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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/8860-8.txt b/8860-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..f80bc0f --- /dev/null +++ b/8860-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11971 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Palestine or the Holy Land, by Michael Russell + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Palestine or the Holy Land + From the Earliest Period to the Present Time + +Author: Michael Russell + +Release Date: September, 2005 [EBook #8860] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 15, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PALESTINE OR THE HOLY LAND *** + + + + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +[Illustration: Map of Palestine] + + +PALESTINE +OR +THE HOLY LAND. + +From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. + + +BY THE REV. MICHAEL RUSSELL, LL.D. + + + + +PREFACE. + +In giving an account of the Holy Land, an author, upon examining his +materials, finds himself presented with the choice either of simple +history on the one hand, or of mere local description on the other; and +the character of his book is of course determined by, the selection which +he makes of the first or the second of these departments. The volumes on +Palestine hitherto laid before the public will accordingly be found to +contain either a bare abridgment of the annals of the Jewish people, or a +topographical delineation of the country, the cities, and the towns which +they inhabited, from the date of the conquest under Joshua, down to the +period of their dispersion by Titus and Adrian. Several able works have +recently appeared on each of these subjects, and have been, almost without +exception, rewarded with the popularity which is seldom refused to +learning, and eloquence. But it occurred to the writer of the following +pages, that the expectations of the general reader would be more fully +answered were the two plans to be united, and the constitution, the +antiquities, the religion, the literature, and even the statistics of, +the Hebrews combined with the narrative of their rise and fall in the +sacred land bestowed upon their fathers. + +In following out this scheme, he has made it his study to leave no +source of information unexplored which might supply the means of +illustrating the political condition of the Twelve Tribes immediately +after they settled on the banks of the Jordan. The principles which +entered into the constitution of their commonwealth are extremely +interesting, both as they afford a fine example of the progress of +society in one of its earliest stages, when the migratory shepherd +gradually assumes the habits of the agriculturalist; and also as they +confirm the results of experience, in other cases, in regard to the +change which usually follows in the form of civil government, and in +the concentration of power in the hands of an individual. + +The chapter on the Literature and Religion of the Ancient Hebrews cannot +boast of a great variety of materials, because what of the subject is not +known to the youngest reader of the Bible must be sought for, in the +writings of Rabbinical authors, who have unfortunately directed the +largest share of their attention to the minutest parts of their Law, and +expended the labour of elucidation on those points which are least +interesting to the rest of the world. It is to be deeply regretted, +that so little is known respecting the Schools of the Prophets--those +seminaries which sent forth, not only the ordinary ministers of the Temple +and the Synagogue, but also that more distinguished order of men who were +employed as instruments for revealing the future intentions of Providence. +But the Author hesitates not to say, that he has availed himself of all +the materials which the research of modern times has brought to light, +while he has carefully rejected all such speculations or conjectures as +might gratify the curiosity of learning without tending to edify the +youthful mind. The account which is given of the Feasts and Fasts of the +Jews, both before and after the Babylonian Captivity, will, it is hoped, +prove useful to the reader, more especially by pointing out to him +appropriate subjects of reflection while perusing the Sacred Records. + +The history of Palestine, prior to the Fall of Jerusalem, rests upon the +authority of the inspired writers, or of those annalists, such as Josephus +and Tacitus, who flourished at the period of the events which they +describe. The narrative, which brings down the fortunes of that remarkable +country to the present day, is much more various both in its subject and +references; more especially where it embraces the exploits of the +Crusaders, those renowned devotees of religion, romance, and chivalry. The +reader will find in a narrow compass the substance of the extensive works +of Fuller, Wilken, Michaud, and Mills. In the more modern part of this +historical outline, in which the affairs of Palestine are intimately +connected with those of Egypt, it was thought unnecessary to repeat facts +mentioned at some length in the volume already published on the latter +country.[1] + +The topographical description of the holy Land is drawn from the works of +the long series of travellers and pilgrims, who, since the time of the +faithful Doubdan, have visited the interesting scenes where the Christian +Faith had its origin and completion. On this subject Maundrell is still a +principal authority; for, while we have the best reason to believe that he +recorded nothing but what he saw, we can trust implicitly to the accuracy +of his details in describing every thing which fell under his observation. +The same high character is due to Pococke and Sandys, writers whose +simplicity of style and thought afford a voucher for the truth of their +narratives. Nor are Thevenot, Paul Lucas, and Careri, though less +frequently consulted, at all unworthy of confidence as depositaries of +historical fact. In more modern times we meet with equal fidelity, +recommended by an exalted tone of feeling, in the volumes of Chateaubriand +and Dr. Richardson. Clarke, Burckhardt, Buckingham, Legh, Henniker, +Jowett, Light, Macworth, Irby and Mangles, Carne, and Wilson, have not +only contributed valuable materials, but also lent the aid of their names +to correct or to conform the statements of some of the more apocryphal +among their predecessors. + +The chapter on Natural History has no pretensions to scientific +arrangement or technical precision in its delineations. On the contrary, +it is calculated solely for the common reader, who would soon be disgusted +with the formal notation of the botanist, and could not understand the +learned terms in which the student of zoology too often finds the +knowledge of animal nature concealed. Its main object is to illustrate the +Scriptures, by giving an account of the quadrupeds, birds, serpents, +plants, and fruits which are mentioned from time to time by the inspired +writers of either Testament. + +Edinburgh, _September_, 1831. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS. + +Interest attached to the History of Palestine; Remarkable Character of +the Hebrew People; Their small Beginning and astonishing Increases; The +Variety of Fortune they underwent; Their constant Attachment to the +Promised Land; The Subject presents an interesting Problem to the +Historian and Politician; The Connexion with Christianity; Effect of this +Religion on the Progress of Society; Importance of the Subject to the +pious Reader; Holy Places; Pilgrims; Grounds for Believing the Ancient +Traditions on this Head; Constantine and the Empress Helena; Relics; +Natural Scenery; Extent of Canaan; Fertility; Geographical Distribution; +Countries Eastward of the Jordan; Galilee; Samaria; Bethlehem; Jericho; +The Dead Sea; Table representing the Possessions of the Twelve Tribes. + + +CHAPTER II. + +HISTORY OF THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH. + +Form of Government after the Death of Joshua; In Egypt; In the Wilderness; +Princes of Tribes and Heads of Families; Impatience to take Possession +of Promised Land; The Effects of it; Renewal of War; Extent of Holy +Land; Opinions of Fleury, Spanheim, Reland, and Lowman; Principle of +Distribution; Each Tribe confined to a separate Locality; Property +unalienable; Conditions of Tenure; Population of the Tribes; Number of +Principal Families; A General Government or National Council; The Judges; +Nature of their Authority; Not ordinary Magistrates; Different from Kings, +Consuls, and Dictators; Judicial Establishments; Judges and Officers; +Described by Josephus; Equality of Condition among the Hebrews; Their +Inclination for a Pastoral Life; Freebooters, like the Arabs; Abimelech, +Jephthah, and David; Simplicity of the Times; Boaz and Ruth; Tribe of +Levi; Object of their Separation; The learned Professions hereditary, +after the manner of the Egyptians; The Levitical Cities; Their Number and +Uses; Opinion of Michaelis; Summary View of the Times and Character of the +Hebrew Judges. + + +CHAPTER III. + +HISTORICAL OUTLINE FROM THE ACCESSION OF SAUL TO THE DESTRUCTION OF +JERUSALEM. + +Weakness of Republican Government; Jealousy of the several Tribes; +Resolution to have a King; Rules for regal Government; Character of +Saul; Of David; Troubles of his Reign; Accession of Solomon; Erection +of the Temple; Commerce; Murmurs of the People; Rehoboam; Division +of the Tribes; Kings of Israel; Kingdom of Judah; Siege of Jerusalem; +Captivity; Kings of Judah; Return from Babylon; Second Temple; Canon of +Scripture; Struggles between Egypt and Syria; Conquest of Palestine by +Antiochus; Persecution of Jews; Resistance by the Family of Maccabaeus; +Victories of Judas; He courts the Alliance of the Romans; Succeeded by +Jonathan; Origin of the Asmonean Princes; John Hyrcanus; Aristobulus; +Alexander Jannaeus; Appeal to Pompey; Jerusalem taken by Romans; Herod +created King by the Romans; He repairs to the Temple; Archelaus succeeds +him, and Antipas is nominated to Galilee; Quirinius Prefect of Syria; +Pontius Pilate; Elevation of Herod Agrippa; Disgrace of Herod Philip; +Judea again a Province; Troubles; Accession of Young Agrippa; Felix; +Festus; Floris; Command given to Vespasian; War; Siege of Jerusalem by +Titus. + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ON THE LITERATURE AND RELIGIOUS USAGES OF THE ANCIENT HEBREWS. + +Obscurity of the Subject; Learning issued from the Levitical Colleges; +Schools of the Prophets; Music and Poetry; Meaning of the term Prophecy; +Illustrated by References to the Old Testament and to the New; The power +of Prediction not confined to those bred in the Schools; Race of false +Prophets; Their Malignity and Deceit; Micaiah and Ahab; Charge against +Jeremiah the Prophet; Criterion to distinguish True from False Prophets; +The Canonical Writings of the Prophets; Literature of Prophets; Sublime +Nature of their Compositions; Examples from Psalms and Prophetical +Writings; Humane and liberal Spirit; Care used to keep alive the Knowledge +of the Law; Evils arising from the Division of Israel and Judah; Ezra +collects the Ancient Books; Schools of Prophets similar to Convents; +Sciences; Astronomy; Division of Time, Days, Months, and Years; +Sabbaths and New Moons; Jewish Festivals; Passover; Pentecost; Feast +of Tabernacles; Of Trumpets; Jubilee; Daughters of Zelophedad; Feast +of Dedication; Minor Anniversaries; Solemn Character of Hebrew Learning; +Its easy Adaptation to Christianity; Superior to the Literature of all +other ancient Nations. + + +CHAPTER V. + +DESCRIPTION OF JERUSALEM. + +Pilgrimages to the Holy Land; Arculfus; Willibald; Bernard; Effect of +Crusades; William de Bouldessell; Bertrandon de la Broquiere; State of +Damascus; Breidenbach; Baumgarten; Bartholemeo Georgewitz; Aldersey; +Sandys; Doubdan; Cheron; Thevenot; Gonzales; Morison; Maundrell; Pococke; +Road from Jaffa to Jerusalem; Plain of Sharon; Rama or Ramla; Condition of +the Peasantry; Vale of Jeremiah; Jerusalem; Remark of Chateaubriand; +Impressions of different Travellers; Dr. Clarke; Tasso; Volney; Henniker; +Mosque of Omar described; Mysterious Stone; Church of Holy Sepulchre; +Ceremonies of Good Friday; Easter; The Sacred Fire; Grounds for +Skepticism; Folly of the Priests; Emotion upon entering the Holy Tomb; +Description of Chateaubriand; Holy Places in the City; On Mount Zion; +Pool of Siloam; Fountain of the Virgin; Valley of Jehoshaphat; Mount of +Offence; The Tombs of Zechariah, of Jehoshaphat, and of Absalom; Jewish +Architecture; Dr. Clarke's Opinion on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem; +Opposed by other Writers; The Inexpedience of such Discussions. + + +CHAPTER VI. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY SOUTH AND EAST OF JERUSALEM. + +Garden of Gethsemane; Tomb of Virgin Mary; Grottoes on Mount of Olives; +View of the City; Extent and Boundaries; View of Bethany and Dead Sea; +Bethlehem; Convent; Church of the Nativity described; Paintings; Music; +Population of Bethlehem; Pools of Solomon; Dwelling of Simon the Leper; Of +Mary Magdalene; Tower of Simeon; Tomb of Rachel; Convent of St. John; Fine +Church; Tekoa Bethulia; Hebron; Sepulchre of Patriarchs; Albaid; Kerek; +Extremity of Dead Sea; Discoveries of Bankes, Legh, and Irby and Mangles; +Convent of St. Saba; Valley of Jordan; Mountains; Description of Lake +Asphaltites; Remains of Ancient Cities in its Basin; Quality of its +Waters; Apples of Sodom; Tacitus, Seetzen, Hasselquist, Chateaubriand; +Width of River Jordan; Jericho; Village of Rihhah; Balsam; Fountain of +Elisha; Mount of Temptation; Place of Blood; Anecdote of Sir F. Henniker; +Fountain of the Apostles; Return to Jerusalem; Markets; Costume; Science; +Arts; Language; Jews; Present Condition of that People. + + +CHAPTER VII. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY NORTHWARD OF JERUSALEM. + +Grotto of Jeremiah; Sepulchres of the Kings; Singular Doors; Village of +Leban; Jacob's Well; Valley of Shechem; Nablous; Samaritans; Sebaste; +Jennin; Gilead; Geraza or Djerash; Description of Ruins; Gergasha of the +Hebrews; Rich Scenery of Gilead; River Jabbok; Souf; Ruins of Gamala; +Magnificent Theatre; Gadara; Capernaum, or Talhewm; Sea of Galilee; +Bethsaida and Chorazin; Tarrachea; Sumuk; Tiberias; Description of modern +Town; House Of St. Peter; Baths; University; Mount Tor, or Tabor; +Description by Pococke, Maundrell, Burckhardt, and Doubdan; View from the +Top; Great Plain; Nazareth; Church of Annunciation; Workshop of Joseph; +Mount of Precipitation; Table of Christ; Cana, or Kefer Kenna; Waterpots +of Stone; Saphet, or Szaffad; University; French; Sidney Smith; Dan; +Sepphoris; Church of St. Anne; Description by Dr. Clarke; Vale of Zabulon; +Vicinity of Acre. + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE HISTORY OF PALESTINE FROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM, TO THE PRESENT TIME. + +State of Judea after the Fall of Jerusalem; Revolt under Trajan; +Barcochab; Adrian repairs Jerusalem; Schools at Babylon and Tiberias; +Attempt of Julian to rebuild the Temple; Invasion of Chosroes; Sack of +Jerusalem; Rise of Islamism; Wars of the Califs; First Crusade; Jerusalem +delivered; Policy of Crusades; Victory at Ascalon; Baldwin King; Second +Crusade; Saladin; His Success at Tiberias; He recovers Jerusalem; The +Third Crusade; Richard Coeur de Lion; Siege and Capture of Acre; Plans of +Richard; His Return to Europe; Death of Saladin; Fourth Crusade; Battle of +Jaffa; Fifth Crusade; Fall of Constantinople; Sixth Crusade; Damietta +taken; Reverses; Frederick the Second made King of Jerusalem; Seventh +Crusade; Christians admitted into the Holy City; Inroad of Karismians; +Eighth Crusade under Louis IX.; He takes Damietta; His Losses and Return +to Europe; Ninth Crusade; Louis IX. and Edward I; Death of Louis; +Successes of Edward; Treaty with Sultan; Final Discomfiture of the Franks +in Palestine, and Loss of Acre; State of Palestine under the Turks; +Increased Toleration; Bonaparte invades Syria; Siege of Acre and Defeat +of French; Actual State of the Holy Land; Number, Condition, and Character +of the Jews. + + +CHAPTER IX. + +THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PALESTINE. + +Travellers too much neglect Natural History--Maundrell; Hasselquist, +Clarke. GEOLOGY--Syrian Chain; Libanus; Calcareous Rocks; Granite; +Trap; Volcanic Remains; Chalk; Marine Exuviae; Precious Stones. +METEOROLOGY--Climate of Palestine; Winds; Thunder; Clouds; Waterspouts; +Ignis Fatuus. ZOOLOGY--Scripture Animals; The Hart; The Roebuck; +Fallow-Deer; Wild Goat; Pygarg; Wild Ox; Chamois; Unicorn; Wild Ass; Wild +Goats of the Rock; Saphan, or Coney; Mouse; Porcupine; Jerboa; Mole; Bat. +BIRDS--Eagle; Ossifrage; Ospray; Vulture; Kite; Raven; Owl; Nighthawk; +Cuckoo; Hawk; Little Owl; Cormorant; Great Owl; Swan; Pelican; Gier Eagle; +Stork; Heron; Lapwing; Hoopoe. AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES--Serpents known to the +Hebrews; Ephe; Chephir; Acshub; Pethen; Tzeboa; Tzimmaon; Tzepho; Kippos; +Shephiphon; Shachal; Seraph, the Flying Serpent; Cockatrice' Eggs; The +Scorpion; Sea-monsters, or Seals. FRUITS AND PLANTS--Vegetable Productions +of Palestine; The Fig-tree; Palm; Olive; Cedars of Libanus; Wild Grapes; +Balsam of Aaron; Thorn of Christ. + + +ENGRAVINGS. + +Map of Palestine +Vignette--Part of Jerusalem, with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre +View of Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives +Fountain of Siloam +Tomb of Absalom +Village of Bethany, and Dead Sea +Subterranean Church of Bethlehem +River Jabbok, and Hilts of Bashan +Sea of Galilee, Town of Tiberias, and Baths of Emmaus +Mount Tabor + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +_Introductory Observations_. + +Interest attached to the History of Palestine; Remarkable Character of the +Hebrew People; Their small Beginning and astonishing Increase; The Variety +of Fortune they underwent; Their constant Attachment to the Promised Land; +The Subject presents an interesting Problem to the Historian and +Politician; The Connexion with Christianity; Effect of this Religion on +the Progress of Society; Importance of the Subject to the pious Reader; +Holy Places; Pilgrims; Grounds for believing the ancient Traditions on +this Head; Constantine and the Empress Helena; Relics; Natural Scenery; +Extent of Canaan; Fertility; Geographical Distribution; Countries eastward +of the Jordan; Galilee; Bethlehem; Samaria; Jericho; The Dead Sea; Table +representing the Possessions of the Twelve Tribes. + +The country to which the name of Palestine is given by moderns is that +portion of the Turkish empire in Asia which is comprehended within the +31st and 34th degrees north latitude, and extends from the Mediterranean +to the Syrian Desert, eastward of the river Jordan and the Dead Sea. +Whether viewed as the source of our religions faith; or as the most +ancient fountain of our historical knowledge, this singular spot of earth +has at all times been regarded with feelings of the deepest interest and +curiosity. Inhabited for many ages by a people entitled above all others +to the distinction of peculiar, it presents a record of events such as +have not come to pass in any other land, monuments of a belief denied to +all other nations, hopes not elsewhere cherished, but which, nevertheless, +are connected with the destiny of the whole human race, and stretch +forward to the consummation of all terrestrial things. + +To the eye of mere philosophy nothing can appear more striking than the +events produced upon the world at large by the opinions and events which +originated among the Jewish people. A pastoral family, neither so +numerous, so warlike, nor so well instructed in the arts of civilized life +as many others in the same quarter of the globe, gradually increased into +a powerful community, became distinguished by a system of doctrines and +usages different from those of all the surrounding tribes; retaining it, +too, amid the numerous changes of fortune to which they were subjected, +and finally impressing its leading principles upon the most enlightened +nations of Asia and of Europe. At a remote era Abraham crosses the +Euphrates, a solitary traveller, not knowing whither he went, but obeying +a divine voice, which called him from among idolaters to become the father +of a new people and of a purer faith, at a distance from his native +country. His grandson Jacob, a "Syrian ready to perish," goes down into +Egypt with a few individuals, where his descendants, although evil +entreated and afflicted, became a "nation, great, mighty, and populous," +and whence they were delivered by the special interposition of Heaven. In +prosperity and adversity they are still the objects of the same vigilant +Providence which reserved them for a great purpose to be accomplished in +the latter days; while the Israelites themselves, as if conscious that +their election was to be crowned with momentous results, still kept their +thoughts fixed on Palestine, as the theatre of their glory, not less than +as the possession of their tribes. + +We accordingly see them at one period in bondage, the victims of a +relentless tyranny, and menaced with complete extirpation; but the hope +of enjoying the land promised to their fathers never ceased to animate +their hearts, for they trusted that God would surely visit them in the +house of their affliction, and, in his appointed time, carry them into +the inheritance of peace and rest. At a later epoch we behold them swept +away as captives by the hands of idolaters, who used all the motives which +spring from fear and from interest to secure their compliance with a +foreign worship; but rejecting all such inducements, they still continued +a separate people, steadily resisting the operation of those causes which, +in almost every other instance, have been found sufficient to melt down a +vanquished horde into the population and habits of their masters. At +length they appear as the instruments of a dispensation which embraces +the dearest interests of all the sons of Adam; and which, in happier +circumstances than ever fell to their own lot, has already modified and +greatly exalted the character, the institutions, and the prospects of the +most improved portion of mankind in both hemispheres of the globe. + +Connected with Christianity, indeed, the history of the Hebrews rises +before the reflecting mind in a very singular point of view; for, in +opposition to their own wishes they laid the foundations of a religion +which has not only superseded their peculiar rites, but is rapidly +advancing towards that universal acceptation which they were wont to +anticipate in favour of their own ancient law. In spite of themselves they +have acted as the little leaven which was destined to leaven the whole +lump; and in performing this office, they have proceeded with nearly the +same absence of intention and consciousness as the latent principle of +fermentation to which the metaphor bears allusion. They aimed at one +thing, and have accomplished another; but while we compare the means with +the ends; whether in their physical or moral relations, it must be +admitted that we therein examine one of the most remarkable events +recorded in the annals of the human race. + +Abstracting his thoughts from all the considerations of supernatural +agency which are suggested by the inspired narrative, a candid man will +nevertheless feel himself compelled to acknowledge that the course of +events which constitutes the history of ancient Palestine has no parallel +in any other part of the world. Fixing his eyes on the small district of +Judea, he calls to mind that eighteen hundred years ago there dwelt in +that little region a singular and rather retired people, who, however, +differed from the rest of mankind in the very important circumstance of +not being idolaters. He looks around upon every other country of the +earth, where he discovers superstitions of the most hateful and degrading +kind, darkening all the prospects of the human being, and corrupting his +moral nature in its very source. He observes that some of these nations +are far advanced in many intellectual accomplishments, yet, being unable +to shake off the tremendous load of error by which they are pressed down, +are extremely irregular and capricious, both in the management of their +reason and in the application of their affections. He learns, moreover, +that this little spot called Palestine is despised and scorned by those +proud kingdoms, whose wise men would not for a moment allow themselves to +imagine, that any speculation or tenet arising from so ignoble a quarter +could have the slightest influence upon their belief, or affect, in the +most minute degree, the general character of their social condition. + +But, behold, while he yet muses over this interesting scene, a Teacher +springs up from among the lower orders of the Hebrew people,--himself not +less contemned by his countrymen than they were by the warlike Romans +and the Philosophic Greeks,--whose doctrines, notwithstanding, continue +to gain ground on every hand, till at last the proud monuments of pagan +superstition, consecrated by the worship of a thousand years, and +supported by the authority of the most powerful monarchies in the world, +fall one after another at the approach of his disciples, and before the +prevailing efficacy of the new faith. A little stone becomes a mountain, +and fills the whole earth. Judea swells in its dimensions till it covers +half the globe, carrying captivity captive, not by force of arms, but by +the progress of opinion and the power of truth, all the nations of Europe +in successive ages,--Greek, Roman, Barbarian,--glory in the name of the +humble Galilean; armies, greater than those which Persia in the pride of +her ambition led forth to conquest, are seen swarming into Asia, with the +sole view of getting possession of his sepulchre; while the East and the +West combine to adorn with their treasures the stable in which he was +born, and the sacred mount on which he surrendered his precious life.[2] + +On these grounds, there is presented to the historian and politician a +problem of the most interesting nature, and which is not to be solved by +any reference to the ordinary principles whence mankind are induced to +act or to suffer. The effects, too, produced on society, exceed all +calculation. It is in vain that we attempt to compare them to those more +common revolutions which have changed for a time the face of nations, or +given a new dynasty to ancient empires. The impression made by such events +soon passes away: the troubled surface quickly resumes its equilibrium, +and displays its wonted tranquility; and hence we may assert, that the +present condition of the world is not much different from what it would +have been, though Alexander had never been born and Julius Caesar had +died in his cradle. But the occurrences that enter into the history of +Palestine possess an influence on human affairs which has no other limits +than the existence of the species, and which will be everywhere more +deeply felt in proportion as society advances in knowledge and refinement. +The greatest nations upon earth trace their happiness and civilization to +its benign principles and lofty sanctions. Science, freedom, and security, +attend its progress among all conditions of men; raising the low, +befriending the unfortunate, giving strength to the arm of law, and +breaking the rod of the oppressor. + +Nor is the subject of less interest to the pious Christian, who confines +his thoughts to the momentous facts which illustrate the early annals of +his religion. His affections are bound to Palestine by the strongest +associations; and every portion of its varied territory, its mountains, +its lakes, and even its deserts are consecrated in his eyes as the scene +of some mighty occurrence. His fancy clothes with qualities almost +celestial that holy land, + + Over whose acres walked those blessed feet, + Which eighteen hundred years ago were nailed + For our advantage to the bitter cross.[3] + +In a former age, when devotional feelings were wont to assume a more +poetical form than suits the taste of the present times, an undue +importance, perhaps, was placed on the mere localities of Judea, viewed +as the theatre on which the great events of Christianity were realized, +and more especially on those relics which were considered as identifying +particular spots, honoured by the sufferings or triumph of its Divine +author. The zealous pilgrim, who had travelled many thousand miles +amid the most appalling dangers, required a solace to his faith in the +contemplation of the cross, or in being permitted to kiss the threshold of +the tomb in which the body of his Redeemer was laid. To such a character +no description could be too minute, no details could be too particular. +Forgetful of the ravages inflicted on Jerusalem by the hand of the Romans, +and by the more furious anger of her own children within her,--fulfilling +unintentionally that tremendous doom which was pronounced from the Mount +of Olives,--the simple worshipper expected to see the hall of judgment, +the house of Pilate, and the palace of the high-priest, and to be able to +trace through the streets and lanes of the holy city the path which led +his Saviour to Calvary. This natural desire to awaken piety through the +medium of the senses, and to banish all unbelief by touching with the +hand, and seeing with the eye, the memorials of the crucifixion, has, +there is reason to apprehend, been sometimes abused by fraud as well as +by ignorance. + +But it is nevertheless worthy of remark, that from the very situation of +Jerusalem, so well defined by natural limits which it cannot have passed, +there is less difficulty in determining places with a certain degree of +precision than would be experienced in any other ancient town. Nor can it +be justly questioned, that the primitive Christians marked with peculiar +care the principal localities distinguished by the deeds or by the +afflictions of their Divine Master. It is natural to suppose, as M. +Chateaubriand well observes, that the apostles and relatives of our +Saviour, who composed his first church upon earth, were perfectly +acquainted with all the circumstances attending his life, his ministry, +and his death; and as Golgotha and the Mount of Olives were not enclosed +within the walls of the city, they would encounter less restraint in +performing their devotions to the places which were sanctified by his more +frequent presence and miracles. Besides, the knowledge of these scenes was +soon extended to a very wide circle. The triumph of Pentecost increased +vastly the number of believers; and hence a regular congregation appears +to have been formed in Jerusalem before the expiry of the third year from +that memorable epoch. If it be admitted that the early Christians were +allowed to erect monuments to their religious worship, or even to select +houses for their periodical assemblies, the probability will not be +questioned that they fixed upon those interesting spots which had been +distinguished by the wonders of their faith. + +At the commencement of the troubles in Judea, during the reign of +Vespasian, the Christians of Jerusalem withdrew to Pella, and as soon as +their metropolis was demolished they returned to dwell among its ruins. +In the space of a few months they could not have forgotten the position +of their sanctuaries, which, generally speaking, being situated outside +the walls, could not have suffered so much from the siege as the more +lofty edifices within. That the holy places were known to all men in the +time of Adrian is demonstrated by an undeniable fact. This emperor, when +he rebuilt the city, erected a statue of Venus on Mount Calvary, and +another of Jupiter on the sacred sepulchre. The grotto of Bethlehem was +given up to the rites of Adonis, the jealousy of the idolaters thus +publishing by their abominable profanations, the sublime doctrines of +the Cross, which it was their object to conceal or calumniate. + +But Adrian, although actuated by an ardent zeal in behalf of his own +deities, did not persecute the Christians at large. His resentment seems +to have been confined to the Nazarenes in Jerusalem, whom he could not +help regarding as a portion of the Jewish nation,--the irreconcilable +enemies of Rome. We accordingly perceive, that he had no sooner dispersed +the church of the Circumcision established in the holy city, than he +permitted within its walls the formation of a Christian community, +composed of Gentile converts, whose political principles, he imagined, +were less inimical to the sovereignty of the empire. At the same time he +wrote to the governors of his Asiatic provinces, instructing them not to +molest the believers in Christ, merely on account of their creed, but to +reserve all punishment for crimes committed against the laws and the +public tranquillity. It has therefore been very generally admitted; that +during this period of repose, and even down to the reign of Dioclesian, +the faithful at Jerusalem, now called Aelia, celebrated the mysteries of +their religion in public, and consequently had altars consecrated to their +worship. If, indeed, they were not allowed the possession of Calvary, the +Holy Sepulchre, and of Bethlehem, where they might solemnize their sacred +rites, it is not to be imagined that the memory of these holy sanctuaries +could be effaced from their affectionate recollection. The very idols +served to mark the places where the Christian redemption was begun and +completed. Nay, the pagans themselves cherished the expectation that the +temple of Venus, erected on the summit of Calvary, would not prevent the +Christians from visiting that holy mount; rejoicing in the idea, as the +historian Sozomen expresses it, that the Nazarenes, when they repaired to +Golgotha to pray, would appear to the public eye to be offering up their +adoration to the daughter of Jupiter. This is a striking proof that a +perfect knowledge of the sacred places was retained by the church of +Jerusalem in the middle of the second century. At a somewhat later period, +when exposed to persecution, if they were not allowed to build their +altars at the Sepulchre, or proceed without apprehension to the scene of +the Nativity, they enjoyed at least the consolation of keeping alive the +remembrance of the great events connected with these interesting monuments +of their faith; anticipating, at the same time, the approaching ruin of +that proud superstition by which they had been so long oppressed. + +The conversion of Constantine gave a new vigour to these local +reminiscences of the evangelical history. That celebrated ruler wrote to +Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, to cover the tomb of Jesus Christ with a +magnificent church; while his mother, the Empress Helena, repaired in +person to Palestine, in order to glue a proper efficacy to the zeal which +animated the throne, and to assist in searching for the venerable remains +of the first age of the gospel. To this illustrious female is ascribed the +glory of restoring to religion some of its most valued memorials. Not +satisfied with the splendid temple erected at the Holy Sepulchre, she +ordered two similar edifices to be reared under her own auspices; one over +the manger of the Messiah at Bethlehem, and the other on the Mount of +Olives, to commemorate his ascension into heaven. Chapels, altars, and +houses of prayer gradually marked all the places consecrated by the acts +of the Son of Man; the oral traditions were forthwith committed to +writing, and thereby secured for ever from the treachery of individual +recollection.[4] + +These considerations gave great probability to the conjectures of those +pious persons who, in the fourth century of our era, assisted the mother +of Constantine in fixing the locality of holy scenes. From that period +down to the present day, the devotion of the Christian and the avarice of +the Mohammedan have sufficiently secured the remembrance both of the +places and of the events with which they are associated. But no length of +time can wear out the impression of deep reverence and respect which are +excited by an actual examination of those interesting spots that witnessed +the stupendous occurrences recorded in the inspired volume. Or, if there +be in existence any cause which could effectually counteract such natural +and laudable feelings, it is the excessive minuteness of detail and +fanciful description usually found to accompany the exhibition of sacred +relics. The Christian traveller is delighted when he obtains the first +glance of Carmel, of Tabor, of Libanus, and of Olivet; his heart opens to +many touching recollections at the moment when the Jordan, the Lake of +Tiberias, and even the waters of the Dead Sea spread themselves out before +his eyes; but neither his piety nor his belief is strengthened when he has +presented to him a portion of the cross whereon our Saviour was suspended, +the nails that pierced his hands and feet, the linen in which his body was +wrapped, the stone on which his corpse reposed in the sepulchre, as well +as that occupied by the ministering angel on the morning of the +resurrection. The skepticism with which such doubtful remains cannot fail +to be examined is turned into positive disgust when, the guardians of the +grotto at Bethlehem undertake to show the water wherein the infant Messiah +was washed, the milk of the blessed Virgin his mother, the +swaddling-clothes, the manger, and other particulars neither less minute +nor less improbable. + +But such abuses, the fruit of many ages of credulity and ignorance, do not +materially diminish the force of the impression produced by scenes which +no art can change, and hardly any description can disguise. The hills +still stand round about Jerusalem, as they stood in the days of David and +of Solomon. The dew falls on Hermon, the cedars grow on Libanus, and +Kishon, that ancient river, draws its stream from Tabor as in the times of +old. The Sea of Galilee still presents the same natural accompaniments, +the fig-tree springs up by the wayside, the sycamore spreads its branches, +and the vines and olives still climb the sides of the mountains. The +desolation which covered the Cities of the Plain is not less striking at +the present hour than when Moses with an inspired pen recorded the +judgment of God; the swellings of Jordan are not less regular in their +rise than when the Hebrews first approached its banks; and he who goes +down from Jerusalem to Jericho still incurs the greatest hazard of falling +among thieves. There is, in fact, in the scenery and manners of Palestine, +a perpetuity that accords well with the everlasting import of its +historical records, and which enables us to identify with the utmost +readiness the local imagery of every great transaction. + +The extent of this remarkable country has varied at different times, +according to the nature of the government which it has either enjoyed or +been compelled to acknowledge. When it was first occupied by the +Israelites, the land of Canaan, properly so called, was confined between +the shores of the Mediterranean and the western bank of the Jordan; the +breadth at no part exceeding fifty miles, while the length hardly amounted +to three times that space. At a later period, the arms of David and of his +immediate successor carried the boundaries of the kingdom to the Euphrates +and Orontes on the one hand, an in an opposite direction to the remotest +confines of Edom and Moab. The population, as might be expected, has +undergone a similar variation. It is true that no particular in ancient +history is liable to a better-founded suspicion than the numerical +statements which respect nations and armies; for pride and fear have, in +their turn, contributed not a little to exaggerate, in rival countries, +the amount of the persons capable of taking a share in the field of +battle. Proceeding on the usual grounds of calculation, we must infer, +from the number of warriors whom Moses conducted through the desert, that +the Hebrew people, when they crossed the Jordan, did not fall short of two +millions; while, from facts recorded in the book of Samuel, we may +conclude with greater confidence that the enrolment made under the +direction of Joab must have returned a gross population of five millions +and a half. + +The present aspect of Palestine, under an administration where every thing +decays and nothing is renewed, can afford no just criterion of the +accuracy of such statements. Hasty observers have indeed pronounced that a +hilly country destitute of great rivers, could not, even under the most +skilful management, supply food for so many mouths. But this precipitate +conclusion has been vigorously combated by the most competent judges, who +have taken pains to estimate the produce of a soil under the fertilizing +influence of a sun which may be regarded as almost tropical, and of a +well-regulated irrigation which the Syrians knew how to practise with the +greatest success. Canaan, it must be admitted, could not be compared to +Egypt in respect to corn. There is no Nile to scatter the riches of an +inexhaustible fecundity over its valleys and plains. Still it was not +without reason that Moses described it as "a good land, a land of brooks +of water, of fountains, and depths that spring out of valleys and hills; a +land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates; a +land of oil-olive and honey; a land wherein thou shalt eat bread without +scarceness, thou shalt not lack any thing in it; a land whose stones are +iron, and out of whose hills thou mayst dig brass."[5] + +The reports of the latest travellers confirm the accuracy of the picture +drawn by this divine legislator. Near Jericho the wild olives continue to +bear berries of a large size, which give the finest oil. In places +subjected to irrigation, the same field, after a crop of wheat in May, +produces pulse in autumn. Several of the trees are continually bearing +flowers and fruit at the same time, in all their stages. The mulberry, +planted in straight rows in the open field, is festooned by the tendrils +of the vine. If this vegetation seems to languish or become extinct during +the extreme heats,--if in the mountains it is at all seasons detached and +interrupted,--such exceptions to the general luxuriance are not to be +ascribed simply to the general character of all hot climates, but also to +the state of barbarism in which the great mass of the present population +is immersed. + +Even in our day, some remains are to be found of the walls which the +ancient cultivators built to support the soil on the declivities of the +mountains; the form of the cisterns in which they collected the +rain-water; and traces of the canals by which this water was distributed +over the fields. These labours necessarily created a prodigious fertility +under an ardent sun, where a little moisture was the only requisite to +revive the vegetable world. The accounts given by native writers +respecting the productive qualities of Judea are not in any degree opposed +even by the present aspect of the country. The case is exactly the same +with some islands in the Archipelago; a tract, from which a hundred +individuals can hardly draw a scanty subsistence, formerly maintained +thousands in affluence. Moses might justly say that Canaan abounded in +milk and honey. The flocks of the Arabs still find in it a luxuriant +pasture, while the bees deposite in the holes of the rocks their delicious +stores, which are sometimes seen flowing down the surface. + +The opinions just stated in regard to the fertility of ancient Palestine +receive an ample confirmation from the Roman historians, to whom, as a +part of their extensive empire, it was intimately known. Tacitus, +especially, in language which he appears to have formed for his own use, +describes its natural qualities with the utmost precision, and, as is his +manner, suggests rather than specifies a catalogue of productions, the +accuracy of which is verified by the latest observations. The soil is +rich, and the atmosphere dry; the country yields all the fruits which are +known in Italy, besides balm and dates.[6] + +But it has never been denied that there is a remarkable difference between +the two sides of the ridge which forms the central chain of Judea. On the +western acclivity, the soil rises from the sea towards the elevated ground +in four distinct terraces, which are covered with an unfading verdure. The +shore is lined with mastic-trees; palms, and prickly pears. Higher up, the +vines, the olives, and the sycamores amply repay the labour of the +cultivator; natural groves arise, consisting of evergreen oaks, cypresses, +andrachnés, and turpentines. The face of the earth is embellished with the +rosemary, the cytisus, and the hyacinth. In a word, the vegetation of +these mountains has been compared to that of Crete. European visitors have +dined under the shade of a lemon-tree as large as one of our strongest +oaks, and have seen sycamores, the foliage of which was sufficient to +cover thirty persons along with their horses and camels. + +On the eastern side, however, the scanty coating of mould yields a less +magnificent crop. From the summit of the hills a desert stretches along to +the Lake Asphaltites, presenting nothing but stones and ashes, and a few +thorny shrubs. The sides of the mountains enlarge, and assume an aspect +at once more grand and more barren. By little and little the scanty +vegetation languishes and dies; even mosses disappear, and a red burning +hue succeeds to the whiteness of the rocks. In the centre of this +amphitheatre there is an arid basin, enclosed on all sides with summits +scattered over with a yellow-coloured pebble, and affording a single +aperture to the east through which the surface of the Dead Sea and the +distant hills of Arabia present themselves to the eye. In the midst of this +country of stones, encircled by a wall, we perceive extensive ruins; +stunted cypresses, bushes of the aloe and prickly pear, while some huts of +the meanest order, resembling whitewashed sepulchres, are spread over the +desolated mass. This spot is Jerusalem.[7] + +This melancholy delineation, which was suggested by the state of the +Jewish metropolis in the third century, is not quite inapplicable at the +present hour. The scenery of external nature is the same, and the general +aspect of the venerable city is very little changed. But as beauty is +strictly a relative term, and is everywhere greatly affected by +association, we must not be surprised when we read in the works of eastern +authors the high encomiums which are lavished upon the vicinity of the +holy capital. Abulfeda, for example, maintains, not only that Palestine is +the most fertile part of Syria, but also that the neighbourhood of +Jerusalem is one of the most fertile districts of Palestine. In his eye, +the vines, the fig-trees, and the olive-groves, with which the limestone +cliffs of Judea were once covered, identified themselves with the richest +returns of agricultural wealth, and more than compensated for the absence +of those spreading fields waving with corn which are necessary to convey +to the mind of a European the ideas of fruitfulness, comfort, and +abundance. + +Following the enlightened narrative of Malte Brun, the reader will find +that southward of Damascus, the point where the modern Palestine may be +said to begin, are the countries called by the Romans Auranitis and +Gaulonitis, consisting of one extensive and noble plain, bounded on the +north by Hermon or Djibel-el-Sheik, on the south-west by Djibel-Edjlan, +and on the east by Haouran. In all these countries there is not a single +stream which retains its water in summer. The most of the villages have +their pond or reservoir, which they fill from one of the wadi, or brooks, +during the rainy season. Of all these districts, Haouran is the most +celebrated for the culture of wheat. Nothing can exceed in grandeur the +extensive undulations of their fields, moving like the waves of the ocean +in the wind. Bothin or Batanea, on the other hand, contains nothing except +calcareous mountains, where there are vast caverns, in which the Arabian +shepherds live like the ancient Troglodytes. Here a modern traveller, Dr. +Seetzen, discovered, in the year 1816, the magnificent ruins of Gerasa, +now called Djerash, where three temples, two superb amphitheatres of +marble, and hundreds of columns still remain among other monuments of +Roman power. But by far the finest thing that he saw was a long street, +bordered on each side with a splendid colonnade of Corinthian +architecture, and terminating in an open space of a semicircular form, +surrounded with sixty Ionic pillars. In the same neighbourhood the ancient +Gilead is distinguished by a forest of stately oaks, which supply wealth +and employment to the inhabitants. Peraea presents on its numerous +terraces a mixture of vines, olives, and pomegranates. Karak-Moab, the +capital of a district corresponding to that of the primitive Moabites, +still meets the eye, but is not to be confounded with another town of a +similar name in the Stony Arabia.[8] + +The countries now described lie on the eastern side of the river Jordan. +But the same stream, in the upper part of its course, forms the boundary +between Gaulonitis and the fertile Galilee, which is identical with the +modern district of Szaffad. This town, which is remarkable for the beauty +of its situation amid groves of myrtle, is supposed to be the ancient +Bethulia, which was besieged by Holofernes. Tabara, an insignificant +place, occupies the site of Tiberias, which gave its name to the lake more +generally known by that of Genesareth, or the Sea of Galilee; but industry +has now deserted its borders, and the fisherman with his skiff and his +nets no longer animates the surface of its waters. Nazareth still retains +some portion of its former consequence. Six miles farther south stands the +hill of Tabor, sometimes denominated Itabyrius, presenting a pyramid of +verdure crowned with olives and sycamores. From the top of this mountain, +the modern Tor and scene of the transfiguration, we look down on the river +Jordan, the Lake of Genesareth, and the Mediterranean Sea.[9] + +Galilee, says a learned writer, would be a paradise were it inhabited by +an industrious people under an enlightened government. Vine stocks are to +be seen here a foot and a half in diameter, forming, by their twining +branches, vast arches and extensive ceilings of verdure. A cluster of +grapes, two or three feet in length, will give an abundant supper to a +whole family. The plains of Esdraelon are occupied by Arab tribes, around +whose brown tents the sheep and lambs gambol to the sound of the reed, +which at nightfall calls them home.[10] + +For some years this fine country has groaned and bled under the malignant +genius of Turkish despotism. The fields are left without cultivation, and +the towns and villages are reduced to beggary; but the latest accounts +from the holy Land encourage us to entertain the hope, that a milder +administration will soon change the aspect of affairs, and bestow upon the +Syrian provinces at large some of the benefits which the more liberal +policy of Mohammed Ali has conferred upon the pashalic of Egypt. + +Proceeding from Galilee towards the metropolis, we enter the land of +Samaria, comprehending the modern districts of Areta and Nablous. In the +former we find the remains of Cesarea; and on the Gulf of St. Jean d'Acre +stands the town of Caypha, where there is a good anchorage for ships. On +the south-west of this gulf extends a chain of mountains, which terminates +in the promontory of Carmel, a name famous in the annals of our religion. +There Elijah proved by miracles the divinity of his mission; and there, in +the middle ages of the church, resided thousands of Christian devotees, +who sought a refuge for their piety in the caves of the rocks. Then the +mountain was wholly covered with chapels and gardens, whereas at the +present day nothing is to be seen but scattered ruins amid forests of oak +and olives, the bright verdure being only relieved by the whiteness of the +calcareous cliffs over which they are suspended. The heights of Carmel, it +has been frequently remarked, enjoy a pure and enlivening atmosphere, +while the lower grounds of Samaria and Galileo are obscured by the densest +fogs. + +The Shechem of the Scriptures, successively known by the names of Neapolis +and Nablous, still contains a considerable population, although its +dwellings are mean and its inhabitants poor. The ruins of Samaria itself +are now covered with orchards; and the people of the district, who have +forgotten their native dialect, as well perhaps as their angry disputes +with the Jews, continue to worship the Deity on the verdant slopes of +Gerizim. + +Palestine, agreeably to the modern acceptation of the term, embraces the +country of the ancient Philistines, the most formidable enemies of the +Hebrew tribes prior to the reign of David. Besides Gaza, the chief town, +we recognise the celebrated port of Jaffa or Yaffa, corresponding to +the Joppa mentioned in the Sacred Writings. Repeatedly fortified and +dismantled, this famous harbour has presented such a variety of +appearances, that the description given of it in one age has hardly +ever been found to apply to its condition in the very next. + +Bethlehem, where the divine Messias was born, is a large village inhabited +promiscuously by Christians and Mussulmans, who agree in nothing but their +detestation of the tyranny by which they are both unmercifully oppressed. +The locality of the sacred manger is occupied by an elegant church, +ornamented by the pious offerings of all the nations of Europe. It is +not our intention to enter into a more minute discussion of those old +traditions, by which the particular places rendered sacred by the +Redeemer's presence are still marked out for the veneration of the +faithful. They present much vagueness, mingled with no small portion of +unquestionable truth. At all events, we must not regard them in the same +light in which we are compelled to view the story that claims for Hebron +the possession of Abraham's tomb, and attracts on this account the +veneration both of Nazarenes and Moslems. + +To the north-east of Jerusalem, in the large and fertile valley called +El-Gaur, and watered by the Jordan, we find the village of Rah, the +ancient Jericho, denominated by Moses the City of Palms. This is a name +to which it is still entitled; but the groves of opobalsamum, or balm +of Moses, have long disappeared; nor is the neighbourhood any longer +adorned with those singular flowers known among the Crusaders by the +familiar appellation of Jericho roses. A little farther south two rough +and barren chains of hills encompass with their dark steeps a long basin +formed in a clay soil mixed with bitumen and rock-salt. The water +contained in this hollow is impregnated with a solution of different +saline substances, having lime, magnesia, and soda for their base, +partially neutralized with muriatic and sulfuric acid. The salt which it +yields by evaporation is about one-fourth, of its weight. The bituminous +matter rises from time to time from the bottom of the lake, floats on +the surface, and is thrown out on the shores, where it is gathered for +various economical purposes. It is to be regretted that this inland sea +has not yet been examined with the attention which it deserves. We +are told, indeed, by the greater number of those who have visited it, +that neither fish nor shells are to be found in its waters; that an +unwholesome vapour is constantly emitted from its bosom; and that its +banks, hideous and desolate in the extreme, are never cheered by the +note of any bird. But it is admitted by the same travellers, that +the inhabitants are not sensible of any noxious qualities in its +exhalations; while the accounts formerly believed, that the winged +tribes in attempting to fly over it fell down dead, are now generally +regarded as fabulous. Tradition supports the narrative of Sacred +Scripture so far as to teach that the channel of the Dead Sea was once a +fertile valley, partly resting on a mass of subterranean water, and +partly composed of a stratum of bitumen; and that a fire from heaven +kindling these combustible materials, the rich soil sunk into the abyss +beneath, and Sodom and Gomorrah were consumed in the tremendous +conflagration. + +This brief outline of the geographical limits and physical characters of +the Holy Land may prove sufficient as an introduction to its ancient +history. Details much more ample are to be found in numerous works, whose +authors, fascinated by the interesting recollections which almost every +object in Palestine is fitted to suggest, have endeavoured to transfer to +the minds of their readers the profound impressions which they themselves +experienced from a personal review of ancient scenes and monuments. But +we purposely refrain at present from the minute description to which +the subject so naturally invites us, because, in a subsequent part of +our undertaking, we shall be unavoidably led into a train of local +particularities, while setting forth the actual condition of the country +and of its venerable remains. Meantime, we supply, in the following table, +the means of comparing the division or distribution of Canaan among the +Twelve Tribes, with that which was afterward adopted by the Romans. + +Ancient Canaanitish Israelitish Roman +Division. Division. Division. + +Sidonians, Tribe of Asher (in Libanus) ] +Unknown, [Naphtali (north-west of the ]Upper Galilee. + [ Lake of Genesareth) ] + +Perizzites, Zebulun (west of that lake) ] +The same, [Issachar (Valley of Esdraelon,]Lower Galilee. + [ Mount Tabor) ] + +Hivites, [Half-tribe of Manasseh (Dora ] + [ and Cesarea) ]Samaria. +The same, Ephraim (Shechem, Samaria) ] + +Jebusites, Benjamin (Jericho, Jerusalem) ] +Amorites, Hittites, Judah (Hebron, Judea proper) ] +Philistines, [Simeon (south-west of Judah) ]Judea. + [Dan (Joppa) ] + +Moabites, Reuben (Peraea, Heshbon) ] +Ammonites, Gilead, Gad (Decapolis, Ammonites) ] +Kingdom of Bashan, [Half-tribe of Manasseh, ]Peraea. + [ Gaulonitis, Batanea ] + +In a pastoral country, such as that beyond the river Jordan especially, +where the desert in most parts bordered upon the cultivated soil, the +limits of the several possessions could not at all times be distinctly +marked. It is well known, besides, that the native inhabitants were never +entirely expelled by the victorious Hebrews, but that they retained, in +some instances by force, and in others by treaty, a considerable portion +of land within the borders of all the tribes,--a fact which is connected +with many of the defections and troubles into which the Israelites +subsequently fell. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + + +_History of the Hebrew Commonwealth_. + +Form of Government after the Death of Joshua; In Egypt; In the Wilderness; +Princes of Tribes and Heads of Families; Impatience to take Possession +of Promised Land; The Effects of it; Renewal of War; Extent of Holy +Land; Opinions of Fleury, Spanheim, Reland, and Lowman; Principle of +Distribution; Each Tribe confined to a separate Locality; Property +unalienable; Conditions of Tenure; Population of the Tribes; Number of +Principal Families; A General Government or National Council; The Judges; +Nature of their Authority; Not ordinary Magistrates; Different from Kings, +onsuls, and Dictators; Judicial Establishments; Judges and Officers; +Described by Josephus; Equality of Condition among the Hebrews; Their +Inclination for a Pastoral Life; Freebooters, like the Arabs; Abimelech, +Jephthah, and David; Simplicity of the Times; Boaz and Ruth; Tribe of +Levi; Object of their Separation; The learned Professions hereditary, +after the manner of the Egyptians; The Levitical Cities; Their Number +and Uses; Opinion of Michaelis; Summary View of the Times and Character +of the Hebrew Judges. + +Learned men have long exercised their ingenuity with the view of +determining the precise form of the social condition which was assumed by +the Israelites when they took possession of the Promised Land. The sacred +writer contents himself with stating, that "it came to pass a long time +after the Lord had given rest unto Israel from all their enemies round +about, that Joshua waxed old and stricken in age; and he called for all +Israel, for their elders, and for their heads, and for their judges, and +for their officers." The purport of the address he delivered on this +occasion, and which is given at length in the twenty-third chapter of the +book which bears his name, was solely to remind them of their religious +obligations as the chosen people of Jehovah, and of the labors that they +had yet to undergo in subduing the remainder of Canaan. Neither in this +speech, nor in the exhortation with which he afterward at Shechem +endeavoured to animate the zeal and constancy of his followers, did he +make any allusion to the form of government that it behoved them to adopt; +declining even to direct their choice in the appointment of a chief, who +might conduct their armies in the field, and preside in the deliberations +of the national council. + +The first events which occurred after the demise of Joshua appear to +establish the fact, that to every tribe was committed the management of +its own affairs, even to the extent of being entitled to wage war and make +peace without the advice or sanction of the general senate. The only +government to which the sons of Jacob had hitherto been accustomed, was +that most ancient and universal system of rule which gives to the head of +every family the direction and control of all its members. We find traces +of this natural subordination among them, even under the pressure of +Egyptian bondage. During the negotiations which preceded their deliverance +under the ministry of Moses, the applications and messages were all +addressed to the patriarchal rulers of the people. "Go gather the elders +of Israel together," was the command of Jehovah to the son of Amram, when +the latter received authority to rescue the descendants of Isaac from the +tyranny of Pharaoh. + +But during the pilgrimage in the wilderness, and more particularly when +the tribes approached the confines of the devoted nations of Canaan, the +original jurisdiction of the family chiefs was rendered subordinate to the +military power of their inspired leader, who, as the commander of the +armies of Israel, was esteemed and obeyed by his followers as the +lieutenant of the Lord of Hosts. In truth, the martial labours to which +his office called him, placed the successor of Moses at the head of his +countrymen in quality of a general, guiding them on their march or forming +their array in the field of battle, rather than as a teacher of wisdom or +the guardian of a peculiar faith and worship. Until the conquered lands +were divided among the victorious tribes, Joshua was a soldier and nothing +more; while, on the other hand, the congregation of the Hebrews, who +seconded so well his military plans, appear at that juncture on the page +of history in no other light than that of veteran troops, rendered hardy +by long service in a parching climate, and formidable by the arts of +discipline under a skilful and warlike leader. + +From the exode, in short, till towards the end of Joshua's administration, +we lose sight of that simple scheme of domestic superintendence which +Jacob established among his sons. The princes of tribes, and the heads of +families, were converted into captains of thousands, of hundreds, and of +fifties; regulating their movements by the sound of the trumpet, and +passing their days of rest amid the vigilance and formality of a regular +encampment. But no sooner did they convert the sword into a ploughshare, +and the spear into a pruning-hook, than they unanimously returned to their +more ancient form of society. As soon as there appeared a sufficient +quantity of land wrested from the Canaanites to afford to the tribes on +the western side of the Jordan a competent inheritance, Joshua "sent the +people away, and they departed;" and from this moment the military aspect +that their community had assumed gave way to the patriarchal model, to +which in fact all their institutions bore an immediate reference, and to +the restoration of which their strongest hopes and wishes were constantly +directed. + +Actuated by such views, it cannot be denied that the Hebrews manifested +an undue impatience to enjoy the fruits of their successful invasion. +They had fought, it should seem, to obtain an inheritance in a rich and +pleasant country, rather than to avenge the cause of pure religion, or +to punish the idolatrous practices of the children of Moab and Ammon. As +soon, therefore, as the fear of their name and the power of their arms +had scattered the inhabitants of the open countries, the Israelites +began to sow and to plant; being more willing to make a covenant with +the residue of the enemy, than to purchase the blessings of a permanent +peace by enduring a little longer the fatigue and privations of war. +Their eagerness to get possession of the land flowing with milk and +honey seems to have compelled Joshua to adopt a measure, which led at no +distant period to much guilt and suffering on the part of his people. He +consented that they should occupy the vacant fields before the nations +which they had been commissioned to displace were finally subdued; that +that they should cast lots for provinces which were still in the hands +of the native Gentiles; and that they should distribute, by the line and +the measuring-rod, many extensive hills and fair valleys which had not +yet submitted to the dominion of their swords. + +The effects of this injudicious policy soon rendered themselves apparent; +and all the evils which were foreseen by the aged servant of God, when he +addressed the congregation at Shechem, were realized in a little time to +their fullest extent. The Hebrews did indeed find the remnant of the +nations among whom they consented to dwell proving scourges in their +sides and thorns in their eyes, and still able to dispute with them the +possession of the good land which they had been taught to regard as a +sacred inheritance conferred upon them in virtue of a divine promise made +to their fathers. For example, the author of the book of Judges relates, +"the Amorites forced the children of Dan into the mountains;" for, he +adds, "they would not suffer them to come down to the valley." Hence arose +the fact, that the Israelites did not for several hundred years complete +their conquest of Palestine. The Canaanites, recovering from the terror +which had fallen upon them in the commencement of the Hebrew invasion, +attempted, not only to regain possession of their ancient territory, +but even to obliterate all traces of their defeat and subjection. What +movements were made by the petty sovereigns of the country, in order to +effect their object, we are nowhere expressly told; but we find, from a +consultation held by the southern tribes of Israel, soon after the death +of Joshua, that the necessity of renewing military operations against the +natives could no longer be postponed. It was resolved, accordingly, that +Judah and Simeon should unite their arms, and take the field, to prevent, +in the first place, an inroad with which their borders were threatened, +and, subsequently, to reduce to a state of entire subjection the cities +and towns that stood within the limits of their respective districts. "And +Judah said unto Simeon his brother, come up with me into my lot, that we +may fight against the Canaanites; and I likewise will go with thee into +thy lot."[11] + +But, leaving these preliminary matters, we shall proceed to take a survey +of the Hebrew commonwealth, as it appeared upon its first settlement under +the successors of Joshua; endeavouring to ascertain the grounds upon which +the federal union of the tribes was established; their relations towards +one another in peace and in war; the resources of which they were +possessed for conquest or self-defence; their civil rights and privileges +as independent states; their laws and judicatories; and, above all, the +nature and extent of their property, as well as the tenure on which it +was held by families and individuals. Closely connected with this subject +is a consideration of that agrarian law which was sanctioned by Moses +and acted upon by Joshua, and which will be found, not only to have +determined, but also to have secured, the inheritance of every Israelite +who entered the Promised Land. + +The extent of that portion of Syria which was granted to the Hebrew nation +has been variously estimated. On the authority of Hecataeus, a native +of Abdera, who is quoted by Josephus, the limits of the territory +possessed by the Jews are fixed at three millions of acres, supposing +the _aroura_ of the Greeks to correspond to the denomination of English +measure just specified. Proceeding on this ground, the Abbé Fleury and +other writers have undertaken to prove that the quantity of land mentioned +by Hecataeus would maintain only three millions three hundred and +seventy-five thousand men,--a computation which is liable to many +objections, and has not therefore been generally received. It is obvious, +for instance, that the Abderite, who lived in the reign of Alexander the +Great, and is said to have afterward attached himself to the person of the +first Grecian king of Egypt, described the country of the Jews as he saw +it, under the dominion of the Syrian princes of the Macedonian line. He +accordingly beheld only the inheritance of the two tribes which had +returned from the Babylonian captivity, and of consequence confined his +estimates to the provinces that they were permitted to enjoy; taking no +account of those extensive districts that formerly belonged to the Ten +Tribes of Israel, and which, in his days, were in the hands of that mixed +race of men who were descended from the Assyrian colonists whom +Shalmaneser placed in their room.[12] + +Confiding in the greater accuracy of Spanheim, Reland, and Lowman, we are +inclined to compute the Hebrew territory at about fifteen millions of +acres; assuming, with these writers, that the true boundaries of the +Promised Land were, Mount Libanus on the north, the Wilderness of Arabia +on the south, and the Syrian Desert on the east. On the west some of the +tribes extended their possessions to the very waters of the Great Sea, +though on other parts they found their boundary restricted by the lands of +the Philistines, whose rich domains comprehended the low lands and strong +cities which stretched along the shore. It has been calculated by +Spanheim, that the remotest points of the Holy Land, as possessed by King +David, were situated at the distance of three degrees of latitude, and as +many degrees of longitude, including in all about twenty-six thousand +square miles.[13] + +If this computation be correct, there was in the possession of the Hebrew +chiefs land sufficient to allow to every Israelite capable of bearing arms +a lot of about twenty acres; reserving for public uses, as also for the +cities of the Levites, about one-tenth of the whole. It is probable, +however, that if we make a suitable allowance for lakes, mountains, and +unproductive tracts of ground, the portion to every householder would not +be so large as the estimate now stated. But within the limits of one-half +of this quantity of land there were ample means for plenty and frugal +enjoyment. The Roman people under Romulus and long after could afford only +two acres to every legionary soldier; and in the most flourishing days of +the commonwealth the allowance did not exceed four. Hence the _quatuor +jugera_, or four acres, is an expression which proverbially indicated +plebeian affluence and contentment,--a full remuneration for the toils of +war, and a sufficient inducement at all times to take up arms in defence +of the republic. + +The territory of the Hebrews was ordered to be equally divided among their +tribes and families according to their respective numbers; and the persons +selected to superintend this national work were Eleazar, the high-priest, +Joshua, who acted in the character of judge, and the twelve princes or +heads of Israel. The rule which they followed is expressed in these +words,--"And ye shall divide the land by lot, for an inheritance among +your families; and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance; and to +the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance: every man's inheritance +shall be in the place where his lot falleth; according to the tribes of +your fathers ye shall inherit." + +Every tribe was thus put in possession of a separate district or province, +in which all the occupiers of the land were not only Israelites, but +more particularly sprung from the same stock, and descendants of the +same patriarch. The several families, again, were placed in the same +neighbourhood, receiving their inheritance in the same part or subdivision +of the tribe; or, to use the language of Lowman, each tribe may be said to +have lived together in one and the same country, and each family in one +and the same hundred; so that every neighbourhood were relations to each +other and of the same families, as well as inhabitants of the same place. + +To secure the permanence and independence of every separate tribe, a law +was enacted by the authority of Heaven, providing that the landed property +of every Israelite should be unalienable. Whatever encumbrances might +befall the owner of a field, and whatever might be the obligations under +which he placed himself to his creditor, he was released from all claims +at the year of jubilee. "Ye shall hallow," said the inspired legislator, +"the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land unto all +the inhabitants thereof. It shall be a jubilee unto you, and ye shall +return every man to his possession, and ye shall return every man unto his +family. And the land shall not be sold for ever; for the land is mine, +saith the Lord; for ye are strangers and sojourners with me."[14] + +The attentive reader of the Mosaical law will observe, that though a +Hebrew could not divest himself of his land in perpetuity, he could +dispose of it so far as to put another person in possession of it during a +certain number of years; reserving to himself and his relations the right +of redeeming it, should they ever possess the means; and having at all +events the sure prospect of a reversion at the period of the jubilee. In +the eye of the lawgiver this transaction was not regarded as a sale of the +land, but merely of the crops for a stated number of seasons. It might +indeed have been considered simply as a lease, had not the owner, as well +as his nearest kinsman, enjoyed the privilege of resuming occupation +whenever they could repay the sum for which the temporary use of the land +had been purchased.[15] + +The houses which were built in fields or villages were, in regard to +the principle of alienation, placed on the same footing as the lands +themselves; being redeemable at all times, and destined to return to their +original owners in the year of jubilee. But, on the contrary, houses in +cities and large towns were, when sold, redeemable only during one year; +after which the sale was held binding forever. There was indeed an +exception in this case in favour of the Levites, who could at any time +redeem "the houses of the cities of their possession," and who, moreover, +enjoyed the full advantage of the fiftieth year. + +The Hebrews, like most other nations in a similar state of society, held +their lands on the condition of military service. The grounds of exemption +allowed by Moses prove clearly that every man of competent age was bound +to bear arms in defence of his country,--a conclusion which is at once +strikingly illustrated and confirmed by the conduct of the Senate or Heads +of Tribes, in the melancholy war undertaken by them against the children +of Benjamin. Upon a muster of the confederated army at Mizpeh, it was +discovered that no man had been sent from Jabesh-gilead to join the camp; +whereupon it was immediately resolved that twelve thousand soldiers should +be despatched to put all the inhabitants of that town to military +execution. And the congregation commanded them, saying, Go and smite +Jabesh-gilead with the edge of the sword, with the women and children; and +the only reason assigned for this severe order was, that "when the people +were numbered, there were none of the men of Jabesh-gilead there."[16] + +The reader will now be prepared to accompany us while we make a few +remarks on the civil constitution of the Hebrews, both as it respected +the government of the several tribes viewed as separate bodies, and as +it applied to that of the whole nation as a confederated republic. + +The tribes of Israel, strictly speaking, amounted only to twelve, +descended from the twelve sons of Jacob. But as the posterity of Joseph +was divided into two tribes, it follows that the host which entered the +land of Canaan under Joshua comprehended thirteen of these distinct +genealogies. Viewed in reference to merely secular rights and duties, +however, the offspring of Levi having no part nor lot with their brethren, +are not usually reckoned in the number; while on other grounds, and +chiefly an invincible propensity to idolatrous usages, the tribe of Dan at +a later period was sometimes excluded from the list. In the twenty-sixth +chapter of the book of Numbers, we have an account of the enrolment which +was made on the plains of Moab; from which the numerical strength of the +eleven secular tribes may be exhibited as follows:-- + +Joseph (including Ephraim and Manasseh) 85,200 +Judah 76,500 +Issachar 64,300 +Zebulun 60,500 +Asher 53,400 +Dan 46,400 +Benjamin 45,600 +Naphtali 45,400 +Reuben 43,730 +Gad 40,500 +Simeon 22,200 + +This catalogue comprehended all the men above twenty years of age, to +which may be added 23,000 of the tribe of Levi, "all males from a month +old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, +because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel." +The whole amounted to six hundred and six thousand seven hundred.[17] + +In every tribe there was a chief called the Prince of the Tribe, or +the Head of Thousands; and under him were the Princes of Families, or +Commanders of Hundreds. For example, we find that at the muster which +was made of the Hebrews in the Wilderness of Sinai, Nahshon, the son of +Amminadab, was Prince of the Tribe of Judah. This tribe, again, like all +the others, was divided into several families; the term being used here +not in its ordinary acceptation, to signify a mere household, but rather +in the heraldic sense, to denote a lineage or kindred descended from a +common ancestor, and constituting the main branches of an original stock. +In this respect the Israelites were guided by the same principle which +regulates precedency among the Arabs, as well as among our own countrymen +in the Highlands of Scotland. + +It appears, moreover, that a record of these families, of the households +in each, and even of the individuals belonging to every household, +was placed in the hands of the chief ruler; for it is related that, +on the suspicion excited with regard to the spoils of Jericho and the +discomfiture at Ai, "Joshua brought Israel by their tribes, and the tribe +of Judah was taken; and he brought the family of Judah, and he took the +family of the Zarhites; and he brought the family of the Zarhites man by +man, and Zabdi was taken; and he brought his household man by man, and +Achan, the son of Carmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zerah, of the tribe +of Judah, was taken."[18] + +We may collect from the twenty-sixth chapter of the book of Numbers, that +the Heads of Families, at the time the children of Israel encamped on the +eastern bank of the Jordan, were in number fifty-seven. If to these we add +the thirteen Princes, the Heads of tribes, the sum of the two numbers will +be seventy; whence there is some ground for the conjectures of those who +allege, that the council which Moses formed in the Wilderness consisted of +the patriarchal chiefs, who in right of birth were recognized as bearing +an hereditary rule over the several sections of the people. + +It is probable that the first-born of the senior family of each tribe +was usually received as the prince of that tribe, and that the eldest +son of every subordinate family succeeded his father in the honours and +duties which belonged to the rank of a patriarch. But the sacred narrative +presents too few details to permit us to form with confidence any general +conclusions in regard to this point. The case of Nahshon, besides, has +been viewed as an instance quite irreconcilable with such an opinion; +and it certainly seems to prove, that if the Prince of the Tribe was +not elective, he was not always, at least, the direct descendant of +the original chief. Nahshon, as has just been stated, was the son of +Amminadab, the son of Ram, who was a younger son of Hezron the son of +Pharez who was a younger son of Judah.[19] + +From the particulars now stated, we find that every tribe had a head who +presided over its affairs, administered justice in all ordinary cases, and +led the troops in time of war. He was assisted in these important duties +by the subordinate officers, the Chiefs of Families, who formed his +council in such matters of policy as affected their particular district, +supported his decisions in civil or criminal inquiries, and finally +commanded under him in the field of battle. + +But the polity established by the Jewish lawgiver was not confined to +the constitution and government of the separate tribes. It likewise +extended its regulations to the common welfare of the whole, as one +kingdom under the special direction of Jehovah; and provided that on +all great occasions they should have the means of readily uniting their +counsels and their strength. Even during the less orderly period which +immediately followed the settlement of the Hebrews in the land of their +inheritance, we find traces of such a general government; a national +senate, whose deliberations guided the administration of affairs in all +cases of difficulty or hazard; a judge, who was invested with a high +degree of executive authority as the first magistrate of the commonwealth; +and lastly, the controlling voice of the congregation of Israel, whose +concurrence appears to have been at all times necessary to give vigour and +effect to the resolutions of their leaders. To these constituent parts of +the Hebrew government we may add the Oracle or voice of Jehovah, without +whose sanction, as revealed by Urim and Thummim, no measure of importance +could be adopted either by the council or by the judge. + +It has been justly remarked, at the same time, that however extensive the +power might be which was committed to the supreme court of the nation, and +how much soever the authority of a military judge among the Israelites +resembled that of a Roman dictator, the privilege of making laws was at no +period intrusted to any order of the Jewish state. As long as the Hebrews +were governed by a theocracy, this essential prerogative was retained by +the Divine Head of the nation. "Now therefore hearken, O Israel, unto the +statutes, and unto the judgments, which I teach you, for to do them, that +ye may live, and go in and possess the land which the Lord God of your +fathers giveth you. Ye shall not add unto the word which I command you, +neither shall ye diminish aught from it, that ye may keep the commandments +of the Lord your God which I command you."[20] + +It is the opinion of learned men, that the Council of Seventy, established +by Moses in the Wilderness, was only a temporary appointment, and did not +continue after the Hebrews were settled in the Land of Canaan. The only +national assembly of which we can discover any trace subsequently to that +event, is the occasional meeting of the Princes of Tribes and Chiefs of +Families to transact business of great public importance. Thus, in the +case of the war against Benjamin, of which we have a full account in the +book of Judges, we are informed that the heads "of all the tribes, even of +all the tribes of Israel, presented themselves in the assembly of the +people of God." On that memorable occasion, the interests and character of +the whole Hebrew commonwealth were at stake; for which reason the natural +leaders of the tribes gathered themselves together at the head of their +kinsmen and followers,--even four hundred thousand men that drew the +sword,--in order to consult with one another, and to adopt such measures +as might be deemed most suitable for punishing the atrocities which had +been committed at Gibeah. + +During the period to which this part of our narrative refers, the supreme +power among the Hebrews was occasionally exercised by judges,--an order of +magistrates to which nothing similar is to be found in any other country. +The Carthaginians, indeed, had a description of rulers, whose names, being +derived from the same oriental term, appear to establish some resemblance +in their office to that of the successors of Joshua. But it will be found +upon a comparison of their authority, both in its origin and the purposes +to which it was meant to be subservient, that the Hebrew judges and the +suffites of Carthage had very little in common. Nor do we find any closer +analogy in the duties of a Grecian archon or of a Roman consul. These were +ordinary magistrates, and periodically elected; whereas the judge was +never invested with power except when the exigencies of public affairs +required the aid of extraordinary talents or the weight of a supernatural +appointment. On this account the Hebrew commander has been likened to the +Roman dictator, who, when the commonwealth was in danger, was intrusted +with an authority almost unlimited; and with a jurisdiction which extended +to the lives and fortunes of nearly all his countrymen. But in one +important particular this similarity fails. The dictator laid down his +office as soon as the crisis which called for its exercise had passed +away; and in no circumstances was he entitled to retain such unwonted +supremacy beyond a limited time. The judge, on the other hand, remained +invested with his high authority during the full period of his life, and +is therefore usually described by the sacred historian as presiding to the +end of his days over the tribes of Israel, amid the peace and security +which his military skill, aided by the blessing of Heaven, had restored to +their land.[21] + +The Hebrew judges, says Dupin, were not ordinary magistrates, but men +raised up by God, on whom the Israelites bestowed the chief government, +either because they had delivered them from the oppressions under which +they groaned, or because of their prudence and equity. They ruled +according to the law of Jehovah, commanded their armies, made treaties +with the neighbouring princes, declared war and peace, and administered +justice. They were different from kings,-- + +1. In that they were not established either by election or succession, +but elevated to power in an extraordinary manner. + +2. In that they refused to take upon them the title and quality of king. + +3. In that they levied no taxes upon the people for the maintenance of +government. + +4. In their manner of living, which was very far from the pomp and +ostentation of the regal state. + +5. In that they could make no new laws, but governed according to the +statutes contained in the Books of Moses. + +6. In that the obedience paid to them by the people was voluntary and +unforced, being at most no more than consuls and magistrates of free +cities.[22] + +But it is less difficult to determine what the judges were not than to +ascertain with precision the various parts of their complicated office. +In war, they led the host of Israel to meet their enemies; and in peace, +it is probable they presided in such courts of judicature as might be +found necessary for deciding upon intricate points of law, or for hearing +appeals from inferior tribunals. Those who went up to Deborah for judgment +had, we may presume, brought their causes in the first instance before the +judges of their respective cities; and it was only, perhaps, in cases +where greater knowledge and a higher authority were required to give +satisfaction to the litigants that the chief magistrate of the republic, +aided by certain members of the priesthood, was called upon to pronounce a +final decision. + +It belongs to this part of the subject to mention the provision made by +Moses, and established by Joshua, for the due administration of justice +throughout the land. "Judges and officers," said the former, "shalt thou +make thee in all thy gates which the Lord thy God giveth thee; and they +shall judge the people with just judgment. Thou shalt not wrest judgment; +thou shalt not respect persons, neither take a gift; for a gift doth blind +the eyes of the wise and pervert the words of the righteous." To the same +purpose Josephus relates, in his account of the last address delivered by +Moses to the Hebrew people, that this great legislator gave instructions +to appoint seven judges in every city, men who had distinguished +themselves by their good conduct and impartial feelings. Let those who +judge, he adds, be permitted to determine according as they shall think +right, unless any one can show that they have taken bribes to the +perversion of justice, or can allege any other accusation against +them.