects became loud in their
+complaints at the non-payment of their claims. The Italian government
+began to do a little sword-clanking, the Italian minister came from
+Havana in a warship, and the upshot was the signing in 1904 of three
+protocols admitting most of these claims and solemnly promising to pay
+them. Payment of the internal debt held by the Vicini heirs and of the
+Italian revolutionary claims was guaranteed by five per cent of all
+the customs receipts of the Republic, the revenues of Santo Domingo
+City, Macoris, Sanchez and Puerto Plata being specifically pledged.
+The Bancalari debt was guaranteed by part of the customs revenues of
+Samana. Notwithstanding the protocols, no payments were made by the
+Dominican government.
+
+_Floating Debt_. The floating debt, consisting of admitted
+indebtedness, neither funded nor liquidated, but evidenced by some
+kind of public obligation, was found to be as follows:
+
+
+Registered deferred debt................... $587,710.24
+Registered floating debt.................... 140,850.27
+Privileged revolutionary debt................ 79,812.12
+Certificates of comptroller's office........ 633,124.60
+Certificates of treasury offices............. 31,771.07
+Open unsecured accounts...................... 80,239.49
+                                            ----------
+Total.................................... $1,553.507.79
+
+
+By the year 1902, a large number of small claims--many of them for
+supplies furnished and services rendered--had accumulated, the justice
+of which the government admitted but of which owing to the
+deficiencies in its books it had no record. Notices were accordingly
+published calling on holders of such lawful credits to present the
+same for registration. This was the origin of the so-called registered
+debts. The largest item was constituted by what was very aptly
+denominated the "deferred" debt, created in 1888. Prior to that time
+the government had covered its military deficits with money obtained
+from loan associations known as "credit companies," which flourished
+in the larger towns and which did business at an interest rate that
+fluctuated between five and ten per cent a month. When a settlement
+was finally made, part of the amount due these companies was paid in
+certificates of indebtedness, the law directing with subtle humor that
+they be paid from the annual surplus in the budget. There never was a
+surplus, nothing was ever paid, and the market value of these
+certificates fell to three per cent of their nominal value.
+
+The revolutionary debt above referred to, consisting of claims arising
+in the revolutions which brought Jimenez into power, was called
+"privileged" because it was assigned interest. To some extent it was,
+indeed, privileged, for partial payments were made until the middle of
+1903. The government certificates forming part of the floating debt,
+were acknowledgments of indebtedness issued by the government when it
+was pressed for ready money. Many bore no interest, others bore
+interest as high as two per cent a month. In view of the great
+uncertainty of payment the amount of indebtedness was generally either
+frankly or disguisedly inflated before being expressed in the
+certificate. Such certificates were sometimes admitted in part payment
+of customs dues.
+
+_Declared Claims_ Besides the admitted indebtedness, there were many
+claims for indemnity and reimbursement which had not been acknowledged
+by the government in contract form. Some had been formally filed with
+the government for the payment of specific amounts, while others were
+still general demands. The declared claims were as follows:
+
+
+Internal revolutionary claims................... $ 885,258.10
+American revolutionary claims...................    71,000.00
+Spanish revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+French revolutionary claims.....................   190,000.00
+Italian revolutionary claims....................    40,000.00
+German revolutionary claims.....................    10,000.00
+British revolutionary claims....................     5,000.00
+Cuban revolutionary claims......................    35,000.00
+Font claim (Spanish)............................   186,643.00
+Heureaux estate claim (Dominican)............... 3,100,000.00
+National bank notes............................. 1,574,647.00
+Lluberes contract (Dominican)...................   250,000.00
+West India Public Works Company claim (British).   250,000.00
+Vicini heirs claim (Italian)....................   812,505.00
+                                                ______________
+Total...........................................$7,450,053.89
+
+
+Most of the older claims of indemnity for damages suffered during
+revolutions crystallized into bonded indebtedness, were recognized in
+government contracts or protocols, drifted into the old foreign debt,
+or were represented by certificates of indebtedness. Some remained,
+however, and their number was greatly increased by the disturbances
+between 1899 and 1905. How exaggerated many such claims were, is
+illustrated by a story told by the Danish consul in Santo Domingo. A
+Danish subject came to him and complained that government soldiers had
+invaded his store and carried off merchandise. He begged the consul to
+present a damage claim of $10,000 gold, which was equivalent to
+$50,000 silver. The consul listened to his story and said: "You are
+asking for a large sum, I cannot get you that. I doubt whether I can
+get you more than $40, silver." "Make it gold, consul," was the
+immediate reply. Many other claims would not have suffered by a
+similar scaling down. Most claims were for houses burned, cattle
+killed, horses commandeered and fences and other property destroyed by
+government forces or revolutionists.
+
+The other declared claims arose principally out of alleged violations
+of concessions or other contractual obligations. The Heureaux estate
+claim, advanced by creditors of the Heureaux estate and based on the
+practical identity of the accounts of Heureaux and those of the
+government was later rejected by the Dominican courts. The outstanding
+national bank notes were those issued by the defunct Banque Nationale
+de Saint Domingue.
+
+_Undeclared Claims_. The undeclared claims, such as
+had not been formally presented, were estimated as
+follows:--
+
+
+American claims......................... £1,000,000
+British claims..........................     50,000
+Italian claims..........................    200,000
+Spanish and German claims...............    200,000
+Other foreign claims....................     50,000
+Dominican claims........................  2,500,000
+                                        ----------
+       Total............................ £4,000,000
+
+
+The foreign claims were principally for damages during revolutions,
+violations of contract, failure of justice, false imprisonment, etc.
+The principal one was an American claim, that of Wm. P. Clyde & Co.,
+of New York, of over $600,000 and was based on the failure of the
+Dominican government regularly to enforce certain high port dues
+against all vessels, save those of the Clyde line, as agreed in the
+Clyde concession. The Dominican claims were mostly old claims for
+unpaid salaries, revolutionary losses, merchandise furnished the
+government, etc.
+
+The situation towards the latter part of 1904 appeared hopeless. Every
+item of the enormous debt had been in default for many months and
+interest was accruing at such rate that the whole income of the
+country would hardly have been sufficient for the payment of interest
+alone. Commerce was handicapped by high wharf and harbor charges
+collected by private individuals under their concessions from the
+government, and by prohibitive port dues imposed on foreign vessels in
+accordance with the concession of the Clyde line. More than
+three-fourths of the debt was held by foreigners who were clamoring
+for payment. The general revenues of the country and every important
+custom-house had been mortgaged to these foreign creditors. In general
+terms it may be said that the ports of the northern coast were pledged
+primarily to Americans and secondarily to Italians, those of Samana
+Bay primarily to Italians and secondarily to Americans, and those of
+the southern coast primarily to French and Belgians and secondarily
+to Italians.
+
+Only one of the international protocols, however, specified when the
+custom-houses to which it referred were to be turned over and the
+manner in which the surrender was to be made. The others merely made
+the pledge in general terms, further negotiations being necessary to
+render it effective. The exception was the arbitral award of the San
+Domingo Improvement Company, which determined that in case of the
+nonpayment of any of the monthly instalments a financial agent, to be
+named by the United States government, was to enter into possession of
+the Puerto Plata custom-house. No payments of instalments were made by
+the Dominican government and in September, 1904, compliance with the
+terms of the award was demanded. On October 20, 1904, the
+vice-president of the San Domingo Improvement Company, designated as
+American financial agent, was placed in possession of the custom-house
+at Puerto Plata.
+
+A cry of dismay ran through the land and the leading newspaper of
+Santo Domingo, the "Listin Diario," published an editorial under the
+expressive heading "Consummatum est," It was, indeed, the beginning of
+the end. The other foreign creditors now pressed their claims with
+more vigor than ever, and the preparations for turning over the Monte
+Cristi custom-house to the American financial agent, accomplished in
+February, 1905, stimulated them to greater exertions. In December,
+1904, the French representative in Santo Domingo, acting in behalf of
+the French and Belgian interests, threatened to seize the custom-house
+of Santo Domingo City, the mainstay of the government. The Italian
+creditors also demanded compliance with their agreements. It was
+obvious that the foreclosure of these foreign mortgages would mean
+indefinite foreign occupation and the absolute destruction of the
+Dominican government, as there would be no revenue left to sustain it.