[23] + +Between the "judges" and the "officers" nominated by the Jewish lawgiver +there was no doubt a marked distinction; though from the remote antiquity +of the appointment and the obscure commentaries of the rabbinical writers +it has become extremely difficult to define the limits of their respective +functions. Maimonides asserts, that in every city where the number of +householders amounted to a hundred and twenty there was a court consisting +of twenty-three judges, who were empowered to determine in almost all +cases both civil and criminal. This is unquestionably the same institution +which is mentioned by Josephus in the fourth book of his Antiquities, +and described by him as being composed of seven judges and fourteen +subordinate officers, or assistants, selected from among the Levites; +for these, with the president and his deputy, make up the sum of +twenty-three specified by the Jewish writers. In smaller towns, the +administration of law was intrusted to three judges, whose authority +extended to the determination of all questions respecting debt, theft, +rights of inheritance, restitution, and compensation. Though they could +not inflict capital punishments, they had power to visit minor offences +with scourging and fines, according to the nature of the delinquency and +the amount of the injury sustained.[24] + +Of the former of these judicial establishments, there were two fixed at +Jerusalem even during the period that the Sanhedrim of Seventy was +invested with the supreme authority over the lives and fortunes of their +countrymen, one of which sat in the gate of Shusan, and the other in that +of Nicanor. The place where these judges held their audience was, as +Cardinal Fleury remarks, the gate of the city; for as the Israelites were +all husbandmen who went out in the morning to their work, and did not +return till the evening, the gate of the city was the place where the most +frequently met; and we must not be astonished to find that the people +laboured in the fields and dwelt in the towns. These were not cities like +our provincial capitals, which can hardly subsist on what is supplied to +them by twenty or thirty leagues of the surrounding soil. They were the +habitations for as many labourers as were necessary to cultivate the +nearest fields; hence, as the country was very populous, the towns were +very thickly scattered. For a similar reason among the Greeks and Romans, +the scene of meeting for all matters of business was the market-place, or +forum, because they were all merchants.[25] Among the Jews, the judges +took their seats immediately after morning prayers, and continued till the +end of the sixth hour, or twelve o'clock; and their authority, though not +in capital cases, continued to be respected by the Israelites long after +Jerusalem was levelled with the ground.[26] + +With the aid of the particulars stated above, the reader mad have been +enabled to form some notion of the civil and political circumstances of +the ancient Hebrews. They enjoyed the utmost degree of freedom that was +consistent with the objects of regular society, acknowledging no +authority but that of the laws as administered by the elders of their +tribes and the heads of their families. The equality of their property, +too, and the sameness of their occupations, precluded the rise of those +distinctions in social life which, whatever may be their use in older +nations, are opposed by all the habits of a people whose sole cares are +yet devoted to the culture of their fields and the safety of their +flocks. The form of government which suits best with such a distribution +of wealth and employment is unquestionably that which was established by +Moses on the basis of the ancient patriarchal rule. But it is worthy of +notice, that this model, so convenient in the earliest stage of social +existence, was imperceptibly changed by the increasing power and +intelligence of the people at large, until, as happened towards the +close of Samuel's administration, the public voice made itself be heard +recommending an entire departure from obsolete notions. They glorified +in the progress of the human race, that the simple authority of the +family-chief passes through a species of oligarchy into a practical +democracy, and ends at no very distant period in the nomination of an +hereditary sovereign. + +The epoch at which we now contemplate the Hebrew community is that very +interesting one when the wandering shepherd settles down into the +stationary husbandman. The progeny of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who +themselves were pastoral chiefs, appear to have retained a decided +predilection for that ancient mode of life. Moses, even after he had +brought the twelve tribes within sight of the promised land, found it +necessary to indulge the families of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh so far as +to give them the choice of a settlement beyond the Jordan, where they +might devote themselves to the keeping of cattle. From the conduct also +of the other tribes, who showed no small reluctance to divide the land +and enter upon their several inheritances, it has been concluded, with +considerable probability, that they too would have preferred the erratic +habits of their ancestors to the more restricted pursuits which their +great law-giver had prepared for them amid cornfields, vineyards, and +plantations of olives. "And Joshua said unto the children of Israel, How +long are ye slack to go to possess the land which the Lord God of your +fathers hath given you?"[27] + +Among the Arabs, even at the present day, the pastoral life is accounted +more noble than that which leads to a residence in towns, or even in +villages. They think it, as Arvieux remarks, more congenial to liberty; +because the man who with his herds ranges the desert at large will be far +less likely to submit to oppression than people with houses and lands. +This mode of thinking is of great antiquity in the eastern parts of the +world. Diodorus Siculus, when speaking of the Nabathaeans, relates, that +they were by their laws prohibited from sowing, planting, drinking wine, +and building houses; every violation of the precept being punishable with +death. The reason assigned for this very singular rule is, their belief +that those who possess such things will be easily brought into subjection +by a tyrant; on which account they continue, says the historian, to +traverse the desert, feeding their flocks, which consist partly of camels +and partly of sheep. + +The fact now stated receives a remarkable confirmation from the notice +contained in the book of Jeremiah respecting the Rechabites, who, though +they had for several ages been removed from Arabia into Palestine, +persevered in a sacred obedience to the command of their ancestor, +refusing to build houses, sow land, plant vineyards, or drink wine, but +resolving to dwell in tents throughout all their generations. + +In regard to these points, the Hebrews, in the early age at which we are +now considering them, appear to have entertained sentiments not very +different from those of the Arabs, from whose sandy plains they had just +emerged. The life of a migratory shepherd, too, has a very close alliance +with the habits of a freebooter; and the attentive reader of the ancient +history of the Israelites will recollect many instances wherein the +descendants of Isaac gave ample proof of their relationship to the +posterity of Ishmael. The character of Abimelech, the son of Gideon, for +example, cannot be viewed in any other light than that of a captain of +marauders. The men of Shechem, whom he had hired to follow him, refused +not to obey his commands, even when he added murder to robbery. Jephthah, +in like manner, when he was thrust out by his brethren, became the chief +of a band of freebooters in the land of Tob. "And there were gathered vain +men to Jephthah, and went out with him." But the elders of Gilead did not +on that account regard their brave countryman as less worthy to assume the +direction of their affairs, and to be head over all the inhabitants of +their land,--an honour which he even hesitated to accept when compared +with the rank and emolument of the less orderly situation which they +requested him to relinquish. + +Nor did David himself think it unsuitable to his high prospects to have +recourse for a time to a predatory life. When compelled to flee from the +presence of Saul, he took refuge in the cave of Adullam; "and every one +that was in distress, and every one that was in debt, and every one that +was discontented gathered themselves unto him, and he became a captain +over them." It has been suggested, indeed, that the son of the +Bethlehemite employed his arms against such persons only as were enemies +to the Hebrews. But there is no good ground for this distinction. His +conduct to Nabal, whose possessions were in Carmel, proves, that when his +camp was destitute of provisions he deemed it no violation of honour to +force a supply for the wants of his men, even from the stores of a +friendly house. We may judge, moreover, of the character of his followers, +as well from the remonstrance that was made by the parsimonious rustic to +whom he sent them, as from the effect which a refusal produced upon their +ardent tempers. "Who is David? and who is the son of Jesse? There be many +servants now-a-days that break away every man from his master. Shall I +then take my bread, and my water, and my flesh that I have killed for my +shearers, and give it unto men whom I know not whence they be?--So David's +young men turned their way, and went again, and told him all those +sayings. And David said unto his men, Gird ye on every man his sword. And +they girded on every man his sword, and David also girded on his sword: +and there went after David about four hundred men, and two hundred abode +by the stuff."[28] + +It is manifest, that in the simple condition of society to which our +attention is now directed, the profession of a freebooter was not in any +sense accounted dishonourable. The courage and dexterity which such a life +requires stand high in the estimation of tribes who are almost constantly +in a state of war; and hence, in reading the history of the ancient +Israelites, we must form an opinion of their manners and principles, not +according to the maxims of an enlightened age, but agreeably to the +habits, pursuits, and mental cultivation which belonged to their own +times. + +It is farther worthy of remark, that during the period of the Hebrew +judges there is not the slightest trace of those distinctions of rank +which spring from mere wealth, office, or profession. From the princes of +Judah down to the meanest family in Benjamin, all were agriculturists or +shepherds, driving their own oxen, or attending in person to their sheep +and their goats. The hospitable Ephraimite, who received into his house at +Gibeah the Levite and his unfortunate companion, is described as "an old +man coming from his work out of the field at even." Gideon, again, was +thrashing his corn with his own hands when the angel announced to him that +he was selected by Divine Providence to be the deliverer of his people. +Boaz was attending his reapers in the field when his benevolence was +awakened in favour of Ruth, the widow of his kinsman. When Saul received +the news of the danger which threatened the inhabitants of Jabesh-gilead, +he was in the act of "coming after the herd out of the field." Sovereign +as he was, he thought it not inconsistent with his rank to drive a yoke of +oxen. Every one knows that David was employed in keeping the sheep when he +was summoned into the presence of Samuel to be anointed king over Israel; +and even when he was upon the throne, and had by his talents and bravery +extended at once the power and the reputation of his countrymen among the +neighbouring nations, the annual occupation of sheep-shearing called his +sons and his daughters into the hill country to take their share in its +toils and amusements. In point of blood and ancestry, too, every +descendant of Jacob was held on the same footing; and the only ground of +pre-eminence which one man could claim over another was connected with old +age, wisdom, strength, or courage,--the qualities most respected in the +original forms of civilized life.[29] + +We have been the more careful to collect these fragments of personal +history, because it is chiefly from them that the few rays of light +are reflected which illustrate the state of society at the era of the +Hebrew commonwealth. That the times in which the judges ruled were +barbarous and unsettled is rendered manifest, not less by the general +tenor of events, than by the qualities which predominated in the public +mind during the long period that elapsed between the death of Joshua and +the reign of Solomon. These notices also convey to us some degree of +information, in regard to the political relations which subsisted among +the Syrian tribes prior to the commencement of the regal government at +Jerusalem. The wars which were carried on at that remote epoch seem not +to have been waged with any view to permanent conquest, or even to +territorial aggrandizement, but merely to revenge an insult, to exact a +ransom, or to abstract slaves and cattle. The history of the judges +supplies no facts which would lead us to infer that during any of tie +servitudes, which for their repeated transgressions were inflicted on +the Hebrews, their lands were taken from them, or their cities destroyed +by their conquerors. It was not till a later age that a more systematic +plan of conquest was formed by the powerful princes who governed beyond +the Euphrates and on the banks of the Nile, and who, not content with the +uncertain submission of tributaries, resolved to reduce the Israelites for +ever to the condition of subjects or of bondmen. + +The account which has been given of the political constitution of the +ancient Jews would not be complete were we to omit all notice of the tribe +of Levi, the duties and revenues of which were fixed by peculiar laws. It +may, perhaps, be thought by some readers, that this institution rested on +a basis altogether spiritual; but, upon suitable inquiry, it will be found +that the Levitical offices comprehended a great variety of avocations, +much more closely connected with secular life than with the ministry of +the tabernacle, or with the services which were due to the priesthood. +This sacred tribe, indeed, supplied to the whole nation of the Israelites +their judges, lawyers, scribes, teachers, and physicians; for Moses, in +imitation of the Egyptians, in whose wisdom he was early and deeply +instructed, had thought proper to make the learned professions hereditary +in the several families of Levi's descendants. + +We find, in the first chapter of the book of Numbers, a command issued by +the authority of Heaven to separate the tribe now mentioned from the rest +of their brethren, and not to enrol them among those who were to engage in +war. It was determined, on similar grounds, that the Levites were to have +no inheritance in the land like the other tribes, but were to receive from +their kinsmen, in name of maintenance, a tenth part of the gross produce +of their fields and vineyards. The occupations for which they were set +apart were altogether incompatible with the pursuits of agriculture or the +feeding of cattle. It was deemed expedient, therefore, that they should be +relieved from the cares and toil connected with the possession of +territorial estates, and devote their whole attention to the service of +the altar and the instruction of the people. + +To effect these wise purposes, it was necessary that the members of this +learned body should not be confined to one particular district, but that +they should be distributed among all the other tribes, according to the +extent of their several inheritances and the amount of their population. +With this view the law provided that a certain number of cities should be +set apart for them, together with such a portion of soil as might seem +requisite for their comfort and more immediate wants. "Command the +children of Israel, that they give unto the Levites, of the inheritance of +their possession, cities to dwell in; and ye shall give unto the Levites +suburbs for the cities round about them. And ye shall measure from without +the city, on the east side, two thousand cubits, and on the south side two +thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the +north side two thousand cubits; and the city shall be in the midst: this +shall be to them the suburbs of the cities. So all the cities which ye +shall give to the Levites shall be forty and eight cities; them shall ye +give with their suburbs."[30] + +It was not till after the conquest and division of Canaan that the +provisions of this enactment were practically fulfilled. When the other +tribes were settled in their respective possessions, the children of Levi +reminded Joshua of the arrangement made by his predecessor, and claimed +cities to dwell in, and suburbs for their cattle. The justice of their +appeal being admitted, the Levitical stations were distributed as +follows,-- + + Cities +In the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and Benjamin 13 +In Ephraim, Dan, and the half-tribe of Manasseh 10 +In the other half-tribe of Manasseh, Issachar, + Asher, and Naphtali 13 +In Zebulun, Reuben, and Gad 12 + -- + 48 + +Every reader of the Bible is aware, that six of these cities were invested +with the special right of affording refuge and protection to a certain +class of criminals. The Jewish doctors maintain that this privilege, +somewhat limited, belonged to all the forty-eight; for, being sacred, no +act of revenge or mortal retaliation was permitted to take place within +their gates. Into the six cities of refuge, properly so called, the +manslayer could demand admittance, whether the Levites were disposed to +receive him or not; and on the same ground he was entitled to gratuitous +lodging and maintenance, until his cause should be determined by competent +judges. It is added, that they could exercise a discretionary power as to +the reception of a homicide into any other of their cities, and even in +respect to the hire which they might demand for the house used by him +during temporary residence. But the institution of Moses, afterward +completed by Joshua, affords no countenance to these rabbinical +distinctions; and we have no reason whatever to believe that the benefit +of asylum was granted to any Levitical town besides Hebron, Shechem, +Ramoth, Bezer, Kedesh, and Golan.[31] + +As learning and the several professions connected with the knowledge +of letters were confined almost exclusively the tribe of Levi, the +distribution of its members throughout the whole of the Hebrew +commonwealth was attended with many advantages. Every Levitical city +became at once a school and a seat of justice. There the language, the +traditions, the history, and the laws of their nation were the constant +subjects of study, pursued with that zeal and earnestness which can only +arise from the feeling of a sacred obligation, combined with the impulse +of an ardent patriotism. Within their walls were deposited copies of their +religious, moral, and civil institutions; which it was their duty not only +to preserve, but to multiply. They kept, besides, the genealogies of the +tribes; in which they marked the lineage of every family who could trace +their descent to the father of the faithful. Being carefully instructed +in the law, and possessed of the annals of their people from the earliest +days, they were well qualified to supply the courts with magistrates and +scribes, men who were fitted not only to administer justice, but also to +frame a record of all their decisions. It is perfectly clear that, in +the reign of David and of the succeeding kings, the judges and other +legal officers were selected from among the Levites; there being in +those days not fewer than six thousand of this learned body who held +such appointments. + +Michaelis represents the Levitical law among the Hebrews in the light of +a literary noblesse; enjoying such a degree of wealth and consideration +as to enable them to act as a counterpoise to the influence of the +aristocracy; while, on the other hand they prevented the adoption of +those hasty measures which were sometimes to be apprehended from the +democratical nature of the general government. They were not merely a +spiritual brotherhood, but professional members of all the different +faculties; and by birth obliged to devote themselves to those branches +of study, for the cultivation of which they were so liberally rewarded. +Like the Egyptian priesthood, they occupied the whole field of literature +and science; extending their inquiries to philosophy, theology, natural +history, mathematics, jurisprudence, civil history, and even medicine. +Perhaps, too, it was in imitation of the sages of the Nile that the +Hebrews made these pursuits hereditary in a consecrated tribe; whence +flowed this obvious advantage, that the sons of the Levites, from the +very dawn of reason, were introduced to scientific researches, and +favoured with a regulated system of tuition suited to the occupation +in which their lives were to be spent. In short, the institution bears +upon it all the marks of that wisdom for which the Mosaical economy is +so remarkably distinguished, when viewed as the basis of a government +at once civil, religious, and political.[32] + +The youngest reader of the Sacred Volume cannot fail to have perceived, +that the character and government of the Hebrew judges withdraw the +attention from the ordinary course of human events, and fix it on the +marvellous or supernatural. These personages were raised up by the special +providence of god, to discharge the duties of an office which the peculiar +circumstances of a chosen people from time to time rendered necessary; and +the various gifts with which they were endowed, as they constituted the +main ground of vocation to their high employment, so were they suited to +the difficulties that they had to overcome, and to the achievements they +were called to perform. The sanctity of their manners did not, indeed, in +all cases correspond to the dignity of their station; and the miracles +which they wrought for the welfare of their country were not always +accompanied with self-restraint and the due subordination of their +passions. Their military exploits were worthy of the highest admiration; +while, in some instances, their private conduct calls forth only our +surprise and regret. For examples of heroism and bravery, we can with +confidence point to Gideon, to Samson, and to Jephthah; but there is not +in their character anything besides that a father could recommend to the +imitation of his son, or that a lover of order and pureness of living +would wish to see adopted in modern society. We observe, in the greater +number of them, uncommon and even supernatural powers of body, as well as +of mind, united with the gross manners and fierce passions of barbarians. +We applaud their patriotism, admire their courage and talent to the field, +and even share in the delight which accompanied their triumphs; yet, when +we return to their dwellings, we dare not inspect too narrowly the usages +of their domestic day, nor examine into the indulgences with which they +sometimes thought proper to remunerate the ails and cares of their public +life. Divine Wisdom, stooping to the imperfection of human nature, +employed the instruments that were best fitted for the gracious ends +which, by their means, were about to be accomplished; though it does not +appear to have been intended that mankind should ever resort to the +history of the Judges for lessons of decorum, humanity, or virtue. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + + +_Historical Outline from the Accession of Saul to the Destruction +of Jerusalem_. + +Weakness of Republican Government; Jealousy of the several Tribes; +Resolution to have a King; Rules for regal Government; Character of +Saul; of David; Troubles of his Reign; Accession of Solomon; Erection +of the Temple; Commerce; Murmurs of the People; Rehoboam; Division of +the Tribes; Kings of Israel; Kingdom of Judah; Siege of Jerusalem; +Captivity; Kings of Judah; Return from Babylon; Second Temple; Canon of +Scripture; Struggles between Egypt and Syria; Conquest of Palestine by +Antiochus; Persecution of Jews; Resistance by the Family of Maccabaeus; +Victories of Judas; He courts the Alliance of the Romans; Succeeded by +Jonathan; Origin of the Asmonean Princes; John Hyrcanus; Aristobulus; +Alexander Jannaeus; Appeal to Pompey; Jerusalem taken by Romans; Herod +created King by the Romans; He repairs to the Temple; Archelaus succeeds +him, and Antipas is nominated to Galilee; Quirinius Prefect of Syria; +Pontius Pilate; Elevation of Herod Agrippa; Disgrace of Herod Philip; +Judea again a Province; Troubles; Accession of Young Agrippa; Felix; +Festus; Floris; Command given to Vespasian; War; Siege of Jerusalem by +Titus. + +The weakness and jealousy which seem inseparable from a government +comprehending a number of Independent states, had been deeply felt +during the administration of Eli, and even under that of Samuel in +his latter days. Established in different parts of the country, the +several tribes were actuated by local interests and selfish views; +those in the north, who were exempted from the hostile inroads of the +hilistines and Ammonites, refusing to aid their brethren, the children +of Simeon and Judah, whose territory was constantly exposed to the +ravages of those warlike neighbours. In the time of the more recent +judges, the federal union on which the Hebrew commonwealth was founded +appeared practically dissolved. Nay, a spirit of rivalry and dissension +occasionally manifested itself among the kindred communities of which +it was composed;--Ephraim, stimulated by envy, vexed Judah, and Judah +vexed Ephraim.[33] + +Meanwhile, several powerful kingdoms in the east, as well as the south, +threatened the independence of the Twelve Tribes, especially those on +the borders of the desert. Assyria had already turned her views towards +the fertile lands which skirt the shores of the Mediterranean; and +Egypt, in order to protect her rich valley from the aggressions of that +rising monarchy, began to open her eyes to the expediency of securing +the frontier towns in the nearest parts of Palestine. In a word, it was +fast becoming manifest that the existence of the Hebrews, as a free and +distinct people, could only be secured by reviving the union which had +originally subsisted among their leading families, under a form that +would combine their physical strength and patriotism in the support of +a common cause. An aged priest, although he might with the utmost +authority direct the solemnities of their national worship, and even +administer the laws to which they were all bound to submit, could not +command the secular obedience of rude clans, or, with any prospect of +success, lead them to battle against an enemy practised in all the +stratagems of war. The people, therefore, demanded the consent of Samuel +to a change in the structure of their government, that they might have a +king, not only to preside over their civil affairs, but also to go out +before them and fight their battles.[34] + +The principal reason assigned by the elders of Israel for the innovation +which they required at the hands of their ancient prophet was, that they +might be "like all the nations;" evidently alluding to the advantages of +monarchical power, when decisive measures become necessary to defend the +interests of a state. It is remarkable that Moses had anticipated this +natural result in the progress of society, and even laid down rules for +the administration of the regal government. This wise legislator provided +that the king of the Hebrews should not be a foreigner: lest he might be +tempted to sacrifice the interest of his subjects to the policy of his +native land, and perhaps to countenance the introduction of unauthorized +rites into the worship of Jehovah. It was also stipulated that the +sovereign of the chosen people should not multiply horses to himself, lest +he should be carried by his ambition to make war in distant countries, and +neglect the welfare of the sacred inheritance promised to the fathers of +the Jewish nation.[35] + +The qualities which recommended Saul to the choice of Samuel and the +approbation of the Tribes, leave no room for doubt that it was chiefly +as a military leader that the son of Kish was raised to the throne. Nor +was their expectation disappointed in the young Benjaminite, so far as +courage and zeal were required in conducting the affairs of war. But the +impetuosity of his character, and a certain indifference in regard to the +claims of the national faith, paved the way for his downfall and the +extinction of his family. The scene of Gilboa, which terminated the career +of the first Hebrew monarch, exhibits a most affecting tragedy; in which +the valour of a gallant chief, contrasted with his despair and sorrow, +throws a deceitful lustre over an event which the reader feels that he +ought to condemn. + +David, to the skill of an experienced warrior, added a deep reverence for +the institutions of his country and the forms of Divine worship; whence he +procured the high distinction of being a man after God's own heart. To +this celebrated king was reserved the honour of taking from the Jebusites +a strong fortress on the borders of Judah and Benjamin, and of laying the +foundations of Jerusalem, viewed, at least, as the metropolis of Palestine +and the seat of the Hebrew government. On Mount Zion he built a suburb of +considerable beauty; and strength, which continued for many years to bear +his name, and to reflect the magnificence of his genius. Not satisfied +with this acquisition, he extended his arms on all sides, till the +borders of his kingdom touched the western bank of the Euphrates and the +neighbourhood of Damascus. He likewise defeated the Philistines, those +restless enemies of the southern tribes, and added their dominions to the +crown of Israel. The Moabites, who had provoked his resentment, were +subjected to military execution, and deprived of a large portion of their +land; an example of severity which, so far from intimidating the children +of Ammon, only provoked them to try the fortune of war against the +victorious monarch. David despatched an army under the command of the +irascible Joab, who, after worsting them in the field, inflicted a +tremendous chastisement upon the followers of Hanun, for having studiously +insulted the ambassadors of his master.[36] + +But the splendour of this reign was afterward clouded by domestic guilt +and treason; and the nation, which could now have defied the power of its +bitterest enemies, was divided and rendered miserable by the foul passions +that issued from the royal palace. Still, notwithstanding the rebellion of +Absalom, and the defection of certain military leaders, David bequeathed +to his successor a flourishing kingdom; rapidly advancing in the arts +of civilized life, enjoying an advantageous commerce, the respect of +neighbouring states, and a decided preponderance among the minor +governments of Western Asia. His last years were spent in making +preparations for the building of a temple at Jerusalem,--a work that he +himself was not allowed to accomplish, because his hands were stained with +blood, which, however justly shed, rendered them unfit for erecting an +edifice to the God of mercy and peace.[37] + +The success which had attended the arms of his father rendered the +accession of Solomon tranquil and secure, so far, at least, as we +consider the designs of the surrounding nations. Accordingly; finding +himself in possession of quiet as well as of an overflowing treasury, he +proceeded to realize the pious intentions of David in regard to the +house of God, and thereby to obey the last commands which had been +imposed upon him before he had received the crown. The chief glory of +Solomon's administration identified with the erection of the Temple. Nor +were the advantages arising from this great undertaking confined to the +spiritual objects to which it was principally subservient On the +contrary, the necessity of employing foreign artists, and of drawing +part of his materials from a distance, suggested to the king the +benefits of a regular trade; and as the plains of Syria produced more +corn than the natives could consume, he supplied the merchants of Tyre +and the adjoining ports with a valuable commodity, in return for the +manufactured goods which his own subjects could not fabricate. It was in +his reign that the Hebrews first became a commercial people; and +although we must admit that considerable obscurity still hangs over the +tracks of navigation which were pursued by the mariners of Solomon, +there is no reason to doubt that his ships were to be seen on the +Mediterranean, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf.[38] + +But the popularity of his government did not keep pace with the rapidity +of his improvements or the magnificence of his works. Perhaps the vast +extent of his undertakings may have led to unusual demands upon the +industry of his people, and given occasion to those murmurs which could +hardly be repressed even within the precincts of the court. Like his +predecessor, too, he occasionally failed to illustrate, in his own +conduct, the excellent precepts that he propounded for the direction of +others; and towards the close of his life, particularly, the wisdom of +his moral lessons was strongly contrasted with the practical follies +which stand recorded against him in the inspired narrative. He totally +disregarded the leading principles of the constitution constructed by +Moses and left for the guidance of all Hebrew kings; not only multiplying +horses even to the extent of maintaining a large body of cavalry, and +marrying many wives who turned away his heart, but proceeding so far as to +give his countenance to idolatrous worship within sight of the very Temple +which he had consecrated to Jehovah, the God of all the earth.[39] + +It was in this reign that the limits of Jewish power attained their +utmost reach, comprehending even the remarkable district of Palmyrene, a +spacious and fertile province in the midst of a frightful desert. There +were in it two principal towns, Thapsacus and Palmyra, from the latter +of which the whole country took its name. Solomon, it is well known, +took pleasure to adding to its beauty and strength, as being one of his +main defences on the eastern border; and hence it is spoken of in +Scripture as Tadmor in the wilderness. Josephus calls it Thadamor; the +Seventy recognise it under the name of Theodmor and Thedmor; while the +Arabs and Syrians at the present day keep alive the remembrance of its +ancient glory as Tadmor, Tadmier, and Tatmor. But of Solomon's labours +not one vestige now remains. The inhabitants having revolted from the +Emperor Aurelian, and pledged their faith to an adventurer called +Antiochus, or Achilles, who had assumed the purple, this splendid +town was attacked and razed to the ground. Repenting of his hasty +determination, the Roman prince gave orders that Palmyra should be +immediately rebuilt; but so inefficient were the measures which he +adopted, or so imperfectly was he obeyed in their execution, that the +city in the desert has ever since been remarkable only as a heap of +magnificent ruins. The first object that now presents itself to the +traveller who approaches this forlorn place, is a castle of mean +architecture and uncertain origin, about half an hour's walk from it, on +the north side. "From thence," says Mr. Maundrell, "we descry Tadmor, +enclosed on three sides, by long ridges of mountains; but to the south +is a vast plain which bounds the visible horizon. The barren soil +presents nothing green but a few palm trees. The city must have been of +large extent, if we may judge from the space now taken up by the ruins; +but as there are no traces of its walls, its real dimensions and form +remain equally unknown. It is now a deplorable spectacle, inhabited by +thirty or forty miserable families, who have built huts of mud within a +spacious court which once enclosed a magnificent heathen temple."[40] + +The despotism exercised by Solomon created a strong reaction, which was +immediately felt on the accession of his son Rehoboam. This prince, +rejecting the advice of his aged counsellors, and following that of the +younger and more violent, soon had the misfortune to see the greater +part of his kingdom wrested from him. In reply to the address of his +people, who entreated an alleviation of their burdens, he declared, +that instead of requiring less at their hands he should demand more. +"My father made your yoke heavy, I will add to your yoke; my father +chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." Such +a resolution, expressed in language at once so contemptuous and severe, +alienated from his government ten tribes, who sought a more indulgent +master in Jeroboam, a declared enemy of the house of David. Hence the +origin of the kingdom of Israel, as distinguished from that of Judah; +and hence, too, the disgraceful contentions between these kindred +states, which acknowledged one religion, and professed to be guided by +the same law. Arms and negotiation proved equally unavailing, in +repeated attempts which were made to reunite the Hebrews under one +sceptre; till, at length, about two hundred and seventy years after the +death of Solomon, the younger people were subdued by Shalmaneser, the +powerful monarch of Assyria, who carried them away captive into the +remoter provinces of his vast empire.[41] + +Our plan does not admit a minuter detail of the sacred history than may +be readily found in the pages of the Old Testament. Suffice it therefore +to observe, that Jerusalem soon ceased to be regarded by the Israelites +as the centre of their religion, and the bond of union among the +descendants of Abraham. + +Jeroboam had erected in his kingdom the emblems of a less pure faith, to +which he confined the attention of his subjects; while the frequent wars +that ensued, and the treaties formed on either side with the Gentile +nations on their respective borders, soon completed the estrangement +which ambition had begun. Little attached to the native line of princes, +the Israelites placed on the throne of Samaria a number of adventurers, +who had no qualities to recommend them besides military courage and an +irreconcilable hatred towards the more legitimate claimants of the house +of David. The following list will give a condensed view of the names, +the order, and the length of the reigns which belong to the sovereigns +of Israel, from the demise of Solomon down to the extinction of their +kingdom by the arms of Assyria:-- + + Years B.C. + 1. Jeroboam 22 990 + 2. Nadad 2 968 + 3. Baasha 23 966 + 4. Ela 1 943 + 5. Zimri and Omri 11 942 + 6. Ahab 22 931 + 7. Ahaziah 2 909 + 8. Jehoram or Joram 12 907 + 9. Jehu 28 895 +10. Jehoahaz 17 867 +11: Jehoash or Joash 16 850 +12. Jeroboam II 41 834 + 1st Interregnum 22 793 +13. Zechariah and Shallum 1 771 +14. Menahem 10 770 +15. Pekahiah 2 760 +16. Pekah 20 758 + 2d Interregnum 10 738 +17. Hoshea 9 728 + --- --- +Samaria taken 271 719 + +It appears to have escaped the notice of the greater number of +commentators, that the separation of interests, which in the days of +Rehoboam produced a permanent division of the tribes, had manifested +itself at a much earlier period. In truth, it is extremely doubtful +whether the union and co-operation between the northern and the southern +communities, which was meant to be accomplished by the institution of +monarchy, were ever cordial or efficient. There is no doubt, at least, +that the two parties differed essentially in their choice of a successor +to Saul; for, while the people of Judah invited David to the supreme power +as their annointed sovereign, the suffrages of Israel were unanimous in +favour of Ishbosheth, the son of the deceased king. We may therefore +conclude, that the exactions of Solomon were the pretext rather than the +true cause of the unfortunate dismemberment of the Hebrew confederation, +which in the end conducted both sections of it by gradual steps to defeat +and captivity. + +The kingdom of Judah, less distracted by the pretensions of usurpers, and +being confirmed in the principles of patriotism by a more rigid adherance +to the law of Moses, continued during one hundred and thirty years to +resist the encroachments of the two rival powers, Egypt and Assyria, which +now began to contend in earnest for the possession of Palestine. Several +endeavours were made, even after the destruction of Samaria, to unite the +energies of the Twelve Tribes, and thereby to secure the independence of +the sacred territory a little longer. But a pitiful jealousy had succeeded +to the aversion generated by a long course of hostile aggression; while +the overwhelming hosts, which incessantly issued from the Euphrates and +the Nile to select a field of battle within the borders of Canaan, soon +left to the feeble councils of Jerusalem no other choice than that of an +Egyptian or an Assyrian master. + +In the year six hundred and two before the Christian era, when Jehoiakim +was on the throne of Judah, Nebuchadnezzar, who already shared with his +father the government of Assyria, advanced into Palestine at the head of a +formidable army. A timely submission saved the city as well as the life of +the pusillanimous monarch. But after a short period, finding the conqueror +engaged in more important affairs, the vanquished king made an effort to +recover his dominions by throwing off the Babylonian yoke. The siege of +Jerusalem was renewed with greater vigour on the part of the invaders, in +the course of which Jehoiakim was killed, and his son Coniah ascended the +throne. Scarcely, however, had the new sovereign taken up the reigns of +government, when he found it necessary to open the gates of his capital to +the Assyrian prince, who carried him, his principal nobility, and the most +expert of his artisans, as prisoners to the banks of the Tigris. + +The nominal authority was now confided to a brother or uncle of the +captive king, whose original name, Mattaniah, was changed to Zedekiah by +his lord paramount, who considered him merely as the governor of a +province. Impatient of an office so subordinate, and instigated, it is +probable, by the emissaries of Egypt, he resolved to hazard his life and +liberty for the chance of reconquering the independence of his crown. This +imprudent step brought Nebuchadnezzar once more before the walls of +Jerusalem. A siege, which appears to have continued fifteen or sixteen +months, terminated in the final reduction of the holy city, and in the +captivity of Zedekiah, who was treated with the utmost severity. His two +sons were executed in his presence, after which his eyes were put out; +when, being loaded with fetters, he was carried to Babylon and thrown into +prison. + +The work of demolition was intrusted to Nebuzar-adan, the captain of the +guard, who "burnt the house of the Lord and the king's house, and all the +houses of Jerusalem, and every great man's house burnt he with fire. And +the army of the Chaldees that were with the captain of the guard brake +down the walls of Jerusalem round about. The rest of the people that were +left in the city, and the fugitives that fell away to the King of Babylon, +with the remnant of the multitude, did the captain of the guard carry +away. But he left the poor of the land to be vine-dressers and +husbandmen."[42] + +The kings who reigned over Judah from the demise of Solomon to the +destruction of the first temple are as follows:-- + + Years B.C. + 1. Rhehoboam 17 990 + 2. Abijah 3 973 + 3. Asa 41 970 + 4. Jehoshaphat 25 929 + 5. Jehoram or Joram 8 904 + 6. Ahaziah 1 896 + 7. Queen Athaliah 8 895 + 8. Joash or Jehoash 40 889 + 9. Amaziah 29 849 + Interregnum 11 820 +10. Uzziah or Azariah 52 809 +11. Jotham 16 757 +12. Ahaz 18 741 +13. Hezekiah 29 725 +14. Manasseh 55 696 +15. Amor 2 641 +18. Josiah 31 639 +17. Jehoahaz 3 months +18. Jehoiakim 11 608 +19. Coniah or Jehoiachin 3 months +20. Zedekiah 11 597 + --- --- +Jerusalem taken 404 586 + +The desolation inflicted upon Jerusalem by the hands of her enemies +excited the deepest sorrow, and gave rise to the most gloomy apprehensions +in regard to the future. Considering themselves under the special +protection of Jehovah, the inhabitants could not by any means be induced +to believe that the throne of David would be overturned by the armies of +the heathen. It was in vain that Jeremiah, at the imminent peril of his +life announced the approaching judgment, assuring the monarch and his +princes that the King of Babylon would certainly besiege and lay waste +their holy city, unless the evil were averted by an immediate change of +manners. All his remonstrances were greeted with contempt; and at length +the prophet had to bewail the misery which thus overtook his people, and +the varied sufferings, the contumely, and the degradation, which they were +doomed to endure in the land of their conquerers. "How doth the city sit +solitary that was full of people! How is she become as a widow! She that +was great among the nations, and princess among the provinces, is become +tributary! She weepeth sore in the night, and her tears are on her cheeks! +Judah is gone into captivity; she dwelleth among the heathen, she findeth +no rest."[43] + +These sentiments, although applied to a later period, are beautifully +expressed by a modern poet, to whom was granted no small share of the +pathetic eloquence of the prophetic bard whose words have just been quoted. + + "Reft of thy sons, amid thy foes forlorn, + Mourn, widowed Queen, forgotten Sion, mourn! + Is this thy place, sad city, this thy throne, + Where the wild desert rears its craggy stone, + While suns unbless'd their angry lustre fling, + And wayworn pilgrims seek the scanty spring? + Where now thy pomp which kings with envy viewed, + Where now thy might which all those kings subdued? + No martial myriads muster in thy gate; + No suppliant nations in thy Temple wait; + No prophet bards, thy glittering courts among, + Wake the full lyre, and swell the tide of song. + But lawless Force and meager Want are there, + And the quick-darting eye of restless Fear; + While cold Oblivion, 'mid thy ruins laid, + Folds his dark wing beneath thy ivy shade."[44] + +The seventy years which were determined concerning Jerusalem began, not +at the demolition of the city by Nebuzar-adan, the captain of the guard, +but at the date of the former invasion by his master, in the reign of +Jehoiakim, when the Assyrians carried away some of the princes, and among +others Daniel and his celebrated companions, as captives, or perhaps as +hostages for the good conduct of the king. The event now alluded to took +place exactly six centuries before the Christian era; and hence the return +of the Jews to the Holy Land must have occurred about the year 530 prior +to the same great epoch. But as their migration homeward was gradually +accomplished under different leaders, and with various objects in view, +their historians have not thought it necessary to enter into particulars; +and hence has arisen a certain obscurity in the calculations of divines +respecting the commencement, the duration, and the end of the Babylonian +captivity. + +The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, who now constituted the whole Jewish +nation, brought back with them to Palestine the ancient spirit of +hostility towards the Israelitish kingdom, the people of which they were +pleased to class under the general denomination of Samaritans; an impure +race, descended from the eastern colonists sent by Shalmaneser to replace +the Hebrew captives whom he removed to Halah and Habor and the cities of +the Medes. In this way they roused an opposition, and created difficulties +which otherwise they might not have experienced during their erection of +the second Temple. The countenance of the Persian court itself was +occasionally withdrawn from men, who appeared to acknowledge no affinity +with any other order of human beings, and who seemed determined to exclude +from their country, as well as from their religious rites and privileges, +all who could not establish an immaculate descent from the father of the +faithful. For this reason, the sympathy which is so naturally excited in +the breast of the reader in behalf of the weary exiles, who sat down and +wept by the waters of Babylon with their thoughts fixed on Zion, is very +apt to be extinguished when he contemplates the bitter enmity with which +they rejected the kind offices of their ancient brethren amid the ruins of +their metropolis. + +The names of Zerubbabel, Nehemiah, and Ezra occupy the most distinguished +place among those worthies who were selected by Divine Providence +to conduct the restoration of the chosen people. After much toil, +interruption, and alarm, Jerusalem could once more boast of a temple +which, although destitute of the rich ornaments lavished upon that of +Solomon; was at least of equal dimensions, and erected on the same +consecrated ground. But the worshipper had to deplore the absence of the +Ark, the symbolical Urim and Thummim, the Shechinah or Divine Presence, +and the celestial fire which had maintained an unceasing flame upon the +altar. Their Sacred Writings, too, had been dispersed, and their ancient +language was fast becoming obsolete. To prevent the extension of so great +an evil, the more valuable manuscripts were collected and arranged, +containing the Law, the earlier Prophets, and the inspired Hymns used for +the purpose of devotion. Some compositions, however, which respected the +remotest period of their commonwealth, especially the Book of Jasher and +the Wars of the Lord, were irretrievably lost. + +Under the Persian satraps, who directed the civil and military government +of Syria, the Jews were permitted to acknowledge the authority, of their +own high-priest, to whom, in all things pertaining to the law of Moses, +they rendered the obedience which was due to the head of their nation. +Their prosperity, it is true, was occasionally diminished or increased by +the personal character of the sovereigns who successively occupied the +throne of Cyrus; but no material change in their circumstances took place +until the victories of Alexander the Great had laid the foundations of the +Syro-Macedonian kingdom in Western Asia, and given a new dynasty to the +crown of Egypt. The struggles which ensued between these powerful states +frequently involved the interests of the Jews, and made new demands upon +their allegiance; although it is admitted, that as each was desirous to +conciliate a people who claimed Palestine for their unalienable heritage, +the Hebrews at large were, during two centuries, treated with much +liberality and favour. But this generosity or forbearance was interrupted +in the rein of Antiochus Epiphanes, who, alarmed by the report of +insurrections, and harassed by the events of an unsuccessful war in Egypt, +directed his angry passions against the Jews. Marching at the head of a +large force, he attacked Jerusalem so suddenly that no means of defence +could be used, and hardly any resistance attempted. Forty thousand of the +inhabitants were put to death, and an equal number condemned to slavery. +Not satisfied with this punishment, he proceeded to measures still more +appalling in the eyes of a Jew. He entered the Temple, pillaged the +treasury, seized all the sacred utensils, the golden candlestick, the +table of shew-bread, and the altar of incense. He then commanded a great +sow to be sacrificed on the altar of burnt offerings, part of the flesh to +be boiled, and the liquor from this unclean animal to be sprinkled over +every part of the sacred edifice; thus polluting with the most odious +defilement even the Holy of Holies, which no human eye, save that of the +high-priest, was ever permitted to behold. + +A short time afterward, being the year 168 before the epoch of Redemption, +he issued an edict for the extermination of the whole Hebrew race, against +whom he had again conceived a furious dislike. This commission was +intrusted to Apollonius,--an instrument worthy of so sanguinary a +tyrant,--who, waiting till the Sabbath, when the people were occupied in +the peaceful duties of religion, let loose his soldiers upon the +unresisting multitude, slew all the men, whose blood deluged the streets, +and seized the women as captives. He first proceeded to plunder and then +to dismantle the city, which he set on fire in many places. He threw down +the walls, and built a strong fortress on the highest part of Mount Sion, +which commanded the Temple and all the adjoining parts of the town. From +this garrison he harassed the inhabitants of the country, who, with fond +attachment, stole in to visit the ruins, or to offer a hasty and perilous +worship in the place where their sanctuary had stood. All the public +services had ceased, and no voice of adoration was heard within the holy +gates, except that of the profane heathen calling on their idols.[45] + +But the persecution did not end even with these furious expedients. +Antiochus next issued an order for uniformity of worship throughout all +his dominions, and sent officers everywhere to enforce the strictest +compliance. In the districts of Judea and Samaria, this invidious duty was +intrusted to Athenaeus, an old man, whose chief recommendation appears to +have been his intimate acquaintance with the doctrines and usages of the +Grecian religion. The Samaritans are said to have conformed without +scruple, and even to have permitted their temple on Mount Gerizim to be +regularly dedicated to Jupiter, in his character of the Stranger's Friend. +Having so far succeeded, the royal envoy turned his steps to Jerusalem, +where, at the point of the sword, he prohibited every observance connected +with the Jewish faith; compelling the people to profane the Sabbath, to +eat swine's flesh, and to abstain, under a severe penalty, from the +national rite of circumcision. The Temple was consigned by consecration to +the ceremonies of Jupiter Olympius; while the statue of that deity was +erected on the altar of burnt-offerings, and sacrifice duly performed in +his name. Two women, who had the initiatory ordinance enjoined by the +Mosaical law performed on their children, were hanged to a conspicuous +part of the city with their infants suspended round their necks; and many +other cruelties were perpetrated, the very atrocity of which precludes +them at once from popular belief and from the pages of history. Neither +age, nor sex, nor profession saved the proscribed Jew from the horrors of +a violent death. From Jerusalem, too, the persecution spread over the +whole country; in every city the same barbarities were executed and the +same profanations introduced. As a last insult, the feasts of the +Bacchanalia, the license of which, as they were celebrated in the later +ages of Greece, shocked the severe virtue of the older Romans, were +substituted for the national festival of tabernacles. The reluctant +Hebrews were forced to join in these riotous orgies, and carry the ivy, +the insignia of the god. So nearly were the Jewish nation and the worship +of Jehovah exterminated by the double weapons of superstition and +violence![46] + +But this savage intolerance produced in due time a formidable opposition. +To a sincere believer death has always appeared a smaller evil than the +relinquishment of his faith; and, in this respect, no people ancient or +modern have shown more resolution than the descendants of Abraham. The +severities of Antiochus, which had inflamed the resentment of the whole +Jewish people, called forth in a hostile attitude the brave family of the +Maccabees, whose valour and perseverance enabled them to dispute with the +powerful monarch of Syria the sovereignty of Palestine. Judas, the ablest +and most gallant of five sons, put himself at the head of the insurgents, +whose zeal, more than compensating for the smallness of their numbers, +carried him to victory against large armies and experienced generals. +Making every allowance for the enthusiastic description of an admiring +countryman, who has recorded the exploits of the Maccabaean chiefs, there +will still remain the most ample evidence to satisfy every candid reader, +that in all the great battles the fortune of war followed the standard of +the Jews. + +But the victorious Maccabees, who had delivered their country from the +oppression of foreigners, encountered a more formidable enemy in the +factious spirit of their own people. Alcimus, a tool of the Syrians, +assumed the title of high-priest, and in virtue of his office claimed the +obedience of all who acknowledged the institutions of Moses. In this +emergency Judas courted the alliance of the Romans, who willingly extended +their protection to confederates so likely to aid their ambitious views in +the East; but before the Republic could interpose her arms in his behalf, +the Hebrew general had fallen in the field of battle. + +This distinguished patriot was succeeded by his brother Jonathan, who, +though less celebrated as a warrior, had the good fortune to restore the +drooping cause of his countrymen, and even to establish their rights on +the footing of independence. Profiting by a sanguinary competition for the +throne of Syria, he consented to employ his power in favour of Alexander +Balas, on condition that, in return for so seasonable an aid; he should be +allowed to assume the pontifical robe as ruler of Judea. Hence the origin +of the Asmonean princes, who, uniting civil with spiritual authority, +governed Palestine more than a hundred years. + +But Jonathan fell the victim of that refined policy to which he was +mainly indebted for his elevation. He left the sovereign priesthood to +his brother Simon, who, wisely abstaining from all interference in the +disputes which embroiled Egypt and Syria, directed his whole attention +to the improvement of the Jewish kingdom. To secure the tranquillity +which had been so dearly purchased he cultivated a more intimate connexion +with Rome; remitting, from time to time, such valuable tokens of his +respect as could not fail to make an impression on the venal minds of +those aspiring chiefs who already contended for the empire of the world +in that celebrated capital. But a conspiracy, originating in his own house, +and fomented by the agents of Antiochus, put an end to the life of Simon +and of his eldest son, who had earned considerable reputation in the +command of armies. The duty of avenging his death and of governing a +distracted country devolved upon his younger son, afterward well known +in history by the name of John Hyrcanus. + +The unhappy circumstances under which he succeeded to power compelled him +to submit for a time to the condition of vassalage; but no sooner had +Antiochus Sidetes fallen in the Parthian war, than John shook off the yoke +of Syria, and exercised the rights of an independent sovereign. He even +extended his sway beyond the Jordan, reducing several important towns to +his obedience; though the achievement which most gratified his Jewish +subjects was the capture of Shechem, followed by the demolition of the +temple on Gerizim, so long regarded as the opprobrium of the Hebrew faith. +At a later period he made himself master of Samaria and Galilee, when, to +gratify still farther the vindictive grudge which yet rankled in the +breasts of his people, he destroyed the capital of the former, and debased +it to the condition of a stagnant lake. Nor was his attention confined to +foreign conquest. He strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and +built the castle of Baris within the walls which surrounded the hill of +the Temple,--a stronghold, that at a future period attracted no small +degree of notice under the name of Antonia. + +The government was enjoyed during a brief space by Aristobulus, the son of +Hyrcanus, whose reign was only distinguished by the most painful domestic +calamities. The throne was next occupied by Alexander Jannaeus, a man of +ignoble birth, but of a warlike and very ambitious temper. The distracted +state of the neighbouring countries induced him to take the field, with +the view of reducing several towns on the coast of the Mediterranean,--an +undertaking which finally involved him in the troubled politics of Egypt +and Cyprus. In process of time, the severity of his measures, or the +meanness of his extraction, rendered him so unpopular at Jerusalem that +the inhabitants expelled him by force of arms. A civil war of the most +sanguinary nature raged several years, during which the insurgents invited +the assistance of Demetrius Euchaerus, one of the kings of Syria. This +measure seems to have united a large party of Jews, who were equally +hostile to the dominant faction within the city, and to the ally whom they +had called to their aid. Alexander, after having repeatedly suffered the +heaviest losses, saw himself again at the head of a powerful army, with +which he resolved to march against the rebellious capital. He inflicted a +signal punishment upon such of the unfortunate citizens as fell into his +hands; ordering nearly a thousand of them to be crucified, and their wives +and children to be butchered before their eyes. + +Having fully re-established his power to the remotest parts of Palestine, +the victorious high-priest, now drawing towards the close of his days, +gave instructions to his wife for the future government of the country. +Alexandria, a woman of a vigorous mind, held the reins of civil power +with great steadiness, while her eldest son, Hyrcanus the Second, was +decorated with the sacred diadem as the head of the nation. But, unhappily, +the commotions which had disturbed the reign of her husband were again +excited, and once more divided the people into two furious parties. +Aristobulus, the younger son of Jannaeus, gave his countenance to the +body who opposed his brother, and at length threw off his disguise so +completely as to aspire to supreme power in defiance of the rights of +birth and of a legal investiture. Hyrcanus, who was far inferior to his +ambitious relative in point of talent and resolution, would probably, +after the death of their mother, have been unable to keep his seat on the +throne, had he not received the powerful aid of Antipatar, a son of +Antipas, the governor of Idumea. Both sides were making preparation for an +appeal to arms, when the Romans, who had already overrun the finest parts +of Syria, advanced into the province of Palestine in the character at once +of umpires and of allies. + +Pompey readily listened to the claims of the two competitors, but deferred +coming to an immediate decision; having resolved, as it afterward +appeared, that neither of the kinsmen should continue any longer to +possess the civil and military command of Judea. Aristobulus, impatient of +delay, and having no confidence in the goodness of his cause, had recourse +to arms, and at length shut himself up in Jerusalem. The Roman general +issued orders to his lieutenant Gabinius to invest the holy city; which, +after a siege of three months, was taken by assault at a great expense of +human life. + +Many of the priests who were employed in the duties of their office fell +victims to the rage of the soldiers; while others, unable to witness the +desecration of their Temple by the presence of idolaters, threw themselves +from the rock on which that building stood. Induced by curiosity, the +rival of Caesar imitated the profane boldness of Antiochus, penetrating +into the Holy of Holies, and examining all the instruments of a worship +which differed so much from that of all other nations. But Pompey was more +politic, or more generous than the Syrian monarch; for although he found +much treasure in the sanctuary as well as many vessels of gold and silver, +he carried nothing away. He expressed much astonishment that, in a fane so +magnificent, and frequented by Jews from all parts of the earth, there +should be no material form, statue, nor picture to represent the Deity to +whose honour it was erected. Having, in order to satisfy the scruples of +the people, ordered a purification of the Temple, he renewed the +appointment of Hyrcanus to the high priesthood, but without any civil +power; while in respect to the more turbulent Aristobulus, he resolved to +exercise the right of a conqueror, by sending him and his two sons to +Rome, that they might swell the train of his approaching triumph. + +The escape of one of these young men, and afterward of the father himself, +rekindled the flame of war in Palestine. But the Romans under Gabinius +and the celebrated Mark Antony, speedily subdued the hasty levies of +Aristobulus, and completely re-established the ascendency of the Republic +in all the revolted districts. In the civil war which ensued, Antipater, +who still directed the affairs of the weak-minded Hyrcanus, paid his court +so successfully to the dominant faction as to obtain for his master the +protection of Caesar, and for himself the procuratorship of Judea. Raised +to this commanding eminence, he named Phasael, his eldest son, governor of +Jerusalem, and confided to the younger, the artful and unscrupulous Herod, +the charge of Galilee. + +But there still remained an individual belonging to the family of +Aristobulus, who, having found refuge among the Parthians, led a powerful +army of that people into Syria, and finally invested Jerusalem. The +invaders, after obtaining possession of the city, deprived Hyrcanus of the +priesthood and Phasael of his life; the barbarian soldiers, meantime, +committing pillage on all classes, both within the walls and in the +adjoining country. Herod, warned by his less fortunate relative in the +capital, had fled to Rome, with the view, it is said, of recommending the +interests of another Aristobulus, a grandson of Hyrcanus, and brother of +the beautiful Mariamne, to whom he himself was already betrothed. Octavius +and Antony, however, thought it morn expedient for their rising empire +that Herod should wear the vassal crown of Judea in his own person, rather +than see it placed on the head of an inexperienced youth; and as the son +of Antipater was about to unite himself with a descendant of the Asmonean +princes, it was considered that the claims of each family would be thereby +fully satisfied. + +The reign of Herod, who, to distinguish him from others of the same name, +is usually called the Great, was no less remarkable for domestic calamity +than for public peace and happiness. Urged by suspicion, he put to death +his beloved wife,[47] her mother, brother, grandfather, uncle, and two +sons. His palace was the scene of incessant intrigue, misery, and +bloodshed; his nearest relations being even the chief instruments of his +worst sufferings and fears. It was, perhaps, to divert his apprehensions +and remorse that he employed so much of his time in the labours of +architecture. Besides a royal residence on Mount Zion, he built a number +of citadels throughout the country, and laid the foundations of several +splendid towns. Among these was Cesarea, a station well selected both for +strength and commerce, and destined to become, under a different +government, a place of considerable importance. + +But the impurity of his blood as an Idumean, and his undisguised +attachment to the religion of his Gentile masters, created an obstacle to +a complete understanding with his subjects, which no degree of personal +kindness, or of wisdom and munificence in the conduct of public affairs, +could ever entirely remove. At length he determined on a measure which, he +hoped, would at the same time employ the people and ingratiate himself +with the higher classes--the rebuilding of the temple in its former +splendour and greatness. The lapse of five hundred years, and the ravage +of successive wars, had much impaired the structure of Zerubbabel. As it +was necessary to remove the dilapidated parts of the edifice before the +new building could be begun, the Jews looked on with a suspicious eye; +apprehensive lest the king, under pretence of doing honour to their faith, +should obliterate every vestige of their ancient sanctuary. But the +prudence of Herod calmed their fears; the work proceeded with the greatest +regularity, and the nation saw, with the utmost joy, a fabric of stately +architecture crowning the brow of Mount Moriah with glittering masses of +white marble and pinnacles of gold. Yet during this pious undertaking the +Jewish monarch maintained his double character; presiding at the Olympic +games, granting large donations for their support, and even allowing +himself to be nominated president of this pagan festival.[48] + +As he advanced towards old age his troubles multiplied, and his +apprehensions were increased, till, at length, four years anterior to the +common era of Christianity, Herod sank under the pressure of a loathsome +disease. He was permitted by the Romans so far to exercise the privileges +of an independent prince as to distribute by will the inheritance of +sovereignty among the more favoured of his children; and in virtue of this +indulgence he assigned to Archelaus the government of Idumea, Samaria, and +Judea, while he bestowed upon Antipas a similar authority over Peraea and +Galilee. + +But the young princes required the sanction of the Roman emperor, whom +they both regarded as their liege lord; and with that view repaired to the +capital of Italy. The will of the late king was acknowledged and confirmed +by Augustus, who was moreover pleased to give to Herod Philip, their elder +brother, the provinces of Auranitis, Trachonitis, Paneas, and Batanea. +Achelaus, the metropolis of whose dominions was Jerusalem, ruled in +quality of ethnarch about nine years; but so little to the satisfaction +either of his master at Rome or of the people whom he was appointed to +govern, that at the end of this period he was summoned to render an +account of his administration at the imperial tribunal, when he was +deprived of his power and wealth, and finally banished into Gaul. Judea +was now reduced to a Roman province, dependent on the prefecture of Syria, +though usually place under the inspection of a subordinate officer, called +the procurator or governor. Thus the sceptre passed away from Judah, and +the lawgiver descended from the family of Jacob ceased to enjoy power +within the confines of the Promised Land. + +No reader can require to be reminded, that it was at this epoch, in the +last year of the reign of Herod, the Messias was born, and conveyed into +Egypt for security. The unjust and cruel government of Archelaus, for +which, as has just been related, he was stripped of his authority by the +head of the empire, was probably the cause why the holy family did not +again take up their residence in Judea, but preferred the milder rule of +Antipas. When Joseph "heard that Archelaus did reign in Judea in the room +of his father Herod, he was afraid to go thither: notwithstanding, being +warned of God in a dream, he turned aside into the parts of Galilee: and +he came and dwelt in a city called Nazareth."[49] + +The first thirty years of the Christian era did not pass away without +several insurrections on the part of the Jews, and repeated acts of +severity and extortion inflicted upon them by their stern conquerors. +The commotion excited by Judas, called the Gallilean, is regarded by +historians as one of the most important of those ebullitions which were +constantly breaking forth among that inflammatory people, not only on +account of its immediate consequences, but for the effects produced on +the national character, in regard to the speculative tenets connected +with tribute and submission to a heathen government. + +Upon the exile of Archelaus, the prefecture of Syria was committed to +Publius Sulpicius Quirinius. This commander is mentioned in the Gospel of +St. Luke by the name of Cyrenius, and is described as the person under +whom the taxing was first made in that province. Hence we may conclude, +that the enrolment which took place at the birth of our Saviour was merely +a census, comprehending the numbers, and perhaps the wealth and station of +the several classes of the people. + +It was about the twenty-sixth year of our epoch that Pontius Pilate was +nominated to the government of Judea. Ignorant or indifferent as to the +prejudices of the Jews, he roused among them a spirit of the most active +resentment, by displaying the image of the emperor in Jerusalem, and by +seizing part of their sacred treasure for the purposes of general +improvement. As the fiery temper of the inhabitants drove them, on most +occasions, to acts of violence, he did not hesitate to employ force in +return; and we find, accordingly, that his administration was dishonoured +by several acts of military execution directed against Jews and Samaritans +indiscriminately. His severity towards the latter people finally led to +his recall and disgrace about the year 36, when Vitellius, the father of +the future emperor of the same name, presided over the affairs of the +Syrian province. + +The plan of our work does not permit us to do more than allude to the +great event which took place at Jerusalem under the auspices of Pilate. +We may nevertheless observe, that the narrative of the gospel is in strict +harmony with the character, not only of the time to which it refers, +but also of all the persons whose acts it describes. The expectation of +the Jews when Jesus of Nazareth first appeared,--their subsequent +disappointment and rage--their hatred and impatience of the Roman +government,--the perplexity of the military chief, and the motive which at +length induced him to sacrifice the innocent person who was listed before +him, are facts which display the most perfect accordance with the tone of +civil history at that remarkable period. + +During the troubles which agitated Judea, the districts that owned the +sovereignty of Antipas and Philip, namely, Galilee and the country beyond +the Jordan, enjoyed comparative quiet. The former, who is the Herod +described by our Saviour as "that fox," was a person of a cool and rather +crafty disposition, and might have terminated his long reign in peace, had +not Herodias, whom he seduced from his brother--the second prince just +mentioned--irritated his ambition by pointing to the superior rank of his +nephew, Herod Agrippa, whom Caligula had been pleased to raise to a +provincial throne. Urged by his wife to solicit a similar elevation, he +presented himself at Rome, and obtained an audience of the emperor; but +the successor of Tiberius was so little pleased with his conduct on this +occasion, that he divested him of the tetrarchy, and banished him into +Gaul. + +The death of Herod Philip and the degradation of the Galilean tetrarch +paved the way for the advancement of Agrippa to all the honour and power +which had belonged to the family of David. He was permitted to reign over +the whole of Palestine, having under his direction the usual number of +Roman troops, which experience had proved to be necessary for the peace of +a province at once so remote and so turbulent. The only event that +disturbed the tranquillity of his government was an insane resolution +expressed by Caligula to place his own statue in the temple of Jerusalem, +as an object of respect, if not of positive and direct worship to the +whole Jewish nation. The prudence of the Syrian prefect, and the influence +which Agrippa still possessed over the mind of his imperial friend, +prevented the horrors that must have arisen from the attempt to desecrate, +in this odious manner, a sanctuary deemed most holy by every descendant of +Abraham. + +But no position could be more difficult to hold with safety and reputation +than that which was occupied by this Hebrew prince. He was assailed on the +one hand by the jealousy of the Roman deputies, and on the other by the +suspicion of his own countrymen, who could never divest themselves of the +fear that his foreign education had rendered him indifferent to the rites +of the Mosaical law. To satisfy the latter, he spared no expense in +conferring magnificence on the daily service of the temple, while he put +forth his hand to persecute the Christian church in the persons of St. +Peter and James the brother of John. To remove every ground of disloyalty +from the eyes of the political agents who were appointed by Claudius to +watch his conduct, he ordered a splendid festival at Cesarea in honour of +the new emperor; on which occasion, when arrayed in the moat gorgeous +attire, certain words of adulation reached his ear, not fit to be +addressed to a Jewish monarch. The result will be best described in the +words of sacred Scripture: "And upon a set day Herod, arrayed in royal +apparel, sat upon his throne, and made an oration unto them. And the +people gave a shout, saying, it is the voice of a god, and not of a man. +And immediately the angel of the Lord smote him, because he gave not God +the glory; and he was eaten of worms, and gave up the ghost."[50] He left +a son and three daughters, of whom Agrippa, Bernice, and Drusilla make a +conspicuous figure towards the close of the book of Acts. These events +took place between the fortieth and the forty-fifth years of the Christian +faith. + +The youth and inexperience of the prince dictated to the Roman government +the propriety of assuming once more the entire direction of Jewish +affairs. The prefecture of Syria was confided to Cassius Longinus, under +whom served, as procurator of Judea, Caspius Fadus, a stern though an +upright soldier. But the impatience and hatred of the people were now +inflamed to such a degree, that gentleness and severity were equally +unavailing to preserve the tranquillity of the country. Impostors appeared +on every hand, proclaiming deliverance to the oppressed children of Jacob, +and provoking the more impetuous among their brethren to take up arms +against the Romans. Various conflicts ensued, in which the discipline of +the legions hardly ever failed to disperse or destroy the tumultuary bands +who, under such unhappy auspices, attempted to restore the kingdom to +Israel. The holy city, which was from time to time beleaguered by both +parties, sustained material injury from the furious assaults of pagan +and Jew alternately. The predictions of its downfall, already circulated +among the Christians, began to mingle with the shouts of its fanatical +inhabitants; and already, even at the accession of Agrippa the Second to +his limited sovereignty, every thing portended that miserable consummation +which at no distant period closed the temporal scene of Hebrew hope and +dominion. + +Every succeeding day witnessed the progress of that ferocious sect founded +on the opinions of Judas the Gaulonite, who acknowledged no sovereign but +Jehovah, and who constantly denounced as the greatest of all sins those +payments or services by means of which a heathenish government was +supported. In prosecuting their revolutionary schemes; they esteemed no +man's life dear, and set as little value upon their own. Devoted to the +principles of a frantic patriotism, they were content to sacrifice to its +claims the clearest dictates of humanity and religion; being at all times +ready to bind themselves by an oath that they would neither eat nor drink +until they had slain the enemy of their nation or of their God. This was +the school which supplied that execrable faction, who added tenfold to the +miseries of Jerusalem in the day of her visitation, and who contributed +more than all the legions of Rome to realize the bitterness of the curse +which was poured upon her devoted head. + +A succession of unprincipled governors, who were sent forth to enrich +themselves on the spoils of the Syrian provinces, accelerated the crisis +of Judea. About the middle of the first century the notorious Felix was +appointed to the government, who, in the administration of affairs, +habitually combined violence with fraud, sending out his soldiers to +inflict punishment on such as had not the means or the inclination to +bribe his clemency. An equal stranger to righteousness and temperance, he +presented a fine subject for the eloquence of St. Paul, who it is +presumed, however, made the profligate governor tremble, without either +affecting his religious principles or improving his moral conduct. + +The short residence of Festus procured for the unhappy Jews a respite from +oppression. He laboured successfully to put down the bands of insurgents, +whose ravages were inflicted indiscriminately upon foreigners and their +own countrymen; nor was he less active in checking the excesses of the +military, so long accustomed to rapine and free quarter. Agrippa at the +same time transferred the seat of his government to Jerusalem, where his +presence served to moderate the rage of parties, and thereby to postpone +the final rupture between the provincials and their imperial master. But +this brief interval of repose was followed by an increased degree of +irritation and fury. Florus, alike distinguished for his avarice and +cruelty, and who saw in the contentions of the people the readiest means +for filling his own coffers, connived at the mutual hostility which it was +his duty to prevent. In this nefarious policy he received the countenance +of Cestius Gallus, the prefect of Syria, who, imitating the maxims of +his lieutenant, studiously drove the natives to insurrection, in order +that their cries for justice might be drowned amid the clash of arms. + +But he forgot that there are limits to endurance even among the most +humble and abject. Unable to support the weight of his tyranny, and galled +by certain insults directed against their faith, the Jewish inhabitants of +Cesarea set his power at defiance, and declared their resolution to repel +his injuries by force. The capital was soon actuated by a similar spirit, +and made preparations for defence. Cestius marched to the gates, and +demanded an entrance for the imperial cohorts, whose aid was required to +support the garrison within. The citizens, refusing to comply; anticipated +the horrors of a siege, when after a few days they saw, to their great +surprise, the Syrian prefect in full retreat carrying with him his +formidable army. Sallying from the different outlets with arms in their +hands, they pursued the fugitives with the usual fury of an incensed +multitude; and, overtaking their enemy at the narrow pass of Bethhoron, +they avenged the cause of independence by a considerable slaughter of the +legionary soldiers, and by driving the remainder to an ignominious flight. + +Nero received the intelligence of this defeat while amusing himself in +Greece, and immediately sent Vespasian into Syria to assume the +government, with instructions to restore peace of the province by moderate +concessions or by the most vigorous warfare. It was in the year +sixty-seven that this great commander entered Judea, accompanied by his +son, the celebrated Titus. The result is too well known to require +details. A series of sanguinary battles deprived the Jews of their +principal towns one after another, until they were at length shut up in +Jerusalem; the siege and final reduction of which compose one of the most +affecting stories that are anywhere recorded in the annals of the human +race. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + + +_On the Literature and Religious Usages of the Ancient Hebrews_. + +Obscurity of the Subject; Learning issued from the Levitical Colleges; +Schools of the Prophets; Music and Poetry; Meaning of the term Prophecy; +Illustrated by References to the Old Testament and to the New; The power +of Prediction not confined to those bred in the Schools; Race of false +Prophets; Their Malignity and Deceit; Micaiah and Ahab; Charge against +Jeremiah the Prophet; Criterion to distinguish True from False Prophets; +The Canonical Writings of the Prophets; Literature of Prophets; Sublime +Nature of their Compositions; Examples from Psalms and Prophetical +Writings; Humane and liberal Spirit; Care used to keep alive the +Knowledge of the Law; Evils arising from the Division of lsrael and +Judah; Ezra collects the Ancient Books; Schools of Prophets similar to +Convents; Sciences; Astronomy; Division of Time, Days Months, and Years; +Sabbaths and New Moons; Jewish Festivals; Passover; Pentecost; Feast of +Tabernacles; Of Trumpets; Jubilee; Daughters of Zelophedad; Feast of +Dedication; Minor Anniversaries; Solemn Character of Hebrew Learning; +Its easy Adaptation to Christianity; Superior to the Literature of all +other ancient Nations. + +There is no subject on which greater obscurity prevails than that of the +learning and schools of the Hebrews prior to their return from the +Babylonian Captivity. The wise institution of Moses, which provided for +the maintenance of Levitical towns in all the tribes, secured at least an +hereditary knowledge of the law, including both its civil and its +spiritual enactments. It is extremely probable, therefore, that all the +varieties of literary attainment which might he deemed necessary, either +for the discharge of professional duties or for the ornament of private +life, were derived from those seminaries, and partook largely of their +general character and spirit. An examination of the scanty remains of that +remote period will justify, to a considerable extent, the conjecture now +made. It will appear that the poetry, the ethics, the oratory, the music, +and even the physical science cultivated in the time of Samuel and David +bore a close relation to the original object of the Levitical colleges, +and were meant to promote the principles of religion and morality, no less +than of that singular patriotism which made the Hebrew delight in his +separation from all other nations of the earth. + +Our attention is first attracted by the several allusions which are +scattered over the earlier books of the Old Testament to the schools of +the prophets. These were establishments obviously intended to prepare +young men for certain offices analogous to those which are discharged in +our days by the different orders of the clergy; maintained in some degree +at the public expense; and placed under the superintendence of persons who +were distinguished for their gravity and high endowments. The principal +studies pursued in these convents appear to have been poetry and music, +the elements of which were necessary to the young prophet when he was +called to take a part in the worship of Jehovah. In the book of Samuel we +find the pupils performing on psalteries, tabrets, and harps; and in the +first section of the Chronicles it is said that the sons of Asaph, of +Heman, and of Jeduthan prophesied with harps, with psalteries, and with +cymbals. For the same reason Miriam the sister of Moses is called a +prophetess. When preparing to chant her song of triumph, upon the +destruction of the Egyptians at the Red Sea, "she took a timbrel in her +hand, and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances." + +On a similar ground is the expression to be interpreted when used by St. +Paul in the eleventh chapter of his First Epistle to the Corinthians. +"Every woman praying or prophesying with her head uncovered dishononreth +her head;" that is, every female who takes a part in the devotions of the +Christian Church,--the supplications and the praises,--ought, according to +the practice of eastern nations, to have her face concealed in a veil, as +becoming the modesty of her sex in a mixed congregation. The term +prophesy, in this instance, must be restricted to the use of psalmody, +because exposition or exhortation in public was not permitted to the +women, who were not allowed to speak or even to ask a question in a place +of worship. Nay, the same apostle applies the title of prophet to those +persons among the heathen who composed or uttered songs in praise of their +gods. In his Epistle to Titus he alludes to the people of Crete in these +words, "one of themselves, even a prophet of their own, has said, the +Cretans were always liars." And every classical scholar is perfectly aware +that in the language of pagan antiquity a poet and a prophet were +synonymous appellations. + +But the function of the prophet was not confined to the duty of praise and +thanksgiving; it also implied the ability to expound and enforce the +principles of the Mosaical Law. He was entitled to exhort and entreat; and +we accordingly find that the greater portion of the prophetical writings +consist of remonstrances, rebukes, threatenings, and expostulations. In +order to be a prophet, in the Hebrew sense of the expression, it was not +necessary to be endowed with the power of foreseeing future events. It is +true that the holy men through whom the Almighty thought meet to reveal +his intentions relative to the church, were usually selected from the +order of persons now described. But there were several exceptions, among +whom stood preeminent the eloquent Daniel and the pathetic Amos. To +prophesy, therefore, in the later times of the Hebrew commonwealth meant +most generally the explication and enforcement of Divine truth--an import +of the term which was extended into the era of the New Testament, when the +more recondite sense of the phrase was almost entirely laid aside. + +In truth, it should seem that even before the days of Samuel the opinions, +or rather perhaps the popular notions connected with the name and offices +of a prophet, had undergone some change, and began to point to higher +objects. Saul, when employed in seeking his father's asses, had journeyed +so far from home that he despaired of finding his way thither; and when he +was come to the land of Zuph he said to his servant, "Come, and let us +return; lest my father leave caring for the asses, and take thought for +us. And he said unto him, Behold now, there is in this city a man of God, +and he is an honourable man; all that he saith cometh surely to pass: now +let us go thither; peradventure he can show us our way that we should go. +Then said Saul to his servant, But, behold; if we go, what shall we bring +the man; for the bread is spent in our vessels, and there is not a present +to bring to the man of God; what have we? And the servant answered Saul +again, and said, Behold, I have here at hand the fourth part of a shekel +of silver; that will I give to the man of God to tell us our way. +(Beforetime in Israel, when a man went to inquire of God, thus he spake, +Come, and let us go to the seer: for he that is now called a prophet was +beforetime called a seer.) Then said Saul to his servant, Well said; come, +let us go. So they went unto the city where the man of God was."