+
+In this difficulty, the Dominican government proposed that all the
+ports of the Republic be taken over by the United States. The
+negotiations were carried on through the capable American minister in
+Santo Domingo, Thomas C. Dawson, and on February 7,1905, culminated in
+the signing of a treaty convention which provided that all Dominican
+customs duties be collected under the direction of the United States,
+that 45 per cent of the collections be turned over to the Dominican
+government for its expenses and the remaining 55 per cent be reserved
+as a creditors' fund, and that a commission be appointed to ascertain
+the true amount of Dominican indebtedness and the sums payable to
+each claimant.
+
+The treaty was laid before the United States Senate and met with a
+cold reception. In the United States there was even less desire than
+in Santo Domingo for American intervention in Dominican matters.
+Further the treaty was strongly advocated by President Roosevelt and
+the tension then existing between the Senate and the President
+endangered many of his measures. The Senate accordingly adjourned in
+March, 1905, without action on the Dominican treaty.
+
+It was the darkest hour for Santo Domingo. The creditors, tired of
+waiting, were in no mood to admit of further delay and the government,
+totally without resources, was in no position to appease them.
+Diplomacy was equal to the emergency and a modus vivendi was arranged,
+under which the President of the United  States was to designate a
+person to receive the revenues of all the custom-houses of the
+Republic and distribute the sums collected in a manner similar to that
+determined by the pending treaty, namely, to turn over 45 per cent of
+the receipts to the Dominican government and to deposit 55 per cent as
+a creditors' fund in a New York bank. This temporary arrangement went
+into effect on April 1, 1905. The new controller and general receiver
+of Dominican customs arrived with several American assistants and soon
+had the receivership service admirably organized. The effect was
+immediate. The creditors ceased their pressure, confidence returned,
+interior trade revived, smuggling was eliminated, the exports and
+imports increased and the customs receipts took a leap upwards.
+
+It was believed that the opposition in the United States Senate would
+be diminished, if, instead of the United States both adjusting the
+debt and collecting the money for its payment, the Dominican Republic
+should make a direct settlement with the creditors, and the United
+States merely undertake to administer the customs for the service of
+the debt as adjusted. Accordingly the Dominican government appointed
+the minister of finance, Federico Velazquez, as special commissioner
+to adjust the Republic's financial difficulties. After long and
+tedious negotiations, Minister Velazquez and his able adviser Dr.
+Hollander evolved three conditional agreements:
+
+(1) An agreement with the banking firm of Kuhn, Loeb & Co. of New
+York, for the issue of fifty year 5 per cent bonds of the Dominican
+Republic to the amount of $20,000,000.
+
+(2) An agreement with the Morion Trust Company of New York to act as
+fiscal agent of the Dominican Republic and as depository in the debt
+adjustment.
+
+(3) An offer of settlement to the holders of recognized debts and
+claims, to adjust these in cash at rates varying from 10 to 90 per
+cent of the nominal values specified in the offer. The nominal
+aggregate, as recognized by the Republic, exclusive of accrued
+interest, was $31,833,510, for which it was proposed to pay
+$15,526,240, together with certain interest allowances.
+
+The proposed scaling down of the debts provoked opposition and
+remonstrance, but the creditors wisely reflected on the difference
+between a bird in the hand and more in the bush, and by the beginning
+of 1907 holders of credits had signified their assent in sufficient
+amount to assure the success of the readjustment.
+
+A new convention between the United States and the Dominican Republic
+was accordingly prepared, being signed in Santo Domingo on February 8,
+1907. It was ratified by the United States Senate on February 25, and
+by the Dominican Congress on May 3, 1907. The Dominican Congress added
+what it called explanatory articles to the law by which it approved
+the convention but made no change therein.
+
+This convention, a copy of which will be found in the appendix,
+recited that disturbed political conditions in the Dominican Republic
+had created debts and claims amounting to over $30,000,000; and that
+such debts and claims were a burden to the country and a barrier to
+progress; that the Dominican Republic had effected a conditional
+adjustment under which the total sum payable would amount to not more
+than $17,000,000; that part of the plan of settlement was the issue
+and sale of bonds to the amount of $20,000,000; that the plan was
+conditional upon the assistance of the United States in the collection
+of custom revenues of the Dominican Republic; and that "the Dominican
+Republic has requested the United States to give and the United
+States is willing to give such assistance."
+
+The two governments therefore agreed that the President of the United
+States shall appoint a general receiver of Dominican customs, who
+shall collect all the customs duties in the custom-houses of Santo
+Domingo until the payment or redemption of the entire bond issue. From
+the sums collected, after paying the expenses of the receivership the
+general receiver is on the first of each month to pay $100,000 to the
+Fiscal Agent of the loan and the remainder to the Dominican
+government. Whenever the customs collections exceed $3,000,000 in any
+year, one-half the excess shall be applied to the sinking fund for the
+further redemption of bonds.
+
+The Dominican government agrees to give the general receiver and his
+assistants all needful aid and full protection to the extent of its
+powers. The United States also undertakes to give the general receiver
+and his assistants such protection as it, may find to be required for
+the performance of their duties.
+
+The convention further stipulates that until the payment of the full
+amount of the bonds the Dominican Republic is not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States, and
+that a like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import duties.
+
+Even with the approval of the convention difficulties lay in the way
+of the debt adjustment. In Santo Domingo there was opposition to the
+plan by interested parties and by persons not sufficiently mindful of
+past errors and present dangers. The Dominican Congress mutilated the
+contracts with the bankers, who not only refused to accept the
+modifications, but declined to treat further with Minister Velazquez
+unless he were first invested with plenary powers. The Dominican
+Congress then extended the necessary authority, but it came late, for
+the fall of 1907 witnessed a money panic in the United States and the
+floating of a bond issue was impossible.
+
+After months of negotiations and struggle with recalcitrant creditors
+Minister Velazquez and Prof. Hollander finally perfected an
+arrangement under which the creditors were paid the amounts specified
+in the plan of adjustment, twenty per cent in cash and eighty per cent
+in bonds guaranteed by the fiscal convention. For the purpose of the
+cash payments the creditors' fund accumulated under the modus vivendi
+was utilized. The bonds were delivered to the creditors at the rate of
+98-1/2 per cent of their face value.
+
+Under the plan of settlement the outstanding Franco-Belgian bonds and
+most of the other debt items were redeemed at fifty per cent of their
+face value, the Improvement Company's claim at ninety per cent, the
+deferred debts and comptroller's certificates at ten per cent, and the
+remaining claims at rates varying from ten to forty per cent.
+Accumulated interest was remitted entirely by the creditors, except in
+three cases, in which it was greatly reduced. These terms were much
+better than the Republic could have expected from any commission of
+investigation. The arbitral award of the San Domingo Improvement
+Company was scaled down by only ten per cent, because the bonds
+comprised in the award had been included therein at only one-half
+their face value and the other credits had also been largely reduced;
+even this small discount brought howls of protest from British
+interests that had remained discreetly silent while the State
+Department was pressing the claim thinking it completely American.
+Payment under the plan of settlement was soon practically completed.
+Only one important group of creditors, the Vicini heirs, still refuses
+to assent to the plan and accept the amount set aside for them.
+
+Upon payment to the San Domingo Improvement Company, the Company
+turned over the Central Dominican Railway, from Puerto Plata to
+Santiago, to the Dominican government. The right of the
+Samana-Santiago Railroad to receive a percentage of the import duties
+collected at the port of Sanchez was redeemed by the delivery of
+$195,000 in bonds at par, an excellent bargain, made all the better by
+the circumstance that the railroad invested the proceeds of these
+bonds in the extension of its line in the interior. The restrictive
+concession and heavy damage claim of the Clyde Steamship Line were
+also cancelled, and the onerous wharf and harbor concessions at the
+various ports of the Republic were among the other important
+concessions acquired by the government by means of the bond issue.
+
+Thus debts and claims aggregating nearly $40,000,000 have been and
+will be discharged for about $17,000,000. The surplus remaining from
+the bond issue and the modus vivendi collections must, under the
+agreements made, be devoted to public improvements approved by the
+United States government: a portion has been so expended, and a fund
+of over $3,000,000 still remains available. In addition the Republic's
+credit was established on a high plane; burdensome concessions were
+redeemed and adequate revenues for the maintenance of the government
+and the progress of the country were assured. As time goes on proper
+appreciation will be given to the men who were the principal agents in
+securing this financial and economic regeneration, especially to the
+Minister of Finance, Federico Velazquez, and to Prof. Jacob H.
+Hollander.  While the fiscal convention largely increased the customs
+revenues, the Dominican government made no attempt to accumulate a
+reserve fund, but spent more even than authorized by its ever
+increasing budgets. During the period of civil strife following the
+assassination of President Caceres in 1911 the government, in order to
+carry on its military campaigns, neglected to pay the salaries of its
+civil employees, pledged its internal revenues, diverted and
+misapplied amounts of the trust fund set aside for public works, and
+incurred indebtedness for supplies and materials purchased and money
+borrowed. It thus violated the spirit and letter of the convention in
+which the Dominican Republic expressly agreed not to increase its
+public debt except by previous agreement with the United States.
+
+The American government, in its unwillingness to interfere in the
+internal affairs of the Dominican Republic, had suffered the Victoria
+administration to seize the government in Santo Domingo after the
+death of Caceres, and it now also condoned the violation of the fiscal
+convention. The American commission which went to Santo Domingo in
+1912 to reconcile the warring factions, found that an essential
+condition of the restoration of peace and the rehabilitation of the
+government was the payment of pending salaries and certain other
+debts. Accordingly the United States consented to an increase of the
+Dominican public debt by $1,500,000, and the Dominican government
+contracted a loan to that amount with the National City Bank of New
+York, which took the bonds at 97-1/2 Per cent. The bonds bore 6 per
+cent interest, and for the service of interest and sinking fund, it
+was agreed that the general receiver of customs pay over to the Bank,
+beginning in January, 1913, a monthly sum of $30,000. This bond issue
+was finally liquidated in 1917. The amount so borrowed was not
+sufficient to pay all the indebtedness of the Dominican government.
+The manner of circumventing the debt increase prohibition of the
+convention having been discovered, the interior debt was further
+augmented after that time by failure to pay salaries, by hypothecating
+stamps and stamped paper, and by contracting other obligations, either
+to combat insurrections or because of less worthy motives. In
+addition, claims for revolutionary damages were filed against the
+government.
+
+The foreign debt thus consists merely of the $20,000,000 customs
+administration loan of 1907. The sums paid into the sinking fund of
+this loan have been used to purchase bonds of this issue at their
+market price, somewhat less than par, and the interest falling due on
+such purchased bonds has also gone to swell the sinking fund. The
+value of the assets in the sinking fund on December 31, 1917,
+estimating the purchased customs administration bonds at par, was
+$6,019,161.50, exclusive of interest accruals in 1917.
+
+The interior debt, as a result of revolutionary confusion and
+defective accounting, became as problematic as in days of yore and was
+estimated at widely different figures. With a view to ascertaining the
+exact amount and making provision therefor, the military government,
+in July, 1917, constituted a commission consisting of three American
+and two Dominican citizens, who were charged with the duty of
+investigating and liquidating all claims against the government
+arising since the settlement of 1907. The American members appointed
+were J. H. Edwards, acting comptroller-general of Santo Domingo,
+chairman, Lt.-Col. J. T. Bootes, of the United States Marine Corps,
+and Martin Travieso, Jr., of the Porto Rican bar; the Dominicans were
+two attorneys, M. de J. Troncoso de la Concha and Emilio Joubert.
+Claimants were called upon to file their claims before January 1,
+1918, or be deemed to have relinquished their rights. The nominal
+amount of the claims so filed--comprising all outstanding internal
+debts--is a little more than $14,000,000, some of the claims being for
+indefinite sums. This figure is probably greatly exaggerated and will
+doubtless be subjected to drastic revision by the claims commission.
+
+The customs receivership has continued to render invaluable service.
+In peace and war its officials have distinguished themselves by a
+highly efficient, tactful and fearless discharge of their duties. Up
+to 1913 appointments to the service were determined by the fitness and
+experience of the appointee rather than by his political antecedents,
+and the officials appointed possessed unusual qualifications: the
+first general receiver, Col. George R. Colton, who held until 1907,
+his successor W. E. Pulliam, who continued until 1913, their deputy J.
+H. Edwards, and others, were experts trained in the Philippine
+customs service.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+FINANCES
+
+
+Financial system.--National revenues.--Customs tariff.--National
+budget.--Legal tender.--Municipal income.--Municipal budgets.
+
+The financial system of Santo Domingo is characterized by an
+inequitable mode of obtaining public revenue, whereby the burden of
+supporting the state is thrown upon the poorest classes in the form of
+indirect taxes upon articles of necessary consumption, and wherein
+taxation of property or contribution according to economic capacity
+plays little part. This is especially true with regard to
+municipal taxation.
+
+
+
+NATIONAL FINANCIAL SYSTEM
+
+The revenues of the general government are derived chiefly from
+customs duties and secondarily from miscellaneous minor sources. There
+is no direct tax on land. Prior to 1904 the revenues fluctuated
+according to the state of tranquillity of the country, being usually
+something less than $2,000,000 per annum, but immediately upon the
+establishment of the American receivership in April, 1905, they went
+up rapidly. The increase has continued steadily and the government's
+annual income now amounts to over $4,500,000.
+
+The proportion of revenue calculated from the various sources has
+fluctuated but little in the different budgets. The proportions
+appearing from the budget of 1916 are here shown, as well as those of
+the budget of 1910, at which period the interior revenues were
+administered with less leakage.
+
+
+                                   Per cent of total
+                                       1910  1916
+Customs duties........................ 77.2  81.7
+Impost on alcohol.....................  6.8   4.4
+State railroad........................  6.4   ...
+Revenue stamps........................  3.    3.6
+State wharves.........................  2.1   4.4
+Port dues.............................  1.5   1.8
+Stamped paper.........................  1.4   2.
+Post offices..........................   .7    .8
+Consular fees.........................   .4    .9
+National telegraph and telephones.....   .3    .2
+Miscellaneous.........................   .2    .2
+                                      -----------
+     Total........................... 100.  100.
+
+
+Almost 95 per cent of the customs receipts are obtained from import
+duties. The present customs tariff, which took effect on January 1,
+1910, made a radical change in the Dominican tariff system and was a
+step in the country's financial regeneration. Theretofore the
+Dominican tariff system was about as unscientific as could be
+imagined. It had been a tariff for revenue only, in the sense that
+the object was to obtain all the revenue possible and more;
+accordingly the common necessities of life were most heavily taxed.
+Originally, it appears, the tariff provided for the payment of an ad
+valorem duty on goods imported; later the discretionary power involved
+in the appraisement was taken away and a fixed, arbitrary value was
+assigned by law to each article, and on this value, known as the
+"aforo," a specified percentage was payable as customs duty.
+Successive governments, in their efforts to raise money, gradually
+increased this percentage until it reached 73.8 per cent. As the
+"aforo" valuation was as a general rule higher than the real value the
+imposition of so elevated a tax made all imported articles
+inordinately expensive. With respect to many items the lawmakers
+overreached themselves, for the duties were raised far beyond the
+point of maximum return.
+
+For years a desire prevailed to adjust the tariff on a rational and
+equitable basis, but as there were no statistics and the government
+feared its income might be reduced, nothing was accomplished. After
+the establishment of the receivership, full statistics of imports and
+exports became available. The general receiver's office and the
+Dominican government accordingly drafted a new tariff, to which the
+American government agreed under the terms of the fiscal convention.
+
+The new tariff is based almost entirely on specific schedules; only in
+exceptional instances, such as in the case of drugs, are ad valorem
+duties imposed. There were many reductions from the former tariff,
+especially on articles of prime necessity, but in some cases the rate
+remained substantially the same, while in a few it was slightly
+increased, a tendency being observed to protect home industries. On
+the whole the revision made an average reduction of about 15 per cent
+as compared with the former tariff, but the new duties are
+scientifically distributed and after a year of commercial readjustment
+the revenue reached higher figures than ever before.
+
+Less than 6 per cent of the customs receipts are derived from export
+duties. Such duties are imposed on cacao and a number of other
+articles, but not on sugar or tobacco. The tax is not a large one, but
+the imposition of any export tax is deplored.