[51] + +The description of soothsayer whom Saul and his servant had resolved to +consult is very common in all lands at a certain stage of knowledge and +civilization,--a personage who, without much reliance on Divine aid, could +amuse the curiosity of a rustic and perplex his ignorance with an +ambiguous answer. But the age of Samuel required more solid qualifications +in the prophets, and hence the term seer had already given way to that of +expounder or master of eloquence and wisdom. The expedient suggested by +the attendant of the son of Kish was very natural, and quite consistent +with his rank and habits; while the easy acquiescence which he obtained +from his master denotes the simplicity of ancient times, not less than the +untutored state of mind in which the future King of Israel had left his +parent's dwelling. Before he mounted the throne, however, he was sent to +acquire the elements of learning among the sons of the prophets; whom, in +a short time, he accompanied in their pious exercises in a manner so +elevated as to astonish every one who had formerly known the young +Benjamite; till then remarkable only for a mild disposition and great +bodily strength. + +The mental bias towards prediction, which is almost unavoidably acquired +by the practice of elucidation and commentary on a dark text, soon showed +itself in the schools of the prophets. Many of them, trusting to their own +ingenuity rather than to the suggestion of the Spirit of Truth, ventured +to foretel the issue of events, and to delineate the future fortunes of +nations, as well as of individuals. Hence the race of false prophets, who +brought so much obloquy upon the whole order, and not unfrequently barred +against the approach of godly admonition the ears of those who were +actually addressed by an inspired messenger. Nay, it appears that some of +them arrogated the power of realizing the good or the evil which they were +pleased to foretel; allowing the people to believe that they were +possessed with demons, who enabled them, not only to foresee, but to +influence in no small measure the course of Providence. The impression on +the mind of Ahab in regard to Micaiah leaves no room for doubt that the +king imagined the prophet to be actuated by a malignant feeling towards +him. "I hate him," he exclaimed, "for he doth not prophesy good concerning +me, but evil." Nor was the conviction that this ungracious soothsayer +spoke from his own wishes rather than from a divine impulse confined to +the Israelitish monarch. The messenger who was sent to call Micaiah spake +unto him, saying, "Behold now, the words of the prophets declare good unto +the king with one mouth: let thy word, I pray thee, be like the word of +one of them, and speak that which is good."[52] + +When we consider the uncertainty which must have attended all predictions, +where the wishes or feelings of the prophet could give a different +expression to the purposes of God, we cannot any longer be surprised at +the neglect with which such announcements were frequently treated by those +to whom they were addressed. It is remarkable, too, that one prophet did +not possess the gift of ascertaining the truth or sincerity of another who +might declare that he spoke in the name of God; and hence there were no +means of determining the good faith of this order of men, except the +general evidence of a pious character, or the test of a successful +experience. For example, when Jeremish proclaimed the approaching fall of +Jerusalem, the other prophets were among the first to oppose him, saying, +"Thou shalt surely die: why hast thou prophesied in the name of the Lord +that this house shall be like Shiloh, and this city shall be desolate +without an inhabitant?" The princes of Judah assembled in the Temple to +hear the charge repeated against this fearless minister; when again, +"spake the priests and the prophets unto the princes, and to all the +people, saying, This man is worthy to die; for he hath prophesied against +this city, as ye have heard with your ears." + +It is worthy of notice, too, that the prediction which gave so much +offence was conditional and contingent, and that Jeremiah, accordingly, +incurred the hazard of suffering the severe punishment due to a false +prophet; because if the people had turned from their sins the fate of +their capital and nation would have been protracted. "The Lord sent me to +prophesy against this house, and against this city, all the words that ye +have heard. Therefore now amend your ways and your doings, and obey the +voice of the Lord your God; and the Lord will repent him of the evil that +he hath pronounced against you. As for me, behold, I am in your hand; do +with me as seemeth good and meet unto you: but know ye for certain, that, +if ye put me to death, ye shall surely bring innocent blood upon +yourselves, and upon this city, and upon the inhabitants thereof; for of a +truth the Lord hath sent me unto you, to speak all these words in your +ears."[53] + +The decision of the princes was more equitable than the accusation adduced +by the priests and prophets; for according to the law of Moses no man +could be punished for predicting the most calamitous events, provided he +persevered in the assertion that he spoke in the name of Jehovah. The +divine legislator denounced the penalty of death against every prophet who +should speak in the name of any false god, or who should speak in the name +of Jehovah that which he was not commanded to speak; but, in regard to the +latter offence, the guilt could only be substantiated by the failure of +the prophecy. "And if thou say in thine heart, how shall we know the word +which the Lord hath not spoken? When a prophet speaketh in the name of the +Lord, if the thing follow not, nor come to pass, that is the thing which +the Lord hath not spoken, but the prophet hath spoken it +presumptuously."[54] + +It is obvious, however, that in all cases where a condition was implied, +the fulfilment of the prediction could not be regarded as essential to the +establishment of the prophetic character. The capture of Jerusalem +produced the most undeniable testimony to the inspiration of Jeremiah, as +well as to the sincerity of his expostulation; yet it is well known that +his motives did not escape suspicion, and that his memory was loaded by +many of his countrymen with the charge of having favoured the Chaldeans. + +It may not appear out of place to inform the young reader that the +prophets whose writings are contained in the Old Testament are in number +sixteen, and usually divided into two classes, the greater and the minor, +according to the extent of their works and the importance of their +subject. Of the former, Isaiah, who may be regarded as the chief, began to +prophesy under Uzziah, and continued till the first year of Manasseh. +Jeremiah flourished a few years before the great captivity, and lived to +witness the fulfilment of his own predictions. Ezekiel, who had been +carried into the Babylonian territory some time before the ruin of his +native country in the days of Zedekiah, began to perform his office among +the Jewish captives in the land of the Chaldees, in the fifth year after +Jehoiakim was made prisoner. Daniel, the youngest of the four, was only +twelve years of age when he was involved in the miseries of conquest, and +reduced to the condition of a dependent at a foreign court. + +Among the twelve minor prophets, Jonas, Hosea, Amos, and Micah preceded +the destruction of the kingdom of Israel. Nahum and Joel appeared between +that catastrophe and the captivity of Judah. Habakkuk, Obadiah, and +Zephaniah lived at the time when Jerusalem was taken, and during part of +the captivity. Haggai, Zecharias, and Malachi, the last of the whole, +prophesied after the return from Babylon. + +But our business is rather with the literature of the prophets at large +than with the special functions of the few individuals of their body who +were commissioned by Heaven to reveal the secrets of future time. Of the +fruits of their professional study we have fine examples preserved in the +Psalms of David and the Proverbs of Solomon; the former, a collection of +sacred lyrics composed for the worship of Jehovah; the latter, a compend +of practical wisdom, suggested by an enlightened experience, and expressed +in language equally striking for its divine truth and rare simplicity. + +In early times the dictates of moral philosophy are enounced in short +sentences, the result of much thought, and of which the effect is usually +heightened by the introduction of a judicious antithesis both in the +sentiment and the expression. The apothegms ascribed to the wise men of +Greece belong to this kind of composition; being extremely valuable to a +rude people who can profit by the fruits of reasoning without being able +to attend to its forms, and deposite in their minds a useful precept, +unencumbered with the arguments by means of which its soundness might be +proved. The books which bear the name of Solomon are distinguished above +all others for the sage views that they exhibit of human life, and for the +sensible maxims addressed to all conditions of men who have to encounter +its manifold perils--proving a guide unto the feet and a lamp unto the +path. + +In no respect does the Hebrew nation appear to greater advantage than when +viewed in the light of their sublime compositions. Nor is this remark +confined simply to the style or mechanism of their writings, which is +nevertheless allowed by the best judges to possess many merits; but may be +extended more especially to the exalted nature of their subjects,--the +works, the attributes, and the purposes of Jehovah. The poets of pagan +antiquity, on the other hand, excite by their descriptions of divine +things our ridicule or disgust. Even the most approved of their order +exhibit repulsive images of their deities, and suggest the grossest ideas +in connexion with the principles and enjoyments which prevail among the +inhabitants of Olympus. But the contemporaries of David, inferior in many +things to the ingenious people who listened to the strains of Homer and of +Virgil, are remarkable for their elevated conceptions of the Supreme Being +as the Creator and Governor of the world, not less than for the suitable +terms in which they give utterance to their exalted thoughts. + +In no other country but Judea, at that early period, were such sentiments +as the following either expressed or felt. "O Jehovah, our Lord, how +excellent is thy name in all the earth, thou that hast set thy glory above +the heavens! When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the +moon and the stars which thou has ordained; what is man, that thou art +mindful of him, or the son of man, that thou visitest him? Bless Jehovah, +O my soul. O Lord my God, thou art very great, and art clothed with honour +and majesty! Thou coverest thyself with light as with a garment, and +stretchest out the heavens like a curtain: who layeth the beams of his +chambers in the waters, who maketh the clouds his chariot, and walketh +upon the wings of the wind! Bless Jehovah, O my soul, and all that is +within me, bless his holy name. Bless Jehovah, O my soul, and forget not +all his benefits; who forgiveth all thine iniquities; who healeth all thy +diseases; who redeemeth thy life from destruction; who crowneth thee with +loving-kindness and tender mercies. Jehovah is merciful and gracious, slow +to anger, and plenteous in mercy. He hath not dealt with us after our +sins, neither rewarded us according to our iniquities. For as the heaven +is high above the earth, so great is his mercy toward them that fear him. +For he knoweth our frame, he remembereth that we are dust."--"O Lord, thou +hast searched me and known me: thou knowest my downsitting and mine +uprising, thou understandest my thoughts long before. Thou art about my +bed and about my path, and art acquainted with all my ways. Whither shall +I go from thy spirit, or whither shall I flee from thy presence? If I +ascend up into heaven, thou art there; if I go down to the dwelling of the +departed, thou art there also. If I take the wings of the morning and +abide in the uttermost parts of the sea, even there shall thy hand lead +me, and thy right hand shall hold me. If I say, surely the darkness shall +cover me, even the night shall be turned into day. Yea, the darkness is no +darkness with thee, but the night shineth as the day: the darkness and the +light are both alike to thee." + +A similar train of lofty conception pervades the writings of the prophets. +"Who hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and meted out the +heavens with a span, and comprehended the dust of the earth in a measure, +and weighed the mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance? Behold, +the nations are as a drop of a bucket, and are counted as the small dust +of the balance; be taketh up the isles as a very little thing. It is he +that sitteth upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof are +as grass-hoppers. Lift up your eyes on high, and behold who hath created +these things, who bringeth out their host by number: he calleth them all +by names, by the greatness of his might, for that he is strong in power, +no one faileth. Hast thou not known, hast thou not heard, that the +everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the earth; fainteth +not, neither is weary! There is no searching of his understanding." + +The following quotation from the same inspired author is very striking, +inasmuch as the truth contained in it is founded upon an enlarged view of +the Divine government, and directly pointed against that insidious +Manicheism, which, originating in the East, has gradually infected the +religious opinions of a large portion of mankind. Light was imagined to +proceed from one source, add darkness from another; all good was traced do +one being, and all evil was ascribed to a hostile and antagonist +principle. Spirit, pure and happy, arose from the former; while matter, +with its foul propensities and jarring elements, took its rise from the +latter. But Isaiah, guided by an impulse which supersedes the inferences +of the profoundest philosophy, thus speaks concerning the God of the +Hebrews:--"I am the Lord, and there is none else; there is no God besides +me: I form the light, and create darkness; I make peace and create evil; +I, the Lord, do all these things." + +But it is not only in such sublimity of language and exalted imagery that +the literature of the Hebrews surpasses the writings of the most learned +and ingenious portion of the heathen world. A distinction not less +remarkable is to be found in the humane and compassionate spirit which +animates even the earliest parts of the sacred volume; composed at a time +when the manners of all nations were still unrefined, and the softer +emotions were not held in honour. "Blessed is he who considereth the poor +and needy; the Lord will deliver him in the time of trouble. The Lord will +preserve him and keep him alive; he shall be blessed upon earth, and thou +wilt not deliver him into the will of his enemies. The Lord will +strengthen him upon the bed of languishing; thou wilt make all his bed in +his sickness." + +We shall in vain seek for instances of such a benign and liberal feeling +in the volumes of the most enlightened of pagan writers, whether poets or +orators. How beautifully does the following observation made by Solomon +contrast with the contempt expressed by Horace for the great body of his +countrymen:--"He that despiseth his neighbour sinneth; but he that bath +mercy on the poor happy is he. He that oppresseth the poor reproacheth his +Maker." + +Among the Israelites there was no distinction as to literary privilege or +philosophical sectarianism. There was no profane vulgar in the chosen +people. The stores of Divine knowledge were open to all alike. The +descendant of Jacob beheld in every member of his tribe a brother, and not +a master; one who in all the respects which give to man dignity and +self-esteem was his equal in the strictest sense of the term. Hence the +noble flame of patriotism which glowed in all the Hebrew institutions +before the people became corrupted by idolatry and a too frequent +intercourse with the surrounding tribes; and hence, too, the still more +noble spirit of fraternal affection which breathed in their ancient law, +their devotional writers, and their prophets. + +It is worthy of remark, that in order to prevent any part of the sacred +oracles from becoming obsolete or falling into oblivion, the inspired +lawgiver left an injunction to read the books which bear his name, in the +hearing of all the people, at the end of every seven years at farthest. +"And Moses wrote this law, and delivered it unto the priests, the sons of +Levi, which bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and unto all the +elders of Israel. And Moses commanded them, saying, At the end of every +seven years, in the solemnity of the year of release, in the feast of +tabernacles, when all Israel is come to appear before the Lord thy God in +the place which he shall choose, thou shaft read this law before all +Israel in their hearing. Gather the people together, men, and women, and +children, and thy stranger that is within thy gates, that they may hear, +and that they may learn, and fear the Lord your God, and observe to do all +the words of this law: and that their children which have not known any +thing may hear, and learn to fear the Lord your God, as long as ye live in +the land whither ye go over Jordan to possess it."[55] + +The value of the Levitical institution, whence originated the schools of +the prophets, will be the moat highly appreciated by those readers who +have noted the evils which arose from its suppression among the ten +tribes, and finally, in the kingdom of Judah itself. The separation of the +Israelites under Jeroboam led, in the first instance, to a defection from +the Mosaic ritual, and, in the end, to the establishment of a rival +worship,--a revolution which compelled all the Levites who remained +attached to the primitive faith to desert such of their cities as belonged +to the revolted tribes, and to seek an asylum among their brethren who +acknowledged the successor of Solomon. Hence the reign of idolatry and +that total neglect of the law which disgraced the government of the new +dynasty; though it must be granted, that with a view to perpetuate their +relationship to the father of the faithful, the people preserved certain +copies of the Pentateuch, even after the desolation of their land and the +complete extinction of their political independence. + +It is more surprising to find, that even among the orthodox Hebrews at +Jerusalem the law sank into a gradual oblivion; insomuch that in the days +of Jehosophat, the fifth from David, it was found necessary to appoint a +special commission of Levites and priests to revive the knowledge of its +holy sanctions in all parts of the country. "And they taught in Judah, and +had the book of the law of the Lord with them, and went about throughout +all the cities of Judah, and taught the people."[56] + +At a later period, after a succession of idolatrous princes, the neglect +of the Mosaical writings became still more general, till at length the +very manuscript, or book of the law, which used to be read in the ears of +the congregation, could nowhere be found. Josiah, famed for his piety and +attention to the ceremonies of the national religion, gave orders to +repair the Temple for the worship of Jehovah; on which occasion, Hilkiah, +the high-priest, found the precious record in the house of the Lord, and +sent it to the king.[57] A momentary zeal bound the people once more to +the belief and usages of their ancestors; but the example of the profane +or careless sovereigns who afterward filled the throne of Josiah plunged +the country once more into guilt, obliterating all recollection of the +divine statutes, at least as a code of public law. The captivity throws a +temporary cloud over the Hebrew annals, and prevents us from tracing +beyond that point the progress of opinion on this interesting subject. But +upon the return from Babylon a new era commences; and we now observe the +same people, who in their prosperity were constantly deviating into the +grossest superstitions and most contemptible idolatry, remarkable for a +rigid adherence to the ritual of Moses, and for a severe intolerance +towards all who questioned its heavenly origin or its universal +obligation. Ezra is understood to have charged himself with the duty of +collecting and arranging the manuscripts which had survived the desolation +inflicted upon his country by the arms of Assyria, at the same time +substituting for the more ancient characters usually known as the +Samaritan the Chaldean alphabet, to which his followers had now become +accustomed. From these notices, however, which respect a later period, we +return to the more primitive times immediately succeeding the era of the +commonwealth. + +We have ascribed the cultivation of sacred knowledge to the schools of the +prophets, without having been able to trace very distinctly the +institution of these seminaries to the Levitical colleges, the proper +fountains of the national literature. In the days of Samuel, it would +appear that the necessity of certain subordinate establishments had been +admitted, in order to supply a class of persons qualified to instruct such +of the people as lived at a distance from the cities of the Levites. The +rule of the prophetical schools seems to have borne some resemblance to +that of the better description of Christian convents in the primitive +ages, enjoining abstinence and labour, together with an implicit obedience +to the authority of their superiors. The clothing, also, it may be +presumed, was humble, and somewhat peculiar. A rough garment fastened with +a girdle round the loins is alluded to by Zechariah; while the impression +made on the courtiers at Ramoth-gilead by the appearance of one of the +sons of the prophets sent thither by Elisha would lead us to the same +conclusion. "Wherefore," said they, "came this mad fellow to thee?" Nor is +it without reason that some authors have attributed the conduct of the +children who mocked Elieha to the uncouthness of his dress and to the want +of a covering for his head. Be this as it may, there is no doubt that from +the societies now mentioned sprang the most distinguished men who adorned +the happiest era of the Jewish church. + +Were we allowed to form a judgment from the few incidents recorded in the +books of the Kings, we should conclude that the accomplishment of writing +was not very general among the subjects of David and Solomon. It is +ingeniously conjectured by Michaelis, that Joab, the captain of the host, +and sister's son of the inspired monarch himself, could not handle the +pen; else he would not, for the purpose of concealing from the bearer the +real object for which he was sent, have found it necessary to tax his +ingenuity by putting the very suspicious detail of Uriah's death into the +mouth of a messenger to be delivered verbally to the king. He would at +once have written to him that the devoted man was killed.[58] + +As to science in its higher branches, we can not expect any proofs of +eminence among a secluded people, devoted, as the Hebrews were, to the +pursuits of agriculture and the feeding of cattle. Solomon, indeed, is +said to have been acquainted with all the productions of nature, from the +cedar of Libanus to the hyssop on the wall; and we may readily believe, +that the curiosity which distinguished his temper would find some +gratification in the researches of natural history,--the first study of +the opening mind in the earliest stage of social life. But astronomy had +not advanced farther than to present an interesting subject of +contemplation to the pious mind, which could only regard the firmament as +a smooth surface spread out like a curtain, or bearing some resemblance to +the canopy of a spacious tent. The schools of the prophets, we may +presume, were still strangers to those profound calculations which +determine the distance, the magnitude, and the periodical revolutions of +the heavenly bodies. Even the sages of Chaldea, who boast a more ancient +civilization than is claimed by the Hebrews, satisfied themselves with a +few facts which they had not learned to generalize, and sometimes with +conjectures which had hardy any relation to a fixed principle or a +scientific object. Long after the reign of David, these wise men had not +distinguished the study of the stars from the dreams of astrology. + +The first application of astronomical principle is to the division of +time, as marked out by the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies. +The Hebrews combined in their calculations a reference to the sun and to +the moon, so as to avail themselves of the natural measure supplied by +each. Their year accordingly was lunisolar, consisting of twelve lunar +months, with an intercalation to make the whole agree with the annual +course of the sun. The year was further distinguished as being either +common or ecclesiastical. The former began at the autumnal equinox, the +season at which they imagined the world was created; while the latter, by +Divine appointment, commenced about six months earlier, the period when +their fathers were delivered from the thraldom of Egypt. Their months +always began with the new moon; and before the captivity they were merely +named according to their order, the first, second, third, and so on down +to the twelfth. But upon their return they used the terms which they found +employed in Babylon, according to the following series:-- + +Nisan[59] March. +Zif, or Ijar April. +Sivan May. +Tamuz June. +Ab July. +Elul August. +Ethanim, or Tisri September. +Bul, or Mareshuan October. +Chisleu November. +Tebeth December. +Sebat January. +Adar February. + +One-half of these months consisted of thirty days, the other of +twenty-nine, alternately making in all three hundred and fifty-four. To +supply the eleven days and six hours which were deficient, they introduced +every second year an additional month of twenty-two days, and every fourth +year one of twenty-three days; by which means they approached as nearly to +the true measure as any other nation had attained till the establishment +of the Gregorian calendar. + +The Hebrews divided the space from sunrise to sunset into twelve equal +parts, and hence the hours of their day varied in length according to the +season of the year. For example, when the sun rose at five and set at +seven, an hour contained seventy minutes; but when it rose at seven and +set at five, the hour was reduced to fifty minutes, and so on in +proportion to the duration of the time that the sun was above the horizon. +A similar rule applied to the night, which was likewise divided into +twelve equal portions. + +It must be acknowledged, however, that the observations now made apply +rather to the acquirements of the Jews after their return from the East, +than to the more simple condition in which they appear under their judges +and prophets. + +Next to the learning of this early period, the reader of the sacred +history will have his curiosity excited in regard to the time, the place, +and the manner of religious worship. When the Israelites had obtained +possession of the Holy Land, and distributed the territory among their +tribes, the tabernacle, or ambulatory temple, was placed at Shiloh, a town +in the possession of Ephraim. To that sacred retreat the Hebrews were wont +to travel at the three great festivals, to accomplish the service enjoined +by their law. + +But it appears that a more ordinary kind of religious duty was performed +at certain stations within the several tribes, in the intervals between +the stated feasts appointed fur the whole nation; having some reference, +it is probable, to the periodical return of the Sabbath and new moons. For +this purpose the people seem to have repaired to high places, where they +might more readily perceive the lunar crescent, and give utterance to +their customary expression of gratitude and joy. This species of adoration +was connived at rather than authorized by the priests and Levites, who +found it impossible to check altogether the propensity of the multitude to +perform their worship on the high hill and under the green tree. Samuel, +the prophet and judge, saw the expediency on one occasion of building an +altar unto the Lord on Ramah, which is called the High Place; and in the +reign of Solomon the same practice was confirmed, "because there was no +house built unto the name of the Lord until those days."[60] + +It is difficult to determine with precision at what epoch the Hebrews +first formed those meetings or congregations which are called +synagogues,--a name afterward more frequently applied to the buildings in +which they convened. The earliest allusion to them is found in the +seventy-fourth Psalm, where the writer, describing the havoc committed by +the Assyrians, remarks, "they have burnt up all the synagogues of God in +the land." We might infer, from this statement alone, that such edifices +were common before the Babylonian captivity; but we are supplied with a +more direct proof in the words of St. James, who informs us that "Moses of +old time hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the +synagogues every Sabbath-day."[61] + +The duty in these places, which was confined to prayer and exposition, was +performed by that section of the Levites who are usually denominated +scribes; the higher office of sacrifice, the scene of which was first the +tabernacle and afterward the temple, being confined to the priests, the +sons of Aaron. Perhaps in remote places, where the population was small, +the inhabitants met in the house of the Levite, a conjecture which derives +some plausibility from an affecting incident mentioned in the second book +of the Kings. When the son of the woman of Shunem died, "she called unto +her husband and said, send me, I pray thee, one of the young men, and one +of the asses, that I may run to the man of God. And he said, wherefore +wilt thou go? it is neither new moon nor Sabbath." It is reasonable to +conclude, that on these days it was customary to repair to the dwelling of +the holy man for religious purposes. + +We have already alluded to the fact, that at the first settlement of the +Promised Land the tabernacle was established in Shiloh, a village in +Ephraim, at that time the most numerous and powerful of all the tribes. +The profanity or, disobedience of the people in this district led to the +removal of the Divine presence, the symbols of which were commanded to be +deposited in Jerusalem. "Go ye," says the prophet Jeremiah, "unto my place +which was in Shiloh, where I set my name at the first; and see what I did +to it for the wickedness of my people Israel." Hence the origin of the +feud which subsisted so long between Ephraim and Judah, and afterward +between the Jews and Samaritans, in regard to the spot where Jehovah ought +to be worshipped. Each laid claim to a Divine appointment; neither would +yield to the other or hold the slightest intercourse in their adoration of +the same great Being; and the question remained as far as ever from being +determined when the Romans finally cut down all distinctions by their +victorious arms. + +Our limits will not permit us to indulge in a minute account of the Jewish +festivals. Still the three great institutions at which all the males of +the Hebrew nation were commanded to appear before Jehovah are so +frequently mentioned in the history of the Holy Land, that we must take +leave to specify their general objects. The feast of the Passover, +comprehending that of unleavened bread, commemorated the signal +deliverance of this wonderful people from the tyranny of Pharaoh. It was +to be kept upon the fifteenth day of the first month, to last seven days, +and to begin, as all their festivals began, the evening before at the +going down of the sun. + +The reader will attend to the distinction just stated--the beginning and +end of their sacred days. The celebration of the ordinary Sabbath, indeed, +commenced on the evening of Friday, and terminated at the going down of +the sun on Saturday. "From even unto even shall ye celebrate your +Sabbaths." But the Jews, in the concluding period of their government, had +innovated so far on the Mosaical institution as to prohibit the passover +from being observed on Monday, Wednesday, or Friday, and to appoint the +celebration of it on the following day. The year in which our Lord +suffered death this great annual feast fell on a Friday--beginning, as +already stated, at sunset on Thursday evening--and the Redeemer +accordingly, who came to fulfil all righteousness, ate the paschal supper +with his disciples on the evening of Thursday. Yet the Jews, we find from +the evangelical narrative, were not to observe that rite till the +following evening; and hence, the early part of Friday being the +preparation, they would not go into the judgment hall "lest they should be +defiled, but that they might eat the passover" after the going down of the +sun. For the same reason they besought Pilate that the bodies might be +removed; intimating that the day which was to begin at sunset was to them +a high day, being in fact not only the Sabbath, but also the paschal +feast, both extremely solemn in the estimation of every true Israelite. + +On the ground now stated is easily explained the apparent discrepancy +between the account given by St. John and that of the other Evangelists. +They tell us that our Lord celebrated the passover on Thursday evening the +first day of the yearly festival; whereas the beloved disciple relates, +that the neat morning was still the preparation of that ordinance which +was to be observed by the whole nation the ensuing night. Both statements +are perfectly correct; only our Saviour adhered to the day fixed by the +original institution, while the priests and lawyers followed the rule +established by the Sanhedrim, which threw the festival a day after its +proper time. + +The proper preparation indeed of every festival began only at three +o'clock, called by the Hebrews the ninth hour, and continued till the +close of the day, or the disappearance of the sun. It was at that hour, +accordingly, that the Jews entreated the governor to take down the bodies +from the cross; holding it extremely improper that any token of a curse or +capital punishment should meet their eyes while making ready to kill the +paschal lamb. + +The Feast of Pentecost was an annual offering of gratitude to Jehovah for +having blessed the land with increase. It took place fifty days after the +passover, and hence the origin of its name in the Greek version of our +Scriptures. Another appellation was applied to it--the Feast of Weeks--for +the reason assigned by the inspired lawgiver. "Seven weeks shall thou +number unto thee; beginning to number the seven weeks from such time as +thou puttest the sickle to the corn. And thou shalt keep the feast of +weeks unto the Lord thy God with a tribute of a free-will offering of +thine hand, in the place which Jehovah shall choose to place his name +there: And thou shall remember that thou wast a bondman in Egypt."[62] + +This was a very suitable celebration in an agricultural society, where joy +is always experienced upon the gathering in of the fruits of the earth. +The Hebrews were especially desired on that happy occasion to contrast +their improved condition, as freemen reaping their own lands, with the +miserable state from which they had been rescued by the good providence of +Jehovah. The month of May witnessed the harvest-home of all Palestine in +the days of Moses, as well as in the present times; and no sooner was the +pleasant toil of filling their barns completed, than all the males +repaired to the holy city with the appointed tribute is their hands, and +the song of praise in their mouths. Jewish antiquaries inform us, that +there was combined with this eucharistical service a commemoration of the +wonders which took place at Mount Sinai, when the Lord condescended to +pronounce his law in the ears of his people. The history of our own +religion has supplied a greater event, which at once supersedes the pious +recollections of the Hebrew, and touches the heart of the Christian +worshipper with the feeling of a more enlightened gratitude. + +The termination of the vintage was marked with a similar expression of +thanksgiving, uttered by the assembled tribes in the place which had +received the "Name of Jehovah;" the visible manifestation of his presence +and power. The precept for this observance is given in the following +terms:--"On the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when ye have gathered +in the fruit of the land, ye shall keep a feast unto the Lord seven days. +And ye shall take unto you, on the first day, the boughs of goodly trees, +branches of palm-trees, and the boughs of thick trees and willows of the +brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days. Ye shall +dwell in booths seven days, that your generations may know that I made the +children of Israel to dwell in booths when I brought them out of the land +of Egypt." + +This festival was of the most lively and animated description, celebrated +with a joyous heart, and under the canopy of heaven, in a most delightful +season of the year. If more exquisite music and more graceful dances +accompanied the gathering in of the grapes on the banks of the Cephisus, +the tabret and the viol and the harp, which sounded around the walls of +the sacred metropolis, were not wanting in sweetness and gayety; and, +instead of the frantic riot of satyrs and bacchanals, the rejoicing was +chastened by the solemn religious recollections with which it was +associated, in a manner, remarkably pleasing and picturesque.[63] + +The feast of Trumpets had a reference to the mode practised by many of the +ancients for announcing the commencements of seasons and epochs. The +beginning of every month was made known to the inhabitants of Jerusalem by +the sound of musical instruments. "Blow up the trumpet in the new moon, in +the time appointed, on our solemn feast-day: for this was a statute for +Israel, a law of the God of Jacob." As the first day of the moon in +September was the beginning of the civil year, the festivity was greater +and more solemn than on other occasions. The voice of the trumpets waxed +louder than usual, and the public mind was instructed by a grave assurance +from the mouth of the proper officer, that another year was added to the +age of the world. "In the seventh month, in the first day of the month, +shall ye have a Sabbath, a memorial of blowing of trumpets, an holy +convocation. Ye shall do no servile work therein; but ye shall offer an +offering made by fire unto the Lord."[64] + +We have already alluded to the jubilee which occurred periodically after +the lapse of forty-nine years, or, as the Jews were wont to express it, +after a week of Sabbaths. The benevolent uses of this most generous +institution are known to every reader, more especially as they respected +personal freedom and the restoration of lands and houses. Great care was +taken by the Jewish legislator to prevent an accumulation of property in +one individual, or even in one tribe. Nor was his anxiety less to prevent +the alienation of land, either by sale, mortgage, or marriage. With this +view we find him enacting a rule, suggested by the case of the daughters +of Zelophedad, who had been allowed to become heirs to their father, of +which the object was to perpetuate the possession of landed estates within +the limits of each particular tribe. The heads of the chief families of +Manasseh, to which community the young women belonged, came before Moses +and the Princes of Israel, when, after reminding these dignitaries of the +fact just mentioned, they said, "If they be married to any of the sons +of the other tribes, then shall their inheritance be taken from the +inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the +tribe whereunto they are received; so shall it be taken from the lot of +our inheritance. And when the jubilee of the children of Israel shall be, +then shall their inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe +whereunto they are received: so shall their inheritance be taken away from +the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers." + +To this judicious remonstrance Moses gave the following answer:--"This +is the thing which the Lord doth command concerning the daughters of +Zelophedad; let them marry to whom they think best; only to the family +of the tribe of heir father shall they marry. And every daughter that +possesseth an inheritance shall be wife unto one of the family, of the +tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every man the +inheritance of his fathers. Neither shall the inheritance remove from one +tribe to another tribe; but every one of the tribes of the children of +Israel shall keep himself to his own inheritance."[65] + +Besides the anniversaries enjoined by Divine authority, the Hebrews +observed several which were meant to keep alive the remembrance of certain +great events recorded in their history. Of these was the Feast of +Dedication mentioned by St. John, referring, it has been thought, to the +purification of the altar by Judas Maccabaeus, after it had been profaned +by Antiochus, the king of Syria. When the ceremony was performed, "Judas +and his brethren, with the whole congregation of Israel, ordained that the +days of the dedication of the altar should be kept in their season, from +year to year, by the space of eight days, from the five-and-twentieth day +of the ninth month (November), with mirth and gladness."[66] + +The restoration of the heavenly fire in the temple, after the return from +Babylon, was likewise commemorated every year. This sacred flame, which +had been long extinct, was revived on the altar the day that Nehemiah +performed sacrifice in the new building. For this reason the Jews of +Palestine wrote to those in Egypt, recommending an annual festival in +remembrance of an event so important to their national worship. They +thought it necessary to certify them of the fact, that their brethren also +might celebrate the "feast of the fire which was given us when Neemias +offered sacrifice after that he had builded the Temple and the altar."[67] + +It was likewise a custom among this singular people, that the young women +"went yearly to lament the daughter of Jephthah, the Gileadite, four days +in a year." A more joyous ceremony, on the fourteenth and fifteenth days +of the month Adar, reminded the faithful Hebrew of the triumph gained by +his kindred over the cruel and perfidious Haman, who had intended to +extirpate their whole race. Besides these, we find in the book of +Zecharias the prophet an allusion to the "fast of the fourth month, and +the fast of the fifth, and the fast of the seventh, and the fast of the +tenth;" days of humiliation which probably recalled certain national +calamities, such as the destruction of their city and Temple, and the era +of their long captivity. + +In concluding this chapter on the literature and religion of the ancient +Hebrews, we may remark, in regard to the system bequeathed to them by +Moses, that it contains the only complete body of law which was ever given +to a people at one time,--that it is the only entire body of law which has +come down to our days,--that it is the only body of ancient law which +still governs an existing people,--that, the nation which it respects +being scattered over the face of the whole earth, it is the only body of +law that is equally observed in the four quarters of the globe,--and, +finally, that all the other codes of law of which history has preserved +any recollection, were given to communities who already had written +statutes, but who wished to change their form or modify their application; +whereas, in this case, we behold a new society under the hands of a +legislator who proceeds to lay its very foundations.[68] + +It may be said of the Hebrews, that they had no profane literature, no +works devoted to mere amusement or relaxation. As they admitted no image +of any thing in heaven or in earth, they consequently rejected the use of +all those arts called imitative, and which supply so large a portion of +the more refined enjoyment characteristic of civilized nations. In like +manner, they seem to have viewed in the light of sacrilege every attempt +to bring down the sublime language in which they praised Jehovah and +recorded his mighty works, to the more common and less hallowed purposes +of fictitious narrative, or of amatory, dramatic, and lyrical composition. +The Jews have no epic poem to throw a lustre on the early annals of their +literature. Even the Song of Songs is allowed to have a spiritual import, +pointing to much higher themes than Solomon and his Egyptian bride. A +solemn gravity pervades all their writings, befitting a people who were +charged with the religious history of the world and with the oracles of +Divine truth. No smile appears to have ever brightened the countenance of +a Jewish author,--no trifling thought to have passed through his mind,--no +ludicrous association to have been formed in his fancy. In describing the +flood of Deucalion, the Roman poet laughs at the grotesque misery which he +himself exhibits, and purposely groups together objects with the intention +of exerting to his readers the feeling of ridicule. But in no instance can +we detect the faintest symptom of levity in the Hebrew penmen; their +style, like their subject, is uniformly exalted, chaste, and severe; they +wrote to men concerning the things of God, in a manner suitable to such a +momentous communication; and they never ceased to remember that, in all +their records, whether historical or prophetic, they were employed in +propagating those glad tidings by which all the families of the earth were +to be blessed. + +There can be no stronger proof of the pure and sublime nature of Hebrew +poetry than is supplied by the remarkable fact, that it has been +introduced into the service of the Christian church, and found suitable +for expressing those lofty sentiments with which the gospel inspires the +heart of every true worshipper. No other nation of the ancient world has +produced a single poem which could be used by an enlightened people in +these days for the purposes of devotion.[69] Hesiod, although much +esteemed for the moral tone of his compositions, presents very few ideas +indeed capable of being accommodated to the theology of an improved age. +In perusing the works of the greatest writers of paganism, we are struck +with a monstrous incongruity in all their conceptions of the Supreme +Being. The majesty with which the Hebrews surrounded Jehovah is entirely +wanting; the attributes belonging to the great Sovereign of the universe +are not appreciated; the providence of the Divine mind, united with +benevolence, compassion, and mercy, is never found to enter into their +descriptions of the eternal First Cause; while their incessant deviations +into polytheism outrage our religious feelings, and carry us back to the +verb rudest periods of human history. + +In these respects the literature of the Jews is far exalted above that of +every other nation of which history has preserved any traces. It must be +acknowledged, that we remain ignorant of the learning and theological +opinions cultivated among the Persians at the time when the Jews were +under their dominion, and cannot therefore determine the precise extent to +which the dogmas of the captive tribes were affected by their intercourse +with a race of men who certainly taught the doctrine of the Divine unity, +and abstained from idolatrous usages. But confining our judgment even to +the oldest compositions of the Hebrews, those, for example, which may be +traced to the days of Moses, of Samuel, and of David, we cannot hesitate +to pronounce that they are distinguished by a remarkable peculiarity, +indicating by the most unambiguous tokens, that, in all things pertaining +to religious belief, the descendants of Jacob were placed under a special +superintendence and direction. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + + +_Description of Jerusalem_. + +Pilgrimages to the Holy Land; Arculfus; Willibald; Bernard; Effect of +Crusades; William de Bouldessell; Bertrandon de la Broquiere; State of +Damascus; Breidenbach; Baumgarten; Bartholemeo Georgewitz; Aldersey; +Sandys; Doubdan; Cheron; Thevenot; Gonzales; Morison; Maundrell; Pococke; +Road from Jaffa to Jerusalem; Plain of Sharon; Rama or Ramla; Condition +of the Peasantry; Vale of Jeremiah; Jerusalem; Remark of Chateaubriand; +Impressions of different Travellers; Dr. Clarke; Tasso; Volney; Henniker; +Mosque of Omar described; Mysterious Stone; Church of Holy Sepulchre; +Ceremonies of Good Friday; Easter; The Sacred Fire; Grounds for Skepticism; +Folly of the Priests; Emotion upon entering the Holy Tomb; Description of +Chateaubriand; Holy Places in the City; On Mount Zion; Pool of Siloam; +Fountain of the Virgin; Valley of Jehoshaphat; Mount of Offence; The Tombs +of Zechariah, of Jehoshaphat, and of Absalom; Jewish Architecture; Dr. +Clarke's Opinion on the Topography of Ancient Jerusalem; Opposed by other +Writers; The Inexpediency of such Discussions. + +Having described, as fully as the plan of our undertaking will admit, the +constitution, history, learning, and religion of the ancient Hebrews, we +now proceed to give an account of the present condition of the country +which they inhabited nearly 1500 years, interrupted only by short +intervals of captivity or oppression. The connexion which Christianity +acknowledges with the people and soil of Judea has, from the earliest +times, given a deep interest to travels in the Holy Land. The curiosity +natural to man in respect to things which have obtained celebrity, joined +to the conviction, hardly leas natural, that there is a certain merit in +enduring privation and fatigue for the sake of religion, has in every age +induced pilgrims to visit the scenes where our Divine Faith was originally +established, and to communicate to their contemporaries the result of +their investigations. It is to be regretted, indeed, that some of them +from ignorance, and others from a feeling of the weakest bigotry, have +omitted to notice those very objects which are esteemed the most +interesting to the general reader; thinking it their duty, as one of them +expresses it, to "quench all spirit of vain curiosity, lest they should +return without any benefit to their souls." + +About the year 705, Jerusalem and its holy places were visited by +Arculfus, from whose report Adamnan composed a narrative, which was +received with considerable approbation. He describes the Temple on Mount +Calvary with some minuteness, mentioning its twelve pillars and eight +gates. But his attention was more particularly attracted by relics, those +objects which all Jerusalem flocked to handle and to kiss with the +greatest reverence. He saw the cup used at the last supper,--the sponge on +which the vinegar was poured,--the lance which pierced the side of our +Lord,--the cloth in which he was wrapped,--also another cloth woven by the +Virgin Mary, whereon were represented the figures of the Saviour and of +the Twelve Apostles. + +Eighty years later, Willibald, a Saxon, undertook the same journey, +influenced by similar motives. From his infancy he had been distinguished +by a sage and pious disposition; and, on emerging from boyhood, he was +seized with an anxious desire to "try the unknown ways of +peregrination--to pass over the huge wastes of ocean to the ends of the +earth." To this erratic propensity he owed all the fame which a place in +the Romish calendar and the authorship of an indifferent book can confer. +In Jerusalem he saw all that Arculfus saw, and nothing more; but he had +previously visited the Tomb of the Seven Sleepers, and the cave in which +St. John wrote the Apocalypse. + +Bernard proceeded to Palestine in the year 878. He travelled first in +Egypt, and from thence made his way across the Desert, the heat of which +called vividly to his imagination the sloping hills of Campania when +covered with snow. At Alexandria he was subjected to tribute by the +avaricious governor, who paid no regard to the written orders of the +sultan. The treatment which he received at Cairo was still more +distressing. He was thrown into prison, and in this extremity he asked +counsel of God; whereupon it was miraculously revealed to him, that +thirteen denari, such as he had presented to the other Mussulman, would +produce here an equally favourable result. The celestial origin of this +advice was proved by its complete success. The pilgrim was not only +liberated, but obtained letters from the propitiated ruler which saved him +from all farther exaction. + +The Crusades threw open the holy places to the eyes of all Europe; and +accordingly, so long as a Christian king swayed the sceptre in the capital +of Judea, the merit of individual pilgrimage was greatly diminished. But +no sooner had the warlike Saracens recovered possession of Jerusalem than +the wonted difficulty and danger returned; and, as might be expected, the +interest attached to the sacred buildings, which the "infidel dogs" were +no longer worthy to behold, revived in greater vigour than formerly. In +1331, William de Bouldesell adventured on an expedition into Arabia and +Palestine, of which some account has been published. In the monastery of +St. Catharine, at the base of Mount Sinai, he was hospitably received by +the monks, who showed him the bones of their patron reposing in a tomb, +which, however, they appear not to have treated with much respect. By +means of hard beating, we are told, they brought out from these remains of +mortality a small portion of blood, which they presented to the pilgrim as +a gift of singular value. A circumstance which particularly astonished him +would probably have produced no surprise in a less believing mind; the +blood, it seems, "had not the appearance of real blood, but rather of some +thick oily substance;" nevertheless, the miracle was regarded by him as +one of the greatest that had ever been witnessed in this world. + +A hundred years afterward Bertrandon de la Broquiere sailed from Venice to +Jaffa, where, according to the statistics of contrite pilgrims, the +"pardons of the Holy Land begin." At Jerusalem he found the Christians +reduced to a state of the most cruel thraldom. Such of them as engaged in +trade were locked up in their shops every night by the Saracens, who +opened the doors in the morning at such an hour as seemed to them most +proper or convenient. At Damascus they were treated with equal severity. +The first two persons whom he met in this city knocked him down,--an +injury which he dared not resent for fear of immediately losing his life. +About thirty years before the period of his visit, the destroying arms of +Timur had laid a large portion of the Syrian capital in ruins, though the +population had again increased to nearly one hundred thousand. During his +stay he witnessed the arrival of a caravan consisting of more than three +thousand camels. Its entry employed two days and two nights; the Koran +wrapped in silk being carried in front on the back of a camel richly +adorned with the same costly material. This part of the procession was +surrounded by a number of persons brandishing naked swords, and playing on +all sorts of musical instruments. The governor, with all the inhabitants, +went out to meet the holy cavalcade, and to do homage to the sacred +ensign, which at once proclaimed their faith, and announced the object of +the pious mission thus successfully concluded. Broquiere found the +greatest respect paid to every one who had performed the pilgrimage to +Mecca, and was gravely assured by an eminent Moulah, that no such person +could ever incur the hazard of everlasting damnation. + +We merely mention the names of Breidenbach of Mentz, and of Martin +Baumgarten, who in the beginning of the sixteenth century achieved a +journey into the Holy Land. The latter of these, while passing through +Egypt, was most barbarously treated by the Saracen boys, who pelted him +with dirt, brickbats, stones, and rotten fruit. At Hebron he was shown the +field "were it is said, or at least guessed, that Adam was made;" but the +reddish earth of which it is composed is now used in the manufacture of +prayer-beads. + +The work of Bartholemeo Georgewitz, who travelled in the same century, +gives a melancholy account of the miseries endured by such Christians as +were carried into slavery by the Turks in those evil days. The armies of +that nation were followed by slave-dealers supplied with chains, by means +of which fifty or sixty were bound in a row together, leaving only two +feet between to enable them to walk. The hands were manacled during the +day, and at night the feet also. The sufferings inflicted upon men of +rank, and those belonging to the learned professions, were almost beyond +description; extending not only to the lowest labours of the field, but +even to the work of oxen, being sometimes yoked like these animals in the +plough. Owing to the great rivers and arms of the sea, it was extremely +difficult for those who were sent into Asia to effect their escape; +whence, in many cases, the horrors of captivity had no other limits than +those of the natural life. No wonder that Bartholemeo recommends to every +one visiting those parts to make his will, "like one going not to the +earthly, but to the heavenly Jerusalem." + +Laurence Aldersey, who set out from London in 1581, was the first +Protestant who encountered the perils of a voyage to Syria. In the Levant +a Turkish galley hove in sight, and caused great alarm. The master, "being +a wise fellow, began to devise how to escape the danger; but, while both +he and all of us were in our dumps, God sent us a merrie gale of wind." As +they approached Candia a violent storm came on, and the mariners began to +reproach the Englishman as the cause, "and saide I was no good Christian, +and wished I were in the middest of the sea, saying that they and the +shippe were the worse for me." He replied, "I think myself the worst +creature in the worlde, and do you consider yourselves also." These +remonstrances were followed by a long sermon, the tenor of which was, +"that they were not all good Christians, else it were not possible for +them to have such weather." A gentleman on board informed Aldersey, that +the suspicions respecting him originated in his refusal to join in the +prayers to the Virgin Mary,--a charge which he parried by remarking that +"they who praied to so many goe a wrong way to worke." The friars, +resolving to bring the matter to an issue, sent round the image of Our +Lady to kiss. On its approach the good Protestant endeavoured to avoid it +by going another way; but the bearer "fetched his course about," and +presented it. The proffered salutation being then positively rejected, the +affair might have become serious, had not two of the more respectable +monks interceded in his behalf, and enforced a more charitable procedure. + +Of the people of Cyprus he remarks, that they "be very rude, and like +beasts, and no better: they eat their meat sitting upon the ground, with +their legs acrosse like tailors." On the 8th of August they arrived at +Joppa, but did not till the next day receive permission to land from the +great pasha, "who sate upon a hill to see us sent away." Aldersey had +mounted before the rest, which greatly displeased his highness, who sent a +servant to pull him from the saddle and beat him; "whereupon I made a long +legge, saying, Grand mercye, seignor." This timely submission seems to +have secured forgiveness; and accordingly, "being horsed upon little +asses," they commenced their journey towards Jerusalem. Rama he describes +as so "ruinated, that he took it to be rather a heape of stones than a +towne;" finding no house to receive them but such a one as they were +compelled to enter by creeping on their knees. The party were exposed to +the usual violence and extortion of the Arabs; "they that should have +rescued us stood still, and durst doe nothing, which was to our cost." On +reaching the holy city they knelt down and gave thanks; after which they +were obliged to enter the gate on foot, no Christian at that period being +allowed to appear within the walls mounted. The superior of the convent +received the pilgrims courteously into his humble establishment, where +Aldersey tells us, "they were dieted of free cost, and fared reasonable +well."[70] + +The beginning of the seventeenth century witnessed a higher order of +travellers, who, from such a mixture of motives as might actuate either a +pilgrim or an antiquary, undertook the perilous tour of the Holy Land. +Among these, one of the most distinguished was George Sandys, who +commenced his peregrinations in the year 1610. He was succeeded by +Doubdan, Cheron, Thevenot, Gonzales, Morison, Maundrell, and Pococke, all +of whom have contributed many valuable materials towards a complete +knowledge of the localities, government, and actual condition of modern +Palestine. In our own days the number of works on these important subjects +has increased greatly, presenting to the historian of the Turkish +provinces in Asia a nearer and more minute view of society than could be +obtained by the earlier travellers, who, instead of yielding to the +characteristic bigotry of Moslem, usually opposed to it a prejudice not +less determined and uncharitable. We must not hazard a catalogue of the +enterprising authors to whom the European public are indebted for the +information: now enjoyed by every class of readers, in regard to the most +interesting of all ancient kingdoms,--the country inhabited by Israel and +Judah. In the description which we are about to give of the principal +towns, the buildings, the antiquities, the manners, the opinions, and the +religious forms which meet the observation of the intelligent tourist in +the Land of Canaan, we shall select the most striking facts from writers +of all nations and sects, making no distinction but such as shall be +dictated by a respect for the learning, the candour, and the opportunities +which are recorded in their several volumes. + +Palestine is usually approached, either from the sea at the port of Jaffa +(the ancient Joppa), or from Egypt, by way of the intervening desert. In +both cases, the principal object is to obtain a safe and easy route to the +capital, which, even at the present hour, cannot be reached without much +danger, unless under the special protection of the native authorities. The +power of Mohammed Ali, it is true, extends almost to the very walls of +Gaza; and wherever his government is acknowledged no violence can be +committed with impunity on European travellers. But the Syrian pashas, +equally deficient in inclination and vigour, still permit the grossest +extortion, and sometimes connive at the most savage atrocities. Besides, +there is a class of lawless Arabs who scour the borders of the wilderness, +holding at defiance all the restrictions which a civilized people impose +or respect. Sir Frederick Henniker, who followed the unwonted track which +leads from Mount Sinai to the southern shore of the Dead Sea, narrowly +escaped with his life, after having been severely wounded and repeatedly +robbed by one of the most savage hordes of Bedouins. + +The history of the crusades will draw our attention to Jaffa more minutely +than would be suitable at the present stage of our narrative; we shall +therefore proceed on the usual route to Jerusalem, collecting as we go +along such notices as may prove interesting to the reader. At a short +distance from this celebrated port the pilgrim enters the plain of Sharon, +celebrated in Scripture for its beautiful roses. The monk Neret informs +us, that in his time it was covered with tulips, the variety of whose +colours formed a lovely parterre. At present, the eye of the traveller is +delighted with a profusion of roses white and red, the narcissus, the +white and orange lily, the carnation, and a highly-fragrant species of +everlasting-flower. This plain stretches along the coast from Gaza in the +south to Mount Carmel on the north, being bounded towards the east by the +hills of Judea and Samaria. The whole of it is not upon the same level; it +consists of four platforms separated from each other by a wall of naked +stones. The soil is composed of a very fine sand, which, though mixed with +ravel, appears extremely fertile; but owing to the desolating spirit of +Mohammedan despotism, nothing is seen in some of the richest fields except +thistles and withered grass. Here and there, indeed, are scanty +plantations of cotton, with a few patches of doura, barley, and wheat. The +villages, which are commonly surrounded with olive-trees and sycamores, +are for the most part in ruins; exhibiting a melancholy proof that under a +bad government even the bounty of Heaven ceases to be a blessing. + +The path by which the billy barrier is penetrated is difficult, and in +some places dangerous. But before you reach it, turning towards the east, +you perceive Rama, or Ramla, the ancient Arimathea, distinguished by its +charming situation, and well known as the residence of a Christian +community. The convent, it is true, had been plundered five years before +it was visited by Chateaubriand; and it was not without the most urgent +solicitation that the friars were permitted to repair their building, as +if it were a maxim among the Turks, who by their domination continue to +afflict and disgrace the finest parts of Palestine, that the progress of +ruin and decay should never be arrested. Volney tells us, that when he was +at Ramla a commander resided there in a serai, the walls and floors of +which were on the point of tumbling down. He asked one of the inferior +officers why his master did not at least pay some attention to his own +apartment. The reply was, "If another shall obtain his place next year, +who will repay the expense?" + +In those days the aga maintained about one hundred horsemen and as many +African soldiers, who were lodged in an old Christian church, the nave of +which was converted into a stable, as also in an ancient khan, which was +disputed with them by the scorpions. The adjacent country is planted with +lofty olives, the greatest part of which are as large as the walnut-trees +of France, though they are daily perishing through age and the ravages of +contending factions. When a peasant is disposed to take revenge on his +enemy, he goes by night and outs his trees close to the ground, when the +wound, which he carefully covers from the sight, drains off the sap like +an issue. Amid these plantations are seen at every step dry wells, +cisterns fallen in, and immense vaulted reservoirs, which prove that in +ancient times this town must have been upwards of four miles in +circumference. At present it does not contain more than a hundred +miserable families. The houses are only so many huts, sometimes detached, +and sometimes ranged in the form of cells round a court, enclosed by a mud +wall. In winter, the inhabitants and their cattle may be said to live +together; the part of the building allotted to themselves being raised +only two feet above that in which they lodge their beasts. The peasants +are by this means kept warm without burning wood,--a species of economy +indispensable in a country absolutely destitute of fuel. As to the fire +necessary for culinary purposes, they make it, as was the practice in the +days of Ezekiel the prophet, of dung kneaded into cakes, which they dry in +the sun, exposing them to its rays on the walls of their huts. In summer, +their lodging is more airy; but all their furniture consists of a single +mat and a pitcher for carrying water. The immediate neighborhood of the +village is sown at the proper season with grain and watermelons; all the +rest is a desert, and abandoned to the Bedouin Arabs, who feed their +flocks on it. There are frequent remains of towers, dungeons, and even of +castles with ramparts and ditches, in some of which are a few Barbary +soldiers with nothing but a shirt and a musket. These ruins, however, are +more commonly inhabited by owls, jackals, and scorpions.[71] + +The only remarkable antiquity at Ramla is the minaret of a decayed mosque, +which, by an Arabic inscription, appears to have been built by the Sultan +of Egypt. From the summit, which is very lofty, the eye follows the whole +chain of mountains, beginning at Nablous, and skirting the extremity of +the plain till it loses itself in the south. + +A ride of two hours brings the traveller to the verge of the mountains, +where the road opens through a rugged ravine, and is formed in the dry +channel of a torrent. A scene of marked solitude and desolation surrounds +his steps as he pursues his journey in what is so simply described in the +gospel as the "hill country of Judea." He finds himself amid a labyrinth +of mountains, of a conical figure, all nearly alike, and connected with +each other at their base. A naked rock presents strata or beds resembling +the seats of a Roman amphitheatre, or the walls which support the +vineyards in the valleys of Savoy. Every recess is filled with dwarf oaks, +box, and rose-laurels. From the bottom of the ravines olive-trees rear +their heads, sometimes forming continuous woods on the sides of the hills. +On reaching the most elevated summit of this chain, he looks down towards +the south-west on the beautiful valley of Sharon, bounded by the Great +Sea; before him opens the Vale of St. Jeremiah; and in the same direction, +on the top of a rock, appears in the distance an ancient fortress called +the Castle of the Maccabees. It is conjectured that the author of the +Lamentations came into the world in the village which has retained his +name amid these mountains; so much is certain, at least, that the +melancholy of this desolate scene appears to pervade the compositions of +the prophet of sorrows. + +The unvarying manners of the East exhibit to the view of the stranger, at +the present day, the same picture of rural innocence and simplicity which +might have met the eye of the mother of the Redeemer when she came into +this pastoral country to salute her cousin Elizabeth. Herds of goats, with +pendent ears, sheep with large tails, and asses which remind you, by their +beauty, of the onagra of Scripture, issue from the villages at the dawn of +day. Arab women are seen bringing grapes to dry in the vineyards; others +with their faces veiled, carrying pitchers of water on their heads, like +the daughters of Midian. + +From the Valley of Jeremiah the traveller towards Zion descends into that +which bears the name of Turpentine, and is deeper and narrower than the +other. Here are observed some vineyards, and a few patches of doura. He +next arrives at the brook where the youthful David picked up the five +smooth stones, with one of which he slew the gigantic Goliath. Having +crossed the stream, he perceives the village of Heriet-Lefta on the bank +of another dry channel, which resembles a dusty road. El Bir_ appears in +the distance on the summit of a lofty hill on the way to Nablous, the +Shechem of the Israelites and the Neapolis of the Herods. He now pursues +his course through a desert, where wild fig-trees thinly scattered wave +their embrowned leaves in the southern breeze. The ground, which had +hitherto exhibited some verdure, becomes altogether bare; the sides of the +mountains, expanding themselves, assume at once an appearance of greater +grandeur and sterility. Presently all vegetation ceases; even the very +mosses disappear. The confused amphitheatre of the mountains is tinged +with a red and vivid colour. In this dreary region he keeps ascending a +whole hour to gain an elevated hill which he sees before him; after which +he proceeds during an equal space across a naked plain strewed with loose +stones. All at once, at the extremity of this plain, he perceives a line +of Gothic walls flanked with square towers, and the tops of a few +buildings peeping above them;--he beholds Jerusalem, once the joy of the +whole earth! + +"I can now account," says M. Chateaubriand, "for the surprise expressed by +the crusaders and pilgrims at the first sight of Jerusalem, according to +the reports of historians and travellers. I can affirm that whoever has, +like me, had the patience to read nearly two hundred modern accounts of +the Holy Land; the Rabbinical compilations, and the passages in the +ancient writers respecting Judea, still knows nothing at all about it. I +paused with my eyes fixed on Jerusalem, measuring the height of its walls, +reviewing at once all the recollections of history from the patriarch +Abraham to Godfrey of Bouillon, reflecting on the total change +accomplished to the world by the mission of the Son of Man, and in vain +seeking that Temple, not one stone of which is left upon another. Were I +to live a thousand years, never should I forget that desert, which yet +seems to be pervaded by the greatness of Jehovah and the terrors of +death."[72] + +On this occasion a camp of Turkish horse, with all the accompaniments of +oriental pomp, was pitched under the walls. The tents in general were +covered with black lambskins, while those belonging to persons of +distinction were formed of striped cloth. The horses, saddled and bridled, +were fastened to stakes. There were four pieces of horse-artillery, well +mounted on carriages, which appeared to be of English manufacture. These +fierce soldiers are stationed near the capital, as well for the purpose of +checking the savage Bedouins, who acknowledge no master, as for enforcing +the tribute demanded from all strangers who enter the holy city. The +recollections of the Mussulman, no less than those of the Christian, +inspire a reverential feeling for the town in which David dwelt; and +hence, although the European pilgrim be oppressed by the present laws of +Palestine, his motives are usually respected, and even praised. + +The reader who has perused with attention some of the more recent works on +Palestine must have been struck with the diversity, and even the apparent +contradiction, which prevail in their descriptions of Jerusalem. According +to one, the magnificence of its buildings rivals the most splendid +edifices of modern times, while another could perceive nothing but filth +and ruins, surmounted by a gaudy mosque and a few glittering minarets. The +greater number, it must be acknowledged, have drawn from their own +imagination the tints in which they have been pleased to exhibit the +metropolis of Judea; trusting more to the impressions conveyed by the +brilliant delineations of poetry, than to a minute inspection of what they +might have seen with their own eyes. + +Dr. Clarke, for example, has allowed his pen to be guided by the ardent +muse of Tasso, rather than by the cool observation of an unbiassed +traveller. "No sensation of fatigue or heat," says he, "could +counterbalance the eagerness and zeal which animated all our party in the +approach to Jerusalem; every individual pressed forward, hoping first to +announce the joyful intelligence of its appearance. We passed some +insignificant ruins, either of ancient buildings or of modern villages; +but had they been of more importance they would have excited little notice +at the time, so earnestly bent was every mind towards the main object of +interest and curiosity. At length, after about two hours had been passed +in this state of anxiety and suspense, ascending a hill towards the +south--Hagiopolis! exclaimed a Greek in the van of our cavalcade; and, +instantly throwing himself from his horse, was seen upon his knees, +bare-headed, facing the prospect he surveyed. Suddenly the sight burst +upon us all. The effect produced was that of total silence throughout the +whole company. Many of our party, by an immediate impulse, took off their +hats as if entering a church, without being sensible of so doing. The +Greeks and Catholics shed torrents of tears; and, presently beginning to +cross themselves with unfeigned devotion, asked if they might be permitted +to take off the covering from their feet, and proceed, barefooted to the +Holy Sepulchre. We had not been prepared for the grandeur of the spectacle +which the city alone exhibited. Instead of a wretched and ruined town, by +some described as the desolated remnant of Jerusalem, we beheld, as it +were, a flourishing and stately metropolis, presenting a magnificent +assemblage of domes, towers, palaces, churches, and monasteries; all of +which, glittering in the sun's rays, shone with inconceivable splendour. +As we drew nearer, our whole attention was engrossed by its noble and +interesting appearance."[73] + +The effect produced upon the Christian army when they obtained the first +view of the holy city is beautifully described by the Italian poet, +thereby supplying, it may be suspected, the model which has been so +faithfully copied by the English tourist. We avail ourselves of the +translation of Hoole. + + "Now from the golden East the zephyrs borne, + Proclaimed with balmy gales the approach of morn; + And fair Aurora decked her radiant head + With roses cropp'd from Eden's flowery bed; + When from the sounding camp was heard afar + The noise of troops preparing for the war: + To this succeed the trumpet's loud alarms, + And rouse, with shriller notes, the host to arms. + + "With holy zeal their swelling hearts abound, + And their wing'd footsteps scarcely print the ground. + When now the sun ascends the ethereal way, + And strikes the dusty field with warmer ray; + Behold, Jerusalem in prospect lies! + Behold, Jerusalem salutes their eyes! + At once a thousand tongues repeat the name, + And hail Jerusalem with loud acclaim! + + "At first, transported with the pleasing sight, + Each Christian bosom glowed with full delight; + But deep contrition soon their joy suppressed, + And holy sorrow saddened every breast; + Scarce dare their eyes the city walls survey, + Where clothed in flesh their dear Redeemer lay, + Whose sacred earth did once their Lord enclose, + And when triumphant from the grave he rose! + + "Each faltering tongue imperfect speech supplies; + Each labouring bosom heaves with frequent sighs. + Each took the example as their chieftains led, + With naked feet the hallowed soil they tread. + Each throws his martial ornaments aside, + The crested helmets with their plumy pride; + To humble thoughts their lofty hearts they bend, + And down their cheeks the pious tears descend."[74] + +No city assuredly presents a more striking example of the vicissitude of +human affairs than the capital of the Jews. When we behold its walls +levelled, its ditches filled up, and all its buildings embarrassed with +ruins, we scarcely can believe we view that celebrated metropolis which +formerly withstood the efforts of the most powerful empires, and for a +time resisted the arms of Rome itself; though, by a whimsical change of +fortune, its mouldering edifices now receive her homage and reverence. "In +a word," says Volney, "we with difficulty recognize Jerusalem." Still more +are we astonished at its ancient greatness, when we consider its +situation, amid a rugged soil, destitute of water, and surrounded by the +dry channels of torrents and steep hills. Remote from every great road, it +seems not to have been calculated either for a considerable mart of +commerce, or for the centre of a great consumption. It overcame, however, +every obstacle, and may be adduced as a proof of what patriotism and +religion may effect in the hands of a good government, or when favoured by +happy circumstances from without. The same principles, in some degree +modified, still preserve to this city its feeble existence. The renown of +its miracles, perpetuated in the East, invites and retains a considerable +number of inhabitants within its walls.[75] + +As a contrast to the description of Dr. Clarke, the reader may not be +displeased to peruse the notes of Sir Frederick Henniker on the same +subject:--"Jerusalem is called, even by the Mohammedans, the Blessed +City,--the streets of it are narrow and deserted,--the houses dirty and +ragged,--the shops few and forsaken,--and throughout the whole there is +not one symptom of either commerce, comfort, or happiness. Is this the +city that men call the Perfection of Beauty, the Joy of the whole +Earth?--The town, which appears to me not worth possession, even without +the trouble of conquest, is walled entirely round, is about a mile in +length and half a mile in width, so that its circumference may be +estimated at three miles. In three quarters of an hour I performed the +circuit. It would be difficult to conceive how it could ever have been +larger than it now is; for, independent of the ravines, the four outsides +of the city are marked by the brook of Siloam, by a burial-plate at either +end, and by the Hill of Calvary; and the Hill of Calvary is now within the +town, so that it was formerly smaller than it is at present. The best view +of it is from the Mount of Olives; it commands the exact shape, and nearly +every particular, namely, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Armenian +Convent, the Mosque of Omar, St. Stephen's Gate, the round-topped houses, +and the barren vacancies of the city. The Mosque of Omar is the St. +Peter's of Turkey. The building itself has a light, pagoda appearance; the +garden in which it stands occupies a considerable part of the city, and +contrasted with the surrounding desert is beautiful; but it is forbidden +ground, and Jew or Christian entering within its precincts must, if +discovered, forfeit either his religion or his life."[76] + +The observation made by Sir Frederick, in regard to the difficulty and +danger of entering the Mosque of Omar, has been verified on more than one +occasion. But the obstacles, apparently insurmountable, were overcome by +Dr. Richardson, who, in return for the successful exercise of his +professional skill, was rewarded by a clandestine visit to the shrine of +the Mussulman saint. It will appear, from the few details which we are +about to select from his volume, that the veil of mystery does not conceal +anything really worth seeing. Like Pompey in the Temple, the Christian +visiter, whose presence, in like manner, profanes the holy place, feels no +other surprise than is occasioned by the fact, that men have agreed to +excite curiosity by prohibiting an imaginary gratification. + +"On our arrival at the door, a gentle knock brought up the sacristan, who, +apprized of our intention, was within waiting to receive us. He demanded, +rather sternly, who we were, and was answered by my black conductor in +tones no less consequential than his own. The door immediately edged up, +to prevent as much as possible the light from shining out, and we squeezed +ourselves in with a gentle and noiseless step, although there was no +person near who could be alarmed by the loudest sound of our bare feet +upon the marble floor. The door was no sooner shut than the sacristan, +taking a couple of candles in his hand, showed us all over the interior of +the building, pointing, in the pride of his heart, to the elegant marble +walls, the beautifully-gilded ceiling, the well where the true worshippers +drink and wash,--with which we also blessed our palates and moistened our +beards,--the paltry reading-desk with the ancient Koran, the handsome +columns, and the green stone with the wonderful nails. As soon as we had +completed this circuit, pulling a key from his girdle, he unlocked the +door of the railing that separates the outer from the inner part of the +mosque, which, with an elevation of two or three steps, let us into the +sacred recess. Here he pointed out the patches of mosaic in the floor, the +round flat stone which the Prophet carried on his arm in battle, directed +us to introduce our hand through the hole in the wooden box, to feel the +print of the Prophet's foot, and, through the posts of the wooden rail, to +feel as well as to see the marks of the angel Gabriel's fingers (into +which I carefully put my own) in the sacred stone that occupies the centre +of the mosque, and from which it derives the name of Sakhara or Locked-up, +and over which is suspended a fine cloth of green and red satin. It was so +covered with dust that, but for the information of my guide, I should not +have been able to tell the composing colours. Finally, he pointed to the +door that leads into the small cavern below, of which he had not the key. + +"I looked up to the interior of the dome; but, there being few lamps +burning, the light was not sufficient to show me any of its beauty farther +than a general glance. The columns and curiosities were counted over again +and again, the arches were specially examined and enumerated, to be sure +that I had not missed nor forgotten any of them. Writing would have been +an ungracious behaviour, calculated to excite a thousand suspicions, that +next day would have gone to swell the current of the city gossip, to the +prejudice both of myself and of my friend. Having examined the adytum, we +once more touched the footstep of the Prophet and the finger-prints of the +angel Gabriel, and descended the steps, over which the door was +immediately secured."[77] + +Dr. Richardson was afterward permitted to visit this splendid mosque +during the day, when he found that the dimensions of the enclosure in +which it stands is about fifteen hundred feet in length, and a thousand in +breadth. In the sacred retirement of this charming spot, the followers of +the Prophet delight to saunter, or repose, as in the elysium of their +devotions; and, arrayed in the gorgeous costume of the East, add much to +the interest, the beauty, and solemn stillness of the scene, from which +they seem loath to retire. The Sakhara itself is a regular octagon of +about sixty feet a side, and is entered by four spacious doors, each of +which is adorned with a porch projecting from the line of the building and +rising considerably on the wall. All the sides of it are paneled. The +centre stone of one panel is square, of another it is octagonal, and thus +they alternate all round; the sides of each running down the angles like a +plain pilaster, and giving an appearance as if the whole were set in a +frame. The marble is white, with a considerable tinge of blue; square +pieces of the latter colour being introduced in different places, so as to +confer upon the exterior a very pleasing effect. The upper story is faced +with small tiles painted of different colours, white, yellow, green, and +blue; some of them are also covered with sentences from the Koran. At this +height there are seven elegant windows on each side, except where the +porches interfere, and then there are only six; the general appearance of +the edifice being extremely light and beautiful, more especially from the +mixture of the soft colours above and the delicate tints of the marble in +the main body of the structure. + +The interior fully corresponds to the magnificence and beauty just +described. There are twenty-four marble columns, placed parallel to the +eight sides of the building, three opposite to each side, so as still to +preserve the octagonal form. Eight of them are large plain pillars +belonging to no particular order of architecture, and all standing +opposite to the eight entering angles of the edifice, and deeply indented +on the inner side; so that they furnish an acute termination to the +octagonal lines within. Between every two of the square columns there are +two of a round figure, well proportioned, and resting on a base. They are +from eighteen to twenty feet high, with a sort of Corinthian capital. A +large square plinth of marble extends from the top of the one column to +the other, and above it there is constructed a number of arches all round, +which support the inner end of the roof or ceiling, the outer end resting +upon the walls of the building. This is composed of wood, or plaster, +highly ornamented with a species of carving, and richly gilt. + +But this gorgeous temple owes both its name and existence to a large +irregular mass of stone, having an oblong shape, which still occupies the +centre of the mosque. It is a portion of the calcareous rock on which the +city is built, and which prevails in the other mountains in the +neighbourhood of Jerusalem, having very much the appearance of being a +part of the bed that might have been left when the foundation of the +building was levelled. It rises highest towards the south-west corner, and +falls abruptly at the end, where are the prints of the Prophet's foot. It +is irregular on the upper surface, the same as when it was broken from the +quarry. It is enclosed all round with a wooden rail about four feet high, +and which in every place is nearly in contact with the stone. We have +already mentioned that there is a cover or canopy of variously-coloured +silk suspended over it; and nothing, we are assured can be held in higher +veneration than the Hadjr-el-sakhara, the Locked-up Stone.