+
+Wars and crop conditions have had their influence on the customs
+receipts, but the figures continue satisfactory, as appears from the
+following table of collections since the establishment of the
+receivership:
+
+
+GROSS CUSTOMS COLLECTIONS
+
+First Modus Vivendi year, April 1, 1905, to March 31, 1906
+....................................................     $2,502,154.31
+Second Modus Vivendi year, April 1,1906, to March 31, 1907
+....................................................     $3,181,763.48
+Four months' period, April 1, 1907, to July 31, 1907
+(termination of Modus Vivendi)......................     $1,161,426.61
+First convention year, Aug. 1, 1907 to July 31, 1908
+....................................................     $3,469,110.69
+Second convention year, Aug. 1, 1908 to July 1909
+....................................................     $3,359,389.71
+Third convention year, Aug. 1, 1909 to July 1910
+....................................................     $2,876,976.17
+Fourth convention year, Aug. 1, 1910 to July 1911
+....................................................     $3,433,738.92
+Fifth convention year, Aug. 1, 1911 to July 1912
+....................................................     $3,645,974.79
+Sixth convention year, Aug. 1, 1912 to July 1913
+....................................................     $4,109,294.12
+Seventh convention year, Aug. 1, 1913 to July 1914
+....................................................     $3,462,163.66
+Five months' period, Aug. 1, 1914 to Dec. 31, 1914
+....................................................     $1,209,555.54
+Ninth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1915 to Dec. 31, 1915
+....................................................     $3,882,048.40
+Tenth fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1916 to Dec. 31, 1916
+...................................................      $4,035,355.43
+Eleventh fiscal period, Jan. 1, 1917 to Dec. 31, 1917
+...................................................      $5,329,574.20
+
+
+With regard to port dues, the Dominican government was long bound by a
+concession made to the Clyde line in 1878. Upon the redemption of this
+concession the port dues were in 1908 reduced to their present figure.
+
+An impost on alcohols was established in 1905, and ought to become an
+important source of revenue. The law is crude in that it taxes the
+distillation rather than the sale of alcohol and does not sufficiently
+guard against fraud. The receipts, which in the beginning were quite
+promising, fell off strangely in late years.
+
+The most recent sources of revenue are the Central Dominican Railway,
+from Puerto Plata to Santiago, acquired from the San Domingo
+Improvement Company under the debt settlement in 1908; the Moca
+extension of the railroad, finished by the government in 1910; and the
+wharves acquired by the redemption of the various port concessions.
+These properties at first gave the government a handsome revenue,
+which later diminished in a suspicious manner.
+
+The budget of the Republic kept pace with the growth of income, but
+the appropriations were practically all for personnel, while public
+works continued to be neglected and no provision was made for future
+contingencies or the establishment of a reserve fund. The annual
+budget enacted to become effective July 1, 1916, may be summarized
+as follows;
+
+
+ESTIMATED RECEIPTS
+
+Custom-houses:
+
+Import duties              $3,500,000
+Port dues                      80,000
+Export duties                 220,000
+
+Subtotal:                               $3,800,000
+
+Imposts:
+Alcohol                       200,000
+Stamps                        165,000
+
+Subtotal:                     365,000
+
+Communications:
+
+Postage stamps                 36,000
+Telegraph and telephone         5,000
+Wireless telegraph              5,000
+
+Subtotal:                                   46,000
+
+Consular fees                  40,000
+Stamped paper                  90,000
+
+State properties:
+
+Ozama lighting plant             4,500
+State wharves                  200,000
+Rentals and post-office boxes    1,000
+
+Subtotal:                                  205,500
+
+Miscellaneous                    6,200
+
+Total estimated receipts                $4,552,700
+
+
+ESTIMATED DISBURSEMENTS
+
+Service of public debt                              $1,966,746.86
+
+Legislative power                                      132,400.00
+  Including salaries of 12 senators and
+  24 deputies at $200 per month.
+
+Executive power...................................... $ 25,460.00
+  Expenses of president's office, including salary of
+  president at $800 per month.
+
+Judicial power........................................ 316,160.00
+  Including salaries of supreme court (with a chief
+  justice at $250 per month, six associate justices at
+  $160, and a state's attorney at $200); 3 courts of
+  appeals (each having a chief justice at $180 per
+  month, 4 associate justices at $140 and a state's
+  attorney at $180); 12 courts of first instance (each
+  having a judge at $150 per month, a state's attorney
+  at $130-$150, and one or two judges of instruction
+  at $130); 3 courts-martial costing $2,916 each; 70
+  justices of the peace with salaries ranging from $25
+  to $55 per month; and jails in each province, the
+  jailers receiving from $35 to $69 per month.
+
+Department of Interior and Police...................... 329,638.00
+  Including office of secretary of interior, who
+  receives $320 per month; 12 provincial governors with
+  salaries from $160 to $180 per month; 53 communal
+  chiefs, at $30 to $60; church salaries amounting to
+  $3,600; public celebrations $5,100; expenses of
+  sanitation service $15,000; and a long pension list
+  amounting to $188,240. Most of these pensions are of
+  $10, $12 or $15 per month, but 7 widows of former
+  presidents and other distinguished men receive $100
+  per month.
+
+Department of Foreign Affairs.......................... 122,572.00
+  Including office of secretary, whose salary is $320
+  per month; ministers to the United States, France and
+  Haiti at $500 per month; charge's in Cuba and
+  Venezuela at $250; and 23 consuls in the United
+  States, Porto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, St. Thomas, Panama,
+  Turks Island, Jamaica, England, France, Italy,
+  Holland, Spain and Belgium.
+
+Department of Finance and Commerce...................... 356,678.04
+  Including office of secretary, who receives $320 per
+  month; general comptroller's office; 10 treasury
+  agents with salaries from $80 to $112 monthly;
+  custom-houses (the collectors of the port receiving
+  from $80 to $200 per month); receiver-general's office
+  $43,152 (the salary of the general receiver is given
+  as $9,848.04 per annum and that of his deputy as $5,988);
+  coast guard service $6,000; wharf repairs $20,000.
+
+Department of War and the Navy.........................   593,815.26
+  Including office of secretary; 12 military posts (the
+  commanders receiving from $60 to $150 per month); 10
+  armories $4,980; military instructors $4,380;
+  president's staff $12,380; one infantry regiment of
+  about 470 officers and men (the colonel receiving $95
+  monthly, the men $l5); a band of 33 men; a police
+  force, called "republican guard" of about 800 officers
+  and men (salaries ranging from $200 for the brigadier
+  general and $140 for the colonel, to $18 for the
+  private); 2 military hospitals $31,867; a machine shop
+  $4,440; port captains at $50-$90 per month, and
+  doctors at $25-$50; and the gunboat $26,444.
+
+Department of Justice and Public Instruction...........    318,208.00
+  Including office of secretary; University of Santo
+  Domingo $23,700; Santiago professional institute $8,820;
+  2 jail schools; subventions to many municipal schools,
+  private and special schools, about $180,000;
+  33 scholarships, $23,870; pensions $23,988.
+
+Department of Agriculture and Immigration..............     18,740.00
+  Including office of secretary; experiment fields in
+  Santiago $3,000; weather bureau $3,980.
+
+Department of Development and Public Works.............    332,596.00
+  Including office of secretary; lighthouses $13,282;
+  postal service; telegraph, telephone and wireless
+  service; upkeep of dredge "Ozama."
+
+Chamber of Accounts....................................      7,980.00
+
+Miscellaneous..........................................     61,872.00
+
+Contingent expenses....................................     25,000.00
+
+Constitutional assembly................................     10,000.00
+
+Total estimated disbursements, besides debt service ... $2,651,119.30
+
+
+The figures in the budgets were not, absolute but were subject to
+modification by transfer of appropriation through presidential decree.
+The contingent expense fund and the military appropriations were thus
+frequently swelled at the expense of other services.
+
+The budget above shown was the last one enacted under the old
+conditions. It was never applied, but is given as a sample, because,
+while differing only slightly from the old budget which continued in
+force, it better illustrates conditions at the beginning of American
+occupation. The military government made numerous changes in the
+budget and rendered the appropriations for salaries of the president
+and cabinet secretaries available for other purposes, as the American
+naval and marine officers now performing the duties of these positions
+receive no compensation from the Dominican treasury. A comprehensive
+new budget, the first one of the period of transition and providing
+for some of the innovations recently introduced, was expected to
+become effective early in 1918.
+
+For the purpose of bringing order and efficiency into the collection
+and disbursement of the public revenues of Santo Domingo, the American
+government in 1913 urged that it be permitted to designate an American
+comptroller and financial adviser and the Bordas administration at
+length consented, but as there was no legal authority for such action
+and as the appointee was not characterized by unusual ability, the
+Jimenez administration declined to continue the arrangement. During
+the present military government and under the efficient direction of
+the acting comptroller-general, J. H. Edwards, valuable work is being
+done in revising the accounting system and generally placing the
+country's finances in order.