[78] + +But this fragment of limestone has more weighty pretensions to the +veneration of the Moslem than the mere print of the angel Gabriel's +fingers or of the Prophet's foot; for, like the Palladium of ancient Troy, +it is said to have fallen from heaven on this very spot, at the time when +prophecy commenced in Jerusalem. It was employed as a seat by the +venerable men to whom that gift was communicated; and, as long as the +spirit of vaticination continued to enlighten their minds, the slab +remained steady for their accommodation. But no sooner was the power of +prophecy withdrawn, and the persecuted seers compelled to flee for safety +to other lands, than the stone is declared to have manifested the +profoundest sympathy in their fate, and even to have resolved to accompany +them in their flight. On this occasion Gabriel the archangel interposed +his authority, and prevented the departure of the prophetical chair. He +grasped it with his mighty hand, and nailed it to its rocky bed till the +arrival of Mohammed, who, horsed on the lightning's wing, flew thither +from Mecca, joined the society of seventy thousand ministering spirits, +and, having offered up his devotions to the throne of God, fixed the stone +immovably in this holy site, around which the Caliph Omar erected his +magnificent mosque. + +Within the same enclosure there is another house of prayer called El Aksa, +which, though a fine building, is greatly inferior to El Sakhara. Between +the two there is a beautiful fountain, which takes its name from a clump +of orange-trees overshadowing its water. The mosque is composed of seven +naves supported by pillars and columns, and at the head of the centre nave +is a fine cupola. Two others branch off at right angles to the principal +body of the edifice. Before it is a portico of seven arches in front and +one in depth, supported by square pillars. Ali Bey, who in his character +of Mussulman was permitted to examine the holy fane at leisure, describes +the great central nave of the Aksa as about 162 feet long and 32 broad. It +is supported on each side by seven arches lightly pointed, resting upon +cylindrical pillars, in the form of columns, but without any architectural +proportion, with foliaged capitals which do not belong to any order. The +fourth pillar to the right of the entrance is octangular, and enormously +thick. It is called the pillar of Sidi Omar. The walls rise 13 feet above +the tops of the arches, and contain two rows of twenty-one windows each. +The roof is of timber, without being vaulted. The cupola is supported by +four large arches resting upon four square pillars. It is spherical, with +two rows of windows, and is ornamented with arabesque paintings and +gilding of exquisite beauty. Its diameter is equal to that of the central +nave. + +M. Burckhardt describes the Holy House in Jerusalem as a union of several +buildings erected at different periods of Islamism, bearing upon them +demonstrative proofs of the prevailing taste of the various ages in which +they were successively constructed. It is not precisely one mosque, but a +group of mosques. Its name in Arabic, El Haram, strictly signifies a +temple or place consecrated by the peculiar presence of the Divinity. The +profane and the infidel are forbidden to enter it. The Mussulman religion +acknowledges but two temples, those, namely, of Mecca and of Jerusalem; +both are called El Haram; both are equally prohibited by law to +Christians, Jews, and every other person who is not a believer in the +Prophet. The mosques, on the other hand, are considered merely as places +of meeting for certain acts of worship, and are not held so especially +consecrated as to demand the total exclusion of all who do not profess the +true faith. Entrance into them is not denied to the unbeliever by any +statute of the Mohammedan law; and hence it is not uncommon for Christians +at Constantinople to receive from the government a written order to visit +even the Mosque of St. Sophia. But the sultan himself could not grant +permission to an infidel either to pass into the territory of Mecca, or to +enter the Temple of Jerusalem. A firman granting such privileges would be +regarded as a most horrid sacrilege: it would not be respected by the +people; and the favoured object would inevitably become the victim of his +own imprudent boldness.[79] + +In the interior of the rock whereon the Sakhara stands there is a cave, +into which Dr. Richardson could not obtain admittance. He was four times +in the mosque, and went twice thither under the express assurance that its +doors should be thrown open to him. But when he arrived the key was always +wanting, and when the keeper of it was sought he could never be found. Ali +Bey, who encountered no obstacle, reveals all the mystery of this +subterranean mansion. It is a room forming an irregular square of about +eighteen feet surface, and eight feet high in the middle. The roof is that +of a natural vault, quite irregular. In descending the staircase, there is +upon the right-hand, near the bottom, a little tablet of marble, bearing +the name of El Makam Souleman, the Place of Solomon. A similar one upon +the left is named El Makam Daoud, the Place of David. A cavity or niche on +the south-west side of the rock is called El Makam Ibrahim, the Place of +Abraham. A similar concave step at the north-west angle is described as El +Makam Djibrila, the Place of Gabriel; and a sort of stone table at the +north-east angle is denominated El Makam el Hoder, the Place of Elias. In +the roof of the apartment, exactly in the middle, there is an aperture +almost cylindrical through the whole thickness of the rock, about three +feet in diameter. This is the Place of the Prophet. + +M. Burckhardt observed a copy of the Koran, the leaves of which were four +feet long, and more than two feet and a half broad. Tradition reports that +it belonged to the Caliph Omar; but he saw a similar one in the grand +mosque at Cairo, and another at Mecca, to both of which the same origin is +assigned. The drawings supplied by this enterprising traveller give a very +distinct notion of the extent and magnificence of the great Mussulman +temple,--the most prominent object in the modern Jerusalem, and occupying +the site of the still more interesting edifice erected by Solomon in the +proudest period of Jewish history. + +But the Christian pilgrim, who walks about the holy city "to tell her +towers and mark her bulwarks," is more readily attracted by less splendid +objects, the memorials of his own more humble faith. Among these the most +remarkable is the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is built on the +lower part of the sloping hill distinguished by the name of Acre, near the +place where it is joined to Mount Moriah. The Turkish government, aware of +the veneration which all Christians entertain for relics in any way +connected with the sufferings of the great Author of their religion, have +converted this feeling into a source of revenue; every person not subject +to the Sublime Porte, who visits the shrine of Jesus Christ, being +compelled to pay a certain sum of money for admittance. But the church, +nevertheless, is opened only on particular days of the week, and cannot be +seen at any other time without an order from the two convents, the Latin +and the Greek, with the sanction of the governor of the city. On such +occasions the pressure at the doors is very great; the zeal of the +pilgrims checked by the insolence of the Turks, who delight to insult and +disappoint their anxiety, leading sometimes to scenes of tumult not quite +in harmony with their pious motives. We shall give an account of the +effect produced by the local and historical associations of the place on a +sober spirit, in the words of a traveller to whom we have been already +indebted:-- + +"The mind is not withdrawn from the important concerns of this hallowed +spot by any tasteful decorations or dignified display of architecture in +its plan or in its walls; but having cleared the throng, the religion of +the place is allowed to take full possession of the soul, and the visiter +feels as if he were passing into the presence of the great and immaculate +Jehovah, and summoned to give an account of the most silent and secret +thoughts of his heart. Having passed within these sacred walls, the +attention is first directed to a large flat stone in the floor, a little +within the door; it is surrounded by a rail, and several lamps hang +suspended over it. The pilgrims approach it on their knees; touch and kiss +it, and prostrating themselves before it, offer up their prayers in holy +adoration. This is the stone on which the body of our Lord was washed and +anointed and prepared for the tomb. Turning to the left and proceeding a +little forward, we came into a round space immediately under the dome, +surrounded with sixteen large columns which support the gallery above. In +the centre of this space stands the Holy Sepulchre; it is enclosed in an +oblong house, rounded at one end with small arcades or chapels for prayer, +on the outside of it. These are for the Copts, the Abyssinians, the Syrian +Mareonites, and other Christians, who are not, like the Roman Catholics, +the Greeks, and Armenians, provided with large chapels in the body of the +church. At the other end it is squared off and furnished with a platform +in front, which is ascended by a flight of steps, having a small +parapet-wall of marble on each hand, and floored with the same material. +In the middle of this small platform stands a block of polished marble +about a foot and a half square; on this stone sat the angel who announced +the blessed tidings of the resurrection to Mary Magdalene, and Joanna, and +Mary the mother of James. Advancing, and taking off our shoes and turbans +at the desire of the keeper, he drew aside the curtain, and stepping down, +and bending almost to the ground, we entered by a low narrow door into +this mansion of victory, where Christ triumphed over the grave, and +disarmed Death of all his terrors. Here the mind looks on Him who, though +he knew no sin, yet entered the mansions of the dead to redeem us from +death, and the prayers of a grateful heart ascend with a risen Saviour to +the presence of God in heaven."[80] + +The tomb exhibited is a sarcophagus of white marble, slightly tinged with +blue, being fully six feet long, three feet broad, and two feet two inches +deep. It is but indifferently polished, and seems as if it had at one time +been exposed to the action of the atmosphere, by which it has been +considerably affected. It is without any ornament, made in the Greek +fashion, and not like the more ancient tombs of the Jews, which we see cut +in the rock for the reception of the dead. There are seven lamps +constantly burning over it, the gifts of different sovereigns in a +succession of ages. It occupies about one-half of the sepulchral chamber, +and extends from one end of it to the other. A space about three feet wide +in front of it is all that remains for the accommodation of visiters, so +that not more than three or four can be conveniently admitted at a time. + +Leaving this hallowed spot, the pilgrim is conducted to the place where +our Lord appeared to Mary Magdalene, and next to the Chapel of Apparition, +where he presented himself to the Blessed Virgin. The Greeks have an +oratory opposite to the Holy Sepulchre, in which they have set up a globe, +representing, as they are pleased to imagine, the centre of the earth; +thus transferring from Delphi to Jerusalem the absurd notions of the pagan +priests of antiquity relative to the figure of the habitable world. After +this he enters a dark narrow staircase, which, by about twenty steps, +carries him to Mount Calvary. "This," exclaims Dr. Richardson, "is the +centre, the grand magnet of the Christian church: from this proceed life +and salvation; thither all hearts tend and all eyes are directed; here +kings and queens cast down their crowns, and great men and women part with +their ornaments; at the foot of the cross all are on a level, equally +needy and equally welcome."[81] + +On Calvary is shown the spot where the Redeemer was nailed to the cross, +the hole into which the end of it was fixed, and the rent in the rock. All +these are covered with marble, perforated in the proper places, so that +they may be seen and touched. Near at hand a cross is erected on an +elevated part of the ground, and a wooden body stretched upon it in the +attitude of suffering. Descending from the Mount, the traveller enters the +chapel of St. Helens, the mother of Constantine, in which is the vault +where the true cross is said to have been found,--an event that continues +to be celebrated every year on the third of May by an appropriate mass. +The place is large enough to contain about thirty or forty individuals, +and on that annual solemnity it is usually crowded to the door. + +The spirit in which these commemorations are sometimes performed is by no +means honourable to the Christian character. An ancient rivalry between +the members of the Greek and those of the Roman communion continues to +imbitter their disputes in regard to their respective privileges and +procedure. Maundrell informs us that in his time each fraternity had their +own altar and sanctuary, at which they had a peculiar right to celebrate +divine services and to exclude all other nations. But, says he, that which +has always been the great prize contended for by the several sects, is the +command and appropriation of the holy Sepulchre; a privilege contested +with so much unchristian fury and animosity, especially between the Greeks +and Latins that, in disputing which party should go in to celebrate their +mass, they have sometimes proceeded to blows and wounds, even at the very +door of the sepulchre, mingling their own blood with their sacrifices. The +King of Franca interposed about the end of the seventeenth century, and +obtained an order for the grand vizier to put that holy place into the +possession of the Western Church; an arrangement which was accomplished in +the year 1690, and secured to the Latins the exclusive privilege of saying +mass in it. "And though it be permitted to Christians of all nations to go +into it for their private devotions, yet none other may solemnize any +public office of religion there."[82] + +The daily employment of these recluses is to trim the lamps, and to make +devotional visits and processions to the several sanctuaries in the +church. Thus they spend their time, many of them for four or six years +together; nay, so far are some transported with the pleasing contemplation +in which they here entertain themselves, that they will never come out to +their dying day; burying themselves, as it were, alive in our Lord's +grave. + +It was at the holy season of Easter that Mr. Maundrell visited Jerusalem, +when he witnessed the annual service performed by the monks; rather too +minutely descriptive, perhaps, of the great event to which it refers. +"Their ceremony begins on Good Friday night, which is called by them the +_Nox Tenebrosa_, and is observed with such an extraordinary solemnity that +I cannot omit to give a particular description of it:--As soon as it grew +dark, all the friars and pilgrims were convened in the chapel of the +Apparition, in order to go in a procession round the church. But before +they set out one of the friars preached a sermon in Italian: He began his +discourse thus:--_In questa notte tenebrosa_,--at which words all the +candles were instantly put out, to yield a livelier image of the occasion: +and so we were held the preacher for nearly half an hour very much in the +dark. Sermon being ended, every person present had a large lighted taper +put into his hand, as if it were to make amends for the former darkness; +and the crucifixes and other utensils were disposed in order for beginning +the procession. Among the other crucifixes there was one of a very large +size, which bore upon it the image of our Lord as big as the life. The +image was fastened to it with great nails, crowned with thorns, and +besmeared with blood; and so exquisitely was it formed, that it +represented, in a very lively manner, the lamentable spectacle of our +Lord's body as it hung upon the cross. This figure was carried all along +in the head of the procession; after which the company followed to all the +sanctuaries in the church, singing their appointed hymn at every one. + +"The first place they visited was that of the pillar of Flagellation, a +large piece of which is kept in a little cell just at the door of the +chapel of the Apparition. There they sang their proper hymn; and another +friar entertained the company with a sermon in Spanish, touching the +scourging of our Lord. From hence they proceeded in solemn order to the +prison of Christ, where they pretend he was secured while the soldiers +made things ready for his crucifixion; here likewise they sang their hymn, +and a third friar preached in French. From the prison they went to the +altar of the Division of our Lord's garments, where they only sang their +hymn without adding any sermon. Having done here, they advanced to the +chapel of the Division; at which, after their hymn, they had a fourth +sermon, as I remember, in French. + +"From this place they went up to Calvary, leaving their shoes at the +bottom of the stairs. Here are two altars to be visited; one where our +Lord is supposed to have been nailed to the cross, another where his cross +was erected. At the former of these they laid down the great crucifix upon +the floor, and acted a kind of resemblance of Christ's being nailed to the +cross; and after the hymn another friar preached a sermon in Spanish upon +the crucifixion. From hence they removed to the adjoining altar, where the +cross is supposed to have been erected, bearing the image of our Lord's +body. At this altar is a hole in the natural rock, said to be the very +same individual one in which the foot of our Lord's cross stood. Here they +set up their cross with the bloody crucified image upon it; and leaving it +in that posture, they first sang their hymn, and then the father guardian, +sitting in a chair before it, preached a passion sermon in Italian. + +"At about one yard and a half distant from the hole in which the foot of +the cross was fixed is seen that memorable cleft in the rock, said to have +been made by the earthquake which happened at the suffering of the God of +nature; when, as St. Matthew witnesseth, the rocks rent and the very +graves were opened. This cleft, or what now appears of it, is about a span +wide at its upper part, and two deep; after which it closes. But it opens +again below, as you may see in another chapel contiguous to the side of +Calvary, and runs down to an unknown depth in the earth. That this rent +was made by the earthquake that happened at our Lord's passion there is +only tradition to prove; but that it is a natural and genuine breach, and +not counterfeited by any art, the sense and reason of every one that sees +it may convince him; for the sides of it fit like two tallies to each +other, and yet it runs in such intricate windings as could not well be +counterfeited by art, nor arrived at by any instruments. + +"The ceremony of the passion being over, and the guardian's sermon ended, +two friars, personating, the one Joseph of Arimathea, the other Nicodemus, +approached the cross, and with a most solemn, concerned air, both of +aspect and behaviour, drew out the great nails, and took down the feigned +body from the cross. It was an _effigies_ so contrived that its limbs were +soft and flexible, as if they had been real flesh; and nothing could be +more surprising that to see the two pretended mourners bend down the arms +which were before extended, and dispose them upon the trunk in such a +manner as is usual in corpses. The body being taken down from the cross +was received in a fair large winding-sheet, and carried down from Calvary; +the whole company attending as before to the stone of Unction. This is +taken for the very place where the precious body of our Lord was annointed +and prepared for the burial. Here they laid down their imaginary corpse; +and casting over it several sweet powders and spices, wrapped it up in the +winding-sheet. While this was doing they sang their proper hymn, and +afterward one of the friars preached in Arabic a funeral-sermon. These +obsequies being finished, they carried off their fancied corpse and laid +it in the Sepulchre, shutting up the door till Easter morning. And now, +after so many sermons, and so long, not to say tedious, a ceremony, it may +well be imagined that the weariness of the congregation, as well as the +hour of the night, made it needful to go to rest."[83] + +Easter-eve passed without any remarkable observance,--a period of leisure +which was employed by many of the pilgrims in having their arms marked +with the usual ensigns of Jerusalem. "The artists who undertake the +operation do it in this manner; they have stamps of wood of any figure +that you desire, which they first print off upon your arm with powder of +charcoal, then taking two very fine needles tied close together, and +dipping them often, like a pen, in certain ink compounded, as I was +informed, of gun-powder and ox-gall, they make with them small punctures +all along the lines of the figure which they have printed; and then, +washing the part in wine, conclude the work. The punctures they make with +great quickness and dexterity, and with scarce any smart, seldom piercing +so deep as to draw blood. In the afternoon of this day the congregation +was assembled in the area before the holy grave; where the friars spent +some hours in singing over the Lamentations of Jeremiah; which function, +with the usual procession to the holy places, was all the ceremony +required by the ritual of the place." + +On Easter-day the scene was changed from gloom to the most lively +congratulation. "The clouds of the former morning were cleared up; and the +friars put on a face of joy and serenity, as if it had been the real +juncture of our Lord's resurrection. Nor doubtless was this joy feigned, +whatever their mourning might be; this being the day on which their Lenten +disciplines expired, and they were now come to a full belly again. The +mass was celebrated this morning just before the Holy Sepulchre, being the +most eminent place in the church; where the father guardian had a throne +erected, and being arrayed in episcopal robes, with a mitre on his head, +in the sight of the Turks he gave the Host to all that were disposed to +receive it; not refusing it to children of seven or eight years old. This +office being ended, we made our exit out of the Sepulchre, and returning +to the convent, dined with the friars."[84] + +The latest travellers in Palestine witnessed similar observances on the +same solemn occasion, none of which were in the least calculated to edify +an enlightened mind, and many of them such as could not be contemplated +without feelings of just indignation, mingled with contempt. + +There is no greater obstacle to the propagation of Christianity among the +Syrian tribes, and more especially among the Turks and Jews, than the +foolish exhibitions which disgrace the return of the principal festivals +in the Holy Land. The mummeries already described could not fail to be +sufficiently revolting to a people who permit not any image or +representation of created things, even in the uses of ordinary life. +Still, the sincerity and apparent devotion with which the ceremony of the +crucifixion was performed might, in some degree, atone for the unseemly +method adopted by the monks to commemorate an event at once so solemn and +important. But what shall be said in defence of the manifest fraud which +is annually practised in Jerusalem on Easter-eve by the Greek church, when +the credulous multitude are taught to believe that fire descends from +heaven into the Holy Sepulchre to kindle their lamps and torches? + +Upon comparing the description given by Maundrell with the accounts of the +latest travellers, we perceive that nearly a century and a half has passed +away without producing any improvement, and that the friars of the present +age are probably not less ignorant or dishonest than their predecessors +five hundred years ago. "They began their disorders by running round the +Holy Sepulchre with all their might and swiftness, crying out as they went +_huia_, which signifies _this is he_, or _this is it_,--an expression by +which they assert the verity of the Christian religion. After they had by +these religious circulations and clamours turned their heads and inflamed +their madness, they began to act the moat antic tricks and postures in a +thousand shapes of distraction. Sometimes they dragged one another along +the floor all round the Sepulchre; sometimes they set one man upright upon +another's shoulders, and in this posture marched round; sometimes they +tumbled round the Sepulchre after the manner of tumblers on the stage. In +a word, nothing can be imagined more rude or extravagant than what was +acted upon this occasion."[85] + +"The Greeks first set out in a procession round the Holy Sepulchre, and +immediately at their heels followed the Armenians. In this order they +compassed the Holy Sepulchre thrice, having produced all their gallantry +of standards, streamers, crucifixes, and embroidered habits. Towards the +end of this procession there was a pigeon came fluttering into the cupola +over the Sepulchre, at sight of which there was a greater shout and +clamour than before. This bird, the Latins told us, was purposely let fly +by the Greeks to deceive the people into an opinion that it was a visible +descent of the Holy Ghost. The procession being over, the suffragan of the +Greek patriarch and the principal Armenian bishop approached to the door +of the Sepulchre, and, cutting the string with which it is fastened and +sealed, entered in, shutting the door after them, all the candles and +lamps within having been before extinguished in the presence of the Turks +and other witnesses. The exclamations were doubled as the miracle drew +nearer to its accomplishment; and the people pressed with such vehemence +towards the door of the Sepulchre that it was not in the power of the +Turks to keep them off. The cause of their pressing in this manner is, the +great desire they have to light their candles at the holy flame as soon as +it is first brought out of the Sepulchre, it being esteemed the most +sacred and pure as coming immediately from heaven. The two miracle-mongers +had not been above a minute in the Holy Sepulchre when the glimmering of +the holy fire was seen, or imagined to appear, through some chinks in the +door; and, certainly, Bedlam itself never saw such an unruly transport as +was produced in the mob at this sight. + +"Immediately after, out came two priests with blazing torches in their +hands, which they held up at the door of the Sepulchre; while the people +thronged about with inexpressible ardour, every one striving to obtain a +part of the first and purest flame. The Turks, in the mean time, with huge +clubs laid on without mercy; but all this could not repel them, the excess +of their fury making them insensible of pain. Those that got the fire +applied it immediately to their beards, faces, and bosoms, pretending that +it would not burn like an earthly flame. But I plainly saw none of them +could endure this experiment long enough to make good that pretension. So +many hands being employed, you may be sure it could not be long before +innumerable tapers were lighted. The whole church, galleries, and every +place seemed instantly to be in a flame; and with this illumination the +ceremony ended. + +"It must be owned that those two within the Sepulchre performed their part +with great quickness and dexterity; but the behaviour of the rabble +without very much discredited the miracle. The Latins take a great deal of +pains to expose this ceremony as a most shameful imposture and a scandal +to the Christian religion,--perhaps out of envy that others should be +masters of so gainful a business. But the Greeks and Armenians pin their +faith upon it; such is the deplorable unhappiness of their priests, that +having acted the cheat so long already, they are forced now to stand to it +for fear of endangering the apostacy of their people. Going out of church +after the rant was over, we saw several people gathered about the Stone of +Unction, who, having got a good store of candles lighted with the holy +fire, were employed in daubing pieces of linen with the wicks of them and +the melting wax, which pieces of linen were designed for winding-sheets. +And it is the opinion of these poor people, that if they can but have the +happiness to be buried in a shroud smutted with this celestial fire, it +will certainly secure them from the flames of hell."[86] + +Dr. Richardson, who witnessed the same pitiful ceremony, is not inclined +to give much honour to the performers in respect to skill or dexterous +manipulation. On the contrary, he is of opinion that there is not a +pyrotechnist in London who could not have improved the exhibition. From +the station which he occupied in the church, being the organ-loft of the +Roman Catholic division, he distinctly saw the flame issuing from a +burning substance placed within the tomb, and which was raised and lowered +according to circumstances. The priests meant to be very artful, but were +in reality very ignorant. Like the Druids of old, no one, under the pain +of excommunication, dared to light his torch at that of another; every +individual was bound to derive his flame from the miraculous spark that +descended from above, and which could only be conveyed by the hands of the +chief priest.[87] + +Having seen the exhibition of this vile and infamous delusion, the +traveller naturally inquires what credit he ought to give to the +historical statements and local descriptions derived from the Christians +who now occupy Jerusalem. Are the honoured spots within these walls really +what the guardians of the metropolitan church declare them to be? Is the +Mount Calvary shown at this day in the holy city the actual place where +Christ expired upon the cross to redeem the human race? Is the Sepulchre +there exhibited really that of the just man Joseph of Arimathea, in which +the body of the blessed Jesus was laid? Or are all these merely convenient +spots, fixed on at random, and consecrated to serve the interested views +of a crafty priesthood?[88] + +We agree in the conclusion, that it is of no consequence to the Christian +faith in what way these questions shall be determined. The great facts on +which the history of the gospel is founded are not so closely connected +with particular spots of earth or sacred buildings as to be rendered +doubtful by any mistake in the choice of a locality. Nor is there any +material discrepancy between the opinions of Chateaubriand, which we are +inclined to adopt, and those of Dr. Clarke, who treats with contempt all +the traditions respecting holy places; for the outline may be correct, +although the minuter details are open to a just suspicion. For example, it +is now extremely difficult to trace the boundaries of Calvary; the effects +of time and the operations of the siege under the Roman prince have +obliterated some of the features by which that remarkable scene was +distinguished; it has even ceased to present the appearance of a mount--an +appellation, by-the-way, which is nowhere given to it in Scripture. But it +does not follow that the Christians who returned from Pella to inhabit the +ruins of the sacred metropolis should have been equally ignorant of its +extent and situation; nor is it at all probable that places so interesting +to the affections of the infant church would be allowed to fall into a +speedy oblivion. + +The main error of the modern priests at Jerusalem arises from an anxiety +to exhibit every thing to which any allusion is made by the evangelical +historians; not remembering that the lapse of ages and the devastation of +successive wars have destroyed much, and disguised more, which the early +disciples could most readily identify. The mere circumstance that almost +all the events which attended the close of our Saviour's ministry are +crowded into one scene, covered by the roof of a single church, might +excite a very justifiable doubt as to the exactness of the topography +maintained by the friars of Mount Moriah. "This edifice," says Mr. +Maundrell, "is less than one hundred paces long, and not more than sixty +wide; and yet it is so contrived, that it is supposed to contain under its +roof twelve or thirteen sanctuaries, or places consecrated to a more than +ordinary veneration, by being reputed to have some particular actions done +in them relating to the death and resurrection of Christ."[89] + +All that can now be affirmed, observes Dr. Clarke, with any show of +reason, is this, "that if Helena had reason to believe she could identify +the spot where the Sepulchre was, she took especial care to remove every +trace of it, in order to introduce the fanciful and modern work which now +remains. The place may be the same pointed out to her; but not a remnant +of the original Sepulchre can now be ascertained. Yet, with our skeptical +feelings thus awakened, it may prove how powerful the effect of sympathy +is, if we confess, that when we entered into the supposed Sepulchre, and +beheld, by the light of lamps there continually burning, the venerable +figure of an aged monk, with streaming eyes and a long white beard, +pointing to 'the place where the Lord lay,' and calling upon us to kneel +and experience pardon for our sins,--we did kneel, and we participated in +the feelings of more credulous pilgrims. Captain Culverhouse, in whose +mind the ideas of religion and of patriotism were inseparable, with firmer +emotion, drew from its scabbard the sword he had so often wielded in the +defence of his country, and placed it upon the tomb. Humbler comers heaped +the memorials of an accomplished pilgrimage; and while their sighs alone +interrupted the silence of the sanctuary a solemn service was begun."[90] + +It is observed by the author of the Itinéraire, that the ancient +travellers were extremely fortunate in not being obliged to enter into all +these critical disquisitions; in the first place, because they found in +their readers that religion which never contends against truth; and, +secondly, because every mind was convinced that the only way of seeing a +country as it is must be to see it with all its traditions and +recollections. It is, in fact, with the Bible as his guide that a +traveller ought to visit the Holy Land. If we are determined to carry with +us a spirit of cavil and contradiction, Judea is not worth our going so +far to examine it. What should we say to a man who, in traversing Greece +and Italy, should think of nothing but contradicting Homer and Virgil? +Such, however, is the course adopted by too many modern travellers; +evidently the effect of our vanity, which would excite a high idea of our +own abilities, and at the same time fill us with disdain for those of +other people.[91] + +A short time after M. Chateaubriand visited Jerusalem, the church of the +Holy Sepulchre was destroyed by fire; and although it has been since +repaired, it is admitted that both the architecture and the internal +decorations are much inferior to those of the original edifice. The +general plan of the whole building, however, as well as the arrangement of +the holy stations, are so exactly preserved, that the descriptions of the +earliest writers apply as correctly to its present as to its former state. +It is true, that the tombs of Godfrey de Bouillon and of Baldwin his +brother, which called forth the enthusiastic admiration of the French +author just named, have been annihilated by the malignant Greeks, so that +not a vestige remains to mark the spot whereon they stood. The Corinthian +columns of fine marble which formerly adorned the interior being rendered +useless by the fire, the dome is now supported by tall slender pillars of +masonry, plastered on the outside, and so closely grouped together as to +produce the worst effect. We are told, indeed, that the meanness of every +thing about the architecture of the central dome, and of the whole rotunda +which surrounds the Sepulchre itself, can only be exceeded by the wretched +taste of its painted decorations.[92] + +It was of the older building that the Vicomte made the following +remarks:--"The church of the Holy Sepulchre, composed of several churches +erected upon an unequal surface, illumined by a multitude of lamps, is +singularly mysterious; a sombre light pervades it, favourable to piety and +profound devotion. Christian priests of various sects inhabit different +parts of the edifice. From the arches above, where they nestle like +pigeons, from the chapels below and subterraneous vaults, their songs are +heard at all hours both of the day and night. The organ of the Latin +monks, the cymbals of the Abyssinian priest, the voice of the Greek +caloyer, the prayer of the solitary Armenian, the plaintive accents of the +Coptic friar, alternately, or all at once, assail your ear. You know not +whence these accents of praise proceed; you inhale the perfume of incense +without perceiving the hand that burns it: you merely observe the pontiff, +who is going to celebrate the most awful of mysteries on the very spot +where they were accomplished, pass quickly by, glide behind the columns, +and vanish in the gloom of the temple. + +"Christian readers will perhaps inquire what were my feelings upon +entering this sacred place. I really cannot tell. So many reflections +rushed at once upon my mind, that I was unable to dwell upon any +particular idea. I continued nearly half an hour upon my knees in the +little chamber of the Holy Sepulchre, with my eyes riveted upon the stone, +from which I had not the power to turn them. One of the two monks who +accompanied me remained prostrate on the marble by my side, while the +other, with the Testament in his hand, read to me by the light of the +lamps the passages relating to the sacred tomb. All I can say is that when +I beheld this triumphant Sepulchre, I felt nothing but my own weakness; +and that when my guide exclaimed with St. Paul, O death, where is thy +sting? O grave, where is thy victory? I listened, as if death were about +to reply that he was conquered and enchained in this monument. Where shall +we look in antiquity for anything so impressive, so wonderful, as the last +scenes described by the Evangelists? These are not the absurd adventures +of a deity foreign to human nature: it is a most pathetic history,--a +history which not only extorts tears by its beauty, but whose +consequences, applied to the universe, have changed the face of the earth. +I had just beheld the monuments of Greece, and my mind was still +profoundly impressed with their grandeur; but how far inferior were the +sentiments which they excited to those I felt at the sight of the places +commemorated in the gospel!"[93] + +We must not presume to follow the ardent pilgrim along the _Via Dolorosa_, +the name given to the way which the Saviour passed from the house of +Pilate to the Mount of Calvary, nor can we stop to revere the arch, called +_Ecce Homo_, where, we are told, the window may still be seen from which +the Roman judge exclaimed to the vindictive Jews, "Behold the Man!" We +cannot resign our belief to the minute description which recognises the +house of Simon the Pharisee, where Mary Magdalene confessed her sins; the +prison of St. Peter, and the dwelling of Mary the mother of Mark, in which +the same apostle took refuge when he was set at liberty by the angel; and +the mansion of Dives, the rich man at whose gate the mendicant Lazarus was +laid, full of sores. + +On crossing the small ravine which divides the modern city from Mount +Zion, the attention of the traveller is drawn to three ancient monuments, +or more properly ruins. Covered with buildings comparatively modern,--the +house of Caiaphas,--the place where Christ held his Last Supper,--and the +tomb or palace of David. The first of these is now a church, the duty of +which is performed by the Armenians; the second, consecrated by the +affecting solemnity, with the memory of which it is still associated, +presents a mosque and a Turkish hospital; while the third, a small vaulted +apartment, contains only three sepulchres formed of dark-coloured atone. +This holy hill is equally celebrated in the Old Testament and in the New. +Here the successor of Saul built a city and a royal dwelling,--here he +kept for three months the Ark of the Covenant;--here the Redeemer +instituted the sacrament which commemorates his death,--here he appeared +to his disciples on the day of his resurrection,--and here the Holy Ghost +descended on the apostles. The place hallowed by the Last Supper, if we +may believe the early Fathers, was transformed into the first Christian +temple the world ever saw, where St. James the Less was consecrated the +first bishop of Jerusalem, and where he presided in the first council of +the church. Finally, it was from this spot that the apostles, in +compliance with the injunction to go and teach all nations, departed, +without purse and without scrip, to seat their religion upon all the +thrones of the earth. + +Descending Mount Zion on the east side, you perceive in the valley the +Fountain and Pool of Siloam, so celebrated in the history of our Saviour's +miracles. The brook itself is ill supplied with water, and, compared with +the ideas formed in the mind by the fine invocation of the poet, usually +creates disappointment. Going a few paces to the northward, you come to +the source of the scanty rivulet, which is called by some the Fountain of +the Virgin, from an opinion that she frequently came hither to drink. It +appears in a recess about twenty feet lower than the surface, and under an +arched vault of masonry tolerably well executed. The rock had been +originally hewn down to reach this pool; and a small crooked passage, of +which only the beginning is seen, is said to convey the water out of the +Valley of Siloam, and to supply the means of irrigating the little gardens +still cultivated in that spot. Notwithstanding the dirty state of the +water, and its harsh and brackish taste, it is still used by devout +pilgrims for diseases of the eye.[94] + +It is said to have a kind of ebb and flow, sometimes discharging its +current like the Fountain of Vaucluse, at others retaining and scarcely +suffering it to run at all. The Levites, we are likewise told, used to +sprinkle the water of Siloam on the altar at the Feast of Tabernacles, +saying, "Ye shall draw water with joy from the wells of salvation." The +reader will find on the opposite page a representation of the Fountain or +Pool of Siloam, as it appeared to the eye of an able traveller; a +considerable part of the arch having fallen down, or been destroyed by the +barbarians who continue to hold Jerusalem in subjection. + +The Valley of Jehoshaphat stretches between the eastern walls of the city +and the Mount of Olives, containing a great variety of objects, to which +allusion is made in the Sacred Writings. It was sometimes called the +King's Dale, from a reference to an event recorded in the history of +Abraham, and was afterward distinguished by the name of Jehoshaphat, +because that sovereign erected in it a magnificent tomb. This narrow vale +seems to have always served as a burying-place for the inhabitants of the +holy city: there you meet with monuments of the most remote ages, as well +as of the most modern times: thither the descendants of Jacob resort from +the four quarters of the globe, to yield up their last breath; and a +foreigner sells to them, for its weight in gold, a scanty spot of earth to +cover their remains in the land of their forefathers. Observing many Jews, +whom I could easily recognise by their yellow turbans, quick dark eyes, +black eyebrows, and bushy beards, walking about the place, and reposing +along the Brook Kedron in a pensive mood, the pathetic language of the +Psalmist occurred to me, as expressing the subject of their +meditation--'By the rivers we sat down and wept when we remembered Zion.' +Upon frequently inquiring the motive that prompted them in attempting to +go to Jerusalem, the answer was, 'To die in the land of our fathers.'[95] + +This valley or dale still exhibits a very desolate appearance. The western +side is a high chalk-cliff supporting the walls of the city; above which +you perceive Jerusalem itself; while the eastern acclivity is formed by +the Mount of Olives and the Mount of Offence, so called from the idolatry +which oppresses the fame of Solomon. These two hills are nearly naked, and +of a dull red colour. On their slopes are seen, here and there, a few +bleak and parched vines, some groves of wild olive-trees, wastes covered +with hyssop, chapels, oratories, and mosques in ruins. At the bottom of +the valley you discover a bridge of a single arch, thrown across the +channel of the Brook Kedron. The stones in the Jewish cemetery look like a +heap of rubbish at the foot of the Mount of Offence, below the Arab +village of Siloane, the paltry houses of which are scarcely to be +distinguished from the surrounding sepulchres. From the stillness of +Jerusalem, whence no smoke arises and no noise proceeds,--from the +solitude of these hills, where no living creature is to be seen,--from the +ruinous state of all these tombs, overthrown, broken, and half-open, you +would imagine that the last trumpet had already sounded, and that the +Valley of Jehoshaphat was about to render up its dead. + +Amid this scene of desolation three monuments arrest the eyes of the +intelligent pilgrim,--the tombs of Zachariah, of Absalom, and of the king +whose name still distinguishes the valley. The first-mentioned of these is +a square mass of rock, hewn down into form, and isolated from the quarry +out of which it is cut by a passage of twelve or fifteen feet wide on +three of its sides; the fourth or western front being open towards the +valley and to Mount Moriah, the foot of which is only a few yards distant. +This huge stone is eight paces in length on each side, and about twenty +feet high in the front, and ten feet high at the back; the hill on which +it stands having a steep ascent. It has four semicolumns cut out of the +same rock on each of its faces, with a pilaster at each angle, all of a +mixed Ionic order, and ornamented in bad taste. The architraves, the full +moulding, and the deep overhanging cornice which finishes the square, are +all perfectly after the Egyptian manner; and the whole is surmounted by a +pyramid, the sloping aides of which rise from the very edges of the square +below, and terminate in a finished point. + +The body of this monument, we have already stated, is one solid mass of +rock, as well as its semicolumns on each face; but the surmounting pyramid +appears to be of masonry. Its sides, however, are perfectly smooth, like +the coated pyramids of Sahara and Dashour, and not graduated by stages +like those of Dijzeh in lower Egypt. + +Inconsiderable in size and paltry in its ornaments, this monument, as Mr. +Buckingham observes, is eminently curious. There is no appearance of an +entrance into any part of it; so that it seems; if a tomb, to have been as +firmly closed as the Egyptian pyramids, and, perhaps, for the same respect +for the repose of the dead. It is probable, indeed, that the original +style and plan of the building are derived from the country of the +Pharaohs; while the Grecian columns and pilasters may be the work of a +much later period, when the Jews had learned to combine with the massy +piles of their more ancient architecture the elegant lightness which +distinguished the times of the Seleucidae.[96] + +In the immediate vicinity is the tomb of Jehoshaphat,--a cavern which is +more commonly called the Grotto of the Disciples, from an idea that they +went frequently thither to be taught by their Divine Master. The front of +this excavation has two Doric pillars of small size, but of just +proportions. In the interior are three chambers, all of them rude and +irregular in their form, in one of which were several gravestones, +removed, we may suppose, from the open ground for greater security. Like +all the rest, they were flat slabs of an oblong shape, from three to six +inches in thickness, and evidently a portion of the limestone rock which +composes the adjoining hills. + +Opposite to this, on the east, is the reputed tomb of Absalom, resembling +nearly in the size, form, and decoration of its square base that of +Zachariah already described; except that it is sculptured with the metopes +and triglyphs of the Doric order. This is surmounted by a sharp conical +dome, having large mouldings running round its base, and on the summit +something like an imitation of flame. There is here again so strange a +mixture of style and ornament, that one knows not to what age to attribute +the monument as a whole. The square mass below is solid, and the Ionic +columns which are seen on each of its faces are half-indented in the rock +itself. The dome is of masonry, and on the eastern side there is a square +aperture in it. Generally speaking, the sight of this monument rather +confirms the idea suggested by the tomb of Zachariah, that the hewn mass +of solid rock, the surmounting pyramid and dome of masonry, and the +sculptured frieze and Ionic columns wrought on the faces of the square +below were works of different periods; being probably ancient sepulchres, +the primitive character of which had been changed by the subsequent +addition of foreign ornaments. There is, besides, every reason to believe +that this monument, represented below, really occupies the site of the one +which was set up by him whose name it bears. "Now Absalom in his lifetime +had reared up for himself a pillar, which is in the King's Dale: for he +said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance; and he called the +pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day Absalom's +Place."[97] + +Chateaubriand is of opinion, that except the Pool of Bethesda at +Jerusalem, we have no remains of the primitive architecture of its +inhabitants. This reservoir, a hundred and fifty feet long and forty +broad, is still to be seen near St. Stephen's Gate, where it bounded the +Temple on the north. The sides are walled by means of large stones joined +together by iron cramps, and covered with flints imbedded in a substance +resembling plaster. Here the lambs destined for sacrifice were washed; and +it was on the brink of this pool that Christ said to the paralytic man, +"Arise, take up thy bed and walk." It receives a melancholy interest from +the fact that it is probably the last remnant of Jerusalem as it appeared +in the days of Solomon and of his immediate successors. + +It cannot be denied that the tombs in the Valley of Jehoshaphat display an +alliance of Egyptian and Grecian taste; and, in naturalizing in their +capital the architecture of Memphis and of Athens, it is equally certain +that the Jews mixed with it the forms of their own peculiar style. From +this combination resulted a heterogeneous kind of structure, forming, as +it were, the link between the Pyramids and the Parthenon,--monuments in +which you discover a sombre, yet bold and elevated genius, associated with +a pleasing and cultivated imagination. + +Our limits forbid us to follow the footsteps of the pilgrim in his minute +survey of the "Sepulchres of the Kings," which, it is acknowledged, cannot +be traced back to a remoter era than that of the Grecian dynasty at +Antioch and Damascus. There are several other tombs and grottoes, to which +tradition has attached venerable names, and even consecrated them as the +scene of important events; but as they are not remarkable on any other +account, we shall not extend to an undue length our description of the +holy places under the walls of Jerusalem. + +We shall simply remark, that a difference of opinion exists among modern +travellers in regard to the extent of the ancient city, the ground which +it actually covered, the changes that it has since undergone in point of +locality, and hence, in respect to the position of some of the more +prominent objects which attract the attention of the inquisitive tourist +in our own days. Dr. Clarke has distinguished himself by some bold +speculations on this head, the effect of which is to derange all the +received notions relative to the scene of the crucifixion and the place of +the Holy Sepulchre. It will indeed be readily granted, that it is a matter +of very small importance to the faith of a Christian to determine whether +the decease which was accomplished at Jerusalem took place on the +north-western or the south-eastern extremity of that metropolis. But as +the history and tradition of many ages have fixed the spot where the cross +was erected and where the new tomb in the rock had its situation, it is +requisite that the arguments of a writer who himself pays so little +respect to authority should be examined with attention. In this case, it +is obvious, an inspection of the ground candidly and distinctly reported +is of much more weight than the most ingenious reasoning if destitute of +facts; on which account, we are happy to have it in our power to refer to +the journal of a learned gentleman hitherto unpublished, who about three +years ago travelled in Syria and Palestine. + +"We passed by the place of St. Stephen's martyrdom down into the Valley of +Jehoshaphat. This valley, independently of associations, is highly +picturesque. It is deep and narrow; the lower part is green with scattered +olives. The slope up towards the city is also smooth and green, and +crowned by the towers and battlements. On ascending the Mount of Olives, +which we did towards the south, we had a splendid view of Jerusalem. The +chief ornaments are the two domes of the Holy Sepulchre, the mosque of +Omar, and another large mosque with a smaller dome; but the white houses +make a good show, and the walls are picturesque. On looking at Jerusalem +from this place, the great features seemed to me to agree entirely with +the established maps, and Dr. Clarke's theory appeared quite untenable. +The only difficulty is, that there is no valley which _runs up all the +way_ so as to divide entirely Mount Zion from Mount Moriah. A ravine does +run far enough to cut off the Temple, but no more. The extent of this +difficulty must depend on the description left us of the Tyropaeum and +Millo. Was there a deep valley such as time and change might not have +obliterated? The people of the convent gave the name of the Mount of +Offence to a low hill on the south of the Mount of Olives; but Clarke +seems to think that the real Mount of Offence is that divided by Jehinnom +from Zion, and called by our guide Monte de Mal Consiglio. We visited the +Mohammedan chapel over the place of the Ascension, and saw the alleged +print of Christ's foot. We next went to the place called Viri Galilaei (ye +men of Galilee), and, after looking in vain for Dr. Clarke's pagan +remains, descended towards the Cave of the Prophets. We saw the well where +Nehemiah found the fire of the altar, and then went up the Valley of +Hinnom; first to the tomb called the Crypt of the Apostles, close to the +Aceldama, or Field of Blood. We saw many other grottoes; one had [Greek: +taes hagias Sion] inscribed upon it, as had another much farther up. Near +this last was that which Clarke maintained to be the Holy Sepulchre. We +saw one which would do very well for it; but so would many others. This +one was a cave, with a place for a body cut out in the back part of it, +but raised like a stone trough, not sunk in the floor. There is, of +course, not a shadow of reason for thinking Clarke's cave to be the real +one, and very little that I can see for doubting that the nominal Holy +Sepulchre is so in fact, or, rather, that it is _on the site_ of the real +one, which must have been destroyed when Adrian erected his temple to +Venus on the spot. From these caves we went by the Pool of Bathsheba to +the Bethlehem Gate, and so along the west side of the town to the Tombs of +the Judges and Kings, which lie north or north-west of the city. I +observed large foundations of ancient walls and heaps of rubbish west of +the modern town, where Clarke seems to assume that there was anciently no +part of the city. There and on the north I also observed wells opening +into large covered reservoirs for water. We entered only one of the Tombs +of the Judges, the rest being insignificant. That one was large, with a +pediment which had dentiles and other Greek ornaments. Inside there were +at least three chambers, surrounded by receptacles for bodies. In +returning we went to the Tombs of the Kings, which, like the others, are +cut out of the rock, and, like them too, have Grecian ornaments. There is +one large cave; the front has a handsome entablature, the upper part +ornamented with alternate circular garlands, bunches of grapes, and an +ornament of acanthus leaves; the lower with a rich band of foliage +disposed with much elegance."[98] + +Hence, it appears that the weight of evidence preponderates decidedly in +favour of the common opinions in regard to the form of the ancient city +and the places which are usually denominated holy. Why, then, should any +one attempt to disturb the belief or acquiescence of the Christian world +on a subject concerning which all nations have hitherto found reason to +agree? The members of the primitive church had better means than we have +of being fully informed respecting the scenes of the evangelical history; +and it is manifest that amid all the changes which ensued in Jerusalem, +either from conquest or superstition, nothing was more unlikely than that +the faithful should forget the sacred spot where their redemption was +completed, or that they should consent to transfer their veneration to any +other.[99] + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +_Description of the Country South and East of Jerusalem_. + +Garden of Gethsemane; Tomb of Virgin Mary; Grottoes on Mount of Olives; +View of the City; Extent and Boundaries; View of Bethany and Dead Sea; +Bethlehem; Convent; Church of the Nativity described; Paintings; Music; +Population of Bethlehem; Pools of Solomon; Dwelling of Simon the Leper; Of +Mary Magdalene; Tower of Simeon; Tomb of Rachel; Convent of John; Fine +Church; Tekoa; Bethulia; Hebron; Sepulchre of Patriarchs; Albaid; Kerek; +Extremity of Dead Sea; Discoveries of Bankes, Legh, and Irby and Mangles; +Convent of St. Saba; Valley of Jordan; Mountains; Description of Lake +Asphaltites; Remains of Ancient Cities in its Basin; Quality of its +Waters; Apples of Sodom; Tacitus, Seetzen, Hasselquist, Chateaubriand; +Width of River Jordan; Jericho-Village of Rihhah; Balsam; Fountain of +Elisha; Mount of Temptation; Place of Blood; Anecdote of Sir F. Henniker; +Fountain of the Apostles; Return to Jerusalem; Markets; Costume; Science; +Arts; Language; Jews; Present Condition of that People. + +In proceeding from Jerusalem towards Bethany, the traveller skirts the +Mount of Olives; or, if he wishes to enjoy the magnificent view which it +presents, both of the city and of the extensive tract watered by the +Jordan, he ascends its heights, and at the same time inspects the remains +of sacred architecture still to be seen on its summit. As he passes from +the eastern gate, the Garden of Gethsemane meets his eyes, as well as the +tomb which bears the name of the Blessed Virgin. This has a building over +it with a pretty front, although the Grecian ornaments sculptured in +marble are not in harmony with the pointed arch at the entrance. It is +approached by a paved court, now a raised way, leading from the Mount of +Olives over the Brook Kedron. The descent into it is formed by a handsome +flight of steps composed of marble, being about fifty in number and of a +noble breadth. About midway down are two arched recesses in the sides, +said to contain the ashes of St. Anne, the mother of Mary, and of Joseph +her husband. Reaching the bottom of the stairs, the visiter is shown the +tomb of the holy Virgin herself, which is in the form of a simple bench +coated with marble. Here the Greeks and Armenians say mass by turns, and +near it there is an humble altar for the Syrian Christians; while opposite +to it is one for the Copts, consisting of earth, and entirely destitute of +lamps, pictures, covering, and every other species of ornament. +Chateaubriand tells us that the Turks had a portion of this grotto: +Buckingham asserts that they have no right to enter it, nor could he +"learn from the keepers of the place that they ever had!" whereas the +author of the Anonymous Journal, from which we have already quoted, states +distinctly that "there is a place reserved for the Mussulmans to pray, +which at the Virgin's Tomb one would not expect to be much in request." So +much for the clashing of authorities on the part of writers who could have +no wish to deceive! + +There are various other grottoes on the acclivity of the hill, meant to +keep alive the remembrance of certain occurrences which are either +mentioned in the gospel, or have been transmitted to the present age by +oral tradition. Among these is one which is supposed to be the scene of +the agony and the bloody sweat; a second, that marks the place where St. +Peter and the two sons of Zebedee fell asleep when their Master retired to +pray; and a third, indicating the spot whereon Judas betrayed the Son of +Man with a kiss. Here also is pointed out the rock from which our Saviour +predicted the sack of Jerusalem and the destruction of the Temple,--that +dreadful visitation, of which the traces are still most visible both +within and around the walls. The curious pilgrim is further edified by the +sight of a cavern where the apostles were taught the Lord's Prayer; and of +another where the same individuals at a later period met together to +compose their Creed. On the principal top of the Mount of Olives,--for the +elevated ground presents three separate summits,--are a mosque and the +remains of a church. The former is distinguished by a lofty minaret which +commands an extensive prospect; but the latter is esteemed more +remarkable, as containing the piece of rock imprinted with the mark of our +Saviour's foot while in the act of ascension. + +But the view of the venerable metropolis itself, which stretches out its +lance and sacred enclosures under the eye of the traveller, is still more +interesting than the recapitulation of ambiguous relics. It occupies an +irregular square of about two miles and a half in circumference. Eusebius +gave a measurement of twenty-seven stadia, amounting to nearly a mile more +than its present dimensions; a difference which can easily be explained, +by adverting to the alterations made on the line of fortifications by the +Saracens and Turks, especially on the north-west and western extremities +of the town. Its shortest apparent side is that which faces the east, and +in this is the supposed gate of the ancient Temple, shut up by the +Mussulmans from a superstitious motive, and the small projecting stone on +which their prophet is to sit when he shall judge the world assembled in +the vale below. The southern side is exceedingly irregular, taking quite a +zigzag direction; the south-western entrance being terminated by a mosque +built over the supposed sepulchre of David, on the elevation of Mount +Zion. The form and exact direction of the western and northern walls are +not distinctly seen from the position now assumed; but every part of them +appears to be a modern work, and executed at the same time. They are +flanked at certain distances by square towers, and have battlements all +along their summits, with loopholes for arrows or musketry close to the +top. Their height is about fifty feet, but they are not surrounded by a +ditch. The northern wall runs over ground which declines slightly outward; +the eastern wall passes straight along the brow of Mount Moriah, with the +deep valley of Jehoshaphat below; the southern wall crosses Mount Zion, +with the vale of Hinnom at its feet; and the western wall is carried over +a more uniform level, near the summit of the bare hills which terminate at +the Jaffa gate.[100] + +Turning towards the east, the traveller sees at the foot of the hill the +little village of Bethany, so often mentioned in the history of our Lord +and of his personal followers; and at a greater distance, a little more on +the left, he beholds the magnificent scenery of the Jordan and the Dead +Sea. + +There are two roads from Jerusalem to Bethany; the one passing over the +Mount of Olives; the other, the shorter and easier, winding round the +eastern side of it. This village is now both small and poor, the +cultivation of the soil around it being very much neglected by the +indolent Arabs into whose hands it has fallen. Here are shown the ruins of +a house, said to have belonged to Lazarus whom our Saviour raised from the +dead; and, in the immediate neighbourhood, the faithful pilgrim is invited +to devotion in a grotto, which is represented as the actual tomb wherein +the miracle was performed. The dwellings of Simon the Leper, of Mary +Magdalene, and of Martha are pointed out by the Mussulmans, who traffic on +the credulity of ignorant Christians. Nay, they undertake to identify the +spot where the barren fig tree withered under the curse, and the place +where Judas put an end to his life, oppressed by a more dreadful +malediction. + +There is no traveller of any nation, whatever may be his creed or his +impressions in regard to the gospel, who does not make the usual journey +from the Jewish capital to Bethlehem the place of our Lord's nativity. The +road, as we find related, passes over ground extremely rocky and barren, +diversified only by some cultivated patches bearing a scanty crop of +grain, and by banks of wild-flowers which grow in great profusion. On the +way the practised guide points out the ruined tower of Simeon, who upon +beholding the infant Messiah expressed his readiness to leave this world; +the Monastery of Elias, now in possession of the Greeks; and the tomb of +Rachel, rising in a rounded top like the whitened sepulchre of an Arab +sheik. "This," says the honest Maundrell, "may probably be the true place +of her interment; but the present sepulchral monument can be none of that +which Jacob erected, for it appears plainly to be a modern and Turkish +structure." Farther on is the well of which David longed to drink, and of +which his mighty men, at the risk of their lives, procured him a supply; +and here opens to view, in a great valley, that most interesting of all +pastoral scenes, where the angel of the Omnipotent appeared by night to +the shepherds, to announce the glad tidings that Christ was born in +Bethlehem.[101] + +As there was another town of the same name in the tribe of Zebulon, the +Bethlehem that we now approach was usually distinguished by the addition +of Ephrata, or by a reference to the district in which it was situated. +The convent which marks the place of the Redeemer's birth was built by +Helena, after removing the idolatrous structure said to have been erected +by Adrian from a feeling of contempt or jealousy towards the Christians. +At present it is divided among the monks of the Greek, Roman, and Armenian +sects, who have assigned to them separate portions, as well for lodging as +for places of worship; though, on certain days, they may all celebrate the +rites of their common faith on altars which none of them have been +hitherto allowed to appropriate. There are two churches, an upper and a +lower, under the same roof. The former contains nothing remarkable, if we +except a star inlaid in the floor, immediately under the spot in the +heavens where the supernatural sign became visible to the wise men, and, +like it, directly above the place of the Nativity in the church below. + +This last is an excavation in the rock, elegantly fitted up and floored +with marble, and to which there is a descent by a flight of steps through +a long narrow passage. Here are shown a great number of tombs, and among +them one in which were said to be buried all the babes of Bethlehem +murdered by the barbarous Herod. From hence the pilgrim is conducted into +a handsome chapel, of which the floors and walls are composed of beautiful +marble, having on each side five oratories, or recesses for prayer, +corresponding to the ten stalls supposed to have been in the stable +wherein our blessed Saviour was born. This sacred crypt is irregular in +shape, because it occupies the site of the stable and the manger. It is +thirty-seven feet six inches long, eleven feet three inches broad, and +nine feet in height. As it receives no light from without, it is illumined +by thirty-two lamps, sent by different princes of Christendom; the other +embellishments are ascribed to the munificent Helena. At the farther +extremity of this small church there is an altar placed in an arcade, and +hollowed out below in the form of an arch, to embrace the sacred spot +where Emmanuel, having laid aside his glory, first appeared in the garb of +human nature. A circle in the floor composed of marble and jasper, +surrounded with silver, and having rays like those with which the sun is +represented, marks the precise situation wherein that stupendous event was +realized. An inscription, denoting that "here Jesus Christ was born of the +Virgin Mary," meets the eye of the faithful worshipper. + + Hic de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est. + +Adjoining the Altar of the Nativity is the Manger in which the Infant +Messiah was laid. It is also formed of marble, and is raised about +eighteen inches above the floor, bearing a resemblance to the humble bed +which alone the furniture of a stable could supply. Before it is the Altar +of the Wise Men,--a memorial of their adoration and praise at the moment +when they saw the young child and Mary his mother. + +This edifice, says the Vicomte de Chateaubriand, is certainly of high +antiquity, and, often destroyed and as often repaired, it still retains +marks of its Grecian origin. It is built in the form of a cross, the nave +being adorned with forty-eight columns of the Corinthian order in four +rows, which are at least two feet six inches in diameter at the base, and +eighteen feet high, including the base and capital. As the roof of the +nave is wanting, these pillars support nothing but a frieze of wood, which +occupies the place of the architrave and of the whole entablature. The +windows are large, and were formerly adorned with Mosaic paintings and +passages from the Bible in Greek and Latin characters, the traces of which +are still visible. + +The top of the church affords a fine prospect into the surrounding +country, extending to Tekoa on the south and Engedi on the east. In the +latter place is the grotto where David, a native of Bethlehem, cut off the +skirt of Saul's garment. There is also the convent of Elias, in which is +said to-be a large stone still retaining an impression of his body. +Between this point and Jerusalem Mr. Buckingham was struck with the +appearance of several small detached towers of a square form built in the +midst of vine-lands. These, he learned, were for the accommodation of +watchmen appointed to guard the produce from thieves and wild beasts; +hence explaining a passage which occurs in the Gospel according to St. +Mark:--"A certain man planted a vineyard, and set an hedge about it, and +digged a place for the wine-fat, and built a _tower_, and let it out to +husbandmen."[102] + +It is painful to find that the same animosity which attends the claims of +the several sects of Christians at Jerusalem for the possession of the +Holy Sepulchre disgraces their contentions at Bethlehem for the Grotto of +the Nativity. A few years ago, during the celebration of the Christmas +festival, at which Mr. Bankes was present, a battle took place, in which +some of the combatants were wounded, and others severely beaten; and in +the preceding season the privilege of saying mass at the altar on that +particular day had been fought for at the door of the sanctuary itself +with drawn swords. + +Dr. Clarke, whose skepticism in regard to the holy places in the capital +has been already mentioned, grants that the tradition respecting the Cave +of the Nativity is so well authenticated as hardly to admit of dispute. +Having been always held in veneration, the oratory established there by +the first Christians attracted the notice and indignation of the heathens +so early as the time of Adrian, who, as is elsewhere stated, ordered it to +be demolished, and the place to be set apart for the rites of Adonis. This +happened in the second century, and at a period in the emperor's life when +the Grotto of the Nativity was as well known in Bethlehem as the +circumstance to which it owed its celebrity. In the fourth age, +accordingly, we find this fact appealed to by St. Jerome as an +indisputable testimony by which the cave itself had been identified. Upon +this subject there does not seem to be the slightest ground for +skepticism; and the evidence afforded by such a writer will be deemed +sufficient for believing that the monastery erected over the spot, and +where he himself resided, does at this day point out the place of our +Saviour's birth.[103] + +Nothing, observes a late traveller, can be more pleasing, or better +calculated to excite sentiments of devotion, than this subterranean +church. It is adorned with pictures of the Italian and Spanish schools, +representing the mysteries peculiar to the place,--the Virgin and Child, +after Raphael; the Annunciation; the Adoration of the Wise Men; the Coming +of the Shepherds; and all those miracles of mingled grandeur and +innocence. The usual ornaments of the manger are of blue satin, +embroidered with silver. Incense is continually smoking before the cradle +of the Saviour. "I have heard an organ, touched by no ordinary hand, +playing during mass the sweetest and most tender tunes of the best Italian +composers. These concerts charm the Christian Arab, who, leaving his +camels to feed, repairs, like the shepherds of old, to Bethlehem, to adore +the King of Kings in his manger. I have seen this inhabitant of the desert +communicate at the altar of the Magi with a fervour, a piety, a devotion +unknown among the Christians of the West." No place in the world, says +Father Neret, excites more profound devotion. The continual arrival of +caravans from all the Nations of Christendom--the public prayers--the +prostrations--nay, even the richness of the presents sent thither by the +Christian princes--altogether produce feelings in the soul which it is +much easier to conceive than to describe.[104] + +It may be added, that the effect of all this is heightened by an +extraordinary contrast; for, on quitting the grotto where you have met +with the riches, the arts, the religion of civilized nations, you find +yourself in a profound solitude, amid wretched Arab huts, among half-naked +savages and faithless Mussulmans. This place is nevertheless the same +where so many miracles were displayed; but this sacred land dares no more +express its joy, and locks within its bosom the recollections of its +glory. + +Bethlehem has usually shared the vicissitudes of Jerusalem, being, both +from its situation and the nature of the relics which it contains, exposed +to the rage or cupidity of barbarian conquerors. It fell under the power +of the Saracens when led by their victorious calif; but for seven +centuries it has been guarded by a succession of religious persons who, it +has been said, suffer a perpetual martyrdom. In the time of Volney, they +reckoned about six hundred men in this village capable of bearing arms, of +whom about one hundred were Latin Christians. The necessity of uniting for +their common defence against the Bedouins, and the still morn relentless +agents of despotism, has in many instances prevailed over points of faith, +and induced the monks to live on good terms with the Mohammedans. Mr. +Buckingham assures us, that at present the town is equal to Nazareth in +extent, and contains from 1000 to 1500 inhabitants, who are almost wholly +Christians. Dr. Richardson gives the number at 300, an estimate, we should +imagine, considerably below the actual population. The men are robust and +well made, and the women are among the fairest and most handsome, that are +to be seen in Palestine. + +The neighbourhood of Bethlehem presents a variety of objects too important +to be passed without a slight notice. The Pools of Solomon, connected, it +is probable, with a scheme for supplying Jerusalem with water; are usually +visited by the more enlightened class of travellers, who combine in their +researches a regard to the arts as well as to the religion of Judea. These +reservoirs are four, in number, being so disposed, says Maundrell, that +the water of the uppermost may descend into the second, and that of the +second into the third. Their figure is quadrangular; the breadth is the +same in all, amounting to about ninety paces. In their length there is +some difference; the first being one hundred and sixty paces long, the +second two hundred and the third two hundred and twenty. They are all +lined with masonry and plastered. The springs whence the pools are +supplied seem to have been secured with great care, having, says the +author of the Journey from Aleppo, "no avenue to them but by a little +hole like to the mouth of a narrow well." Through this hole you descend +directly about four yards, when you come to a chamber forty-five feet long +and twenty-four broad, adjoining to which there is another apartment of +the same kind, but not quite so large. Both these rooms are neatly arched, +and have an air of great antiquity. The water, which rises from four +separate sources, is partly conveyed by a subterranean passage into the +ponds; the remainder being received into an aqueduct of brick pipes, and +carried by many turnings and windings among the mountains to the walls of +Jerusalem. The monks of Bethlehem are perfectly convinced that it was in +allusion to this guarded treasure, so valuable in Palestine, that Solomon +called his beloved spouse a "sealed fountain." + +Of the aqueduct here mentioned some traces are still to be detected in the +intermediate space, and denote an acquaintance with the principles of +hydraulics which we could not have expected among Hebrew architects. It +was constructed all along upon the surface of the ground, and framed of +perforated stones let into one another, with a fillet round the cavity, so +contrived as to prevent leakage, and united together with so firm a cement +that they will sometimes sooner break than endure a separation. These +pipes were covered with an arch, or layer of flags, strengthened by the +application of a peculiarly strong mortar; the whole "being endued with +such absolute firmness as if it had been designed for eternity. But the +Turks have demonstrated in this instance, that nothing can be so well +wrought but they are able to destroy it; fur of this strong aqueduct, +which was carried formerly five or six leagues with so vast expense and +labour, you see now only here and there a fragment remaining."[105] + +In a valley contiguous to Bethlehem are the remains of a church and +convent which were erected by the pious empress over the place where the +angels appeared to the shepherds. Nothing has survived the desolation to +which every edifice in Palestine has been repeatedly subjected but a small +grotto wherein the heavenly communication was vouchsafed to the simple +keepers of the flock. + +On the way back to Jerusalem the traveller is induced to leave the more +direct route, that he may visit the Convent of St. John in the Desert. +This monastery is built over the dwelling where the Baptist is supposed to +have first seen the light; and accordingly, under the altar, the spot on +which he was brought forth is marked by a star of marble bearing this +inscription:-- + + "Hic precursor Domini Christi natus est." + Here the forerunner of the Lord Christ was born. + +The church belonging to this establishment has been described as one of +the best in the Holy Land, having an elegant cupola and a pavement of +Mosaic, with some paintings. But the appearance, nevertheless, is poor and +deserted, as if its votaries were few, and but little concerned in +preserving its ancient grandeur. The account given of it by Sandys will +amuse the reader by the simplicity of the narrative as well as by the deep +interest the good man felt in the various scenes which passed before +him:--"Having travelled about a mile and a halfe farther, we came to the +cave where the baptist is said to have lived from the age of seven until +such time as he went into the wilderness by Jordan, sequestered from the +abode of man, and feeding on such wilde nourishment as these uninhabited +places afforded. This cave is seated on the northern side of a desert +mountaine,--only beholden to the locust-tree,--hewne out of the +precipitating rock, so as difficultly to be ascended or descended to, +entered at the east corner, and receiving light from a window in the side. +At the upper end there is a bench of the selfesame, whereon, they say, he +accustomed to sleeps; of which whoso breaks a piece off stands forthwith +excommunicate. Over this, on a little flat stand the ruins of a monastery, +on the south aide, naturally walled with the steepe of a mountain; from +whence there gusheth a living spring which entereth the rock, and again +bursteth forth beneathe the mouth of the cave,--a place that would make +solitarinesse delightful, and stand in comparison with the turbulent pompe +of cities. This overlooketh a profound valley, on the far side hemmed with +aspiring mountains, whereof some are cut (or naturally so) in degrees like +allies, which would be else unaccessibly fruitlesse; whose levels yet bear +the stumps of decayed vines, shadowed not rarely with olives and locusts. +And surely I think that all or most of those mountains have bin so +husbanded, else could this little country have never sustained such a +multitude of people. After we had fed of such provision as was brought us +from the city by other of the fraternitie that there met us, we turned +towards Jerusalem, leaving the way of Bethlehem on the right-hand, and +that of Emmaus on the left. The first place of note that we met with was +there where once stood the dwelling of Zachary, seated on the side of a +fruitful hill, well stored with olives and vineyards. Hither came the +blessed Virgin to visit her cousin Elisabeth. Here died Elisabeth, and +here, in a grot, on the aide of a vault or chapell, lies buried; over +which a goodly church war erected, together with a monastery, whereof now +little standeth but a part of the walls, which offer to the view some +fragments of painting, which show that the rest have been exquisit. Beyond +and lower is Our Lady's Fountaine (so called of the inhabitants), which +maintaineth a little current thorow the neighbouring valley. Near this, in +the bottome and uttermost extent thereof, there standeth a temple, once +sumptuous, now desolate, built by Helena, and dedicated to St. John +Baptist, in the place where Zachary had another house, possest, as the +rest, by the beastly Arabians, who defile it with their cattell, and +employ to the basest of uses."[106] + +It is a point still unsettled, whether the food of him who was sent to +prepare the way consisted of fruit or of insects; the name locust being +indiscriminately applied to either, and both being used by the inhabitants +of Palestine. There is less doubt in regard to the opinions of the early +Christians, who were unanimous in the belief that the Baptist lived on the +produce of a particular tree which still abounds in the desert. Nay, the +friars at the present day assert, that the very plants which yielded +sustenance to the holy recluse continue to flourish in their ancient +vigour; and the popish pilgrims, says Mr. Maundrell, who dare not be wiser +than such blind guides, gather the fruit of them, and carry it away with +much devotion. + +But we must not permit the interesting associations of Bethlehem to detain +us any longer in its vicinity. We proceed now towards the extremity of the +Dead Sea; whence, after having visited the most remarkable scenes on its +western shore,--the mouth of the Jordan and the position of Jericho,--we +shall return to the capital by a different route. + +After having satisfied his curiosity in church and convent, the traveller +turns his face southward to Tekoa and Hebron, those remoter villages of +the Holy Land. The former, which was built by Rehoboam, and is +distinguished as the birthplace of Amos the prophet, presents considerable +ruins, and even some remains of architecture. It appears to have stood +upon a hill, which Pococke describes as being about half a mile in length +and a furlong broad. On the north-eastern corner there are fragments of an +old building, supposed to have been a fortress, while about half-way up +the accent there are similar indications of a church now in a state of +complete dilapidation. There is preserved, however, a large font of an +octagon form, composed of red and white marble; as also pieces of broken +pillars consisting of the same material. + +Farther towards the south, various manifestations present themselves of +ancient civilization, the traces of which are most distinctly marked by +places of worship and numerous strongholds. The traveler just named +mentions a ruined castle called Creightoun, situated on the side of a +steep hill, and a church dedicated to St. Pantaleone. At a little distance +there is an immense grotto, which is said on one occasion to have +contained 30,000 men; and hence it is conjectured to be one of those +retreats in the fastnesses of Engedi to which David fled from the pursuit +of Saul. About two miles farther, in a south-eastern direction, is the +Mount of Bethulia, near a village of the same name; a position which is +thought to agree with that of Beth-haccerem, specified by Jeremiah as a +proper place for a beacon, where the children of Benjamin were to sound +the trumpet in Tekoa.[107] + +There is a tradition that the knights of Jerusalem, during the Holy War, +held this strong post forty years after the capital had fallen. It is a +single hill, and very high; and the top of it appears like a large mount +formed by art, being defended by a double line of fortifications and +several towers, which in a rude state of warfare might be pronounced +almost impregnable. At the foot of an eminence towards the north there are +the remains of a magnificent church as well as of other buildings. On a +slope a little farther west there is a cistern connected with a pond, +which appears to have had an island in it, and probably some structure +suited to the supply of water. These works were also encompassed with a +double wall; and it is said that two aqueducts may still be perceived +terminating in the basin, one from the Sealed Fountain of Solomon, and +another from the hilly district which stretches between Bethlehem and +Tekoa. + +In reference to the tradition that the knights of Jerusalem held the +garrison of Bethulia forty years, Captain Mangles remarks, that the place +is too small to have contained even half the number of men which would +have been requisite to make any stand in such a country; and the ruins, +though they may be those of a place once defended by Franks, appear to +have had an earlier origin, as the architecture seems to be decidedly +Roman. There can be little doubt, indeed, that it is one of the works of +Herod the Great; and its distance does not differ much from that of +Herodium, which is described by Josephus as being about sixty furlongs +from the metropolis. The delineation of the hill, too, by the same +historian, corresponds with the Mount of the Franks; and when he adds that +water was conveyed to it at a great expense, we cannot permit ourselves to +question the identity of Herodium and the fortress of Bethulia.[108] + +Hebron, Habroun, or, according to the Arabic orthography followed by the +moderns, El Hhalil, is considerably removed from the usual track of +pilgrims and tourists. An accident or quarrel once excited the indignation +of the inhabitants against the Franks, who during a long course of time +were dissuaded by the Monks at Jerusalem from extending their researches +beyond Bethlehem. Sandys could only report, apparently on the information +of others, that Hebron was reduced to ruins; but he adds, there is a +little village seated in the field of Machpelah, "where standeth a goodly +temple, erected over the burying-cave of the patriarchs by Helena, the +mother of Constantine, converted now into a mosque." Without minutely +analyzing the topography of this rather credulous author, we may repeat +the assurance which he gives relative to the existence of the imperial +monument dedicated to the memory of Abraham and his immediate descendants. +M. Burckhardt, who saw it in 1807, bears testimony to the fact that the +sepulchre, once a Greek church, is now appropriated to the worship of +Mohammed. The ascent to it is by a large and fine staircase that leads to +a long gallery, the entrance to which is by a small court. Towards the +left is a portico resting upon square pillars The vestibule of the temple +contains two rooms; the one being the tomb of Abraham, the other that of +Sarah. In the body of the church, between two large pillars on the right, +is seen a small recess, in which is the sepulchre of Isaac, and in a +similar one upon the left is that of his wife. On the opposite side of the +court is another vestibule, which has also two rooms, being respectively +the tomb of Jacob and of his spouse. At the extremity of the portico, upon +the right-hand, is a door which leads to a sort of long gallery that still +serves for a mosque; and passing from thence is observed another room +containing the ashes of Joseph, which are said to have been carried +thither by the people of Israel. All the sepulchres of the patriarchs are +covered with rich carpets of green silk, magnificently embroidered with +gold; those of their wives are red, embroidered in like manner. The +sultans of Constantinople furnish these carpets, which are renewed from +time to time. M. Burckhardt counted nine, one over another, upon the +sepulchre of Abraham. The rooms also which contain the tombs are covered +with rich carpets; the entrance to them is guarded by iron gates, and +wooden doors plated with silver, having halts and padlocks of the same +metal. More than a hundred persons are employed in the service of this +temple; affording, with the decorations and wealth lavished upon the +structure, a remarkable contrast to the simple life of the venerable man +to whose memory it is meant to do honour. + +If the description given by Sandys in the seventeenth century was correct, +we must conclude that Hebron has subsequently enjoyed a period of +improvement. According to the traveller whom we have just quoted, it +contains about four hundred families, of which about a fourth part are +Jews. It is situated on the slope of a mountain; has a strong castle; can +boast abundance of provisions, a considerable number of shops, and some +neat houses. The whole of the country between Tekoa and Hebron is finer +and better cultivated than in the neighbourhood of Jerusalem; while the +sides of the hills, instead of being naked and dreary, are richly studded +with the oak, the arbutus, the Scottish fir, and a variety of +flowering-shrubs. + +Beyond this point the information of Europeans ceased until about twelve +years ago, when the desert which stretches between the Sepulchre of +Abraham and the Dead Sea was entered by Mr. Bankes, Mr. Legh, and Captains +Irby and Mangles. After a journey of three days from Hebron towards the +south, the travellers were informed of extensive ruins at Abdi in the +Wilderness. On turning their faces to Kerek, the object of their search, +the road led in the direction of the Lake Asphaltites, through a country +which, although well cultivated, was extremely uninteresting. They +observed a variety of ruins, with some subterranean tombs in the +neighbourhood, denoting the existence of an ancient town; when, after +having advanced eight or nine miles farther, they found themselves on the +borders of an extensive desert, entirely abandoned to the wandering +Bedouins. Near the point at which this change of aspect begins is a place +called by the natives Al-baid, where there is a fountain in the rock and a +pool of greenish water. + +The travellers, at some distance from this halting-place, arrived at a +camp of Jellaheen Arabs, who told them that in years of scarcity they were +accustomed to retire into Egypt,--a practice which seems to have been +handed down from the days of the patriarchs, or dictated by the same +necessity that compelled the family of Jacob to adopt a similar expedient. +At the distance of eight hours from Al-baid, in a deep barren valley, are +the ruins of an old Turkish fort, standing on a solitary rock to the left +of the track. Farther on the cliff is excavated, at a considerable height, +into loopholes; where it is probable a barrier was formerly established +for levying a certain duty on goods and travellers. The place is called El +Zowar, or El Ghor. From hence a gravelly ravine, studded with bushes of +acacia and other shrubs, conducts to the great plain at the southern +extremity of the Dead Sea; bounded at the distance of eight or nine miles +by a sandy cliff at least seventy feet high, which forms a barrier to the +lake when at its greatest elevation. The existence of that long valley +which extends from Asphaltites to the AElanitic Gulf was first ascertained +by Burckhardt; and the prolongation of it, as connected with the hollow of +the Jordan, has been considered as a proof that the river at one time +discharged its waters into the eastern branch of the Red Sea. The change +is attributed to that great volcanic convulsion mentioned in the +nineteenth chapter of Genesis, which, interrupting the course of the +river, converted into a lake the fertile plain occupied by the cities of +Adma, Zeboim, Sodom, and Gomorrah, and reduced all the valley southward to +the condition of a sandy waste.[109] + +But, having reached the shores of the Dead Sea by an unfrequented path, we +have no guide to the examination of the wild country which rises on either +side of it; we therefore prefer the more wonted route which leads to its +northern border, near the mouth of the Jordan and the site of the ancient +Jericho. Avoiding, at the same time, the track of the caravan from +Jerusalem through the hilly desert which intervenes, we shall accompany +the Vicomte de Chateaubriand from Bethlehem through the interesting Valley +of Santa Saba. + +On leaving the Church of the Nativity the traveller pursues his course +eastward, through a vale where Abraham is said to have fed his flocks. +This pastoral tract, however, is soon succeeded by a range of hilly +ground, so extremely barren that not even a root of moss is to be seen +upon it. Descending the farther side of this meager platform two lofty +towers are perceived, rising from a deep valley, marking the site of the +Convent of Santa Saba. Nothing can be more dreary than the situation of +this religious house. It is erected in a ravine, sunk to the depth of +several hundred feet, where the brook Kedron has formed a channel, which +is dry the greater part of the year. The church is on a little eminence at +the bottom of the dell; Whence the buildings of the monastery rise by +perpendicular flights of steps and passages hewn out of the rock, and thus +ascend to the ridge of the hill, where they terminate is the two square +towers already mentioned. From hence you descry the sterile summits of the +mountains both towards the east and west; the course of the stream from +Jerusalem; and the numerous grottoes formerly occupied by Christian +anchorites. + +In advancing, the aspect of the country still continues the same, white +and dusty, without tree, herbage, or even moss. At length the road seeks a +lower level, and approaches the rocky border which bounds the Valley of +the Jordan; when, after a toilsome journey of ten or twelve hours, the +traveller sees stretching out before his eyes the Dead Sea and the line of +the river. But the landscape, however grand, admits of no comparison to +the scenery of Europe. No fields waving with corn,--no plains covered with +rich pasture present themselves from the mountains of Lower Palestine. +Figure to yourself two long chains of mountains, running in a parallel +direction from north to south, without breaks and without undulations. The +eastern or Arabian chain is the highest; and, when seen at the distance of +eight or ten leagues, you would take it to be a prodigious perpendicular +wall, resembling Mount Jura in its form and azure colour. Not one summit, +not the smallest peak can be distinguished; you merely perceive slight +inflections here and there, "as if the hand of the painter who drew this +horizontal line along the sky had trembled in some places." + +The mountains of Judea form the range on which the observer stands as he +looks down on the Lake Asphaltites. Less lofty and more unequal than the +eastern chain, it differs from the other in its nature also; exhibiting +heaps of chalk and sand, whose form, it is said, bears some resemblance to +piles of arms, waving standards, or the tents of a camp pitched on the +border of a plain. The Arabian side, on the contrary, presents nothing but +black precipitous rocks, which throw their lengthened shadow over waters +of the Dead Sea. The smallest bird of heaven would not find among these +crags a single blade of grass for its sustenance; every thing announces +the country of a reprobate people, and well fitted to perpetuate the +punishment denounced against Ammon and Moab. + +The valley confined by these two chains of mountains displays a soil +resembling the bottom of a sea which has long retired from its bed, a +beach covered with salt, dry mud, and moving sands, furrowed, as it were, +by the waves. Here and there stunted shrubs vegetate with difficulty upon +this inanimate tract; their leaves are covered with salt, and their bark +has a smoky smell and taste. Instead of villages you perceive the ruins of +a few towers. In the middle of this valley flows a discoloured river, +which reluctantly throws itself into the pestilential lake by which it is +engulfed. Its course amid the sands can be distinguished only by the +willows and the reeds that border it; among which the Arab lies in ambush +to attack the traveller and to murder the pilgrim.[110] + +M. Chateaubriand remarks, that when you travel in Judea the heart is at +first filled with profound melancholy. But when, passing from solitude to +solitude, boundless space opens before you, this feeling wears off by +degrees, and you experience a secret awe, which, so far from depressing +the soul, imparts life and elevates the genius. Extraordinary appearances +everywhere proclaim a land teeming with miracles. The burning sun, the +towering eagle, the barren fig-tree, all the poetry, all the pictures of +Scripture are here. Every name commemorates a mystery,--every grotto +announces a prediction,--every hill reechoes the accents of a prophet. God +himself has spoken in these regions, dried up rivers, rent the rocks, and +opened the grave. "The desert still appears mute with terror; and you +would imagine that it had never presumed to interrupt the silence since it +heard the awful voice of the Eternal." + +The celebrated lake which occupies the site of Sodom and Gomorrah is +called in Scripture the Dead Sea. Among the Greeks and Latins it is known +by the name of Asphaltites; the Arabs denominate it Bahar Loth, or Sea of +Lot. M. de Chateaubriand does not agree with those who conclude it to be +the crater of a volcano; for, having seen Vesuvius, Solfatara, the Peak of +the Azores, and the extinguished volcanoes of Auvergne, he remarked in all +of them the same characters; that is to say, mountains excavated in the +form of a tunnel, lava, and ashes, which exhibited incontestable proof of +the agency of fire. The Salt Sea, on the contrary, is a lake of great +length, curved like a bow, placed between two ranges of mountains, which +have no mutual coherence of form, no similarity of composition. They do +not meet at the two extremities of the lake; but while the one continues +to bound the valley of Jordan, and to run northward as far as Tiberias, +the other stretches away to the south till it loses itself in the sands of +Yemen. There are, it is true, hot springs, quantities of bitumen, sulphur, +and asphaltos; but these of themselves are not sufficient to attest the +previous existence of a volcano. With respect, indeed, to the ingulfed +cities, if we adopt the idea of Michaelis and of Büsching, physics may be +admitted to explain the catastrophe without offence to religion. According +to their views, Sodom was built upon a mine of bitumen,--a fact which is +ascertained by the testimony of Moses and Josephus, who speak of wells of +naphtha in the Valley of Siddim. Lightning kindled the combustible mass, +and the guilty cities sank in the subterraneous conflagration. Malte Brun +ingeniously suggests that Sodom and Gomorrah themselves may have been +built of bituminous stones, and thus have been set in flames by the fire +from heaven. + +According to Strabo, there were thirteen towns swallowed up in the Lake +Asphaltites; Stephen of Byzantium reckons eight; the book of Genesis, +while it names five as situated in the Vale of Siddim, relates the +destruction of two only: four are mentioned in Deuteronomy, and five are +noticed by the author of Ecclesiasticus. Several travellers, and among +others Troilo and D'Arvieux, assure us, that they observed fragments of +walls and palaces in the Dead Sea. Maundrell himself was not so fortunate, +owing, he supposes, to the height of the water; but he relates that the +Father Guardian and Procurator of Jerusalem, both men of sense and +probity, declared that they had once actually seen one of these ruins; +that it was so near the shore, and the lake so shallow, that they, +together with some Frenchmen, went to it, and found there several pillars +and other fragments of buildings. The ancients speak more positively on +this subject. Josephus, who employs a poetical expression, says, that he +perceived on the shores of the Dead Sea the shades of the overwhelmed +cities. Strabo gives a circumference of sixty stadia to the ruins of +Sodom, which are also mentioned by Tacitus.[111] + +It is surprising that no pains have been taken by recent travellers to +throw light upon this interesting point, or even to learn whether the +periodical rise and fall of the lake affords any means for determining the +accuracy of the ancient historians and geographers. Should the Turks ever +give permission, and should it be found practicable, to convey a vessel +from Jaffa to this inland sea, some curious discoveries would certainly be +made. Is it not amazing that, notwithstanding the enterprise of modern +science, the ancients were better acquainted with the properties, and even +the dimensions of the Lake Asphaltites, than the most learned nations of +Europe in our own times? It is described by Aristotle, Strabo, Diodorus +Siculus, Pliny, Tacitus, Solinus, Josephus, Galen, and Dioscorides. The +Abbot of Santa Saba is the only person for many centuries who has made the +tour of the Dead Sea. From his account we learn, through the medium of +Father Nau, that at its extremity it is separated, as it were, into two +parts, and that there is a way by which you may walk across it, being only +mid-leg deep, at least in summer; that there the land rises, and bounds +another small lake of a circular or rather an oval figure, surrounded with +plains and hills of salt; and that the neighbouring country is peopled by +innumerable Arabs.[112] + +It is known that seven considerable streams fall into this basin, and +hence it was long supposed that it must discharge its superfluous stores +by subterranean channels into the Mediteranean or the Red Sea. This +opinion is now everywhere relinquished, in consequence of the learned +remarks on the effect of evaporation in a hot climate, published by Dr. +Halley many years ago; the justness of which were admitted by Dr. Shaw, +though he calculated that the Jordan alone threw into the lake every day +more than six million tuns of water. It is deserving of notice, that the +Arabian philosophers, if we may believe Mariti, had anticipated Halley in +his conclusions in regard to the absorbent power of a dry atmosphere.[113] + +The marvellous properties usually assigned to the Dead Sea by the earlier +travellers have vanished upon a more rigid investigation. It is now known +that bodies sink or float upon it, in proportion to their specific +gravity; and that, although the water is so dense as to be favourable to +swimmers, no security is found against the common accident of drowning. +Josephus indeed asserts that Vespasian, in order to ascertain the fact now +mentioned, commanded a number of his slaves to be bound hand and foot and +thrown into the deepest part of the lake; and that, so far from any of +them sinking, they all maintained their place on the surface until it +pleased the emperor to have them taken out. But this anecdote, although +perfectly consistent with truth, does not justify all the inferences which +have been drawn from it. "Being willing to make an experiment," says +Maundrell, "I went into it, and found that it bore up my body in swimming +with an uncommon force; but as for that relation of some authors, that men +wading into it were buoyed up to the top as soon as they got as deep as +the middle, I found it, upon trial, not true."[114] + +The water of this sea has been frequently analyzed both in France and +England. The specific gravity of it, according to Malte Brun, is 1.211, +that of fresh water being 1.000. It is perfectly transparent. The +applications of tests, or reagents, prove that it contains the muriatic +and sulphuric acids. There is no alumina in it, nor does it appear that it +is saturated with marine salt or muriate of soda. It holds in solution the +following substances, and in the proportions here stated: + +Muriate of lime 3.920 +Magnesia 10.246 +Soda 10.360 +Sulphate of lime .054 + +We need not add that such a liquid must be equally salt and bitter. As +might be expected, too, it is found to deposit its salts in copious +incrustations, and to prove a ready agent in all processes of +petrifaction. Clothes, boots, and hats, if dipped in the lake, or +accidentally wetted with its water, are found, when dried, to be covered +with a thick coating of these minerals. Hence, we cannot be surprised to +hear that the Lake Asphaltites does not present any variety of fish. +Mariti asserts that it produces none, and even that those which are +carried into it by the rapidity of the Jordan perish almost immediately +upon being immerged in its acrid waves. A few shell-snails constitute the +sole tenants of its dreary shores, unmixed either with the helix or the +muscle. + +It was formerly believed that the approach to Asphaltites was fatal to +birds, and that, like another lake of antiquity, it had the power of +drawing them down from the wing into its poisonous waters. This dream, +propagated by certain visionary travellers, is now completely discredited. +Flocks of swallows may be seen skimming along its surface with the utmost +impunity, while the absence of all other species is easily explained by a +glance at the naked hills and barren plains, which supply no vegetable +food. + +The historian Josephus, who measured the Dead Sea, found that in length it +extended about five hundred and eighty stadia, and in breadth one hundred +and fifty,--according to our standard, somewhat more than seventy miles by +nineteen. A recent traveller, to whose unpublished journal we have +repeatedly alluded, remarks that the lake, when he visited it, was sunk or +hollow, and that the banks had been recently under water, being still very +miry and difficult to pass. The shores were covered with dry wood, some of +it good timber, which they say is brought by the Jordan from the country +of the Druses. "The water is pungently salt, like oxymuriate of soda. It +is incredibly buoyant. G---- bathed in it, and when he lay still on his +back or belly, he floated with one-fourth at least of his whole body above +the water. He described the sensation as extraordinary, and more like +lying on a feather-bed than floating on water. On the other hand, he found +the greatest resistance in attempting to move through it: it smarted his +eyes excessively. I put a piece of stick in: it required a good deal of +pressure to make it sink, and when let go it bounded out again like a +blown bladder. The water was clear, and of a yellowish tinge, which might +be from the colour of the stones at bottom, or from the hazy atmosphere. +There were green shrubs down to the water's edge in one place, and nothing +to give an idea of any thing blasting in the neighbourhood of the sea; the +desert character of the soil extending far beyond the possibility of being +affected by its influence."[115] + +The bitumen supplied by this singular basin affords the means of a +comfortable livelihood to a considerable number of Arabs who frequent its +shores. The Pasha of Damascus, who finds it a valuable article of +commerce, purchases at a small price the fruit of their labours, or +supplies them with food, clothing, and a few ornaments in return for it. +In ancient times it found a ready market in Egypt, where it was used in +large quantities for embalming the dead: it was also occasionally employed +as a substitute for stone, and appeared in the walls of houses and even of +temples. + +Associated with the Dead Sea, every reader has heard of the apples of +Sodom, a species of fruit which, extremely beautiful to the eye, is bitter +to the taste, and full of dust. Tacitus, in the fifth book of his history, +alludes to this singular fact, but, as usual, in language so brief and +ambiguous, that no light can be derived from his description, _atra et +inania velut in cinerem vanescunt_. Some travellers, unable to discover +this singular production, have considered it merely as a figure of speech, +depicting the deceitful nature of all vicious enjoyments. Hasselquist +regards it as the production of a small plant called _Solanum melongena_, +a species of nightshade, which is to be found abundantly in the +neighbourhood of Jericho. He admits that the apples are sometimes full of +dust; but this, he maintains, appears only when the fruit is attacked by a +certain insect, which converts the whole of the inside into a kind of +powder, leaving the rind wholly entire, and in possession of its beautiful +colour. + +M. Seetzen, again, holds the novel opinion, that this mysterious apple +contains a sort of cotton resembling silk; and, having no pulp or flesh in +the inside, might naturally enough, when sought for as food, be denounced +by the hungry Bedouin as pleasing to the eye and deceitful to the palate. +Chateaubriand has fixed on a shrub different from any of the others. It +grows two or three leagues from the mouth of the Jordan, and is of a +thorny appearance, with small tapering leaves. Its fruit is exactly like +that of the Egyptian lemon, both in size and colour. Before it is ripe it +is filled with a corrosive and saline juice; when dried, it yields a +blackish seed that may be compared to ashes, and which in taste resembles +bitter pepper. There can be little doubt that this is the true apple of +Sodom, which flatters the sight while it mocks the appetite.[116] + +In ascending the western shore, the traveller at length reaches the point +where the Jordan mixes its muddy waters with those of the lake. +Hasselquist, the only modern author who describes the mouth of that +celebrated river, tells us that the plain which extends from thence to +Jericho, a distance of more than three leagues, is, generally speaking, +level, but uncultivated and barren. The soil is a grayish sandy clay, so +loose that the horses often sank up to the knees in it. The whole surface +of the earth is covered with salt in the same manner as on the banks of +the Nile, and would, it is probable, prove no less fruitful were it +irrigated with equal care. The stones on the beach, it is added, were all +quartz, but of various colours; some specimens of which, having a slaty +structure, emitted, when exposed to fire, a strong smell of bitumen, +thereby denoting, perhaps, its volcanic origin. + +There is a great want of unanimity among authors in respect to the width +of the Jordan. The Swede whom we have just quoted relates, that opposite +to Jericho it was eight paces over, the banks perpendicular, six feet in +height, the water deep, muddy, warm rather than cold, and much inferior in +quality to that of the Nile. Chateaubriand, again, who measured it in +several places, reports that it was about fifty feet in breadth, and six +feet deep close to the shore,--a discrepancy which must arise from the +period of the year when it was seen by these distinguished writers.[117] + +The Old Testament abounds with allusions to the swellings of Jordan; but +at present, whether the current has deepened its channel, or whether the +climate is less moist than in former days, this occurrence is seldom +witnessed,--the river has forgotten its ancient greatness. Maundrell could +discern no sign or probability of such overflowings; for although he was +there on the 30th of March,--the proper season of the inundation,--the +river was running two yards at least under the level of its banks. The +margin of the stream, however, continues as of old to be closely covered +with a natural forest of tamarisk, willows, oleanders, and similar trees, +and to afford a retreat to several species of wild beasts. Hence the fine +metaphor of the prophet Jeremiah, who assimilates an enraged enemy to a +lion coming up "from the swellings of Jordan," driven from his lair by the +annual flood, and compelled to seek shelter in the surrounding desert. + +Jericho, which is at present a miserable village inhabited by half-naked +Arabs, derives all its importance from history. It was the first city +which the Israelites reduced upon entering the Holy Land. Five hundred and +thirty years afterward it was rebuilt by Heliel of Bethel, who succeeded +in restoring its population, its splendour, and its commerce; in which +flourishing condition it appears to have continued during several +centuries. Mark Antony, in the pride of power, presented to Cleopatra the +whole territory of Jericho. Vespasian, in the course of the sanguinary war +which he prosecuted in Judea, sacked its walls, and put its inhabitants to +the sword. Re-established by Adrian in the 138th year of our faith, it was +doomed at no distant era to experience new disasters. It was again +repaired by the Christians, who made it the seat of a bishop; but in the +twelfth century it was overthrown by the infidels, and has not since +emerged from its ruins. Of all its magnificent buildings there remain only +the part of one tower, supposed to be the dwelling of Zaccheus the +publican, and a quantity of rubbish, which is understood to mark the line +of its ancient walls. + +Mr. Buckingham saw reason to believe that the true site of Jericho, as +described by Josephus, was at a greater distance from the river than the +village of Rahhah, commonly supposed to represent the City of Palms. +Descending from the mountains which bound the valley on the western side, +he observed the ruins of a large settlement, covering at least a square +mile, whence, as well as from the remains of aqueducts and fountains, he +was led to conclude that it must have been a place of considerable +consequence. Some of the more striking objects among the wrecks of this +ancient city were large tumuli, evidently the work of art, and resembling +those of the Greek and Trojan heroes on the plains of Ilium. There were, +besides, portions of ruined buildings, shafts of columns, and a capital of +the Corinthian order; tokens not at all ambiguous of former grandeur and +of civilized life. + +Josephus fixes the position of Jericho at the distance of one hundred and +fifty furlongs from Jerusalem, and sixty from the river Jordan; stating +that the country, as far as the capital, is desert and hilly, while to the +shores of the Lake Asphaltites it is low, though equally waste and +unfruitful. Nothing can apply more accurately, in all its particulars, +than this description does to the ruins just mentioned. The spot lies at +the very foot of the sterile mountains of Judea, which may be said +literally to overhang it on the west; and these ridges are still as +barren, as rugged, and as destitute of inhabitants as formerly, throughout +their whole extent, from the Lake of Tiberias to the Dead Sea. The +distance, by the computation in time, amounted to six hours, or nearly +twenty miles, from Jerusalem; the space between the supposed city and the +river being little more than one-third of that amount, the precise +proportion indicated by the Jewish historian. + +The soil round Jericho was long celebrated for a precious balsam, which +used to be sold for double its weight of silver. The historian Justin +relates, that the trees from which it exudes bear a resemblance to firs, +though they are lower, and are cultivated after the manner of vines. He +adds, that the wealth of the Jewish nation arises from their produce, as +they grow in no other part of Syria. At present, however, there is not a +tree of any description, either palm or balsam, to be seen near the site +of this deserted town; but it is admitted, that the complete desolation +with which its ruins are invested ought to be attributed to the cessation +of industry rather than to any perceptible change either in the climate or +the soil. + +Rahhah stands about four miles nearer the river, or about half-way between +the assumed position of Jericho and the bank of the current. It consists +of about fifty dwellings, all very mean in their appearance, and every one +fenced in front with thorny bushes; one of the most effectual defences +that could be raised against the incursions of the Bedouins, whose horses +will not approach these formidable thickets. The inhabitants, without +exception, are professed believers in the creed of Islamism. Their habits +are those of shepherds rather than of cultivators of the soil; this last +duty, indeed, when performed at all, being done chiefly by the women and +children, as the men roam the plain on horseback, and derive the principal +means of subsistence from robbery and plunder. They are governed by a +sheik, whose influence among them is more like the authority of a father +over his children than that of a magistrate; and who is, moreover, checked +in the exercise of his power, by the knowledge that he would instantly be +deprived of life and station were he to exceed the bounds which, in all +rude countries, are opposed even to the caprices of despotism. It is +remarkable that the name of this village corresponds to Rahab, the name of +the hostess who received into her house the Hebrew spies, and signifies +odour or perfume; the slight change on the form of the Arabic term +implying no difference in the import of the root whence they are both +originally derived. + +The mountains on the eastern side of the Jordan are more lofty than those +which skirt the Vale of Jericho, being not less than 2000 feet in height. +From the summit of a towering peak, which the traveller still delights to +recognise, Moses was permitted to behold the promised inheritance, +stretching towards the west, the south, and the north,--"All the land of +Gilead unto Dan, and all Naphtali, and the land of Ephraim, and Manasseh, +and all the land of Judah unto the utmost sea, and the south, and the +plain of the Valley of Jericho, the city of palm-trees, unto Zoar. And the +Lord said unto him, this is the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto +Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I will give it unto thy seed: I have caused +thee to see it with thine eyes, but thou shalt not go over thither. So +Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there, in the land of Moab, according +to the word of the Lord. And he buried him in a valley in the land of +Moab, over against Beth-peor: but no man knoweth of his sepulchre unto +this day."[118] + +The road from Jericho to Jerusalem presents some historical reminiscences +of the most interesting nature. When entering the mountains which protect +the western side of the plain, the attention of the traveller is invited +to the Fountain of Elisha, the waters of which were sweetened by the power +of the prophet. The men of Jericho represented to him that though the +situation of the town was pleasant, "the water was naught, and the ground +barren. And he said, bring me a new cruse, and put salt therein: and they +brought it to him. And he went forth unto the spring of the waters, and +cast the salt in there, and said, thus with the Lord, I have healed these +waters; there shall not be from thence any more death or barren land. So +the waters were healed unto this day, according to the saying of Elisha +which he spake."[119] + +Its waters are at present received in a basin about nine or ten paces +long, and five or six broad; and from thence, issuing out in good plenty, +divide themselves into several small streams, dispersing their refreshment +to all the land as far as Jericho, and rendering it exceedingly fruitful. +Advancing into the savage country through which the usual road to the +capital is formed, the tourist soon finds himself at the foot of the +mountain called Quarantina, from being the supposed scene of the +temptation and fast of forty days endured by our Saviour, who, + + --"looking round on every aide, beheld + A pathless desert dusk with horrid shades: + The way he came not having marked, return + Was difficult, by human steps untrod; + And he still on was led, but with such thoughts + Accompanied of things past and to come + Lodg'd in his breast, as well might recommend + Such solitude before choicest society."[120] + +The neighbourhood of this lofty eminence is, according to Mr. Maundrell, +a dry, miserable, barren place, consisting of high rocky mountains, so +torn and disordered, "as if the earth had here suffered some great +convulsion, in which its very bowels had been turned outward." In a deep +valley are seen the ruins of small cells and cottages, thought to be the +remains of those sequestered habitations to which hermits were wont to +retire for the uses of penance and mortification; and it is remarked +that, in the whole earth, a more comfortless and desert place could not +have been selected for so pious a purpose. From these hills of desolation, +however, there is obtained a magnificent prospect of the Plain of Jericho, +the Dead Sea, and of the distant summits of Arabia; for which reason the +highest of the group has been assigned by tradition as the very spot +whence all the kingdoms of the world were seen in a moment of time. It +is, as St. Matthew styles it, an exceeding high mountain, and in its +ascent not only difficult but dangerous. It has a small chapel at the +top, and another about half-way down, founded upon a projecting part of +the rock. Near the latter are observed several caves and holes, excavated +by the solitaries, who thought it the most suitable place for undergoing +the austerities of Lent,--a practice which has not even at the present +day fallen altogether into disuse. Hasselquist describes the path as +"dangerous beyond imagination. I went as far up on this terrible mountain +of Temptation as prudence would admit, but ventured not to go to the top; +whither I sent my servant to bring what natural curiosities he could +find, while I gathered what plants and insects I could find below."[121] + +Mariti, whose religious zeal was fanned into a temporary flame, ascended +the formidable steep as far as the grottoes, which he delineates with much +minuteness. He pronounces the chapel inaccessible from the side on which +he stood, and is very doubtful whether it could now be approached on any +quarter, the ancient road being so much neglected. But it should seem that +most travellers are smitten with the feeling which seized the breast of +Maundrell, although they all have not the candour to acknowledge it. +Alluding to the Arabs, who demanded a sum of money for liberty to ascend, +he says, "we departed without further trouble, not a little glad to have +so good an excuse for not climbing so dangerous a precipice."[122] + +The imagination of Milton has thrown a captivating splendour around this +scene, which, at the same time, he appears to have transferred to the +mountain-range beyond the Jordan in the country of the Moabites. + + "Thus wore out night; and now the herald lark + Left his ground-nest, high towering to descry + The morn's approach, and greet her with his song, + As lightly from his grassy couch up rose + Our Saviour, and found all was but a dream; + Fasting he went to sleep, and fasting waked. + Up to a hill anon his steps he reared, + From whose high top to ken the prospect round, + If cottage were in view, sheepcote, or herd; + But cottage, herd, or sheepcote, none he saw; + Only in a bottom saw a pleasant grove, + With chant of tuneful birds resounding loud; + Thither he bent his way; determined there + To rest at noon, and entered soon the shade + High roofed, and walks beneath, and alleys brown, + That opened in the midst a woody scene."[123] + +Leaving the Quarantina with its dreary scenes and solemn recollections, +the pilgrim returning from the Jordan finds himself off a beaten path +which, since the days of Moses, it is probable has connected the rocks of +Salem with the banks of the sacred river. Chateaubriand informs us that it +is broad, and in some parts paved; having undergone, as he conjectures, +several improvements while the country was in possession of the Romans. On +the top of a mountain there is the appearance of a castle, which, we may +conclude, was meant to protect and command the road; and at a little +distance, in the bottom of a deep gloomy valley is the Place of Blood, +called in the Hebrew tongue Abdomim, where once stood a small town +belonging to the tribe of Judah, and where the good Samaritan is imagined +to have succoured the wounded traveller who had fallen into the hands of +thieves. That sombre dell is still entitled to its horrible distinction; +it is still the place of blood, of robbery, and of murder; the most +dangerous pass for him who undertakes to go down from Jerusalem to +Jericho. + +As a proof of this, we may shortly mention an assault which was made upon +Sir F. Henniker, who a few years ago resolved to accomplish that perilous +journey. "The route is over hills, rocky, barren, and uninteresting. We +arrived at a fountain, and here my two attendants paused to refresh +themselves; the day was so hot that I was anxious to finish the journey +and hasten forwards. A ruined building, situated on the summit of a hill, +was now within sight, and I urged my horse towards it; the janizary +galloped by me, and making signs for me not to precede him, he himself +rode into and round the building, and then motioned me to advance. We next +came to a hill, through the very apex of which has been cut a passage, the +rocks overhanging it on either side. I was in the act of passing through +this ditch when a bullet whizzed by close to my head. I saw no one, and +had scarcely time to think when another was fired, some short distance in +advance. I could yet see no one, the janizary was beneath the brow of the +hill in his descent. I looked back, but my servant was not yet within +sight. I looked up, and within a few inches of my head were three muskets, +and three men taking aim at me. Escape or resistance was alike impossible. +I got off my horse. Eight men jumped down from the rocks and commenced a +scramble for me.--As he (the janizary) passed, I caught at a rope hanging +from his saddle; I had hoped to leap upon his horse, but found myself +unable; my feet were dreadfully lacerated by the honeycombed rocks; nature +would support me no longer; I fell, but still clung to the rope; in this +manner I was drawn some few yards, till, bleeding from my ankle to my +shoulder, I resigned myself to my fate. As soon as I stood up one of my +pursuers took aim at me; but the other, casually advancing between us, +prevented his firing. He then ran up, and with his sword aimed such a blow +as would not have required a second: his companion prevented its full +effect, so that it merely cut my ear in halves, and laid open one aide of +my face: they then stripped me naked."[124] + +It is impossible not to suspect that the depraved government at Jerusalem +connives at such instances of violence in order to give some value to the +protection which they sell at a very dear rate to Christian travellers. +The administration of Mohammed Ali would be a blessing to Palestine, +inasmuch as it would soon render the intercourse between the capital and +the Dead Sea as safe as that between Alexandria and Grand Cairo. + +Refreshing himself at the fountain where our Lord and his apostles, +according to a venerable tradition, were wont to rest on their journey to +the holy city, the tourist sets his heart on revisiting the sacred remains +of that decayed metropolis. When at the summit of the Mount of Olives, he +is again struck with the mixture of magnificence and ruin which marks the +queen of nations in her widowed estate. Owing to the clear atmosphere and +the absence of smoke, the view is so distinct that one might count the +separate houses. The streets are tolerably regular, straight, and well +paved; but they are narrow and dull, and almost all on a declivity. The +fronts of the houses, which are generally two or three stories high, are +quite plain, simply constructed of stone, without the least ornament; so +that in walking past them a stranger might fancy himself in the galleries +of a vast prison. The windows are very few and extremely small; and, by a +singular whim, the doors are so low that it is commonly requisite to bend +the body nearly double in order to enter them. Some families have gardens +of moderate dimensions; but, upon the whole, the ground within the walls +is fully occupied with buildings, if we except the vast enclosures in +which are placed the mosques and churches. + +There is not observed at Jerusalem any square, properly so called; the +shops and markets are universally opened in the public streets. Provisions +are said to be abundant and cheap, including excellent meat, vegetables, +and fruit. Water is supplied by the atmosphere; and preserved in capacious +cisterns; nor is it necessary, except when a long drought has exhausted +the usual stock, that the inhabitants should have recourse to the spring +near the brook Kedron. Rice is much used for food; but as the country is +quite unsuited to the production of that aquatic grain, it is imported +from Egypt in return for oil, the staple of Palestine. + +There is a great diversity of costume, everybody adopting that which he +likes best, whether Arab, Syrian, or Turk; but the lower order of people +generally wear a shirt fastened round the waist with a girdle, after the +example of their neighbours in the desert. Ali Bey remarks, that he saw +very few handsome females in the metropolis; on the contrary, they had in +general that bilious appearance so common in the East,--a pale citron +colour, or a dead yellow, like paper or plaster, and, wearing a white +fillet round the circumference of their faces, they have not unfrequently +the appearance of walking corpses. The children, however, are much +healthier and prettier than those of Arabia and Egypt. + +The Christians and Jews wear, as a mark of distinction, a blue turban. The +villagers and shepherds use white ones, or striped like those of the +Moslem. The Christian women appear in public with their faces uncovered, +as they do in Europe. + +The arts are cultivated to a certain extent, but the sciences have +entirely disappeared. There existed formerly large schools belonging to +the harem; but there are hardly any traces of them left, if their place be +not supplied by a few small seminaries where children of every form of +worship learn to read and write the code of their respective religion. The +grossest ignorance prevails even among persons of high rank, who, on the +first interview, appear to have received a liberal education.[125] + +The Arabic language is generally spoken at Jerusalem, though the Turkish +is much used among the better class. The inhabitants are composed of +people of different nations and different religions, who inwardly despise +one another on account of their varying opinions; but as the Christians +are very numerous, there reigns among the whole no small degree of +complaisance, as well as an unrestrained intercourse in matters of +business, amusement, and even of religion.[126] + +It is well remarked by Chateaubriand, who had travelled among the native +tribes of North America as extensively as among the Arabs of the Syrian +wilderness, that amid the rudeness of the latter you still perceive a +certain degree of delicacy in their manners; you see that they are natives +of that East which is the cradle of all the arts, all the sciences, all +the religions. Buried at the extremity of the West, the Canadian inhabits +valleys shaded by eternal forests and watered by immense rivers; the Arab, +cast, as it were, upon the high road of the world between Africa and Asia, +roves in the brilliant regions of Aurora over a soil without trees and +without water. + +The Jews--the children of the kingdom--have been cast out, and many have +come from the east and the west to occupy their place in the desolate land +promised to their fathers. They usually take up their abode in the narrow +space between the Temple and the foot of Mount Zion, defended from the +tyranny of their Turkish masters by their indigence and misery. Here they +appear covered with rags, and sitting in the dust, with their eyes fixed +on the ruins of their ancient sanctuary. It has been observed that those +descendants of Abraham who come from foreign countries to fix their +residence at Jerusalem live but a short time; while such as are natives of +Palestine are so wretchedly poor as to be obliged to send every year to +raise contributions among their brethren of Egypt and Barbary.[127] + +The picture given by Dr. Richardson is much more flattering. He assures +his readers that many of the Jews are rich and in comfortable +circumstances; but that they are careful to conceal their wealth, and even +their comfort, from the jealous eye of their rulers, lest, by awakening +their cupidity, some plot of robbery or murder should be devised. The +whole population has been estimated by different travellers as amounting +to from fifteen to thirty thousand, consisting of Mohammedans, Jews, and +the various sects of Christians. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + + +_Description of the Country Northward of Jerusalem_. + +Grotto of Jeremiah; Sepulchres of the Kings; Singular Doors; Village of +Leban; Jacob's Well; Valley of Shechem; Nablous; Samaritans; Sebaste; +Jennin; Gilead; Geraza, or Djerash; Description of Ruins; Gergasha of the +Hebrews; Rich Scenery of Gilead; River Jabbok; Souf; Ruins of Gamala; +Magnificent Theatre; Gadara; Capernaum, or Talhewm; Sea of Galilee; +Bethsaida and Chorazin; Tarrachea; Sumuk; Tiberias; Description of modern +Town; House of Peter; Baths; University; Mount Tor, or Tabor; Description +by Pococke, Maundrell, Burckhardt, and Doubdan; View from the Top; Great +Plain; Nazareth; Church of Annunciation; Workshop of Joseph; Mount of +Precipitation; Table of Christ; Cana, or Kefer Kenna; Waterpots of Stone; +Saphet, or Szaffad; University; French; Sidney Smith; Dan; Sepphoris; +Church of St. Anne; Description by Dr. Clarke; Vale of Zabulon; Vicinity +of Acre. + +Upon leaving the northern gate of Jerusalem, on the road which leads to +Damascus, there is seen a large grotto much venerated by Christians, +Turks, and Jews, said to have been for some time the residence, or rather +the prison, of the prophet Jeremiah. The bed of the holy man is shown, in +the form of a rocky shelf, about eight feet from the ground; and the spot +is likewise pointed out on which he is understood to have written his book +of Lamentations. In the days of Maundrell, this excavation was occupied by +a college of dervises. + +We have already alluded to the Sepulchres of the Kings as very singular +remains of ancient architecture, and standing at a little distance from +the city. There still prevails some obscurity in regard to the origin and +intention of these places of burial, occasioned chiefly by the fact +recorded in Holy Scripture, that the tombs of the kings of Judah were on +Mount Zion. Pococke held the opinion, that they derived their name from +Helena, the queen of Adiabene, whose body was deposited in a cave outside +the northern wall of Jerusalem; a conclusion which derives some +countenance from the language of Josephus, and has been adopted by Dr. +Clarke. M. de Chateaubriand, on the contrary, supposes these grottoes to +have been appropriated to the family of Herod; and in support of his views +quotes a passage from the Jewish historian, who, speaking of the wall +which Titus erected to press Jerusalem still more closely than before, +says, that "this wall, returning towards the north, enclosed the sepulchre +of Herod." Now this, adds the Frenchman, is the situation of the royal +caverns. + +But whoever was buried here, this is certain, to use the words of the +accurate Maundrell, that the place itself discovers so great an expense +both of labour and treasure, that we may well suppose it to have been the +work of kings. You approach it on the east side through an entrance cut +out of the rock, which admits you into an open court of about forty paces +square. On the south side is a portico nine paces long and four broad, +likewise hewn out of the natural rock, and having an architrave running +along its front adorned with sculpture of fruits and flowers. The passage +into the sepulchre is now so greatly obstructed with stones and rubbish +that it is no easy matter to creep through; but having overcome this +difficulty you arrive at a large room, seven or eight yards square, +excavated in the solid body of the hill. It sides and ceiling are so +exactly square, and its angles so just, that no architect could form a +more regular apartment; while the whole is so firm and entire, that it +resembles a chamber hollowed out of one piece of marble. From this room +you pass into six others, all of the same construction; the two innermost +being somewhat deeper than the rest, and are descended to by a certain +number of steps. + +In every one of these, except the first, were coffins of stone placed in +niches formed in the sides of the chamber. They had at first been covered +with handsome lids; but the most of them have been long broken to pieces, +and either scattered about the apartment, or entirely removed. One of +white marble was observed by Dr. Clarke, adorned all over with the richest +and most beautiful carving; though, like all the other sculptured work in +the tombs, it represented nothing of the human figure, nor of any living +thing, but consisted entirely of foliage and flowers, and principally of +the leaves and branches of the vine. The receptacles for the dead bodies +are not much larger than European coffins; but, having the more regular +form of parallelograms, they thereby differ from the usual appearance +presented in the sepulchral crypts of the country, where the soros is of +considerable size, and generally resembles a cistern. The taste manifested +in the interior of these chambers seems also to denote a later period in +the history of the arts; the skill and neatness visible in the carving is +admirable, and there is much of ornament displayed in several parts of the +work. + +But the most surprising thing belonging to these subterranean chambers is +their doors; of which, when Mr. Maundrell visited Jerusalem, there was +still one remaining. "It consisted," says he, "of a plank of stone of +about six inches in thickness, and in its other dimensions equalling the +size of an ordinary door, or somewhat less. It was carved in such a manner +as to resemble a piece of wainscot: the stone of which it was made was +visibly of the same kind with the whole rock; and it turned upon two +hinges in the nature of axles. These hinges were of the same entire piece +of stone with the door, and were contained in two holes of the immoveable +rock, one at the top and another at the bottom."[128] + +We are informed by Dr. Clarke, that the same sort of contrivance is to be +found among the sepulchres at Telmessus; and, moreover, that the ancients +had the art of being able to close these doors in such a manner that no +one could have access to the tomb who was not acquainted with the secret +method of opening them, unless by violating the abode of the dead, and +forcing a passage through the stone. This has been done in several +instances at the place just named; but the doors, though broken, still +remain closed with their hinges unimpaired.[129] + +In pursuing the road to Nablous, the ancient Shechem, the first village +which meets the eye of the traveller is Beer, so named from the well or +spring where the wayfaring man stops to quench his thirst. The +inhabitants, who appear to be chiefly Arabs, are in the greatest poverty, +oppressed and alarmed by the incessant demands of their Turkish rulers. It +is the Michmash of Scripture, celebrated as the place whither Jotham fled +from the anger of his brother Abimelech. It presents, too, the remains of +an old church, created, as tradition reports, by the pious Helena, on tho +spot where the Virgin sat down to bewail the absence of her son, who had +tarried behind in Jerusalem to commune with the doctors in the Temple. + +Beyond this interesting hamlet, at the distance of about four hours, is +Leban, called Lebonah in the Bible, a village situated on the eastern side +of a delicious vale. The road between these two places is carried through +a wild and very hilly country, destitute of trees or other marks of +cultivation, and rendered almost totally unproductive by the barbarism of +the government. In a narrow dell, formed by two lofty precipices, are the +ruins of a monastery, being in the neighborhood of that mystic Bethel +where Jacob enjoyed his vision of heavenly things, and had his stony couch +made easy by the beautiful picture of ministering angels ascending and +descending from the presence of the Eternal. + +The next object of interest is connected with the name of the same +patriarch. It is Jacob's Well,--the scene of the memorable conference +between our Saviour and the woman of Samaria. Such a locality was too +important to be omitted by Helena while selecting sites for Christian +churches. Over it, accordingly, was erected a large edifice; of which, +however, the "voracity of time, aided by the Turks," has left nothing but +a few foundations remaining. Maundrell tells us that "the well is covered +at present with an old stone vault, into which you are let down through a +very straight hole; and then removing a broad flat stone you discover the +mouth of the well itself. It is dug in a firm rock, and extends about +three yards in diameter and thirty-five in depth; five of which we found +full of water. This confutes a story commonly told to travellers who do +not take the pains to examine the well, namely, that it is dry all the +year round except on the anniversary of that day on which our Blessed Lord +sat upon it; but then bubbles up with abundance of water."[130] + +At this point the traveller enters the narrow valley of Shechem, or +Sychar, as it is termed in the New Testament, overhung on either side by +the two mountains Gerizim and Ebal. These eminences, it is well known, +have obtained much celebrity as the theatre on which was pronounced the +sanction of the Divine law--the blessings which attend obedience, and the +curses which follow the violation of the heavenly statutes. "And it shall +come to pass, when the Lord thy God hath brought thee in unto the land +whither thou goest to possess it, that thou shalt put the blessing upon +Mount Gerizim, and the curse upon Mount Ebal. Are they not on the other +side Jordan, by the way where the sun goeth down, in the land of the +Canaanites, which dwell in the champaign over against Gilgal, beside the +plains of Moreh?"[131] + +Every reader is aware that the Samaritans, whose principal residence since +the captivity has been at Shechem, have a place of worship on Mount +Gerizim, to which they repair at certain seasons to perform the rites of +their religion. It was upon the same hill, according to the reading in +their version of the Pentateuch, that the Almighty commanded the children +of Israel to set up great stones covered with plaster, on which to +inscribe the body of their law; to erect an altar; to offer +peace-offerings; and to rejoice before the Lord their God. In the Hebrew +edition of the same inspired books, Mount Ebal is selected as the scene of +these pious services;--a variation which the Samaritans openly ascribe to +the hatred and malignity of the Jews, who, they assert, have in this +passage corrupted the sacred oracles. In the immediate vicinity of the +town is seen a small mosque, which is said to cover the sepulchre of +Joseph, and to be situated in the field bought by Jacob from Hamor, the +father of Shechem, as is related in the book of Genesis, and alluded to by +St. John in the fourth chapter of his gospel.[132] + +The road from Leban to Nablous, or Naplosa, is described by Dr. Clarke as +being mountainous, rocky, and full of loose stones. Yet, he adds, the +cultivation is everywhere marvellous; affording one of the most striking +pictures of human industry that it is possible to behold. The limestone +rocks and shingly valleys of Judea are entirely covered with plantations +of figs, vines, and olive-trees; not a single spot seemed to be neglected. +The hills, from their bases to their upmost summits, are overspread with +gardens; all of them free from weeds, and in the highest state of +improvement. Even the sides of the most barren mountains have been +rendered fertile, by being divided into terraces, like steps rising one +above another, upon which soil has been accumulated with astonishing +labour. A sight of this territory can alone convey any adequate idea of +its surprising produce; it is truly the Eden of the East, rejoicing in the +abundance of its wealth. The effect of this upon the people was strikingly +portrayed in their countenances. Instead of the depressed and gloomy looks +seen on the desolated plains belonging to the Pasha of Damascus, health +and hilarity everywhere prevailed. Under a wise and beneficent government, +the produce of the Holy Land, it is asserted, would exceed all +calculation. Its perennial harvests, the salubrity of its air, its limpid +springs, its rivers, lakes, plains, hills, and vales, added to the +serenity of its climate, prove this land to be indeed a "field which the +Lord hath blessed."[133] + +The ancient Shechem is one of the most prosperous towns in the Holy Land, +being still the metropolis of a rich and extensive country, and abounding +in agricultural wealth. Nor is there any thing finer than its appearance +when viewed from the heights by which it is surrounded. It strikes the eye +of the traveller who advances from the north, as being imbosomed in the +most delightful and fragrant bowers, half-concealed by rich gardens and +stately trees, collected into groves all round the beautiful valley in +which it stands. There is a considerable trade, as well as a flourishing +manufacture of soap; and the population has been reckoned as high as ten +thousand, an estimate, however, which Mr. Buckingham thinks somewhat +overrated. Within the town are six mosques, five baths, one Christian +church, an excellent covered bazaar for fine goods, and an open one for +provisions, besides numerous cotton-cloth manufactories, and shops of +every description. The inhabitants are chiefly Mohammedans. The Jews, +inheriting their ancient enmity towards the Samaritans, avoid the country +which the latter formerly possessed; while the Christians, alienated by +the suspicion of heresy among their brethren at Nablous, prefer the more +orthodox assemblies at Jerusalem and Nazareth. + +The Samaritans themselves do not exceed forty in number. They have a +synagogue in the town, where they perform divine service every Saturday. +Four times a year they go in solemn procession to the old temple on Mount +Gerizim; on which occasion they meet before sunrise, and continue reading +the Law till noon. On one of these days they kill six or seven rams. They +have but one school in Nablous where their language is taught, though they +take much pride in preserving ancient manuscripts of their Pentateuch in +the original character. Mr. Connor saw a copy which is reported to be +three thousand five hundred years old, but was not allowed to examine, nor +even to touch it. + +If any thing connected with the memory of past ages be calculated to +awaken local enthusiasm, the land around this city is eminently entitled +to that distinction. The sacred record of events transacted in the fields +of Shechem is from our earliest years remembered with delight. "Along the +valley," observes a late traveller, "we beheld a company of Ishmaelites +coming from Gilead, as in the days of Reuben and Judah, with their camels, +bearing spicery, and balm, and myrrh; who would gladly have purchased +another Joseph of his brethren, and-conveyed Him as a slave to some +Potiphar in Egypt. Upon the hills around flocks and herds were feeding as +of old; nor in the simple garb of the shepherds of Samaria was there any +thing to contradict the notions we may entertain of the appearance +formerly exhibited by the sons of Jacob."[134] + +It has been remarked in reference to Jacob's Well, where our Lord held his +conversation with the woman of Samaria, that no Christian scholar ever +read the fourth chapter of St. John's Gospel without being struck with the +numerous internal evidences of truth which crowd upon the mind in its +perusal. Within so small a compass it is impossible to find, in other +writings, so many sources of reflection and of interest. Independently of +its importance as a theological document, it concentrates so much +information that a volume might be filled with its singular illustration +of the history of the Jews and the geography of the country. All that can +be collected upon these subjects from Josephus seems to be but a comment +on this chapter. The journey of our Lord from Judea into Galilee--the +cause of it--his passage through Samaria--his approach to the metropolis +of that country--its name--his arrival at the Amorite field which +terminates the narrow Valley of Schechem--the ancient custom of stopping +at a well--the female employment of drawing water--the disciples sent into +the city for food, by which the situation of the well and of the town is +so obviously implied--the question of the woman referring to existing +prejudices which separated the Jews from the Samaritans--the depth of the +well--the oriental allusion contained in the expression "living +water"--the history of the well itself, and the customs thereby +illustrated--the worship upon Mount Gerizim--all these occur within a few +verses, and supply a species of evidence for the truth of the narrative in +which they are embodied that no candid mind has ever been able to +resist.[135] + +The ancient Samaria presents itself to the traveller in these days under +the name of Sebaste, or the Venerable,--an appellation conferred upon it +by Herod in honour of his patron Augustus. The Jewish historian describes +at length the buildings erected by the Idumean prince, especially a +citadel, and a noble temple which he intended to exhibit to future +generations as a specimen of his taste and munificence. He adds, that the +town was twenty furlongs in circumference, and distant one day's journey +from Jerusalem. It is computed by modern tourists to be more than forty +miles. The situation is extremely beautiful as well as naturally strong, +being placed on a large hill encompassed all round by a broad deep valley, +and therefore capable of an easy and complete fortification. But the +splendid city of Herod is now reduced to a village, small and poor, +exhibiting only the remains of its former greatness. In one place, +according to Dr. Richardson, there are sixty columns of the Ionic order +extended in a single row, marking the site of some gorgeous structure +erected by the vassal of Augustus. Mr. Buckingham counted eighty-three of +these pillars, and alludes to a tradition current among the natives, that +they formed part of Herod's own palace. This may be the edifice mentioned +by Josephus, who says that the king just named built a sacred place of a +furlong and a half in circuit, and adorned it with all sorts of +decorations; and therein constructed a temple remarkable both for its +largeness and its beauty. + +Mr. Maundrell relates, that in his time the place where the city had stood +was entirely converted into gardens; and all the tokens that remain to +testify that there ever was such a metropolis are only a large square +piazza surrounded with pillars, and some poor ruins of a church, said to +have been built by the Empress Helena over the place where St. John the +Baptist was both imprisoned and beheaded. In the body of this temple you +go down a staircase into the very dungeon where that holy blood was shed. +The Turks hold the prison in great veneration, and over it have erected a +small mosque; but for a little piece of money they suffer you to go in and +satisfy your curiosity at pleasure. + +A hundred and thirty years, aided by the destructive habits of +Mohammedans, seem to have made a deep impression upon the remains of +Sebaste; for when Dr. Clarke passed through it, he could not discover even +the relics of a great city, and was, therefore, disposed to question the +existence of the splendid ruins mentioned by Maundrell, and more minutely +described by Richardson and Buckingham. He is inclined to identify the +site of the ancient Samaria with the high ground on which stands the +castle of Santorri; but his reasoning is not sufficiently cogent to +satisfy the mind even of the least reflecting among his readers. + +At this point we leave the territory of Ephraim, and pass into that of the +half-tribe of Manasseh. Pursuing his course northwards, the traveller +reaches a small hamlet called Bethamareen; and afterward, at the distance +of three or four miles, he finds himself at Gibba, a village surrounded +with trees bearing olives and pomegranates, and occupying a lofty station +over a narrow valley. This place is succeeded by Sannour, which appears to +be nothing more than a castle erected on an insular hill, and is more +commonly known by the name of Fort Giurali. Another village, called Abati, +presents itself on the right-hand, imbosomed in a grove of fruit trees; +but the stranger, desirous to proceed, advances along the valley until, +after having ascended a rising ground, he beholds stretched out at his +feet the fine plain of Esdraëlon covered with the richest pasture.[136] + +On the slope of the hill which bounds the southern extremity of this +fertile valley stands the town of Jennin, a place, like most of the cities +of Palestine, more remarkable for decayed grandeur than for actual wealth, +beauty, or power. Its ancient name was Ginoa, and it is found recorded in +the works of some of the older writers as a frontier place between Samaria +and Galilee. The population at present is said to amount to about eight +hundred; but the ruins of a palace and a mosque prove that it once +possessed a greater importance than now belongs to it. Marble pillars, +fountains, and even piazzas still remain in a very perfect state; an +Arabic inscription over one of which induces the reader to believe that it +was erected by a commander named Selim. + +Instead of pursuing our course towards Nazareth and the Lake of Tiberias, +we shall now cross the Jordan into the Land of Gilead, and lay before our +readers a brief outline of the discoveries which have been recently made +in that section of Palestine, the inheritance of Reuben and of Gad. We +have already remarked, that to the indefatigable exertions of Dr. Seetzen +the world are indebted for much of the knowledge they possess relative to +the ancient city of Geraza, the ruins of which are pointed out by the +Arabs under the name of Djarash. + +Approaching it from the south, the traveller first observes a triumphal +gateway, nearly entire, bearing a striking resemblance in point of +workmanship to the remains of Antinoë in Upper Egypt. The front presents +four columns of a small diameter, and constructed of many separate pieces +of stone; their pedestals are of a square form, but tall and slender. On +each of these is placed a design of leaves, very like a Corinthian capital +without the volutes; and on this again rises the shaft, which is plain, +and composed of many small portions. As all the columns were broken near +the top, the crowning capitals are not seen. The pediment and frieze are +also destroyed; but enough remains to give an accurate idea of the +original design, and to prove that the order of the architecture was +Corinthian. The building appears to have been a detached triumphal arch, +erected for the entrance of some victorious hero passing into the city. + +Just within this gateway is perceived an extensive naumachia, or theatre +for the exhibition of sea-fights, constructed of fine masonry, and +finished on the top with a large moulding wrought in the stone. The +channels for filling it with water are still visible. Passing onward there +is seen a second gateway, exactly similar in design to the one already +mentioned, but connected here on both sides with the walls of the city, to +which it seems to have formed the proper entrance. Turning to the left the +stranger advances into a large and beautiful colonnade arrange in a +circular form, all of the Ionic order, and surmounted by an architrave. He +next perceives beyond this point a long avenue of columns in a straight +line, supposed to mark the direction of some principal street that led +through the whole length of the town. These columns are all of the +Corinthian order, and the range on each side is ascended to by a flight of +steps. + +Making his way along this imaginary street over masses of ruins, his +attention is attracted by four magnificent pillars of greater height and +larger diameter than the rest; but, like all the others, supporting only a +entablature, and probably standing before the front of some principal +edifice now destroyed. He next arrives at a square formed by the first +intersection of the main street by one crossing it at right angles, and, +like it also, apparently once lined on both sides by an avenue of columns. +At the point of intersection are four masses of building resembling +pedestals; on the top of which there probably stood small Corinthian +columns, as shafts and capitals of that order are now scattered below. +Passing the fragments of a solid wall on the left, which appears to have +constituted the front of a large edifice, the tourist next comes to the +ruins of a temple of a semicircular form, with four columns in front, and +facing the principal street in a right line. The spring of its half-dome +is still remaining, as well as several columns of yellow marble and of red +granite. The whole seems to have been executed with peculiar care, +especially the sculpture of the friezes, cornices, pediments, and +capitals, which are all of the Corinthian order, and considered not less +rich and chaste than the works of the best ages. On a broken altar near +this ruin is observed an inscription, containing the name of Marcus +Aurelius. "Beyond this, again," says Mr. Buckingham, "we had temples, +colonnades, theatres, arched buildings with domes, detached groups of +Ionic and Corinthian columns, bridges, aqueducts, and portions of large +buildings scattered here and there in our way; none of which we could +examine with any degree of attention, from the restraint under which our +guides had placed us."[137] + +The author of the unpublished journal from which we have already drawn +some rich materials, inspected the remains of Geraza three years ago. "We +set out for the ruins, and reached them before sunrise. Having seen them +only partially by a faint light and from a distance the previous evening, +I had not formed a high opinion of them, and wondered that they should +ever have been brought into comparison with Palmyra. A full examination +now altered my decision, and left me and all the party full of admiration +at the grandeur and the elegance of the ruins. We were struck with the +view down the main street of the city. Close to us was a temple, a fine +mass of building, surrounded by innumerable fallen columns and ruined +cornices. Beneath was the great street, commencing in an elegant circular +or rather oval colonnade of fifty-seven pillars, and containing a +succession of straight colonnades on each side, crossed at right angles by +another line of columns with an entablature. On one side was a splendid +temple with columns, on a height; and on the other a bridge crossing the +stream on which the ruins stand. Close to this temple is a theatre in +remarkably high repair; almost all the seats are quite entire. The +proscenium is still sufficiently so to give a complete idea of the plan; +and it is easy to sit on one of the benches and fancy a Greek play +performing to a Gerazan audience as it was seventeen hundred years ago. +Proceeding northward along the great street, we soon came to a building +which seemed to me one of the finest things in Jerash. It was a sort of +semicircular temple, in front of which had been a portico of Corinthian +columns, composing part of the grand colonnade. I do not think they can be +under fifty feet in height, and their form is very elegant. The +semicircular building itself is covered with a half-dome, and ornamented +with particular richness and beauty. It is remarkable throughout these +ruins, how admirably the columns and buildings are disposed for producing +effect in combination. Of two bridges, a good deal of the one to the east +remains, and the arches reach across the river, though it is not passable, +owing to the destruction of the upper part. There is a paved road between +the colonnades leading from the bridge." + +The ground occupied by this city, which was nearly in the form of a +square, might have been, enclosed by a line of four English miles in +length; the distance from the ruined gateway on the south to the small +temple on the north being about five thousand feet. It stood on the +corresponding sloes of two opposite hills, with a narrow but not a deep +valley between them, through which ran a clear stream of water, springing +from fountains near the centre of the town, and bending its way thence to +the southward. But so complete is the desolation of this once magnificent +place, that Bedouin Arabs now encamp among its ruins for the sake of the +rivulet by which they are washed, as they would collect near a well in the +midst of their native desert. Such portions of the soil as are still +cultivated, are ploughed by men who have no property in it; and the same +spot accordingly is occupied by different persons every succeeding year, +as time and chance may happen to direct. + +Mr. Buckingham thinks that the similarity of situation, as well as of +name, would lead to the conclusion that this Jerash of the Arabs is the +same with the Gergasha of the Hebrews. Reland gives a variety of +derivations, quoted from Pliny, Jamblichus, Epiphanius, and Origen; all of +which are much more satisfactory as they regard the position of a certain +town in the Land of Gilead, than as they convey any precise ideas as to +its etymological import. After the Romans conquered Judea, the country +beyond the Jordan became one of their favourite colonies; to which, from +the circumstance of its containing ten cities, they gave the name of +Decapolis, an appellation recognised by St. Mark in the seventh chapter of +his Gospel. Geraza, it is presumed, was one of those cities; and although +its history is darkened with more than the usual doubt which attaches to +the Jewish annals after the fall of Jerusalem, there is reason to believe +that in the time of Vespasian it suffered the penalty of rebellion, and +was finally destroyed by the Saracens when they attacked the eastern +boundaries of the empire. + +We must satisfy ourselves with a mere glance at the hills of Gilead; the +rich pasture-lands of the tribe of Reuben, and formerly the kingdom of the +gigantic Og, the monarch of Bashan. It is well known that the Valley of +the Jordan is bounded on the east by a range of mountains still more lofty +than those which skirt its western limits; but it was not suspected till +lately that the former concealed in their recesses some of the richest +scenery and most valuable land anywhere to be found in Palestine. Rising +gradually from the bed of the river, the traveller soon finds himself on a +platform seven or eight hundred feet above its level; forming a district +of extraordinary fertility, abounding with the most beautiful prospects, +clothed with thick forests, diversified with verdant slopes, and +possessing extensive plains of a fine soil, yielding in nothing to the +most prolific parts of Galilee and Samaria. "We continued our way," says +Mr. Buckingham, "to the north-east, through a country, the beauty of which +so surprised us, that we often asked each other what were our sensations; +as if to ascertain the reality of what we saw, and persuade each other by +mutual confessions of our delight, that the picture before us was not an +optical illusion. The landscape alone, which varied at every turn, and +gave us new beauties from any point of view, was of itself worth all the +pains of an excursion to the eastward of the Jordan; and the park-like +scenes that sometimes softened the romantic wildness of the general +character as a whole, reminded us of similar spots in less neglected +lands."[138] + +The scenery continues of the same fascinating description till the +traveller reaches the Nahr el Zerkah, or river Jabbok, the ancient +boundary between the Amorites and the Children of Ammon. The banks are +thickly clothed with the oleander and plane-tree, the wild olive and +almond, and many flowering-shrubs of great variety and elegance. The +stream is about thirty feet broad, deeper than the Jordan, and nearly as +rapid, rushing downwards over a rocky channel. On the northern side begins +the kingdom of Bashan, celebrated for its oaks, its cattle, and the bodily +strength of its inhabitants. The opposite plate exhibits a view of the +Jabbok, and of the bold Alpine range which fenced the territory of one of +the most formidable enemies of Israel; verifying in its fullest extent the +description of Moses, who says, "The border of the children of Ammon was +strong."[139] + +The curious reader will find in the Travels of Mr. Buckingham some +ingenious reasoning employed by him to fix the locality of Bozor, Ramoth, +Jabesh, and other towns situated in Gilead, and which were rendered +important by the various events recorded in the sacred volume. + +About six miles from Djerash towards the north stands the village of Souf, +on the brow of a lofty hill, and flanked by a deep ravine. It retains +several marks of having been the site of some more ancient and +considerable town, presenting large blocks of stone with mouldings and +sculpture wrought into the modern buildings. In the neighbourhood are seen +the walls of an edifice apparently Roman, as also the ruins of two small +towers which may with equal certainty be traced to the age of Saracenic +domination. Souf can boast of nearly five hundred inhabitants, all rigid +Mohammedans, and remarkable for a surly and suspicious character. + +Leaving this rather inhospitable village, the traveller who wishes to +visit the remains of Gamala proceeds in a north-westerly direction, +descending into a fine valley, and again rising on a gentle ascent, the +whole being profusely and beautifully wooded with evergreen oaks below, +and pines upon the ridge of the hill above. "Mr. Bankes, who had seen the +whole of England, the greater part of Italy and France, and almost every +province of Spain and Portugal, frequently remarked, that in all his +travels he had met with nothing equal to it, excepting only in some parts +of the latter country,--Entre Minho and Douro,--to which alone he could +compare it."[140] + +Several hamlets and some obscure indications of ancient buildings meet the +eye in course of the journey to Om Keis. Before reaching this town, the +road emerges into a hilly district, bleak, rocky, and ill-cultivated. The +view is as monotonous as that from Jerusalem, forming a striking contrast +to the rich, verdant, and beautiful scenery which distinguishes Bashan and +Gilead. + +Gamala, for under that name the ruins of the Roman station are most +familiarly known, must have covered a site nearly square; its greatest +length, from east to west, being seventeen hundred short paces, and its +breadth about one-fourth less. A considerable portion of it seems to have +stood on the summit of a hill, well fortified all round; the traces of +towers and other works of defence being still visible even on its steepest +parts. The portals of the eastern gate remain, from whence a noble street +appears to have run through the whole length of the city, lined by a +handsome colonnade of Ionic and Corinthian pillars. The pavement is formed +of square blocks of black volcanic stone, and is still so perfect, that +the ruts of wheel-carriages are to be seen in it, of different breadths +and about an inch in depth, as at the ruins of Pompeii and +Herculaneum.[141] + +The first edifice which presents itself on entering the eastern gate is a +theatre, the scene and front of which are entirely destroyed, but the +benches are preserved. Still farther on are appearances of an Ionic +temple, the colonnade of the street being continued; and about half-way +along is a range of Corinthian pillars on pedestals, marking the position +of some grand edifice. Not a column, indeed, continues erect, but the plan +can be distinctly traced. This supposed temple must have been a hundred +paces in depth from north to south; and its façade, which fronted the +street and came in a line with the grand colonnade already mentioned, +cannot have been less than a hundred and eighty feet in breadth. The chief +peculiarity of this structure, however, consists in its having been built +on a range of fine arches, so that its foundations were higher than the +general level of the town; and hence, as the pedestals of the columns were +elevated considerably above the street, it must have presented a very +striking object. + +There are the remains of numerous other edifices, theatres, and temples, +but they are all too indistinct to enable even a professional eye to +pronounce with confidence on their plan and particular purpose. The +prevalent orders of architecture are Ionic and Corinthian, though some few +capitals decidedly Doric are discovered among the ruins. The stone +generally used throughout the city is that of the neighbouring +mountains,--a species of gray rock approaching to a carbonate of lime; but +the shafts of some of the pillars are formed of a black substance, +supposed to have a volcanic origin, and most commonly preferred for the +internal decorations of funereal vaults and sarcophagi.[142] + +As the ruins here described are not immediately on the position usually +assigned to Gamala on the maps, and as Dr. Seetzen, the only person +besides Mr. Buckingham who has published any account of them, thinks that +they are those of Gadara, the latter enters into a lengthened discussion +in support of his own views, calling in the authority of several ancient +writers to establish his position. The reader will find that much of the +ambiguity which prevails on this point arises from the fact of there being +in different parts of Canaan several towns of the same name. For example, +there was unquestionably a place called Gadara on the eastern shore of the +Lake of Tiberias; while from the testimony of Josephus, it is equally +certain that the same appellation was given to the capital of Perea. In +the New Testament, the country of the Gadarenes is described as being on +the other side of the sea, over-against Galilee, a notice which removes +all doubt from the opinion of those who maintain the existence of a town +or village, named Gadara; situated to the northward of the site generally +claimed for Gamala, and nearer the body of the lake. + +Mr. Buckingham tells us, that the account given in the gospel of the +habitation of the demoniac, out of whom the legion of devils was cast, +struck him very forcibly while wandering among savage mountains and +surrounded by tombs, still used as houses by individuals and even by, +whole families. A finer occasion for expressing the passions of madness in +all their violence, contrasted with the serene virtue and benevolence of +Him who went about continually doing good, could hardly be chosen for the +pencil of an artist; and a faithful delineation of the rugged and wild +majesty of the mountain scenery on the one hand, with the still calm of +the lake on the other, would give an additional charm to the picture.[143] + +Amid the interesting ruins of Gamala, situated in a barren district, alike +unfavourable for agriculture, manufactures, and commerce, it is impossible +not to be surprised at the indications of wealth and luxury which must +have centred within its walls. The opulence cannot but have been +considerable which erected such splendid temples and colonnades, and +supported two large theatres; erecting, at the same time, such massive +tombs and splendid sarcophagi for all classes of the population. Its +desolation may be traced to the rebellious spirit of the inhabitants, and +the sanguinary wars to which it led under successive emperors. Vespasian, +whose name is so closely associated with the history of Palestine for good +and for evil, directed against it on more than one occasion the fury of +the Roman legions, and finally levelled its walls, that they might not +again be defended by such desperate insurgents. At a later period, its +remote situation withdrew it from the attention of Europeans; and, in +truth, its very existence had ceased to be remembered, until its ruins +were once more visited by travellers in the course of the present century. + +Passing along the eastern border of the hike, and advancing towards its +northern extremity, the traveller easily recognises that desert place +where the multitude was fed upon the miraculous loaves and fishes. Here, +too, was the scene of the remarkable punishment inflicted upon the +Gadarenes for their insensibility to Divine instruction, as well, perhaps, +as for their unhallowed pursuit in feeding animals forbidden by the law of +Moses. The brink of the water presents many steep places where such a +catastrophe might be easily realized. + +At the upper end of the lake are the remains of Capernaum, now called +Talhewm, or Tel Hoom, situated about ten miles from Tiberias, in a +north-easterly direction. This village, although at present nothing more +than a station of Bedouins, appears to have been occupied in former times +by a settlement of some importance, as the ruins of stately buildings are +found scattered over a wide space in the neighbourhood. The foundations of +a magnificent edifice can still be traced; but the structure itself is so +much dilapidated that it is no longer possible to determine whether it was +a temple or a palace. The northern end is sixty-five paces in length, and, +as the eastern wall seems to have extended to the edge of the water, its +length could not be less than five hundred feet. Within this space are +seen large blocks of sculptured stone, in friezes, cornices, and +mouldings. + +The appearance of the Sea of Galilee, as seen from this point of view at +Capernaum, is very grand. Its greatest length runs nearly north and south, +from fifteen to eighteen miles, while its breadth averages from five to +six. The barren aspect of the mountains on each side, and the total +absence of wood, give, however, a cast of dulness to the picture; and this +is increased even to a feeling of melancholy by the dead calm of its +surface, and the silence which reigns throughout its whole extent, where +not a boat or vessel of any kind is to be found. No fisherman any longer +plies his laborious craft on the bosom of the lake, nor seeks to vary his +scanty meal by letting down his net for a draught. Mr. Buckingham +observed, from the heights above, shoals of fish darting through the +water, and the shore in some places covered with storks and diving-birds, +which repair hither in search of food; but when, on one occasion, he +suggested that a supper might be procured for his party by exercising a +little skill with the rod or net, he discovered that the ignorant +barbarians whom he addressed had not yet taken a lesson from the fowls of +the air. + +A circumstance deserving of notice is mentioned by Hasselquist, in regard +to the tenants of this lake. He thought it remarkable that the same kind +of fish should be here met with as in the Nile,--charmuth, silurus, +baenni, mulsil, and sparus Galilaeus. This explains the observations of +certain travellers, who speak of the Sea of Tiberias as possessing fish +peculiar to itself; not being acquainted perhaps with the produce of the +Egyptian river. Josephus was of the same opinion; and yet it is worthy of +remark, that in describing the fountain of Capernaum his conjectures tend +to confirm the conclusions of the Swedish naturalist:-- + +"Some consider it," says the Jewish historian, "as a vein of the Nile, +because it brings forth fishes resembling the coracinus of the Alexandrian +lake."[144] + +That Capernaum was a place of some wealth and consequence in the time of +our Saviour may be inferred from the expostulation addressed to it, when +he upbraided the other cities wherein most of his mighty works were +done:--"Wo unto thee, Chorazin! Wo unto thee, Bethsaida! And thou, +Capernaum, which art exalted unto heaven, shalt be brought down to hell." +But the history of all the towns on the lake of Genesareth has been +covered with a cloud which it is now impossible to penetrate; and nothing, +accordingly, is more difficult than to determine the situations occupied, +even during the latter period of the Roman ascendency, by some of the +principal places on which the emperors lavished their wealth and taste. +Bethsaida was converted by Herod from an insignificant village into the +dignity and grandeur of a city, named Julias, in compliment to the +daughter of Augustus. At the present moment, however, no traces remain to +point out the line of its walls or the foundations of its palaces. +Genesareth has in like manner disappeared; or if there be any relics of +the town which once gave its name to the inland sea whose shore it +adorned, they are so indistinct and ambiguous as not to merit the notice +of the traveller. Tarachea is represented by the hamlet of Sumuk, and the +ruins of Chorazin are imagined to meet the eye somewhere on the opposite +coast; but, upon the whole, the denunciation uttered against the +unbelieving cities of Galilee has been literally fulfilled, as they are +now brought down to the lowest pitch of obscurity and oblivion.