+
+All the accounts of the Republic are carried on in American money,
+which is legal tender and is current in all parts of the country. For
+about fifty years after the declaration of independence, coins of many
+countries, principally Mexican silver and Spanish gold, were in
+circulation, with the rate of exchange constantly fluctuating. In 1890
+the Republic joined the Latin convention and in the following year
+through the then existing Banque Nationale de Saint Domingue issued
+silver and copper coin to the value of about $200,000. The fall in the
+value of silver caused depreciation and a few of the silver coins of
+this issue which are still in circulation are valued at forty cents
+gold for five francs; the copper coins at a little less. In 1894 the
+gold standard was adopted and though no actual coinage took place all
+official financial transactions were thereafter based upon gold
+values. In 1895 and 1897 President Heureaux issued more silver coins
+or, rather, coins washed over with silver, to the nominal amount of
+$2,250,000, but the seigniorage was so enormous that the issue was a
+case of a government counterfeiting its own money. The rate of
+exchange fell to five pesos for one dollar gold and this is the rate
+legalized by the law of June 19, 1905, which made the American gold
+dollar the standard of the Dominican Republic.
+
+For a while the ordinary smaller business transactions continued to be
+based on silver values. On a trip to Santo Domingo in 1904 a friend
+and myself were driven from the wharf to the hotel and the coachman
+asked for two dollars. It seemed an outrageous charge, but we
+considered ourselves in the hands of the Philistines, and handed over
+an American two-dollar bill. "Excuse me until I can get change," said
+the coachman to our surprise, and ran into the hotel; in a moment he
+reappeared with a double handful of coins: "Here is your change," he
+said, "eight dollars." The charge had been only forty cents in gold.
+At the present time American money is the basis and Dominican silver
+and copper is regarded merely as fractional currency, one peso
+Dominican being equivalent to twenty cents American.
+
+At various times the Dominican Republic has had disastrous experiences
+with paper money issued without sufficient guarantees. One service
+rendered by the Spaniards during their occupation in the sixties was
+the retirement of large amounts of such paper. The troubles
+accompanying unsecured paper money had been forgotten when Heureaux in
+his attempts to raise funds floated an issue of a nominal amount of
+$3,600,000 in notes, of the Banque Nationale, in addition to a small
+amount already emitted by the bank. Such demoralization resulted that
+at one time it took twenty dollars in paper money to purchase one
+dollar in gold. The national bank notes having been demonetized,
+various amounts were purchased at auction by the administrations
+succeeding Heureaux and destroyed, and almost all the remainder has
+been redeemed at five to one under the 1907 debt settlement. The only
+paper now seen is American paper money, which circulates at a par with
+American silver and gold.
+
+
+
+MUNICIPAL FINANCES
+
+Like the national government, the municipalities or communes depend
+almost entirely upon indirect taxation for their revenues. One of the
+principal sources of income is the tax on the slaughter of cattle and
+sale of meat. The communes may further, with the authority of
+Congress, levy a "consumo" tax, a small duty on the imports and
+exports of merchants within their jurisdiction, which tax has given
+rise to much confusion and controversy. Business licenses also form an
+important fount of revenue. By a law of Congress (soon to be
+superseded by a decree of the military government) the municipalities
+are divided into several classes, according to their importance, and
+the licenses payable by the various kinds of business in the several
+classes are designated. The national government turns over to the
+various municipalities a portion of the impost on spirits and grants
+educational subventions to several municipalities for their primary
+schools. Minor sources of revenue are taxes on lotteries and raffles,
+vehicle licenses, amusement permits, cockpits, etc. Two towns, Santo
+Domingo and Santiago, have municipal lotteries. Under all these taxes
+a man might own scores of houses and great expanses of land without
+paying towards the maintenance of the state and municipality more than
+the poorest peon on his property.
+
+The sums collected for municipal purposes in all the communes of the
+Republic may be calculated at about $600,000 per annum, derived from
+the following sources:
+
+MUNICIPAL RECEIPTS
+
+
+                                          Approximate percentage
+                                             of entire income
+
+Municipal charges on imports and exports.............. 17.7
+Business licenses..................................... 15.3
+Markets............................................... 10.8
+Lottery tax........................................... 10.5
+Slaughter houses and meat transportation..............  9.2
+Alcohols..............................................  7.3
+Excises (alcabala)....................................  5.
+Amusement permits.....................................  3.5
+Public register.......................................  3.5
+Lotteries.............................................  2.5
+Lighting in private houses............................  2.3
+Ferryboats and bridges................................  3.1
+Municipal property and rentals........................  1.8
+Miscellaneous.........................................  8.5
+                                                      -----
+                                                      100.
+
+
+The largest budget is that of the capital city, with Santiago second.
+According to the latest figures available, in round numbers the
+income of the thirteen more important cities and towns is annually
+about as follows:
+
+
+Santo Domingo........................ $160,000
+Santiago de los Caballeros............. 90,000
+San Pedro de Macoris................... 50,000
+Puerto Plata........................... 40,000
+La Vega................................ 30,000
+Moca................................... 21,000
+Azua................................... 20,000
+San Francisco de Macoris............... 19,000
+Samana................................. 10,000
+Monte Cristi........................... 10,000
+Sanchez................................ 10,000
+Bani...................................  9,000
+San Cristobal..........................  8,000
+
+
+In almost every town the largest item of expenditure is for education,
+the maintenance of public primary schools. The more important cities,
+especially the capital, make fair appropriations for street repair and
+other municipal public works, but in the lesser communes such
+appropriations are negligible. Very little, practically nothing, is
+appropriated for roads. Some communes pay a small subvention to the
+church and assist in the repair of church buildings. On the whole,
+municipal services are only scantily looked after, but the fault is
+due more to lack of revenue than to improper distribution.
+Occasionally the national government renders assistance in the
+construction of some work pertaining to a municipality.
+
+The average distribution of municipal disbursements may be estimated
+about as follows:
+
+MUNICIPAL EXPENDITURES
+
+
+                                 Approximate percentage
+                                    of whole expenditure
+Education.......................................... 27.1
+Public works, street cleaning, etc................. 27.
+Police.............................................  8.4
+Administrative expenses (salaries of municipal
+officials and cost of tax collection)..............  7.5
+Public lighting....................................  7.
+Sanitation.........................................  4.
+Charity............................................  2.2
+Municipal debts....................................  1.9
+Miscellaneous...................................... 14.2
+                                                  ------
+                                                   100.
+
+
+In view of the lack of resources or interest on the part of
+municipalities and the central government, services of a public nature
+have frequently been assumed by private initiative. Many clubs and
+lodges maintain schools. Firemen's corps, where there are any, are
+volunteer organizations. For charity work, hospitals, educational
+work, etc., local committees are formed which raise funds by private
+subscription or by lottery, and in a number of towns the embellishment
+of the plazas is in charge of a "junta de ornato."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+THE FUTURE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+Attraction by the United States.--Political future of Santo
+Domingo.--Economic future of Santo Domingo.
+
+The history of the Dominican Republic affords a striking illustration
+of the rule that large bodies attract nearby smaller or weaker bodies
+whether in the world of physics or in international politics. The
+United States of America had scarcely become a nation when it began to
+absorb contiguous territory and exert a strong attraction on Cuba.
+With respect to Santo Domingo also, there was such attraction, as
+became evident in proposals for annexation or the establishment of a
+naval station. At times it appeared that the process was definitely
+checked, as when Spain annexed Santo Domingo in 1861, and when the
+United States Senate refused to annex the country in 1871, and when
+the Dominican Government cancelled the Samana Bay Concession in 1874,
+but these acts merely set back the clock of time which they could
+not stop.
+
+When Porto Rico and Cuba were occupied by the United States the
+attraction exerted on Santo Domingo was powerfully increased. From
+that time on the Dominican Republic was in fact a protectorate of the
+United States, though neither American nor Dominican statesmen would
+have admitted it. The modus vivendi of 1905 and the fiscal convention
+of 1907 gave expression, in part, to relations actually existing.
+
+A peculiar feature of the matter is that, except for a few very brief
+intervals, neither the United States nor the Dominican Republic has
+desired closer political relations and each country has done
+everything in its power to avoid them. The 1907 convention was
+approved in the United States Senate with only one vote to spare, and
+many of its supporters favored it principally because it was expected
+to obviate the necessity of further American intervention in Dominican
+affairs. It was believed that with the custom-houses removed from the
+political game the receipts and prosperity of the country would grow,
+revolutionists would no longer be able to finance uprisings, and civil
+wars would cease. The convention did indeed augment the country's
+revenues and prosperity, but it could not prevent uprisings entirely
+nor remove their causes. On the other hand it strengthened the bonds
+between the United States and Santo Domingo and led to the military
+occupation of 1916.