[145] + +Tiberias is the only place on the Sea of Galilee which retains any marks +of its ancient importance. It is understood to cover the ground formerly +occupied by a town of a much remoter age, and of which some traces can +still be distinguished on the beach, a little to the southward of the +present walls. History relates that it was built by Herod the Tetrarch, +and dedicated to the Emperor Tiberius, his patron, although there +prevails, at the same time, an obscure tradition, that the new city owed +its foundation entirely to the imperial pleasure, and was named by him who +commanded it to be erected. Josephus notices the additional circumstance, +which of itself gives great probability to the opinion of its being +established on the ruins of an older town, that, as many sepulchres were +removed in order to make room for the Roman structures, the Jews could +hardly be induced to occupy houses which, according to their notions, were +legally impure. Adrichomius considers Tiberias to be the Chinneroth of the +Hebrews; and says, that it was captured by Benhadad, king of Syria, who +destroyed it, and was in after-ages restored by Herod; who surrounded it +with walls, and adorned it with magnificent buildings. The old Jewish +city, whatever was its name, probably owed its existence to the fame of +its hot baths,--an origin to which many temples, and even the cities +belonging to them, may be traced. + +The present town of Tabaria, as it is now called, is in the form of an +irregular crescent, and is enclosed towards the land by a wall flanked +with circular towers. It lies nearly north and south along the edge of the +lake, and has its eastern front so close to the water, on the brink of +which it stands, that some of the houses are washed by the sea: The whole +does not appear more than a mile in circuit, and cannot, from the manner +in which they are placed, contain above 500 separate dwellings. There are +two gates visible from without, one near the southern and the other in the +western wall; there are appearances also of the town having been +surrounded by a ditch, but this is now filled up and used for gardens. + +The interior presents but few subjects of interest, among which are a +mosque with a dome and minaret, and two Jewish synagogues. There is a +Christian place of worship called the House of Peter, which is thought by +some to be the oldest building used for that purpose in any part of +Palestine. It is a vaulted room, thirty feet long by fifteen broad, and +perhaps fifteen in height, standing nearly east and west, with its door of +entrance at the western front, and its altar immediately opposite in a +shallow recess. Over the door is one small window, and on each side four +others, all arched and open. The structure is of a very ordinary kind, +both in workmanship and material; the pavement within is similar to that +used for streets in this country; and the walls are entirely devoid of +sculpture or any other architectural ornament. But it derives no small +interest from the popular belief that it is the very house which Peter +inhabited at the time of his being called from his boat to follow the +Messias. It is manifest, notwithstanding, that it must have been +originally constructed for a place of divine worship, and probably at a +period much later than the days of the apostle whose name it bears, +although there is no good ground for questioning the tradition which +places it on the very spot long venerated as the site of his more humble +habitation. Here too it was, say the dwellers in Tiberias, that he pushed +off his boat into the lake when about to have his faith rewarded by the +miraculous draught of fishes.[146] + +Besides the public buildings already specified are the house of the aga, +on the rising ground near the northern quarter of the town, a small +bazaar, and two or three coffee sheds; the ordinary dwellings of the +inhabitants are such as are commonly seen in eastern villages, but are +marked by a peculiarity which Mr. Buckingham witnessed there for the first +time. On the terrace of almost every house stands a small square enclosure +of reeds, loosely covered with leaves; to which, he learned, heads of +families are wont to resort during the summer months, when, from the low +situation of the town and the absence of cooling breezes, the heat of the +nights is literally intolerable.[147] + +According to the opinion of the best informed among the inhabitants, the +population of Tiberias (or Tabareeah, as they pronounce it) does not +exceed two thousand. Of these about one-half are Jews, many of whom are +from Europe, particularly from Germany, Russia, and Poland; the rest are +Mohammedans, with the exception of twenty or thirty Christian families who +profess the tenets of the Latin church. + +The warm baths, which have given celebrity to that neighbourhood, are +still found at the distance of between two and three miles southward from +the town. The building erected on the spring is small and mean, and +altogether the work of the present rulers of Palestine. The bath itself is +a square room of eighteen or twenty feet, covered with a low dome, and +having seats or benches on each side. The cistern for containing the hot +water is in the centre of this room, and sunk below the pavement. It is a +square of eight or nine feet only, and the spring rises to supply it +through a small head of some animal but this is so badly executed that it +is difficult to know for what it was intended. Mr. Buckingham states, that +his thermometer, when immersed in the water, instantly rose to 130°, which +was the utmost limit of the instrument. He is satisfied, however, that the +heat was much greater, because is was painful to the hand as it issued +from the spout, and could only be borne by those who had bathed in the +cistern.[148] + +Tiberias makes a conspicuous figure in the Jewish annals, and was the +scene of some of the most remarkable events which are recorded by +Josephus. After the downfall of Jerusalem, it continued until the fifth +century to be the residence of Jewish patriarchs, rabbis, and learned +men. A university was established within its boundaries; and as the +patriarchate was allowed to be hereditary, the remnant of the Hebrew +people enjoyed a certain degree of weight and consequence during the +greater part of four centuries. In the sixth age, if we may confide in the +accuracy of Procopius, the Emperor Justinian rebuilt the walls; but in the +following century, the seventh of the Christian era, the city was taken by +the Saracens, under Calif Omar, who stripped it of its privileges, and +demolished some of its finest edifices. It must not be concealed, however, +that in the Itinerary of Willibald, who performed his journey into the +Holy Land towards the close of the eighth century, mention is made of many +churches and synagogues which the conquerors had either not destroyed or +allowed to be repaired.[149] + +From Tiberias to Nazareth the traveller has to encounter an almost +uninterrupted ascent. The village of Caber Sabet first attracts his +attention by its architectural remains, indicating the existence of an +ancient building, which must have had marble columns and a magnificent +portico. He soon afterwards reaches Soak el Khan,--a place chiefly +celebrated for a weekly market, where every description of commodity in +use among the people is collected for sale. It also presents the ruins of +a Saracenic fort of a square shape, with circular towers at the angles and +in the centre of each wall. + +In pursuing this route we have Mount Tor, or Tabor, on the left-hand, +rising in solitary majesty from the Plain of Esdraëlon. Its appearance has +been described by some authors as that of a half-sphere, while to others +it suggests the idea of a cone with its point struck off. According to Mr. +Maundrell, the height is such as to require the labour of an hour to reach +the summit; where is seen a level area of an oval figure, extending about +two furlongs in length and one in breadth. It is enclosed with trees on +all sides except the south, and is most fertile and delicious. Having been +anciently surrounded with walls and trenches, there are remains of +considerable fortifications at the present day. Burckhardt says, a thick +wall, constructed of large stones, may be traced quite round the summit, +close to the edge of the precipice; on several parts of which are relics +of bastions. The area too is overspread with the ruins of private +dwellings, built of stone with great solidity. + +Pococke assures us that it is one of the finest hills he ever beheld, +being a rich soil that produces excellent herbage, and most beautifully +adorned with groves and clumps of trees. The height he calculates to be +about two miles, making allowance for the winding ascent; but he adds, +that others have imagined the same path to be not less than four miles. +Hasselquist conjectures that it is a league to the top, the whole of which +may be accomplished without dismounting,--a statement amply confirmed by +the experience of Van Egmont and Heyman. These travellers relate that +"this mountain, though somewhat rugged and difficult, we ascended on +horseback, making several circuits round it, which took up about +three-quarters of an hour. It is one of the highest in the whole country, +being thirty stadia, or about four English miles. And it is the most +beautiful we ever saw with regard to verdure, being everywhere decorated +with small oak-trees, and the ground universally enamelled with a variety +of plants and flowers. There are great number of red partridges, and some +wild boars; and we were so fortunate as to see the Arabs hunting them. We +left, but not without reluctance, this delightful place, and found at the +bottom of it a mean village, called Deboura, or Tabour,--a name said to be +derived from the celebrated Deborah mentioned in the book of Judges." + +But this mountain derives the largest share of its celebrity from the +opinion entertained among Christians since the days of Jerome, that it was +the scene of a memorable event in the history of our Lord. On the eastern +part of the hill are the remains of a strong castle; and within the +precincts of it is the grotto in which are three altars in memory of the +three tabernacles that St. Peter proposed to build, and where the Latin +friars always perform mass on the anniversary of the Transfiguration. It +is said there was a magnificent church built here by Helena, which was a +cathedral when this town was made a bishop's see. On the side of the hill +they show a church in a grot, were they say Christ charged his disciples +not to tell what things they had seen till he should be glorified. + +It is very doubtful, however, whether this tradition be well founded, or +whether it has not, as Mr. Maundrell and other writers suspect, originated +in the misinterpretation of a very common Greek phrase. Our Saviour is +said to have taken with him Peter, James, and John, and brought them into +a high mountain "apart;" from which it has been rather hastily inferred +that the description must apply to Tabor, the only insulated and solitary +hill in the neighbourhood. We may remark, with the traveller just named, +that the conclusion may possibly be true, but that the argument used to +prove it seems incompetent; because the term "apart" most likely relates +to the withdrawing and retirement of the persons here spoken of, and not +to the situation of the mountain. In fact, it means nothing more than that +our Lord and his three disciples betook themselves to a private place for +the purpose of devotion. + +The view from Mount Tabor is extolled by every traveller. "It is +impossible," says Maundrell, "for man's eyes to behold a higher +gratification of this nature." On the north-west you discern in the +distance the noble expanse of the Mediterranean, while all around you see +the spacious and beautiful plains of Esdraëlon and Galilee. Turning a +little southward, you have in view the high mountains of Gilboa, so fatal +to Saul and his sons. Due east you discover the Sea of Tiberias, distant +about one day's journey. A few points to the north appears the Mount of +Beatitudes, the place where Christ delivered his sermon to his disciples +and the multitude. Not far from this little hill is the city of Saphet, or +Szaffad, standing upon elevated and very conspicuous ground. Still +farther, in the same direction, is seen a lofty peak covered with snow, a +part of the chain of Anti-Libanus. To the south-west is Carmel, and in the +south the hills of Samaria.[150] + +The plain around, the most fertile part of the Land of Canaan, being one +vast meadow covered with the richest pasture, is the inheritance where the +tribe of Issachar "rejoiced in their tents." Here it was that Barak, +descending with his ten thousand men from Tabor, discomfited Sisera and +all his chariots. In the same neighbourhood Josiah, king of Judah, fought +in disguise against Necho, king of Egypt, and fell by the arrows of his +antagonist, deeply lamented. The great mourning in Jerusalem, foretold +by Zechariah, is said to be as the lamentations in the Plain of Esdraëlon, +as the mourning of Hadadrimmon in the Valley of Megiddon. Vespasian +reviewed his army in the same great plain. It has been a chosen place for +encampments in every contest carried on in this country, from the days of +Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, down to the disastrous invasion of +Napoleon Bonaparte. Jews, Gentiles, Saracens, Egyptians, Persians, Druses, +Turks, Arabs, Christian Crusaders, and Antichristian Frenchmen,--warriors +out of every nation under heaven,--have pitched their tents upon the Plain +of Esdraëlon, and have beheld their various banners wet with the dews of +Tabor and of Hermon. And shall we not add that here too is to be fought +the great battle of Armageddon, so well known to all interpreters of +prophecy, which is expected to change the aspect of the eastern world? +When the French invaded Syria in 1799, General Kleber was attacked near a +village called Fouleh, in the Great Plain, by an army of 25,000 Turks. At +the head of twelve or fifteen hundred men, whom he formed into a square, +he continued fighting from sunrise till midday, when he had expended all +his ammunition. Bonaparte, at length, informed of his perilous situation, +advanced to his support with six hundred soldiers; at the sight of whom +the enemy, after having lost several thousands in killed and wounded, +commenced a hurried retreat, in the course of which many of them were +drowned in the River Daboury, at that time, like another Kishon, +overflowing its banks. In a word, the champaign country which stretches +north-west from Tabor has been the theatre of real or of mimic warfare in +all ages. "We had the pleasure," says Doubdan, "to view from the top of +that mountain Arabs encamped by thousands; tents and pavilions of all +colours, green, red, and yellow; with so great a number of horses and +camels, that it seemed like a vast army, or a city besieged."[151] + +But we now proceed towards Nazareth, the modern Naszera or Nassera, a +journey of about two hours from the foot of the mountain which we have +just examined. It seems, says one writer, as if fifteen mountains met to +form an enclosure for this delightful spot; they rise round it like the +edge of a shell to guard it from intrusion. It is a rich and beautiful +field in the midst of barren hills. The church stands in a cave supposed +to be the place where the Blessed Virgin received the joyful message of +the angel, recorded in the first chapter of St. Luke's Gospel. It +resembles the figure of a cross. That part of it which stands for the tree +of the cross is fourteen paces long and six broad, and runs directly into +the grot, having no other arch over it at top but that of the natural +rock. The transverse part is nine paces in length and four in width, and +is built athwart the mouth of the cave. Just at the section of these +divisions are erected two granite pillars, two feet in diameter, and about +three feet distant from each other. They are supposed by the faithful to +stand on the very places where the angel and the Blessed Virgin +respectively stood at the time of the Annunciation.[152] + +When Dr. Clarke visited this sanctuary, the friars pointed out the kitchen +and the fireplace of the Virgin Mary; and as all consecrated places in the +Holy Land contain some supposed miracle for exhibition, the monks, he +informs us, have taken care not to be altogether deficient in supernatural +rarities. Accordingly, the first things they show to strangers who descend +into the cave are two stone pillars in the front of it; one of which, +separated from its base, is said to sustain its capital and a part of its +shaft miraculously in the air. The fact is, that the capital and a piece +of the shaft of a pillar of gray granite have been fastened to the roof of +the grotto; and "so clumsily is the rest of the _hocus pocus_ contrived, +that what is shown for the lower fragment of the same pillar resting upon +the earth is not of the same substance, but of Cipolino marble."[153] + +A variety of stories are circulated about the fracture of this miraculous +pillar. The more ancient travellers were told that it was broken by a +pasha in search of hidden treasure, who was struck with blindness for his +impiety; at present it is said that it separated into two parts, in the +manner in which it still appears, when the angel announced to Mary the +glad tidings with which he was commissioned. Maundrell was not less +observant than the author just quoted, although he does not so openly +expose the deception. "It touches the roof above, and is probably hanged +upon that; unless you had rather take the friars' account of it, namely, +that it is supported by a miracle." + +Pococke has proved that the tradition concerning the dwelling-place of the +parents of Jesus Christ existed at a very early period; because the church +built over it is mentioned by writers of the seventh century. Nor is there +in the circumstance that their abode was fixed in a grotto or natural +cave, any thing repugnant to the notions usually entertained either of the +ancient customs of the country or of the class of society to which Joseph +and his espoused wife belonged. But when we are called upon to surrender +our belief to the legends invented by men whose ignorance is the best +apology we can urge for their superstition, a certain degree of disgust +and indignation is perfectly justifiable. + +In such a case we are disposed to question the good effects ascribed by +some authors to the pious zeal of the Empress Helena, who, although she +did not in fact erect one-half of the buildings ascribed to her +munificence, most undoubtedly laboured, by her architectural designs, to +obliterate every trace of those simple scenes which might have been +regarded with reasonable veneration in all ages of the church. Dr. Clarke, +in a fit of spleen with which we cannot altogether refuse to sympathize, +remarks, that had the Sea of Tiberias been capable of annihilation by her +means, it would have been dried up, paved, covered with churches and +altars, or converted into monasteries and markets of indulgences, until +every feature of the original had disappeared; and all this by way of +rendering it more particularly holy.[154] + +Of the original edifice, said to have been erected by the mother of +Constantine, some remains may still be observed in the form of subverted +columns, which, with the fragments of their capitals and bases, lie near +the modern building. The present church and convent are of a comparatively +recent date, at least so far as the outward structure and internal +decorations are concerned; the former being filled with pictures supplied +by the modern school, all of which are said to be below mediocrity. + +Besides the antiquities already mentioned having a reference to the early +history of our Lord, the traveller is conducted to the "workshop of +Joseph," which is near the convent, and was formerly included within its +walls. It is now a small chapel, perfectly modern, and whitewashed like a +Turkish sepulchre. After this is shown the synagogue where the Redeemer is +said to have read the Scriptures to the Jews; and also the precipice from +which the monks aver he leaped down to escape the rage of his townsmen, +who were offended at his application of the sacred text "And all they in +the synagogue, when they heard these things, were filled with wrath, and +rose up, and thrust him out of the city, and led him unto the brow of the +hill whereon their city was built, that they might cast him down headlong. +But he, passing through the midst of them, went his way."[155] + +The Mount of Precipitation, as it is now called, is, according to Mr. +Buckingham, about two miles distant from Nazareth; is almost inaccessible, +from the steep and rocky nature of the road; and is decidedly not upon the +hill where the town could ever have been built. Dr. Clarke, on the other +hand, maintains that the words of the evangelist are most explicit, and +prove the situation of the ancient city to have been precisely that which +is now occupied by the modern town. In a recess there is an altar hewn out +of the rock, said to be the very spot where Christ dined with his +disciples. Close by are two large cisterns for preserving rain-water, and +several portions of buildings, all described as the remains of a religious +establishment founded by the pious and indefatigable Helena. Immediately +over this scene, and on the edge of a precipice about thirty feet in +height, are two flat stones set up on their edges. In the centre, and +scattered over different parts of one of them, are several round marks +like the deep imprint of fingers on wax; and it is insisted that these are +the impression of our Saviour's hand when he clung to the stone, and +thereby escaped being thrown headlong down.[156] + +One celebrated relic still remains to be noticed, which, although it is +not alluded to in the New Testament, is regularly authenticated by the +pope; who, besides, grants a plenary indulgence to every pilgrim visiting +the place where it is exhibited. This is nothing more than a large stone, +on which it is affirmed that Christ did eat with his disciples both before +and after his resurrection from the dead. A chapel has been built over it, +on the walls of which are several copies of a printed certificate, stating +the grounds of its claim to veneration. Dr. Clarke transcribed this +curious document, which we give in a note below, accompanied with a +translation for the use of such readers as have not formed an acquaintance +with the Latin tongue.[157] + +There is not an object in all Nazareth so much the resort of +pilgrims,--Greeks, Catholics, Arabs, and even Turks,--as this stone: the +former classes on account of the seven years' indulgence granted to those +who visit it; the two latter, because they believe some virtue must reside +in a slab before which all comers are so eager to prostrate themselves. + +In a valley near the town is a fountain which bears the name of the +Virgin, and where the women are seen passing to and fro with pitchers on +their heads, as in the days of old. It is justly remarked, that, if there +be a spot throughout the Holy Land which was more particularly honoured by +the presence of Mary, we may consider this to be the place; because the +situation of a copious spring is not liable to change, and because the +custom of repairing thither to draw water has been continued among the +female inhabitants of Nazareth from the earliest period of its history. + +As another memorial of primitive times, we may mention that it is still +common in Nazareth to see "two women grinding at the mill;" illustrating +the remarkable saying of our Lord in reference to the destruction of +Jerusalem. The two females, seated on the ground opposite to each other, +hold between them two round flat stones, such as are seen in Lapland, and +which in Scotland are usually called querns. In the centre of the upper +stone is a cavity for pouring in the corn; and by the side of this an +upright wooden handle for moving it. To begin the operation, one of the +women with her right hand pushes this handle to her companion, who in her +turn sends it back to the first,--thus communicating a rotatory and very +rapid motion to the upper stone; their left hands being all the while +employed in supplying fresh corn, as fast as the bran and flour escape +from the sides of the machine.[158] + +It is not without pleasure that the traveller contemplates these unaltered +tokens of the simple life which prevailed in Palestine at the time when +our Saviour abode in the house of Mary his mother; and more especially, as +he cannot fail to contrast them with the pernicious mummery which +continues to disgrace the more artificial monuments of Christian +antiquity. From the extravagances chargeable upon the priesthood at all +the holy places in Canaan, there has resulted this most melancholy fact, +that devout but weak men, unable to distinguish between monkish fraud and +simple truth, have considered the whole series of topographical evidence +as one tissue of imposture, and have left the Holy Land worse Christians +than when they entered it. Credulity and skepticism are extremes too often +found to approximate; and the man, accordingly, who suddenly relinquishes +the one, is almost sure to adopt the other. + +Burckhardt remarks that the church of Nazareth, next to the one over the +Holy Sepulchre, is the finest in Syria, and possesses two tolerably good +organs. Within the walls of the convent are several gardens and a small +burying-ground; the building is very strong, and serves occasionally as a +fortress to all the Christians in the town. There are eleven friars on the +establishment, the yearly expenses of which, amounting to about 900l., are +defrayed by the rent of a few houses and the produce of a small portion of +land, the property of the good fathers. + +Before quitting this interesting place,--the scene where our Lord passed +the days of his childhood and youth,--we may observe, that there is a +great variation in the accounts given by different travellers as to the +number of its inhabitants. Dr. Richardson restricts it to six or seven +hundred; Mr. Buckingham raises it to two thousand; while others assert +that it does not fall short of half as many more. There are five hundred +Turks, and the remainder are Christians,--the later described as a civil +and very industrious class of people. + +At about an hour and a half towards the north-east, situated on the slope +of a hill, stands Kefer Kenna, or Cana of Galilee, the village where the +Redeemer performed his first miracle. Here, in a small church belonging to +the Greek communion, is shown an old stone pot made of the common rock of +the country, and which is said to be one of the original vessels that +contained the water afterward converted into wine. It is worthy of note, +says Dr. Clarke, that in walking among the ruins of Cana one sees large +massy pots of stone answering to the description given by the evangelist; +not preserved nor exhibited as relics, but lying about disregarded by the +present inhabitants, as antiquities with the original use of which they +are altogether unacquainted. From their appearance, and the number of +them, it is quite evident that the practice of keeping water in large +stone pots, each holding from eighteen to twenty-seven gallons, was once +common in the country. + +The remains of the house in which the marriage was celebrated are likewise +pointed out to the traveller, who, at the present day, is permitted to +examine curiosities with greater deliberation than was allowed to honest +Doubdan.[159] This pious confessor, whose zeal prompted him to leave +nothing unexplored, found an old church in the village, ascribed as usual +to the inexhaustible beneficence of St. Helena; but his attention was more +pleasantly engaged in tracing the course of the stream which issues from +the sacred fountain whence the water was drawn for the marriage-feast. +There is still a limpid spring near the village; which affords to the +inhabitants their daily supply of a delicious beverage. Pilgrims repair to +it moved by feelings of piety, or, as Doubdan expresses it, to satisfy at +once their devotion and their thirst. A few olive-trees being near the +spot, travellers alight, spread their carpets, and having filled their +pipes, generally smoke tobacco and take some coffee; always preferring +repose in these places to any accommodations which can be obtained in the +village. Such has been the custom of the country from time immemorial, +extending, not only to the wayfaring man, but also to the shepherds on the +surrounding hills, and to the companies of merchantmen whose trade carries +them through the neighbouring deserts.[160] + +As we must now leave the interior of Palestine, and return to the shore of +the Mediterranean, we cannot do more at this advanced stage of our +progress than take a distant view of the landscape which stretches from +the lake of Tiberias to the sources of the Jordan. The mountains that +terminate the prospect are extremely magnificent, some of them being +covered with perpetual snow. The intervening country, too, is in many +parts uncommonly fine, presenting luxuriant crops, thriving villages, and +other tokens of security and comfort. The Jordan issues from Lake Hoole, +or Julias, which in its turn is fed by so many streams, that it becomes +very difficult to determine the true fountain of the sacred river. + +The only town of consequence between the ruins of Capernaum and the alpine +range of Hermon and Djibbel el Sheik is Saphet, already mentioned, being +one of the four cities consecrated by the religious veneration of the +Hebrews. According to Burckhardt, it stands upon several low hills that +divide it into quarters, the largest of which is occupied by Jews. The +whole may contain six hundred houses, of which one hundred and fifty +belong to the people just named, and nearly as many to the Christians. The +summit of the principal eminence is crowned with an ancient castle, part +of which is regarded by the descendants of Israel as being contemporary +with their earliest kings. + +Saphet is still a sort of university for the education of the Jewish +rabbis, of whom there are usually twenty of thirty resident, collected +from different countries of Europe, Africa, and Asia. They have no fewer +than seven synagogues. Their attachment to this place arises from various +motives, and especially from the traditionary belief that the Messias is +to reign here forty years before he assumes the government at Jerusalem. +To the north of the hill on which the castle stands there are several +wells, which, it is said, were dug by the patriarch Isaac, and became the +cause of contention between his herdsmen and those of Gerar; but, says +Pococke, they have much mistaken the place, the Valley of Gerar being at a +great distance on the other side of Jerusalem. This town, which is only +mentioned in the book of Tobit as belonging to the tribe of Naphtali, +became famous during the Crusades; it was occupied also by a detachment of +French troops during the invasion of the country by Bonaparte. + +It is worthy of notice, that when the celebrated chief now named retreated +from before Acre, the tyrant Djezzar Pasha, to avenge himself on the +Franks, inflicted a severe punishment on the Jewish and Christian +inhabitants of Saphet. It is said that he had resolved to massacre all the +believers in Moses and Jesus Christ who might be found in any part of his +dominions, and had actually sent orders to Nazareth and Jerusalem to +accomplish his barbarous design. But Sir Sidney Smith, on being apprised +of his intention, conveyed to him the assurance, that if a single +Christian head should fall, he would bombard Acre, and set it on fire. The +interposition of the British Admiral is still remembered with heartfelt +gratitude by all the inhabitants, who looked upon him as their deliverer. +"His word," says Burckhardt, "I have often heard both Turks and Christians +exclaim, was like God's word,--it never failed." + +It is to no purpose that we endeavour to ascertain the position of Dan, +the extreme point of the ancient Hebrew territory. Its proximity to the +fountains of Jordan might be supposed to prove a sufficient guide to the +geographer in his local researches; but, as has been already mentioned, +the rivulets which contribute to form the main stream of this celebrated +river are so numerous, and apparently so equally entitled to the honour of +being accounted the principal source, that the precise situation of the +temple where Jeroboam set up one of his golden calves is still open to +conjecture. + +The road from Nazareth to Acre proceeds for some time ever a barren, rocky +tract of country, which Hasselquist informs us is a continuation of a +species of territory peculiar to the same meridian, and stretching through +several parallels of latitude. At length the traveller reaches Sephouri, +or Sepphoris, the Zippor of the Hebrews, and the Diocesarea of the Romans, +once the chief town and bulwark of Galilee. The remains of its +fortifications exhibit one of the works of Herod, who, after its +destruction by Varus, not only rebuilt and fortified it, but made it the +principal city of his tetrarchy. Its inhabitants often revolted against +the Romans, relying, on the advantages for defence supplied by its natural +position. It is mentioned in the Talmud as the seat of a Jewish +university, and was long famous for the learning of its rabbis. Here also +was held one of the five sanhedrims authorized by the spiritual governors +of Palestine; the others being established at Jerusalem, Jericho, Gadara, +and Amathus. But its chief celebrity is connected with the tradition, that +it was the residence of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin Mary. +The house of St. Anne, observes Dr. Clarke, is the "commencement of that +superstitious trumpery which for a long time has constituted the chief +object of devotion and of pilgrimage in the Holy Land." No sooner was the +spot discovered where the pious couple had lived than Constantine issued +instructions to build upon it a magnificent church, the remains of which +have been minutely described by the enterprising traveller to whom we have +just alluded. + +"We are conducted to the ruins of a stately Gothic edifice, which seems to +have been one of the finest structures in the Holy Land. Here we entered +beneath lofty massive arches of stone. The roof of the building was of the +same materials. The arches are placed at the intersection of a Greek +cross, and originally supported a dome or a tower; their appearance is +highly picturesque, and they exhibit the grandeur of a noble style of +architecture. Broken columns of granite and marble lie scattered among the +walls, and these prove how richly it was decorated. We measured the +capital of a pillar of the order commonly called Tuscan, which we found +lying against one of granite. The top of this formed a square of, three +feet. One aisle of this building is still entire; at the eastern extremity +a small temporary altar had been recently constructed by the piety of +pilgrims; it consisted of loose materials, and was of very modern date. +Some fragments of the original decorations of the church had been gathered +from the ruins and laid upon this altar; and although they had remained +open to every approach, even the Moslems had respected the votive +offerings."[161] + +The date of this building is incidently mentioned by Epiphanius, who +relates that one Joseph, a native of Tiberias, was authorized by +Constantine to erect a, number of such edifices in the Holy Land, and that +he fulfilled the intention of his sovereign at Tiberias, Capernaum, and +Diocesarea. Reland, upon the authority of Theophanes, places its +destruction in the year 339 of the Christian era, when the town was +demolished on account of the seditious conduct of its inhabitants. + +It is perhaps worthy of notice, that Dr. Clarke examined some pictures +which had been recently discovered among these ruins. One appears to +represent the interview between our Saviour and the two disciples at +Emmaus, when in the set of making himself known to them by the breaking of +bread. Another exhibits the Virgin bearing in swaddling-clothes the infant +Jesus; and a third seems to illustrate the same subject in circumstances +somewhat different. They are said to bear a great resemblance to those +used in the churches of Russia, being executed upon a square piece of wood +about half an inch in thickness. As they were not valued highly by the +person into whose hands they had accidently fallen, the Englishman +bestowed a trifle on the ignorant Mohammedan, and "took them into safer +custody."[163] + +The vale of Zabulon divides the village just described from the ridge of +hills which look down on Acre and the shores of the Great Sea. This +delightful plain appears everywhere covered with spontaneous vegetation, +flourishing in the wildest exuberance. The scenery is described by Dr. +Clarke as not less beautiful than that of the rich valleys upon the south +of the Crimea. It reminded him of the nest parts of Kent and Surrey. The +prickly-pear, which grows to a prodigious size in the Holy Land, sprouts +luxuriantly among the rocks, displaying its gaudy yellow blossoms, and +promising abundance of a delicious cooling fruit. Off either side of the +road the ruins of fortified places exercise the ingenuity of the +antiquarian traveller, who endeavours, through the mist of tradition and +the perplexing obscurity of modern names, to identify towns which make a +figure in Jewish and Roman history. All remains of the strong city of +Zabulon, called by Josephus the "city of men," have disappeared; and its +"admirable beauty," rivalling that of Tyre, Sidon, and Berytus, is now +sought for in vain among Arab huts and scattered stones. + +The plain, which skirts the Mediterranean from Jaffa to Cape Blanco, +presents many interesting memorials of Hebrew antiquity and of European +warfare. Every town along the coast has been the scene of contention +between the armies of Christendom and those of Islamism; whence arises the +motive which has determined us to incorporate the history of these cities +with the narrative of the exploits whereon their fortunes have chiefly +depended. Suffice it to mention as we go along, that the vicinity of Acre +invites the attention of the naturalist, on account of certain facts +recorded by Pliny, and repeated by subsequent historians. It is said by +this writer, that it was at the mouth of the river Belus the art of making +glass was first discovered. A party of sailors, who had occasion to visit +the shore in that neighbourhood, propped up the kettle in which they were +about to cook their provisions with sand and pieces of nitre; when to +their surprise they found produced by the action of the fire on these +ingredients, a new substance, which has added immensely to the comforts of +life and to the progress of science. The sand of this remarkable stream +confirmed for ages to supply, not only the manufactories of Sidon, but all +other places, with materials for that beautiful production. Vessels from +Italy were employed to remove it for the glass-houses of Venice and Genoa +so late as the middle of the seventeenth century. + +There is another circumstance connected with the same river, which, in the +mythological writings of antiquity, makes a still greater figure than the +discovery just described. Lucian relates that the Belus, at certain +seasons of the year, especially about the feast of Adonis, is of a bloody +colour,--a fact which the heathens looked upon as proceeding from a kind +of sympathy for the death of this favourite of Venus, who was killed by a +wild boar in the mountains whence the stream takes its rise. "Something +like this," says Maundrell, "we saw actually come to pass; for the water +was stained to a surprising redness, and, as we had observed in +travelling, had discoloured the sea a great way into a reddish hue, +occasioned doubtless by a sort of minium, or red earth, washed into the +river by the violence of the rain, and not by any stain from Adonis's +blood."[163] + +The excellence of Carmel, which here rises into view, has in a great +measure passed away. The curse denounced by Amos has fallen upon it,--"The +top of Carmel shall wither;"--for it is now chiefly remarkable as a mass +of barren and desolate rocks. Its sides are indeed graced by some native +cedars, and even the brambles are still intermingled with wild vines and +olives, denoting its ancient fertility, or more careful cultivation; but +there are no longer any rich pastures to render it the "habitation of +shepherds," or to recall to the fancy the beauty of Carmel and of Sharon, +and to justify the comparison of it to the glory of Libanus. It owes to +its name and to its prominent situation on the coast, as a sentinel of the +Holy Land, all the interest which can now be claimed for the mountain on +which Elias vindicated the worship of Jehovah, and where thousands of holy +Christians have spent their lives in meditation and prayer. + +The monastery which stands on the summit of the hill, near the spot were +the prophet offered up his sacrifice, was long the principal residence of +the Carmelite friars. It appears never to have been a fine building, and +is now entirely abandoned. During the campaign of the French in Syria, it +was made an hospital for their sick, for which it was well adapted by its +healthy and retired situation. It has been since ravaged by the Turks, who +have stripped its shrines and destroyed its roof; though there still +remains, for the solace of devout visiters, a small stone altar in a +grotto dedicated to Saint Elias, over which is a coarse painting +representing the holy man leaning on a wheel, with fire and other +instruments of sacrifice at his side.[164] + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + + +_The History of Palestine from the Fall of Jerusalem to +the Present Time_. + +State of Judea after the Fall of Jerusalem; Revolt under Trajan; Barcochab; +Adrian repairs Jerusalem; Schools at Babylon and Tiberias; The Attempt +of Julian to rebuild the Temple; Invasion of Chosroes; Sack of Jerusalem; +Rise of Islamism; Wars of the Califs; First Crusade; Jerusalem delivered; +Policy of Crusades; Victory at Ascalon; Baldwin King; Second Crusade; +Saladin; His Success at Tiberias; He recovers Jerusalem; The Third +Crusade; Richard Coeur de Lion; Siege and Capture of Acre; Plans of +Richard; His Return to Europe; Death of Saladin; Fourth Crusade; Battle of +Jaffa; Fifth Crusade; Fall of Constantinople; Sixth Crusade; Damietta +taken; Reverses; Frederick the Second made King of Jerusalem; Seventh +Crusade; Christians admitted into the Holy City; Inroad of Karismians; +Eighth Crusade under Louis IX.; He takes Damietta; His Losses and Return +to Europe; Ninth Crusade; Louis IX. and Edward I.; Death of Louis; +Successes of Edward; Treaty with Sultan; Final Discomfiture of the Franks +in Palestine, and Loss of Acre; State of Palestine under the Turks; +Increased Toleration; Bonaparte invades Syria; Siege of Acre and Defeat +of French; Actual State of the Holy Land; Number, Condition, and Character +of the Jews. + +The destruction of Jerusalem, though it put an end to the polity of the +Hebrew nation as an independent people, did not entirely disperse the +remains of their miserable tribes, nor denude the Holy Land of its proper +inhabitants. The number of the slain was indeed immense, and the multitude +of captives carried away by Titus glutted the slave-markets of the Roman +empire; but it is true, nevertheless, that many fair portions of Palestine +were uninjured by the war, and continued to enjoy an enviable degree of +prosperity under the government of their conquerors. The towns on the +coast generally submitted to the legions without incurring the chance of a +battle or the horrors of a siege; while the provinces beyond the Jordan, +which formed the kingdom of Agrippa, maintained their allegiance to Rome +throughout the whole period of the insurrection elsewhere so fatal, and +especially to the inheritance of Judah and of Benjamin. + +It has been already suggested that soon after the Roman army was +withdrawn, many of the Jewish families, Christians as well as followers +of the Mosaical Law, returned to their sacred capital, and sought a +precarious dwelling among its ruins. To prevent the rebuilding of the +city, Vespasian found it necessary to establish on Mount Zion a garrison +of eight hundred men. The same emperor, it is related, commanded strict +search to be made for all who claimed descent from the house of David, in +order to cut off, if possible, all hope of the restoration of that royal +race, and more especially of the advent of the Messiah, the confidence in +whose speedy coming still burned with feverish excitement in the heart of +every faithful Israelite. A similar jealousy, which dictated a similar +inquisition, was continued in the subsequent reign,--a fact strongly +illustrative of the spirit which prevailed at that period among the +descendants of Abraham, and explanatory also of their successive revolts +against the Roman power. + +Under the mild sway of Trajan, the Jews in Egypt, Cyprus, and even in +Mesopotamia, flew to arms, to avenge the insults to which they had been +subjected, or to realize the hopes that they have never ceased to +cherish. After a war remarkable for the waste of blood with which it was +accompanied, the unhappy insurgents were everywhere suppressed; having +lost, according to their own confession, more than half a million of men +in the field of battle, or the sack of towns. The skill and fortune of +Adrian, who soon afterward occupied the imperial throne, were displayed in +the island of Cyprus, from which the Jews were expelled with tremendous +slaughter, and prohibited from ever again touching its shores. + +To check the mutinous disposition, or to weaken the influence of the +vanquished tribes, an edict was promulgated by their Roman masters, +forbidding circumcision, the reading of the Law, and the observance of the +weekly Sabbath. Still further to defeat their favourite schemes, and to +blast all hopes of a restoration to civil power in Jerusalem under their +Messiah, it was resolved by the government at Rome to repair to a certain +extent the city of the Jews, and to establish in it a regular colony of +Greeks and Latins. At this crisis appeared the notorious Barcochab, whose +name, denoting the "son of a star," made him be instantly hailed by a +large majority of the nation as that predicted light which was to arise +out of Jacob in the latter days. Recommended by Akiba, one of the most +popular of the Rabbim, to the confidence of Israel, this impostor soon saw +himself at the head of a powerful army; amounting, say the Jewish +annalists, to more than two hundred thousand men. In the absence of the +legions now called to other parts of the East, he found little difficulty +in taking possession of Jerusalem; and before a competent force, under the +renowned Julius Severus, could arrive in Palestine, the false Messias had +seized fifty of the strongest castles, and a great number of open towns. + +The details of the sanguinary campaigns which followed are given by the +vanquished Jews with more minuteness than probability. Severus, who had +learned all the arts of desultory warfare when employed against the +barbarians of Britain, used a similar policy on the banks of the Jordan; +choosing to cut off the supplies of the enemy, and attack their posts with +overwhelming numbers, rather than encounter their furious fanaticism in a +general engagement. Bither, a strong city, and defended by Barcochab in +person, was the last to yield to the Romans. At length it was taken by +storm, at the expense of much human life on either side; but as the leader +of the rebellion was among the slain, the victors did not consider their +success too dearly bought, as with the star whose light was extinguished +in the carnage of Bither the hope of Israel fell to the earth. Dio Cassius +relates, that during this war no fewer than 580,000 fell by the sword, +besides those who perished by famine and disease. The whole of Judea was +converted into a desert,--wolves and hyenas howled in the streets of the +desolate cities,--and all the villages were consumed with fire. + +It was after these events that Adrian, to annihilate for ever all hopes +of the restoration of the Jewish kingdom, accomplished his plan of +founding a new city on the waste places of Jerusalem, to be peopled by +a colony of foreigners. This town, as we have elsewhere observed, was +called AElia Capitolina; the former epithet alluding to AElius, the +praenomen of the emperor,--the latter denoting that it was dedicated +to Jupiter Capitolinus, the tutelar deity of Rome. An edict was issued, +interdicting every Jew from entering the new city on pain of death, or +even approaching so near it as to be able to contemplate its towers and +the venerable heights on which it stood. The more effectually to keep +them away, the image of a cow was placed over the gate which leads to +Bethlehem. But the more peaceful Christians, meanwhile, were permitted +to establish themselves within the walls; and AElia, it is well known, +soon became the seat of a flourishing church and of a bishopric.[165] + +From this period the history of the Holy Land is less connected with the +Jews than with the policy of the different governments by which their +country has been occupied. More attached to their ancient faith than when +it was established at Jerusalem, we find them, both in the East and West, +labouring with the most indefatigable zeal to revive its principles and +extend its authority. Hence their celebrated schools at Babylon and +Tiberias,--the source of all legislation, and the seat of judgment in all +cases of doubtful opinion. Hence, too, those mixed titles, so long +recognised in their tribes, the Patriarch of Tiberias and the Prince of +the Captivity,--appointments which, during a long period, constituted a +bond of union, partly spiritual and partly political, among all the +descendants of Jacob. The numerous remains of that people, though still +excluded from the precincts of Jerusalem, were nevertheless permitted to +form and to maintain considerable establishments both in Italy and in the +provinces; to acquire the freedom of Rome; to enjoy municipal honours; +and to obtain, at the same time, an exemption from the burdensome and +expensive offices of society. The moderation or the contempt of the +Romans gave a legal sanction to the form of ecclesiastical police, which +was instituted by the vanquished sect. The Patriarch was empowered to +appoint his subordinate ministers, to exercise a domestic jurisdiction, +and to receive from his brethren an annual contribution. New synagogues +were frequently erected in the principal cities of the empire; and the +Sabbaths, the fasts, and the festivals, which were either commanded by +the Mosaic Law or enjoined by the traditions of the Rabbim, were +celebrated in the most solemn and public manner. They were, in like +manner, restored to the privilege of circumcising their children, on the +easy condition that they should never confer on any foreign proselyte the +distinguishing mark of the Hebrew race. Such gentle treatment insensibly +assuaged the stern temper of the Jews. Awakened from their dream of +prophecy and conquest, they assumed the behaviour of peaceable and +industrious subjects. Their hatred of mankind, instead of flaming out in +acts of blood and violence, evaporated in less dangerous gratifications. +They embraced every opportunity of overreaching the idolaters in trade; +and they pronounced secret and ambiguous imprecations against the haughty +kingdom of Edom, the name under which they were pleased to denounce the +Roman empire.[166] + +The glories which were shed upon Palestine by the munificent zeal of +Constantine and his mother have already been repeatedly mentioned. The +splendid buildings which arose in every part of the Holy Land announced +the triumph of the new faith in the country where it had its origin; +exciting at once the pride of the Christian, and the jealousy, resentment, +and despair of the Jew. The government of Constantius was not more +favourable to the children of Israel; nor was it till the accession of +Julian that they were encouraged to look for revenge upon their enemies, +if not for protection to their despised countrymen. The edict to rebuild +the Temple on Mount Moriah, and to establish once more at Jerusalem the +worship enjoined by Moses, called forth their utmost exertions in behalf +of a prince who at least abandoned a rival religion, destined, as they +apprehended, to supplant their own more ancient ritual. + +The issue of this attempt to reinstate the ceremonies of the Jewish Law in +the capital of Palestine is known to every reader. The workmen employed in +digging the foundation of the new Temple were terrified by flames of fire +darting forth from the ground, and accompanied with the most frightful +explosions. No inducement could prevail on them to persevere in labours +which appeared to excite the anger of Heaven. The enterprise was +relinquished, as at once hopeless and impious; and there is no doubt that, +whatever additions may have been made to the circumstances by ignorance +and a too easy belief, the views of Julian were frustrated by the +occurrence of some very extraordinary event, which still finds a place +even in Roman history. The skeptic may smile when he reads in the pages of +a Christian Father, that flakes of fire which assumed the form of a cross +settled on the dresses of the artisans and spectators; that a horseman was +seen careering amid the flames; and that, when the affrighted labourers +fled to a neighbouring church, its doors, fastened by some preternatural +force within, refused to admit them into the sacred building. In such +details the imagination is consulted more than the reason; and it cannot +be denied that certain authors, who wrote long after the reign of Julian; +have admitted traditionary anecdotes into the narrative of a grave event. +It is deserving of notice, however, that the mark of the cross, said to +have been impressed upon the bystanders, is not the most incredible of the +circumstances recorded. Many instances have been known of persons touched +by the electric fluid, whose bodies exhibited similar traces of its +operation,--straight lines cutting one another at right angles--and hence +that part of the description which appears the least entitled to belief +will be found to be strictly within the limits of nature.[167] + +The policy of the emperors continued to depress the Jews in Palestine, +while it granted to them the enjoyment of considerable privileges in all +the other provinces where their presence and peculiar views were less +hazardous to the public peace. During the same period, the Christian +church possessed the countenance of the civil power, and gradually +extended its doctrines into Armenia, as well as into the more important +region of the Lower Mesopotamia. It was not till the beginning of the +seventh century that the course of events was materially disturbed by an +invasion of the Persians, under Chosroes, who had resolved to humble the +government of Constantinople, and to check its pretensions in the East. +The part of the army appointed to serve against Palestine was entrusted +to Carnsia, an experienced general, who invited the Jews to join his +standard. This people, ever ready to aid the cause of revolt, assembled, +it is said, to the number of 24,000 men, and made preparations for an +attack on Jerusalem. A sanguinary warfare had ensued, even before the +arrival of their allies from beyond the Euphrates; and both sides, +accordingly, were exasperated to the highest degree of fury, and +importuning Heaven to hasten the moment of revenge. The Christians within +the walls massacred their enemies in cold blood, while the assailants +without carried destruction to every point which their arms could reach. +At length, the advance of the Persians secured to the Jews the hour of +triumph and retaliation, when they fully quenched their thirst for +vengeance in the blood of the Nazarenes. The victors are said to have +sold the miserable captives for money. But the rage of the Jews was +stronger than their avarice; for not only did they not scruple to +sacrifice their treasures in the purchase of these devoted bondsmen at a +lavish price, but they put to death without remorse all whom they bought. +It was rumoured that no fewer than 90,000 Christians perished. Every +church was demolished, including that of the Holy Sepulchre,--the +greatest object of Jewish hatred. The stately building of Helena and +Constantine was abandoned to the flames, and the devout offerings of +three hundred years were rifled in one sacrilegious day. + +But the arms of Persia did not long support the persecuting spirit of the +Jews. The Emperor Heraclius, who had spent some inglorious years on the +throne, was alarmed into activity by the progress of the enemy, who had +threatened even the walls of Constantinople itself. The discipline of +ancient Rome, which was not yet quite extinct among the legionary +soldiers, maintained its wonted superiority over the less martial troops +of Chosroes, and recovered in the course of a few campaigns all the +provinces that the invaders had overrun. Heraclius visited Jerusalem as a +pilgrim, when the wood of the true cross, which, it was rumoured, had +been carried away to Persia, was reinstated with due solemnity. Several +Christian churches, too, were restored to their former magnificence; and +the law of Adrian was again put in force, which prohibited the Jews from +approaching within three miles of the holy city.[168] + +Palestine continued to acknowledge the power of the emperor until the +rise of Islamism changed the face of Western Asia. The armies of the +califs, which wrested from Persia the dominion of the surrounding +nations, conquered in succession the provinces of Arabia, Syria, and +Egypt, and at length planted the crescent on the walls of Jerusalem. The +victories of Omar in 636 decided the fate of the venerable city, and laid +the foundations of a mosque on the sacred hill where the Temple of +Solomon had stood. This conqueror was assassinated at Jerusalem in 643; +after which, the establishment of several califates in Arabia and Syria, +the fall of the Ommiades, and the elevation of the Abassides involved +Judea in trouble for more than two hundred years. In 868, Achmet, a Turk, +who from being governor had made himself sovereign of Egypt, conquered +the capital of Palestine; but his son having been defeated by the califs +of Bagdad; the holy city again returned under their dominion in the year +905 of our era. Mohammed Ikschid, another Turk, about thirty years after, +having in his turn seized the throne of the Pharaohs, carried his arms +into Palestine, and reduced the capital. The Fatimites, again, issuing +from the sands of Cyrene, expelled the Ikschidites from Egypt in 968, and +conquered several towns in Judea. Ortok, towards the end of the tenth +century, made himself master of the holy city, whence his children were +for a time driven out by Mostali, Calif of Egypt. In 1076, Meleschah, the +third of the Turkish race, took Jerusalem, and ravaged the whole country. +The Ortokides, who, as we have just related, were dispossessed by +Mostali, returned thither, and maintained themselves in it against +Redouan, Prince of Aleppo. They were expelled once more by the Fatimites, +who were masters of the place when the crusaders first appeared on the +confines of Syria. + +Several generations passed away, during which the affairs of the Holy Land +created no interest in Europe, and when Christians and Jews, who could +hardly obtain the most limited toleration from their Mohammedan masters, +sought an asylum among the states of Europe. In the Travels of Benjamin of +Tudela are to be found some incidental notices which leave no doubt as to +the fact that his countrymen, unable to bear the persecution directed +against them, had gradually abandoned the birthplace of their fathers. +Jerusalem, in the twelfth century, did not contain more than two hundred +descendants of Abraham, poor, depressed, and calumniated; while at +Tiberias, the seat of learning and of their sovereign patriarch, the +number did not exceed fifty,--the victims of suspicion and jealousy, not +less on the part of the Christians than of the Moslem, who had already +begun to contend with each other for the sepulchre of Christ. + +It has often been observed, that pilgrimage to the holy places of +Palestine was from a very early period regarded as at once a wholesome +discipline and an acceptable reverence on the part of Christian +worshippers. The Arabian califs were, on various accounts, inclined to +favour the resort of Europeans to these shrines of their faith. They saw +in it a fruitful source of revenue; while, as the progeny of Abraham, +they were not disposed to take offence at the veneration lavished upon +the prophetic son of David, whose tomb the fortune of war had placed in +their hands. But the Seljukian Turks, those irreclaimable barbarians, who +had no sympathy with the believers in Christ, laid on them such burdens +and vexatious restraints as were altogether intolerable. The cries of the +unhappy pilgrims had long resounded throughout all Christendom; and the +indignation which was universally felt against the bigoted Mussulmans was +inflamed in no slight degree by the eloquence of Peter the Hermit, who +had witnessed in foreign lands the afflictions of his brethren. Yielding +to the impulse of the age, Pope Urban the Second convoked a general +council at Clermont, in Auvergne, to whom he addressed an oration well +fitted to confirm the enthusiasm which he found already kindled. He +encouraged them to attack the enemies of God, and in that holy warfare to +earn the reward of eternal life promised to all the faithful servants of +the Redeemer; suggesting, that as a mark of their profession as well as +of their Saviour's love, they should wear red crosses on their garments +when fighting the battles of Christianity. + +The warlike spirit of the time was roused by every motive which can touch +the heart of man in a rude state of society,--the love of glory, religion, +revenge, and enterprise. Many of the most illustrious princes of the +Christian world took up the cross, and were followed by persons of both +sexes, and of all ages, classes, and professions. A vast army poured in +from every country, under the most distinguished leaders, of whom the +principal were, Godfrey, Duke of Brabant and Bouillon; Robert of France, +the brother of King Philip; and Robert, Duke of Normandy, the son of the +English monarch. Bohemond, too, the chief of the Normans of Apulia, and +Raymond, Count of Toulouse, led many renowned warriors to Syria. + +The tumultuary bands who marched under the standard of the Hermit +suffered hardships altogether unknown to modern war. In passing through +the countries watered by the Danube, and the hilly countries which lie +between that river and the Mediterranean, more than half their number +fell victims to disease, famine, and the rage of the barbarians whose +lands they infested. But, in spite of these misfortunes, Bohemond, one of +the leaders, laid siege to Antioch in 1097; and on the 15th July, two +years after, the ancient and holy city of Jerusalem was taken by assault, +with a prodigious slaughter of the garrison. Ten thousand Mohammedans +were slain on the site of the Temple of Solomon; a greater number was +thrown from the tops of houses; and a fearful carnage was committed after +all resistance had ceased. + +The siege had lasted two months with various success, and a considerable +loss of life on either aide; and hence arose the savage ferocity which +disgraced, on the part of the victors, the last scene of this miserable +tragedy. The assailants having endured much from drought, as well as from +the sword of the enemy, betook themselves to pious exercises in order to +avert the anger of Heaven. The soldiers, completely armed, made a holy +procession round the walls. The clergy, with naked feet, and bearing +images of the cross, led them in the sacred way. Cries of _Deus id +vult_,--God commands it,--rent the air; and the people marched to the +melody of hymns and psalms, and not to the sound of drums and trumpets. On +Mount Olivet and Mount Zion they prayed for assistance in the approaching +conflict. The Saracens mocked these expressions of religious feeling, by +throwing mud upon crucifixes which they raised for the purpose; but these +insults had only the effect of producing louder shouts of sacred joy from +the Christians. The next morning every thing was prepared for battle; and +there was no one who was not ready either to die for Christ, or restore +his city to liberty. The night was spent in watching an alarm by both +armies. At dawn of day the conflict began which was to determine the fate +of the great European expedition, and when noon arrived the issue was +still in suspense, or seemed rather to incline in favour of the +Mohammedans. The cause of the Western World appeared to totter on the +brink of destruction, and the most valiant among the crusaders allowed +themselves to fear that Heaven had deserted its own cause and people.[169] + +At the moment when all was considered lost, a knight was seen on Mount +Olivet, waving his glittering shield as a sign to the soldiers that they +should rally and return to the charge. Godfrey and Eustace cried aloud to +the army, that St. George was come to their succour. The spirit of +enthusiasm instantly revived, fatigue and pain were no longer felt, the +princes led their columns to the breach, and even the women insisted upon +sharing the honours of the fight. In the space of an hour the barbacan was +broken down, and Godfrey's tower rested against the inner wall. Exchanging +the duties of a general for those of a soldier, the Duke of Lorraine +fought with his bow: "The Lord guided his hand, and all his arrows pierced +the enemy through and through." Near him were Eustace and Baldwin, "like +two lions beside another lion." At three o'clock, the hour when the +Saviour of the world was crucified, a soldier, named Letoldus of Tourney, +leaped upon the fortifications; his brother, Engelbert, followed, and +Godfrey was the third Christian who stood as a conqueror upon the ramparts +of Jerusalem. The glorious ensign of the Cross streamed from the walls, +and the whole city was soon at the mercy of the besiegers. The Mussulmans +fought for a while, then fled to their temples, and submitted their necks +to the sword. The victors, in a document which is still preserved, +boasted, that in the mosque of Omar, whither they pursued the fugitives, +they rode in the blood of Saracens up to the knees of their horses. + +After the slaughter had terminated, and the soldiers had soothed their +minds by certain acts of devotion, the expediency of forming a regular +government became manifest to all parties. Godfrey, a hero whose name can +not be too highly honoured, was chosen by the unanimous suffrages of rival +warriors to be the first Christian king of Jerusalem. Bohemond, the son of +Robert Guiscard, reigned at Antioch; Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, at +Edessa; and the Count of Toulouse, at Tripoli. The dominion of the +crusaders extended from the confines of Egypt to the Euphrates on the +east, and to the acclivities of Mount Taurus on the north; and several of +their principalities lasted nearly two hundred years. + +Many attempts have been made to defend the policy and excuse the +enormities of the Christian warriors in their enterprise against the +Moslem occupants of the Holy Land. These two points ought to be more +carefully distinguished than they usually are, whether in the pages of +friends or enemies; for while the general expediency of a combination of +the Christian powers may be supported on good grounds, the cruelty of some +of their measures deserves the severest censure. It is remarked by Mr. +Mills, that the massacre of the Saracens on the capture of the holy city +did not proceed alone from the inflamed passions of victorious soldiers, +but from remorseless fanaticism. Benevolence to Turks, Jews, infidels, and +heretics made no part of Christian ethics in those rude times; and as the +Moslem in their consciences believed it was the will of Heaven that the +religion of their prophet should be propagated by the sword, so their +antagonists laboured under the mental delusion that they themselves were +the ministers of God's wrath on a disobedient and stiff-necked people. The +Latins, on the day after the victory, massacred three hundred men, to whom +Tancred and Gaston de Bearn had promised protection, and even given a +standard as a pledge of safety. But every engagement was broken, in +consequence of the resolution that no pity should be shown to the +Mohammedans,--an expedient which was justified by the opinion now +prevalent among the invaders, that in conjunction with the Saracens of +Egypt they might again reduce the city and recover all the ground they had +lost. It was for this reason that the inhabitants of Jerusalem, armed and +unarmed, were dragged forth into the public squares, and slain like +cattle. Women with children at the breast, boys, and even girls were +slaughtered indiscriminately, and in such numbers that the streets were +covered with dead bodies and mangled limbs. No heart melted into +compassion or expanded into benevolence. The stones of the city were +ordered to be washed, and the melancholy task was performed by some Moslem +slaves. The Count of Toulouse, whose avarice prevailed over his +superstition, was loudly condemned for accepting a ransom from a few of +the devoted prisoners, whom he sent in safety to Ascalon. So unrelenting, +in short, was the passion of revenge among the crusaders, that they set +fire to the synagogues of the Jews, many of whom perished in the +flames.[170] + +Such conduct merits the deepest execration that moralist or statesman may +be pleased to pour upon it. We are nevertheless convinced that, in the +peculiar circumstances of the Christian world when Peter the Hermit called +its chiefs to arms, a united war against the Mohammedan states of Syria +was dictated by the soundest political wisdom. The subjects of Omar had +already conquered an establishment in Sicily and Spain, and attempted the +subjugation of France. Their views were directed towards universal +dominion in the West, as well as in the East; they hoped to witness the +triumph of the crescent in Europe not less certainly than in Asia, and to +be able to impose a tribute on the worshippers of Christ, or compel them +to relinquish their creed on the remotest shores of the Atlantic. Those, +therefore, who perceive in the Crusades nothing but a mob of armed +pilgrims running to rescue a tomb in Palestine must take a very limited +view of history. The point in question was not merely the recovery of that +sacred building from the hands of infidels, but rather to decide which of +the two religions, the Christian or Mohammedan, should predominate in the +world; the one hostile to civilization, and only favourable to ignorance, +despotism, and slavery; the other friendly to improvement, learning, and +freedom in all ranks and conditions of society. + +It is asserted by Chateaubriand, that whoever reads the address of Pope +Urban to the council of Clermont must be convinced that the leaders in +these military enterprises were not actuated by the petty views which have +been ascribed to them; but, on the contrary, that they aspired to save the +Western World from a new inundation of barbarians. The spirit of Islamism +is conquest and persecution; the gospel, on the contrary, inculcates only +toleration and peace. The Christians, moreover, had endured for several +centuries all the oppressions which the fanaticism of the Saracens +impelled them to exercise. They had merely endeavoured to interest +Charlemagne in their favour; for neither the conquest of Spain, the +invasion of France, the pillage of Greece and the Two Sicilies, nor the +entire subjugation of Africa, could for nearly six hundred years rouse the +Christians to arms. If at last the cries of numberless victims slaughtered +in the East, if the progress of the barbarians, who had already reached +the gates of Constantinople, awakened Christendom, and impelled it to rise +in its own defence, who can say that the cause of the Holy Wars was +unjust? Contemplate Greece, if you would know the fate of a people +subjected to the Mussulman yoke. Would those who at this day so loudly +exult in the progress of knowledge wish to live under a religion that +burned the Alexandrian library, which makes a merit of trampling mankind +under foot, and holding literature and the arts in sovereign contempt? The +Crusades, by weakening the Moslem hordes in the very centre of Asia, +prevented Europe from falling a prey to the Turks and Arabs; they did +more, they saved her from revolutions at home, with which she was +threatened; they suspended intestine wars by which she was ever and anon +desolated; and, finally, they opened an outlet to that excess of +population which sooner or later occasions the ruin of nations.[171] + +The administration of Godfrey was gentle and prosperous. He gained a +decisive victory over the Vizier of Egypt, who had encamped on the plains +of Ascalon with the view of assisting his Syrian allies to recover +Jerusalem from the hands of the Christians. According to the spirit of the +age, he joined to the qualities of a brave soldier the profession of an +ardent faith and the utmost reverence for the authority of the church. He +refused a precious diadem offered to him by his companions in arms, +declaring that he would never wear a crown of gold in the city where the +Saviour of the world had worn a crown of thorns. In the same feeling he +was disposed to reject the title of king and to exercise his office under +the name of Defender and Baron of the Holy Sepulchre. + +Upon the demise of this distinguished commander, which is supposed to have +taken place at Jaffa, the government devolved upon his brother Baldwin, +who sustained its glory and interests with a steady hand. About the year +1118, he was succeeded on his throne by his nephew, who bore the same +name, and who, although sometimes unfortunate, did not tarnish the honour +of his family. Melisandra, his eldest daughter, married Foulques of Anjou, +and conveyed the kingdom of Jerusalem into the hand of her husband, who +enjoyed it ten or twelve years, when he lost his life by a fall from a +horse. His son, Baldwin the Third, a youth of a rash temper and destitute +of experience, assumed the sceptre of Jerusalem, which he held twenty +years,--a period rendered remarkable by the events of the second Crusade, +and the rise of various orders of knighthood,--the Hospitallers, Templars, +and Cavaliers. + +The news from Palestine, that certain reverses had been sustained by the +Christians, acted so powerfully on the pious spirit of St. Bernard and the +troubled conscience of Louis the Seventh, the king of France, as to +suggest a second confederation among the European princes for the security +of the Holy Land. This new apostle of a sacred war was, on many accounts, +greatly superior to Peter the Hermit. He was a man of noble birth; +possessed learning sufficient to rival the attainments of Abelard, his +contemporary; and could speak with a degree of eloquence to which no +orator of his age had the boldness to aspire. The French monarch, who had +assembled around him a powerful and most splendid army, was joined by the +Emperor of Germany, Conrade the Third, whose thousands equalled those of +his warlike brother, and whose zeal in the cause of Christendom was not +less active. + +But the experience of their predecessors, fifty years before, was lost +upon these fearless soldiers of the Cross. Without suitable preparation, +they encountered the dangers of a long march through hostile countries and +sickly climates, the effects of which appeared in the rapid diminution of +their numbers, in mutual invectives, and in increasing despair. Not more +than a tenth part of the Germans reached the coast of Syria. The French, +who had suffered less than their allies, were sooner ready to take the +field against the Saracens; and after proving their arms in a few +unimportant skirmishes, they resolved to lay siege to Damascus in concert +with the battalions of Conrade. But the evil genius of intrigue defeated +their designs. After a fruitless display of force more than sufficient to +have reduced the place, the Christian chiefs withdrew from before the +ramparts of the Syrian capital, and fell back upon Jerusalem in sorrow and +shame. Conrade soon returned to Europe with the shattered remains of his +gallant host; and about a year afterward his example was imitated by the +French king and the greater number of his generals, who were disgusted +with the narrow policy on which the war had been conducted. + +Baldwin the Third, dying without male issue, transmitted the precarious +throne of Jerusalem to his brother Amaury, or Almeric; who, after of a +reign of eleven years, was succeeded by his son, Baldwin the Fourth. The +young sovereign, being incapable of the duties of government, passed his +minority under the wise counsels of Raymond, Count of Tripoli, who +endeavoured to sustain the weight of kingly power in the midst of very +formidable enemies. The name of Noureddin was long terrible to the +Christians of Palestine, who had gradually lost their warlike virtues; but +they were now about to encounter a still more able, and much more +celebrated antagonist, in the person of Saladin, the hero of the Crescent, +and one of the most distinguished leaders of that very romantic age. + +Baldwin had given his sister Sybilla, widow of William, surnamed +Longue-Epée, or the Long-sword, in marriage to Guy of Lusignan. The +grandees of the kingdom, dissatisfied with the choice, divided into +parties. The king, dying in 1184, left for his heir Baldwin the Fifth, the +son of Sybilla and William just mentioned, a child not more than eight +years of age, and who soon afterward sunk under a constitutional +distemper. His mother caused the crown to be conferred on her husband, the +ambitious Guy,--a measure which did not allay the jealousy of the nobles +who had opposed their union. An alarming dissension prevailed among the +barons, some of whom refused to take the oath of allegiance to the new +sovereign, and even offered the diadem to Humphrey de Thoron. But the +intrigues of Sybilla and the terror of Saladin prevented an open rupture, +while events of a more important nature were about to occupy the attention +of either party. + +The sultan had received from several of the Christian warriors just ground +of offence, and failing to obtain redress from the feeble government of +Jerusalem, he took the field in order to chastise with his own hand the +more guilty of the aggressors. He encamped near the Lake of Tiberias, +where Guy, listening to counsellors who saw not the danger of placing the +fortunes of the kingdom on the issue of a single battle, resolved to +attack him. For a whole day the engagement was in suspense, and at night +the Latins retired to some rocks in the neighbourhood, hoping that they +might find a little water to quench their thirst. At the approach of dawn +the two armies stood for a while gazing upon each other, as if conscious +that the fate of the Moslem and the Christian worlds was in their hands. +But no sooner did the sun appear than the Crusaders raised their war-cry, +and the Turks sounded their trumpets and atabals,--a mutual challenge to +renew the sanguinary conflict. Thi bishops and clergy ran through the +ranks cheering the soldiers of the church. A fragment of the true cross, +intrusted to the knights of the Holy Sepulchre, was placed on a hillock, +around which the broken squadrons repeatedly rallied, and recovered +strength for the combat whereon the interests of their faith were +suspended. But the Crescent, supported by more numerous and stronger +hands, triumphed on the plain of Tiberias. The Christians were defeated +with great loss; the king, the Master of the Templars, and the Marquis of +Montferrat were taken prisoners, and the piece of holy wood, in which they +had put their trust, was snatched from the grasp of the Bishop of Acre. + +This victory placed the greater part of Palestine in the power of +Saladin, who, upon the whole, used his success with moderation and +clemency. The fugitives from every quarter fled to Jerusalem, hoping to +escape in that asylum the swords and fetters of the Turks. One hundred +thousand persons are said to have been crowded within the walls; but so +few were the soldiers, and so feeble was the government of the queen, +that the holy city presented no serious obstacle to the progress of the +Moslem arms. Saladin declared his unwillingness to stain with human blood +a place which even the followers of the Prophet held in reverence, as +having been sanctified by the presence of many inspired individuals. He +therefore promised to the people, on condition that they would quietly +surrender the city, a supply of money, and lands in the most fertile +provinces of Syria. + +This offer was rejected, as implying a sacrilegious contract to yield +into the hands of infidels the sacred spot where the Saviour of mankind +had died. He therefore swore that he would enter their streets sword in +hand, and retaliate upon them the dreadful carnage which the Franks had +committed in the days of Godfrey. Two weeks were spent in almost +incessant fighting, during which the advantage was generally on the side +of the assailants. Finding resistance vain, the besieged at length +appealed to the clemency of the conqueror. It was, stipulated that the +military and the nobles should be escorted to Tyre, and that the +inhabitants should become slaves, if not ransomed at certain rates fixed +by Saladin. Thus, to use the words of the historian, "after four days had +been consumed by the miserable inhabitants, in weeping over and embracing +the Holy Sepulchre and other sacred places, the Latins left the city and +passed through the enemy's camp. Children of all ages clung round their +mothers, and the strength of the fathers was used in bearing away some +little part of their household furniture. In solemn procession, the +clergy, the queen, and her retinue of ladies followed. Saladin advanced +to meet them, and his heart melted with compassion when he saw them +approach in the attitude of suppliants." The softened warrior uttered +some expressions of pity; and the women, encouraged by his tenderness, +declared, that by pronouncing one word he might remove their distress. +"Our fortunes and possessions," said they, "you may freely enjoy; but +restore to us our fathers, our husbands, and our brothers. With these +dear objects we cannot be entirely miserable. They will take care of us; +and that God whom we reverence, and who provides for the birds of the +air, will not forget our children." Saladin was a barbarian in nothing +but the name. With the most courteous generosity, he released all the +prisoners whom the women requested, and loaded them with presents. Nor +was this action, so worthy of a gentle and chivalrous knight, the +consequence of a merely transient feeling of humanity; for when he had +entered the city of Jerusalem, and heard of the tender care with which +the military friars of St. John treated their sick countrymen, he allowed +ten of their order to remain in the hospital till they could fully +complete their work of charity.[172] + +The Mohammedans, being once more in possession of the holy walls, took +down the great cross from the Church of the Sepulchre, and soiled it with +the mire of the streets. They also melted the bells which had summoned the +Christians to devotion, and at the same time purified the Mosque of Omar +by a copious sprinkling of rose-water. Ascalon, Laodicea, Gabala, Sidon, +Nazareth, and Bethlehem opened their gates to the victorious Saladin, who, +indeed, found no town of consequence able to resist his arms except Tyre, +garrisoned by a body of excellent soldiers under the gallant Conrade. All +the inhabitants took arms, and even the women shot arrows from the walls, +or assisted in strengthening the fortifications. The Saracens cast immense +stones into the place, and attacked it with all the other means in their +power; but the spirit of freedom triumphed over the thirst of revenge, and +the conqueror of Tiberias was finally compelled to relinquish the siege. + +The intelligence that Jerusalem had fallen under the dominion of the +unbelievers created in all parts of Europe a profound sensation of grief +and disappointment. The clergy, as on former occasions, preached to all +classes the duty and honour of assuming the Cross, and even of dying is +the service of the Redeemer, should the sacrifice of life be required at +their hands. But the enthusiasm of the eleventh century had now very +generally passed away. Every family had to lament the loss of kindred in +the field of battle or in the bonds of a hopeless captivity; and hence, +the inducements which had crowded the ranks of Godfrey and Conrade were +at this time listened to both in France and England with comparative +indifference. + +At length, however, about the year 1190, Philip Augustus, the French King, +the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, and the celebrated Richard +Coeur de Lion succeeded in raising forces, with the view of wresting once +more the Holy Land from the thraldom of the Saracens. Philip received the +staff and scrip at St. Denys, and Richard at Tours. They joined their +armies at Vezelay, the gross amount of which was computed at one hundred +thousand, and marched to Lyons in company. There the royal commanders +separated; the former pursued the road to Genoa, the latter to +Marseilles,--the island of Sicily being named as the place of their nest +meeting. + +Among the other fruits of the victory of Tiberias reaped by the brave +Saladin was the possession of Acre, or Ptolemais, one of the moat valuable +ports on the coast of Syria. The Crusaders, aware that they could not +maintain their ground in the East without a constant communication with +Europe, resolved to recover this city at whatever expense of life or +treasure; and with this view they had invested it more than twenty-two +months before Richard could carry his reinforcements into Palestine. Upon +his arrival, an unhappy jealousy arose between him and the King of France, +which divided the Christians into two great parties; nor was it until each +had attempted with his separate force to ascend the ramparts of Ptolemais, +and had even been repulsed with great loss, that they consented to unite +their squadrons, and act in unison. A reconciliation being effected, it +was determined that the one should attack the walls, while the other +guarded the camp from the approaches of Saladin. But the town had already +suffered so dreadfully from the length of the siege, now extended to about +two years, that the garrison were disposed to sue for terms The sultan +endeavoured to infuse his own invincible spirit into the minds of his +people, and to revive for a moment their languid courage, by turning their +hopes to Egypt, whence succour was expected. As no aid appeared, the +citizens wrung from him permission to capitulate. They were accordingly +allowed to purchase their safety by consenting to deliver the city into +the hands of the two kings, together with five hundred Christian prisoners +who were confined in it. The true cross also was to be restored, with one +thousand such captives as might be selected by the allies; it being +covenanted, at the same time, that unless the Mussulmans within forty days +paid to Richard and Philip the sum of two hundred thousand pieces of gold, +the inhabitants of Acre should be at the mercy of the conquerors. + +It was on the 12th of July, 1191, that Ptolemais was recovered by the +Europeans; and in the following month, Richard (for the King of France had +already turned his face homewards) gained an important victory over +Saladin at Azotus. The progress of Coeur de Lion being no longer disputed, +he quickly arrived at Jaffa. That city was now without fortifications; for +when the tide of conquest ebbed from the Moslem, their commander gave +orders to dismantle all the fortresses in Palestine. It was his policy to +keep the invaders constantly in the field, and to exhaust them by +incessant marching and sudden attacks. Some time was accordingly lost in +restoring the works of this ancient town,--a period which was employed by +the enemy in recruiting their ranks, and preparing to contest once more +the laurels gained by the conquerors of Azotus. + +Richard, still full of confidence, declared to the Saracens that the only +way of averting his wrath was to surrender the kingdom of Jerusalem as it +existed in the reign of Baldwin the Fourth. Saladin did not reject this +proposal with the disdain which he felt, but made a modification of the +terms, by offering to yield all of Palestine that lay between the river +Jordan and the Mediterranean. The negotiation lasted some time without +farther concession on either side, when at length it became manifest that +the enemy were not in earnest, but merely sought to derive advantage from +the delay which they had the ingenuity to create. Hence the meditated +attack on Jerusalem was postponed, and dissension began to prevail in the +ranks of Plantagenet. The winter was passed amid privations of every +description, which, as they were partly owing to the negligence of the +king, gave rise to numerous desertions. The inactive season of the year +was occupied in rebuilding the walls of Ascalon,--a task in which the +proudest nobles and the most dignified clergy laboured like the meanest of +the people. On the return of spring both armies appeared in the field; but +as political disturbances in England demanded the presence of Richard, be +manifested for the first time a greater disposition to negotiate than to +fight. He made known to Saladin that he would be satisfied with the +possession of the holy city and of the true cross. But the latter replied, +that Jerusalem was as dear to the Moslem as to the Christian world; and, +moreover, that he would never be guilty of conniving at idolatry by +permitting the worship of a piece of wood. Thwarted by the religious +prejudices of his enemies, the English commander attempted a different +expedient. He proposed a consolidation of the Christian and Mohammedan +interests, the establishment of a government at Jerusalem, partly European +and partly Asiatic; and this scheme of policy was to be carried into +effect by the marriage of Saphadin, the brother of the sultan, with the +widow of William, King of Sicily. The Moslem princes would have acceded to +these terms; but the union was thought to be so scandalous to religion, +that the imans and priests raised a storm of clamour against it; and +Richard and Saladin, accordingly, though the most powerful and determined +men of their age, were compelled to submit to popular opinion. + +In the month of May, therefore, Coeur de Lion began his march towards +Jerusalem, with the firm resolution of accomplishing the main object of +his armament. The generals and soldiers vowed that they would not leave +Palestine until they should have redeemed the Holy Sepulchre. Everything +wore the face of joy when this resolution was announced. Hymns and +thanksgivings gave utterance to the general exultation. Terror seized the +Mussulmans who were appointed to defend the sacred walls, and even Saladin +himself gave way to apprehension for their safety. The Crusaders arrive at +Bethlehem; and here the stout mind of Plantagenet began to vacillate. He +avowed his doubts as to the policy of a siege, as his force was not +adequate to such a measure, and also to the regular maintenance of his +communications with the coast, whence his supplies must be derived. He +submitted his difficulties to the barons of Syria, the Templars, and +Hospitallers, declaring his readiness to abide by their decision, whether +it should be to advance or to retreat. These officers received information +that the Turks had destroyed all the cisterns which were within two miles +of the city, and they felt that the intolerable heats of summer had begun; +for which reason, it was resolved that the attack on Jerusalem should be +deferred, and that the army, meantime, should proceed to some other +conquest. + +Saladin, aware of the hesitation which had chilled the wonted ardour of +his foe, resolved to profit by this turn of affairs, so little to be +expected under such a leader. He advanced by forced marches to Jaffa, with +the view of reducing it before Richard could send relief. Attacking it +with his usual vigour, he succeeded in breaking down one of the gates; and +such of the inhabitants as could not defend themselves in the great tower +or escape by sea were put to the sword. Already were the battering-rams +prepared to demolish that fortress, when the patriarch and some French and +English knights agreed to become the prisoners of the sultan, fixing, at +the same time, a heavy sum for the ransom of the citizens, if succour did +not arrive during the next day. Before the morning, however, the brave +Plantagenet reached Jaffa; and so furious was his onset, that the Turks +immediately deserted the town; while their army, which was encamped at a +little distance, no sooner saw the standard of Richard on the walls, than +they retreated some miles into the interior. + +But the English chieftain, harassed by unfavourable tidings from home, and +perplexed by dissensions in his camp, became heartily desirous of peace. +Nor was Saladin less willing to grant repose to his country, now exhausted +by protracted wars. The two heroes exchanged expressions of mutual esteem; +but as Richard had often avowed his contempt for the vulgar obligation of +oaths, they only grasped each other's hands in token of fidelity. A truce +was agreed upon for three years and eight months; the fort of Ascalon was +dismantled; but Jaffa and Tyre, with the intervening territory, were +surrendered to the Europeans. It was provided, also, that the Christians +should be at liberty to perform their pilgrimages to Jerusalem, exempted +from the taxes which the Moslem princes were wont to impose.[173] + +Towards the end of the year 1192, Richard the Lion-hearted withdrew from +the Holy Land on his way to England,--a journey beset with many perils +and adventures, which it is no part of our task to describe. We are told +that his valour struck such terror into his enemies, that long after his +death, when a horse trembled without any visible cause, the Saracens were +accustomed to say that he had seen the ghost of the English prince. In a +familiar conversation which Saladin held with the warlike Bishop of +Salisbury, he expressed his admiration of the bravery of his rival, but +added, that he thought "the skill of the general did not equal the valour +of the knight." The courteous prelate replied to this remark, the justice +of which, perhaps, he could not question, by assuring the sultan that +there were not two such warriors in the world as the English and the +Syrian monarchs. Without entering minutely into the comparison of two +characters which presented little in common, it must be acknowledged, +that the courage of Richard at the head of his gallant troops prevented +many of the evils which had been anticipated from the defeat at Tiberias. +Palestine did not, as was apprehended, become a Moslem colony. A portion +of the seacoast, too, was preserved for the Christians; while their great +enemy was so enfeebled by repeated discomfitures, that fresh hostilities +could be safely commenced whenever Europe should again find it expedient +to send into the East a renewed host of military adventurers. Richard, +besides, gained more honour in Syria than any of the German emperors or +French kings who had sought renown in foreign war; and although a rigid +wisdom might censure his conduct as unprofitable to his country, it must +be admitted that his actions were in unison with the spirit of the times +in which he lived, when valour was held more important than the +acquisition of wealth, and achievements in the field were esteemed more +highly than the most beneficial results of victory. + +Saladin did not long survive the departure of his distinguished rival. He +died in the year 1193; leaving directions, that on the day of his funeral +a shroud should be borne on the point of a spear, and a herald proclaim in +a loud voice, "Saladin, the conqueror of Asia, out of all the fruits of +his victories, carries with him only this piece of linen." The soldiers of +this distinguished sultan rallied round his brother Saphadin, whom they +raised to the throne. Nor did the new monarch disappoint the expectations +that were entertained of his wisdom and valour; for by the exertions of +military skill, as well as by a sagacious policy, he strengthened the +government which was committed to his hands, and was found, at the +expiration of the truce, ready to meet the armies of the combined powers +of Christendom. + +The fourth Crusade was called into existence by the active zeal of Pope +Celestine the Third, and of Henry the Sixth, the German emperor, who was +joined by many of the subordinate princes of Northern Europe. The term of +peace fixed by Richard and Saladin had indeed expired; but both Christians +and Moslem, exhausted by war and famine, were disposed to lengthen the +period of repose, and at all events to abstain from a renewal of their +sanguinary conflicts. Nevertheless, when the new champions of the Cross +arrived at Acre, all remonstrances against fresh aggression were +disregarded. Saphadin, who was informed of their hostile intentions, +anticipated them in the field, and before they could advance to Jaffa, he +had battered down the fortifications, and put thousands of the inhabitants +to the sword. A general action, it is true, took place soon afterward, in +which the strength and discipline of the Germans secured the victory; but, +when advancing to Jerusalem, the conquerors allowed themselves to be +turned aside in order to reduce the insignificant fortress of Thoron, +where they met with a repulse so serious as to defeat the main object of +the campaign. Factious contentions now disturbed the councils of the +Latins; vice and insubordination raged in the camp; and, to crown their +miseries, the Crusaders were informed that the Sultans of Egypt and Syria +were concentrating their troops with the view of attacking them. Alarmed +at this intelligence, the German princes deserted their posts in the +night, and fled to Tyre; the road to which was soon filled with soldiers +and baggage in indiscriminate confusion; the feeble relinquishing their +property, and the cowardly casting away their arms. + +Another battle took place in the neighbourhood of Jaffa, which terminated, +as before, to the advantage of the Christians. But the death of the +Emperor Henry, the patron of the expedition, again disconcerted their +measures. Many returned to Europe to assist at the election of his +successor; while the residue of the army, thrown into a fatal confidence +by their late triumphs, were destroyed by a body of Turkish auxiliaries, +who surprised them during the revels in which they commemorated the +virtues and abstinence of St. Martin. + +The crown of Palestine meantime, greatly shorn of its lustre, had devolved +upon Isabella, daughter of Baldwin and sister to Sybilla. Her third +husband, Henry, Count of Champagne, was acknowledged as king; and upon his +death she was advised to give her hand to Almeric of Lusignan, the brother +of Guy, who had formerly swayed the sceptre. This union being approved by +the clergy and barons, the marriage was celebrated at Acre, where Almeric +and Isabella were proclaimed the sovereigns of Cyprus and Jerusalem. + +The repeated failure of the Christian armaments impressed upon the people +of Europe a belief, either that the real difficulties of the enterprise +had been concealed from them, or that the time fixed in the counsels of +Providence for the deliverance of the Holy Land had not yet arrived. In +such circumstances, it required the authority of the church and the power +of eloquence, seconded by the performance of numerous miracles, to rouse +the slumbering zeal of those who had money to give or arms to use in the +service of the Cross. Fulk, the preacher, who equalled Peter the Hermit in +the ardour of his address, and Bernard in oratorical talents, co-operated +with the pope, Innocent the Third, in convincing the several kingdoms +under his spiritual dominion of the necessity of a fifth combined effort, +in order to expel the infidels from the sacred inheritance. + +The voice of religion was again listened to with pious obedience, and a +large force was mustered in France and the Low Countries. As, however, the +arms of the Christian chiefs on this occasion were not employed against +the Saracens, but against their own brethren of the Grecian empire, the +object of our work does not require that we should do more than follow +their steps to the shores of the Bosphorus. In April, 1204, Constantinople +fell into their hands, and was subjected to all the horrors and indignity +which usually punish the resistance of a strong city. The remains of the +fine arts, which the Eastern Church had preserved as consecrated memorials +of her triumph over paganism, were destroyed with peculiar industry by the +less polished Latins, who were pleased to view with contempt the superior +taste of their rivals. The establishment of the Crusaders in the capital +of the Lower Empire, where they elected a sovereign and formed an +administration, was the only result of the fifth expedition against the +Moslem. Their dominion lasted fifty-seven years, at the end of which +Manuel Paleologus, descendant of Lascaris, and son-in-law of the Emperor +Alexis, recovered the throne of the Cesars, and finally expelled the +usurpers from the city of Constantine. + +The successes of the French, against the Greeks had, however, an indirect +influence in promoting the welfare of the Christians in Palestine. The +Mussulmans were alarmed, and Saphadin gladly concluded a truce for six +years. But the country was doomed to be soon deprived of the tranquillity +afforded by a cessation of arms. Almeric and his wife being dead, Mary, +the daughter of Isabella by Conrade of Tyre, was acknowledged Queen of +Jerusalem; while Hugh de Lusignan, son of Almeric by his first wife, was +proclaimed King of Cyprus. There was not at that time in Palestine any +powerful nobleman capable of governing the state; on which account the +civil and ecclesiastical potentates resolved that Philip Augustus of +France should be requested to provide a husband for Mary. The French +monarch fixed his eyes on John de Brienne who was esteemed among the +knights of Europe as equally wise in council and experienced in war. + +The hopes inspired by this union raised the pretensions of the Christian +community so high, that they refused to prolong the truce which still +subsisted between them and the sultan. The latter, therefore, marched an +army to the neighbourhood of Tripoli, and threatened hostilities. The +young king took the field at the head of a respectable force and +displayed his valour in many a fierce encounter; and though he did not +succeed in concerning his foes, he saved his states from the utter +annihilation with which they were threatened. He foresaw, however, the +approaching ruin of the sacred cause; for he could not fail to observe +that, while the Saracens were constantly acquiring new advantages, the +Latin barons were embracing every opportunity of returning home. He +accordingly wrote to the pope, that the kingdom of Jerusalem consisted +only of two or three towns, and that its fate must already have been +determined but for the civil wars which had raged among the sons of +Saladin. + +His holiness was not deaf to a remonstrance so just and important. In +a circular letter to the sovereigns of Europe, he reminded them that +the time was now come when a successful effort might be made to secure +possession of Palestine, and that, while those who should fight +faithfully for God would obtain a crown of glory, such as refused to +serve him would be punished everlastingly. He employed, among other +arguments, a consideration which has since been often urged by Protestant +writers against his own church; stating, that "the Mohammedan heresy, the +beast foretold by the Spirit, will not live for ever--its age is 666." He +concluded with the assurance, that Jesus Christ would condemn them for +gross ingratitude and infidelity, if they neglected to march to his +succour at a time when he was in danger of being driven from a kingdom he +had acquired by his own blood. + +The preacher of the next Crusade was Robert de Courçon, a man inferior in +talents and rank to St. Bernard, but whose fanaticism was as fervent as +that of the Hermit and Fulk. He invited all to assume the Cross, and +enrolled in the sacred militia women, children, the old, the blind, the +lame, and even the distempered. The multitude of Crusaders, as might be +expected, was very great, and the voluntary offerings of money were +immense. A council was held in the church of the Lateran, in which the +Emperor of Constantinople, the Kings of France, England, Hungary, +Jerusalem, Arragon, and other countries, were represented. War against the +Saracens was unanimously declared to be the most sacred duty of the +Christian world. The usual privileges, dispensations, and indulgences were +granted to the pilgrims; and the pope, besides other expenses, contributed +thirty thousand pounds. + +It was in the year 1216 that the sixth Crusade, consisting chiefly of +Hungarians and the soldiers of Lower Germany, landed at Acre. The sons of +Saphadin were now at the head of affairs in Syria, their father having +retired from the fatigues of royalty; and, although unprepared to oppose +so large a host with any prospect of success, they mustered what forces +they could collect and advanced to Naplosa, the modern Nablous. But the +insubordination of the invaders made victory more easy than was +anticipated. Destitute of provisions, they wandered over the country, +committing the greatest enormities, and suffering from time to time very +severe losses from the just indignation of the inhabitants. At length the +sovereign of Hungary, disgusted with the campaign, refused to remain any +longer in Palestine,--a defection which compelled the King of Jerusalem, +the Duke of Austria, and the Master of the Hospitallers to take up a +defensive position on the Plain of Cesarea. The knights of the other +military orders, the Templar and Teutonic, seized upon Mount Carmel, which +they fortified for the occasion. But their fears were relieved in the +spring of the following year by the arrival of a large body of new and +most zealous Crusaders from the upper parts of Germany. Nearly three +hundred vessels sailed from the Rhine, which, after having sustained more +than the usual casualties of a voyage in the North Sea, landed on the +shores of Syria those martial bands who had assembled in the neighbourhood +of the Elbe and the Weser. + +For reasons which are not very clearly assigned, but having some +reference, it may be conjectured, to the exhausted state of the country, +the chiefs of the Crusade came to the resolution of withdrawing their +troops from Palestine, and of carrying the war into Egypt. Damietta, not +unjustly regarded as the key of that kingdom on the line of the coast, was +made the first object of attack; and so vigorous were the approaches of +the assailants, that the castle or fortress, which was supposed to command +the town, fell into their hands. Meantime a reinforcement from Europe +appeared at the mouth of the Nile. Italy sent forth her choicest soldiers, +headed by Pelagius and De Courçon, as legates of the pope. The Counts of +Nevers and La Marche, the Archbishop of Bourdeaux, the Bishops of Meaux, +Autun, and Paris, led the youth of France; while the English troops were +conducted by the Earls of Chester, Arundel, and Salisbury, men celebrated +for their heroism and experience in the field. + +The tide of success flowed for some time so strongly in favour of the +Christians, that the Saracen leaders were desirous to conclude a peace +very advantageous to their invaders. When the loss of Damietta appeared +inevitable, the Sultan of Syria, Khamel, the son of Saphadin, apprehensive +that the Crusaders would immediately advance against Jerusalem, issued +orders to destroy the fortifications, to prevent its being held by them as +a place of defence. But in the negotiation which was opened between the +contending powers, the Mussulmans consented to rebuild the walls of the +sacred city, to return the portion of the true cross, and to liberate all +the prisoners in Syria and Egypt. Of the whole kingdom of Palestine, they +proposed to retain only the castles of Karac and Montereale, as necessary +for the safe passage of pilgrims and merchants in their intercourse with +Mecca. As an equivalent for these important concessions, they required +nothing more than the instant evacuation of Egypt, and a complete +relinquishment of the conquests which had been recently made in it by the +arms of the Crusaders. + +The Christian chiefs, after a stormy discussion, determined to reject the +terms offered by the allied sultans, and to prosecute the siege of +Damietta. This devoted town, having been invested more than a year and a +half, was at length carried by assault; but so resolute and persevering +had been the defence, that of seventy thousand inhabitants, who were shut +up by the Crusaders, only three thousand remained to witness their +triumph. + +The Saracens, fatigued with the horrors of war, once more proposed a +treaty on terms similar to those which were offered before the fall of +Damietta. But the victors, whose wisdom in council was never equal to +their valour in the field of battle, again refused to conclude a peace. +The prevailing party recommended an immediate attack upon Grand Cairo; +anticipating the reduction of the whole of Egypt, and the final subjection +of all the Mahommedan states on the shores of the Mediterranean. This +vision of greatness, however, soon vanished before the real difficulties +of a campaign on the banks of the Nile. In a few months the leaders of the +expedition found themselves reduced to the necessity of soliciting +permission to return into Palestine; consenting to purchase safety by +giving up all the acquisitions they had made since the first day that they +opened their trenches before Damietta. The barons of Syria and the +military orders retired to Acre, where they held themselves in readiness +to sustain an attack from the indignant Moslems; the mass of the +volunteers and pilgrims soon afterward procuring the means of returning +into Europe. + +Frederick the Second of Germany, who had engaged to lead a strong force +into Syria, was so long prevented by domestic cares from fulfilling his +promise, that he incurred the resentment of the pope, who actually +pronounced against him a sentence of excommunication.[174] The emperor, at +length, was induced to marry Violante, the daughter of John de Brienne, +and accept as her dowry the kingdom of Jerusalem. In the year 1228 he +arrived at Acre, with the view of making good his pretensions to the +sacred diadem,--an object which he finally attained, not less by the +connivance of the sultan than by the exertions of his military companions. +The son of Saphadin felt his throne rendered insecure by the ambition or +treachery of his own kindred, and was therefore much inclined to cultivate +an amicable feeling with so powerful a prince as the sovereign of Germany. +In pursuance of these views a treaty was signed, providing that for ten +years the Christians and Mussulmans were to live on a footing of +brotherhood; that Jerusalem, Jaffa, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and their +dependencies, were to be restored to the former; that the Holy Sepulchre +was likewise to be given up to them; and that the people of both religions +might offer up their devotions in that house of prayer, which the one +called the Temple of Solomon, and the other the Mosque of Omar. Thus the +address or good fortune of Frederick more effectually promoted the object +of the Holy Wars than the heroic phrensy of Richard Coeur de Lion; many of +the disasters consequent on the battle of Tiberias were wiped away; and +the hopes of Europe for a permanent settlement in Asia appeared to be +realized. + +But the emperor had performed all these services while the stain of +excommunication was yet unremoved from his character. The fidelity of the +knights, accordingly, whose oaths had a reference to the supremacy of the +church, and the attachment of the clergy, could not be relied upon. Hence, +when he went to Jerusalem to be crowned, the patriarch would not discharge +his office; the places of worship were closed; and no religious duties +were observed in public during his stay. Frederick repaired to the Church +of the Holy Sepulchre, surrounded by his courtiers, and boldly taking the +crown from the altar, placed it on his own head. He then issued orders for +rebuilding the fortifications of his eastern capital; after which he +returned to Acre, whence he almost immediately set sail for Europe.[175] + +The peace established between Frederick and the Saracen rulers was not +faithfully observed by the latter, some of whom did not consider +themselves as bound by its stipulations. The sufferings endured by the +Christians of Palestine accordingly called their brethren in Europe once +more to arms. A council, held under the auspices of the pope at Spoleto, +decreed that fresh levies should be sent into Asia so soon as the truce +with Khamel, the sultan of Damascus, should have expired. Many of the +English nobility, inflamed by the love of warlike fame, took the cross, +and prepared to follow the standard of the Earl of Chester, and of +Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to King Henry the Third. + +In this pious movement the lords of England were anticipated by those of +France, who, in the year 1239, landed in Syria, and prepared to measure +lances with the Moslems. News of these warlike proceedings having reached +the nephew of Saladin, he forthwith drove the Christians out of Jerusalem, +and demolished the Tower of David,--a monument which till that time had +been regarded as sacred by both parties. The combats which followed, +although fought with great bravery on the side of the invaders, terminated +generally in favour of the Saracens; and the French accordingly, after +losing a great number of their best warriors, were glad to have recourse +to terms of peace. The Templars entered into treaty with the Emir of +Karac, while the Hospitallers, actuated by jealousy or revenge, preferred +the friendship of the Sultan of Egypt. + +The following year Richard, the earl of Cornwall, arrived with his levy, +hoping to find his allies in possession of all the towns which had been +ceded to the Emperor of Germany, and enjoying security in the exercise of +their religious rites. His surprise was therefore very great, when he +discovered that the principal leaders of the French had already fled from +the plains of Syria; that the knights of the two great orders had sought +refuge in negotiation; and, finally, that the conquests of the former +Crusaders were once more limited to a few fortresses and a strip of +territory on the coast. He marched in the first instance to Jaffa, with +the view of concentrating the scattered forces of Europe; but receiving +notice, as soon as he arrived, that the Sultan of Egypt, who was then at +war with his brother of Damascus, was desirous to cultivate friendly +relations, he lent a ready ear to the terms proposed. The Mussulman +consented to relinquish Jerusalem, Beritus, Nazareth, Bethlehem, Mount +Tabor, and a large portion of the Holy Land, provided the English earl +would withdraw his troops and preserve a strict neutrality. + +The conditions being ratified by the Egyptian sovereign, the Earl of +Cornwall had the satisfaction to see the great object of the Crusaders +once more accomplished. Palestine again belonged to the Christians. The +Hospitallers opened their treasury to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, +while the patriarch and clergy entered the holy city to reconsecrate the +churches. For two years the gospel was the only religion administered in +the sacred capital, and the faithful had begun to exult in the permanent +subjection of their rivals, when a new enemy arose, more formidable to +them than even the Saracens. + +The victories of Zingis Khan had displaced several nations belonging to +the great Tartar family, and among others the Karismians, who continued +their retreat southward till they reached the confines of Egypt. The +sultan, who perhaps had repented the liberality of his terms to the +soldiers of Richard, advised the expatriated barbarians to take possession +of Palestine. He even sent one of his principal officers and a large body +of troops to serve as them guides; upon which, Barbacan, the Karismian +general, at the head of twenty thousand cavalry, advanced into the Holy +Land. The garrison of Jerusalem, being quite inadequate to its defence, +retired, and were followed by many of the inhabitants. The invaders +entered it without opposition, sparing neither life nor property, and +respecting nothing, whether sacred or profane. At length the Templars and +Hospitallers, forgetting their mutual animosities, united their bands to +rescue the country from the grasp of such savages. A battle took place, +which, after continuing two whole days, ended in the total defeat of the +Christians; the Grand Masters of St. John and of the Temple being among +the slain. Only thirty-three individuals of the latter order, and sixteen +of the former, with three Teutonic cavaliers, remained alive, and +succeeded in making their way to Acre, the last refuge of the vanquished +knights. The Karismians, with their Egyptian allies, after having razed +the fortifications of Ascalon and Tiberias, encamped on the seacoast, laid +waste the surrounding territory, and slew or carried into bondage every +Frank who fell into their hands. Nor was it till the year 1247 that the +Syrians and Mamlouks, insulted by this northern horde, attacked them near +Damascus, slew Barbacan their chief, and compelled the remainder to +retrace their steps to the borders of the Caspian Lake. + +The intelligence did not fail to reach Europe that the members of the +Church in Palestine had been put to death or dispersed by the exiles of +Karism. Pope Innocent the Fourth suggested the expediency of another +Crusade, and even summoned all his faithful children to take arms. He +wrote to Henry the Third, king of England, urging him to press on his +subjects the necessity of punishing the Karismians. But the spirit of +crusading was more active in France than in any other country of the West +and it revived in all the vigour of its chivalrous piety in the reign of +Louis the Ninth. Agreeably to the superstition of the times, he had vowed, +while afflicted by a severe illness, that in case of recovery he would +travel to the Holy Land. The Cross was likewise taken by the three royal +brothers, the Counts of Artois, Poictiers, and Anjou, by the Duke of +Burgundy, the Countess of Flanders and her two sons, together with many +knights of high degree. + +But it was not till 1249 that the soldiers of Louis were mustered, and his +ships prepared for sea; the former amounting to fifty thousand, while his +vessels of all descriptions exceeded eighteen hundred. They set sail for +Egypt; a storm separated the fleet; but the royal division, in which were +nearly three thousand knights and their men-at-arms, arrived in the +neighbourhood of Damietta. On the second day the king ordered the +disembarkation; he himself leaped into the water; his warriors followed +him to the shore; upon which the Saracens, panic-struck at their boldness +and determination, made but a slight show of defence, and fled into the +interior. Although Damietta was better prepared for a siege than at that +period when it defied the arms of the Crusaders during eighteen months, +yet the garrison were pleased to seek safety in the fleetness of their +horses. Louis fixed his residence in the city; a Christian government was +established; and the clergy, as they were wont on such occasions, +proceeded to purify the mosques. + +Towards the close of the year, after being joined by a body of English +volunteers, the French monarch resolved to march to Cairo and attack the +sultan in the heart of his kingdom. But the floods of the Nile, and the +intersection of the country by numerous canals, occasioned a second time +the loss of a brave army. Famine and disease, too, aided the sword of the +enemy, till at length the victors of Damietta were compelled to sue for a +peace which they could no longer obtain. A retreat was ordered; but those +who attempted to escape by the river were taken prisoners, and the fate of +such as proceeded by land was equally disastrous. While they were occupied +in constructing a bridge over a canal, the Saracens entered the camp and +murdered the sick. The valiant king, though oppressed with the general +calamity of disease, sustained boldly the shock of the enemy, throwing +himself into the midst of them, resolved to perish rather than desert his +troops. One of his attendants succeeded at length in drawing him from the +presence of the foe, and conducted him to a village, where he sunk under +his wounds and fatigue into a state of utter insensibility. In this +miserable condition he was overtaken by the Moslems, who announced to him +that he was their captive. One of his brothers, the gallant Artois, had +already fallen in battle, but the two others, Anjou and Poictiers, with +all the nobility, fell into the hands of the enemy. + +The sultan did not abuse his victory, nor seek to impose upon Louis terms +which a sovereign could not grant without forfeiting his honour. He agreed +to accept a sum equivalent to five hundred thousand livres for the +deliverance of the army, and the town of Damietta as a ransom for the +royal person. Peace was to continue ten years between the Mussulmans and +the Christians; while the Franks were to be restored to those privileges +in the kingdom of Jerusalem which they had enjoyed previous to the recent +invasion of the French. The repose which succeeded this treaty was +interrupted by the murder of the sultan, who fell a victim to the +jealousy, of the Mamlouks; but after a few acts of hostility too +insignificant to be recorded, the emirs renewed, with a few modifications, +the basis of the agreement on which the peace was established. Louis +himself made a narrow escape from the sanguinary intrigues of those +military slaves who had imbrued their hands in the blood of their own +master. They declared that, as they had committed a sin by destroying +their sultan, whom, by their law, they ought to have guarded as the apple +of their eye, their religion would be violated if they suffered a +Christian king to live. But the other chiefs, more honourable than the +Mamlouks, disdained to commit a crime under any such pretext; and the +French monarch, accordingly, was allowed to accompany the poor remains of +his army to the citadel of Acre. + +It has been remarked that the expedition of St. Louis into Egypt resembles +in many respects the war carried on in that country thirty years before. +In both cases the Christian armies were encamped near the entrance of the +Ashmoun canal, beyond which they could not advance; and the surrender of +Damietta in each instance was the price of safety. The errors of the +Cardinal Pelagius seem not to have been recollected by the French king, +who, in fact, trod in his steps with a fatal blindness, and ended by +paying a still severer penalty. + +A gleam of hope arose in the minds of the Crusaders from finding the +rulers of Egypt and of Syria engaged in a furious war. The Mamlouks even +condescended to solicit the cooperation of Louis, and agreed to purchase +it by remitting one-half of the ransom which still remained unpaid. They +further consented to deliver up Jerusalem itself, and also the youthful +captives taken on the banks of the Nile, whom they had compelled to +embrace the Mussulman faith. But before the Franks could appear in the +field, the interposition of the calif had restored peace to the contending +parties, both of whom immediately resumed their wonted dislike to the +European invaders. + +The infidels, however, at this period did not pursue their schemes of +conquest with the vigour and ability which distinguished the movements of +Noureddin, and more especially of Saladin, his renowned successor. They +might have swept the feeble and exhausted Christians from the shores of +Palestine; but they merely ravaged the country round Acre, and then +proceeded to Sidon, in the strong castle of which Louis and his army had +taken refuge. The blood and property of the citizens satisfied the +barbarians, who departed without trying the valour of the soldiers who +occupied the garrison. + +The death of Queen Blanche, the mother of the king, and regent during his +absence, afforded him a good apology for leaving the country, of which he +had long been tired. The patriarch and barons of the Holy Land offered him +their humble thanks for the honour he had bestowed upon their cause, and +for the benefits which he had conferred upon themselves individually. +Louis, sensible that he had gathered no laurels in Palestine, and that the +interests of the church were even in a more hopeless condition than when +he landed at Damietta, listened to their address with mingled emotions of +shame and regret, and forthwith prepared himself for his voyage +homewards.[176] + +Thus terminated that expedition, of which, says a French author, the +commencement filled all Christian states with joy, and which, in the end, +plunged all the West into mourning. The king arrived at Vincennes on the +5th of September, 1254, accompanied by a crowd collected from all +quarters. The more they forgot his reverses, the more bitterly he called +to mind the fate of his brave companions, whom he had left in the mud of +Egypt or on the sands of Palestine; and the melancholy which he showed in +his countenance formed a striking contrast to the public congratulation on +the return of a beloved prince. His first care, says the historian, was to +go to St. Denys, to prostrate himself at the feet of the apostles of +France; the next day he made his entrance into the capital, preceded by +the clergy, the nobility, and the people. He still wore the cross upon his +shoulder; the sight of which, by recalling the motives of his long +absence, inspired the fear that he had not abandoned the enterprise of the +Crusade.[177] + +The misfortunes sustained in the field were greatly increased by the +dissensions which prevailed among the military orders after the departure +of Louis. The Templars and Hospitallers, especially, never forgot their +jealousies except when engaged in battle with the Mussulmans; for, in +every interval of peace, they mutually gratified their arrogance and +contempt by wrangling on points of precedency and professional reputation. +At length an appeal to arms was made, with the view of determining which +of these kindred associations should stand highest as soldiers in the +estimation of Europe. The Knights of St. John gained the victory; and so +bloody was the conflict that no quarter was granted, and hardly a single +Templar escaped alive. + +But these unseemly disputes were soon drowned amid the shouts of a more +formidable warfare waged against Palestine by the Mamlouk sovereign of +Egypt, the sanguinary and bigoted Bibars. His troops demolished the +churches of Nazareth and Mount Tabor; after which they advanced to the +gates of Acre, inflicting the most horrid cruelties upon the unprotected +Christians. Sephouri and Azotus were taken by storm, or yielded upon +terms. At the reduction of the former, it was agreed that the knights and +garrison, amounting in all to six hundred men, should be conducted to the +nearest Christian town. But no sooner was the sultan put in possession of +the fortress than he violated the conditions of surrender, and left the +knights only a few hours to determine on the alternative of death or +conversion to Islamism. The prior and two Franciscan monks succeeded by +their exhortations in fixing the faith of the religious cavaliers; and +hence, at the time appointed for the declaration of their choice, they +unanimously avowed their resolution to die rather than incur the dishonour +of apostacy. The decree for the slaughter of the Templars was pronounced +and executed; while the three preachers of martyrdom, as if responsible +for the conduct of their countrymen, were flayed alive. + +A large Christian state had been formed at Antioch, in alliance with the +kingdom of Jerusalem. Bibars, after reducing Jaffa and the castle of +Beaufort, marched his fierce soldiers against the capital of Syria, and +soon added it to the number of his conquests. Forty thousand believers is +Christ were on this occasion put to the sword, and not fewer than one +hundred thousand were led into captivity. The barbarian, indeed, avowed +the fell purpose of exterminating the whole Christian community in the +East, extending the terror of death or the ascendency of the Koran from +the Nile to the mountains of Armenia. But his progress was stopped by the +intelligence which reached him in Palestine, that the King of Cyprus had +resolved to interpose his arms in behalf of the Holy Land, and was about +to make a descent on the coast at the head of a large force collected from +various nations. Bibara returned to Cairo, fitted out a fleet for the +conquest of that island, and intended, during the absence of its +sovereign, to annex it permanently to the dominions of Egypt. But his +ships were lost in a tempest; his military character suffered from the +failure of the enterprise; his power was weakened; and he ceased to be any +longer the scourge and dread of the Christian world. + +Before the atrocities of this Mamlouk chief were made known in Europe, the +people of the West had made preparations for the ninth Crusade. Louis was +not able to conceal from himself that his first expedition to the Holy +Land had brought more shame on France than benefit to the Christian cause. +Nay, he was not without fear, that his personal reputation was in some +degree tarnished by the fatal result of his attack on Egypt, so unwisely +and rashly conducted. The Pope favoured his inclination for a new attempt; +and accordingly, in a general meeting of the higher clergy and nobles, +held at Paris in 1268, the king exhorted his people to avenge the wrongs +which Christ had so long suffered at the hands of the unbelieving Moslems. + +In England a similar spirit had long prevailed among the priesthood and +the great body of the commons; but Henry the Third, taught by experience +that the late Crusades had only weakened the friends and strengthened the +enemies of Christianity, refused to countenance this popular folly at the +time when Louis first assumed the cross. On the present occasion, however, +he permitted his son Edward, with the Earls of Warwick and Pembroke, to +receive the holy ensign, and to join the sovereign of France in his +renewed attempt to plant the emblem of his faith on the walls of +Jerusalem. + +It was not till the spring of 1270 that St. Louis spread his sails the +second time for the Holy Land. The feelings of religious and military +ardour which animated the heart of this pious monarch were diffused +through the sixty thousand soldiers who followed his banners. He could +count, too, among his leaders, the descendants of those gallant chiefs, +the lords of Brittany, of Flanders, and Champagne, who in former +generations had distinguished themselves in fighting the battles of the +church. But notwithstanding such promising appearances, this proud +armament took the sea under an evil omen. The fleet was driven into +Sardinia; and there a great and unfortunate change was made in the plan of +operations. Instead of proceeding to Palestine, it was resolved that the +troops should be landed in the neighbourhood of Tunis, to assist the +Christians in extending their faith in opposition to the disciples of the +Koran. Success, indeed, crowned the first efforts of the invaders; +Carthage fell into their hands; and more splendid conquests seemed to +invite their progress into the heart of the Mohammedan nations of Northern +Africa. But a pestilential disease, the scourge of those burning shores, +soon spread its ravages among the ranks of the Christians. Louis, the +great stay of the Crusaders, was stricken with the fatal sickness, and +died, leaving his army, which had accomplished nothing, to prosecute the +war, or to return with sullied standards into their native country.[178] + +Prince Edward, who condemned the vacillating conduct of his allies, had +already passed from Africa into Sicily, where he spent the following +winter. In the early part of the year 1271, he set sail for Acre, where he +landed at the head of only one thousand men; but so high was his +reputation among the Latins of Palestine, that he soon found his army +increased sevenfold, and eager to be employed in the redemption of the +sacred territory. He led them, in the first place against Nazareth, which +did not long resist the vigour of his attack; and, almost immediately +afterward, he surprised a large Turkish force, whom he cut in pieces The +Moslems imagined that another Coeur de Lion had been sent from England to +scourge them into discipline, or to shake the foundation of their power in +Syria. Edward was brave and skilful as a warrior, and owed his success not +less to his able dispositions than to his personal courage. But he was +cruel and lavish of human blood. The barbarities which disgraced the +triumphs of the first Crusade were repeated on a smaller scale at +Nazareth, where the prince put the whole garrison to death, and subjected +the inhabitants to unnecessary suffering. + +The resentment of the governor of Jaffa is said to have pointed the dagger +which was aimed at the heart of the English prince by the hand of an +assassin. The wretch, as the bearer of letters, was admitted into the +chamber of Edward, who, not suspecting treachery, received several severe +wounds before he could dash the assailant to the floor and despatch him +with his sword. But as the weapon used by the Saracen had been steeped in +poison, the life of his intended victim was for some hours in imminent +danger. The chivalrous fiction of that romantic age has ascribed his +recovery to the kind offices of one of that sex whose generous affections +are seldom chilled by the calculations of selfishness. His wife, Eleanora, +is said to have sucked the poison from his wound, at the hazard of instant +death to herself,--a story which, having received the sanction of the +learned Camden, has not unfrequently been held as an indisputable fact. +The more authentic edition of the narrative attributes the restoration of +Edward's health to the usual means employed by surgical skill, aided by +the resources of a strong mind and a vigorous constitution.[179] + +It soon became manifest that the valour and ability of Edward, unsupported +by an adequate force, could make no lasting impression upon the Moslem +power in Syria. Accordingly, after having spent fourteen months in Acre, +he listened to proposals for peace made by the Sultan of Egypt, who, being +engaged in war with the Saracens whom he had displaced, was eager to +terminate hostilities with the English. A suspension of arms, to continue +ten years, was formally signed by the two chiefs; whereupon the Mamlook +withdrew his troops from Palestine, and Edward embarked for his native +country. + +The loan and discomfiture which for more than a hundred years had +concluded every attempt to regain the Holy Land did not yet extirpate the +hope of final success in the hearts of the clergy and sovereigns of the +West. Gregory the Ninth, who himself had served in the Christian armies of +Syria, exerted all the means in his power to equip another expedition +against the enemies of the faith. The small republics of Italy, which +found a ready employment for their shipping in transporting troops to +Palestine, were the first to embrace the cause recommended by their +spiritual ruler. The King of France seemed to favour the enterprise, and +advanced money on the mortgage of certain estates within his dominions +belonging to the Templars; Charles of Anjou followed the example of his +royal relation; and Michael Paleologus, the Emperor of the East, announced +his willingness to take arms against the ambitious sultan, who already +threatened the independence of Greece. A council held at Lyons in 1274 +sanctioned the obligations of a crusade, and imposed upon the church and +other estates such taxes as appeared sufficient to carry it to a +successful issue. But the death of the pope dissolved the coalition, and +all preparations for renewing the war were immediately laid aside,--never +to be resumed. + +The Franks in Palestine, now left to their own resources, ought to have +cultivated peace, and more especially to have abstained from positive and +direct aggression. Their conduct, however, was not marked by such +abstinence or wisdom. On the contrary, by attacking certain Mohammedan +merchants, they provoked the anger of the sultan, who swore by God and the +Prophet that he would avenge the wrong. A war fatal to the Christian +interests was the immediate consequence. Their fortresses were rapidly +demolished; and at length, in the year 1289, the city of Tripoli, the +principal appanage of the kingdom of Jerusalem, was taken, its houses were +consumed by fire, its works dismantled, and its inhabitants massacred, or +sold into slavery. + +Acre now remained the sole possession of the Latins, in the country where +their sovereignty had been acknowledged during the lapse of nearly two +centuries. A short peace granted to Henry the Second of Cyprus, the +nominal king of the Holy Land, postponed its fate, and the utter abolition +of Christian authority in Syria, a few years longer. Within its walls were +crowded the wretched remains of those principalities which had been won by +the valour of European soldiers. A reinforcement of unprincipled Italians +only added to the disorder which already prevailed in the town, and +increased the number of offences by which they were daily accumulating +upon their heads the vengeance of the fanatical Mamlouks, who longed for +an opportunity to attack them. + +At length, in the month of April, 1291, a force which has been estimated +at more than 200,000 men, issued from Egypt, and encamped on the Plain of +Acre. Most of the inhabitants made their escape by sea from the horrors of +the impending siege; the defence of the place being intrusted to about +12,000 good soldiers, belonging chiefly to the several orders of religious +knighthood. The command was offered to the Grand Master of the Templars, +who, being prevailed upon to accept, discharged its duties with firmness +and military skill. But the Mamlouks were not inferior in valour, and +their numbers were irresistible. Prodigies of bravery were displayed on +both sides: the assailants threw themselves, with desperate resolution, +into the breach, from whence they were repeatedly driven back at the point +of the sword, or hurled headlong into the ditch. But the sultan was +prodigal of blood, and had vowed to humble the Nazarenes who dared to +dispute his authority. The walls, accordingly, after having been several +times lost and won, were at length finally occupied by the Tartars and +Mamlouks, who obeyed the sovereign of Egypt, and the crescent was at that +moment elevated to a place which it has continued to occupy during the +greater part of five centuries. Struck with terror, the few small towns +which till this period had been allotted to the Christians surrendered at +the first summons, and saw their inhabitants doomed either to death or to +a hopeless captivity. In one word, the Holy Land, which since the days of +Godfrey had cost to Christendom so much anxiety, blood, and treasure, was +now lost; the sacred walls of Jerusalem were abandoned to infidels; and +henceforth the disciple of Christ was doomed to purchase permission to +visit the interesting scenes consecrated by the events recorded in the +gospel. + +The titular crown of Palestine was worn for the last time by Hugh the +Great, the descendant of Hugh, king of Cyprus, and Alice, who was the +daughter of Mary and John de Brienne. At a later period, this empty honour +was claimed by the house of Sicily, in right of Charles, count of Anjou +and brother of Louis IX, who was thought to unite in his own person the +issue of the King of Cyprus and of the Princess Mary, the daughter of +Frederick, sovereign of Antioch. The knights of St. John of Jerusalem, +since denominated knights of Rhodes and Malta, and the Teutonic knights, +the conquerors of the north of Europe and founders of the kingdom of +Prussia, are now the only remains of those Crusaders who struck terror +into Africa and Asia, and seized the thrones of Jerusalem, Cyprus, and +Constantinople. + +Although no expedition from the Christian states reached the Holy Land +after the close of the thirteenth century, the fire which had so long +warmed the hearts of the Crusaders was not entirely extinguished in +several parts of Europe. Edward the First of England, for example, still +cherished the hope of opening the gates of Jerusalem, or of leaving his +bones in the sacred dust of Palestine. A similar feeling animated the +monarch of France; while the pope, who derived manifold advantages from +the prosecution of such wars, summoned councils, issued pastoral letters, +and employed preachers, as in the days that were past. But dissensions at +home during the first half of the fourteenth century, and the general +conviction of hopelessness which had seized the public mind respecting all +armaments against the Moslems, occasioned the failure of every attempt to +unite once more the powers of Chistendom in the common cause. + +In the following century, the ascendency of the Turks, not only in the +East, but on the banks of the Danube and the northern shores of the +Mediterranean, compelled the people of Europe to act on the defensive. The +fall of the Grecian empire, too, rendered the intercourse with Syria at +once more difficult and dangerous. Egypt in like manner was shut against +the Christians, being subjected to the same yoke which pressed so heavily +on the western parts of Asia. Hence, during more than two centuries a +cloud hung over the affairs of Palestine, which we in vain attempt to +penetrate. Suffice it to remark, that it remained subject to the Mamlouk +sultans of Egypt till the year 1382, when they were dispossessed by a body +of Circassians, who invaded and overran the country. Upon the expulsion of +these barbarians, it acknowledged again the government of Cairo, under +which it continued until the period of the more formidable irruption of +the Mogul Tartars, led by the celebrated Tamerlane. At his death the Holy +Land was once more annexed to Egypt as a province; but in 1516, Selim the +Ninth, emperor of the Othman Turks, carried his victorious arms from the +Euphrates to the Libyan Desert, involving in one general conquest all the +intervening states. More than three hundred years have that people +exercised a dominion over the land of Judea, varied only by intervals of +rebellion on the part of governors who wished to assert their +independence, or by wars among the different pashas, who, in defiance of +the supreme authority, have from time to time quarrelled about its spoils. + +From the period at which the Crusaders were expelled from Syria down to +the middle of the last century, we are chiefly indebted for our knowledge +of the Holy Land to the pilgrims whom religious motives induced to brave +all the perils and extortions to which Franks were exposed under the +Turkish government. The faith of the Christians survived their arms at +Jerusalem, and was found within the sacred walls long after every European +soldier had disappeared. The Jacobite, Armenian, and Abyssinian believers +were allowed to cling to those memorials of redemption which have at all +times given so great an interest to the localities of Palestine; and +occasionally a member of the Latin Church had the good fortune to enter +the gates of the city in disguise, and was permitted to offer up his +prayers at the side of the Holy Sepulchre. In 1432, when La Broquiere +undertook his pilgrimage into the East, there were only two French monks +in Jerusalem, who were held in the most cruel thraldom. + +The increasing intercourse between the Turks at Constantinople and the +governments of Europe gradually produced a more tolerant spirit among the +former, and paved the way for a lasting accommodation in favour of the +Christians in Palestine. We find, accordingly, that in the year 1507, when +Baumgarten travelled in Syria, there was at Jerusalem a monastery of +Franciscans, who possessed influence sufficient to secure his personal +safety, and even to provide for his comfort under their own roof. At a +somewhat later period, the Moslem rulers began to consider the reception +of pilgrims as a regular source of revenue; selling their protection at a +high price, and even creating dangers in order to render that protection +indispensable. The Christians, meantime, rose by degrees from the state of +depression and contumely into which they were sunk by the conquerors of +the Grecian empire. They were allowed to nominate patriarchs for the due +administration of ecclesiastical affairs, and to practise all the rites of +their religion, provided they did not insult the established faith,--a +condition of things which, with such changes as have been occasioned by +foreign war or the temper of individual governors, has been perpetuated to +the present day. + +As the civil history of Palestine for three centuries is nothing more than +a relation of the broils, the insurrections, the massacres, and changes of +dynasty which have periodically shaken the Turkish empire in Europe as +well as in Asia, we willingly pass over it, as we thereby only refrain +from a mere recapitulation of names and dates which could not have the +slightest interest for any class of readers. At the close of the +eighteenth century, however, its affairs assumed a new importance. +Napoleon Bonaparte, whose views of dominion were limited only by the +bounds of the civilized world, imagined that, by the conquest of Egypt and +Syria, he should open for himself a path into the remoter provinces of the +Asiatic continent, and perhaps establish his power on either bank of the +Ganges. + +It was in the spring of 1799 that the French general, who had been +informed of certain preparations against him in the pashalic of Acre, +resolved to cross the desert which divides Egypt from Palestine at the +head of ten thousand chosen men. El Arish soon fell into his hands, the +garrison of which were permitted to retire on condition that they should +not serve again during the war. Gaza likewise yielded without much +opposition to the overwhelming force by which it was attacked. Jaffa set +the first example of a vigorous resistance; the slaughter was tremendous; +and Bonaparte, to intimidate other towns from showing a similar spirit, +gave it up to plunder and the other excesses of an enraged soldiery. A +more melancholy scene followed--the massacre of nearly four thousand +prisoners who had laid down their arms. Napoleon alleged, that these were +the very individuals who had given their parole at El Arish, and had +violated their faith by appearing against him in the fortress which had +just fallen. On this pretext he commanded them all to be put to death, and +thereby brought a stain upon his reputation which no casuistry on the part +of his admirers, and no considerations of expediency, military or +political, will ever succeed in removing.[180] + +Acre, so frequently mentioned in the History of the Crusades, was again +doomed to receive a fatal celebrity from a most sanguinary and protracted +siege. Achmet Djezzar, the pasha of that division of Palestine which +stretches from the borders of Egypt to the Gulf of Sidon, had thrown +himself into this fortress with a considerable army, determined to defend +it to the last extremity. After failing in an attempt to bribe the +Mussulman chief, Bonaparte made preparations for the attack, with his +usual skill and activity; resolving to carry the place by assault before +the Turkish government could send certain supplies of food and ammunition, +which he knew were expected by the besieged. But his design was frustrated +by the presence of a British squadron under Sir Sidney Smith, who, in the +first instance, captured a convoy of guns and stores forwarded from Egypt, +and then employed them against him, by erecting batteries on shore. +Notwithstanding these inauspicious circumstances, Napoleon opened his +trenches on the 18th of March, in the firm conviction that the Turkish +garrison could not long resist the fury of his onset and the skill of his +engineers. "On that little town," said he, to one of his generals, as they +were standing together on an eminence which still bears the name of +Richard Coeur de Lion, "on that little town depends the fate of the East. +Behold the key of Constantinople or of India!" + +At the end of ten days a breach was effected, by which the French made +their first attempt to reduce the towers of Acre. Their assault was +conducted with so much firmness and spirit, that for a moment the garrison +was overpowered, and the town seemed lost. The pasha, renowned for his +personal courage, threw himself into the thickest body of the combatants, +and at length, by strength of hand and the most heroic example, rallied +his troops and drove the enemy from the walls. The loss of the French was +great, and the disappointment of their leader extreme. Napoleon was deeply +mortified when he saw his finest regiments pursued to their lines by +English sailors and undisciplined Turks, who even proceeded to destroy +their intrenchments. + +Bourrienne relates, that during the assault of the 8th of May more than +two hundred men penetrated into the city. Already the shout of victory was +raised; but the breach, taken in flank by the Turks, could not be entered +with sufficient promptitude, and the party was left without support. The +streets were barricaded; the very women were running about throwing dust +into the air, and exciting the inhabitants by cries and howling; all +contributed to render unavailing this short occupation by a handful of +men, who, finding themselves alone, regained the breach by a retrograde +movement; but not before many had fallen. + +The want of proper means for forming a siege, and perhaps the contempt +which he entertained for barbarians, occasioned a great deficiency in the +works raised before Acre. Bonaparte was not ignorant of the disadvantages +under which his men laboured from the cause now assigned; and was +principally for this reason that he trusted more to the bayonet than to +the mortar or cannon. He repeated his assaults day after day, till the +ditch was filled with dead and wounded soldiers. His grenadiers at length +felt greater horror at walking over the bodies of their comrades than at +encountering the tremendous discharges of large and small shot to which +the latter had fallen victims. + +On the 21st of May, after sixty days of ineffectual labor under a burning +sun, Napoleon ordered a last assault on the obstinate garrison of +Ptolemais, which had barred his path to the accomplishment of the most +splendid conquests. This attempt was not less fruitless than those which +had preceded it, and was attended with the loss of many brave warriors. A +fleet was at hand to reinforce Djezzar with men and arms; the French, on +the contrary, were perishing under the plague, which had already found its +way into their ranks, and were, besides, constantly threatened by swarms +of Arabs and Mamlouks, who had assembled in the neighbouring mountains. +His failure in this effort, accordingly, dictated the necessity of a +speedy retreat towards Egypt, where his affairs continued to enjoy some +degree of prosperity, and in the magazines of which he might still find +the means of restoring the health and vigour of his troops. + +The siege of Acre, says the biographer of Bonaparte, cost nearly three +thousand men in killed, and of such as died of the plague and their +wounds. Had there been less precipitation in the attack, and had the +advances been conducted according to the rules of art, the town, says he, +could not have held out three days; and one assault such as that of the +8th of May would have sufficed. But he admits that it would have been +wiser in their situation, destitute as they were of heavy artillery and +provisions, while the place was plentifully supplied and in active +communication with the English and Ottoman fleets, not to have undertaken +the siege at all. In the bulletins, he adds, always so veracious, the lose +of the French is estimated at five hundred killed and a thousand wounded; +while that of the enemy is augmented to fifteen thousand. These documents +are doubtless curious pieces for history,--certainly not because they are +true. Bonaparte, however, attached the greatest importance to these +relations, which were always drawn up or corrected by himself.[181] + +The reader may not be displeased to consider the motives which induced +Napoleon to persevere so long in the siege of Acre. "I see that this +paltry town has cost me many men, and occupies much time; but things have +gone too far not to risk a last effort. If we succeed, it is to be hoped +we shall find in that place the treasures of the pasha, and arms for three +hundred thousand men. I will raise and arm the whole of Syria, which is +already greatly exasperated by the cruelty of Djezzar, for whose fall you +have seen the people supplicate Heaven at every assault. I advance upon +Damascus and Aleppo; I recruit my army by marching into every country +where discontent prevails; I announce to the people the abolition of +slavery, and of the tyrannical government of the pashas; I arrive at +Constantinople with armed messes; I overturn the dominion of the +Mussulman; I found in the East a new and mighty empire which shall fix my +position with posterity; and perhaps I return to Paris by Adrianople or +Vienna, having annihilated the house of Austria."[182] + +Whatever accuracy there may be in these reminiscences, there is no doubt +that Napoleon frequently remarked, in reference to Acre, "The fate of the +East is in that place." Nor was this observation made at random; for had +the French subdued Djezzar, and buried his army in the ruins of the +fortress, the whole of Palestine and Syria would have submitted to their +dominion. He expected, besides, a cordial reception from the Druses, those +warlike and semi-barbarous tribes who inhabit the valleys of Libanus, and +who, like all the other subjects of the Ottoman government, had felt the +pressure of the pasha's tyranny. His eyes were likewise turned towards the +Jews, who, in every commotion which affects Syria, are accustomed to look +for the indication of that happy change destined, in the eye of their +faith, to restore the kingdom to Israel in the latter days. It was not, +indeed, till a somewhat later period that he openly extended his +protection to the descendants of Abraham; but it is not improbable that +the notion had occurred to him during his Eastern campaigns of employing +them for the purpose of establishing an independent sovereignty in +Palestine, devoted to his ulterior views in the countries beyond the +Euphrates. + +During the siege of Acre, the several detachments of the French army +stationed in Galilee were attacked by a powerful Mussulman force, which +had assembled in the adjoining mountains. Junot, who was induced to risk +an engagement near Nazareth, would have been cut in pieces by the Mamlouk +cavalry, had not Bonaparte hastened to his assistance We have already +alluded to the masterly conduct of Kleber, who, at the head of a few +hundred men, kept the field a whole day against an overwhelming mass of +horsemen that attacked his party near Mount Tabor. On this occasion, too, +the speedy aid of Napoleon secured a victory, and scattered the enemy's +troops over the face of the desert. But he found, upon his return to the +trenches, that the same men whose columns dissipated like smoke before his +battalions on the plain were extremely formidable behind an armed wall, +and that all the skill of his engineers and the bravery of his veterans +were of no avail when opposed by the savage courage of Turks directed by +European officers and supported by English seamen. + +The sufferings which the French endured in their retreat across the desert +were very great, and afforded constant exercise for the self-possession +and equanimity of their leader. "A fearful journey," says one of their +number, "was yet before us. Some of the wounded were carried in litters, +and the rest on camels and mules. A devouring thirst, the total want of +water, an excessive heat, a fatiguing march among scorching sand-hills, +demoralized the men; a most cruel selfishness, the most unfeeling +indifference, took place of every generous or humane sentiment. I have +seen thrown from the litters officers with amputated limbs, whose +conveyance had been ordered, and who had themselves given money as a +recompense for the fatigue. I have beheld abandoned among the wheatfields +soldiers who had lost their legs or arms, wounded men, and patients +supposed to be affected with the plague. Our march was lighted up by +torches kindled for the purpose of setting on fire towns, hamlets, and the +rich crops with which the earth was covered. The whole country was in +flames. It seemed as if we found a solace in this extent of mischief for +our own reverses and sufferings. We were surrounded only by the dying, by +plunderers, by incendiaries. Wretched beings at the point of death, thrown +by the wayside, continued to call with feeble voice, 'I have not the +plague, I am but wounded;' and, to convince those that passed, they might +be seen tearing open their real wounds, or inflicting new ones. Nobody +believed them. It was the interest of all not to believe. Comrades would +say, 'He is done for now; his march is over;' then pass on, look to +themselves, and feel satisfied. The sun, in all his splendour under that +beautiful sky, was obscured by the smoke of continual conflagration. We +had the sea on our right; on our left and behind us lay the desert which +we had made; before were the sufferings and privations that awaited +us."[183] + +Since the departure of the French no event has occurred to give any +interest to the history of Palestine. The Mussulman instantly resumed his +power, which for a time he appeared determined to exercise with a strong +arm and with little forbearance towards the Franks, from the terror of +whose might he had just escaped. But the ascendency of Europe, as a great +assemblage of Christian states, checks the intolerance of the Turk, and +imposes upon him the obligations of a more liberal policy. Hence we may +confidently assert, that although the members of the Greek and Latin +churches in Syria are severely taxed, they are not persecuted. They are +compelled to pay heavily for the privilege of exercising the rights of +their worship, and of enjoying that freedom of conscience which is the +natural inheritance of every human being; but their property is held +sacred, and their personal security is not endangered, provided they have +the prudence to rest satisfied with a simple connivance or bare permission +in things relating to their faith. + +The actual state of the Holy Land may be known with sufficient accuracy +from the topographical description which we have given in a former +chapter. With regard, again, to the civil government of the country, it +has been remarked that the pashas are so frequently changed, or so often +at war with each other, that the jurisdiction of the magistrates in cities +is so undefined, and the hereditary or assumed rights of the sheiks of +particular districts are so various, that it is extremely difficult to +discover any settled rule by which the administration is conducted. The +whole Turkish empire, indeed, has the appearance of being so precariously +balanced, that the slightest movement within or from without seems likely +to overturn it. Everywhere is absolute power seen stretched beyond the +limits of all apparent control, but finding, nevertheless, a counteracting +principle in that extreme degree of acuteness to which the instinct of +self-preservation is sharpened by the constant apprehension of injury. +Hence springs that conflict between force and fraud, not always visible, +but always operating, which characterizes society in all despotic +countries. + +In the minute subdivision of power, which in all cases partakes of the +absolute nature of the supreme government, the traveller is often reminded +of patriarchal times, when there were found judges, and even kings, +exercising a separate dominion at the distance of a short journey from one +another. As an instance of this, we may mention, that on the road from +Jerusalem to Sannour, by way of Nablous, there are no fewer than three +governors of cities, all of whom claim the honours of independent +sovereigns; for, although they acknowledge a nominal superiority in the +Pasha of Damascus, they exclude his jurisdiction in all cases where he +does not enforce his authority at the head of his troops: The same +affectation of independence descends to the sheiks of villages, who, aware +of the precarious tenure by which their masters remain in office, are +disposed to treat their orders with contempt. Like them, too, they turn to +their personal advantage the power of imposition and extortion which +belongs to every one who is clothed with official rank in Syria. They sell +justice and protection; and in this market, as in all others, he who +offers the best price is certain to obtain the largest share of the +commodity.[184] + +This chapter would not be complete were we to omit all allusion to the +Jews, the ancient inhabitants of Palestine. Their number, according to a +statement lately published in Germany, amounts to between three and four +millions, scattered over the face of the whole earth, but still +maintaining the same laws which their ancestors received from their +inspired legislator more than three thousand years ago. In Europe there +are nearly two millions, enjoying different privileges according to the +spirit of the several governments; in Asia, the estimate exceeds seven +hundred thousand; in Africa, more than half a million; and in America, +about ten thousand. It is supposed, however, on good grounds, that the +Jewish population on both sides of Mount Taurus is considerably greater +than is here given, and that their gross number does not fall much short +of five millions.[185] + +In Palestine of late years they have greatly increased. It is said that +not fewer than ten thousand inhabit Saphet and Jerusalem, and that in +their worship they still sing those pathetic hymns which their manifold +tribulations have inspired; bewailing, amid the ruins of their ancient +capital, the fallen city and the desolate tribes. In Persia, one of them +addressed a Christian missionary in these affecting words:--"I have +travelled far; the Jews are everywhere princes in comparison with those in +the land of Iran. Heavy is our captivity, heavy is our burden, heavy is +our slavery; anxiously we wait for redemption." + +History, says an eloquent writer, is the record of the past; it presumes +not to raise the mysterious veil which the Almighty has spread over the +future. The destinies of this wonderful people, as of all mankind, are in +the hands of the all-wise Ruler of the universe; his decrees will +certainly be accomplished; his truth, his goodness, and his wisdom will be +clearly vindicated. This, however, we may venture to assert, that true +religion will advance with the dissemination of sound and useful +knowledge. The more enlightened the Jew becomes, the more incredible will +it appear to him that the gracious Father of the whole human race intended +an exclusive faith, a creed confined to one family, to be permanent; and +the more evident also will it appear to him, that a religion which +embraces within the sphere of its benevolence all the kindreds and +languages of the earth is alone adapted to an improved and civilized +age.[186] + +We presume not to expound the signs of the times, nor to see farther than +we are necessarily led by the course of events; but it is impossible not +to be struck with the aspect of that grandest of all moral phenomena which +is suspended upon the history and actual condition of the sons of Jacob. +At this moment they are nearly as numerous as when David swayed the +sceptre of the Twelve Tribes; their expectations are the same, their +longings are the same; and on whatever part of the earth's surface they +have their abode, their eyes and their faith are all pointed in the same +direction--to the land of their fathers and the holy city where they +worshipped. Though rejected by God and persecuted by man, they have not +once, during eighteen hundred long years, ceased to repose confidence in +the promises made by Jehovah to the founders of their nation; and although +the heart has often been sick and the spirit faint, they have never +relinquished the hope of that bright reversion in the latter days which is +once more to establish the Lord's house on the top of the mountains, and +to make Jerusalem the glory of the whole world. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + + +_The Natural History of Palestine_. + +Travellers too much neglect Natural History; Maundrell, Hasselquist, +Clarke. GEOLOGY--Syrian Chain; Libanus; Calcareous Rocks; Granite; +Trap; Volcanic Remains; Chalk; Marine Exuviae; Precious Stones. +METEOROLOGY--Climate of Palestine; Winds; Thunder; Clouds; Waterspouts; +Ignis Fatuus. ZOOLOGY--Scripture Animals; The Hart; The Roebuck; +Fallow-Deer; Wild Goat; Pygarg; Wild Ox; Chamois; Unicorn; Wild Ass; Wild +Goats of the Rock; Saphan, or Coney; Mouse; Porcupine; Jerboa; Mole; Bat. +BIRDS--Eagle; Ossifrage; Ospray; Vulture; Kite; Raven; Owl; Nighthawk; +Cuckoo; Hawk; Little Owl; Cormorant; Great Owl; Swan; Pelican; Gier Eagle; +Stork; Heron; Lapwing; Hoopoe. AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES--Serpents known to the +Hebrews; Ephe; Chephir; Acshub; Pethen; Tzeboa; Tzimmaon; Tzepho; Kippos; +Shephiphon; Shachal; Saraph, the Flying Serpent; Cockatrice Eggs; The +Scorpion; Sea-monsters, or Seals. FRUITS AND PLANTS--Vegetable Productions +of Palestine; The Fig-tree; Palm; Olive; Cedars of Libanus; Wild Grapes; +Balsam of Aaron; Thorn of Christ. + +Every one who writes on the Holy Land has occasion to regret that +travellers in general have paid so little attention to its geological +structure and natural productions. Maundrell, it is true, was not +entirely destitute of physical science; but the few remarks which he +makes are extremely vague and unconnected, and, not being expressed in +the language of system, throw very little light on the researches of the +natural philosopher or the geologist. Hasselquist had more professional +learning, and has accordingly contributed more than any of his +predecessors to our acquaintance with Palestine, viewed in its relations +to the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral kingdoms. Still the reader +of his Voyages and Travels in the Levant cannot fail to perceive, that +some of the branches of natural knowledge, which are now cultivated with +the greatest care, were in his day very little improved; and more +especially, that they were deficient in accuracy of description and +distinctness of arrangement. Dr. Clarke's observations are perhaps more +scientific than those of the Swedish naturalist just named, and +particularly in the departments of mineralogy and geology to which he had +devoted a large share of his attention. But even in his works we look in +vain for a satisfactory treatise on the mountain-rocks of Palestine, on +the geognostic formation of that interesting part of Western Asia, or on +the fossil treasures which its strata are understood to envelop. We are +therefore reduced to the necessity of collecting from various authors, +belonging to different countries and successive ages, the scattered +notices which appear in their works, and of arranging them according to a +plan most likely to suit the comprehension of the common reader. + +SECTION I.--GEOLOGY. + +At first view it would appear that the ridges of Palestine are all a +ramification of Mount Taurus. But the proper Syrian chain begins on the +south of Antioch, at the huge peak of Casius, which shoots up to the +heavens its tapering summit, covered with thick forests. The same chain, +under various names, follows the direction of the eastern shore of the +Mediterranean, at no greater distance, generally speaking, than +twenty-four miles from its waters. Mount Libanus forms its most elevated +summit. At length it is divided into two branches, of which the one looks +westward to the sea, the other, which bounds the Plain of Damascus, +verges in the direction of the desert and the banks of the Euphrates. +Hermon, whose lofty top condenses the moisture of the atmosphere, and +gives rise to the dews so much celebrated in the Sacred Writings, stands +between Heliopolis and the capital of Syria. The latter ridge received +from the Greeks the denomination of Anti-Libanus,--a name unknown among +the natives, and which, being employed somewhat arbitrarily by historians +and topographers, has occasioned considerable obscurity in their +writings. + +The hills in this part of Syria are composed of a calcareous rock having +a whitish colour, is extremely hard, and which rings in the ear when +smartly struck with a hammer. The same description applies to the masses +that surround Jerusalem, which on the one hand stretch to the River +Jordan, and on the other extend to the Plain of Acre and Jaffa. Like all +limestone strata, they present a great number of caverns, to which, as +places of retreat, frequent allusion is made in the books of Samuel and +of the Kings. There is one near Damascus, capable of containing four +thousand men; and it must have been in a similar recess that David and +his men encountered the ill-fated Saul when pursued by him on the hills +of the wild goats. + +The mountains that skirt the Valley of the Dead Sea present granite and +those other rocks which, according to the system of Werner, characterize +the oldest or primitive formation. Mount Sinai is a member of the same +group, and exhibits mineral qualities of a similar nature, extending to a +certain distance on both sides of the Arabian Gulf. It is probable that +this region, at a remote epoch, was the theatre of immense volcanoes, the +effects of which may still be traced along the banks of the Lower Jordan, +and more especially in the lake itself. The warm baths at Tabaria show +that the same cause still exists, although much restricted in its +operation,--an inference which is amply confirmed by the lavas, the +bitumen, and pumice which continue to be thrown ashore by the waves of +Asphaltites. + +Dr. Clarke remarks, that in the neighborhood of Cana there are several +basaltic appearances. The extremities of columns, prismatically formed, +penetrated the surface of the soil, so as to render the path very rough +and unpleasant. These marks of regular or of irregular crystallization +generally denote, according to his opinion, the vicinity of water lying +beneath their level. The traveller, having passed over a series of +successive plains, resembling in their gradation the order of a +staircase, observes, as he descends to the inferior stratum upon which +the water rests, that where rocks are disclosed the symptoms of +crystallization have taken place, and then the prismatic configuration is +commonly denoted basaltic. Such an appearance, therefore, in the approach +to the Lake of Tiberias is only a parallel to similar phenomena exhibited +by rocks near the Lakes of Locarno and Bolsenna in Italy, by those of the +Wenner Lake in Sweden, by the bed of the Rhine near Cologne in Germany, +by the Valley of Ronca in the territory of Verona, by the Pont de Bridon +in the state of Venice, and by numerous other examples in the same +country. A corresponding effect is produced on a small scale on the +southern declivity, of Arthur Seat, near Edinburgh, where the hill +overhangs the Lake of Duddingstone; and numerous other instances are +known to occur in the islands which lie between the coast of Ireland and +Norway, as well as Spain, Portugal, Arabia, and India. + +When these crystals have obtained a certain regularity of structure, the +form is often hexagonal, or six-sided, resembling particular kinds of +spar, and the emerald. Patrin, during his travels in the deserts of +Oriental Tartary, discovered when breaking the Asiatic emerald, if fresh +taken from the matrix, not only the same alternate concave and convex +fractures which sometimes characterize the horizontal fissures of +basaltic pillars, but also the concentric layers which denote +concretionary formation: It is hardly possible to have a more striking +proof of coincidence, resulting from similarity of structure, in two +substances otherwise remarkably distinguished from each other. In this +state science remains at present, concerning an appearance in nature +which exhibits nothing more than the common process of crystallization +upon a larger scale than has usually excited attention. Suffice it to +remark, that such a phenomenon is very frequent in the vicinity of very +ancient lakes, in the bed of all considerable rivers, or by the borders +of the ocean.[187] + +In a country where there are so many traces of volcanic action, the rocks +of the lower levels cannot fail to bear marks of their origin. +Hasselquist relates, that the Hill of Tiberias, out of which issues the +fountain whence the baths are supplied, consists of a black and brittle +sulphurous stone, which is only to be found in large masses in the +neighborhood, though it is commonly met with in rolled specimens on the +shores of the Dead Sea, and in other parts of the valley. The sediment +deposited by the water is also black, as thick as paste, smells strongly +of sulphur, and is covered with two skins or cuticles, of which the lower +is of a fine dark-green, and the uppermost of a light rusty colour. At +the mouth of the outlet, where the stream formed little cascades over the +stones, the first cuticle alone was found, and so much resembled a +conferva, that one might have taken it for a vegetable production; but +nearer the river, where the current became stagnant, both skins were +visible, the yellow on the surface, and under it the green.[188] + +There are observed, in the same hollow, small portions of quartz +incrusted with an impure salt, and nodules of clay extremely compact. +Near the edge of the valley there lie scattered on the sand considerable +portions of flinty slate; and amid the common clay, which forms the basis +of the soil, are perpendicular layers of a lamellated brown argil, +assuming, as it were, the slaty structure. Dr. Clarke noticed among the +pebbles near the Lake of Tiberias pieces of a porous rock resembling the +substance called toadstone in England; its cavities were filled with +zeolite. Native gold was likewise found there, but the quantity was so +small as not to draw from the travellers a suitable degree of attention. + +The Vale of the Asphaltites is further remarkable for a species of +limestone called the fetid, the smell of which, as its name imports, is +extremely offensive. It is still manufactured in the East into amulets, +and worn as a specific against the plague; and that a similar +superstition existed in regard to this stone in very early ages is +rendered manifest by the circumstance, that charms made of the same +substance were found in the subterranean chambers under the pyramids of +Sakhara in Upper Egypt. The cause of the fetid effluvia emitted from this +rock, when partially decomposed by means of friction, is now known to be +connected with the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. All bituminous +limestone, however, does not possess this property. It is not uncommon in +the calcareous beds called in England black marble, but it is by no means +their characteristic. The fragments obtained in the valley of the Jordan +have this savour in a high degree; and it is admitted that the oriental +limestone is more highly impregnated with hydrosulphuret than any +hitherto found in Europe.[189] + +According to Dr. Shaw, the upper strata of rocks on the hills along the +coast are composed of a soft chalky substance, including a great variety +of corals, shells, and other marine exuviae. Upon the Castravan +mountains, near Beirout, there is a singular bed, consisting likewise of +a whitish stone, but of the slate-kind, which unfolds in every flake of +it a great number and variety of fishes. These, for the most part, lie +exceedingly flat and compressed, like the fossil specimens of fern; yet +are, at the same time, so well preserved, that the smallest lineaments +and fibres of their fins, scales, and other specific properties of +structure are easily distinguished. Among these were some individuals of +the squilla tribe, which, though one of the tenderest of the crustaceous +family, had not suffered the least injury from pressure or friction. The +heights of Carmel, too, present similar phenomena. In the chalky beds +which surround its summit are gathered numerous hollow flints, lined in +the inside with a variety of sparry matter, and having some resemblance +to petrified fruit. These are commonly bestowed upon pilgrims, not only +as curiosities, but as antidotes against several distempers. Those which +bear a likeness to the olive, usually denominated "lapides Judaici," are +looked upon, when dissolved in the juice of lemons, as an approved +medicine for curing the stone and gravel,--a specific, we may presume; +which, after the fashion of many others, operates upon the body through +the power of the imagination.[190] + +The miserable condition of ignorance and neglect into which every thing +connected with industry has fallen under the Turkish government, prevents +us from obtaining any information in regard to the mineral stores of that +country, "whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou mayst dig +brass." Volney indeed relates, that ores of the former metal abound, in +the mountains of Kesraoun and of the Druses, in other words, in the +extensive range of which Libanus is the principal member. Every summer +the inhabitants work those mines which are simply ochreous. There is a +vague report in the district, that there was anciently a vein of copper +near Aleppo, but it must have been long since abandoned. It was also +mentioned to the traveller, when among the Druses, that a mineral was +discovered which produced both lead and silver; though, as such a +discovery would have ruined the whole district by attracting the +attention of the Turks, they made haste to destroy every vestige of it. A +similar feeling prevails respecting precious stones,--the branch of +mineralogy which first gains the attention of a rude people. From the +geological character of the Syrian mountains, there is no doubt that +Palestine might boast of the topaz, the emerald, the chryso-beryl, +several varieties of rock-crystal, and also of the finer jaspers. The +Sacred Writings prove that the Jews were acquainted with a considerable +variety of ornamental stones, as may be seen in the description of the +mystical city in the book of Revelation, of which "the twelve gates were +twelve pearls." But the present inhabitants of Canaan, regardless of the +natural wealth with which the hills and the valleys abound, trust to +violence for the means of luxury, and to the most unprincipled extortion +and robbery for their accustomed revenue. From them, therefore, neither +knowledge nor elegance can ever be expected to receive any attention. + +SECTION II.