+
+What will the future bring? There is every reason to believe that the
+same attraction of Santo Domingo by the United States will continue
+with greater strength than ever, despite all that may be said or done,
+on either side, to oppose it. It is a force which cannot be overcome,
+and had best, be recognized and reckoned with. It is unnecessary to
+consider the sentimental objections to closer political relations
+between the two countries. Conditions in Santo Domingo, in the United
+States, and in the world at large are the causes of this force of
+attraction, for which the government of neither country is
+responsible.
+
+What then will the future relations between Santo Domingo and the
+United States be? It appears that at the present moment a plan similar
+to that tried in Haiti is under advisement, namely, to restore the
+Dominican government, but to leave the custom-houses under American
+administration, place the finances under American control, appoint an
+American supervisor of public works, and secure the peace by a police
+force under American officers. The real relations between the two
+countries would thus find further expression in the creation of a
+disguised protectorate.
+
+As a permanent solution it is not probable that this plan will prove
+satisfactory. It tends to create two independent governments in the
+same country; on the one side the Dominican government which will
+consider itself supreme and sooner or later resent dictation or lack
+of sympathy on the part of the American officials, and on the other
+hand the police heads and other American officers who will brook no
+interference with what they deem their duty. Friction is bound to
+develop; it is impossible for two independent governments to work side
+by side in the same territory; one authority must be paramount. At
+first the plan may appear to operate successfully because the desires
+of the American officials will be respected, but later when the new
+Dominican government has outgrown the novelty of the situation there
+are certain to be reciprocal demands which may lead to opposition.
+Another possible source of difficulty is that even among the proposed
+American officials there is no recognized superior and that here also
+differences may arise. Rather than go so far and no further, it were
+better to attempt less.
+
+The ultimate expression, more or less deferred, of the relations
+between the two countries, will most probably be a clearly defined
+protectorate with an amply authorized resident, or outright
+annexation. Which of these two courses is preferable? From a
+standpoint of the interests of the Dominican people annexation would
+appear better. A protected state has many obligations and few rights.
+It must defer to the wishes of the protector, but the protector is
+under no absolute duty to further its development or the happiness of
+its inhabitants. On the other hand, when annexed to the stronger
+state, it may expect and demand that interest be shown in its progress
+and well-being. While annexation would probably entail a temporary
+government by officials foreign to the country, American traditions
+would not permit such a condition to continue for any length of time
+and autonomy would eventually come.
+
+From an American standpoint a protectorate would seem preferable. It
+would carry the advantages of annexation without its responsibilities,
+without the undesirable feature of bringing into our body politic a
+people foreign in race, language and customs, and with less danger of
+stirring up South American susceptibilities. It would, however, permit
+of less latitude for the improvement of conditions in Santo Domingo.
+
+For some time to come it is probable that some form of protectorate
+will be the choice of both parties. Many American statesmen are
+opposed to annexation, and the Dominicans as a rule would prefer the
+phantom of sovereignty in a mediatized republic to the real advantages
+of annexation.
+
+It is only natural that Dominicans should feel sad at passing under
+the government of a foreign power. But those of clearer vision
+recognize that there is no alternative, that the independence of the
+Republic has long been a fiction, that real freedom is only now
+beginning to dawn, and that American assistance will give the greatest
+impetus to prosperity. For several years the number of persons taking
+such a broader view has been rapidly increasing. It was not long ago
+when friends of mine in Santo Domingo would lead me to the middle of
+the plazza, out of hearing of any eavesdropper, and then with bated
+breath confide their conviction that the only salvation of the
+country lay in the United States. Ruin and sorrow brought by the civil
+wars have caused such ideas to spread and be openly expressed. At
+present it may be said that many Dominicans welcome American
+assistance, that the great majority accept it, and that only a small
+minority are bitterly opposed to it, and these objectors are
+principally former politicians and revolutionists whose opinion counts
+for least. The number of those favoring American intervention is being
+increased by the splendid administrative work of the present American
+authorities and would doubtless be still further augmented by valuable
+constructive legislation and by a more uniform display of tact and
+kindliness on the part of all American officials.
+
+These relations between the two countries impose at least a moral duty
+upon the United States. They make it incumbent upon the United States,
+as far as is in its power, to foster the development of Santo Domingo
+and promote the happiness of the Dominican people. One measure it
+should adopt is the granting of suitable tariff concessions. Another
+measure is the creation, for the administration of the countries
+dependent on the United States, of a corps of trained men, selected
+and retained without regard to political considerations, thoroughly
+qualified for the duties they are to assume, speaking the language of
+the country where they are sent, and capable of a sympathetic
+understanding with the inhabitants. By showing an interest of this
+kind the United States will properly fulfill its proud mission of
+spreading liberty and prosperity in the new world.
+
+The closer relations between the United States and Santo Domingo will
+bring that country one boon of inestimable value, namely, peace. It is
+obvious that all the troubles which have befallen the Dominican
+Republic are due directly or indirectly to the state of civil
+disorder which has so long been the bane of the country. Another
+advantage which these relations will bring is a proper administration
+of the country's finances. Peace and efficient administration will
+mean the multiplication of roads, railroads and other public
+improvements, the extension of education and a rapid advance of the
+people and development of the country. When we think of the vast
+resources of Santo Domingo, the mineral treasures hidden within Its
+forest covered mountains, the unlimited agricultural wealth concealed
+beneath its fertile soil, the enchanting beauty of its scenery, the
+courtesy and hospitality of its people, its glorious early days and
+distressing later history, we must be glad that the clouds which have
+so long shrouded the land in darkness are definitely dissipated at
+last and that the sun of peace and prosperity has begun to shine.
+
+
+With peace assured and with means of communication provided, it is
+easy to make predictions as to the economic future of Santo Domingo.
+There will probably never be much manufacturing but agriculture will
+increase with enormous strides assisted by streams of foreign capital
+which will not be slow to realize the exceptional opportunities
+offered. Sugar growing will probably be preferred and the southern
+plains as well as a great portion of the rich Cibao Valley will soon
+be covered with waving canefields. Tobacco will also receive attention
+and perhaps fruit growing. Cacao and coffee will spread more slowly.
+Prospecting for mineral wealth will be undertaken. The extension of
+agriculture will stimulate commerce and augment, the wealth of the
+people. Within a few years the country will become one of the richest
+gardens of the West Indies.
+
+The curtain has gone down upon the epoch of revolutions, conspiracies,
+civil wars and destruction. That period belongs to the past as
+definitely as the era of freebooters and pirates. A new era has begun
+for beautiful Quisqueya, in which, under the protection of the Stars
+and Stripes, it is destined to enjoy a greater measure of freedom,
+progress and prosperity than its inhabitants have ever dreamed.
+
+
+APPENDIX A
+
+
+CHIEFS OF STATE OF SANTO DOMINGO
+
+1492-1918
+
+FIRST SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+Admiral Cristopher Columbus, viceroy                     1492-1500
+Adelantado Bartholomew Columbus                          1496-1498
+Comendador Francisco de Bobadilla                        1500-1502
+Comendador Nicolás de Ovando                             1502-1509
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1509-1515
+Licentiate Cristábal Lebrán, in connection with Royal
+  Audiencia                                              1515-1516
+Luis de Figueroa, Bernardino de Manzanedo, and
+  Ildefonso de Santo Domingo, friars of the order of
+  San Jeránimo                                           1516-1519
+Licentiate Rodrigo de Figueroa                           1519-1520
+Diego Columbus, Second Admiral                           1520-1524
+Royal Audiencia, in connection with judges Caspar de
+  Espinosa and Alonso de Zuazo                           1524-1528
+
+
+_Governors and Captains-General _
+
+(Note. Owing to the incompleteness of the records
+the following list probably contains inaccuracies.)