--METEOROLOGY. + +Under this head we include the usual properties of the atmosphere which +minister to health and vegetation, for it has been justly remarked that +Syria has three climates. The summits of Libanus, for instance, covered +with snow, diffuse a salubrious coolness in the interior; the flat +situations, on the contrary, especially those which stretch along the +line of the coast, are constantly subjected to heat, accompanied with +great humidity; while the adjoining plains of the desert are scorched by +the rays of a burning sun. The seasons and the productions, of course, +undergo a corresponding variation. In the mountains the months of spring +and summer very nearly coincide with those in the southern parts of +Europe; and the winter, which lasts from November till March, is sharp +and rigorous. No year passes without snow, which often covers the surface +of the ground to the depth of several feet during many weeks. The spring +and autumn are agreeable, and the summer by no means oppressive. But in +the plains, on the other hand, as soon as the sun has passed the equator, +a sudden transition takes place to an overpowering heat, which continues +till October. To compensate for this, however, the winter is so temperate +that orange-trees, dates, bananas, and other delicate fruits grow in the +open field. Hence, we need hardly observe that a journey of a few hours +carries the traveller through a succession of seasons, and allows him a +choice of climate, varying from the mild temperature of France to the +blood-heat of India, or the pinching cold of Russia. + +The winds in Palestine, as in all countries which approach the tropics, +are periodical, and governed in no small degree by the course of the sun. +About the autumnal equinox, the north-west begins to blow with frequency +and strength. It renders the air dry, clear, and sharp; and it is +remarkable that on the seacoast it causes the headache, like the +north-east wind in Egypt. We may further observe, that it usually blows +three days successively, like the south and south-east at the other +equinox. It continues to prevail till November, that is, about fifty +days, when it is followed by the west and south-west, called by the Arabs +"the fathers of rain." In March arise the pernicious winds from the +southern quarter, with the same circumstances as in Egypt; but they +become feebler as we advance towards the north, and are much more +supportable in the mountains than in the low country. Their duration at +each return varies from twenty-four hours to three days. The easterly +winds, which come next in order, continue till June, when they are +commonly succeeded by an inconstant breeze from the north. At this season +the wind shifts through all the points every day, passing with the sun +from east to south, and from south to west, to return by the north and +recommence the same circuit. At this time, too, a local wind, called the +land-breeze, prevails along the coast during the night; it springs up +after sunset, lasts till the appearance of the solar orb in the morning, +and extends only a few leagues to sea. + +Travellers have observed that thunder, in the lowlands of Palestine as +well as in Egypt, is more common during the winter than in summer; while +in the mountains, on the contrary, it is more frequent in the latter +season, and very seldom heard in the former. In both these countries it +happens oftenest in the rainy season, or about the time of the equinoxes, +especially the autumnal; and it is further remarkable that it never comes +from the land side, but always from the sea. These storms, too, generally +speaking, take place either in the evening or morning, and rarely in the +middle of the day. They are accompanied with violent showers of rain, and +sometimes of uncommonly large hail, which, soon covering the face of the +country with stagnant water, give rise to a copious evaporation. + +The phenomenon alluded to by the prophet Elijah is still found to +diversify the aspect of the eastern sky. Volney remarks, that clouds are +sometimes seen to dissolve and disperse like smoke; while on other +occasions they form in an instant, and from a small speck increase to a +prodigious size. This is particularly observable at the summit of +Lebanon; and mariners have usually found that the appearance of a cloud +on this peak is an infallible presage of a westerly wind, one of the +"fathers of rain" in the climate of Judea.[191] + +Waterspouts are not unfrequent along the shores of Syria, and more +especially in the neighbourhood of Mount Carmel. Those observed by Dr. +Shaw appeared to be so many cylinders of water falling down from the +clouds; though by the reflection it might be of these descending columns, +or from the actual dropping of the fluid contained in them, they would +sometimes, says he, appear at a distance to be sucked up from the sea. +The theory of waterspouts in the present day does in fact admit the +supposition here referred to; that the air, being rarefied by particular +causes, has its equilibrium restored by the elevation of the water, on +the same principle that mercury rises in the barometer, or the contents +of a well in a common pump. The opinions of the learned traveller on this +subject are extremely loose and unscientific, and are only valuable in +our times as marking a certain stage in the progress of meteorological +inquiry. + +The same author has recorded a fact which we have not observed in the +pages of any other tourist. In travelling by night, in the beginning of +April, through the valleys of Mount Ephraim, he was attended for more +than an hour by an _ignis fatuus_ that displayed itself in a variety of +extraordinary appearances. It was sometimes globular, and sometimes +pointed like the flame of a candle; then it spread itself so as to +involve the whole company in its pale inoffensive light; after which it +contracted, and suddenly disappeared. But in less than a minute it would +begin again to exert itself as at other times, running along from one +place to another with great swiftness, like a train of gunpowder set on +fire; or else it would expand itself over more than two or three acres of +the adjacent mountains, discovering every shrub and tree that grew upon +them. The atmosphere from the beginning of the evening had been +remarkably thick and hazy; and the dew, as felt upon the bridles, was +unusually clammy and unctuous. In such weather similar luminous bodies +are observed skipping about the masts and yards of ships, and are called +by the mariners _corpusanse_, a corruption of the _cuerpo santo_, or +sacred body, of the Spaniards. The same were the Castor and Pollux of the +ancients. Some writers have attempted to account for these phenomena, +particularly for the _ignis fatuus_, by supposing it to be occasioned by +successive swarms of flying glowworms, or other insects of the same +nature. But, as Dr. Shaw observes, not to perceive or feel any of these +insects, even when the light which they produce spreads itself around us, +should induce us to explain both this appearance and the other on the +received principle that they are actually meteors, or a species of +natural phosphorus.[192] + +SECTION III.--ZOOLOGY. + +In this article we shall confine our attention to such animals as are +mentioned in Holy Scripture; our object being restricted to an +elucidation of the natural history of Palestine as it presents itself to +the common reader, and not according to the arrangement which might be +required by the rules of science. + +In the fourteenth chapter of Deuteronomy, where a distinction is made +between the clean and the unclean, or those which might be eaten and +those which were prohibited, we find in the former class the ox, the +sheep, the goat, the hart, the roebuck, the fallow-deer, the wild goat, +the pygarg, the wild ox, and the chamois. As to the domesticated animals, +which are common in all countries, we shall not waste time by exhibiting +any description. The next in order, or "hart," is also quite familiar; +but every scholar knows that the Hebrew term _aïl_ is so vague in its +import, that it has been understood to signify a tree as well as a +quadruped. Thus the fine expression in the forty-ninth chapter of +Genesis, uttered by Jacob in reference to one of his children, "Naphtali +is a hind let loose; he giveth goodly words," has been translated by +Bochart, Houbigant, and others, in these terms:--"Naphtali is a spreading +tree, giving out beautiful branches." The meaning of the patriarch +unquestionably was, that the tribe about to descend from his son would be +active and powerful, enjoying at once unrestrained freedom and abundance +of food. It might be expressed thus:--Naphtali is a deer roaming at +liberty; he shooteth forth noble branches, or majestic antlers; his +residence shall be in a beautiful woodland country; and, as Moses also +predicted, "he shall be filled with the blessings of the Lord." + +The _roebuck_, or tzebi of the Hebrews, is regarded by Dr. Shaw as the +gazelle, or antelope,--a beautiful creature, which is very common all +over Greece, Syria, the Holy Land, Egypt, and Barbary. It is known among +Greek naturalists by the name of _dorcas_, from an allusion to its fine +eyes, the brilliancy and liveliness of which have passed into a proverb +in all eastern countries. The damsel whose name was Tabitha, which is by +interpretation Dorcas, might be so called from this particular feature. +The antelope likewise is in great esteem among the orientals for food, +having a very sweet musky taste, which is highly agreeable to their +palates; and, therefore, the tzebi might well be received as one of the +dainties at Solomon's table.[193] If, then, says the author just quoted, +we lay all these circumstances together, they will appear to be much more +applicable to the gazelle, or antelope, which is a quadruped well known +and gregarious, than to the roe, which was either not known at all, or at +least was very rare in those countries. + +The _fallow-deer_, or yachmur of the Bible, is received among +commentators as the _wild beeve_,--an animal equal in size to the stag, +or red deer, to which it bears some resemblance. It frequents the +solitary parts of Judea and the surrounding countries, and, like the +antelope, is everywhere gregarious. Its flesh is also very sweet and +nourishing, and was frequently seen at the tables of kings. + +The _wild goat_, or akko, mentioned in Deuteronomy, is not held +sufficiently specific by naturalists, who imagine that it must be +identified with another animal called by the Seventy _tragelaphus_, +literally the goat-deer. The horns of this species, which are furrowed +and wrinkled as in the goat kind, are a foot or fifteen inches long, and +bend over the back; though they are shorter and more crooked than those +of the ibex or steinbuck. It is not unfrequently known by the more +familiar name of _lerwee_. + +Considerable obscurity hangs over the natural history of the _pygarg_, +the characteristics of which have not hitherto been well determined. The +word itself, it has been remarked, seems to denote a creature whose +hinder parts are of a white colour. Such, says Dr. Shaw, is the _lidmee_ +which is shaped exactly like the common antelope, with which it agrees in +colour and in the shape of its horns, only that in the lidmee they are of +twice the length, as the animal itself is of twice the size. + +The sixth species is the _wild ox_, or thau of the Mosaical catalogue, +which has generally been rendered the _oryx_. Now this animal is +described to be of the goat-kind, with the hair growing forward, or +towards the head. It is further described to be of the size of a beeve, +and to be likewise a fierce creature, contrary to what is observed of the +goat or deer kind, which, unless they are irritated and highly provoked, +are all of them of a shy and timorous nature. The only quadruped that we +are acquainted with to which these marks will apply is the buffalo, well +known in Egypt and in various parts of Western Asia. It may be so far +reckoned of the goat kind, as the horns are not smooth and even as in the +beeve, but rough and wrinkled as in the goat. It is, besides, nearly the +same as the common beeve, and therefore agrees so far with the +description of Herodotus. It is also a sullen, spiteful animal, being +often know to pursue the unwary, especially if clad in scarlet. For these +reasons, the buffalo may not improperly be taken for the thau or oryx, +whereof we have had hitherto little account.[194] + +The _chamois_, or zomer of the ancient Jews, has by different authors +been described as the camelopard or giraffe. The Syriac version renders +the original term into one which signifies the mountain-goat, and so far +coincides with our common translation of the Scriptures, though it is +extremely doubtful whether the chamois or the ibex was to be found in any +district of Palestine. Dr. Shaw holds the opinion that the zomer must +have been the giraffe; for though it was a rare animal, and not known in +Europe before the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, it might, he thinks, +have been common enough in Egypt, as it was a native of Ethiopia, the +adjoining country. It may therefore be presumed, says he, that the +Israelites, during their long residence in the land of the Pharaohs, were +not only well acquainted with it, but might at different times have +tasted its flesh. + +This inference is rejected with some show of reason by the editor of +Calmet's Dictionary, who remarks, it is very unlikely that the giraffe, +being a native of the torrid zone and attached to hot countries, should +be so abundant in Judea as to be made an article of food. The same +argument applies to the chamois, which, as it inhabits the highest +mountains, and seeks the most elevated spots, where snow and ice prevail, +to shelter it from the heat of summer, was probably unknown to the people +of Israel. Hence, it still remains doubtful to what class of animals the +zomer of Moses should be attached, though, in our opinion, the balance of +authorities seem to incline in favour of a small species of goat which +browsed in the hill-country of Syria. + +The _unicorn_, or réem, mentioned in the book of Job, has given similar +occasion to a variety of opinion. Parkhurst imagines that by this term is +meant the wild bull, for it is evidently an animal of great strength and +possessed of horns. Mr. Scott, in his Commentary on the Bible, adopts the +same view, and reminds his reader, that the bulls of Bashan described by +the Psalmist are by the same inspired writer denominated reems. Other +expounders of Sacred Writ maintain that the creature alluded to by the +patriarch of Uz can have been no other than the double-horned +rhinoceros.[195] + +The wild _ass_, or para, celebrated by the same ancient author, is +generally understood to be the onager, an animal, which is to this day +highly prized in Persia and the deserts of Tartary, as being fitter for +the saddle than the finest breed of horses. It has nothing of the dulness +or stupidity of the common ass; is extremely beautiful; and, when +properly trained, is docile and tractable in no common degree. It was +this more valuable kind of ass that Saul was in search of when he was +chosen by the prophet to discharge the duties of royalty. "Who hath sent +out the wild ass free? or who hath loosed the bands of the wild ass? +whose house I have made the wilderness, and the barren land his +dwellings. He scorneth the multitude of the city, neither regardeth he +the crying of the driver. The range of the mountains is his pasture, and +he searcheth after every green thing."[196] + +The "wild goats of the rock," described in the chapter just quoted, are +supposed to be the same as the ibex or bouquetin. This animal is larger +than the tame goat, but resembles it much in form. The head is small is +proportion to the body, with the muzzle thick and compressed, and a +little arced. The eyes are large and round, and have much fire and +brilliancy. The horns are so majestic, that when fully grown they +occasionally weigh sixteen or eighteen pounds. He feeds during the night +in the highest woods; but the sun no sooner begins to gild the summits, +than he quits the woody region, and mounts, feeding in his progress, till +he has reached the most considerable heights. The female shows much +attachment to her young, and even defends it against eagles, wolves, and +other enemies. She takes refuge in some cavern, and, presenting her head +at the entrance of the hole, resolutely opposes the assailants. Hence the +allusion to this affectionate creature in the book of Proverbs, "Let thy +wife be as the loving hind and the peasant roe." + +The saphan of the Bible is usually translated _cony_. "The high hills are +a refuge for the wild goats, and the rocks for the conies." But it is now +believed that the ashkoko, an animal mentioned by Bruce, presents +properties which accord much better with the description of the saphan +given in different parts of the Old Testament, than the cony, hare, or +rabbit. This curious creature, we are told by that traveller, is found in +Ethiopia, in the caverns of the rocks, or under great stones. It does not +burrow or make holes like the rat or rabbit, nature having interdicted +this practice by furnishing it with feet, the toes of which are perfectly +round, and of a soft, pulpy, tender substance: the fleshy part of them +projects beyond the nails, which are rather sharp, very similar to a +man's nails ill-grown, and appear given to it rather for the defence of +its soft toes, than for any active use in digging, to which they are by +no means adapted.[197] + +A living writer, who has considered this subject with great attention, +gives as the result of his inquiry, that the saphan of the ancient +Hebrews, rendered "cony" in the English Bible, is a very different +animal; that it has a nearer resemblance to the hedgehog, the bear, the +mouse, the jerboa, or the marmot, though it is not any of these. It is +the webro of the Arabians, the daman-Israel of Shaw, the ashkoko of +Bruce, and clipdass of the Dutch.[198] + +The prophet Isaiah, in recording the idolatrous and profane habits of his +countrymen, mentions the "eating of swine's flesh, and the abomination, +and the _mouse_." This is supposed to be the jerboa, an animal common in +the East, about the size of a rat, and which only uses its hindlegs. +There can be little doubt that this is the creature alluded to by the +Hebrew legislator when he said, "Whatsoever goeth upon its _paws_, among +all manner of beasts that go on all four, those are unclean unto you." +Hasselquist tells us that the jerboa, or leaping-rat, as he calls it, +moves only by leaps and jumps. When he stops he brings his feet close +under his belly, and rests on the juncture of his leg. He uses, when +eating, his fore-paws, like other animals of his kind. He sleeps by day, +and is in motion during the night. He eats corn, and grains of sesamum. +Though he does not fear man, he is not easily tamed; for which reason he +must be kept in a cage. + +The porcupine, or _kephad_, is spoken of in the writings of Isaiah under +the denomination of the bittern. "I will make Babylon a possession for +the bittern and pools of water." In another chapter, the inspired author +associates the kephad with the pelican, with the yanshaph or ardea ibis, +and with oreb, or the raven kind; and hence a considerable difficulty has +arisen in regard to the class of animals in which it ought to be ranked. +Bochart had no doubt that the porcupine was in the mind of the prophet +when he wrote the description of the Assyrian capital wasted and +abandoned. This creature is a native of the hottest climates of Africa +and India, and yet can live and multiply in milder latitudes. It is now +found in Spain, and in the Apennines near Rome. Pliny asserts that the +porcupine, like the bear, hides itself in winter. In a Memoir on Babylon, +by the late Mr. Rich, it is stated that great quantities of +porcupine-quills were found on the spot; and that in most of the cavities +are numbers of bats and owls. + +The mole and the bat are reckoned among the unclean animals forbidden to +the Jews by their Divine lawgiver. The latter is distinctly included +under the following description: "Every creeping thing that flieth shall +be unclean to you; they shall not be eaten." The legs of the bat appear +to be absolutely different from those of all other animals, and indeed +they are directed, and even formed in a very particular manner. In order +to advance, he raises both his front-legs at once, and places them at a +small distance forward; at the same time the thumb of each foot points +outward, and the creature catches with the claw at any thing which it can +lay hold of; then he stretches behind him his two hind-legs, so that the +five toes of each foot are also directed backward; he supports himself on +the sole of this foot, and secures himself by means of the claws on his +toes; then he raises his body on the front-legs, and throws himself +forward by folding the upper arm on the fore-arm, which motion is +assisted by the extension of the hind-legs, which also push the body +forward This gait, though heavy, because the body falls to the ground at +every step, is yet sometimes pretty quick, when the feet can readily meet +with good holding-places; but when the claw of the front foot meets with +any thing loose, the exertion is inefficient.[199] + +SECTION IV.--BIRDS. + +In the writings of Moses, the winged tribes are divided into three +classes, according as they occupy the air, the land, or the water. + +BIRDS OF THE AIR. + +English Translation. Probable Species. +Eagle Eagle. +Ossifrage Vulture. +Ospray Black Eagle. +Vulture Hawk. +Kite Kite. +Raven Raven. + +LAND BIRDS. + +Owl Ostrich. +Night-hawk Night-owl. +Cuckoo Suf-saf. +Hawk Ancient Ibis. + +WATER BIRDS. + +Little Owl Sea-gull. +Cormorant Cormorant. +Great Owl Ibis Ardea. +Swan Wild Goose. +Pelican Pelican. +Gier Eagle Alcyone. +Stork Stork. +Heron Long-neck. +Lapwing Hoopoe. + +These are the unclean birds, according to the Mosaical arrangement and +the views of the English translators. But it must not be concealed, that +the attainments of the latter in ornithology were not particularly +accurate; and, as a proof of this; we may mention a fact obvious to the +youngest student of Oriental languages, that the same Hebrew words in +Leviticus and Deuteronomy are not always rendered by the same term in our +tongue. For example, the vulture of the former book is in the latter +called the glede; and there are many similar variations, in different +parts of the Old Testament, in regard to the others. + +The _swan_, or tinshemet of the Hebrews, is a very doubtful bird. The +Seventy render it by _porphyrion_, which signifies a purple hen, a +water-fowl well known in the East. Dr. Geddes observes that the root or +etymon of the term _tinshemet_ denotes _breathing_ or _respiring_,--a +description which is supposed to point to a well-known quality in the +swan, that of being able to respire a long time with its bill and neck +under water, and even plunged in mud. Parkhurst thinks the conjecture of +Michaelis not improbable, namely, "that it is the goose, which every one +knows is remarkable for its manner of breathing out or hissing when +provoked." The latter writer observes, "what makes me conjecture this is, +that the Chaldee interpreters who in Leviticus render it _obija_, do not +use this word in Deuteronomy, but substitute the 'white kak,' which, +according to Buxtorf, denotes the goose." Norden mentions a goose of the +Nile whose plumage is extremely beautiful. It is of an exquisite aromatic +taste, smells of ginger, and has a great deal of flavour. Can this be the +Hebrew _tinshemet_, and the _porphyrion_ of the Seventy? + +Again, it is conjectured by modern naturalists that the heron should be +included among storks. Commentators, it is true, are quite at a loss in +regard to the precise import of the original term _anapha_, and some of +them accordingly leave it altogether untranslated. It is not improbable +that the Long-neck mentioned by Dr. Shaw may be the animal alluded to by +the sacred lawgiver. This bird, we are told, is of the bittern kind, +somewhat less than the lapwing. The neck, the breast, and the belly are +of a light yellow colour, while the back and upper part of the wings are +jet-black. The tail is short; the feathers of the neck are long, and +streaked with white or a pale yellow. The bill, which is three inches +long, is green, and in form like that of the stork; and the legs, which +are short and slender, are of the same colour. In walking and searching +for food, it throws out its neck seven or eight inches; whence the Arabs +call it Boo-onk, or Long-neck.[200] + +The _hoopoe_ is thought to be pretty well ascertained; yet we might +suppose that a bird which frequents water more than the European variety +does, would not have been misplaced at the close of the list given above. +The accuracy of the inspired writer, however, in treating this part of +the subject, has been generally extolled,--an accuracy which, there is no +doubt, will hereafter lead to the most satisfactory conclusions in +determining the several species he enumerates. All these birds being +fish-eaters, no distinction is afforded arising from diversity of food; +but the Hebrew naturalist begins with those which inhabit the sea and its +rocky cliffs, the gannet and the cormorant; then he proceeds to the marsh +birds, the bitterns; then to the river and lake birds, the pelican, the +kingfisher, or the shagarag; then the stork, which is a bird of passage, +lives on land as well as on water, and feeds on frogs and insects no less +than on fish; then to another, which probably is a bird of passage also, +because it is mentioned the last in the catalogue. The hoopoe is +certainly a migratory bird, feeds less on fish than any of the former +kinds, and has, in fact, no great relation to the water. + +It was objected by Michaelis that the _chasidah_ of the Hebrews could not +be the stork, because the latter bird does not usually roost on trees; +and yet it is asserted in the hundred-and-fourth Psalm, that the +fir-trees are a dwelling for the stork. But Doubdan, who had no +hypothesis to maintain, relates that he saw storks resting on trees +between Cana and Nazareth; and Dr. Shaw says expressly, the storks breed +plentifully in Barbary; and that the fir-trees, and other trees when +these are wanting, are a "dwelling for the stork." It is therefore +probable that this bird conforms its manners to circumstances; that +wherever it obtains rest, security, and accommodation, there it resides, +whether in a ruin or a forest. So that on the whole we need not hesitate, +merely because the European stork seldom inhabits trees, to admit that it +is the chasidah of the Sacred Scriptures. + +We purposely abstain from the description of such birds as are common to +Palestine and to the climates of Europe. The ostrich, no doubt, is +peculiar to the deserts of Syria and of Arabia, and might therefore +demand a more minute delineation than is consistent with our limits. +Suffice it to mention, that it is one of the largest and most remarkable +of the feathered tribes, and has been celebrated from the most remote +antiquity by many fabulous writers, who ascribe to it qualities more +wonderful than even those which it actually possesses. Its height is +estimated at seven or eight feet, and in swiftness it surpasses every +other animal. + +That it is gregarious no naturalist any longer doubts, being generally +seen in large troops at a great distance from the habitations of man. The +egg is about three pounds in weight, and in the warmer countries of the +East is usually hatched by the rays of the sun alone; though in less +heated regions the bird is observed to practise incubation. + +The same remarks might be applied to the pelican, whose solitary life as +an inhabitant of the desert is occasionally referred to in the Sacred +Writings. It appears, however, that this bird is migratory, whence we may +conclude that it is also gregarious, and does not always remain alone. In +their motion through the air, the pelicans imitate the procedure of the +wild-goose, and form their van into an acute angle. When of full age, the +male is superior in size to the swan, weighs twenty-five pounds, and from +wing to wing extends not less than fifteen feet. The upper mandible is +flat and broad, and hooked at the end; the lower mandible has appended to +it a very dilatable bag, reaching eight or nine inches down the neck, and +large enough to contain several quarts of water. Its food is fish; in +diving for which it sometimes descends from a great height. When it has +filled its pouch, it flies to some convenient point of a rock, where it +swallows its prey at leisure. The vulgar notion that the female pelican +feeds her young with blood from her breast, has arisen from the use of +the bag just described, which she opens from time to time to discharge a +supply of fish or water for their nourishment. + +SECTION V.--AMPHIBIA AND REPTILES. + +In the book of Deuteronomy there is an allusion made to a destructive +creature in the following terms:--"Their wine is the poison of _dragons_ +and the cruel venom of asps." It is thought that the gecko is the animal +contemplated in this description, it being acknowledged by all +naturalists to contain a mortal poison. Nature, in this instance, says +Buffon, appears to act against herself: in a lizard, whose species is but +too prolific, she exalts a corrosive liquid to such a degree as to carry +death and dissolution into all living substances which it may happen to +penetrate. This deadly reptile has some resemblance to the chameleon; his +head, almost triangular, is big in proportion to his body; the eyes are +very large, the tongue is flat, covered with small scales, and the end is +rounded; the teeth are sharp, and so strong that, according to Bontius, +they are able to make an impression even on steel. The gecko is almost +entirely covered with large warts, more or less rising; the under part of +the thigh is furnished with a row of tubercles raised and grooved. The +feet are remarkable for oval scales, more or less hollowed in the middle, +as large as the under surface of the toes themselves, and regularly +disposed over one another, like slates on a roof. The usual colour of +this animal is a clear green, spotted with brilliant red. It inhabits the +crevices of half-rotten trees as well as humid places; it is sometimes +met with in houses, where it occasions great alarm, and where every +exertion is made to destroy it speedily. Bontius writes, that the bite is +so venomous that, if the part bitten be not cut away or burned, death +ensues in a few hours. + +Calmet enumerates eleven kinds of serpents as known to the Hebrews, the +names of which are as follow:-- + + 1. Ephe, the viper. + 2. Chephir, a sort of aspic. + 3. Acshub, the aspic. + 4. Pethen, a similar reptile. + 5. Tzeboa, speckled serpent. + 6. Tzimmaon. + 7. Tzepho, or Tzephoni, a basilisk. + 8. Kippos, the acontias. + 9. Shephiphon, the cerastes. +10. Shachal, the black serpent. +11. Saraph, a flying-serpent. + +The first of these is remarkable for its quick and penetrating poison; it +is about two feet long, and as thick as a man's arm, beautifully spotted +with yellow and brown, and sprinkled over with blackish specks, similar +to those of the horn-nosed snake. It has a wide mouth, by which it +inhales a great quantity of air, and, when fully inflated, ejects it with +such violence as to be heard at a considerable distance. + +The _shachal_, or black serpent, is described by Forskall as being wholly +of that colour, a cubit in length, and as thick as a finger. Its bite is +not incurable, but the wound swells severely; the application of a +ligature prevents the venom from spreading; or certain plants, as the +caper, may be employed to relieve it. Mr. Jackson describes a black +serpent of much more terrific powers. It is about seven or eight feet +long, with a small head, which, when about to assail any object, it +frequently expands to four times its ordinary size. It is the only one +that will attack travellers; in doing which it coils itself up, and darts +to a great distance by the elasticity of its body and tail. The wound +inflicted by the bite is small, but the surrounding part immediately +turns black, which colour soon pervades the whole body, and the sufferer +expires. + +But, viewed in connexion with Scripture, the most interesting in the list +given in the preceding page is that which stands the seventh in order. +Speaking of the happy time revealed by the prophetical spirit, Isaiah +remarks that "the sucking child shall play on the hole of the asp, and +the weaned child shall put his hand on the cockatrice' den." The editor +of Calmet's Dictionary imagines that the naja, or cobra di capello, is +the serpent here alluded to by the holy penman, and which is known to +possess the most energetic poison. We cannot indeed discover positively, +whether it lays eggs; but the evidence for that fact is presumptive, +because all serpents issue from eggs; and the only difference between the +oviparous and viviparous is, that in the former the eggs are laid before +the foetus is mature, in the latter the foetus bursts the egg while yet +in the womb of its mother. + +If the egg be broken, the little serpent is found rolled up in a spiral +form. It appears motionless during some time; but if the term of its +exclusion be near, it opens its jaws, inhales at several respirations the +air of the atmosphere, its lungs fill, it stretches itself, and moved by +this impetus it begins to crawl. + +The eggs of this reptile have probably given occasion to a fable, which +says that cocks can lay eggs, but that these always produce serpents; and +that though the cock does not hatch them, the warmth of the sand and +atmosphere answers the purposes of incubation. The eggs of the tzepho, of +which she lays eighteen or twenty, are equal to those of a pigeon, while +those of the great boa are not more than two or three inches in length. +As an instance, that the eggs of poisonous serpents do not always burst +in the body of the female, we may mention the cerastes, which, we are +assured, lays in the sand at least four or five, resembling in size those +of a dove. + +On the grounds now explained, we may understand the language of the +prophet Isaiah, who says of the wicked that "they hatch cockatrice' eggs; +he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh +forth into a viper." The reptile here alluded to under the name of +cockatrice, is the tzepho or tzephoni; which, we find, lays eggs so +similar to those of poultry, as to be mistaken and eaten for them. Labat +farther relates that he crushed some eggs of a large serpent, and found +several young in each egg; which were no sooner freed from the shell than +they coiled themselves into the attitude of attack, and were ready to +spring on whatever came in their way. + +In the forty-ninth chapter of Genesis we find the remarkable prediction +uttered by Jacob in reference to Dan, that he "shall be a serpent in the +way, an adder in the path, which biteth the horse's heels." The original +term here is shephiphon, and is understood by several authors to denote +the cerastes, a very poisonous kind of viper, distinguished by having +horns. This animal, we are informed by Mr. Bruce, moves with great +rapidity, and in all directions, forward, backward, and sideways. When he +wishes to surprise any one who is too far from him, he creeps with his +side towards the person, and his head averted, till, judging his +distance, he turns round and springs upon him. "I saw one of them at +Cairo crawl up the side of a box in which there were many, and there lie +still as if hiding himself, till one of the people who brought him to us +came near him; and though in a very disadvantageous posture, sticking as +it were perpendicularly to the side of the box, he leaped nearly the +distance of three feet, and fastened between the man's forefinger and +thumb, so as to bring the blood. The fellow showed no signs of either +pain or fear; and we kept him with us full four hours, without applying +any sort of remedy, or his seeming inclined to do so." + +The Arabs name this serpent siff, siphon, or suphon, which seems not very +far distant from the root of the Hebrew word siffifon or shephiphon. It +is called by the Orientals the _lier in wait_,--an appellation which +agrees with the manners of the cerastes. Pliny says, that it hides its +whole body in the sand, leaving only its horns exposed, which, being like +grains of barley in appearance, attract birds within its reach, so as to +become an easy prey. From these circumstances we see, more distinctly, +the propriety of the allusion made by the patriarch to the insidious +policy which was to characterize the descendants of Dan in the remoter +periods of their history. + +There is mention made in Holy Scripture of the fiery flying-serpent, a +creature about whose existence and qualities naturalists have entertained +a considerable difference of opinion. It is now generally admitted, that, +in Guinea, Java, and other countries, where there is at once great heat +and a marshy soil, there exists a species of these animals, which have +the power of moving in the air, or at least of passing from tree to tree. +Niebuhr relates, that at Bazra, also, "there is a sort of serpents, +called _heie sursurie_. They commonly live on dates; and as it would be +troublesome to them to come down one high tree and creep up another, they +hang by the tail to the branch of one, and, by swinging that about, take +advantage of its motion to leap to that of a second. These the modern +Arabs call flying-serpents--_heie thiâre_. I do not know whether the +ancient Arabs were acquainted with any other kind of flying-serpent."[201] + +Near Batavia there are certain flying-snakes, or dragons, as they are +sometimes called. They have four legs, a long tail, and their skin +speckled with many spots; their wings are not unlike those of a bat, +which they move in flying, but otherwise keep them almost unperceived, +close to the body. They fly nimbly, but cannot hold out long; so that +they only shift from tree to tree at about twenty or thirty yards' +distance. On the outside of the throat are two bladders, which, being +extended when they fly, serve them instead of a sail.[202] + +The _scorpion_, or okrab of the Hebrews, has also been invested by +Oriental naturalists with the power of flying. Lucian tells us that there +are two kinds of scorpions, one residing on the ground, large, having +claws, and many articulations at the tail; the other flies in the air, +and has inferior wings like locusts, beetles, and bats. In tropical +climates the scorpion is a foot in length. No animal in the creation +seems endowed with such an irascible nature. When caught, they exert +their utmost rage against the glass which contains them; will attempt to +sting a stick when put near them; will, without provocation, wound other +animals confined with them; and are the cruellest enemies to each other. +Maupertuis put a hundred of them together in the same glass; instantly +they vented their rage in mutual destruction, universal carnage! In a few +days only fourteen remained, which had killed and devoured all the +others. It is even asserted, that when in extremity or despair the +scorpion will destroy itself. Well might Moses mention this animal as one +of the dangers of the howling wilderness! They are still very numerous in +the desert between Syria and Egypt. Dr. Clarke tells us that one of the +privates of the British army, who had received a wound from one of them, +lost the upper joint of his forefinger before it could be healed. The +author of the Revelation considers them as emblematic of the evils which +issue from the bottomless pit. "And there came out of the smoke locusts +upon the earth; and unto them was given power, as the scorpions of the +earth have power. And they had tails like unto scorpions; and there were +stings in their tails: and their power was to hurt men five months."[203] + +We ought not to be surprised that the translators of the English Bible +were occasionally at a loss to distinguish the genera and species of the +several animals mentioned in the Sacred Writings; for even at the present +day, when we possess infinitely higher advantages in point of natural +knowledge, we cannot precisely determine even the class or order to which +some of them belong. We have an example of this obscurity in the fourth +chapter of the book of Lamentations, where it is said that "even the +sea-monsters draw out the breast, they give suck to their young ones." +The original expression, tannin, appears applicable to those amphibious +animals that haunt the banks of rivers and the shores of the sea, and was +probably used by the prophet with a reference to the seal species, which +suckle their young in the manner described in his pathetic elegy. + +It is true, that it is used in Genesis in connection with the epithet +large, and is therefore not improperly rendered "great whales." Hence it +has been concluded, that the word tannin may comprehend the class of +lizards from the eft to the crocodile, provided they be amphibious; also +the seal, the manati, the morse, and even the whale, if he came ashore; +but as whales remain constantly in the deep, they seem to be more +correctly ascribed to the class of fishes. Moreover, whether the people +of Syria had any knowledge of the whale kinds, strictly so called, is a +point which deserves inquiry before it be admitted as certain. At all +events, it is manifest that the tannin of the Scripture must have +indicated an animal which has many properties common to the seal, for it +not only applies the breast to its young, but has the power of exerting +its voice in a mournful tone. The prophet Micah says, "I will make a +wailing like the tanninim," a phrase which, in our translation, is +unhappily rendered "dragons." It has also the faculty of suspending +respiration, or of drawing in a quantity of breath and of emitting it +with violence. "The wild asses," says Jeremiah, "stand upon the high +places; they puff out the breath like the tanninim (here again translated +dragons); their eyes fail because there is no grass." On the whole, +remarks the editor of Calmet, we may consider the Hebrew _tahash_ as +being decidedly a seal; but tannin as including creatures resident both +on land and in water, or, in other words, the amphibia.[204] + +SECTION VI.--FRUITS AND PLANTS. + +It has been remarked that, if the advantages of nature were duly seconded +by the efforts of human skill, we might in the space of twenty leagues +bring together in Syria the vegetable riches of the most distant +countries. Besides wheat, rye, barley, beans, and the cotton-plant, which +are cultivated everywhere, there are several objects of utility or +pleasure, peculiar to different localities. Palestine, for example, +abounds in sesamum, which affords oil; and in dhoura, similar to that of +Egypt. Maize thrives in the light soil of Balbec, and rice is cultivated +with success along the marsh of Haoul_. Within these twenty-five years +sugar-canes have been introduced into the gardens of Saida and Beirout, +which are not inferior to those of the Delta. Indigo grows without +culture on the banks of the Jordan, and only requires a little care to +secure a good quality. The hills of Latakie produce tobacco, which +creates a commercial intercourse with Damietta and Cairo. This crop is at +present cultivated in all the mountains. The white mulberry forms the +riches of the Druses, by the beautiful silks which are obtained from it; +and the vine, raised on poles or creeping along the ground, furnishes red +and white wines equal to those of Bordeaux. Jaffa boasts of her lemons +and watermelons; Gaza possesses both the dates of Mecca and the +pomegranates of Algiers. Tripoli has oranges which might vie with those +of Malta; Beirout has figs like Marseilles, and bananas like St. Domingo. +Aleppo is unequalled for pistachio-nuts; and Damascus possesses all the +fruits of Europe; inasmuch as apples, plums, and peaches, grow with equal +facility on her rocky soil. Niebuhr is of opinion that the Arabian +coffee-shrub might be cultivated in Palestine.[205] + +The _fig-tree_, the _palm_, and the _olive_, are characteristic of the +Holy Land, and therefore deserve our more particular attention. In regard +to the first, the earliest fruit produced, which is usually ripe in June, +is called the boccore; the later, or proper fig, being rarely fit to be +gathered before the month of August. The name of these last is the +kermez, or kermouse. They constitute the article which passes through the +hands of the merchant, after being either preserved in the common way or +made up into cakes. They continue a long time on the tree before they +fall off; whereas the boccore drop as soon as they are ripe, and +according to the beautiful allusion of the prophet Nahum, "fall into the +mouth of the eater upon being shaken." + +The _palm_ must at one time have been common in Palestine, though at +present it fails to attract attention either on account of number or of +beauty. In several coins of Vespasian, as well as of his son Titus, the +land of Judea is typified by a disconsolate woman sitting under one of +these trees. Jericho, which was formerly distinguished as the "city of +palms," can still boast a few of them, because, besides the advantage of +a sandy soil and a warm climate, it commands a plentiful supply of water, +an element absolutely indispensable to their growth. At Jerusalem, +Shechem, and other places to the northward of the capital, not more than +two or three of them are ever seen together; and even these, as their +fruit rarely comes to maturity, are of no farther service than, like the +palm-tree of Deborah, to shade the council of the sheiks, or to supply +the branches, which, as in ancient days, may still be required for +religious processions.[206] + +The _olive_ no longer holds the place which it once occupied in the +estimation of the inhabitants of Palestine. The wretched government under +which they exist has rooted out all the seeds of industry, by rendering +the absence of wealth the only security against oppression. But in those +places where it continues to be cultivated, it affords ample proof to +establish the accuracy of the inspired writer, who denominated Palestine +a land of oil-olive and honey. + +The _cedars of Libanus_ still maintain their ancient reputation for +beauty and stature; while they are diversified by a thousand elegant +plants, which dispute with them the possession of the lofty summits of +the mountain. Here the astragalus tragacanthoides displays its clusters +of purple flowers; and the primrose, the amaryllis, the white and the +orange lily, mingle their brilliant hues with the verdure of the +birch-leaved cherry. Even the snow of the highest peaks is skirted by +shrubs possessing the most splendid colours. The coolness, humidity, and +good quality of the soil support an uninterrupted vegetation; and the +bounties of nature in those elevated regions are still protected by the +spirit of liberty. + +Hasselquist is of opinion that the _wild-grapes_ mentioned by the prophet +Isaiah must be the hoary night-shade, or solanum incanum, because it is +common in Egypt, Palestine, and Syria. The Arabs call it wolf-grapes, as, +from its shrubby stalk, it has some resemblance to a vine. But the sacred +writer could not have found a weed more opposite to the vine than this, +or more suitable to the purpose which he had in view, for it is extremely +pernicious to that plant, and is rooted out whenever it appears. +"Wherefore," exclaims the holy seer, "when I looked that my vineyard +should bring forth grapes, brought it forth poisonous night-shade?"[207] + +The author just named, describes the "balsam of Aaron" as a very fine +oil, which emits no scent or smell, and is very proper for preparing +odoriferous ointments. It is obtained from a tree called behen, which +grows in Mount Sinai and Upper Egypt, and, it is presumed, in certain +parts of the Holy Land. Travellers assert that it is the very perfume +with which the ancient high-priest of the Jews, with whose name it is +connected, was wont to anoint his beard, and which the Psalmist extols so +much on account of its rich odour and mollifying qualities,--the emblem +of domestic harmony and brotherly love. + +There still exists a thorn in Palestine known among botanists by the name +of the "spina Christi," or thorn of Christ, and supposed to be the shrub +which afforded the crown worn by our Saviour before his crucifixion. It +must have been very fit for the purpose, for it has many small sharp +prickles, well adapted to give pain; and as the leaves greatly resemble +those of ivy, it is not improbable that the enemies of the Messiah chose +it from its similarity to the plant with which emperors and generals were +accustomed to be crowned; and hence that there might be calumny, insult, +and derision, meditated in the very act of punishment.[208] + +THE END. + + +[1] No. XXIII. of this Family Library. + +[2] See Dialogues on Natural and Revealed Religion. By the Rev. Robert +Morehead, D.D., p. 241,--an able and interesting work. + +[3] Shakspeare, Henry IV. Part I. Act I. + +[4] Chateaubriand Itinéraire, tome i. p. 48, &c. Sozom. lib. iii. c. i. +Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. vi. S. Cyril, Cat. xvi. + +[5] Deuteronomy viii. 7, 8, 9. + +[6] Terra finesque, qua ad Orientem vergunt, Arabia terminantur; a meridie +Aegyptus objacet; ab occasu Phoenices et mare; septemtrionem a latere +Syriae longe prospectant. Corpora hominum salubria et ferentia laborom: +rari imbres, uber solum: fruges nostrum ad morem; preterque eas balsamum +et palmae. Hist. lib. v. c. 6. + +[7] Belon. Observations de Singularités, p. 140. Hasselquist's Travels, +p.56. Korte's Travels in Palestine. Chateaubriand, les Martyrs, vol. iii. +p. 99. Schultze's Travels, vol. ii p. 85. + +[8] Seetzen, in Annales des Voyages, i. 398; and Correspondance de M. +Zach. 425. + +[9] Maundrell, p. 60. + +[10] Chateaubriand Itinérarie, ii. 123. Malte Brun, vol. ii. 150-160. +Edin. Edition. + +[11] Judges i. 3. + +[12] Joseph. contra Apion. cap. 1. 2 Kings xvii. 24. + +[13] Reland, Palestina Illustrata, lib. ii. c. 5. Spanheim, Charta terris +Israelis. Lowman on the Civil Government of the Hebrews. + +[14] Lev. xxv. 23. + +[15] Lev. xxv. 24-28. + +[16] Judges xxi. 8-13. + +[17] Numbers xxvi. 02. + +[18] Joshua vii. 16, 17, 18. + +[19] I Chron. ii. 10, 11. + +[20] Deut. iv. 1, 2; xii. 32. "Hoc igitur argumento maximo est; juris +illius majestatis quod in legibus ferendis est positum, nihil quicquam +penes hominem fuisse."--_Conringius de Repub. Heb_. + +[21] Livii. Hist. lib. xxviii. 37; lib. xxx. 7. Bochart, Geog. Sacra, part +ii. lib. ii. 24. + +[22] Complete History of the Canon, book 1. c. 3. + +[23] Deut. xvi. 18, 19. Josephus's Antiquities, book iv. 8. + +[24] Reland. Antiq. Sac. Pars, ii. c. 7. + +[25] Fleury, Moeurs des Israelites, xxv. + +[26] Lewis, Orig. Heb. lib. i. 6. + +[27] Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, art. 44; and Joshua +xviii. 3. + +[28] 1 Samuel xxv. 4-14. + +[29] Judges vi. 12. 2 Samuel xiii. 23, 24. + +[30] Numbers xxxv. 2, 5, 7. + +[31] Joshua xx. 7, 8. Numbers xxxv. 6, 15. Deut. xix. 4, 10. + +[32] Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. i. art. 52. +Jablonsky Panth. AEgypt. Prolegomena, 21, 41, 43. + +[33] Isaiah xl. 13. + +[34] 1 Samuel viii. 4, 21. + +[35] Deut. xvii. 14-20. + +[36] 2 Samuel viii. 1, 2. 1 Chron. xviii. 1, 2; xix. 1-20. + +[37] 1 Chron. xxii. 8. + +[38] 2 Chron. ii. and ix. throughout. + +[39] 1 Kings xi. 1-8. + +[40] Maundrell's Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem in 1697. + +[41] 2 Kings xvii. 1-7. + +[42] 2 Kings xxv. 4-13. + +[43] Lamentations i. 1-4. + +[44] Heber's Palestine. + +[45] History of the Jews (Nos. 1, 2, 3, Family Library), vol. ii. p. 39. + +[46] History of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 40. + +[47] The effects produced upon the mind of the king by the murder of +Mariamne are powerfully described by two poetical writers, the author +of the History of the Jews, and the unfortunate Lord Byron. "All the +passions," says the former, "which filled the stormy soul of Herod were +alike without bound: from violent love and violent resentment he sank into +as violent remorse and despair. Everywhere by day he was haunted by the +image of the murdered Mariamne; he called upon her name; he perpetually +burst into passionate tears. In vain he tried every diversion,--banquets, +revels, the excitements of society. A sudden pestilence broke out, to +which many of the noblest of his court, and of his own personal friends, +fell a sacrifice; he recognized and trembled beneath the hand of the +avenging Deity. On pretence of hunting, he sought out the most melancholy +solitude, till the disorder of his mind brought on disorder of body, and +he was seized with violent inflammation and pains in the back of his head, +which led to temporary derangement."--vol. ii. p. 90. + +I. + + "Oh, Mariamne! now for thee + The heart for which thou bled'st is bleeding; + Revenge is lost in agony, + And wild remorse to rage succeeding. + Oh, Mariamne! where art thou? + Thou canst not hear my bitter pleading: + Ah, couldst thou--thou wouldst pardon now, + Though heaven were to my prayer unheeding. + +II. + + "And is she dead?--and did they dare + Obey my phrensy's jealous raving? + My wrath but doomed my own despair: + The sword that smote her's o'er me waving. + But thou art cold, my murder'd love! + And this dark heart is vainly craving + For her who soars alone above, + And leaves my soul unworthy saving. + +III. + + "She's gone, who shared my diadem; + She sunk, with her my joys entombing; + I swept that flower from Judah's stem + Whose leaves for me alone were blooming; + And mine's the guilt, and mine the hell, + This bosom's desolation dooming; + And I have earned those tortures well, + Which unconsumed are still consuming." + +_Hebrew Melodies_. + +[48] History of the Jews, vol. ii. p. 96. + +[49] Matth. ii. 22, 23. "Among the atrocities which disgraced the later +days of Herod, what we called the Massacre of the Innocents (which took +place late in the year before, or early in the same year with the death of +Herod) passed away unnoticed. The murder of a few children in a village +near Jerusalem would excite little sensation among such a succession of +dreadful events, except among the immediate sufferers. The jealousy of +Herod against any one who should be Born as a _king in Judea_,--the dread +that the high religious spirit of the people might be re-excited by the +hope of a real Messiah,--as well as the summary manner in which he +endeavoured to rid himself of the object of his fears, are strictly +in accordance with the relentlessness and decision of his character." +_History of the Jews_, vol. ii. p. 106. + +[50] Acts xii. 21, 22, 23. + +[51] 1 Samuel, ix. 5 11. + +[52] 1 Kings xxii. 8, 13. + +[53] Jer. xxvi. 8, 16. + +[54] Deut. xviii. 21, 22. + +[55] Deut. xxxi. 9-14. + +[56] 2 Chronicles xii. 9. + +[57] 2 Kings xxii. 8. + +[58] 2 Samuel xi. 18, 22. Commentaries on Laws of Moses, vol. i. p. 257. + +[59] Nisan was sometimes called Abib, as descriptive of the state of +vegetation in that month,--the earing of the corn and the blooming of the +fruit-trees. + +[60] 1 Kings iii. 2. + +[61] Acts xv. 21. + +[62] Deut. xvi. 9-12. + +[63] History of the Jews vol. 1. p. 99. + +[64] Lev. xiii. 24, 25. + +[65] Numbers xxxvi. 1-10. + +[66] John x. 22. + +[67] Maccab. iv. 30, &c. 2 Macceb. i. 18, 19. + +[68] Croxall's Scripture Politics, p. 60, 85. Histoire des Hébreux, par +Rabelleau, tom. i. p. 405. Esprit de l'Histoire, tom. i. p. 28. + +[69] The sentiment contained in the text is beautifully expressed in the +following ode by Lord Byron: + +I. + + "The harp the monarch minstrel swept, + The king of men, the loved of Heaven, + Which music hallowed while she wept, + O'er tones her heart of hearts had given, + Redoubled be her tears, its chords are riven! + + "It softened men of iron mould, + It gave them virtues not their own; + No ear so dull, no soul so cold, + That felt not, fired not to the tone, + Till David's lyre grew mightier than his throne." + +II. + + "It told the triumphs of our king, + It wafted glory to our God; + It made our gladden'd valleys ring, + The cedars bow, the mountains nod; + Its sound aspired to heaven and there abode! + Since then, though heard on earth no more, + Devotion and her daughter Love + Still bid the bursting spirit soar + To sounds that seem as from above, + In dreams that day's broad light cannot remove." + +[70] Murray's Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in Asia, vol. +iii. p. 130. + +[71] Chateaubriand, Itinéraire, tom. i. p. 380. Volney's Travels, vol. ii. +p. 335. + +[72] Itinéraire, tom. ii. p. 385. + +[73] Travels, vol. iv. p. 289. + +[74] The original presents one of the most animated and musical passages +in the Gerusalemme Liberata:-- + + "Ma quando il sol gli aridi campi fiede Con raggi assai fervente, a in + alto sorge, Ecco apparir Gerusalem si vede! Ecco additar Gerusalem si + scorge! Ecco da mille voci unitamente, Gerusalemme salutar si + sente!"--_Canto_ iii. stan. v. 2. + +[75] Travels in Egypt and Syria, vol. ii. p. 303. + +[76] Notes on Egypt, &c. p. 274. + +[77] Travels along the Mediterranean and parts adjacent, vol. ii. p. 285. + +[78] Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. p. 301. + +[79] Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii, p. 214. + +[80] Richardson's Travels, vol. ii. p. 321. + +[81] Travels, vol. ii. p. 325. + +[82] Maundrell's Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 71. + +[83] Journey, p. 74. + +[84] Journey, p. 76. + +[85] Maundrell's Journey, p. 94. + +[86] Journey, p. 96. + +[87] "Je ne décrirai pas la suite des cérémonies réligieuses qui occupent +le reste de la semaine sainte; c'est un récit qui peut bien édifier des +ames dévotes, mais non pas plaire à quelqu'un qui lit un voyage pour +s'instruire et s'amuser. + +"Il n'en est pas de méme d'une pratique superstitieuse des Grecs +schismatiques, dont la bizarrerie ne laissera pas de divertir un moment. + +"Cette secte, abusée par ses prêtres, croit de bonne foi que Dieu fait +annuellement un miracle pour lui envoyer le feu sacré. + +"A en croire les pretres Grecs, cette faveur divine, dont on ne peut pas +douter, est un preuve insigne de l'excellence de leur communion. Mais ne +pourrait-on pas objecter aux Grecs, que les Arméniens et les Cofes, qu'ils +traitent d'hérétiques, participent à cette même grace. Ennemis acharnés +les uns des autres, les ministres de ces trois sectes se réunissent en +apparence pour la cérémonie du feu sacré. Cette réconciliation momentanée +n'est due qu'a l'intérêt de tous; séparément ils seraient obligés de payer +au gouverneur, pour la permission de faire la miracle, une somme aussi +forte que cette qu'ils donnent ensemble. + +"Ces prêtres portent la fourberie jusqu'à vouloir persuader au peuple que +le feu sacré ne brûle pas ceux qui sont en état de grace. Ils se frottent +les mains d'une certaine eau, qui les garantit de la brulure à la première +approche, et par ce moyen ne se font aucun mal en touchant leurs cierges. +Leur prosélytes sont jaloux de les imiter; mais comme ils n'ont pas leur +recette, bien souvent ils se brulent les doigts et le visage: il arrive +de là que les prêtres, paraissant jouir exclusivement de la grace de Dieu, +en sont plus respectés et mieux prayés."--_Mariti, Voyages_, &c., tom. ii. +p. 340. + +[88] Richardson, vol. ii. p. 333. + +[89] Journey, p. 69. + +[90] Travels, vol. iv. p. 315. + +[91] Vol. ii. p. 21. + +[92] Buckingham's Travels, vol i. p. 384. + +[93] Travels in Greece, Palestine, Egypt, &c. vol. ii. p. 22. + +[94] The invocation alluded to must be familiar to the youngest reader: + + "Sing, heavenly muse, that on the secret top + Of Oreb or of Sinai didst inspire + That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed, + In the beginning, how the heavens and earth + Rose out of chaos; or, if Zion hill + Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flowed + Fast by the oracle of God; I thence + Invoke thy aid to my advent'rous song." + +_Paradise Lost_, book i. + +[95] Travels by Rae Wilson, vol. i. p. 220. + +[96] Travels in Palestine, vol. i. p. 297. + +[97] 2 Samuel xviii. 18. Travels in Palestine, vol. i. p. 302. + +[98] See Tour of the Holy Land, by the Rev. Robert Morehead, D.D.; in the +Appendix to which are extracts from this anonymous manuscript. + +[99] "Having so often mentioned Clarke, I must say, that although an +animated and interesting writer, and not incorrect in his descriptions, he +is more deficient in judgment than any traveller I am acquainted with; and +I do not recollect an instance, either here or in Egypt, where he has +attempted to speculate, without falling into some very decided error. I +mention this the more, as his enthusiasm and conviction of the truth of +his own theories led me formerly to place great faith in his +authority."--_Anonymous Journal_. + +[100] Buckingham, vol. i. p. 316.--The following words, put into the mouth +of Titus by the eloquent author of the "Fall of Jerusalem," will be read +with interest in connexion with the view just given. The son of Vespasian +stands on the Mount of Olives:-- + + "It must be-- + And yet it moves me, Romans! it confounds + The counsels of my firm philosophy, + That Ruin's merciless ploughshare must pass o'er + And barren salt be sown on yon proud city. + As on our olive-crowned hill we stand, + Where Kedron at our feet its scanty waters + Distils from stone to stone with gentle motion, + As through a valley sacred to sweet Peace, + How boldly doth it front us! how majestically! + Like a luxurious vineyard, the hill-side + Is hung with marble fabrics, line on line, + Terrace o'er terrace, nearer still, and nearer + To the blue heavens. Here bright and sumptuous palaces, + With cool and verdant gardens interspersed; + Here towers of war that frown in massy strength. + While over all hangs the rich purple eve, + As conscious of its being her last farewell + Of light and glory to that fated city. + And as our clouds of battle, dust, and smoke + Are melted into air, behold the Temple, + In undisturbed and lone serenity, + Finding itself a solemn sanctuary + In the profound of heaven! It stands before us + A mount of snow fretted with golden pinnacles! + The very sun, as though he worshipped there, + Lingers upon the gilded cedar roofs; + And down the long and branching porticoes, + On every flowery sculptured capital + Glitters the homage of his parting beams. + By Hercules! the sight might almost win + The offended majesty of Rome to mercy." + +Old Sandys, a simple and amusing writer, describes Jerusalem as +follows:--"This chic, once sacred and glorious, elected by God for his +seate, and seated in the midst of nations,--like a diadem crowning the +head of the mountaines,--the theatre of mysteries and miracles,--was +founded by Melchisedek (who is said to be the son of Noah, and that +not unprobably) about the year of the world 2023, and called Salem +(by the Gentiles Solyma), which signifyeth Peace: who reigned here +fifty years.--This citie is seated on a rockie mountaine; every way +to be ascended (except a little on the north) with steep ascents and +deep valleys naturally fortified; for the most part environed with +other not far removed mountaines, as if placed in the midst of an +amphitheatre."--Lib. iii. p. 154. + +[101] "Bethlehem soon after came in sight,--a fine village, surrounded +with gardens of fig-trees and olives. There is a deep valley below, and +half-way down on the top of a hill is a green plain, the only one we have +seen in Judea:--I could fancy Boaz's field forming part of it. The convent +is a very remarkable building, and well worth seeing. Without, it is a +perfect fortress, with heavy buttresses and small grated windows, on +entering, we immediately came to a magnificent church, with a double row +of ten Corinthian pillars of marble on each side,--forty pillars to all. +On the arched roof are the remains of Mosaic, of the Empress Helena's +time. One part was very distinct: it represented a city with temples, &c., +and over it was written in Greek characters, _Laodicea_."--_Anonymous +Journal_. + +[102] Richardson, Buckingham, Maundrell. + +[103] Bethleem nunc nostram, et augustissimum urbis locum de quo Psalmista +canit (Ps. lxxxiv. 12). _Veritas de terra orta est_, lucus inumbrabat +Thamus, id est, Adonidis; et in specu ubi quondam Christus parvulus +vagiit, Veneris Amasius plangebatur.--_Epis. ad Paul_. + +[104] Pour ce qui est des ornemens de ce saint Temple, il n'en reste que +fort peu en comparaison de ce qui y estoit. Car tous les murs estoient +autrefois magnifiquement reuestus et couvertes de belles tables de marbre +gris onde, comme on en voit encore en quelques endroits que les infidelles +n'ont poe avoir. Comme ils ont emporté tout le reste pour en orner leurs +Mosquées, et est une chose pitoyable de voir que tous les murs sont +remplis de gros clous et crampons de fer qui les tenoient attachez. +Au-dessus des colomnes de la nef est un mur tout couvert, et peint de la +plus belle et fine Mosaique qu'il est possible de voir, n'estant composée +que de petites pierres fines et transparentes comme cristal de toutes les +couleurs, qui representent grandes figures et histoires de la Vie, +Miracles Mort, et Passion de Nostre Seigneur, si narument faites des +couleurs si vives et éclatantes, et le fonds d'un or si luysant, qu'il +semble qu'elles sont faites depuis peu, encore qu'il y ait plus de treize +cens ans. Entre ces figures sont treize fenestres de chacun costé, qui +rendent un grand jour par toute l'eglise: derrière la troisième et +quatrième colomne de la main droite est un tres-beau et riche base de +marbre blanc de forme ronde à six pans de quelques trois pieds de +diametre, qui sert de fonds baptismaux.--_Doubdan_, p. 133. + +[105] Maundrell, p. 90. + +[106] Relation of a Journey, p. 183. + +[107] O ye children of Benjamin, gather yourselves to flee out of the +midst of Jerusalem, and blow the trumpet in Tekoa, and set up a sign of +fire in Beth-haccerem: for evil appeareth out of the north, and great +destruction.--Jer. vi. 1. + +[108] Modern Traveller, vol. i. p. 183. Joseph. Antiq. lib. xiv e. 13. + +[109] Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, Pref, vi. Modern Traveller, vol. i. +p. 203. Doubdun, Voyage, p. 322, 326. + +[110] Chateaubriand, tom. i. p. 408. + +[111] "Haud procul inde campi, quos ferunt olim uberes, magnisque urbibus +habitatos, fulminum jactu, arsisse; et manere vestigia, terramque ipsam, +specie torridam, vim frugiferam perdidisse."--_Tacit. Hist._ lib. v. +cap. 7. + +[112] The Abbé Mariti, who saw little himself, is not willing to allow to +others the advantage of having been more fortunate. "Quelques voyageurs +ont avancé qu'on distinguoit encore les debris de ces villes infortunées, +lorsque les eaux de la mer etoient basses et lympides. Il en est même que +disent avoir apperçu des restes de colonnes avec leurs chapitaux. Mais, il +faut que l'imagination les ait trompés, ou que depuis leur retour, cette +mer ait eprouvé de nouvelles secousses, car je n'y peux rien voir de +semblable, malgré toute ma bonne volonté. Un père capucin crut aussi +reconnoître sur ces bords les effets frappans de la malédiction celeste. +Ici, ce sont des traces de feu, là, une surface de cendres, partout des +champs arides et maudits. Il croit même respirer encore un odeur de +soufre. Pour moi je suis affecté en sens contraire: rien dans ce lieu ne +me rappelle la desolation dont parle la bible. L'air y est pure, le gazon +d'un beau vert; en plus d'un endroit mon oeil se refraichit aux eaux +argentines qui jaillissant en gerbes du sommet des monts; la sterilité +dont une partie de ces campagnes fut frappée dès la naissance du monde, +rend plus douce par le contraste l'apparence de fertilité que je remarquai +dans le sol d'Alvona. Mais d'où vient donc que deux voyageurs peuvent être +si opposés? C'est que un capucin porte partout les cinq sens de la foi, et +que moi je ne suis doué que de deux de la nature."--Tom. ii. p. 334. + +[113] "On plutôt doit on admettre l'opinion des physiciens Arabes, qui +établissent, non sans quelque fondement, qu'elles se dissipent en +evaporation?".--Tom. ii. p. 334. + +[114] Mr. Gordon, however, maintains, that persons who have never learned +to swim will float on its surface.--Chateaubriand, tom. i. p. 412. + +[115] "Le Cardinal de Vitry la nomme la Mer du Diable, et Marinas +Sanutus dit qu'elle est tousjours couverte d'une fumée epaisse et de +vapeurs noires, comme quelque soupirail ou cheminée d'Enfer. D'autres +disent que son eau est noire, gluante, epaisse, grasse, fanguese, et de +tres mauvaise odeur; et toutefois j'ay parlé à des Religieux qui m'ont +asseuré y avoir été, et que cette eau est claire; nette, et liquide: +mais très-amère et salée. Et comme j'ay dit, je n'y ay veu, ny fumée +ny brouillards."--_Doubdan, Voyage de la Terre Sainte_, p. 317. + +[116] "As for the apples of Sodom, so much talked of, I neither saw nor +heard of any hereabouts; nor was there any tree to be seen near the lake +from which one might expect such a fruit. Which induces me to believe that +there may be a greater deceit in this fruit than that which is usually +reported of it, and that its very being, as well as its beauty, is a +fiction, only kept up, as my Lord Bacon observes other false notions are, +because it serves for a good allusion and helps the poet to a similitude." +_Maundrell_, p. 85. + +[117] The reading in Hasselquist must be _eighteen_ instead of eight, or +eight fathoms, instead of feet, for Mr. Maundrell remarks that the breadth +of the river "might be about twenty yards over, and in depth it far +exceeded my height."--_Journey_, p. 83. + +[118] Deut. xxxiv. 1-7. + +[119] 2 Kings ii. 19-23. + +[120] Paradise Regained, Book I. v. 295, &c. + +[121] Among these he found, with great delight, a very curious new cimex +or _bug_, p. 129. + +[122] Journey, p. 80. + +[123] Paradise Regained, Book II. v. 281. + +[124] A Visit to Egypt, &c. p. 285. + +[125] Travels of Ali Bey, vol. ii. p. 251. + +[126] The Mussulmans say prayers in all the holy places consecrated to the +memory of Jesus Christ and the Virgin except the Tomb of the Holy +Sepulchre, which they do not acknowledge. They believe that Jesus Christ +did not die, but that he ascended alive into heaven, leaving the likeness +of his face to Judas, who was condemned to die for him; and that, in +consequence, Judas having been crucified, his body might have been +contained in this sepulchre, but not that of Jesus Christ. It is for this +reason that the Mussulmans do not perform any acts of devotion at this +monument, and that they ridicule the Christians who go to revere it--_Ali +Bey_, vol. ii. p. 237. + +[127] Chateaubriand. Itinéraire, tom. ii. p. 169. + +[128] Journey, p. 76. + +[129] Pausanius, describing the Sepulchre of Helena at Jerusalem, mentions +this device: "It was so contrived that the door of the sepulchre, which +was of stone, and similar in all respects to the sepulchre itself, could +never be opened except upon the return of the same day and hour in each +succeeding year. It then opened of itself by means of the mechanism alone, +and after a short interval closed again. Such was the case at the time +stated; had you tried to open it at any other time, you would not have +succeeded, but broken it first in the attempt." Paus. in Arcad. cap. +xvi.--_Clarke's Travels_, vol. iv. p. 383. + +[130] Journey, p. 63. + +[131] Deut. xi. 29, 30. + +[132] "Then cometh he to a city of Samaria, which is called Sychar, near +to the parcel of ground that Jacob gave to his son Joseph. Now Jacob's +Well was there."--John iv. 5, 6. + +[133] Travels, vol. iv. p. 264. + +[134] Clarke, vol. iv. p. 275. + +[135] Clarke, vol. iv. p. 280. + +[136] Richardson, vol. ii. p. 415. + +[137] Travels in Palestine, &c. by J.S. Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 144. + +[138] Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 104. + +[139] Num. xxi. 24. Deut. ii. + +[140] Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 244. + +[141] Travels in Palestine, p. 259. + +[142] Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 261. + +[143] Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 261. + +[144] Joseph, lib. iii. De Bell. Jud. Hasselquist, p.157. Clarke, iv. +p.227. + +[145] Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 359.--"Quae urbes, quod ipse +servator ils praedixerat, hodie in ruinis jacent."--Cluverius, lib. v. +cap. 20. "Capernaum was visited in the sixth century by Antoninus the +Martyr, an extract from whose Itinerary is preserved by Reland, who speaks +of a church erected upon the spot where St. Peter's dwelling once +stood."--_Clarke's Travels_, vol. iv. p. 211. + +[146] Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 366. + +[147] "Within two hours and a half of Tiberias, we looked down on a fine +cultivated plain, quite bare of trees; beyond which, at a much lower +level, lay the narrow Valley of the Jordan. This plain was pastured over +by horses from the town, for the keepers of which white tents were +scattered about in all directions. We now came in sight of the Sea of +Galilee: we only saw the northern half, and its size disappointed us; but +the dark blue still water, the green hills around covered with bushes, and +the high snowy ridge of Djibbel el Sheik made a very delightful landscape. +Tiberias, with its high-feudal citadel, its walls and towers, now forms a +remarkable feature in the view; and the steep hills, which descend at once +to the lake on the east, attract attention from their strangely-channelled +sides diversified with dark green bushes and white chalky soil. The lake +at the town may be six or eight miles broad. We could see no stream formed +by the Jordan through it. Before it was dark we had a very fine view of +the lake; at the southero part it is narrow, and the sides bold. The sun +threw a deep shade on this side and on the water, while it marked the +hills and valleys on the opposite side with strong light and shade. The +northern part is much wider and tamer; but the hills are still high and +green, and the lofty snowy mountain of Djibbel el Sheik rising over them +gives great dignity to the landscape. This mountain was very striking late +in the evening, as retaining the sun's rays after every thing around us +was in darkness. In all respects it is the greatest ornament of the lake, +and I am surprised that travellers have not mentioned it +more."--_Anonymous Journal_. + +[148] Buckingham, vol. ii. p. 368. + +[149] Dr. Clarke relates, that "the French, during the time their army +remained under Bonaparte in the Holy Land, constructed two very large +ovens in the earth at Tiberias. Two years had elapsed at the time of our +arrival since they had set fire to their granary; and it was considered as +a miracle by the inhabitants that the combustion was not yet extinguished. +We visited the place, and perceived, that whenever the ashes of the burnt +corn were stirred, by thrusting a stick among them, sparks were even seen +glowing throughout the heap; and a piece of wood left there became +charred." + +[150] The following extract from the unpublished journal already so often +referred to will amuse the reader:--"We arrived at the foot of Mount +Tabor. It is, in its general outline, a round, regular-shaped hill, but is +rocky and rough enough when it is to be ascended. It has many trees, +mostly Valonia oaks. It stands on the east of the great Plain of +Esdraëlon, up a recess formed by Mount Hermon on the one side, and the +hills towards Nazareth on the other. Its height from the plain I should +guess at 1000 feet. We ascended the greater part of the way on mules. On +the top of the hill is one of those large cisterns, or granaries, so often +alluded to before. There was one also near Jennin, which we observed in +coming in. I have since seen them in numerous other places, which puts an +end to Dr. Clarke's pagan remains. The whole of the Great Plain is fully +cultivated, yet we could hardly see a single village, which adds to the +peculiarity of its appearance,--one sheet of cultivation without a rock or +tree". + +[151] Clarke, vol. iv. p. 260. Doubdan, Voyage de la Terre Sainte, p. 507. +Paris, 1661.--It is remarkable that all the descriptions of the view from +Mount Tabor appear to be borrowed from this sedulous Frenchman, whose +work, in point of topography, is still unequalled. + +[152] Journey, p. 112. + +[153] Clarke, vol. iv. p. 170. + +[154] Vol. iv. p. 174. "Up stairs, above the Chapel of the Incarnation," +says Dr. Richardson, "we were shown another grotto, which was called the +Virgin Mary's Kitchen, and a black smoked place in the corner which was +called the Virgin Mary's Chimney. I believe none of the cinders, +fire-irons, or culinary instruments have been preserved; these probably +fled with the Santa Casa, or Holy House, to Loretto; and our only +astonishment is, that the house should have taken flight and left the +chimney and kitchen behind."--vol. ii. p. 440. + +[155] Luke iv. 28, 29, 30. + +[156] Travels in Palestine, vol. ii. p. 315. + +[157] "Traditio continua est, et nunquam interrupta, apud omnes nationes +Orientales, hanc petram, dictam Mensa Christi, iliam ipsam esse supra quam +Dominus noster Jesus Christus cum suis comedit discipulis ante et post +suam resurrectionem a mortuis. + +"Et sancta Romana ecclesia INDULGENTIAM concessit septem annorum et +totidem quadragenarum, omnibus Christi fldelibus hunc sanctum locum +visitantibus, recitando saltem ibi unum Pater, et Ave, dummodo sint in +statu gratiae." + +"It is a continued and uninterrupted tradition among all the Eastern +churches, that this stone, called the Table of Christ, is that very one +upon which our Lord Jesus Christ ate with his disciples both before and +after his resurrection from the dead. + +"And the holy Roman church hath granted an INDULGENCE of seven years, and +as many lents, to all the faithful in Christ visiting this sacred place, +upon reciting at least one Pater Noster and an Ave, provided they be in a +state of grace." + +[158] Clarke, vol. iv. p. 167. + +[159] "De là nous retournasmes sur nos pas, à l'entrée du village par où +nous avions passé, pour aller voir la Fontaine où on alla puiser l'eau qui +servit à ce miracle; mais en allant ces femmes et enfans nous penserent +accabler de pierres et d'injures, tant ils sont inhumains et enemies des +Chrêstiens."--_Le Voyage_, &c. p. 512. + +[160] Clarke, iv. p. 187. "We were afterward conducted into the chapel, in +order to see the relics and sacred vestments there preserved. When the +poor priest exhibited these, he wept over them with so much sincerity, and +lamented the indignities to which the holy places were exposed in forms so +affecting, that all our pilgrims wept also. Such were the tears which +formerly excited the sympathy and roused the valour of the Crusaders. The +sailors of our party caught the kindling zeal, and nothing more was +necessary to incite in them a hostile disposition towards every Saracen +they might afterward encounter." + +[161] Travels, vol. iv. p. 141. + +[162] Travels vol. iv. p. 148. + +[163] Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 35. + +[164] Buckingham, vol. i. p. 181. + +[165] History of the Jews, vol. iii. + +[166] Decline and Fall, vol. ii. p. 385. + +[167] The reader who wishes to examine the evidence for the miraculous +nature of the interruption sustained by the agents of Julian will find an +ample discussion in the pages of Basnage, Lardner, Warburton, Gibbon, and +of the Author of the History of the Jews. + +[168] History of the Jews, vol. iii. + +[169] "When the first light brought news of a morning, they on afresh; +because they had intercepted a letter tied to the leg of a dove, wherein +the Persian emperor promised present succours to the besieged. The Turks +cased the outside of their walls with bags of chaff, straw, and such like +pliable matter, which conquered the engines of the Christians by yielding +unto them. As for one sturdy engine, whose force would not be tamed, they +brought two old witches on the walls to enchant it; but the spirit thereof +was too strong for their spells, so that both of them were miserably slain +in the place. + +"We must not think that the world was at a loss for war-tools before the +brood of guns was hatched: it had the battering-ramme, first found out by +Epeus at the taking of Troy; the balista to discharge great stones, +invented by the Phenicians; the catapulta, being a sling of mighty +strength, whereof the Syrians were authors; and perchance King Uzziah +first made it, for we find him very dexterous and happy in devising such +things. And although these bear-whelps were but rude and unshaped at the +first, yet art did lick them afterward, and they got more teeth and +sharper nails by degrees; so that every age set them forth in a new +edition, corrected and amended. But these and many more voluminous engines +are now virtually epitomized in the cannon. And though some say that the +finding of guns hath been the losing of many men's lives, yet it will +appear that battles now are fought with more expedition, and Victory +standeth not so long a neuter, before she express herself on one side or +other."--_Fuller's Holy Warre_, p. 41. + +[170] Fuller remarks, that "this second massacre was no slip of an +extemporary passion, but a studied and premeditated act. Besides, the +execution was merciless upon sucking children whose not speaking spake for +them; and on women whose weakness is a shield to defend them against a +valiant man. To conclude, severity, hot in the fourth degree, is little +better than poison, and becometh cruelty itself; and this act seemeth to +be of the same nature."--_Fuller's Holy Warre_, p. 41. + +[171] On this interesting subject we refer to the "Itinéraire" of +Chateaubriand, and his "Génie du Christianisme;" the History of England by +Sir James Mackintosh, volume first; and to Mills's History of the +Crusades, volume first, chapter sixth. We may add Dr. Robertson's +"Historical Disquisition concerning the Knowledge which the Ancients had +of India." + +[172] Mill's History of the Crusades, vol. ii. p. 48. + +[173] Mills's History of the Crusades, vol. ii. p. 129. Michaud, Histoire +des Croisades, tom. iii. p. 187. + +[174] A curé at Paris, instead of reading the bull from the pulpit in the +usual form, said to his parishioners, "You know, my friends, that I am +ordered to fulminate an excommunication against Frederick. I know not the +motive. All that I know is, that there has been a quarrel between that +prince and the pope. God alone knows who is right. I excommunicate him who +has injured the other, and I absolve the sufferer." The emperor sent a +present to the preacher, but the pope and the king blamed this sally: _le +mauvais plaisant_--the unhappy wit--was obliged to expiate his fault by a +canonical penance.--_Mills's History_, vol. ii. p. 253. + +[175] The address of the Pope to the Fourth Council of Lateran, as +translated by Michaud, is not a little striking:--"O vous qui passez dans +les chemins, disait Jérusalem par la bouche du Pontife, regardez et voyez +si jamais il y eut une douleur semblable à la mienne! Accourez donc tous, +vous qui me cherissez, pour me delivrer de l'excès de mes miseres! Moi, +qui étais la reçue de toutes les nations, je suis maintenant asservie au +tribut; moi, qui étais remplie de peuple, je suis restée presque seule. +Les chemins de Sion sont en deuil, parceque personne ne vient à mes +solemnités. Mes ennemis ont écrasé ma tête; tous les lieux saints sont +profanés: le saint sépulchre, si rempli d'éclat, est couvert d'opprobre; +on adore le fils de la perdition et de l'enfer, là où naguères on adorait +le fils de Dieu. Les enfants de l'etranger m'accablent d'outrages, et +montrant la croix de Jesus, ils me disent:--'_Tu as mise toute la +confiance dans un bois vil; nous verrons si ce bois te sauvera au jour de +danger_.'"--_Histoire des Croisades_, tom. iii. p. 394. + +[176] "On se rappelait alors les vertus dont il avait donné l'exemple, et +surtout sa bonté, envers les habitants de la Palestine, qu'il avait +traités comme ses propres sujets. Les uns exprimaient leur reconnaissance +par de vives acclamations, les autres par une morne silence; tout le +peuple qu'affligeait son depart, les proclamait _le père des Chrétiens_, +et conjurait le ciel de repandre ses benedictions sur la famille du +vertueux monarque et sur la royaume de France. Louis montrait sur son +visage, qu'il partageait les regrets des Chrétiens de la Terra-Sainte; il +leur addressait des paroles consolantes, leur donnait d'utiles conseils, +se reprochait de s'avoir fait assez pour leur cause, et témoignait le vif +desir qu'un jour Dieu le jugeat digne d'achever l'ouvrage de leur +delivrance."--_Michaud, Histoire des Croisades_, tom. iv. p. 299. + +[177] Ibid. p. 302. + +[178] It was during the siege of Tunis that Louis died. "Our Edward would +needs have had the town beaten down, and all put to the sword; thinking +the foulest quarter too fair for them. Their goods (because got by +robbery) he would have sacrificed as an anathema to God, and burnt to +ashes; his own share he execrated, and caused it to be burnt, forbidding +the English to save any thing of it; because that coals stolen out of that +fire would sooner burn their houses than warm their hands. It troubled not +the consciences of other princes to enrich themselves herewith, but they +glutted themselves with the stolen honie which they found in this hive of +drones: and, which was worse, now their bellies were full, they would goe +to bed, return home, and goe no farther. Yea, the young King of France, +called Philip the Bold, was fearful to prosecute his journey to Palestine; +whereas Prince Edward struck his breast, and swore, that though all his +friends forsook him, yet he would enter Ptolemais though but only with +Fowin his horsekeeper. By which speech he incensed the English to go on +with him."--_Fuller's Holy Warre_, p. 217. + +[179] "It is storied how Eleanor, his lady, sucked all the poison out of +his wounds, without doing any harm to herself. So sovereign a remedy is a +woman's tongue anointed with the virtue of loving affection! Pity it is +that so pretty a story should not be true (with all the miracles in love's +legends), and sure he shall get himself no credit who undertaketh to +confute a passage so sounding to the honour of the sex. Yet can it not +stand with what others have written."--_Fuller's Holy Warre_, p. 220. + +[180] The motives for the massacre of Jaffa are given by Bourrienne in so +impartial a manner, that we are inclined to believe he has given a true +transcript of his master's mind. "Bonaparte sent his aids-de-camp, +Beauharnais and Crosier, to appease as far as possible the fury of the +soldiery, to examine what passed, and to report. They learned that a +numerous detachment of the garrison had retired into a strong position, +where large buildings surrounded a courtyard. This court they entered, +displaying the scarfs which marked their rank. The Albanians and Arnauts, +composing nearly the entire of these refugees, cried out from the windows +that they wished to surrender, on condition their lives were spared; if +not, threatening to fire upon the officers, and to defend themselves to +the last extremity. The young men conceived they ought, and had power, to +accede to the demand, in opposition to the sentence of death pronounced +against the garrison of every place taken by assault. I was walking with +General Bonaparte before his tent when these prisoners, in two columns, +amounting to about four thousand men, were marched into the camp. When he +beheld the mass of men arrive, and before seeing the aids-de-camp, he +turned to me with an expression of consternation, 'What would they have me +to do with these? Have I provisions to feed them; ships to transport them +either to Egypt or France? How the devil could they play me this trick!' +The two aids-de-camp, on their arrival and explanations, received the +strongest reprimands. To their defence, namely, that they were alone amid +numerous enemies, and that he had recommended to them to appease the +slaughter, he replied, in the sternest tone, 'Yes, without doubt, the +slaughter of women, children, old men, the peaceable inhabitants, but not +of armed soldiers; you ought to have braved death, and not brought these +to me. What would you have me do with them?' But the evil was done. Four +thousand men were there--their fate must be determined. The prisoners were +made to sit down, huddled together before the tents, their hands being +bound behind them. A gloomy rage was depicted to every lineament. A +council was held in the general's tent," &c. + +On the third day an order was issued that the prisoners should be +shot,--an order which was literally executed on four thousand men. "The +atrocious crime," says M. Bourrienne, "makes me yet shudder when I think +of it, as when it passed before me. All that can be imagined of fearful on +this day of blood would fall short of the reality!"--_Memoirs_, vol i. p. +156. + +[181] Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 163. + +[182] Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 165. + +[183] Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte, vol. i. p. 168. + +[184] Jowett's Christian Researches in Syria and the Holy Land, p. 315. + +[185] Weimar, Geographical Ephemerides; and History of the Jews, vol. iii. +p. 332. + +[186] History of the Jews, vol. iii. p. 338. + +[187] See Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 191. + +[188] Hasselquist's Voyages and Travels, p. 284. + +[189] Clarke's Travels, vol. iv. p. 223 and 307. + +[190] Travels or Observations relating to several parts of Barbary and the +Levent, vol. ii. p. 153. + +[191] Travels or Observations, vol. ii. p. 135. + +[192] Travels through Syria and Egypt, vol. i. p. 313. + +[193] 1 Kings, iv. 23. + +[194] Shaw's Travels, vol. ii. p. 280. + +[195] Job xxxix. ver. 9, 10, 11, 12. + +[196] Job xxxix. 5, 6, 7, 8. + +[197] Appendix to Bruce's Travels, p. 139. + +[198] See an article in the sixth volume of the Wernerian Memoirs, by Dr. +Scott, of Corstorphine, "On the Animal called Saphan in the Hebrew +Scriptures." + +[199] Daubenton, Calmet, vol. iv. p. 645. See also Shaw, Hasselquist and +Dochart. + +[200] Calmet's Dictionary, vol. iv. p. 659. + +[201] See Calmet, vol. iv. p. 688. + +[202] Churchill's Voyages, vol. ii, p. 296. + +[203] Revelation ix. 3, 10. + +[204] Calmet's Dictionary, vol. iv. p. 696. + +[205] Malte Brun, vol. ii p. 130. + +[206] Shaw's Travels, vol. ii p. 152. + +[207] Isaiah, v. 4. + +[208] Voyages and Travels in the Levant, p. 288. + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Palestine or the Holy Land, by Michael Russell + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PALESTINE OR THE HOLY LAND *** + +This file should be named 8860-8.txt or 8860-8.zip + +Produced by Distributed Proofreaders + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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