+
+
+Sebastián Ramirez de Fuenleal, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcián de la Vega                              1528-1531
+Royal Audiencia                                          1531-1533
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Bishop of Santo Domingo
+  and Concepcián de la Vega                              1533-1540
+Louis Columbus, Third Admiral                            1540-1543
+Licentiate Alonso Lápez de Cerrato                       1543-1549
+Licentiate Alonso de Fuenmayor, Archbishop of Santo
+  Domingo                                                1549-1556
+Licentiate Alonso de Maldonado                           1556-1560
+Licentiate Cepeda                                        1560
+Licentiate Veras                                         1560-1561
+Licentiate Alonso Arias de Herrera                       1561-1564
+Antonio de Osorio                                        1564-1583
+Licentiate Cristábal de Ovalles                          1583-1590
+Lope de Vega Portocarrero                                1590-1597
+Domingo de Osorio                                        1597-1608
+Diego Gámez de Sandoval                                  1608-1624
+Diego de Acuña                                           1624-1634
+Maestre de Campo Juan Bitrián de Viamonte                1634-1646
+Nicolás Velazco Altamirano                               1646-1649
+Maestre de Campo Gabriel de Chaves Osorio                1649-1652
+Bernardino de Menesets y Bracamonte, Count of Peñalva    1652-1657
+Felix de Zuñiga                                          1657-1658
+Andrés Pérez Franco                                      1658-1660
+Juan Francisco de Montemayor Cárdova y Cuenca            1660-1662
+Juan de Balboa y Mogrovejo                               1662-1670
+Pedro de Carvajal y Lobos                                1670-1671
+Maestre de Campo Ignacio de Zayas Bazán                  1671-1677
+Dr. Juan de Padilla Guardiola y Guzmán                   1677-1679
+Maestre de Campo Francisco de Segura Sandoval y
+  Castilla                                               1679-1684
+Maestre de Campo Andrés de Robles                        1684-1689
+Admiral Ignacio Pérez Caro                               1689-1698
+Maestre de Campo Gil Correoso Catalan                    1698-1699
+Severino de Manzaneda                                    1699-1702
+Admiral Ignacio Pérez Caro                               1702-1706
+Licentiate Sebastián de Cerezada y Girán                 1706-1707
+Guillermo Morfi                                          1707-1713
+Brigadier Pedro de Niela y Torres                        1713-1714
+Colonel Antonio Landeche                                 1714-1715
+Brigadier Fernando Constanzo y Ramárez, Knight of
+  Santiago                                               1715-1723
+Colonel Francisco de la Rocha y Ferrer                   1723-1732
+Brigadier Alfonso de Castro y Mazo                       1732-1739
+Brigadier Pedro Zorrilla y de San Martin, Marquis of la
+  Gándara Real                                           1739-1750
+Brigadier Juan José Colomo                               1750
+Teniente rey José de Zunnier de Basteros                 1750-1751
+Brigadier Francisco Rubio y Peñaranda                    1751-1759
+Field-Marshal Manuel de Azlor y Urries                   1759-1771
+Brigadier José Solano y Bote                             1771-1779
+Brigadier Isidore de Peralta y Rojas                     1779-1785
+Colonel Joaquán García y Moreno                          1785-1786
+Brigadier Manuel González de Torres                      1786-1788
+Brigadier Joaquán García y Moreno                        1788-1801
+
+
+FRENCH COLONY
+
+_Governors_
+
+
+General Toussaint l'Ouverture                            1801-1802
+General Antoine Nicolas Kerverseau                       1802-1803
+General Marie Louis Ferrand                              1803-1808
+General L. Barquier                                      1808-1809
+
+
+SECOND SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+
+Brigadier Juan Sánchez Ramárez                           1809-1811
+Colonel Manuel Caballero y Masot                         1811-1813
+Brigadier Carlos de Urrutia y Matos                      1813-1818
+Brigadier Sebastian Kindelan y Oregán                    1818-1821
+Brigadier Pascual Real                                   1821
+
+
+STATE OF COLOMBIAN REPUBLIC
+
+_Governor and President_
+
+
+Licentiate José Nuñez de Cáceres                         1821-1822
+
+
+HAITIAN RULE
+
+_Presidents_
+
+
+Jean Pierre Boyer                                        1822-1843
+Charles Riviáre Hérardi ainé                             1843-1844
+
+
+FIRST REPUBLIC
+
+_Presidents_
+
+Central Council of Government (Provisional government)   1844
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1844-1848
+Manuel Jiménez, Constitutional President                 1848-1849
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1849-1853
+Pedro Santana, Constitutional President                  1853-1856
+Manuel de Regla Mota, Vice-President                     1856
+Buenaventura Baez, Vice-President                        1856-1858
+José Desiderio Valverde, Constitutional President        1858
+Pedro Santana, Provisional and Constitutional President  1858-1861
+
+THIRD SPANISH COLONY
+
+_Governors and Captains-General_
+
+Lieutenant-General Pedro Santana                         1861-1862
+Lieutenant-General Felipe Ribero y Lemoine               1862-1863
+Brigadier Carlos de Vargas                               1863-1864
+Lieutenant-General José de la Gándara                    1864-1865
+
+SECOND REPUBLIC
+_Presidents_
+
+José Salcedo, Provisional President                      1863-1864
+Gaspar Polanco, Provisional President                    1864-1865
+Benigno Filorneno de Rojas, Provisional President        1865
+Pedro Antonio Pimentel, Constitutional President         1865
+José Maria Cabral, Provisional President                 1865
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1865-1866
+José Maria Cabral, Constitutional President              1866-1868
+Buenaventura Baez, Constitutional President              1868-1873
+Ignacio Maria Gonzalez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1874-1876
+Uliees F. Espaillat, Constitutional President            1876
+Ignacio María González, Provisional President            1876
+Buenaventura Baez, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1876-1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878
+Ignacio Marña González, Constitutional President         1878
+Jacinto de Castro, President Supreme Court               1878
+Cesareo Guillermo, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1878-1879
+Gregorio Luperán, Provisional President                  1879-1880
+Fernando A. de Meriño, Constitutional President          1880-1882
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President                1882-1884
+Francisco Gregorio Billini, Constitutional President     1884-1885
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Vice-President and Provisional
+  President                                              1885-1887
+Ulises Heureaux, Constitutional President (4 terms)      1887-1899
+Juan Wenceslao Figuereo, Vice-President                  1899
+Horacio Vásquez, Provisional President                   1899
+Juan Isidro Jimánez, Constitutional President            1899-1902
+Horacio Vásquez, Provisional President                   1902-1903
+Alejandro Woss y Gil, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903
+Carlos E. Morales, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1903-1906
+Ramán Cáceres, Vice-President and Constitutional
+  President                                              1906-1911
+Eladio Victoria, Provisional and Constitutional
+  President                                              1911-1912
+Adolfo A. Nouel, Provisional President                   1912-1913
+José Bordas Valdez, Provisional President                1913-1914
+Ramán Baez, Provisional President                        1914
+Juan Isidro Jimánez, Constitutional President            1914-1916
+Francisco Henriquez Carvajal, Provisional President      1916
+
+
+
+AMERICAN INTERVENTION
+
+_Military Governor_
+
+
+Rear-Admiral H. S. Knapp                                 1916-
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX B
+
+OLD WEIGHTS AND MEASURES IN USE IN SANTO DOMINGO
+
+
+The equivalents between old weights and measures still in use in Santo
+Domingo with the legal or metric system, are as follows, the
+equivalents with American measures being also given:
+
+
+
+Dominican              American              Metric
+
+Measures of length:
+1 league                 3.46 miles                5.5727 kilometers
+1 ona                       3 feet, 10.79 inches   1.1884 meters
+1 yard                 35.996 inches               0.9143 meter
+1 vara                  32.91 inches                0.836 meter
+1 foot                 10.945 inches                0.278 meter
+1 inch                 0.9055 inch                  0.023 meter
+1 line [1]             0.0787 inch                  0.002 meter
+
+Surface measures:
+1 tarea [2]            0.1554 acre                 628.86 sq. meters
+1 caballeria           186.50 acres               75.4636 hectares
+
+Liquid measures:
+1 bottle               0.7392 quart                   720 grams
+1 gallon               3.3265 quarts                 3.34 liters
+
+Dry measures:
+1 fanega                1.575 bushels                55.5 liters
+1 almud                0.1596 bushel                5.625 liters
+1 cuartillo            0.0328 bushel                1.156 liter
+
+Weights:
+1 ton               2,028.232 pounds                  920 kilograms
+1 quintal             101.412 pounds                   46 kilograms
+1 arroba               25.353 pounds                 11.5 kilograms
+1 pound                 1.014 pounds                  460 grams
+1 ounce               0.06338 pound, or             28.75 grams
+                        1.014 ounces avoirdupois
+1 adarme                27.78 grains                  1.8 grams
+1 grain[3]             0.7706 grain                     5 centigrams
+
+The following measures are cited for comparison:
+
+                        American                        Metric
+Porto Rican cuerda     0.9701 acre              3930.4037 sq. meters
+Porto Rican caballeria 194.02 acres                78.608 hectares
+Cuban caballeria        33.16 acres               13.4202 hectares
+Haitian carreau         3.194 acres                12,928 sq. meters
+
+
+[Footnote 1: 12 lines = 1 inch; 12 inches = 1 foot; 3 feet = 1 vara; 3
+varas = 1 vara conuquera; 20,000 feet = 1 league]
+
+[Footnote 2: A tarea is a parcel of land measuring 100 square varas
+conuqueras. It is the usual measure of land. 300 tareas = 1 peonia; 4
+peonias = 1 caballeria.]
+
+[Footnote 3: 36 grains = 1 adarme; 16 adarmes = 1 ounce; 16 ounces = 1
+pound; 25 pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = 1 quintal; 20 quintals =
+1 ton.]
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX C
+
+AMERICAN-DOMINICAN FISCAL CONVENTION OF 1907
+
+CONVENTION BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE DOMINICAN
+REPUBLIC PROVIDING FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE
+COLLECTION AND APPLICATION OF THE CUSTOMS REVENUES OF THE
+DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
+
+
+
+_Concluded February 8, 1907
+
+Ratification advised by Senate February 25, 1907
+
+Ratified by President June 2, 1907
+
+Ratified by President of the Dominican Republic June 18, 1907
+
+Ratifications exchanged at Washington July 8, 1907
+
+Proclaimed July 25, 1907_
+
+BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
+
+A PROCLAMATION
+
+Whereas a convention between the United States of America and the
+Dominican Republic providing for the assistance of the United States
+in the collection and application of the customs revenues of the
+Dominican Republic, was concluded and signed by their respective
+Plenipotentiaries at the City of Santo Domingo, on the eighth day of
+February, one thousand nine hundred and seven, the original of which
+convention, being in the English and Spanish languages, is word for
+word as follows:
+
+Whereas during disturbed political conditions in the Dominican
+Republic debts and claims have been created, some by regular and some
+by revolutionary governments, many of doubtful validity in whole or
+in part, and amounting in all to over $30,000,000, nominal or
+face value;
+
+And whereas the same conditions have prevented the peaceable and
+continuous collection and application of National revenues for payment
+of interest or principal of such debts or for liquidation and
+settlement of such claims; and the said debts and claims continually
+increase by accretion of interest and are a grievous burden upon the
+people of the Dominican Republic and a barrier to their improvement
+and prosperity;
+
+And whereas the Dominican Government has now effected a conditional
+adjustment and settlement of said debts and claims under which all its
+foreign creditors have agreed to accept about $12,407,000 for debts
+and claims amounting to about $21,184,000 of nominal or face value,
+and the holders of internal debts or claims of about $2,028,258
+nominal or face value have agreed to accept about $645,827 therefor,
+and the remaining holders of internal debts or claims on the same
+basis as the assents already given will receive about $2,400,000
+therefor, which sum the Dominican Government has fixed and determined
+as the amount which it will pay to such remaining internal debt
+holders; making the total payments under such adjustment and
+settlement, including interest as adjusted and claims not yet
+liquidated, amount to not more than about $17,000,000.
+
+And whereas a part of such plan of settlement is the issue and sale of
+bonds of the Dominican Republic to the amount of $20,000,000 bearing
+five per cent interest payable in fifty years and redeemable after ten
+years at 102-1/2 and requiring payment of at least one per cent per
+annum for amortization, the proceeds of said bonds, together with such
+funds as are now deposited for the benefit of creditors from customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic heretofore received, after payment
+of the expenses of such adjustment, to be applied first to the payment
+of said debts and claims as adjusted and second out of the balance
+remaining to the retirement and extinction of certain concessions and
+harbor monopolies which are a burden and hindrance to the commerce of
+the country and third the entire balance still remaining to the
+construction of certain railroads and bridges and other public
+improvements necessary to the industrial development of the country;
+And whereas the whole of said plan is conditioned and dependent upon
+the assistance of the United States in the collection of customs
+revenues of the Dominican Republic and the application thereof so far
+as necessary to the interest upon and the amortization and redemption
+of said bonds, and the Dominican Republic has requested the United
+States to give and the United States is willing to give such
+assistance:
+
+The Dominican Government, represented by its Minister of State for
+Foreign Relations, Emiliano Tejera, and its Minister of State for
+Finance and Commerce, Federico Velasquez H., and the United States
+Government, represented by Thomas C. Dawson, Minister Resident and
+Consul General of the United States to the Dominican Republic,
+have agreed:
+
+I. That the President of the United States shall appoint, a General
+Receiver of Dominican Customs, who, with such Assistant Receivers and
+other employees of the Receivership as shall be appointed by the
+President of the United States in his discretion, shall collect all
+the customs duties accruing at the several customs houses of the
+Dominican Republic until the payment or retirement of any and all
+bonds issued by the Dominican Government in accordance with the plan
+and under the limitations as to terms and amounts hereinbefore
+recited; and said General Receiver shall apply the sums so collected,
+as follows:
+
+First, to paying the expenses of the receivership; second, to the
+payment of interest upon said bonds; third, to the payment of the
+annual sums provided for amortization of said bonds including interest
+upon all bonds held in sinking fund; fourth, to the purchase and
+cancellation or the retirement and cancellation pursuant to the terms
+thereof of any of said bonds as may be directed by the Dominican
+Government; fifth, the remainder to be paid to the Dominican
+Government. The method of distributing the current collections of
+revenue in order to accomplish the application thereof as hereinbefore
+provided shall be as follows:
+
+The expenses of the receivership shall be paid by the Receiver as they
+arise. The allowances to the General Receiver and his assistants for
+the expenses of collecting the revenues shall not exceed five per cent
+unless by agreement between the two Governments.
+
+On the first day of each calendar month the sum of $100,000 shall be
+paid over by the Receiver to the Fiscal Agent of the loan, and the
+remaining collection of the last preceding month shall be paid over to
+the Dominican Government, or applied to the sinking fund for the
+purchase or redemption of bonds, as the Dominican Government
+shall direct.
+
+_Provided_, that in case the customs revenues collected by the General
+Receiver shall in any year exceed the sum of $3,000,000, one half of
+the surplus above such sum of $3,000,000 shall be applied to the
+sinking fund for the redemption of bonds.
+
+II. The Dominican Government will provide by law for the payment of
+all customs duties to the General Receiver and his assistants, and
+will give to them all needful aid and assistance and full protection
+to the extent of its powers. The Government of the United States will
+give to the General Receiver and his assistants such protection as it
+may find to be requisite for the performance of their duties.
+
+III. Until the Dominican Republic has paid the whole amount of the
+bonds of the debt its public debt shall not be increased except by
+previous agreement between the Dominican Government and the United
+States. A like agreement shall be necessary to modify the import
+duties, it being an indispensable condition for the modification of
+such duties that the Dominican Executive demonstrate and that the
+President of the United States recognize that, on the basis of
+exportations and importations to the like amount and the like
+character during the two years preceding that in which it is desired
+to make such modification, the total net customs receipts would at
+such altered rates of duties have been for each of such two years in
+excess of the sum of $2,000,000 United States gold.
+
+IV. The accounts of the General Receiver shall be rendered monthly to
+the Contaduria General of the Dominican Republic and to the State
+Department of the United States and shall be subject to examination
+and verification by the appropriate officers of the Dominican and the
+United States Governments.
+
+V. This agreement shall take effect after its approval by the Senate
+of the United States and the Congress of the Dominican Republic.
+
+Done in four originals, two being in the English language, and two in
+the Spanish, and the representatives of the high contracting parties
+signing them in the City of Santo Domingo this 8th day of February, in
+the year of our Lord 1907.
+
+THOMAS C. DAWSON,
+
+EMILIANO TEJERA,
+
+FEDERICO VELAZQUEZ H.
+
+
+And whereas the said convention has been duly ratified on both parts,
+and the ratifications of the two governments were exchanged in the
+City of Washington, on the eighth day of July, one thousand nine
+hundred seven;
+
+Now, therefore, be it known that I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of
+the United States of America, have caused the said convention to be
+made public, to the end that the same and every article and clause
+thereof may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United
+States and the citizens thereof.
+
+In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal
+of the United States of America to be affixed.
+
+Done at the City of Washington, this 25th day of July in the year of
+our Lord one thousand nine hundred and seven, and of the Independence
+of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty-second.
+
+[SEAL.] THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
+
+By the President:
+
+ROBERT BACON
+
+_Acting Secretary of State._
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Santo Domingo, by Otto Schoenrich
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